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Occupational Outlook Handbook 1996-97 Edition U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics February 1996 Bulletin 2470 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis IN PRINT https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Guide to the Handbook • Highlights of the job outlook for the year 2005 are presented in Tomorrow's Jobs, page 1. • Additional career-oriented materials, available from private and public organizations, and sources of State and local job market information, are described in Sources of Career Informa tion, page 8. • Job search methods, and tips on applying for a job and evaluating a job offer, are discussed in Finding a Job and Evaluating a Job Offer, page 14. • Highlights of the kind of information presented in detailed occupational descriptions, and pointers on interpreting this information, appear in Occu pational Information Included in the Hand book, page 19. • For occupations not covered in detail in the Handbook, brief descriptions of the nature of the work, the number of jobs in 1994, the projected 1994-2005 change in employment, and the most significant source of training, are presented in a section beginning on page 469. • The assumptions and methods used in preparing BLS employment projections are described briefly on page 477. • A list of Dictionary of Occupational Title numbers that are related to Handbook occupations can be found on page 478. • All occupational statements in the Handbook are available in reprint form. For a list of reprints, consult page 494. • An alphabetical index of occupations found in the Handbook is on page 497. • See page 508 for a description of BLS employ ment outlook information on the Internet. • Information about two publications that are closely related to the Handbook—Occupational Projections and Training Data, 1994 Edition, Bulletin 2471, and Employment Outlook: 1994 2005, Bulletin 2472—appears on page 510. • An order form for current employment outlook publications can be found on page 512. Occupational Outlook Handbook U.S. Department of Labor Robert B. Reich, Secretary Bureau of Labor Statistics Katharine G. Abraham, Commissioner January 1996 Bulletin 2470 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1996-97 Edition https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 50 Years in Print This 22nd edition of the Handbook marks the 50th year in which occupational outlook information prepared by the Bureau of Labor Statistics Division of Occupational Outlook has been available for use in counseling indi viduals about the world of work. The first "Handbook" was prepared at the request and with the financial support of the Veterans Administra tion. Under provisions of the Servicemen's Readjust ment Act of 1944, the VA was authorized to make avail able to World War II veterans information concerning the need for general education and for trained personnel in the various trades, crafts, and professions. It was is sued in August 1946 as VA Manual M7-1, Occupational Outlook Information. In answer to many requests, in cluding one from the National Vocational Guidance As sociation, expressed in a resolution adopted at its convention in March 1947, an Occupational Outlook Handbook was published in the Spring of 1949 and made available for sale to the public for use in schools, colleges, Veterans Administration regional offices and guidance centers, employment service offices, com munity organizations, and other agencies engaged in the vocational guidance of young people, veterans, and workers. Subsequent editions of the Handbook were published in 1951, 1957, 1959, 1961, 1963, and bien nially in even numbered years since 1966. For sale by the U.S. Government Printing Office Superintendent of Documents, Mail Stop: SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-9328 ISBN 0-16-048450-2 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Message from the Secretary f||§iP The rules for competing in a technologically-advanced global economy are changing everyday. The jobs of the future and the challenges posed by global competitive ness will require a skilled American workforce that can quickly adapt to a changing workplace. The Occupational Outlook Handbook, the Govern ment’s premier publication on career guidance, provides essential information about prospective changes in the world of work and the qualifications that will be needed by tomorrow's workers. ROBERT B. REICH iii https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis / https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Foreword Cjlobal competition, changing technology and busi ness practices, and shifts in the demand for goods and services continue to reshape America's job market— creating a widespread need for comprehensive, up-todate, and reliable career information. The Bureau's Occupational Outlook Handbook—a na tionally recognized source of career information—de scribes what workers do on the job, working conditions, the training and education needed, earnings, and ex pected job prospects in a wide range of occupations. Employment in the approximately 250 occupations cov ered in the 1996-97 Handbook accounts for about 7 out of every 8 jobs in the economy. The occupational in formation presented this new edition should provide valuable assistance to individuals making career deci sions about their future work lives. KATHARINE G. ABRAHAM Commissioner Bureau of Labor Statistics v https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Acknowledgments The Handbook was produced in the Bureau of Labor Statistics under the general guidance and direction of Ronald E. Kutscher, Associate Commissioner for Employment Projec tions and Neal H. Rosenthal, Chief, Division of Occupational Outlook. Mike Pilot, Manager, Occupational Outlook Pro gram, was responsible for planning and day-to-day direction. Project leaders supervising the research and preparation of material were Douglas Braddock, Alan Eck, Chester C. Levine, and Jon Q. Sargent. Occupational analysts who con tributed material were Thomas A. Amirault, Megan Barkume, Verada P. Bluford, Theresa Cosca, Geof Gradler, Jeffrey C. Gruenert, Hall Dillon, Mark Mittelhauser, Rachel Moskowitz, Kurt Schrammel, Kristina Shelley, Gary Steinberg, Allison Thomson, Carolyn M. Veneri, and Drew A. Warwick. Word processing support was handled by Beverly A. Williams. Note A great many trade associations, professional societies, unions, in dustrial organizations, and government agencies provide career in formation that is valuable to counselors and jobseekers. For the convenience of Handbook users, some of these organizations are listed at the end of each occupational statement. Although these references were carefully compiled, the Bureau of Labor Statistics has neither authority nor facilities for investigating the organiza tions or the information or publications that may be sent in re sponse to a request and cannot guarantee the accuracy of such in formation. The listing of an organization, therefore, does not constitute in any way an endorsement or recommendation by the Bureau either of the organization and its activities or of the infor mation it may supply. Each organization has sole responsibility for whatever information it may issue. The occupational information contained in the Handbook presents a general, composite description of jobs and cannot be expected to reflect work situations in specific establishments or localities. The Handbook, therefore, is not intended and should not be used as a guide for determining wages, hours, the right of a particular union to represent workers, appropriate bargaining units, or formal job evaluation systems. Nor should earnings data in the Handbook be used to compute future loss of earnings in adjudication proceed ings involving work injuries or accidental deaths. Material in this publication is in the public domain and, with ap propriate credit, may be reproduced without permission. Com ments about the contents of this publication and suggestions for improving it are welcome. Please address them to Chief, Division of Occupational Outlook, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. De partment of Labor, Washington, DC 20212. VII https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Photograph Credits The Bureau of Labor Statistics wishes to express its appreciation for the cooperation and assistance of the many government and private sources—listed below—that either contributed photographs or made their facilities available to photographers working under contract to the U.S. Department of Labor. Photographs may not be free of every possible safety or health hazard. Depiction of company or trade name in no way constitutes endorsement by the Department of Labor. American University; Baltimore Specialty Steels; Bell Atlantic; Black Magic Film Company; Brenda Schulz, A.I.A.; Brookland Branch of Riggs Bank of Washington; Brooks Upholstery; Chapel Opticians, Inc.; Continental Airlines, Inc.; Crist Air Maintenance Services, Inc.; D.L. Boyd, Inc.; Don Zuckerman; Dr. Joan Murrell Owens, Howard University; Dr. Pierre Palian, D.D.S.; Dravo Corporation; Ed Yoe, Artist Services, Inc.; Fontana Affiliated Lithograph; Frank's Well Drilling; George Hyman Construction Company; George Meany Labor Studies Center; George Washington University; George Washington University Hospital; Giant Supermarkets; Gladhill Tractor Mart; Glaziers Local #963/BCI; Globe Auto Body, Inc.; Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA); Grace Chemical Company; Herb Gordon Dodge; H. & H. Bindery; Hyatt Regency Washington on Capitol Hill; Judge Lee Sisler, Sixth District Court of Maryland; Local 10 of Ironworkers; Maryland National Capitol Park and Planning Commission; Memorial Hospital and Medical Center of Cumberland, Maryland; Midstate Coal Company; Midwest Photo and Video; M.P.I. Pharmacy Services, Inc.; National Institute of Standards and Technology, U.S. Government; NBC— Channel 4, Washington, DC; Northwestern Illinois Research and Development Center and the University of Illinois at Urbana— Champaign; Potomac Electric Power Company; Rabbi Warren Stone, Temple Emanuel; Representative Constance A. Morello (Maryland); Rock Terrace High School—Montgomery County, Maryland; Sandy Springs Friends School; Saspirilla Band; Strauss Technical Photo; Suburban Dental Laboratory, Inc.; Susan Sanders Fine Art Jewelry; The Treatment and Learning Centers; Toman Optician; Washington Hospital Center; Washington Fireworks Company; The Washington Times; Welch and Rushe, Inc.; WDCU—FM, Washington, DC; WGBQ—FM Radio, Galesburg, Illinois; The Woodner; Wyatt Company; University of Maryland, Electrical Engineering Depart ment; Working Images Photographs—Martha Tabor. viii Contents Special Features Tomorrow's Jobs............................................................ 1 Sources of Career Information........................ 8 Finding a Job and Evaluating a Job Offer................... 14 Occupational Information Included in the Handbook. 19 Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail................. 469 Assumptions and Methods Used in Preparing Employment Projections........................................... 477 Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage.................. 478 Reprints............................................................................ 494 Index................................................................................. 497 Occupational Coverage Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations Accountants and auditors............................................................ Administrative services managers.............................................. Budget analysts........................................................................... Construction and building inspectors......................................... Construction managers................................................................ Cost estimators............................................................................ Education administrators............................................................ Employment interviewers........................................................... Engineering, science, and data processing managers................. Financial managers..................................................................... Funeral directors......................................................................... General managers and top executives........................................ Government chief executives and legislators............................. Health services managers............................................................ Hotel managers and assistants..................................................... Industrial production managers................................................... Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction........... Loan officers and counselors...................................................... Management analysts and consultants........................................ Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers.............. Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers......................................................................... Property and real estate managers............................................... Purchasers and buyers................................................................. Restaurant and food service managers....................................... Underwriters............................................................................... 21 24 25 28 30 32 34 37 39 41 43 44 46 48 50 52 53 57 58 60 63 66 69 72 74 Professional Specialty Occupations Engineers................................................................................... Aerospace engineers............................................................ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 76 79 IX Chemical engineers.................................................................... Civil engineers............................................................................ Electrical and electronics engineers........................................... Industrial engineers..................................................................... Mechanical engineers................................................................ Metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers........................ Mining engineers........................................................................ Nuclear engineers....................................................................... Petroleum engineers................................................................... 80 80 81 81 82 82 83 84 84 Architects and surveyors Architects.................................................................................... Landscape architects.................................................................. Surveyors.................................................................................... 85 87 89 Computer, mathematical, and operations research occupations Actuaries..................................................................................... Computer scientists and systems analysts.................................. Mathematicians........................................................................... Operations research analysts...................................................... Statisticians................................................................................. 91 93 96 97 99 Life scientists Agricultural scientists................................................................ Biological and medical scientists............................................... Foresters and conservation scientists......................................... 101 103 105 Physical scientists Chemists..................................................................................... Geologists and geophysicists..................................................... Meteorologists............................................................................ Physicists and astronomers........................................................ 107 109 ill 113 Lawyers and judges.................................................................. 115 Social scientists.......................................................................... Economists and marketing research analysts............................. Psychologists.............................................................................. Urban and regional planners...................................................... 119 121 124 126 Social and recreation workers Human services workers............................................................ Recreation workers..................................................................... Social workers............................................................................ 128 130 132 Clergy......................................................................................... Protestant ministers.................................................................... Rabbis......................................................................................... Roman Catholic priests.............................................................. 134 135 136 137 Teachers, librarians, and counselors Adult education teachers............................................................ Archivists and curators............................................................... College and university faculty................................................... Counselors.................................................................................. Librarians.................................................................................... School teachers—Kindergarten, elementary, and secondary..... Special education teachers......................................................... 138 140 143 145 148 150 153 Health diagnosing practitioners Chiropractors.............................................................................. Dentists....................................................................................... Optometrists................................................................................ Physicians................................................................................... Podiatrists................................................................................... Veterinarians............................................................................... 156 157 158 160 162 163 Health assessment and treating occupations Dietitians and nutritionists.......................................................... Occupational therapists............................................................... Pharmacists................................................................................. Physical therapists....................................................................... Physician assistants..................................................................... Recreational therapists................................................................ Registered nurses........................................................................ Respiratory therapists................................................................. Speech-language pathologists and audiologists......................... 165 166 168 169 171 172 174 176 177 Communications occupations Public relations specialists.......................................................... Radio and television announcers and newscasters..................... Reporters and correspondents..................................................... Writers and editors...................................................................... 179 181 182 184 Visual arts occupations Designers.................................................................................... Photographers and camera operators.......................................... Visual artists............................................................................... 186 189 191 Performing arts occupations Actors, directors, and producers................................................. Dancers and choreographers....................................................... Musicians.................................................................................... 193 195 197 Insurance agents and brokers...................................................... Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives.................. Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers................................. Retail sales worker supervisors and managers............................ Retail sales workers.................................................................... Securities and financial services sales representatives................ Services sales representatives..................................................... Travel agents............................................................................... Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical Adjusters, investigators, and collectors....................................... Bank tellers................................................................................. Clerical supervisors and managers.............................................. Computer and peripheral equipment operators........................... Credit clerks and authorizes...................................................... General office clerks................................................................... Information clerks....................................................................... Hotel and motel desk clerks................................................... Interviewing and new accounts clerks.................................... Receptionists.......................................................................... Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks................................................................ Mail clerks and messengers........................................................ Material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations.................................................. Dispatchers............................................................................. Stock clerks............................................................................ Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks................................... Postal clerks and mail carriers.................................................... Record clerks.............................................................................. Billing clerks and billing machine operators.......................... Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks....................... Brokerage clerks and statement clerks................................... File clerks................................................................................ Library assistants and bookmobile drivers............................. Order clerks............................................................................. Payroll and timekeeping clerks.............................................. Personnel clerks..................................................................... Secretaries.................................................................................... Stenographers, court reporters, and medical transcriptionists.... Teacher aides............................................................................... Telephone operators.................................................................... Typists, word processors, and data entry keyers......................... Technicians and Related Support Occupations Health technologists and technicians Cardiovascular technologists and technicians............................. Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians...................... Dental hygienists......................................................................... Dispensing opticians................................................................... Electroneurodiagnostic technologists.......................................... Emergency medical technicians.................................................. Licensed practical nurses............................................................ Medical record technicians......................................................... Nuclear medicine technologists.................................................. Radiologic technologists............................................................. Surgical technicians.................................................................... Technologists, except health Aircraft pilots.............................................................................. Air traffic controllers.................................................................. Broadcast technicians................................................................. Computer programmers.............................................................. Drafters....................................................................................... Engineering technicians.............................................................. Library technicians..................................................................... Paralegals.................................................................................... Science technicians..................................................................... 199 200 202 203 205 206 208 209 210 212 214 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 254 258 260 261 263 264 265 267 268 268 269 270 272 273 275 276 277 279 281 282 282 283 284 285 286 287 287 289 291 293 294 Service Occupations 215 218 220 222 224 226 227 229 231 Marketing and Sales Occupations Cashiers..................................................................................... Counter and rental clerks............................................................ 236 238 240 243 245 247 249 251 234 235 x Protective service occupations Correctional officers................................................................... Firefighting occupations............................................................. Guards.......................................................................................... Police, detectives, and special agents......................................... Private detectives and investigators............................................ 297 299 301 303 306 Food and beverage preparation and service occupations Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers.................................... Food and beverage service occupations...................................... 308 311 Health service occupations Dental assistants.......................................................................... Medical assistants....................................................................... Nursing aides and psychiatric aides............................................ Occupational therapy assistants and aides.................................. Physical and corrective therapy assistants and aides................. 313 314 316 317 318 Personal and building service occupations Barbers and cosmetologists......................................................... Preschool teachers and child-care workers................................ Flight attendants.......................................................................... Homemaker-home health aides................................................... Janitors and cleaners and cleaningsupervisors........................... Private household workers.......................................................... Production Occupations 320 321 324 325 327 328 Assemblers Precision assemblers................................................................... 401 Blue-collar worker supervisors............................................... 402 Food processing occupations Butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters.............................. 404 Inspectors, testers, and graders.............................................. 406 Metalworking and plastics-working occupations Boilermakers............................................................................... Jewelers...................................................................................... Machinists and tool programmers.............................................. Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators............ Tool and die makers.................................................................... Welders, cutters, and welding machine operators...................... 407 408 410 412 415 417 Plant and systems operators Electric power generating plant operators and power distributors and dispatchers................................................... Stationary engineers.................................................................... Water and wastewater treatment plant operators....................... 418 420 421 Printing occupations Bindery workers.......................................................................... Prepress workers......................................................................... Printing press operators.............................................................. 423 425 428 Textile, apparel, and furnishings .occupations Apparel workers............................. Shoe and leather workers and repairers..................................... Textile machinery operators....................................................... Upholsterers................................................................................ 429 432 433 435 Woodworking occupations...................................................... 436 Miscellaneous production occupations Dental laboratory technicians.................................................... Ophthalmic laboratory technicians............................................ Painting and coating machine operators.................................... Photographic process workers................................................... 439 440 441 444 Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, and Related Occupations Animal caretakers, except farm.................................................. Farm operators and managers..................................................... Fishers, hunters, and trappers...................................................... Forestry and logging workers..................................................... Gardeners and groundskeepers................................................... 330 331 334 337 339 Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers Aircraft mechanics, including engine specialists....................... Automotive body repairers......................................................... Automotive mechanics............................................................... Diesel mechanics........................................................................ Electronic equipment repairers................................................... Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers.... Communications equipment mechanics................................. Computer and office machine repairers................................ Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers............. Telephone installers and repairers.......................................... Elevator installers and repairers.................................................. Farm equipment mechanics........................................................ General maintenance mechanics................................................. Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration technicians............ Home appliance and power tool repairers.................................. Industrial machinery repairers.................................................... Line installers and cable splicers................................................ Millwrights................................................................................. Mobile heavy equipment mechanics.......................................... Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics......................... Musical instrument repairers and tuners.................................... Vending machine servicers and repairers................................... 342 344 345 348 350 352 352 353 354 354 355 357 358 360 362 364 365 367 368 370 372 373 Construction Trades Occupations Bricklayers and stonemasons...................................................... Carpenters................................................................................... Carpet installers.......................................................................... Concrete masons and terrazzo workers...................................... Drywall workers and lathers....................................................... Electricians................................................................................. Glaziers....................................................................................... Insulation workers....................................................................... Painters and paperhangers........................................................... Plasterers..................................................................................... Plumbers and pipefitters............................................................. Roofers........................................................................................ Sheetmetal workers..................................................................... Structural and reinforcing ironworkers....................................... Tilesetters.................................................................................... https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Transportation and Material Moving Occupations 376 377 379 380 382 383 385 387 389 390 392 394 395 397 398 Busdrivers................................................................................... Material moving equipment operators....................................... Rail transportation occupation................................................... Taxi drivers and chauffeurs....................................................... Truckdrivers................................................................................ Water transportation occupations.............................................. 446 448 450 453 455 458 Handlers, EquipmentCleaners, Helpers, and Laborers 460 Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces........................ XI 463 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Tomorrow's Jobs Making informed career decisions requires reliable informa tion about opportunities that should be available in the future. This chapter presents highlights of Bureau of Labor Statistics projections of industry and occupational employment and the labor force, that can help guide your career plans. A slowdown in employment growth is expected. • Over the 1994-2005 period, employment is projected to increase by 17.7 million or 14 percent. This is slower than the 24-percent increase attained during the 11-year period, 1983-94, when the economy added 24.6 million jobs. • Wage and salary worker employment will account for 95 percent of this increase. In addition, the number of selfemployed workers is expected to increase by 950,000, to 11.6 million in 2005, while the number of unpaid family workers will decline. • Business, health, and education services will account for 70 percent of the growth—9.2 million out of 13.6 million jobs—within services. • Health care services will account for almost one-fifth of all job growth from 1994-2005. Factors contributing to con tinued growth in this industry include the aging popula tion, which will continue to require more services, and the increased use of innovative medical technology for inten sive diagnosis and treatment. Patients will increasingly be shifted out of hospitals and into outpatient facilities, nurs ing homes, and home health care in an attempt to contain costs. • The personnel supply services industry, which provides temporary help to employers in other industries, is pro jected to add 1.3 million jobs from 1994 to 2005. Tem porary workers tend to have low wages, low job stability, and poor job benefits. Service-producing industries will account for most new jobs. (See chart 1.) The goods-producing sector will decline. (See chart 2.) • Employment growth is projected to be highly concentrated by industry. The services and retail trade industries will account for 16.2 million out of a total projected growth of 16.8 million wage and salary jobs. • The goods-producing sector faces declining employment in two of its four industries—manufacturing and mining. Employment in the other two industries—construction, and agriculture, forestry, and fishing—is expected to increase. Chart 2. Projected percent change in employment in goods-producing industries, 1994-2005 Chart 1. Projected employment change in services industries, 1994-2005 Percent 10 Business services i— T7777777X Health services Construction 1 Agriculture, forestry, _ and fishing Education services Manufacturing All other services Social services Engineering and management services J 0 0.5 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 Millions 3.0 3.5 4.0 2 Occuptional Outlook Handbook • Employment in manufacturing is expected to continue to decline, losing 1.3 million jobs over the 1994-2005 period. Operators, fabricators, and laborers, and precision pro duction, craft, and repair occupations are expected to ac count for more than 1 million of these lost jobs. Systems analysts and other computer-related occupations in manu facturing are expected to increase. Job opportunities can arise in two ways—job growth and replacement needs. (See chart 3.) • Job growth can be measured by percent change and nu merical change. The fastest growing occupations do not necessarily provide the largest number of jobs. Even though an occupation is expected to grow rapidly, it may provide fewer openings than a slower growing, larger oc cupation. • Opportunities in large occupations are enhanced by the additional job openings resulting from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Some workers leave the occupation as they are promoted or change careers; others stop working to return to school, assume household responsibilities, or retire. • Replacement needs are greater in occupations with low pay and status, low training requirements, and a high propor tion of young and part-time workers. • Replacement needs will account for 29.4 million job openings from 1994 to 2005, far more than the 17.7 million openings projected to arise from employment growth. Chart 3. Total job openings due to growth and replacement needs, 1994-2005 Millions 30 r Employment change will vary widely by broad occu pational group. (See chart 4.) • Employment in professional specialty occupations is pro jected to increase at a faster rate than any other major oc cupational group. • Among the major occupational groups, employment in pro fessional specialty occupations is also projected to account for the most job growth from 1994-2005. • Professional specialty occupations—which require high educational attainment and offer high earnings—and serv ice occupations—which require lower educational at tainment and offer lower earnings—are expected to ac count for more than half of all job growth between 1994 and 2005. • Agriculture, forestry, fishing, and related occupations is the only major occupational group projected to decline. All job openings in this group will stem from replacement needs. • Office automation is expected to have a significant effect on many individual administrative and clerical support oc cupations. • Precision production, craft, and repair occupations and operators, fabricators, and laborers are projected to grow much more slowly than average due to continuing ad vances in technology, changes in production methods, and the overall decline in manufacturing employment. Chart 4. Projected job openings due to growth and replacement needs by major occupational group,1994-2005 Agriculture, forestry, fishing, and related Replacement needs Technicians and related support Growth Precision production, craft, and repair Executives, administrators, and managers Operators, fabricators, and laborers Administrative and clerical support Marketing and sales Professional specialty Service L_ -1 Replacement needs https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Growth 5 Millions Tomorrow’s Jobs Chart 5. Occupations having the largest numerical increase in employment, 1994-2005 Chart 6. Occupations projected to grow the fastest, 1994-2005 Personal and home care aides Home health aides Cashiers Janitors and cleaners Salespersons, retail Systems analysts Waiters and waitresses Computer engineers Physical corrective therapy assistants and aides Electronic pagination systems workers Occupational therapy assistants and aides Registered nurses General managers and top executives Systems analysts Home health aides Physical therapists Guards Residential counselors Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants Human services workers Teachers, secondary school Marketing and sales worker supervisors Teacher aides and educational assistants Receptionists and information clerks Truck drivers, light and heavy Secretaries, except legal and medical Clerical supervisors and managers Child-care workers Maintenance repairers, general utility Teachers, elementary school Occupational therapists Manicurists Medical assistants Paralegals Medical records technicians Mil Teachers, special education Amusement and recreation attendants W//////////////A mmm mmmm IW///////////A 0 100 200 |V/////////////A Correction officers Operations research analysts ■ ■ 300 400 Thousands , 500 Guards J 600 Twenty occupations will account for half of all job growth over the 1994-2005 period. (See chart 5.) • The 20 occupations accounting for half of all job growth over the 1994-2005 period tend to be large in size rather than fast growing. Three health care occupations are in the top 10, and 3 education-related occupations are in the sec ond 10. The fastest growing occupations reflect growth in computer technology and health services. (See chart 6.) • Many of the fastest growing occupations are concentrated in health services, which is expected to increase more than twice as fast as the economy as a whole. Personal and home care aides, and home health aides, are expected to be in great demand to provide personal and physical care for an increasing number of elderly people and for persons who are recovering from surgery and other serious health conditions. This is occurring as hospitals and insurance companies mandate shorter stays for recovery to contain costs. • Employment of computer engineers and systems analysts is expected to grow rapidly to satisfy expanding needs for scientific research and applications of computer technology in business and industry. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 3 V//////////////A 0 20 40 60 Percent 80 100 120 Declining occupational employment stems from de clining industry employment and technological change. (See chart 7.) • Farmers, garment sewing machine operators, and private household cleaners and servants are examples of occupa tions that will lose employment because of declining in dustry employment. • Many declining occupations are affected by structural changes, resulting from technological advances, organ izational changes, and other factors that affect the em ployment of workers. For example, the use of typists and word processors is expected to decline substantially be cause of productivity improvements resulting from office automation, and the increased use of word processing equipment by professional and managerial employees. Education and training affect job opportunities. (See chart 8 and table 1.) • Workers in jobs with low education and training re quirements tend to have greater occupational mobility. Consequently, these jobs will provide a larger than pro portional share of all job openings stemming from re placement needs. 4 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Chart 7. Occupations with the largest projected numerical decreases in total employment, 1994-2005 Farmers ’ ............. Typists and word processors __________ Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks Bank tellers Sewing machine operators, garment Cleaners and servants, private household Computer operators, except peripheral equipment Billing, posting, and calculating machine operators Duplicating, mail, and other office machine operators Textile draw-out and winding machine operators and tenders File clerks Freight, stock, and material movers, hand Farm workers Machine tool cutting operators and tenders, metal and plastic Central office operators Central office and PBX installers and repairers Electrical and electronic assemblers Station installers and repairers, telephone Personnel clerks, except payroll and timekeeping Data entry keyers, except composing -150 Thousands • Jobs requiring the most education and training will grow faster than jobs with lower education and training re quirements. • Table 1 presents the fastest growing occupations and those having the largest numerical increase in employment over the 1994-2005 period, categorized by level of education and training. Jobs requiring the most education and training will be the fastest growing and highest paying. • Occupations which require a bachelor's degree or above will average 23 percent growth, almost double the 12percent growth projected for occupations that require less education and training. • Occupations that pay above average wages are projected to grow faster than occupations with below average wages. Jobs with above average wages are expected to account for 60 percent of employment growth over the 1994-2005 pe riod. Jobs with higher earnings often require higher levels of education and training. • Education is important in getting a high paying job. How ever, many occupations—for example, registered nurses, blue-collar worker supervisors, electrical and electronic technicians/technologists, carpenters, and police and detec tives—do not require a college degree, yet offer higher than average earnings. Groups in the labor force with lower than average educa tional attainment in 1994, including Hispanics and blacks, will continue to have difficulty obtaining a share of the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis high paying jobs that is consistent with their share of the labor force, unless their educational attainment rises. Al though high paying jobs will be available without college training, most jobs that pay above average wages will re quire a college degree. • Educational services are projected to increase by 2.2 mil lion jobs and account for 1 out of every 8 jobs that will be added to the economy between 1994 and 2005. Most jobs will be for teachers, who are projected to account for about 20 percent of all jobs available for college graduates. • Projected employment growth of the occupations whose earnings rank in the top quartile in the Nation was highly concentrated. Eight of the 146 occupations will account for about half of the new jobs: Registered nurses, systems analysts, blue-collar worker supervisors, general managers and top executives, and four teaching occupations— elementary school teachers, secondary school teachers, college faculty, and special education teachers. Jobs requiring the least education and training will provide the most openings, but offer the lowest pay. (See chart 9.) • The distribution of jobs by education and training, and earnings, will change little over the 1994-2005 period, with jobs requiring the least amount of education and training, and generally offering low pay, continuing to account for about 4 of every 10 jobs. • Jobs which require moderate-length and short-term training and experience (the two categories requiring the least amount of education and training) will provide over half of total job openings over the 1994-2005 period. Tomorrow’s Jobs Chart 8. Project*3d percent growth in employment by level of eductition and training, 1994-2005 Short-term training and experience mwmMwmmzzm Master's degree Bachelor's degree MMMMMMMZm Associate degree mmrn/mmmm First professional TMMmzMtmm Chart 9. Projected total job openings by level of education and training, 1994-2005 Bachelor's degree Moderate-length training and experience Long-term training and experience Doctoral degree Work experience Work experience plus bachelor's degree Work experience plus bachelor's degree mmmmm \ Work experience mmrnm Postsecondary vocational training Short-term training and experience WMtrnm Associate Postsecondary vocational training W////////A First professional degree Long-term training and experience Master's degree Moderate-length *.................................................... training and experience C 5 10 15 Percent 20 25 Doctoral degree 30 The labor force will continue to grow faster than the population. • Spurred by the growing proportion of women who work, the labor force will grow slightly faster than the population over the 1994-2005 period. Millions Chart 10. Labor force by sex, 1983,1994, and projected 2005 Women Percent Women will continue to comprise an increasing share of the labor force. (See chart 10.) • Women, as a result of a faster rate of growth than men, are projected to represent a slightly greater portion of the labor force in 2005 than in 1994—increasing from 46 to 48 per cent. • The number of men in the labor force is projected to grow, but at a slower rate than in the past, in part reflecting de clining employment in good-paying production jobs in manufacturing, and a continued shift in demand for work ers from the goods-producing sector to the serviceproducing sector. Men with less education and training may find it increasingly difficult to obtain jobs consistent with their experience. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1983 1994 2005 5 6 Occuptional Outlook Handbook The labor force will become increasingly diverse. (See Chart 11. Distribution of the labor force by race, 1994 and projected 2005 chart 11.) Percent • The number of Hispanics, and Asians and other races, will increase much faster than blacks and white non-Hispanics. Blacks will increase faster than white non-Hispanics. 80 i- VZA 2005 • Despite relatively slow growth, resulting in a declining share of the labor force, white non-Hispanics will still make up the vast majority of workers in 2005. Interested in more detail? • Readers interested in more information about projections and detail on the labor force, economic growth, industry and occupational employment, or methods and assump tions should consult the November 1995 Monthly Labor Review; The Employment Outlook: 1994-2005, BLS Bul letin 2472; or the Fall 1995 Occupational Outlook Quar terly. Information on the limitations inherent in economic projections also can be found in these publications. White, non-Hispanic Black https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ^' Hispanic Asian and other • For more information about employment change, job openings, earnings, unemployment rates, and training re quirements by occupation, consult Occupational Pro jections and Training Data, 1996 Edition, BLS Bulletin 2471. Tomorrow's Jobs Table 1. Jobs growing the fastest and having the largest numerical increase in employment from 1994-2005, by level of education and training Occupations having the largest numerical increase in employment First-professional degree Fastest growing occupations Chiropractors Lawyers Physicians Clergy Podiatrists Lawyers Physicians Clergy Chiropractors Dentists Doctoral degree College and university faculty Biological scientists Medical scientists Mathematicians and all other mathematical scientists Medical scientists Biological scientists College and university faculty Mathematicians and all other mathematical scientists Master's degree Operations research analysts Speech-language pathologists and audiologists Management analysts Counselors Urban and regional planners Management analysts Counselors Speech-language pathologists and audiologists Psychologists Operations research analysts Work experience plus bachelor's degree Engineering, mathematics, and natural science managers Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers Artists and commercial artists Financial managers Education administrators General managers and top executives Financial managers Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers Engineering, mathematics, and natural science managers Education administrators Bachelor's degree Systems analysts Computer engineers Occupational therapists Physical therapists Special education teachers Systems analysts Teachers, secondary school Teachers, elementary school Teachers, special education Social workers Associate degree Paralegals Medical records technicians Dental hygienists Respiratory therapists Radiologic technologists and technicians Registered nurses Paralegals Radiologic technologists and technicians Dental hygienists Medical records technicians Postsecondary vocational training Manicurists Surgical technologists Data processing equipment repairers Dancers and choreographers Emergency medical technicians Secretaries, except legal and medical Licensed practical nurses Hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists Legal secretaries Medical secretaries Work experience Nursery and greenhouse managers Lawn service managers Food service and lodging managers Clerical supervisors and managers Teachers and instructors, vocational and nonvocational training Marketing and sales worker supervisors Clerical supervisors and managers Food service and lodging managers Instructors, adult education Teachers and instructors, vocational education and training Long-term training and experience (more than 12 months of on-the-job training) Electronic pagination systems workers Correction officers Securities and financial services sales workers Patternmakers and layout workers, fabric and apparel Producers, directors, actors, and entertainers Maintenance repairers, general utility Correction officers Automotive mechanics Cooks, restaurant Police patrol officers Moderate-length training and experience (1 to 12 months of combined on-the-job experience and informal training) Physical and corrective therapy assistants and aides Occupational therapy assistants and aides Human services workers Medical assistants Detectives, except public Human services workers Medical assistants Instructors and coaches, sports and physical training Dental assistants Painters and paper hangers, construction and maintenance Short-term training and experience (up to 1 month of on-the-job experience) Personal and home care aides Home health aides Amusement and recreation attendants Guards Adjustment clerks https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Cashiers Janitors and cleaners, including maids and housekeepers Salespersons, retail Waiters and waitresses Home health aides 7 Sources of Career Information This chapter identifies selected sources of information about occupations and career planning, counseling, training and education, and financial aid. Also, read the occupational statements in the Handbook, including the section on sources of additional information, which lists organizations you can contact for more information about particular occupations, training, and education. in a career. The counselor will not tell you what to do, but will administer interest inventories and aptitude tests, interpret the results, and help you explore your options. Counselors also may be able to discuss local job markets, and the entry requirements and costs of the schools, colleges, or training programs offering preparation for the kind of work that inter ests you. You can find counselors in: Career information • high school guidance offices • college career planning and placement offices • placement offices in private vocational/technical schools and institutions • vocational rehabilitation agencies • counseling services offered by community organizations • private counseling agencies and private practices • State employment service offices affiliated with the U.S. Employment Service Listed below are several good places to start collecting infor mation you need on careers and job opportunities. Personal contacts. The people closest to you—your family and friends—are often overlooked, but can be extremely help ful. They may be able to answer your questions directly or, more importantly, put you in touch with someone else who can. This "networking" can lead to an "informational inter view," where you can meet with someone who is willing to answer your questions about a career or a company, and who can provide inside information on related fields and other helpful hints. This is a highly effective way to leam the rec ommended type of training for certain positions, how some one in that position entered and advanced, and what he or she likes and dislikes about the work. Public libraries, career centers, and guidance offices. These places maintain a great deal of career material. To begin your library search, look at the computer listings under "vocations" or "careers" and then under specific fields. Check the periodi cals section, where you will find trade and professional magazines and journals about specific occupations and indus tries. Familiarize yourself with the concerns and activities of potential employers by skimming their annual reports and other information they distribute to the public. You can also find occupational information on video cassettes, in kits, and through computerized information systems. Most public li braries maintain a relatively up-to-date collection of occupa tional or career materials. Don't forget the librarians; they can be a great source of information and can save you time by directing you to the information you need. Check career centers for programs such as individual coun seling, group discussions, guest speakers, field trips, and ca reer days. Also, leaf through any files of pamphlets that describe employment in different organizations. Always assess career guidance materials carefully. In formation should be current. Beware of materials that seem to glamorize the occupation, overstate the earnings, or exag gerate the demand for workers; some schools may produce such materials to attract students. Counselors. You may wish to seek help from a counselor. These professionals are trained to help you discover your strengths and weaknesses, guide you through an evaluation of your goals and values, and help you determine what you want 8 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Before employing the services of a private counselor or agency, seek recommendations and check their credentials. The International Association of Counseling Services (IACS) accredits counseling services throughout the country. To re ceive the listing of accredited services for your region, send a self-addressed, stamped, business-size envelope to: -•IACS, 101 South Whiting St., Suite 211, Alexandria, VA 22304. The Directory of Counseling Services, an IACS publication providing employment counseling and other assistance, may be available in your library or school career counseling center. A list of certified career counselors by State can be obtained from: —■The National Board of Certified Counselors, 3 Terrace Way, Suite D, Greensboro, NC 27403-3660. Phone: (910)547-0607. Internet networks and resources. The growth of on-line list ings has made available a wide variety of resources at your fingertips—24 hours a day, 7 days a week—if you have ac cess to the Internet. Companies, professional societies, aca demic institutions, and government agencies maintain on-line resources or "homepages" which are updated regularly with the latest information on their organization and it's activities. Listings include information such as government docu ments, schedules of events, job openings, and even network ing contacts. Listings for academic institutions provide links to career counseling and placement services through career resource centers, as well as information on financing your education. Colleges and universities also offer on-line guides to campus facilities and admission requirements and proce dures. The variety of career information databases available through the Internet provide much of the same information available through libraries, career centers, and guidance of fices. However, no single network or resource will contain all desired information, so be prepared to search a lot of different Sources of Career Information 9 places for what you need. As in a library search, look through various lists by field or discipline, or by using particular "keywords." It may even be helpful to consult a reference book such as The Internet Yellow Pages, which should be available in most libraries. Professional societies, trade associations, labor unions, business firms, and educational institutions. These organiza tions provide a variety of free or inexpensive career material. Many of these are identified in the sources of additional in formation section of each Handbook statement. For informa tion on occupations not covered in the Handbook, consult directories in your library's reference section for the names of potential sources. You may need to start with The Guide to American Directories or The Directory of Directories. An other useful resource is The Encyclopedia of Associations, an annual multivolume publication listing trade associations, professional societies, labor unions, and fraternal and patriotic organizations. The National Technical Information Service Center, a cen tral source for all audiovisual material produced by the U.S. Government, rents and sells material on jobs and careers. For a catalog, contact: •"NTIS, Springfield, VA 22161. Phone: 1-800-788-6282. For first-hand experience in an occupation, you may wish to intern, or take a summer or part-time job. Some internships offer academic credit or pay a stipend. Check with guidance offices, college career resource centers, or directly with em ployers. Organizations for specific groups. The organizations listed below provide information on career planning, training, job opportunities, or public policy support for specific groups. Consult directories in your library's reference center or a ca reer guidance office for information on additional or ganizations and associations geared towards special groups. Disabled: •" American Association of Retired Persons, Workforce Program Department, 601 E St. NW„ Floor A5, Washington, DC 20049. Phone: (202) 434-2040. •■Asociaci6n Nacional Por Personas Mayores (National Association for Hispanic Elderly), 2727 W. 6th St., Suite 20, Los Angeles, CA 90057. Phone: (231) 486-1922. (This organization specifically serves low-income, minority persons who are 55 years of age and older.) •"National Caucus/Center on Black Aged,Inc., 1424 K St. NW., Suite 500, Washington, DC 20005. Phone: (202) 637-8400. Veterans: Contact the nearest regional office of the Depart ment of Veterans Affairs or contact: ••Veterans' Employment and Training Service (VETS), 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Room S-1315, Washington, DC 20210. Phone: (202) 219-9116. Women: ••Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20210. Phone: (202)219-6652. •"Catalyst, 250 Park Ave. South, 5th floor, New York, NY 10003. Phone: (212) 777-8900. •"Wider Opportunities for Women, 815 15th St. NW., Suite 916, Washing ton, DC 20005. Phone: (202)638-3143. Federal laws, executive orders, and selected Federal grant programs bar discrimination in employment based on race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, and handicap. Infor mation on how to file a charge of discrimination is avail able from U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission offices around the country. Their addresses and telephone numbers are listed in telephone directories under U.S. Gov ernment, EEOC, or are available from: •"Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 1801 L St. NW„ Washing ton, DC 20507. Phone: (202)663-4900 Information on Federal laws concerning fair labor standards such as the minimum wage and equal employment op portunity can be obtained from: •■ Office of Public Affairs, Employment Standards Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, Room C-4325, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Wash ington, DC 20210. Phone: (202)219-8743. ••President's Committee on Employment of People with Disabilities, 1331 F St. NW., 3rd Floor, Washington, DC 20004. Phone: (202) 376-6200. Education and training information The blind: Information on the free national reference and re ferral service provided by the Federation of the Blind can be obtained by contacting: Colleges, schools, and training institutes readily reply to re quests for information. When contacting these institutions, you may want to keep in mind the following items: •"Job Opportunities for the Blind (JOB), National Federation of the Blind, 1800 Johnson St., Baltimore, MD 21230. Phone: toll-free, 1-800-638 7518, or locally (410) 659-9314. • • • • • • Minorities: The National Urban League is a nonprofit com munity-based social service and civil rights organization that assists African-Americans in the achievement of social and economic equality. There are 113 local affiliates throughout the country that provide services related to employment and job training, and education and career development. Contact the affiliate nearest you for information. •■ National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), 4805 Mount Hope Dr., Baltimore, MD 21215. Phone: (410) 358-8900. Older workers: •■ National Association of Older Workers Employment Services, c/o National Council on the Aging, 409 3rd St. SW., Suite 200, Washington, DC 20024. Phone: (202)479-1200. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis admission requirements courses offered certificates or degrees awarded cost available financial aid location and size of school Check with professional and trade associations for lists of schools that offer career preparation in a field you're interested in. Guidance offices and libraries usually have copies of the kinds of directories listed below, as well as college catalogs that can provide more information on specific institutions. Helpful resources include the Directory of Private Career Schools and Colleges of Technology, put out by the Accredit ing Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technol ogy. Be sure to use the latest edition because these directories and catalogs are often revised annually. 10 Occupational Outlook Handbook Information about home or correspondence study programs appears in the Directory of Accredited Institutions. Send re quests for the Directory and a list of other publications to: •"Distance Education and Training Council, 1601 18th St, NW., Washington, DC 20009, Phone: (202)234-5100. Local labor unions, school guidance counselors, and State employment offices provide information about appren ticeships. Send requests for copies of The National Appren ticeship Program and Apprenticeship Information to: •"Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Room N-4649, Washington, DC 20210. Phone: (202)219-5921. Financial aid information Information about financial aid is available from a variety of sources. Contact your high school guidance counselor and college financial aid officer for information concerning schol arships, fellowships, grants, loans, and work-study programs. In addition, every State administers financial aid programs; contact State Departments of Education for information. Banks and credit unions can provide information about stu dent loans. You also may want to consult the directories and guides to sources of student financial aid available in guidance offices and public libraries. The Federal Government provides grants, loans, work-study programs, and other benefits to students. Information about programs administered by the U.S. Department of Education is presented in The Student Guide to Federal Financial Aid Programs, updated annually. To receive a copy, write to: •■ Federal Student Aid Information Center, c/o Federal Student Aid Programs, P.O. Box 84, Washington, DC 20044-0084, or phone, toll-free, 1-800-433-3243. The National and Community Service Trust Act of 1993 allows individuals aged 17 and over to serve in approved local programs before, during, or after postsecondary education, to earn money for education. A participant must complete at least 1 year of full-time or 2 years of part-time service to qualify. Awards may be used for past, present, or future ex penses, including 2- and 4-year colleges, training programs, and graduate or professional programs. Information about service appointments may be found in high schools, colleges, and other placement offices, or can be obtained by contacting the commission on national service in your State, or by calling 1-800-94-ACORPS. Meeting College Costs, an annual publication of the College Board, explains how student financial aid works and how to apply for it. The current edition is available to high school students through guidance counselors. Women, published in 1991 by the U.S. Department of Edu cation, is a guide to organizations offering assistance. This publication can be found in libraries and guidance offices, or copies may be obtained from: •"Department of Education, 400 Maryland Ave. SW., Washington, DC 20202. Phone:(202)401-3550. The Armed Forces have several educational assistance pro grams. These include the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC), the New G.I. bill, and tuition assistance. In formation can be obtained from military recruiting centers, located in most cities. State and local information The Handbook provides information for the Nation as a whole. For help in locating State or local area information, you may contact the following: State Occupational Information Coordinating Committee (SOICC). These committees may provide the information directly, or refer you to other sources. The addresses and tele phone numbers of the directors of SOICC's are listed below. State employment security agencies. These agencies develop detailed information about local labor markets, such as current and projected employment by occupation and industry, char acteristics of the work force, and changes in State and local area economic activity. Addresses and telephone numbers of the directors of research and analysis in these agencies are listed below. Most States have career information delivery systems (CIDS). Look for these systems in secondary schools, post secondary institutions, libraries, job training sites, vocational rehabilitation centers, and employment service offices. Job seekers can use the systems' computers, printed material, mi crofiche, and toll-free hotlines to obtain information on oc cupations, educational opportunities, student financial aid, apprenticeships, and military careers. Ask counselors and SOICC's for specific locations. A computerized State Training Inventory (STI) developed by the National Occupational Information Coordinating Committee (NOICC) is also maintained by the SOICC's and available in every State. Education and training data are or ganized by occupation or training program title, type of insti tution, and geographic area. The database is compiled at the State level and includes more than 215,000 education and training programs offered by over 17,000 schools, colleges, and hospitals. If you are interested in STI, contact individual SOICC's for State-specific data. Alabama Director, Labor Market Information, Alabama Department of Industrial Rela tions, 649 Monroe St., Room 422, Montgomery, AL 36130. Phone: (205) 242-8855. Need a Lift?, an annual publication of the American Legion, contains career and scholarship information. Copies cost $3 each, prepaid (including postage), and can be obtained from: Director, Alabama Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Room 424, 401 Adams Ave., P.O. Box 5690, Montgomery, AL 36103-5690. Phone: (334)242-2990. •"American Legion, Attn: Emblem Sales, P.O. Box 1050, Indianapolis, IN 46206. Phone:(317)630-1200. Alaska Some student aid programs are designed to assist specific groups—Hispanics, blacks, native Americans, or women, for example. Higher Education Opportunities for Minorities and Executive Director, Alaska Department of Labor, Research and Analysis, P.O. Box 25501, Juneau, AK 99802-5501. Phone: (907)465-4518. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Chief, Research and Analysis, Alaska Department of Labor, P.O. Box 25501, Juneau, AK 99802-5501. Phone: (907)465-6022. Sources of Career Information 11 American Samoa Statistical Analyst, Research and Statistics, Office of Manpower Resources, American Samoa Government, Pago Pago, AS 96799. Phone: (684) 633 5172. Director, Occupational Information Coordinating Council, Department of Human Resources, American Samoa Government, Pago Pago, AS 96799. Phone: (684)633-4485. Arizona Research Administrator, Department of Economic Security, P.O. Box 6123, Site Code 733A, Phoenix, AZ 85005. Phone: (602)542-3871. Executive Director, Occupational Information Coordinating Council, P.O. Box 6123, Site Code 733A, 1789 West Jefferson St., First Floor, Phoenix, AZ 85005-6123. Phone: (602)542-3871. Arkansas Chief, Arkansas Employment Security Department, P.O. Box 2981, Little Rock, AR 72203. Phone; (501)682-3159. Executive Director, Occupational Information Coordinating Council, Arkan sas Employment Security Division, Employment and Training Services, P.O. Box 2981 .Little Rock, AR 72203-2981. Phone: (501)682-3159. California Chief, Labor Market Information Division, Employment Development De partment, 700 Franklin Blvd., Suite 1100, Sacramento, CA 94280-0001. Phone: (916)262-2160. Executive Director, Occupational Information Coordinating Council, 1116 9th St. Lower Level, P.O. Box 944222, Sacramento, CA 94244-2220. Phone: (916) 323-6544. Colorado Director, Colorado Department of Labor, Tower 2, Suite 400, 1515 Arapahoe St., Denver, CO 80202-2117. Phone: (303)620-4977. Director, Occupational Information Coordinating Council, State Board Com munity College, 1391 Speer Blvd., Suite 600, Denver, CO 80204-2554. Phone: (303)866-4488. Connecticut Director of Research, State Labor Department, 200 Folly Brook Blvd., Weth ersfield, CT 06109. Phone: (203)566-2120. Executive Director, Occupational Information Coordinating Council, Con necticut Department of Education, 25 Industrial Park Rd., Middletown, CT 06457-1543. Phone: (203)638-4042. Delaware Chief, Delaware Department of Labor, University Plaza, Building D, P.O. Box 9029, Newark, DE 19714. Phone: (302)368-6962. Executive Director, Office of Occupational and Labor Market Information, University Office Plaza, P.O. Box 9029, Newark, DE 19714-9029. Phone: (302) 368-6963. Georgia Director, Labor Information Systems, Georgia Department of Labor, 223 Courtlnad St. NE„ Atlanta, GA 30303-1751. Phone: (404)656-3177. Executive Director, Occupational Information Coordinating Council, Depart ment of Labor, 148 International Blvd., Sussex Place, Atlanta, GA 30303 1751. Phone: (404)656-9639. Guam Administrator, Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Government of Guam, P.O. Box 9970, Tamuning, GU 96911-9970. Executive Director, Human Resource Development Agency, Jay Ease Bldg., Third Floor, P.O. Box 2817, Agana, GU 96910-2817. Phone: (671) 646 9341. Hawaii Chief, Department of Labor and Industrial Relations, 830 Punchbowl St., Rm 304, Honolulu, HI 96813. Phone: (808)586-8999. Executive Director, Occupational Information Coordinating Council, 830 Punchbowl St., Room 315, Honolulu, HI 96813-5080. Phone: (808) 586 8750. Idaho Chief, Research and Analysis, Idaho Department of Employment, 317 Main St., Boise, ID 83735. Phone: (208)334-6169. Director, Occupational Information Coordinating Council, Len B. Jordan Bldg., Room 301, 650 West State St., P.O. Box 83720, Boise, ID 83720-0095. Phone: (208)334-3705. Illinois Director, Illinois Department of Employment Security, 401 South State St., Suite 215, Chicago, IL 60605. Phone: (312)793-2316. Executive Director, Occupational Information Coordinating Council, 217 East Monroe, Suite 203, Springfield, IL 62706-1147. Phone: (217)785-0789. Indiana Director, Labor Market Information, Department of Employment and Training Services, 10 North Senate Ave., Indianapolis, IN 46204. Phone: (317) 232 7460. Executive Director, Department of Workforce Development State Occupa tional Information Coordinating Committee, Indiana Government Center South, 10 North Senate Ave., Room SE 205, Indianapolis, IN 46204-2277. Phone: (317)232-8528. Iowa Chief, Iowa Department of Employment Services, 1000 East Grand Ave., Des Moines, IA 50319. Phone: (515)281-8181. Acting Executive Director, Occupational Information Coordinating Council, Iowa Department of Economic Development, 200 East Grand Ave., Des Moines, IA 50309-1747. Phone: (515)242-4889. Kansas Chief, Labor Market Information, Kansas Department of Human Resources, 401Topeka Blvd., Topeka, KS 66603-3182. Phone: (913) 296-5058. District of Columbia Chief, Labor Market Information, District of Columbia Department of Em ployment Services, 500 C St. NW., Room 201, Washington, DC 20001. Phone: (202)724-7214. Director, State Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 401 Topeka Ave., Topeka, KS 66603-3182. Phone: (913)296-2387. Executive Director, Occupational Information Coordinating Council, Depart ment of Employment Services, 500 C St. NW., Room 215, Washington, DC 20001-2187. Phone: (202)724-7237. Kentucky Director, Labor Market Research and Analysis, Department of Employment Services, 275 East Main St., Frankfort, KY 40621. Phone: (502)564-7976. Florida Chief, Florida Department of Labor and Employment Security, 2012 Capitol Circle SE., Room 200 Hartman Bldg., Tallahassee, FL 32399-0674. Phone: (904) 488-1048. Information Liaison/Manager, Occupational Information Coordinating Council, 2031 Capital Plaza Tower, Frankfort, KY 40601. Phone: (502) 564 4258. Manager, Bureau of Labor Market Information/Department of Labor and Employment Security, 2012 Capitol Circle SE., Hartman Bldg., Suite 200, Tallahassee, FL 32399-0673. Phone: (904)488-1048. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Louisiana Director, Research and Statistics Division, Department of Employment and Training, P.O. Box 94094, Baton Rouge, LA 70804-9094. Phone: (504) 342 3141. 12 Occupational Outlook Handbook Acting Director, Louisiana Occupational Information Coordinating Commit tee, 1001 North 23rd, Baton Rouge, LA 70802. Phone: (504)342-5149. Maine Director, Economic Analysis and Research, Maine Department of Labor, P.O. Box 309, Augusta, ME 04330-0309. Phone: (207) 287-2271. Acting Executive Director, Maine Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, State House Station 71, Augusta, ME 04333. Phone: (207)6246200. Maryland Director, Office of Labor Market Analysis and Information, Department of Labor, Licensing, and Regulations, 1100 North Eutaw St., Room 601, Balti more, MD 21201. Phone: (410)767-2250. Director, Occupational Information Coordinating Council, State Department of Employment and Training, 1100 North Eutaw St., Room 103, Baltimore, MD 21201-2298. Phone: (410)767-2951. Massachusetts Director of Research, Division of Employment Security, 19 Staniford St., 2nd Floor, Boston, MA 02114. Phone: (617)626-6556. Director, Occupational Information Coordinating Council, Massachusetts Di vision of Employment Security, Charles F. Hurley Bldg., 2nd Floor, Govern ment Center, Boston, MA 02114. Phone: (617)727-5718. Michigan Director, Bureau of Research and Statistics, Michigan Employment Security Commission, 7310 Woodward Ave., Room 510, Detroit, MI 48202. Phone: (313) 876-5904. Executive Coordinator, Michigan Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Victor Office Center, Third Floor, 201 North Washington Square, Box 30015, Lansing, MI 48909-7515. Phone: (517)373-0363. Nebraska Research Administrator, Labor Market Information, Nebraska Department of Labor, 550 South 16th St., P.O. Box 94600, Lincoln, NE 68509. Phone: (402) 471-2600. Administrator, Nebraska Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 94600, 550 South 16th St., Lincoln, NE 68509-4600. Phone: (402) 471-9953. Nevada Chief, Research and Analysis/LMI, Nevada Employment Security Division, 500 East 3rd St., Carson City, NV 89713-0001. Phone: (702) 687-4550. Director, Nevada Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 500 East 3rd St., Carson City, NV 89713. Phone: (702)687-4550. New Hampshire Director, Labor Market Information, New Hampshire Department of Em ployment Security, 32 South Main St., Concord, NH 03301. Phone: (603) 228-4123. Director, New Hampshire State Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 64B Old Suncook Rd., Concord, NH 03301. Phone: (603) 228 3349. New Jersey Director, Labor Market and Demographic Research, New Jersey Department of Labor, CN383, Trenton, NJ 08625. Phone: (609)292-0089. Staff Director, New Jersey Occupational Information Coordinating Commit tee, Room 609, Labor and Industry Bldg., CN056, Trenton, NJ 08625-0056. Phone: (609)292-2682. New Mexico Chief, Economic Research and Analysis Bureau, New Mexico Department of Labor, P.O. Box 1928, Albuquerque, NM 87103. Phone: (505)841-8645. Director, New Mexico Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 401 Broadway NE., Tiwa Bldg., P.O. Box 1928, Albuquerque, NM 87103 1928. Phone: (505)841-8455. Minnesota Director, Research and Statistical Services, Minnesota Department of Eco nomic Security, 390 North Robert St., 5th Floor, St. Paul, MN 55101. Phone: (612) 296-6546. New York Director, Division of Research and Statistics, New York State Department of Labor, State Office Building Campus, Bldg. 12, Room 402, Albany, NY 12240. Phone: (518)457-6369. Director, Occupational Information Coordinating Council, Department of Jobs and Training, 390 North Robert Street., St. Paul, MN 55101. Phone: (612) 296-2072. Executive Director, New York Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Research and Statistics Division, State Campus, Bldg. 12, Room 400, Albany, NY 12240. Phone: (518)457-6182. Mississippi Chief, Labor Market Information Department, Mississippi Employment Secu rity Commission, P.O. Box 1699, Jackson, MS 39215-1699. Phone: (601) 961-7424. North Carolina Director, Labor Market Information, Employment Security Commission of North Carolina, P.O. Box 25903, Raleigh, NC 27611. Phone: (919) 733 2936. Director, Department of Economic and Community Development, Labor As sistance Division/ State Occupational Information Coordinating Committee Office, 301 West Pearl St., Jackson, MS 39203-3089. Phone: (601) 949 2240. Executive Director, North Carolina Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 700 Wade Avenue, P.O. Box 25903, Raleigh, NC 27611. Phone: (919) 733-6700. Missouri Chief, Research and Analysis,Division of Employment Security, 421 East Dunkin St„ P.O. Box 59, Jefferson City, MO 65104-0059. Phone: (314)7513591. Director, Missouri Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 400 Dix Rd., Jefferson City, MO 65109. Phone: (314)751-3800. Montana Chief, Research and Analysis, Department of Labor and Industry, P.O. Box 1728, Helena, MT 59624. Phone: (406)444-2430. Program Manager, Montana Occupational Information Coordinating Commit tee, P.O. Box 1728, 1327 Lockey St., Second Floor, Helena, MT 59624-1728. Phone: (406)444-2741. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis North Dakota Director, Research and Statistics, Job Service of North Dakota, P.O. Box 5507, Bismarck, ND 58502-5507. Phone: (701)328-2860. Coordinator, North Dakota State Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 1720 Burnt Boat Dr., P.O. Box 1537, Bismarck, ND 58502-1537. Phone: (701)328-2733. Northern Mariana Islands Executive Director, Northern Mariana Islands Occupational Information Co ordinating Committee, P.O. Box 149, Saipan, CM 96950-0149. Phone: (670) 234-7394. Ohio Administrator, Labor Market Information Division, Ohio Bureau of Employ ment Services, 78-80 Chestnut, Columbus, OH 43215. Phone: (614) 752 9494. Sources of Career Information 13 Director, Ohio Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Ohio Bu reau of Employment Services, P.O. Box 1618, Columbus, OH 43266-0018. Phone: (614)466-1109. Director, Texas Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Texas Employment Commission Building, 3520 Executive Center Dr., Suite 205, Austin, TX 78731-0000. Phone: (512)502-3750. Oklahoma Director, Research Division, Oklahoma Employment Security Commission, 305 Will Rogers Memorial Office Bldg., Oklahoma City, OK 73105. Phone: (405) 557-7265. Utah Director, LMI & Research, Utah Department of Employment Security, P.O. Box 45249, Salt Lake City, UT 84145-0249. Phone: (801)536-7425. Executive Director, Occupational Information Coordinating Council, Depart ment of Voc/Tech Education, 1500 W. 7th Ave., Stillwater, OK 74074-4364. Phone: (405)743-5198. Oregon Adminstrator for Research, Tax and Analysis, Employment Department, 875 Union St. NE„ Salem, OR 97311. Phone: (503)378-5490. Executive Director, Utah Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 45249, 140 East 300 South, Salt Lake City, UT 84145-0249. Phone: (801) 536-7806. Vermont Director, Policy and Information, Vermont Department of Employment and Training, P.O. Box 488, Montpelier, VT 05602. Phone: (802)828-4135. Acting Director, Oregon Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 875 Union St. NE„ Salem, OR 97311-0101. Phone: (503)378-5490. Director, Vermont Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 5 Green Mountain Dr., P.O. Box 488, Montpelier, VT 05601-0488. Phone: (802) 229-0311. Pennsylvania Director, Bureau of Research and Statistics, Department of Labor and Indus try, 300 Captiol Associates Building, 3rd Floor, Harrisburg, PA 17120-9969. Phone: (717)787-3266. Virginia Director, Economic Information and Services Division, Virginia Employment Commission, P.O. Box 1358, Richmond, VA 23211. Phone: (804) 786 7496. Director, Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry, 1224 Labor and Industry Bldg., 7th and Foster, Harrisburg, PA 17120-0019. Phone: (717) 787-8646. Executive Director, Virginia Occupational Information Coordinating Commit tee, Virginia Employment Commission, 703 East Main St., P.O. Box 1358, Richmond, VA 23211-1358. Phone: (804)786-7496. Puerto Rico Director, Research and Statistics Division, Department of Labor and Human Resources, 505 Munoz Rivera Ave., 20th Floor, Hato Rey, PR 00918. Phone: (809) 754-5385. Virgin Islands Chief, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Virgin Islands Department of Labor, 53A and 54B Kronprindsens Gade,Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands 00820. Phone: (809)776-3700. Director, Puerto Rico Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 366212, San Juan, PR 00936-6212. Phone: (809)723-7110. Coordinator, Virgin Islands Occupational Information Coordinating Commit tee, P.O. Box 3359, St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands 00801. Phone: (809) 776-3700. Rhode Island Administrator, Labor Market Information, Rhode Island Department of Em ployment and Training, 101 Friendship St., Providence, RI 02903. Phone: (401)277-2731. Director, Rhode Island Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 22 Hayes St., Room 133, Providence, RI 02908-5092. Phone: (401)272-0830. South Carolina Director, Labor Market Information, South Carolina Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 995, Columbia, SC 29202. Phone: (803) 737-2660. Director, South Carolina Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 1550 Gadsden St., P.O. Box 995, Columbia, SC 29202-0995. Phone: (803) 737-2733. South Dakota Director, Labor Information Center, South Dakota Department of Labor, 400 S. Roosvelt, P.O. Box 4730, Aberdeen, SD 57402-4730. Phone: (605) 626 2314. Director, Occupational Information Coordinating Council, South Dakota De partment of Labor, 420 South Roosevelt St., P.O. Box 4730, Aberdeen, SD 57402-4730. Phone: (605)626-2314. Tennessee Director, Research and Statistics Division, Tennessee Department of Em ployment Security, 500 James Robertson Pkwy., 11th Floor-Volunteer Plaza, Nashville, TN 37245-1000. Phone: (615)741-2284. Executive Director, Tennessee Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 500 James Robertson Pkwy., 11th Floor-Volunteer Plaza, Nash ville, TN 37219-1215. Phone: (615)741-6451. Texas Director, Economic Research and Analysis, Texas Employment Commission, 15th & Congress Ave., Room 208T, Austin, TX 78778. Phone: (512) 463 2616. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Washington Chief, Labor and Economic Analysis, Washington Employment Security De partment, P.O. Box 9046, Olympia, WA 98507-9046. Phone: (360) 438 4804. Acting Executive Director, Washington Occupational Information Coordinat ing Committee, c/o Employment Security Department, P.O. Box 9046, Olympia, WA 98507-9046. Phone: (206)438-4803. West Virginia Assistant Director, Labor and Economic Research, Bureau of Employment Programs, 112 California Ave., Charleston, WV 25305-0112. Phone: (304) 558-2660. Executive Director, West Virginia Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 5088 Washington St. West, Cross Lanes, WV 25313. Phone: (304)759-0724. Wisconsin Director, Bureau of Labor Market Information, Department of Industry, La bor, and Human Relations, P.O. Box 7944, Madison, WI 53707. Phone: (608) 266-5843. Administrative Director, Wisconsin Occupational Information Coordinating Council, Division of Jobs, Employment and Training Services, 201 East Washington Ave., P.O. Box 7972, Madison, WI 53707-7972. Phone: (608) 266-8012. Wyoming Manager, Research and Planning, Division of Administration, Department of Employment, P.O. Box 2760, Casper, WY 82602-2760. Phone: (307) 473 3801. Executive Director, Wyoming Occupational Information Coordinating Council, Post Office Box 2760, 100 West Midwest, Casper, WY 82602-2760. Phone: (307)265-6715. Finding a Job and Evaluating a Job Offer Information on Finding a Job It takes some people a great deal of time and effort to find a job they enjoy. Others may walk right into an ideal employ ment situation. Don't be discouraged if you have to pursue many leads. Friends, neighbors, teachers, and counselors may know of available jobs in your field of interest. Read the want ads. Consult State employment service offices and private or nonprofit employment agencies, or contact employers directly. Where To Learn About Job Openings Parents, friends, and Neighbors School or college placement services Classified ads -Local and out-of-town newspapers -Professional journals -Trade magazines Employment agencies and career consultants State employment service offices Internet networks and resources Civil service announements (Federal, State, local) Labor unions Professional associations (State and local chapters) Libraries and community centers Women’s counseling and employment programs Youth programs Employers Job search methods • Beware of "no experience necessary" ads. These ads often signal low wages, poor working conditions, or straight commission work. • Keep a record of all ads to which you have responded, including the specific skills, educational background, and personal qualifications required for the position. Internet networks and resources. A variety of information on jobs and job search resources and techniques is currently available on-line through the Internet. Once you have access, on-line resources are available 7 days a week, 24 hours a day. Internet resources include Usenet newsgroups, Telnet sites, and World Wide Web resources, just to name a few. In addition to the listings of companies, professional so cieties, academic institutions, and government agencies, it is possible to search employment ad and career information databases directly. Available information includes govern ment reports, salary surveys, job listings, and even "networking" contacts within organizations. You can find out about companies or academic institutions directly, as well as the cities in which they are located. When searching employment ad databases, it is sometimes possible to post your resume on-line or send it to an employer via electronic mail. Some sources provide this service free of charge once you have access to the Internet. However, be careful that you are not going to incur any additional charges for postings or updates. No single network or resource will contain all information on employment or career opportunities, so be prepared to search for what you need. Job listings may be posted by field or discipline so it is best to begin your search using topics or "keywords." It may be helpful to consult a reference book such as The Internet Yellow Pages, which should be available in most libraries. Public employment service. The State employment service, Want ads. The "Help Wanted" ads in newspapers list hun dreds of jobs. Realize, however, that many job openings are not listed. Also, be aware that the classified ads sometimes do not give some important information. Many offer little or no description of the job, working conditions, or pay. Some ads do not identify the employer. They may simply give a post office box for sending your resume. This makes follow-up inquiries very difficult. Furthermore, some ads offer out-of town jobs; others advertise employment agencies rather than employment. Keep the following in mind if you are using want ads: • Do not rely solely on the classifieds to find a job; follow other leads as well. • Answer ads promptly, since openings may be filled quickly, even before the ad stops appearing in the paper. • Follow the ads diligently. Check them every day, as early as possible, to give yourself an advantage. 14 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis sometimes called the Job Service, operates in coordination with the U.S. Employment Service of the U.S. Department of Labor. About 1,700 local offices, also known as employment service centers, help jobseekers find jobs and help employers find qualified workers at no cost to themselves. To find the office nearest you, look in the State government telephone listings under "Job Service" or "Employment." A computerized job network system—America's Job Bank—run by the U.S. Department of Labor, lists approxi mately 100,000 job openings each week. A wide range of jobs are listed all over the country, and most are full-time jobs in the private sector. Jobseekers can access these listings through the use of a personal computer in any local public employment service office, as well as in several hundred military installations. In addition, some State employment agencies have set up America's Job Bank in other settings, including libraries, schools, shopping malls, and correctional facilities. America's Job Bank is also available on-line Finding a Job and Evaluating a Job Offer 15 through the Internet and can be accessed at the following World Wide Web address: http://www.ajb.dni.us Tips for Finding the Right Job, a U.S. Department of Labor pamphlet, offers advice on determining your job skills, organizing your job search, writing a resume, and making the most of an interview. Job Search Guide: Strategies For Professionals, another U.S. Department of Labor publication, also discusses specific steps that jobseekers can follow to identify employment opportunities. This publication includes sections on handling your job loss, managing your personal resources, assessing your skills and interests, researching the job market, conducting the job search and networking, writing resumes and cover letters, employment interviewing and testing, and sources of additional information. Check with your State employment service office, or order a copy of these publications from the U.S. Government Printing Office. Phone: (202) 512-1800 for price and ordering information. Job matching and referral. At a State employment service office, an interviewer will determine if you are "job ready" or if counseling and testing services would be helpful before you begin your job search. After you are "job ready," you may examine available job listings and select openings that interest you. A staff member can then describe the job openings in detail and arrange for interviews with prospective employers. Career counseling and testing centers can test for occupational aptitudes and interests and then help you choose and prepare for a career. Services for special groups. By law, veterans are entitled to priority at State employment service centers. Veterans' em ployment representatives can inform you of available assis tance and help you deal with any problems. Summer Youth Programs provide summer jobs in city, county, and State government agencies for low-income youth. Students, school dropouts, or graduates entering the labor market who are between 16 and 21 years of age are eligible. In addition, the Job Corps, with more than 100 centers throughout the United States, helps young people learn skills or obtain education. Service centers also refer applicants to opportunities avail able under the Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA) of 1982. JTPA prepares economically disadvantaged persons and those facing barriers to employment for jobs. Federal job information. For information about employment with the U.S. Government, call the Federal Job Information Center's Career America Connection, operated by the Office of Personnel Management. The phone number is (202) 606 2700, or write to: *■ Federal Job Information Center, 1900 E St. NW., Room 1416,Washington DC 20415. It is also possible to obtain this information directly on-line by accessing the Fedworld information network on the Internet. This is a central access point for locating and acquiring information about U.S. Government employment. Access Fedworld at the following World Wide Web address: http://www.fedworld.gov https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Private employment agencies. These agencies can be very helpful, but don't forget that they are in business to make money. Most agencies operate on a commission basis, with the fee dependent upon a successful match. You or the hiring company will have to pay a fee for the matching service. Find out the exact cost and who is responsible for paying it before using the service. While employment agencies can help you save time and contact employers who otherwise may be difficult to locate, in some cases, your costs may outweigh the benefits. Consider any guarantee they offer when figuring the cost. College career planning and placement offices. College placement offices facilitate matching job openings with suitable jobseekers. You can set up schedules and use avail able facilities for interviews with recruiters or scan lists of part-time, temporary, and summer jobs maintained in many of these offices. You also can get counseling, testing, and job search advice and take advantage of their career resource library. Here you also will be able to identify and evaluate your interests, work values, and skills; attend workshops on such topics as job search strategy, resume writing, letter writing, and effective interviewing; critique drafts of resumes and videotapes of mock interviews; explore files of resumes and references; and attend job fairs conducted by the office. Community agencies. Many nonprofit organizations offer counseling, career development, and job placement services, generally targeted to a particular group, such as women, youth, minorities, ex-offenders, or older workers. Many communities have career counseling, training, placement, and support services for employment. These pro grams are sponsored by a variety of organizations, including churches and synagogues, nonprofit organizations, social service agencies, the State employment service, and voca tional rehabilitation agencies. Many cities have commissions that provide services for these special groups. Employers. It is possible to apply directly to employers without a referral. You may locate a potential employer in the Yellow Pages, in directories of local chambers of commerce, and in other directories that provide information about employers. When you find an employer you are interested in, you can send a cover letter and resume or file a job application even if you don't know for certain that an opening exists. Applying for a Job Resumes and application forms. Resumes and application forms are two ways to provide employers with written evidence of your skills and knowledge. Most information is common to both the resume and application form, but the way the information is presented differs. Some employers prefer a resume while others require an application form. There are many ways of organizing a resume. Depending upon the job you are applying for, you should choose the format that best highlights your skills, training, and experi ence. It may be helpful to look at different examples. Ex amples can be found in a variety of books and publications 16 Occuptional Outlook Handbook What Goes Into a Resume A resume summarizes your qualifications and employment history. It usually is required when applying for managerial, administrative, professional, or technical positions. Although there is no set format, a resume should contain the following information: • Name, address, and telephone number. • Employment objective. State the type of work or specific job you are seeking. • Education, including school name and address, dates of atten dance, curriculum, and highest grade completed or degree awarded. • Experience, paid or volunteer. Include the following for each job: Job title, name and address of employer, and dates of employment. Describe your job duties. • Special skills, knowledge of machinery, proficiency in foreign languages, honors received, awards, or membership in organizations. • Note on your resume that "references are available upon request." available through public libraries or career guidance centers. Also, ask someone to read your resume and suggest ways to improve it. In completing an application form, make sure you fill it out properly and follow all instructions. In general, the same type of information is included on an application form as in a resume. Don't omit any information asked for and be sure to check that all information provided is correct. Cover letters. A cover letter should be sent with a resume or application form, as a way to introduce yourself to employers. It should capture the employer's attention, follow a business letter format, and should generally include the following information: • The name and address of the specific person to whom the letter is addressed • The reason for your interest in the company or position • Your main qualifications for the position (in brief) • A request for an interview • Your phone number job Interview Tips Preparation: Learn about the organization. Have a specific job or jobs in mind. Review your qualifications for the job. Prepare answers to broad questions about yourself. Review your resume. Practice an interview with a friend or relative. Arrive before the scheduled time of your interview. Personal Appearance: Be well groomed. Dress appropriately. Do not chew gum or smoke. The Interview: Answer each question concisely. Respond promptly. Use good manners. Learn the name of your interviewer and shake hands as you meet. Use proper English and avoid slang. Be cooperative and enthusiastic. Ask questions about the position and the organization. Thank the interviewer, and follow up with a letter. Test (if employer gives one): Listen closely to instructions. Read each question carefully. Write legibly and clearly. Budget your time wisely and don't dwell on one question. Information To Bring to an Interview: Social Security number. Driver's license number. Resume. Although not all employers require applicants to bring a resume, you should be able to furnish the interviewer with information about your education, training, and previous employment. References. An employer usually requires three references. Get permission from people before using their names, and make sure they will give you a good reference. Try to avoid using relatives. For each reference, provide the following information: Name, address, telephone number, and job title. Interviewing. An interview gives you the best opportunity to show an employer your qualifications, so it pays to be well prepared. Each interview is different, however. The box below provides some helpful information. Evaluating a Job Offer ment? Is the salary fair? Does the employer offer good bene fits? If you have not already figured out exactly what you want, the following discussion may help you develop a set of criteria for judging job offers, whether you are starting a career, reentering the labor force after a long absence, or planning a career change. Once you receive a job offer, you are faced with a difficult decision and must evaluate each offer carefully. Fortunately, most organizations will not expect you to accept or reject an offer on the spot. You probably will be given at least a week to make up your mind. There are many issues to consider when assessing a job offer. Will the organization be a good place to work? Will the job be interesting? How are opportunities for advance The organization. Background information on an organi zation can help you decide whether it is a good place for you to work. Factors to consider include the organization’s busi ness or activity, financial condition, age, size, and location. Information on growth prospects for the industry or industries that the company represents also is important. Here are some questions to ask. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Finding a Job and Evaluating a Job Offer 17 Is the organization's business or activity in keeping with your own interests and beliefs? It will be easier to apply yourself to the work if you are en thusiastic about what the organization does. How will the size of the organization affect you? Large firms generally offer a greater variety of training pro grams and career paths, more managerial levels for ad vancement, and better employee benefits than small firms. Large employers may also have more advanced technologies in their laboratories, offices, and factories. However, jobs in large firms may tend to be highly specialized. Jobs in small firms may offer broader authority and re sponsibility, a closer working relationship with top manage ment, and a chance to clearly see your contribution to the success of the organization. Should you work for a fledgling organization or one that is well established? New businesses have a high failure rate, but for many people, the excitement of helping create a company and the potential for sharing in its success more than offset the risk of job loss. It may also be as exciting and rewarding, however, to work for a young firm which already has a foothold on success. Does it make any difference to you whether the company is private or public? A privately owned company may be controlled by an indi vidual or a family, which can mean that key jobs are reserved for relatives and friends. A publicly owned company is con trolled by a board of directors responsible to the stockholders. Key jobs are open to anyone with talent. Is the organization in an industry with favorable long term prospects? The most successful firms tend to be in industries that are growing rapidly. Where is the job located? If it is in another city, you need to consider the cost of living, the availability of housing and transportation, and the quality of educational and recreational facilities in the new location. Even if the place of work is in your area, consider the time and expense of commuting in your decision. It is easy to get background information on an organization simply by telephoning its public relations office. A public company's annual report to the stockholders tells about its corporate philosophy, history, products or services, goals, and financial status. Most government agencies can furnish reports that describe their programs and missions. Press re leases, company newsletters or magazines, and recruitment brochures also can be useful. Ask the organization for any other items that might interest a prospective employee. Background information on the organization also may be available at your public or school library. If you cannot get an annual report, check the library for reference directories that provide basic facts about the company, such as earnings, products and services, and number of employees. Some di rectories widely available in libraries include the following: • Dun & Bradstreet's Million Dollar Directory • Standard and Poor's Register of Corporations • Directors and Executives https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis • Moody's Industrial Manual • Thomas' Register ofAmerican Manufacturers • Ward's Business Directory Stories about an organization in magazines and newspa pers can tell a great deal about its successes, failures, and plans for the future. You can identify articles on a company by looking under its name in periodical or computerized in dexes such as the following—however, it probably will not be useful to look back more than 2 or 3 years. • • • • • Business Periodicals Index Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature Newspaper Index Wall Street Journal Index New York Times Index The library also may have government publications that present projections of growth for the industry in which the organization is classified. Long-term projections of em ployment and output for more than 200 industries, covering the entire economy, are developed by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and revised every other year—see the November 1995 Monthly Labor Review for the most recent projections. The U.S. Global Trade Outlook, published annually by the U.S. Department of Commerce, is the successor to the U.S. Industrial Outlook and presents detailed analyses of the globalization of U.S. industry and growth prospects for six industrial sectors. Trade magazines also have frequent articles on the trends for specific industries. Career centers at colleges and universities often have in formation on employers that is not available in libraries. Ask the career center librarian how to find out about a particular organization. The career center may have an entire file of in formation on the company. The nature of the work. Even if everything else about the job is good, you will be unhappy if you dislike the day-to-day work. Determining in advance whether you will like the work may be difficult. However, the more you find out about it before accepting or rejecting the job offer, the more likely you are to make the right choice. You may want to ask yourself the following questions: Does the work match your interests and make good use of your skills? The duties and responsibilities of the job should be explained in enough detail to answer this question. How important is the job in this company? An explanation of where you fit in the organization and how you are supposed to contribute to its overall objectives should give you an idea of the job's importance. Are you comfortable with the supervisor? Do the other employees seem friendly and cooperative? Does the work require travel? Does the job call for irregular hours? Some jobs involve regular hours—for example, 40 hours a week, during the day, Monday through Friday. Other jobs involve variable hours, including night, weekend, or holiday work. In addition, some jobs routinely require overtime to 18 Occuptional Outlook Handbook meet deadlines or sales or production goals, or to better serve customers. Consider the effect of work hours on your per sonal life. How long do most people who enter this job stay with the company? High turnover can mean dissatisfaction with the nature of the work or something else about the job. The opportunities. A good job offers you opportunities to leam new skills, increase your earnings, and rise to positions of greater authority, responsibility, and prestige. A lack of opportunities can dampen interest in the work and result in frustration and boredom. The company should have a training plan for you. What valuable new skills does the company plan to teach you? The employer should give you some idea of promotion possibilities within the organization. What is the next step on the career ladder? If you have to wait for a job to become vacant before you can be promoted, how long does this usu ally take? Employers differ on their policies regarding pro motion from within the organization. When opportunities for advancement do arise, will you compete with applicants from outside the company? Can you apply for jobs for which you qualify elsewhere within the organization or is mobility within the firm limited? If you are considering the salary and benefits for a job in another geographic area, make allowances for differences in the cost of living, which may be significantly higher in a large metropolitan area than in a smaller city, town, or rural area. You also should leam the organization's policy regarding overtime. Depending on the job, you may or may not be ex empt from laws requiring the employer to compensate you for overtime. Find out how many hours you will be expected to work each week and whether you receive overtime pay or compensatory time off for working more than the specified number of hours in a week. Also take into account that the starting salary is just that, the start. Your salary should be reviewed on a regular basis— many organizations do it every 12 months. How much can you expect to earn after 1, 2, or 3 or more years? An employer cannot be specific about the amount of pay if it in cludes commissions and bonuses. Benefits can also add a lot to your base pay, but they vary widely. Find out exactly what the benefit package includes and how much of the costs you must bear. Check the library or your school's career center for salary surveys such as the College Placement Council Salary Survey or salary information compiled by professional associations. Detailed data on wages and benefits are also available from: m- The salary and benefits. Wait for the employer to introduce these subjects. Most companies will not talk about pay until they have decided to hire you. In order to know if their offer is reasonable, you need a rough estimate of what the job should pay. You may have to go to several sources for this information. Talk to friends who recently were hired in similar jobs. Ask your teachers and the staff in the college placement office about starting pay for graduates with your qualifica tions. Scan the help-wanted ads in newspapers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Bureau of Labor Statistics, Office of Compensation and Working Conditions, Division of Occupational Pay and Employee Benefit Levels, 2 Massachusetts Ave. NE., Room 4160, Washington, DC 20212-0001. Phone: (202) 606-6225. Data on weekly earnings, based on the Current Population Survey, are available from: ••Bureau of Labor Statistics, Office of Employment and Unemployment Statistics, 2 Massachusetts Ave. NE., Room 4945, Washington, DC 20212 0001. Phone: (202)606-6400. Occupational Information Included in the Handbook The Occupational Outlook Handbook is best used as a refer ence; it is not meant to be read from cover to cover. Instead, start by exploring the table of contents, where related occu pations are grouped in clusters, or look in the alphabetical in dex at the end of the Handbook for specific occupations that interest you. This section is intended as an overview of how the occupational descriptions, or statements, are organized. Two earlier chapters—Tomorrow's Jobs, and Sources of Ca reer Information—highlight the forces that are likely to de termine employment opportunities in industries and occupa tions through the year 2005, and tell you where to obtain ad ditional information. Unless otherwise noted, the source of employment and earnings data presented in the Handbook is the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Many Handbook statements cite earnings data from the Current Population Survey (CPS), while other statements include earnings data from outside sources. Since the characteristics of these data vary, it is difficult to compare earnings precisely among occupations. For any occupation that sounds interesting to you, use the Handbook to find out what the work entails; what education and training you need; what the advancement possibilities, earnings, and job outlook are; and what related occupations you might consider. Each occupational statement in the Handbook follows a standard format, making it easier for you to compare occupations. The following highlights informa tion presented in each section of a Handbook statement, and gives some hints on how to interpret the information provided. • How the duties of workers vary by industry, establishment and size of firm. • How the responsibilities of entry-level workers differ from those of experienced, supervisory, or self-employed work ers. • How technological innovations are changing what workers do and how they do it. • Emerging specialties. Working Conditions • • • • • • Typical hours worked. The workplace environment. Susceptibility to injury, illness, and job-related stress. Necessary protective clothing and safety equipment. Physical activities required. Extent of travel required. Employment • • • • The number of jobs the occupation provided in 1994. Key industries employing workers in the occupation. Geographic distribution of jobs. The proportion of part-time (fewer than 35 hours a week) and self-employed workers in the occupation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement About Those Numbers at the Beginning of Each Statement The numbers in parentheses that appear just below the title of most occupational statements are from the Dictionary of Oc cupational Titles (D.O.T.), Fourth Edition, Revised 1991, a U.S. Department of Labor publication. Each number classifies the occupation by the type of work, required training, physical demands, and working conditions. D.O.T. numbers are used primarily by State employment service offices to classify ap plicants and job openings. They are included in the Handbook because some career information centers and libraries use them for filing occupational information. An index at the back of this book beginning on page 478 cross-references the Revised Fourth Edition D.O.T. num bers to occupations covered in the Handbook. • Most significant sources of training, typical length of training, and training preferred by employers. • Whether workers acquire skills through previous work experience, informal on-the-job training, formal training (including apprenticeships) offered by employers or un ions, the Armed Forces, home study, or hobbies and other activities. • Formal educational requirements—high school, postsec ondary vocational or technical training, college, or graduate or professional education. • Desirable skills, aptitudes, and personal characteristics. • Certification, examination, or licensing required for entry into the field, advancement, or for independent practice. • Continuing education or skill improvement requirements. • Paths of advancement. Nature of the Work Job Outlook • What workers do on the job, the equipment they use, and how closely they are supervised. • Forces that will result in growth or decline in the number of jobs. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 19 20 Occuptional Outlook Handbook • Relative number of job openings an occupation provides. Occupations which are large and have high turnover rates generally provide the most job openings—reflecting the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or stop working. • Degree of competition for jobs. Is there a surplus or short age of jobseekers compared to the number of job openings available? Do opportunities vary by industry, size of firm, or geographic location? Even in overcrowded fields, job openings do exist, and good students or well-qualified in dividuals should not be deterred from undertaking training or seeking entry. • Susceptibility to layoffs due to imports, slowdowns in economic activity, technological advancements, or budget cuts. Earnings Key Phrases in the Handbook This box explains how to interpret the key phrases used to de scribe projected changes in employment. It also explains the terms used to describe the relationship between the number of job openings and the number of jobseekers. The descriptions of the relationship between the supply of and demand for workers in a particular occupation reflects the knowledge and judgment of economists in the Bureau’s Office of Employment Projections. Changing employment between 1994 and 2005 If the statement reads: Employment is projected to: Grow much faster than average Grow faster than average Grow about as fast as average Grow more slowly than average, or little or no change Decline increase 36 percent or more increase 21 to 35 percent increase 10 to 20 percent increase 0 to 9 percent decrease 1 percent or more Opportunities and Competition for Jobs If the statement reads: Excellent opportunities Very good opportunities Good or favorable opportunities May face competition May face keen competition https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job openings compared to jobseekers may be: Much more numerous More numerous About the same Fewer Much fewer • Typical earnings of workers in the occupation. • If earnings tend to vary with experience, location, and tenure. • Whether workers are compensated through annual salaries, hourly wages, commissions, piece rates, tips, or bonuses. • Earnings of wage and salary workers compared to selfemployed persons, who held about 8 percent of all jobs in 1994. • Benefits, including health insurance, pensions, paid vaca tion and sick leave, family leave, child care or elder care, employee assistance programs, summers off, sabbaticals, tuition for dependents, discounted airfare or merchandise, stock options, profit sharing plans, savings plans, or ex pense accounts. Related Occupations • Occupations involving similar aptitudes, interests, educa tion, and training. Sources of Additional Information • Associations, government agencies, unions, and other or ganizations which provide useful occupational information. • Free or relatively inexpensive publications offering more information, some of which may be available in libraries, school career centers, or guidance offices. (For additional sources of information, read the earlier chap ter, Sources of Career Information.) Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations Accountants and Auditors (D.O.T. 160 through .167-042, -054, .267-014) Nature of the Work Accountants and auditors prepare, analyze, and verify financial reports and taxes, and monitor information systems that furnish this information to managers in business, industrial, and government organizations. Four major fields of accounting are public, management, and government accounting, and internal auditing. Public accountants have their own businesses or work for public accounting firms. They perform a broad range of accounting, auditing, tax, and consulting activities for their clients, who may be corporations, governments, nonprofit organizations, or individuals. Management accountants, also called industrial, corporate, or private accountants, record and analyze the financial information of the companies for which they work. They also are responsible for budgeting, performance evalua tion, cost management, and asset management. They are usually part of executive teams that are involved in strategic planning dr new product development. Internal auditors verify the accuracy of their organization's records and check for mismanagement, waste, or fraud. Government accountants and auditors maintain and examine the records of government agencies and audit private businesses and individuals whose activities are subject to government regulations or taxation. Within each field, accountants often concentrate on one aspect of accounting. For example, many public accountants concentrate on tax matters, such as preparing individual income tax returns and advising companies of the tax advantages and disadvantages of certain business decisions. Others concentrate on consulting and offer advice on matters such as employee health care benefits, and compensation; the design of companies' accounting and data process ing systems; and controls to safeguard assets. Some specialize in forensic accounting—investigating and interpreting bankruptcies and other complex financial transactions. Still others work primarily in auditing—examining a client's financial statements and reporting to investors and authorities that they have been prepared and reported correctly; however, fewer accounting firms are performing this type of work because of potential liability. Increasing numbers of accounting graduates are working in private corporations. Management accountants are to analyze and interpret the financial information corporate executives need to make sound business decisions. They also prepare financial reports for nonmanagement groups, including stockholders, creditors, regulatory agencies, and tax authorities. Within accounting departments, they may work in financial analysis, planning and budgeting, cost ac counting, and other areas. Internal auditing is rapidly growing in importance. As computer systems make information more timely, top management can base its decisions on actual data rather than personal observation. Internal auditors examine and evaluate their firms' financial and information systems, management procedures, and internal controls to ensure that records are accurate and controls are adequate to protect against fraud and waste. They also review company operations—evaluating their efficiency, effectiveness, and compliance with corporate https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis policies and procedures, laws, and government regulations. There are many types of highly specialized auditors, such as electronic data processing auditors, environmental auditors, engineering auditors, legal auditors, insurance premium auditors, bank auditors, and health care auditors. Accountants employed by Federal, State, and local governments see that revenues are received and expenditures are made in accor dance with laws and regulations. Many persons with an accounting background work for the Federal Government as Internal Revenue Service agents or in financial management, financial institution examination, and budget analysis and administration. Computers are widely used in accounting and auditing. With the aid of special software packages, accountants summarize transactions in standard formats for financial records or organize data in special formats for financial analysis. These accounting packages greatly reduce the amount of tedious manual work associated with figures and records; some packages require few specialized computer skills, ■ Cl ! ■ *r Many accountants work long hours during the tax season. 21 22 Occuptional Outlook Handbook while others require formal training. Personal and laptop computers enable accountants and auditors in all fields—even those who work independently—to use their clients' computer system and to extract information from large mainframe computers. Internal auditors may recommend controls for their organization's computer system to ensure the reliability of the system and the integrity of the data. A growing number of accountants and auditors have extensive com puter skills and specialize in correcting problems with software or developing software to meet unique data needs. Working Conditions Accountants and auditors work in offices, but public accountants may frequently visit the offices of clients while conducting audits. Self-employed accountants may be able to do part of their work at home. Accountants and auditors employed by large firms and gov ernment agencies may travel frequently to perform audits at clients' places of business, branches of their firm, or government facilities. Many accountants and auditors generally work a standard 40-hour week, but many work longer, particularly if they are self-employed and free to take on the work of as many clients as they choose. For example, about 4 out of 10 self-employed accountants and auditors work more than 50 hours per week, compared to 1 out of 4 wage and salary accountants and auditors. Tax specialists often work long hours during the tax season. Employment Accountants and auditors held about 962,000 jobs in 1994. They worked throughout private industry and government, but nearly onethird worked for accounting, auditing, and bookkeeping firms, or were self-employed. Many accountants and auditors were unlicensed management accountants, internal auditors, or government accountants and audi tors. However, in 1994 there were 501,000 State-licensed Certified Public Accountants (CPA's), Public Accountants (PA's), Registered Public Accountants (RPA's), and Accounting Practitioners (AP’s). Most accountants and auditors work in urban areas where public accounting firms and central or regional offices of businesses are concentrated. Roughly 10 percent of all accountants were selfemployed, and less than 10 percent worked part time. Some accountants and auditors teach full time in junior colleges and colleges and universities; others teach part time while working for private industry or government or as self-employed accountants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most public accounting and business firms require applicants for accountant and internal auditor positions to have at least a bachelor's degree in accounting or a related field. Those wishing to pursue a bachelor's degree in accounting should carefully research accounting curricula before enrolling. Many States will soon require CPA candidates to complete 150 semester hours of coursework prior to taking the CPA exam—on January 1, 2001 at least 32 states will have this requirement—and many schools have altered their curricula accordingly. Some employers prefer those with a master's degree in accounting or a master’s degree in business administration with a concentration in accounting. Most employers also prefer applicants who are familiar with computers and their applications in accounting and internal auditing. For beginning accounting and auditing positions in the Federal Government, 4 years of college (including 24 semester hours in accounting or auditing) or an equivalent combination of education and experience is required. Previous experience in accounting or auditing can help an appli cant get a job. Many colleges offer students an opportunity to gain experience through summer or part-time internship programs con ducted by public accounting or business firms. Such training is advantageous in gaining permanent employment in the field. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional recognition through certification or licensure also is helpful. In most States, CPA's are the only accountants who are licensed and regulated. Anyone working as a CPA must have a certificate and a license issued by a State board of accountancy. The vast majority of States require CPA candidates to be college gradu ates, but a few States substitute a certain number of years of public accounting experience for the educational requirement. Based on recommendations made by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, a small number of States currently require that CPA candidates complete 150 semester hours of college coursework, but most States are working toward adopting this recommendation. The 150-hour rule requires an additional 30 hours of coursework beyond the usual 4-year bachelor's degree in accounting. The composition of the additional 30 hours of coursework is unspecified by most States. All States use the four-part Uniform CPA Examination prepared by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants. The 2day CPA examination is rigorous, and only about one-quarter of those who take it each year pass each part they attempt. Candidates are not required to pass all four parts at once, although most States require candidates to pass at least two parts for partial credit. Many States require all sections of the test to be passed within a certain period of time. Most States also require applicants for a CPA certifi cate to have some accounting experience. The designations PA or RPA are also recognized by most States, and several States continue to issue these licenses. With the growth in the number of CPA's, however, the majority of States are phasing out the PA, RPA, and other non-CPA designations by not issuing any more new licenses. Accountants who hold PA or RPA designations have similar legal rights, duties, and obligations as CPA's, but their qualifications for licensure are less stringent. The designation Ac counting Practitioner is also awarded by several States. It requires less formal training than a CPA license and covers a more limited scope of practice. Nearly all States require both CPA's and PA's to complete a certain number of hours of continuing professional education before their licenses can be renewed. The professional associations repre senting accountants sponsor numerous courses, seminars, group study programs, and other forms of continuing education. Professional societies bestow other forms of credentials on a voluntary basis. Voluntary certification can attest to professional competence in a specialized field of accounting and auditing. It also can certify that a recognized level of professional competence has been achieved by accountants and auditors who acquired some skills on the job, without the amount of formal education or public account ing work experience needed to meet the rigorous standards required to take the CPA examination. Employers increasingly seek appli cants with these credentials. The Institute of Management Accountants (IMA) confers the Certified Management Accountant (CMA) designation upon college graduates who pass a four-part examination, agree to meet continuing education requirements, comply with standards of professional conduct, and have at least 2 years' work in management accounting. The CMA program is administered through the Institute of Certified Management Accountants, an affiliate of the IMA. The Institute of Internal Auditors confers the designation Certi fied Internal Auditor (CIA) to graduates from accredited colleges and universities who have completed 2 years' work in internal auditing and who have passed a four-part examination. The Information Systems Audit and Control Association confers the designation Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA) upon candidates who pass an examination and who have 5 years of experience in auditing electronic data processing systems. However, auditing or data proc essing experience and college education may be substituted for up to 3 years. The Accreditation Council for Accountancy and Taxation, a satellite organization of the National Society of Public Accountants, awards a Certificate of Accreditation in Accountancy to those who pass a comprehensive examination, and a Certificate of Accreditation in Taxation to those with appropriate experience and education. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 23 Other organizations, such as the National Association of Certified Fraud Examiners and the Bank Administration Institute, confer specialized auditing designations. It is not uncommon for a practi tioner to hold multiple licenses and designations. For instance, an internal auditor might be a CPA, Certified Internal Auditor, and Certified Information Systems Auditor. Persons planning a career in accounting should have an aptitude for mathematics, be able to analyze, compare, and interpret facts and figures quickly, and make sound judgments based on this knowledge. They must be able to clearly communicate the results of their work, orally and in writing, to clients and management. Accountants and auditors must be good at working with people as well as with business systems and computers. Accuracy and the ability to handle responsibility with limited supervision are impor tant. Perhaps most important, because millions of financial statement users rely on their services, accountants and auditors should have high standards of integrity. Capable accountants and auditors should advance rapidly; those having inadequate academic preparation may be assigned routine jobs and find promotion difficult. Many graduates of junior colleges and business and correspondence schools, as well as bookkeepers and accounting clerks who meet the education and experience require ments set by their employers, can obtain junior accounting positions and advance to more responsible positions by demonstrating their accounting skills on the job. Beginning public accountants usually start by assisting with work for several clients. They may advance to positions with more re sponsibility in 1 or 2 years and to senior positions within another few years. Those who excel may become supervisors, managers, part ners, open their own public accounting firms, or transfer to executive positions in management accounting or internal auditing in private firms. Beginning management accountants often start as cost account ants, junior internal auditors, or as trainees for other accounting positions. As they rise through the organization, they may advance to accounting manager, chief cost accountant, budget director, or manager of internal auditing. Some become controllers, treasurers, financial vice presidents, chief financial officers, or corporation presidents. Many senior corporation executives have a background in accounting, internal auditing, or finance. There is a large degree of mobility among public accountants, management accountants, and internal auditors. Practitioners often shift into management accounting or internal auditing from public accounting, or between internal auditing and management account ing. However, it is less common for accountants and auditors to move from either management accounting or internal auditing into public accounting. Job Outlook Qualified accountants and auditors are expected to have fairly good job prospects. CPA's should continue to enjoy the widest range of job opportunities, especially as more States enact the 150-hour requirement, making it more difficult to become a CPA. Competi tion for the most prestigious jobs—such as those with major account ing and business firms—will remain keen. Applicants with a master's degree in accounting or a master's degree in business ad ministration with a concentration in accounting are increasingly valued, particularly among large firms. As computers now perform many increasingly complex accounting functions and allow account ants and auditors to analyze more information, a broad base of com puter experience is also advantageous. Expertise in specialized areas such as international business, specific industries, or current legisla tion may also be helpful in landing certain accounting and auditing jobs. Employment of accountants and auditors is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Although the profession is characterized by a relatively low https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis rate of turnover, because the occupation is so large the need to re place accountants and auditors who retire or move into other occupa tions will produce thousands of additional job openings annually. As the economy grows, the number of business establishments increases, requiring more accountants and auditors to set up their books, prepare their taxes, and provide management advice. As these businesses grow, the volume and complexity of information developed by accountants and auditors on costs, expenditures, and taxes will increase as well. More complex requirements for account ants and auditors also arise from changes in legislation related to taxes, financial reporting standards, business investments, mergers, and other financial matters. In addition, businesses will increasingly need quick, accurate, and individually tailored financial information due to the demands of growing international competition. The changing role of public accountants, management account ants, and internal auditors also will spur job growth. Public account ants will perform less auditing work due to potential liability, and less tax work due to growing competition from tax preparation firms, but they will assume an even greater management advisory role and expand their consulting services. These rapidly growing services will lead to increased demand for public accountants in the coming years. Management accountants also will take on a greater advisory role as they develop more sophisticated and flexible accounting systems, and focus more on analyzing operations rather than just providing financial data. Similarly, management will increasingly need internal auditors to develop new ways to discover and eliminate waste and fraud. Earnings According to a salary survey conducted by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, bachelor's degree candidates in account ing received starting offers averaging $27,900 a year in 1995; mas ter's degree candidates in accounting, $31,500. According to a survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas, accountants with limited experience had median earnings of $25,400 in 1993, with the middle half earning between $23,000 and $28,200. The most experienced accountants had median earnings of $77,200, with the middle half earning between $70,300 and $85,400. Public accountants—employed by public accounting firms—with limited experience had median earnings of $28,100 in 1993, with the middle half earning between $26,900 and $29,400. The most experienced public accountants had median earnings of $48,800, with the middle half earning between $41,300 and $54,400. Many owners and part ners of firms earned considerably more. Based on a survey by the Institute of Management Accountants, the average salary of IMA members was about $62,300 a year in 1994. IMA members who were certified public accountants aver aged $68,500, while members who were certified management accountants averaged $67,000. According to a salary survey conducted by Robert Half Interna tional, a staffing services firm specializing in accounting and finance, accountants and auditors with up to 1 year of experience earned between $23,000 and $35,500 in 1995. Those with 1 to 3 years of experience earned between $26,000 and $39,000. Senior accountants and auditors earned between $31,000 and $47,600; managers earned between $39,900 and $68,800; and directors of accounting and auditing earned between $50,300 and $84,500 a year. The variation in salaries reflects differences in location, level of education, and credentials. In the Federal Government, the starting annual salary for junior accountants and auditors was about $18,700 in 1995. Candidates who had a superior academic record could start at $23,200, while applicants with a master's degree or 2 years of professional experi ence began at $28,300. Beginning salaries were slightly higher in selected areas where the prevailing local pay level was higher. Accountants employed by the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions averaged $50,500 a year in 1995; auditors, $53,600. 24 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Related Occupations Accountants and auditors design internal control systems and analyze financial data. Others for whom training in accounting is invaluable include appraisers, budget officers, loan officers, financial analysts and managers, bank officers, actuaries, underwriters, tax collectors and revenue agents, FBI special agents, securities sales representa tives, and purchasing agents. Sources of Additional Information Information about careers in certified public accounting and about CPA standards and examinations may be obtained from: •■American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, Harborside Financial Center, 201 Plaza III, Jersey City, NJ 07311-3881. Information on management accounting and other specialized fields of accounting and auditing is available from: •■Institute of Management Accountants, 10 Paragon Dr., Montvale, NJ 07645-1760. ••National Society of Public Accountants and the Accreditation Council for Accountancy and Taxation, 1010 North Fairfax St., Alexandria, VA 22314. •■The Institute of Internal Auditors, 249 Maitland Ave., Altamonte Springs, FL 32701-4201. •"The Information Systems Audit and Control Association, 3701 Algonquin Rd., Suite 1010, Rolling Meadows, IL 60008. For information on accredited accounting programs and educa tional institutions offering a specialization in accounting or business management, contact: •"American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business, 605 Old Balias Rd., Suite 220, St. Louis, MO 63141. Administrative Services Managers (D.O.T. 162.117-014; 163.167-026; 169.167-034; 188.117-122, .167-106) Nature of the Work Administrative services managers are employed throughout private industry and government, and their range of duties is broad. They coordinate and direct support services, which may include: Secretar ial and reception; administration; payroll; conference planning and travel; information and data processing; mail; facilities management; materials scheduling and distribution; printing and reproduction; records management; telecommunications management; personal property procurement, supply, and disposal; security; and parking. In small organizations, a single administrative services manager may oversee all support services. In larger ones, however, first-line managers report to their mid-level superiors who, in turn, report to proprietors or top-level managers. These upper-level managers, such as vice president of administrative services, are included in the Handbook statement on general managers and top executives. First-line administrative services managers directly oversee staffs involved in various support services. Mid-level managers develop departmental plans, set goals and deadlines, develop procedures to improve productivity and customer service, and define the respon sibilities of supervisory-level managers. They often are involved in the hiring and dismissal of employees but generally have no role in the formulation of personnel policy. As the size of the firm increases, administrative services manag ers are more likely to specialize in one or more support activities. For example, some administrative services managers work primarily as facilities managers, office managers, contract administrators, property managers, or unclaimed property officers. In many cases, the duties of these administrative services managers are quite similar to those of other managers and supervisors, some of whom are discussed in other Handbook statements. Administrative services managers who specialize in facilities management may engage in facilities planning, including the buying, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Like other managers, administrative services managers should be able to communicate effectively. selling, or leasing of facilities; redesign work areas to be more effi cient and ergonomic (user-friendly); ensure that facilities comply with government regulations; and supervise maintenance, grounds, and custodial staffs. In some firms, they are called facilities managers. Some mid-level administrative services managers work as office managers and oversee first-line supervisors from various depart ments, including the clerical staff. In small firms, however, clerical supervisors, who are discussed in the Handbook statement on clerical supervisors and managers, perform this function. Administrative services managers who work as contract administrators direct the preparation, analysis, negotiation, and review of contracts related to the purchase or sale of equipment, materials, supplies, products, or services. However, procurement functions are generally directed by purchasers and buyers, also discussed in a separate Handbook statement. Property management is divided into the management and use of personal property such as office supplies, an administrative services management function, and real property management, which is a function of property and real estate managers, who are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Personal property managers acquire, distribute, and store supplies, and may sell or dispose of surplus property. Other property managers are engaged solely in surplus property disposal, which involves the resale of scraps, rejects, and surplus or unneeded supplies and machinery. This is an increasingly important source of revenue for many commercial organizations. In government, surplus property officers may receive surplus from various departments and agencies, and then sell or dispose of it to the public or other agencies. Some administrative services managers oversee unclaimed prop erty disposal. In government, this activity may entail auctioning off unclaimed liquid assets, such as stocks, bonds, savings accounts, and the contents of safe deposit boxes, or personal property, such as motor vehicles, after attempts to locate owners have failed. Working Conditions Administrative services managers generally work in comfortable offices. In smaller firms, where they may work alongside the people they supervise, the office may be crowded and noisy. Their work can be stressful, as they attempt to schedule work to meet deadlines. Although the 40-hour week is standard, uncompen sated overtime is often required to resolve problems. Managers involved in contract administration and personal property procure ment, use, and disposal may travel extensively between home offices, branch offices, vendors' offices, and property sales sites. Facilities Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 25 managers who are responsible for the design of work spaces often must spend time at construction sites. Facilities managers also may monitor the work of maintenance, grounds, and custodial staffs, and travel between different facilities. Employment Administrative services managers held about 279,000 jobs in 1994. Over two-fifths worked in services industries, including manage ment, business, social, and health services organizations. Others were found in virtually every other industry. A few run their own management services, management consulting, or facilities support services firms. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many administrative services managers advance through the ranks in an organization, acquiring several years' work experience in various administrative positions before assuming first-line supervisory duties. All managers who oversee departmental supervisors should be famil iar with office procedures and equipment. Those who supervise clerical supervisors must have a working knowledge of word process ing, communications, data processing, and recordkeeping. Facilities managers may have a background in architecture, engineering, construction, interior design, or real estate, in addition to managerial or other administrative experience. Managers of personal property acquisition and disposal need experience in purchasing and sales and knowledge of a wide variety of supplies, machinery, and equipment. Managers concerned with supply, inventory, and distribution must be experienced in receiving, warehousing, packaging, shipping, trans portation, and related operations. Contract administrators may have worked as contract specialists, cost analysts, or procurement special ists. Managers of unclaimed property often have experience in insurance claims analysis and records management. Educational requirements vary widely. For first-line administra tive services managers of secretarial, mail room, and related adminis trative support activities, many employers prefer an associate of arts degree in business or management, although a high school diploma may suffice. For managers of audiovisual, graphics, and other more technical activities, postsecondary technical school training is pre ferred. For managers of highly complex services such as contract administration, a bachelor's degree, preferably in business admini stration or finance, is usually required. The curriculum should include courses in office technology, accounting, business mathemat ics, computer applications, and business law. Similarly, facilities managers often need a bachelor's degree in engineering, architecture, or business administration. Some administrative services managers have advanced degrees. Whatever the manager's educational back ground, it must be accompanied by related work experience reflect ing demonstrated ability. Persons interested in becoming administrative services managers should be able to communicate and establish effective working relationships with many different people, ranging from managers, supervisors, and professionals, to clerks and blue-collar workers. They should be analytical, detail oriented, flexible, and decisive. The ability to coordinate several activities at once and to quickly analyze and resolve specific problems is important. Ability to work under stress and cope with deadlines is also important. Advancement is easier in large firms that employ several levels of administrative services managers. Attainment of the Certified Ad ministrative Manager (CAM) designation, through work experience and successful completion of examinations offered by the Institute of Certified Professional Managers, can increase one's advancement potential. A bachelor's degree enhances a first-level manager's opportunities to advance to a mid-level management position, such as director of administrative services, and eventually to a top-level management position, such as executive vice president for adminis trative services. Those with the required capital and experience can establish their own management consulting, management services, or facilities support services firm. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of administrative services managers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Like other managerial occupations, this occupation is charac terized by low turnover. These factors, coupled with the ample supply of competent, experienced workers seeking managerial jobs, should result in keen competition for administrative services man agement positions in the coming years. Many firms are increasingly contracting out administrative serv ices positions and otherwise streamlining these functions in an effort to cut costs. Corporate restructuring has tempered growth in the number of administrative services managers in recent years, and this trend is expected to continue. As it becomes more common for firms to contract out administra tive services, however, demand for administrative services managers will increase in the management services, management consulting, and facilities support services firms that will provide the services. In addition, some categories of administrative services managers may grow more quickly than others. Facilities managers may not be subject to the same cost-cutting pressures as other administrative services managers. Also, the extent to which governments at all levels contract out for goods and services could affect demand for contract administrators and personal property managers. Earnings According to a salary survey by the Administrative Management Society Foundation, building services/facilities managers averaged about $50,300 a year in 1994; office/administrative services manag ers, about $40,700; and records managers, about $38,900. Average salaries ranged from $29,600 for the lowest paid records managers to $61,300 for the highest paid building services/facilities managers. According to a survey by the International Facility Management Association, unit or first-line supervisors earned a median base salary of $41,600 in 1994; section heads or second-line supervisors $55,000; and managers with two levels of supervisors reporting to them, $65,000. In the Federal Government, contract specialists in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions averaged $47,890 a year in 1995; facilities managers, $45,660; administrative officers, $45,220; industrial property managers, $44,020; property disposal specialists, $40,940; and support services administrators, $35,990. Related Occupations Administrative services managers direct and coordinate support services and oversee the purchase, use, and disposal of personal property. Occupations with similar functions include administrative assistants, appraisers, buyers, clerical supervisors, contract special ists, cost estimators, procurement services managers, property and real estate managers, purchasing managers, and personnel managers. Sources of Additional Information For information about careers in facilities management, contact: •"International Facility Management Association, 1 East Greenway Plaza, Suite 1100, Houston, TX 77046-0194. Budget Analysts (D.O.T. 161.117-010, .267-030) Nature of the Work Budget analysts play a primary role in the development, analysis, and execution of budgets. Budgets are financial plans used to estimate future requirements and organize and allocate operating and capital resources effectively. The analysis of spending behavior and the planning of future operations are an integral part of the decision 26 Occuptional Outlook Handbook making process in most corporations and government agencies. Budget analysts work in private industry, nonprofit organizations, and the public sector. In private industry, a budget analyst examines, analyzes, and seeks new ways to improve efficiency and increase profits. Although analysts working in government generally are not concerned with profits, they too are interested in finding the most efficient distribution of funds and other resources among various departments and programs. A major responsibility of budget analysts is to provide advice and technical assistance in the preparation of annual budgets. At the beginning of the budget cycle, managers and department heads submit proposed operating and financial plans to budget analysts for review. These plans outline expected programs—including proposed program increases or new initiatives, estimated costs and expenses, and capital expenditures needed to finance these programs. Analysts begin by examining the budget estimates or proposals for completeness, accuracy, and conformance with established pro cedures, regulations, and organizational objectives. Sometimes they review financial requests by employing cost-benefit analysis, assess ing program trade-offs, and exploring alternative funding methods. They also examine past and current budgets, and research economic and financial developments that affect the organization's spending. This process allows analysts to evaluate proposals in terms of the organization's priorities and financial resources. After this review process, budget analysts consolidate the individ ual department budgets into operating and capital budget summaries. The analysts submit preliminary budgets to senior management, or sometimes, as is often the case in local and State governments, to appointed or elected officials, with comments and supporting state ments that justify or deny funding requests. By reviewing different departments' operating plans, analysts gain insight into an organiza tion's overall operations. This generally proves useful when they interpret and offer technical assistance to officials approving the budget. At this point in the budget process, budget analysts help the chief operating officer, agency head, or other top managers analyze the proposed plan and devise possible alternatives if the projected results are unsatisfactory. The final decision to approve the budget, however, is usually made by the organization head or elected offi cials, such as the state legislative body. Throughout the rest of the year, analysts periodically monitor the budget by reviewing reports and accounting records to determine if allocated funds have been spent as specified. If deviations appear between the approved budget and actual performance, budget ana lysts may write a report explaining the causes of the variations along with recommendations for new or revised budget procedures. They suggest reallocation of excess funds or recommend program cuts to avoid or alleviate deficits. They also inform program managers and others within their organization of the status and availability of funds in different budget accounts. Before any changes are made to an existing program or a new one is started, a budget analyst assesses its efficiency and effectiveness. Analysts also may project budget needs for long-range planning. Analysts assist in developing procedural guidelines and policies governing the development, formulation, and maintenance of the budget. If necessary, they conduct training sessions for agency or company personnel on new budget procedures. Working Conditions Budget analysts work in a normal office setting, generally 40 hours per week. However, during the initial development and mid-year and final reviews of budgets, they often experience the pressure of dead lines and tight work schedules. The work during these periods can be extremely stressful, and analysts are usually required to work more than the routine 40 hours a week. Budget analysts spend the majority of their time working inde pendently, compiling and analyzing data and preparing budget pro posals. Nevertheless, their routine schedule can be interrupted by https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Federal, State and local governments are major employers of budget analysts. special budget requests, meetings, and training sessions. Others may travel to obtain budget details and explanations of variances from coworkers, and to personally observe what funding is being used for in the field. Employment Budget analysts held about 66,000 jobs throughout private industry and government in 1994. Federal, State, and local governments are major employers, accounting for 1 of every 3 budget analyst jobs. The Department of Defense employed 7 of every 10 budget analysts working for the Federal Government. Other major employers of budget analysts are schools, hospitals, banks, and manufacturers of transportation equipment, chemicals and allied products, electrical and electronic machinery, and industrial machines.. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most private firms and government agencies require candidates for budget analyst positions to have at least a bachelor's degree. Within the Federal Government, a bachelor's degree in any field is sufficient background for an entry-level budget analyst position. State and local governments have varying requirements, but a bachelor's degree in one of many areas—accounting, finance, business or public administration, economics, political science, planning, statistics, or a social science such as sociology—may qualify one for entry into the occupation. Sometimes, a field closely related to the employing industry or organization within an industry, such as engineering, may Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 27 be preferred. An increasing number of states and other employers require a candidate to possess a master's degree to ensure adequate analytical and communication skills. Some firms prefer candidates with business backgrounds because business courses emphasize quantitative analytical skills. Financial experience can occasionally be substituted for formal education when applying for a budget analyst position. An increasingly small number of companies prefer to promote from within; therefore, competent accounting or payroll clerks and other clerical staff who have worked closely with the budget process are sometimes given the opportunity to advance to entry-level budget analyst positions even if they do not meet the educational requirements. Because developing a budget involves manipulating numbers and requires strong analytical skills, courses in statistics, or accounting are helpful, regardless of the prospective budget analyst's major field of study. Because most financial analysis performed by organiza tions is automated, a familiarity with the financial software packages used by most organizations in budget analysis, as well as word processing, is generally required by employers. Software packages commonly used by budget analysts include electronic spreadsheets and database and graphics software. Job candidates who already possess these computer skills may be preferred over those who need to be trained. In addition to analytical and computer skills, those seeking a career as a budget analyst must also be able to work under strict time constraints. Strong oral and written communication skills are essen tial for analysts to prepare, present, and defend budget proposals to decision makers. Entry-level budget analysts may receive some formal training when they begin their jobs. However, most employers feel that the best training is obtained by working through one complete budget cycle. During the cycle, analysts become familiar with all the steps involved in the budgeting process. The Federal Government, on the other hand, offers extensive onthe-job and classroom training for entry-level analysts, who are initially called trainees. Analysts are encouraged to participate in the various classes offered throughout their careers. Beginning analysts usually work under close supervision. Capa ble entry-level analysts can be promoted into intermediate level positions within 1 to 2 years, and then into senior positions within a few more years. Progressing to a higher level means added budget ary responsibility and can lead to a supervisory role. In the Federal Government, for example, beginning budget ana lysts compare projected costs with prior expenditures; consolidate and enter data prepared by others; and assist higher grade analysts by doing research. As analysts progress, they begin to develop and formulate budget estimates and justification statements; perform in depth analyses of budget requests; write statements supporting funding requests; advise program managers and others on the status and availability of funds in different budget activities; and present and defend budget proposals to senior managers. Because financial and analytical skills are vital in any organiza tion, budget analysts often are able to transfer to a related field in other organizations. Senior budget analysts in central staff functions are often candidates for senior management posistions in other parts of the organization. Job Outlook Despite the increase in demand for budget analysts, competition for jobs should remain keen because of the substantial number of quali fied applicants. Job opportunities are usually best for candidates with a college degree, particularly a master's. In some cases, experience is more beneficial than a degree and can be used to offset a lack of education. A working knowledge of computer financial software packages can also enhance one's employment prospects in this field. Employment of budget analysts is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. In addition https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis to employment growth, many job openings will result from the need to replace experienced budget analysts who transfer to other occupa tions or leave the labor force. The expanding use of automation may make analysts more pro ductive, allowing them to process more data in less time. Also, computers are increasingly used to organize, summarize, and dis seminate data to the top levels in organizations, thereby centralizing decision-making and reducing the need for middle managers. Any computer-induced effects on employment may be offset, however, by a greater demand for information and analysis. Easier manipulation of and accessibility to data provide management more considerations on which to base decisions. Because of the growing complexity of business and the increasing specialization of functions within organizations, more attention is being given to planning and financial control. Many companies will continue to rely heavily on budget analysts to examine, analyze, and develop budgets to determine capital requirements and to allocate labor and other resources efficiently among all parts of the organiza tion. Managers will continue to use budgets as a vehicle to plan, coordinate, control, and evaluate activities within their organizations more effectively. The financial work performed by budget analysts is an important function in every organization. Financial and budget reports must be completed during periods of economic growth and slowdowns. Therefore, employment of budget analysts generally is not as ad versely affected by changes in the economy. Earnings Salaries of budget analysts vary widely by experience, education, and employer. According to a survey conducted by Robert Half Interna tional, a staffing services firm specializing in accounting and finance, starting salaries of budget and other financial analysts in small firms ranged from $23,500 to $27,000 in 1995; in large organizations, from $26,000 to $30,800. Analysts in small firms with 1 to 3 years of experience earned from $27,000 to $33,000; in large companies, from $30,000 to $38,800. Senior analysts in small firms earned from $33,000 to $38,800; in large firms, from $38,000 to $46,500. Earn ings of managers in this field ranged from $38,500 to $50,000 a year in small firms, while managers in large organizations earned between $46,000 and $65,000. A survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas reported that inexperienced budget analysts had median annual earnings of about $27,000 in 1993, with the middle half earning between $24,100 and $32,000 a year. In the Federal Government, budget analysts generally started as trainees earning $18,700 or $23,200 a year in 1995. Candidates with a master's degree might begin at $28,300. Beginning salaries were slightly higher in selected areas where the prevailing local pay level was higher. The average annual salary for budget analysts employed by the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $45,700 in 1995. Related Occupations Budget analysts review, analyze, and interpret financial data; make recommendations for the future; and assist in the implementation of new ideas. Workers who use these skills in other occupations in clude accountants and auditors, economists, financial analysts, financial managers, and loan officers. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities as a budget analyst may be available from your State or local employment service. Persons interested in working as a budget analyst in the Federal Government can obtain information from: •■Office of Personnel Management, 1900 E St. NW„ Washington, DC 20415. 28 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Construction and Building Inspectors (D.O.T. 168.167-030, -034, -038, -046, and -050; .267-010, -102; 182.267; 850.387, .467) Nature of the Work Construction and building inspectors examine the construction, alteration, or repair of buildings, highways and streets, sewer and water systems, dams, bridges, and other structures to ensure compli ance with building codes and ordinances, zoning regulations, and contract specifications. Inspectors generally specialize in one par ticular type of construction work or construction trade, such as electrical work or plumbing. They make an initial inspection during the first phase of construction, and follow-up inspections throughout the construction project to monitor compliance with regulations. In areas where severe natural disasters—such as earthquakes or hurri canes—are more common, inspectors monitor compliance with additional safety regulations. Building inspectors inspect the structural quality and general safety of buildings. Some specialize—for example, in structural steel or reinforced concrete structures. Before construction begins, plan examiners determine whether the plans for the building or other structure comply with building code regulations and are suited to the engineering and environmental demands of the building site. Inspec tors visit the work site before the foundation is poured to inspect the soil condition and positioning and depth of the footings. Later they return to the site to inspect the foundation after it has been com pleted. The size and type of structure and the rate of completion determine the number of other site visits they must make. Upon completion of the entire project, they make a final comprehensive inspection. A primary concern of building inspectors is fire safety. They inspect structure's fire sprinklers, alarms, and smoke control systems, as well as fire doors and exits. In addition, inspectors may calculate fire insurance rates by assessing the type of construction, building contents, adequacy of fire protection equipment, and risks posed by adjoining buildings. Electrical inspectors inspect the installation of electrical systems and equipment to ensure that they function properly and comply with electrical codes and standards. They visit work sites to inspect new and existing wiring, lighting, sound and security systems, motors, and generating equipment. They also inspect the installation of the electrical wiring for heating and air-conditioning systems, appli ances, and other components. Elevator inspectors examine lifting and conveying devices such as elevators, escalators, moving sidewalks, lifts and hoists, inclined railways, ski lifts, and amusement rides. Mechanical inspectors inspect the installation of the mechanical components of commercial kitchen appliances, heating and air conditioning equipment, gasoline and butane tanks, gas and oil piping, and gas-fired and oil-fired appliances. Some specialize in inspecting boilers or ventilating equipment as well. Plumbing inspectors examine plumbing systems, including pri vate disposal systems, water supply and distribution systems, plumbing fixtures and traps, and drain, waste, and vent lines. Public works inspectors ensure that Federal, State, and local government construction of water and sewer systems, highways, streets, bridges, and dams conforms to detailed contract specifica tions. They inspect excavation and fill operations, the placement of forms for concrete, concrete mixing and pouring, asphalt paving, and grading operations. They record the work and materials used so that contract payments can be calculated. Public works inspectors may specialize in highways, structural steel, reinforced concrete, or ditches. Others specialize in dredging operations required for bridges and dams or for harbors. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Home inspectors conduct inspections of newly built homes to check that they meet all regulatory requirements. Home inspectors are also increasingly hired by prospective home buyers to inspect and report on the condition of a home's major systems, components, and structure. Typically, home inspectors are hired either immediately prior to a purchase offer on a home or as a contingency to a sales contract. Construction and building inspectors increasingly use computers to help them monitor the status of construction inspection activities and keep track of permits issued. Details about construction projects, building and occupancy permits, and other documentation are now generally stored on computers so that they can easily be retrieved and kept accurate and up to date. Although inspections are primarily visual, inspectors often use tape measures, survey instruments, metering devices, and test equip ment such as concrete strength measurers. They keep a daily log of their work, take photographs, file reports, and, if necessary, act on their findings. For example, construction inspectors notify the con struction contractor, superintendent, or supervisor when they dis cover a code or ordinance violation or something that does not comply with the contract specifications or approved plans. If the problem is not corrected within a reasonable or specified period of time, government inspectors have authority to issue a "stop-work" order. Many inspectors also investigate construction or alterations being done without proper permits. Violators of permit laws are directed to obtain permits and submit to inspection. Working Conditions Construction and building inspectors usually work alone. However, several may be assigned to large, complex projects, particularly because inspectors specialize in different areas of construction. Though they spend considerable time inspecting construction work sites, inspectors may spend much of their time in a field office re viewing blueprints, answering letters or telephone calls, writing reports, and scheduling inspections. Inspection sites are dirty and may be cluttered with tools, materi als, or debris. Inspectors may have to climb ladders or many flights of stairs, or may have to crawl around in tight spaces. Although their work is not considered hazardous, inspectors usually wear "hard hats" for safety. Inspectors normally work regular hours. However, if an accident occurs at a construction site, inspectors must respond immediately and may work additional hours to complete their report. MmPB. ggj|p: Nearly 60 percent of all construction and building inspectors work for local governments. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 29 Employment Construction and building inspectors held about 64,000 jobs in 1994. Over 50 percent worked for local governments, primarily municipal or county building departments. Employment of local government inspectors is concentrated in cities and in suburban areas undergoing rapid growth. Local governments employ large inspection staffs, including many plan examiners or inspectors who specialize in structural steel, reinforced concrete, boiler, electrical, and elevator inspection. About 18 percent of all construction and building inspectors worked for engineering and architectural services firms, conducting inspections for a fee or on a contract basis. Most of the remaining inspectors were employed by the Federal and State governments. Many construction inspectors employed by the Federal Government work for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers or the General Services Administration. Other Federal employers include the Tennessee Valley Authority and the Departments of Agriculture, Housing and Urban Development, and Interior. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Individuals who want to become construction and building inspec tors should have a thorough knowledge of construction materials and practices in either a general area, like structural or heavy con struction, or in a specialized area, such as electrical or plumbing systems, reinforced concrete, or structural steel. Construction or building inspectors need several years of experience as a manager, supervisor, or craft worker before becoming inspectors. Many inspec tors have previously worked as carpenters, electricians, plumbers, or pipefitters. Employers prefer to hire inspectors who have formal training as well as experience. Employers look for persons who have studied engineering or architecture, or who have a degree from a community or junior college, with courses in construction technology, blueprint reading, mathematics, and building inspection. Courses in drafting, algebra, geometry, and English are also useful. Most employers require inspectors to have a high school diploma or equivalent even when they qualify on the basis of experience. Certification can enhance an inspector's opportunities for em ployment and advancement to more responsible positions. Most States and cities actually require some type of certification for em ployment. To become certified, inspectors with substantial experi ence and education must pass stringent examinations on code requirements, construction techniques, and materials. Many catego ries of certification are awarded for inspectors and plan examiners in a variety of disciplines, including the designation "CBO," Certi fied Building Official. (Organizations that administer certification programs are listed below in the section on Sources of Additional Information.) Construction and building inspectors must be in good physical condition in order to walk and climb about construction sites. They also must have a driver's license. In addition, Federal, State, and many local governments may require that inspectors pass a civil service examination. Construction and building inspectors usually receive most of their training on the job. At first, working with an experienced inspector, they learn about inspection techniques; codes, ordinances, and regu lations; contract specifications; and record keeping and reporting duties. They usually begin by inspecting less complex types of construction, such as residential buildings, and then progress to more difficult assignments. An engineering or architectural degree is often required for advancement to supervisory positions. Because they advise builders and the general public on building codes, construction practices, and technical developments, construc tion and building inspectors must keep abreast of changes in these areas. Many employers provide formal training programs to broaden inspectors' knowledge of construction materials, practices, and techniques. Inspectors who work for small agencies or firms that do https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis not conduct training programs can expand their knowledge and upgrade their skills by attending State-sponsored training programs, by taking college or correspondence courses, or by attending semi nars sponsored by the organizations that certify inspectors. Job Outlook Employment of construction and building inspectors is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Growing concern for public safety and improvements in the quality of construction should continue to stimulate demand for construction and building inspectors. Despite the expected employ ment growth, most job openings will arise from the need to replace inspectors who transfer to other occupations or who leave the labor force. Replacement needs are relatively high because construction and building inspectors tend to be older, more experienced workers who have spent years working in other occupations. Opportunities to become a construction and building inspector should be best for highly experienced supervisors and craft workers who have some college education, some engineering or architectural training, or who are certified as inspectors or plan examiners. Thor ough knowledge of construction practices and skills in areas such as reading and evaluating blueprints and plans are essential. Govern ments—particularly Federal and State—should continue to contract out inspection work to engineering, architectural and management services firms as their budgets remain tight. However, the volume of real estate transactions will increase as the population grows, and greater emphasis on home inspections should result in rapid growth in employment of home inspectors. Inspectors are involved in all phases of construction, including maintenance and repair work, and are therefore less likely to lose jobs during recessionary periods when new construction slows. Earnings The median annual salary of construction and building inspectors was $32,300 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $25,200 and $43,800. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $19,400 and the highest 10 percent earned more than $57,500 a year. Generally, building inspectors, including plan examiners, earn the highest salaries. Salaries in large metropolitan areas are substantially higher than those in small local jurisdictions. Related Occupations Construction and building inspectors combine a knowledge of con struction principles and law with an ability to coordinate data, diag nose problems, and communicate with people. Workers in other occupations using a similar combination of skills include drafters, estimators, industrial engineering technicians, surveyors, architects, and construction contractors and managers. Sources of Additional Information Information about a career and certification as a construction or building inspector is available from the following model code or ganizations: •"International Conference of Building Officials, 5360 Workman Mill Rd., Whittier, CA 90601-2298. •"Building Officials and Code Administrators International, Inc., 4051 West Flossmoor Rd., Country Club Hills, IL 60478. •"Southern Building Code Congress International, Inc., 900 Montclair Rd., Birmingham, AL 35213. Information about a career as a home inspector is available from: •"American Society of Home Inspectors, Inc., 85 West Algonquin Rd., Arlington Heights, IL 60005. For information about a career as a State or local government construction or building inspector, contact your State or local em ployment service. 30 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Construction Managers (D.O.T. 182.167-010, -018, -026, -030, and -034) Nature of the Work Construction managers assume a wide variety of responsibilities and positions within construction firms. They are known by a range of job titles that are often used interchangeably—for example, con struction superintendent, general superintendent, project manager, general construction manager, or executive construction manager. Construction managers may be owners or salaried employees of a construction management or contracting firm, or individuals working under contract or as salaried employees for the owner, developer, contractor, or management firm overseeing the construction project. The Handbook uses the term "construction manager" to encompass all supervisory-level salaried and self-employed construction manag ers who oversee construction supervisors and workers. In the construction industry, managers and other professionals active in the industry—general managers, project engineers, cost estimators, and others—are increasingly referred to as constructors. The term constructor refers to a broad group of professionals in construction who, through education and experience, are capable of managing, coordinating, and supervising the construction process from conceptual development through final construction on a timely and economical basis. Given designs for buildings, roads, bridges, or other projects, constructors oversee the organization, scheduling, and implementation of the project to execute those designs. They are responsible for coordinating and managing people, materials, and equipment; budgets, schedules, and contracts; and the safety of employees and the general public. In contrast with the Handbook, the term "construction manager" is used more narrowly within the construction industry to denote a firm, or an individual employed by the firm, involved in management oversight of a construction project. Under this narrower definition, construction managers generally act as agents or representatives of the owner or developer throughout the life of the project. Although they generally play no direct role in the actual construction of the building or other facility, they typically schedule and coordinate all design and construction processes. They develop and implement a management plan to complete the project according to the owner's goals that allows the design and construction processes to be carried out efficiently and effectively within budgetary and schedule con straints. In the Handbook, "construction manager" includes these workers as well as managers working directly for the contractors who actually perform the construction. Generally, a contractor is the firm under contract to provide specialized construction services. On small projects such as remodel ing a home, the construction contractor is usually a self-employed construction manager or skilled trades worker who directs and over sees employees. On larger projects, construction managers working for a general contractor have overall responsibility for completing the construction in accordance with the engineer or architect's draw ings and specifications and prevailing building codes. They arrange for subcontractors to perform specialized craft work or other speci fied construction work. Large construction projects, like an office building or industrial complex for example, are too complicated for one person to super vise. These projects are divided into many segments: Site prepara tion, including land clearing and earth moving; sewage systems; landscaping and road construction; building construction, including excavation and laying foundations, erection of structural framework, floors, walls, and roofs; and building systems, including fire protec tion, electrical, plumbing, air-conditioning, and heating. Construc tion managers may work as part of a team or may be in charge of one or more of these activities. They may have several subordinates, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis such as assistant project managers, superintendents, field engineers, or crew supervisors, reporting to them. Construction managers plan, budget, and direct the construction project. They evaluate various construction methods and determine the most cost-effective plan and schedule. They determine the appropriate construction methods and schedule all required construc tion site activities into logical, specific steps, budgeting the time required to meet established deadlines. This may require sophisti cated estimating and scheduling techniques, using computers with specialized software. Construction managers determine the labor requirements and, in some cases, supervise or monitor the hiring and dismissal of workers. Managers direct and monitor the progress of field or site con struction activities, at times through other construction supervisors. This includes the delivery and use of materials, tools, and equipment; the quality of construction, worker productivity, and safety. They are responsible for obtaining all necessary permits and licenses and, depending upon the contractual arrangements, direct or monitor compliance with building and safety codes and other regulations. They regularly review engineering and architectural drawings and specifications to monitor progress and ensure compliance with plans and specifications. They track and control construction costs to avoid cost overruns. Based upon direct observation and reports by subordinate supervisors, managers may prepare daily reports of progress and requirements for labor, material, and machinery and equipment at the construction site. Construction managers meet regularly with owners, subcontractors, architects, and other design professionals to monitor and coordinate all phases of the construction project. Working Conditions Construction managers work out of a main office from which the overall construction project is monitored or out of a field office at the construction site. Management decisions regarding daily construc tion activities are usually made at the job site. Managers usually travel when the construction site is in another State or when they are responsible for activities at two or more sites. Management of construction projects overseas usually entails temporary residence in another country. Construction managers must be "on call" to deal with delays, bad weather, or emergencies at the site. Most work more than a standard 40-hour week since construction may proceed around-the-clock. This type of work schedule can go on for days, even weeks, to meet special project deadlines, especially if there have been unforeseen delays. Construction managers schedule construction site activities and art responsible for all necessary permits and licenses. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 31 Although the work generally is not considered dangerous, con struction managers must be careful while touring construction sites, especially when large machinery, heavy equipment, and vehicles are being operated. Managers must be able to establish priorities and assign duties. They need to observe job conditions and to be alert to changes and potential problems, particularly involving safety on the job site and adherence to regulations. Employment Construction managers held about 197,000 jobs in 1994. Over 85 percent were employed in the construction industry, primarily by specialty trade contractors—for example, plumbing, heating and air conditioning, and electrical contractors—and general building con tractors. Many also worked as self-employed independent contrac tors in the specialty trades. Others were employed by engineering, architectural, surveying, and construction management services firms, as well as local governments, educational institutions, and real estate developers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Persons interested in becoming a construction manager need a solid background in building science and management, as well as related work experience within the construction industry. They need to be able to understand contracts, plans, and specifications, and be knowl edgeable about construction methods, materials, and regulations. Familiarity with computers and software programs for job costing, scheduling, and estimating is increasingly important. Traditionally, persons advanced to construction management positions after having substantial experience as construction craft workers—for example, as carpenters, masons, plumbers, or electri cians—or after having worked as construction supervisors or as independent specialty contractors overseeing workers in one or more construction trades. However, more and more employers— particularly, large construction firms—seek to hire managers with industry work experience and formal postsecondary education in building science or construction management. In 1994, over 100 colleges and universities offered 4-year degree programs in construction management or construction science. These programs include courses in project control and development, site planning, design, construction methods, construction materials, value analysis, cost estimating, scheduling, contract administration, accounting, business and financial management, building codes and standards, inspection procedures, engineering and architectural sciences, mathematics, statistics, and computer science. Graduates from 4-year degree programs usually are hired as assistants to project managers, field engineers, schedulers, or cost estimators. An increas ing number of graduates in related fields—engineering or architec ture, for example—also enter construction management, often after having had substantial experience on construction projects. Around 30 colleges and universities also offer a master's degree program in construction management or construction science, and at least two offer a Ph.D. in the field. Master's degree recipients, espe cially those with work experience in construction, typically become construction managers in very large construction or construction management companies. Often, individuals who hold a bachelor's degree in an unrelated field seek a master's degree in order to work in the construction industry. Doctoral degree recipients generally become college professors or work in an area of research. Many individuals also attend training and educational programs sponsored by industry associations, often in collaboration with postsecondary institutions. A number of 2-year colleges throughout the country offer construction management or construction technol ogy programs. Construction managers should be adaptable and be able to work effectively in a fast-paced environment. They should be decisive and able to work well under pressure, particularly when faced with unexpected occurrences or delays. The ability to coordinate several major activities at once, while being able to analyze and resolve https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis specific problems is essential, as is the ability to understand engineer ing, architectural, and other construction drawings. Managers must be able to establish a good working relationship with many different people including owners, other managers, design professionals, supervisors, and craft workers. Advancement opportunities for construction managers vary depending upon the size and type of company for which one works. Within large firms, managers may eventually become top-level managers or executives. Highly experienced individuals may be come independent consultants; some serve as expert witnesses in court or as arbitrators in disputes. Those with the required capital may establish their own firms offering construction management services or their own general contracting firms overseeing construc tion projects from start to finish. Job Outlook Employment of construction managers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as the level of construction activity and complexity of construction projects continues to grow. In addition, many job openings should result annually from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employers prefer applicants with previous construction work experience who can combine a strong background in building technology with proven supervisory or managerial skills. Prospects in construction management, engineer ing and architectural services, and construction contracting firms should be particularly favorable for persons with a bachelor's degree or higher in construction science, construction management, or construction engineering who have worked in construction. Increased spending on the Nation's infrastructure—highways, bridges, dams, water and sewage systems, and electric power gen eration and transmission facilities—will result in a greater demand for construction managers, as will the need to build more residential housing, commercial and office buildings, and factories. In addition, continuing maintenance and repair of all kinds of existing structures will also contribute to demand for these professionals. The increasing complexity of construction projects also should lead to the creation of more manager jobs. Advances in building materials and construction methods and the growing number of multipurpose buildings, electronically operated "smart" buildings, and energy-efficient structures will require the expertise of more construction managers. In addition, the proliferation of laws setting standards for buildings and construction materials, worker safety, energy efficiency, and environmental pollution have further compli cated the construction process and should increase demand for man agers. As project owners and construction companies strive to keep costs in line and reduce the causes of disputes and litigation, they will continue to depend on the services and expertise of highly effective managers. Employment of construction managers is sensitive to the short term nature of many construction projects and cyclical fluctuations in construction activity. During periods of diminished construction activity—when many construction workers are laid off—many construction managers remain employed to plan, schedule, or esti mate costs of future construction projects, as well as to manage maintenance, repair and renovation work which remains ongoing. Earnings Earnings of salaried construction managers and incomes of selfemployed independent construction contractors vary depending upon the size and nature of the construction project, its geographic loca tion, and economic conditions. Based on limited information avail able, the average starting salary for construction managers in 1994 was around $30,000 annually. The average salary for experienced construction managers in 1994 ranged from around $40,000 to $100,000 annually. Many salaried construction managers receive benefits such as bonuses, use of company motor vehicles, paid vacations, and life and health insurance. 32 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Related Occupations Construction managers participate in the conceptual development of a construction project and oversee its organization, scheduling, and implementation. Occupations that perform similar functions include architects, civil engineers, construction supervisors, cost engineers, cost estimators, developers, electrical engineers, industrial engineers, landscape architects, and mechanical engineers. Sources of Information For information about a career as a construction manager contact: •■American Institute of Constructors, 466 94th Ave. North, St. Petersburg, FL 33702. •■Associated Builders and Contractors, 1300 North 17th St., Rosslyn, VA 22209. •■Associated General Contractors of America, 1957 E St. NW„ Washington, DC 20006-5199. •■Construction Management Association of America, 7918 Jones Branch Dr., Suite 540, McLean, VA 22102. Information on the accreditation requirements for construction science and management programs is available from: ••American Council for Construction Education, 1300 Hudson Lane, Suite 3, Monroe, LA 71201-6054. Cost Estimators (D.O.T. 169.267-038; 221.362-018, and .367-014) Nature of the Work Accurately predicting the cost of future projects is vital to the sur vival of any business. Cost estimators develop cost information for owners or managers to use in making bids for contracts, in determin ing if a new product will be profitable, or in determining which of a firms' products are making a profit. Regardless of the industry they work in, estimators compile and analyze data on all the factors that can influence costs—such as materials, labor, location, and special machinery requirements, including computer hardware and software. Job duties vary widely depending upon the type and size of the project. Estimators working in the construction industry and manufacturing businesses have different methods of and motivations for estimating costs. On a large construction project, for example, the estimating process begins with the decision to submit a bid. After reviewing the architect's drawings and specifications, the estimator visits the site of the proposed project. The estimator needs to gather information on access to the site and availability of electricity, water, and other services, as well as surface topography and drainage. If the project is a remodeling or renovation job, the estimator might consider the need to control noise and dust and schedule work in order to accom modate occupants of the building. The information developed during the site visit generally is recorded in a signed report that is made part of the final project estimate. After the site visit is completed, the estimator determines the quantity of materials and labor that the firm will have to furnish. This process, called the quantity survey or "takeoff," is completed by filling out standard estimating forms that provide spaces for the entry of dimensions, number of units, and other information. A cost estimator working for a general contractor, for example, will estimate the costs of all items the contractor must provide. Although subcon tractors will estimate their costs as part of their own bidding process, the general contractor's cost estimator often analyzes bids made by subcontractors as well. Also during the takeoff process, the estimator must make decisions concerning equipment needs, sequence of operations, and crew size. Allowances for the waste of materials, inclement weather, shipping delays, and other factors that may increase costs are incorporated in the takeoff. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis On completion of the quantity surveys, a total project cost sum mary is prepared by the chief estimator that includes the cost of labor, equipment, materials, subcontracts, overhead, taxes, insur ance, markup, and any other costs that may affect the project. The chief estimator then prepares the bid proposal for submission to the developer. Construction cost estimators also may be employed by the proj ect's architect or owner to estimate costs or track actual costs relative to bid specifications as the project develops. In large construction companies that employ more than one estimator, it is common prac tice for them to specialize. For instance, one person may estimate only electrical work, whereas another may concentrate on excava tion, concrete, and forms. In manufacturing and other firms, cost estimators generally are assigned to the engineering or cost department. The estimators' goal in manufacturing is to accurately allocate the costs associated with making products. The job may begin when management requests an estimate of the costs associated with a major redesign of an existing product or the development of a new product or production process. When estimating the cost of developing a new product, for example, the estimator works with engineers, first reviewing blueprints or conceptual drawings to determine the machining operations, tools, gauges, and materials that would be required for the job. The estima tor then prepares a parts list and determines whether it is more effi cient to produce or to purchase the parts. To do this, the estimator must initiate inquiries for price information from potential suppliers. The next step is to determine the cost of manufacturing each compo nent of the product. Some high technology products require a tre mendous amount of computer programming during the design phase. The cost of software development is one of the fastest growing and most difficult activities to estimate. Some cost estimators now specialize in only estimating computer software development and related costs. The cost estimator then prepares time-phase charts and learning curves. Time-phase charts indicate the time required for tool design and fabrication, tool "debugging"—finding and correcting all prob lems—manufacturing of parts, assembly, and testing. Learning curves graphically represent the rate at which performance improves with practice. These curves are commonly called "problemelimination" curves because many problems—such as engineering changes, rework, parts shortages, and lack of operator skills— diminish as the number of parts produced increases, resulting in lower unit costs. Using all of this information, the estimator then calculates the standard labor hours necessary to produce a predetermined number of units. Standard labor hours are then converted to dollar values, to Cost estimators use computers to perform complex mathematical calculations. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 33 which are added factors for waste, overhead, and profit to yield the unit cost in dollars. The estimator then compares the cost of purchas ing parts with the firm's cost of manufacturing them to determine which is cheaper. Computers are widely used because cost estimating may involve complex mathematical calculations and require advanced mathemati cal techniques. For example, to undertake a parametric analysis, a process used to estimate project costs on a per unit basis subject to the specific requirements of a project, cost estimators use a computer database containing information on costs and conditions of many other similar projects. Although computers cannot be used for the entire estimating process, they can relieve estimators of much of the drudgery associated with routine, repetitive, and time-consuming calculations. Computers also are used to produce all of the necessary documentation with the help of basic word-processing and spread sheet software. This leaves estimators with more time to study and analyze projects and can lead to more accurate estimates. (More detailed information on various cost estimating techniques is avail able from the organizations listed under Sources of Additional In formation below.) Working Conditions Although estimators spend most of their time in an office, construc tion estimators must make frequent visits to work sites that are dirty and cluttered with debris. Likewise, estimators in manufacturing must spend time on the factory floor where it can be hot, noisy, and dirty. Cost estimators usually operate under pressure, especially when facing deadlines. Inaccurate estimating can cause a firm to lose out on a bid or lose money on a job that proves to be unprofit able. Although estimators normally work a 40-hour week, much overtime is often required. In some industries, frequent travel be tween a firm's headquarters and its subsidiaries or subcontractors also may be required. Employment Cost estimators held about 179,000 jobs in 1994, primarily in con struction industries. Others can be found primarily in manufacturing industries. Some cost estimators also worked for engineering and architectural services firms, business services firms, and throughout a wide range of other industries. Construction, operations research, production control, cost, and price analysts who work for government agencies also may do significant amounts of cost estimating in the course of their regular duties. (For more information, see the section on operations research analysts elsewhere in the Handbook.) Cost estimators work throughout the country, usually in or near major industrial, commercial, and government centers, and in cities and suburban areas undergoing rapid change or development. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Entry requirements for cost estimators vary significantly by industry. In the construction industry, employers prefer applicants with a thorough knowledge of construction materials, costs, and procedures in areas ranging from heavy construction to electrical work, plumb ing systems, or masonry work. Most construction estimators have considerable previous experience as a construction craft worker or manager. Individuals who combine this experience with some postsecondary training in construction estimating, or with a bache lor's or associate degree in civil engineering, architectural drafting, or building construction, have a competitive edge in landing jobs. In manufacturing industries, employers prefer to hire individuals with a degree in engineering, science, operations research, mathemat ics, or statistics, or in accounting, finance, business, or a related subject. In high-technology industries, great emphasis is placed on experience involving quantitative techniques. Cost estimators should have an aptitude for mathematics, be able to quickly analyze, compare, and interpret detailed and sometimes poorly defined information, and be able to make sound and accurate judgments based on this knowledge. Assertiveness and self-con https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis fidence in presenting and supporting their conclusions are important. Cost estimators should also be familiar with computers and their application to the estimating process, including word-processing and spreadsheet packages used to produce necessary documentation. In some instances, familiarity with special estimation software or pro gramming skills may be useful. Regardless of their background, estimators receive much training on the job. Working with an experienced estimator, they become familiar with each step in the process. Those with no experience reading construction specifications or blueprints first learn that aspect of the work. They then may accompany an experienced estimator to the construction site or shop floor where they observe the work being done, take measurements, or perform other routine tasks. As they become more knowledgeable, estimators learn how to tabulate quantities and dimensions from drawings and how to select the appropriate material prices. Many colleges and universities include cost estimating as part of curriculums in civil engineering, industrial engineering, and con struction management or construction engineering technology. Courses and programs in cost estimating techniques and procedures are offered by many technical schools, junior colleges, and universi ties. In addition, cost estimating is a significant part of master's degree programs in construction management offered by many colleges and universities. Organizations that represent cost estima tors, such as American Association of Cost Engineers (AACE) International and the Society of Cost Estimating and Analysis, also sponsor educational programs. These programs help students, estimators-in-training, and experienced estimators stay abreast of changes affecting the profession. Voluntary certification can be valuable to cost estimators because it provides professional recognition of the estimator's competence and experience. Both AACE International and the Society of Cost Estimating and Analysis administer certification programs. To become certified, estimators generally must have between 3 and 7 years of estimating experience and must pass both a written and an oral examination. In addition, certification requirements may include publication of at least one article or paper in the field. For most estimators, advancement takes the form of higher pay and prestige. Some move into management positions, such as project manager for a construction firm or manager of the industrial engi neering department for a manufacturer. Others may go into business for themselves as consultants, providing estimating services for a fee to government or construction and manufacturing firms. Job Outlook Overall employment of cost estimators is expected to grow about as fast as average for all occupations through the year 2005 as the levels of construction and manufacturing activity increase as the economy grows. However, even when construction and manufacturing activity decline, there should always remain a demand for cost estimators to accurately predict costs in all areas of business. Some job openings will also arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or who leave the labor force altogether. Growth of the construction industry, where over 60 percent of all cost estimators are employed, will be the driving force behind the rising demand for these workers. The fastest growing sectors of the construction industry are expected to be special trade contractors and those associated with heavy construction and spending on the Na tion's infrastructure. Construction and repair of highways and streets, bridges, and construction of more subway systems, airports, water and sewage systems, and electric power plants and transmission lines will stimulate demand for many more cost estimators. Job prospects in construction should be best for those workers with a degree in construction management, engineering, or architectural drafting, or who have substantial experience in various phases of construction or a specialty craft area. Employment of cost estimators in manufacturing should remain relatively stable as firms continue to use their services to identify and 34 Occuptional Outlook Handbook control their operating costs. Experienced estimators with degrees in engineering, science, mathematics, business administration, or eco nomics and who have computer expertise should have the best job prospects in manufacturing. Earnings Salaries of cost estimators vary widely by experience, education, size of firm, and industry. According to limited data available, most starting salaries in the construction industry for cost estimators with limited training were between about $17,000 and $21,000 a year in 1994. College graduates with degrees in fields such as engineering or construction management that provide a strong background in cost estimating could start at about $30,000 annually or more. Highly experienced cost estimators earned $75,000 a year or more. Starting salaries and annual earnings in the manufacturing sector usually were somewhat higher. Related Occupations Other workers who quantitatively analyze information in a similar capacity include appraisers, cost accountants, cost engineers, economists, evaluators, financial analysts, loan officers, operations research analysts, underwriters, and value engineers. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities, certification, and educational programs in cost estimating in the construction industry may be obtained from: •"AACE International, 209 Prairie Ave., Suite 100, Morgantown, WV 26505. •"Professional Construction Estimators Association of America, P.O. Box 11626, Charlotte, NC 28220-1626. Similar information about cost estimating in government, manu facturing, and other industries is available from: •■Society of Cost Estimating and Analysis, 101 S. Whiting St., Suite 201, Alexandria, VA 22304. Education Administrators (D.O.T. 075.117-010, -018, -030; 090.117 except -034,. 167; 091.107; 092.167,. 117-010, . 167-014; 096.167; 097.167; 099.117 except -022, .167-034; 100.117-010; 169.267-022; 239.137-010) Nature of the Work Smooth operation of an educational institution requires competent administrators. Education administrators provide direction, leader ship, and day-to-day management of educational activities in schools, colleges and universities, businesses, correctional institutions, muse ums, and job training and community service organizations. (College presidents and school superintendents are covered in the Handbook statement on general managers and top executives.) Education administrators set educational standards and goals and aid in establishing the policies and procedures to carry them out. They develop academic programs; monitor students' educational progress; train and motivate teachers and other staff; manage guidance and other student services; administer recordkeeping; prepare budgets; handle relations with parents, prospective students, employers, and the community; and perform many other activities. They also supervise managers, management support staff, teach ers, counselors, librarians, coaches, and others. In an organization such as a small daycare center, there may be one administrator who handles all these functions. In universities or large school systems, responsibilities are divided among many administrators, each with a specific function. Principals manage elementary and secondary schools. They set https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis the academic tone and they hire teachers and other staff, help them improve their skills, and evaluate them. Principals confer with staff—advising, explaining, or answering procedural questions. They visit classrooms, observe teaching methods, review instruc tional objectives, and examine learning materials. They actively work with teachers to develop and maintain high curriculum stan dards, develop mission statements, and set performance goals and objectives. As pay-for-performance becomes an accepted standard for teachers, principals must ensure that they are using clear, objec tive guidelines for teacher appraisals. Principals also meet and interact with other administrators, stu dents, parents, and representatives of community organizations. As decision-making authority shifts from school district central offices to individual schools, parents, teachers, and other members of the community are playing an increasingly important role in setting school policies and goals. Principals must pay attention to the con cerns of these groups when making administrative decisions. Principals prepare budgets and reports on various subjects, includ ing finances and attendance, and oversee the requisitioning and allocation of supplies. As school budgets become tighter, many principals are becoming more involved in public relations and fund raising in an effort to secure financial support for their schools from local businesses. Many principals take an active role in developing school/business partnerships and school-to-work transition programs for students. In recent years, schools have become more involved with stu dents' emotional welfare as well as their academic achievement. As a result, principals face new responsibilities. For example, in re sponse to the growing number of dual-income and single-parent families and teenage parents, more schools have before- and after school child- care programs or family resource centers, which also may offer parenting classes and social service referrals. With the help of community organizations, some principals have established programs to combat the increase in crime, drug and alcohol abuse, and sexually transmitted disease among students. Assistant principals aid the principal in the overall administration of the school. Some assistant principals hold this position for several years to prepare for advancement to principal; others are career assistant principals. Depending on the number of students, the number of assistant principals a school employs may vary. They are responsible for programming student classes, ordering textbooks and supplies, and coordinating transportation, custodial, cafeteria, and other support services. They usually handle discipline, attendance, social and recreational programs, and health and safety. They also may counsel students on personal, educational, or vocational matters. As site-based management becomes more prevalent, assistant princi pals are playing a greater role in curriculum development, evaluating teachers, and school-community relations, responsibilities previously assumed solely by the principal. Administrators in school district central offices manage public schools under their jurisdiction. This group includes those who direct subject area programs such as English, music, vocational education, special education, and mathematics. They plan, evaluate, standardize, and improve curriculums and teaching techniques, and help teachers improve their skills and learn about new methods and materials. They oversee career counseling programs, and testing which measures students' abilities and helps place them in appropri ate classes. Central office administrators also include directors of programs such as guidance, school psychology, athletics, curriculum and instruction, and professional development. With the trend to ward site-based management, principals and assistant principals, along with teachers and other staff, have primary responsibility for many of these programs in their individual schools. In colleges and universities, academic deans, deans of faculty, provosts, and/or university deans assist presidents and develop budgets and academic policies and programs. They direct and coor dinate activities of deans of individual colleges and chairpersons of academic departments. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 35 College or university department heads or chairpersons are in charge of departments such as English, biological science, or mathe matics. In addition to teaching, they coordinate schedules of classes and teaching assignments; propose budgets; recruit, interview, and hire applicants for teaching positions; evaluate faculty members; encourage faculty development; and perform other administrative duties. In overseeing their departments, chairpersons must consider and balance the concerns of faculty, administrators, and students. Higher education administrators also provide student services. Vice presidents of student affairs or student life, deans of students, and directors of student services may direct and coordinate admis sions, foreign student services, health and counseling services, career services, financial aid, and housing and residential life, as well as social, recreational, and related programs. In small colleges, they may counsel students. Registrars are custodians of students' educa tion records. They register students, prepare student transcripts, evaluate academic records, oversee the preparation of college cata logs and schedules of classes, and analyze registration statistics. Directors of admissions manage the process of recruiting and admit ting students, and work closely with financial aid directors, who oversee scholarship, fellowship, and loan programs. Registrars and admissions officers must adapt to technological innovations in stu dent information systems such as touch-tone voice response, desk-top publishing, and presentation of information—college catalogs and schedules, for example—on computer systems, including the Inter net. Directors of student activities plan and arrange social, cultural Education administrators meet with other administrators, students, parents, and representatives of community organizations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and recreational activities, assist student-run organizations, and may orient new students. Athletic directors plan and direct intramural and intercollegiate athletic activities, including publicity for athletic events, preparation of budgets, and supervision of coaches. Working Conditions Education administrators hold management positions with significant responsibility. Coordinating and interacting with faculty, parents, and students can be fast-paced and stimulating, but also stressful and demanding. Some jobs include travel. Principals and assistant principals whose main duty is often discipline may find working with difficult students frustrating, but challenging. The number of schoolage children is rising, and some school systems have hired assistant principals when a school's population increased significantly. In other school systems, principals may manage larger student bodies, which can also be stressful. Most education administrators work more than 40 hours a week, including many nights and weekends when they oversee school activities. Unlike teachers, they usually work year round. Employment Education administrators held about 393,000 jobs in 1994. About 9 out of 10 were in educational services—in elementary, secondary, and technical schools and colleges and universities. The rest worked in child daycare centers, religious organizations, job training centers, State departments of education, and businesses and other organiza tions that provide training activities for their employees. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Education administrator is not usually an entry-level job. Most education administrators begin their careers in related occupations, and prepare for a job in education administration by completing a master's or doctoral degree. Because of the diversity of duties and levels of responsibility, their educational backgrounds and experi ence vary considerably. Principals, assistant principals, central office administrators, and academic deans usually have taught or held another related job before moving into administration. Some teach ers move directly into principalships; others first become assistant principals, or gain experience in other central office administrative jobs at either the school or district level in positions such as depart ment head, curriculum specialist, or subject matter advisor. In some cases, administrators move up from related staff jobs such as re cruiter, guidance counselor, librarian, residence hall director, or financial aid or admissions counselor. Earning a graduate degree generally improves one's advancement opportunities in education administration. To be considered for education administrator positions, workers must first prove themselves in their current jobs. In evaluating candidates, supervisors look for determination, confidence, innova tiveness, motivation, leadership, and managerial attributes, such as ability to make sound decisions and organize and coordinate work efficiently. Since much of an administrator's job involves interacting with others, from students to parents to teachers, they must have strong interpersonal skills and be effective communicators and motivators. Knowledge of management principles and practices, gained through work experience and formal education, is important. In public schools, principals, assistant principals, and school administrators in central offices need a master's degree in education administration or educational supervision, and a State teaching certificate. Some principals and central office administrators have a doctorate or specialized degree in education administration. In private schools, which are not subject to State certification require ments, some principals and assistant principals hold only a bachelor's degree. However, the majority have a master's or doctoral degree. 36 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Licensing standards for principals are currently being developed and are expected to be in place by 1997. The Interstate Principals Licen sure Consortium will be the licensing body. Academic deans and chairpersons usually have a doctorate in their specialty. Most have held a professorship in their department before advancing. Admissions, student affairs, and financial aid directors and registrars sometimes start in related staff jobs with bachelor's degrees—any field usually is acceptable—and obtain advanced degrees in college student affairs or higher education administration. A Ph.D. or Ed.D. usually is necessary for top student affairs positions. Computer literacy and a background in mathemat ics or statistics may be assets in admissions, records, and financial work. Advanced degrees in higher education administration, educational supervision, and college student affairs are offered in many colleges and universities. The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education accredits programs. Education administration degree programs include courses in school management, school law, school finance and budgeting, curriculum development and evaluation, research design and data analysis, community relations, politics in education, counseling, and leadership. Educational supervision degree programs include courses in supervision of instruction and curriculum, human relations, curriculum development, research, and advanced pedagogy courses. Education administrators advance by moving up an administrative ladder or transferring to larger schools or systems. They also may become superintendent of a school system or president of an educa tional institution. According to a survey of public schools, conducted by the Educa tional Research Service, average salaries for principals and assistant principals in the 1994-95 school year were as follows: Principals: Elementary school.............................................................................$58,600 Junior high/middle school................................................................ 62,300 Senior high school............................................................................ 66,600 Assistant principals: Elementary school.............................................................................$48,500 Junior high/middle school................................................................ 52,900 Senior high school............................................................................ 55,600 In 1994-95, according to the College and University Personnel Association, median annual salaries for selected administrators in higher education were as follows: Academic deans: Medicine..........................................................................................$199,500 Law................................................................................................ 139,000 Engineering.................................................................................... 100,900 Arts and sciences............................................................................ 79,200 Business........................................................................................ 78,600 Education....................................................................................... 77,700 Social sciences............................................................................... 58,600 Mathematics................................................................................... 56,900 Student services directors: Job Outlook Substantial competition is expected for prestigious jobs as educa tion administrators. Many teachers and other staff meet the educa tion and experience requirements for these jobs, and seek promotion. However, the number of openings is relatively small; only the most highly qualified are selected. Candidates who have the most formal education and who are willing to relocate should have the best job prospects. Employment of education administrators is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Most job openings, particularly for principals and assistant principals, are likely to result from the need to replace administrators who retire. Additional openings will be created by workers who transfer to other occupations. Employment of education administrators will grow as more services are provided to students; as efforts to improve the quality of education continue; and as institutions comply with government regulations. As school enrollments increase, job opportunities for assistant principals will grow. Rather than opening new schools, many existing school populations will grow, spurring demand for assistant principals to help with the increased workload. The number of education administrators employed depends largely on State and local expenditures for education. Budgetary constraints could result in fewer administrators than anticipated; pressures to increase spending to improve the quality of education could result in more. Earnings Salaries of education administrators vary according to position, level of responsibility and experience, and the size and location of the institution. Generally, principals employed in public schools earn higher salaries than those in private schools. Based on a salary survey conducted by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, master's degree candidates in education administration received starting salary offers averaging $31,600 a year in 1995; doctoral degree candidates in education administration, $58,600. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Admissions and registrar..................................................................$50,600 Student financial aid........................................................................ 43,400 Student activities.............................................................................. 33,400 Related Occupations Education administrators apply organizational and leadership skills to provide services to individuals. Workers in related occupations include health services administrators, social service agency adminis trators, recreation and park managers, museum directors, library directors, and professional and membership organization executives. Since principals and assistant principals generally have extensive teaching experience, their backgrounds are similar to those of teach ers and many school counselors. Sources of Additional Information For information on elementary and secondary school principals, assistant principals, and central office administrators, contact: •"American Federation of School Administrators, 1729 21st St. NW., Wash ington, DC 20009. •"American Association of School Administrators, 1801 North Moore St„ Arlington, VA 22209 For information on elementary school principals and assistant principals, contact: •"The National Association of Elementary School Principals, 1615 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314-3483. For information on secondary school principals and assitant principals, contact: •"The National Association of Secondary School Principals, 1904 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091. For information on college student affairs administrators, contact: •"National Association of Student Personnel Administrators, 1875 Connecti cut Ave. NW., Suite 418, Washington, DC 20009-5728. For information on collegiate registrars and admissions officers, contact: •"American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers, One Dupont Circle NW., Suite 330, Washington, DC 20036-1171. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 37 Employment Interviewers (D.O.T. 166.267-010) Nature of the Work Whether you are looking for a job or trying to fill one, you could find yourself turning to an employment interviewer for help. Sometimes called personnel consultants, human resources coordinators, person nel development specialists, or employment brokers, employment interviewers help jobseekers find employment and help employers find qualified staff. Working largely in private personnel supply firms or State em ployment security offices (also known as job or employment service centers), employment interviewers act as brokers, putting together the best combination of applicant and job. To accomplish this, they obtain information from employers as well as jobseekers. Being a private industry employment interviewer is being a salesperson. Counselors pool together a group of qualified applicants and try to sell them to many different companies. Often a consultant will call a company that has never been a client (cold-calling) with the aim of filling their employment needs. Employers generally pay private (but not public) agencies to recruit workers. The employer places a "job order" with the agency describing the opening and listing requirements such as education, licenses or credentials, and experience. Employment interviewers often contact the employer to determine their exact personnel needs. Jobseekers are asked to fill out forms or present resumes that detail their education, experience, and other qualifications. They may be interviewed or tested and have their background, references, and credentials checked. The employment interviewer then reviews the job requirements and the jobseeker qualifications to determine the best possible match of position and employee. Although computers are increasingly used to keep records and match employers with jobseekers, personal contact with an employment interviewer re mains an essential part of an applicant's job search. Maintaining good relations with employers is an important part of the employment interviewer's job because this helps assure a steady flow of job orders. Being prepared to fill an opening quickly with a qualified applicant impresses employers most and keeps them as clients. Besides helping firms fill job openings, employment interviewers help individuals find jobs. The services they provide depend upon the company or type of agency they work for and the clientele it serves. Employment interviewers in personnel supply firms who place permanent employees are generally called counselors. They usually place job applicants who have the right qualifications but lack knowledge of the job market for their desired position. Counselors in these firms offer tips on personal appearance, suggestions on present ing a positive image of oneself, background on the company with which an interview is scheduled, and recommendations about inter viewing techniques. Many firms specialize in placing applicants in particular kinds of jobs, for example secretarial, word processing, computer programming and computer systems analysis, engineering, accounting, law, or health. Counselors in such firms usually have 3 to 5 years of experience in the field into which they are placing applicants. Some employment interviewers work in temporary help services companies. These companies send out their own employees to firms that need temporary help. Employment interviewers take job orders from client firms and match their requests against a list of available workers. Employment interviewers select the best qualified workers available and assign them to the firms requiring assistance. Some times employees placed with companies as temporaries are later hired as permanent employees. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Traditionally, firms that placed permanent employees usually dealt with highly skilled applicants, such as lawyers or accountants, and those placing temporary employees dealt with less skilled work ers, such as secretaries or data entry operators. However, temporary help services increasingly place workers with a wide range of educa tional backgrounds and work experience; businesses are turning to temporary employees to fill all types of positions to reduce costs of pay and benefits associated with hiring permanent employees. Regular evaluation of employee job skills is an important part of the job for those interviewers working in temporary help services companies. Initially, interviewers evaluate or test new employees' skills to determine their abilities and weaknesses. The results, which are kept on file, are referred to when filling job orders. In some cases, the temporary help company will train employees to improve their skills. Periodically, the interviewer may reevaluate or retest employees to identify any new skills they may have developed. The duties of employment interviewers in job service centers differ somewhat because applicants may lack marketable skills. In these centers, jobseekers present resumes and fill out forms that ask about educational attainment, job history, skills, awards, certificates, and licenses. An employment interviewer reviews these forms and asks the applicant about the type of job sought and salary range desired. Applicants sometimes have exaggerated expectations. Employment interviewers must be tactful, but persuasive, if an applicant's job or salary requests are unreasonable. Applicants may need help identifying the kind of work for which they are best suited. The employment interviewer evaluates the applicant's qualifications and either chooses an appropriate occupa tion or class of occupations, or refers the applicant for vocational testing. After identifying an appropriate job type, the employment inter viewer searches the file of job orders seeking a possible job match, and refers the applicant to the employer if a match is found. If no match is found, the interviewer shows the applicant how to use listings of available jobs. Some applicants are hindered by problems such as poor English language skills, no high school diploma, a history of drug or alcohol dependency, or a prison record. The amount and nature of special help for such applicants vary from State to State. In some States, it is the employment interviewer's responsibility to counsel hard-to-place applicants and refer them elsewhere for literacy or language instruc tion, vocational training, transportation assistance, child care, and other services. In other States, specially trained counselors perform this task. Rapid expansion of temporary help firms will spur growth in the number of employment interviewers. 38 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Working Conditions Employment interviewers usually work in comfortable, well-lighted offices, often using a computer to match information about employ ers and jobseekers. Some interviewers, however, may spend much of their time out of the office interviewing. The work can prove hectic, especially in temporary help service companies which supply clients with immediate help for short periods of time. Some overtime may be required, and temporary workers may need their own transporta tion to make employer visits. The private placement industry is competitive, so counselors feel pressed to give their client companies the best service. Employment Employment interviewers held about 77,000 jobs in 1994. About 65 percent worked in the private sector for personnel supply services, generally for employment placement firms or temporary help serv ices companies. Another 21 percent worked for State or local gov ernment. Others were employed by organizations that provide various services, such as job training and vocational rehabilitation. Employees of career consulting or outplacement firms are not included in these estimates. Workers in these firms help clients market themselves; they do not act as job brokers, nor do they match individuals with particular vacancies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although most public and private agencies prefer to hire college graduates for interviewer jobs, a degree is not always necessary. Hiring requirements in the private sector reflect a firm's management approach as well as the placements in which its interviewers special ize. Those that place highly trained individuals such as accountants, lawyers, engineers, physicians, or managers generally have some training or experience in the field in which they are placing workers. Thus, a bachelor's, master's, or even a doctoral degree may be a prerequisite for some interviewers. Even with the right education, however, sales ability is still required to succeed in the private sector. Educational requirements play a lesser role for interviewers placing secretaries, word processing operators, and other clerical personnel. In these positions, qualities such as energy level, tele phone voice, and sales ability take precedence over educational attainment. Entry-level employment interviewer positions in the public sector are generally filled by college graduates, even though the positions do not always require a bachelor's degree. Some States allow substi tution of suitable work experience for college education. Suitable work experience is generally defined as public contact work or time spent at other jobs (including clerical jobs) in a job service office. In States that permit employment interviewers to engage in counseling, course work in counseling may be required. Most States and many large city and county governments use some form of merit system for hiring interviewers. Applicants may take a written exam, undergo a preliminary interview, or submit records of their education and experience for evaluation. Those who meet the standards are placed on a list from which the top-ranked candidates are selected for later interviews and possible hiring. Other desirable qualifications for employment interviewers include good communications skills, a desire to help people, office skills, and adaptability. A friendly, confidence-winning manner is an asset because personal interaction plays a large role in this occupa tion. Increasingly, employment interviewers use computers as a tool; thus, basic knowledge of computers is helpful. Advancement as an employment interviewer in the public sector is often based on a system providing regular promotions and salary increases for those meeting established standards. Advancement to supervisory positions is highly competitive. In personnel supply firms, advancement often depends on one's success in placing work ers and generally takes the form of greater responsibility and higher income. Successful individuals may form their own businesses. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment in this occupation is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The over whelming majority of new jobs will be with temporary help or per sonnel supply firms. Job growth is not anticipated in State job service offices because of budgetary problems and the increasing use of computerized job matching and information systems. Some addi tional job openings will result from the need to replace interviewers whose performance does not meet their employer's requirements for placing job applicants. Other openings will stem from the need to replace experienced interviewers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Rapid expansion of firms supplying temporary help will be re sponsible for much of the growth in this occupation. Businesses of all types are turning to temporary help services companies for addi tional workers during busy periods, for handling short-term assign ments or one-time projects, for launching new programs, and to reduce costs of pay and benefits associated with hiring permanent employees. Expansion of the personnel supply industry, in general, will also spur job growth. Job orders will increase as the economy expands and new businesses are formed; this is expected to heighten demand for employment interviewers. Firms that lack the time or resources to develop their own screening procedures will likely turn to person nel firms. Employment opportunities should be better in private placement firms than in State job service centers. Entry to this occupation is relatively easy for college graduates, or people who have had some college courses, except in those positions specializing in placement of workers with highly specialized training, such as lawyers, doctors, and engineers. Employment interviewers who place permanent workers may lose their jobs during recessions because employers reduce or eliminate hiring for permanent positions during downturns in the economy. Also, during periods of high unemployment, employers have fewer problems finding the workers they need, so they turn less often to employment agencies for help. However, during these times the need for the services of employment interviewers who place tempo rary employees may increase. Employers are increasingly turning to temporary services because temporary employees, who generally do not receive typical benefits such as health or life insurance, are less expensive than permanent employees and are more flexible in terms of hours and working conditions. Those who place permanent or temporary personnel are more susceptible to layoffs than State job service employment interviewers. Earnings Earnings in private firms vary, in part, because the basis for compen sation varies. Workers in personnel supply firms tend to be paid on a commission basis; those in temporary help service companies receive a salary. When workers are paid on a commission basis (or salary plus commission), total earnings depend on how much business they bring in. This is usually based on the type as well as the number of place ments. Those who place more highly skilled or hard-to-find employ ees earn more. An interviewer or counselor working strictly on a commission basis often makes around 30 percent of what he or she bills the client, although this varies widely from firm to firm. Some work on a salary-plus-commission basis because they fill difficult or highly specialized positions requiring long periods of search. The salary, usually small by normal standards, guarantees these indi viduals security through slow times. The commission provides the incentive and opportunity for higher earnings. Some personnel supply firms employ new workers for a 2- to 3month probationary period during which they draw a regular salary. This gives new workers time to develop their skills and acquire some clients. At the end of the probationary period, the new employees are Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 39 evaluated, and they are either let go or switched to a commission basis. Related Occupations Employment interviewers serve as intermediaries for jobseekers and employers. Workers in several other occupations do similar jobs. Personnel officers screen and help hire new employees, but they concern themselves mainly with the hiring needs of the firm; they never represent individual jobseekers. Personnel officers may also have additional duties in areas such as payroll or benefits management. Career counselors help students and alumni find jobs, but they primarily emphasize career counseling and decision making, not placement. Counselors in community organizations and vocational rehabili tation facilities help clients find jobs, but they also assist with drug or alcohol dependencies, housing, transportation, child care, and other problems that stand in the way of finding and keeping a job. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as an employment interviewer/counselor, contact: ••National Association of Personnel Services, 3133 Mt. Vernon Ave., Alex andria, VA 22305. •"National Association of Temporary Services, 119 S. Saint Asaph St., Alexandria, VA 22314. For information on a career as an employment interviewer in State employment security offices, contact offices of the State gov ernment for which you are interested in working. Engineering, Science, and Data Processing Managers (D.O.T. 003.167-034 and -070; 005.167-010 and -022; 007.167-014; 008.167- 010; 010.161-010, -014, and .167-018; 011.161-010; 012.167-058 and -062; 018.167-022; 019.167-014; 022.161-010; 024.167-010; 029.167- 014; 162.117-030; 169.167-030 and -082; and 189.117-014) Nature of the Work Engineering, science, and data processing managers plan, coordinate, and direct research, development, design, production, and computer related activities. They supervise a staff which may include engi neers, scientists, technicians, computer specialists, and data process ing workers, along with support personnel. Engineering, science, and data processing managers determine scientific and technical goals within broad outlines provided by top management. These goals may include the redesign of an industrial machine, improvements in manufacturing processes, the develop ment of a large computer program, or advances in basic scientific research. Managers make detailed plans for the accomplishment of these goals—for example, they may develop the overall concepts of new products or identify problems standing in the way of project completion. They forecast costs and equipment and personnel needs for projects and programs. They hire and assign scientists, engineers, technicians, computer specialists, data processing workers, and support personnel to carry out specific parts of the projects, supervise their work, and review their designs, programs, and reports. Managers coordinate the activities of their unit with other units or organizations. They confer with higher levels of management; with financial, industrial production, marketing, and other managers; and with contractors and equipment suppliers. They also establish working and administrative procedures and policies. Engineering managers direct and coordinate production, opera tions, quality assurance, testing, or maintenance in industrial plants; https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis or plan and coordinate the design and development of machinery, products, systems, and processes. Many are plant engineers, who direct and coordinate the maintenance, operation, design, and instal lation of equipment and machinery in industrial plants. Others manage research and development activities that produce new prod ucts and processes or improve existing ones. Natural science managers oversee activities in agricultural sci ence, chemistry, biology, geology, meteorology, or physics. They manage research and development projects and direct and coordinate testing, quality control, and production activities in research institutes and industrial plants. Electronic data processing managers direct, plan, and coordinate data processing activities. Top level managers direct all computerrelated activities in an organization. Others manage computer opera tions, software development, or data bases. They analyze the data processing requirements of their organization and assign, schedule, and review the work of systems analysts, computer pro grammers, and computer operators. They determine computer hardware requirements, evaluate equipment options, and make purchasing decisions. Some engineering, science, and data processing managers head a section of perhaps 3 to 10 or more scientists, engineers, or computer professionals. Above them are heads of divisions composed of a number of sections, with as many as 15 to 50 scientists or engineers. A few are directors of large laboratories or directors of research. Working Conditions Engineering, science, and data processing managers spend most of their time in an office. Some managers, however, may also work in laboratories or industrial plants, where they normally are exposed to the same conditions as research scientists and may occasionally be exposed to the same conditions as production workers. Most work at least 40 hours a week and may work much longer on occasion to meet project deadlines. Some may experience considerable pressure to meet technical or scientific goals within a short time or within a tight budget. Employment Engineering, science, and data processing managers held about 337,000 jobs in 1994. Although these managers are found in almost all industries, nearly two-fifths are employed in manufacturing, especially in the industrial machinery and equipment, electrical and electronic equipment, instruments, transportation equipment, and chemicals industries. However, the largest single industry employing these managers was engineering and architectural services, where Managers of research and development activities are often scientists directly involved in research. 40 Occuptional Outlook Handbook almost 1 in 10 worked in 1994. Others work for management and computer and data processing services companies, government, colleges and universities, and nonprofit research organizations. The majority are most likely engineering managers, often managing industrial research, development, and design projects. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Experience as an engineer, mathematician, natural scientist, or computer professional is the usual requirement for becoming an engineering, science, or data processing manager. Consequently, educational requirements are similar to those for scientists, engineers, and data processing professionals. Engineering managers start as engineers. A bachelor's degree in engineering from an accredited engineering program is acceptable for beginning engineering jobs, but many engineers increase their chances for promotion to manager by obtaining a master's degree in engineering or business administration. A degree in business ad ministration or engineering management is especially useful for becoming a general manager. Natural science managers usually start as a chemist, physicist, biologist, or other natural scientist. Most natural scientists engaged in basic research have a Ph.D. degree. Some in applied research and other activities may have lesser degrees. First-level science manag ers are usually specialists in the work they supervise. For example, the manager of a group of physicists doing optical research is almost always a physicist who is an expert in optics. Most data processing managers have been systems analysts, although some may have experience as programmers, operators, or in other computer specialties. There is no universally accepted way of preparing for a job as a systems analyst. Many have degrees in computer or information science, computer information systems, or data processing and have experience as computer programmers. A bachelor's degree is usually required and a graduate degree often is preferred. However, many data processing managers have associate degrees. A typical career advancement progression in a large organi zation would be from programmer to programmer/analyst, to systems analyst, and then to project leader or senior analyst. The first real managerial position might be as project manager, programming supervisor, systems supervisor, or software manager. In addition to educational requirements, scientists, engineers, or computer specialists generally must have demonstrated above average technical skills to be considered for promotion to manager. Superiors also look for leadership and communication skills, as well as managerial attributes such as the ability to make rational deci sions, to manage time well, to organize and coordinate work effec tively, to establish good working and personal relationships, and to motivate others. Also, a successful manager must have the desire to manage. Many scientists, engineers, and computer specialists want to be promoted but actually prefer doing technical work. Some scientists and engineers become managers in marketing, personnel, purchasing, or other areas or become general managers. Job Outlook Opportunities for those who wish to become engineering, science, and data processing managers should be closely related to the growth of the occupations they supervise and the industries in which they are found. (See the accompanying chart and the statements on natural scientists, engineers, computer programmers, and computer scientists and systems analysts elsewhere in the Handbook.) Because many engineers, natural scientists, and computer specialists are eligible for management and seek promotion, there can be substantial competi tion for these openings. Overall employment of engineering and science managers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Underlying much of the growth of managers in science and engineering are competitive pressures and advancing technologies which force companies to update and improve products more frequently. Research and investment in plants and equipment https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Projected growth of engineering, natural sciences, and data processing managers over the period 1994-2005 should be closely related to the growth of the occupations they manage. Percent change Engineers Architects and surveyors Life scientists Computer, Physical mathematical, scientists and operations research specialists Occupation group to expand output of goods and services and to raise productivity also will add to employment requirements for science and engineering managers involved in research and development, design, and the operation and maintenance of production facilities. Many of the industries which employ engineers and scientists derive a large portion of their business from defense contracts. Because defense expenditures are being reduced, employment has declined and job outlook for managers is not as favorable in these industries compared with less defense-oriented industries. Employment of data processing managers will increase rapidly due to the fast paced expansion of the computer and data processing services industry and the increased employment of computer systems analysts. Large computer centers are consolidating or closing as small computers become more powerful, resulting in fewer oppor tunities for data processing managers at these centers. However, as the economy expands and as advances in technology lead to broader applications for computers, opportunities should increase and em ployment growth should be brisk. Earnings Earnings for engineering, science, and data processing managers vary by specialty and level of management. Science and engineering managers had average salaries that ranged from $44,000 to well over $100,000 for the most senior managers in large organizations, ac cording to the limited data available. Data processing managers had salaries that ranged from $35,000 to $80,000. Managers often earn about 15 to 25 percent more than those they directly supervise, although there are cases where some employees are paid more than the manager who supervises them, especially in research. According to a survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas, lower-level engineering managers had median annual earnings of $78,100 in 1993, with the middle half earning between $71,700 and $84,800. The highest-level engineering managers had median annual earnings of $105,700 with the middle half earning between $96,300 and $118,200. Beginning systems analysts managers had median annual earnings of $52,300, with the middle half earning between Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 41 $51,400 and $61,800. The most senior systems analysts managers had median annual earnings of $96,500, with the middle half earning between $88,300 and $105,300. In addition, engineering, science, and data processing managers, especially those at higher levels, often are provided more benefits (e.g., expense accounts, stock option plans, and bonuses) than nonmanagerial workers in their organizations. Related Occupations The work of engineering, science, and data processing managers is closely related to that of engineers, natural scientists, computer personnel, and mathematicians. It is also related to the work of other managers, especially general managers and top executives. Sources of Additional Information For information about a career as an engineering, science, or data processing manager, contact the sources of additional information on engineers, natural scientists, and systems analysts that are listed in statements on these occupations elsewhere in the Handbook. Financial Managers (D.O.T. 160.167-058; 161.117-018; 169.167-086; 186.117-066,-070,-078, -086; .167-054, -086; 189.117-038) Nature of the Work Practically every firm—whether in manufacturing, communications, finance, education, or health care—has one or more financial manag ers. Some of them are treasurers, controllers, credit managers, or cash managers; they prepare the financial reports required by the firm to conduct its operations and to ensure that the firm satisfies tax and regulatory requirements. Financial managers also oversee the flow of cash and financial instruments, monitor the extension of credit, assess the risk of transactions, raise capital, analyze investments, develop information to assess the present and future financial status of the firm, and communicate with stock holders and other investors. In small firms, chief financial officers usually handle all financial management functions. However, in large firms, these officers oversee financial management departments and help top managers develop financial and economic policy and establish procedures, delegate authority, and oversee the implementation of these policies. Highly trained and experienced financial managers head each financial department. Controllers direct the preparation of all finan cial reports—income statements, balance sheets, and special reports, such as depreciation schedules. They oversee the accounting, audit, or budget departments. Cash and credit managers monitor and control the flow of cash receipts and disbursements to meet the business and investment needs of the firm. For example, cash flow projections are needed to determine whether loans must be obtained to meet cash requirements, or whether surplus cash may be invested in interest-bearing instruments. Risk and insurance managers over see programs to minimize risks and losses that may arise from finan cial transactions and business operations undertaken by the institution. Credit operations managers establish credit rating crite ria, determine credit ceilings, and monitor their institution's extension of credit. Reserve officers review their institution's financial state ments and direct the purchase and sale of bonds and other securities to maintain the asset-liability ratio required by law. User representa tives in international accounting develop integrated international financial and accounting systems for the banking transactions of multinational organizations. A working knowledge of the financial systems of foreign countries is essential. Financial institutions—such as banks, savings and loan associa tions, credit unions, personal credit institutions, and finance compa nies — may serve as depositories for cash and financial instruments https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The need for skilled financial management is increasing. and offer loans, investment counseling, consumer credit, trust man agement, and other financial services. Some specialize in specific financial services. Financial managers in financial institutions include vice presidents—who may head one or more departments— bank branch managers, savings and loan association managers, consumer credit managers, and credit union managers. These man agers make decisions in accordance with policy set by the institu tion's board of directors and Federal and State laws and regulations. Due to changing regulations and increased government scrutiny, financial managers in financial institutions must place greater em phasis on accurate reporting of financial data. They must have detailed knowledge of industries allied to banking—such as insur ance, real estate, and securities—and a broad knowledge of business and industrial activities. With growing domestic and foreign com petition, knowledge of an expanding and increasingly complex variety of financial services is becoming a necessity for financial managers in financial institutions and other corporations. Besides supervising financial services, financial managers in financial insti tutions may advise individuals and businesses on financial planning. Working Conditions Financial managers are provided with comfortable offices, often close to top managers and to departments which develop the financial data these managers need. Financial managers typically work 40 hours a week, but many work longer hours. Attendance at meetings of financial and economic associations and similar activities is often required. In very large corporations, some traveling to subsidiary firms and to customer accounts may be necessary. Employment Financial managers held about 768,000 jobs in 1994. Although these managers are found in virtually every industry, nearly one-third were employed by financial institutions—banks, savings institutions, finance companies, credit unions, insurance companies, securities dealers, and real estate firms, for example. Another third were employed by services industries, including business, health, social, and management services. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor's degree in accounting or finance, or in business admini stration with an emphasis on accounting or finance, is the minimum academic preparation for financial managers. However, a Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree increasingly is valued by employers. Many financial management positions are filled by promoting experienced, technically skilled professional personnel— for example, accountants, budget analysts, credit analysts, insurance 42 Occuptional Outlook Handbook analysts, loan officers, and securities analysts—or accounting or related department supervisors in large institutions. Due to the growing complexity of global trade, shifting Federal and State laws and regulations, and a proliferation of new, complex financial instruments, continuing education is becoming vital for financial mangers. Firms often provide opportunities for workers to broaden their knowledge and skills and encourage employees to take graduate courses at colleges and universities or attend conferences sponsored by the company. In addition, financial management, banking, and credit union associations, often in cooperation with colleges and universities, sponsor numerous national or local training programs. Persons enrolled prepare extensively at home, then attend sessions on subjects such as accounting management, budget man agement, corporate cash management, financial analysis, interna tional banking, and data processing and management information systems. Many firms pay all or part of the costs for those who suc cessfully complete courses. Although experience, ability, and lead ership are emphasized for promotion, advancement may be accelerated by this type of special study. In some cases, financial managers may also broaden their skills and exhibit their competency in specialized fields by attaining pro fessional certification. For example, the Association for Investment Management and Research confers the Chartered Financial Analyst designation to investment professionals who have a bachelor's de gree, pass three test levels, and have 3 or more years of experience in the field. The National Association of Credit Management adminis ters a three-part certification program for business credit profession als. Through a combination of experience and examinations, these financial managers pass through the level of Credit Business Associ ate, to Credit Business Fellow, to Certified Credit Executive. The Treasury Management Association confers the Certified Cash Man ager designation to those who pass an examination and have 2 years of relevant experience. Persons interested in becoming financial managers should enjoy working independently, dealing with people, and analyzing detailed account information. The ability to communicate effectively, both orally and in writing, is also important. They also need tact, good judgment, and the ability to establish effective personal relationships to oversee staff. Financial analysis and management have been revolutionized by technological improvements in personal computers and data process ing equipment. Knowledge of their applications is vital to upgrade managerial skills and to enhance advancement opportunities. Because financial management is critical for efficient business operations, well-trained, experienced financial managers who display a strong grasp of the operations of various departments within their organization are prime candidates for promotion to top management positions. Some financial managers transfer to closely related posi tions in other industries. Those with extensive experience and access to sufficient capital may head their own consulting firms. changing Federal and State laws and regulations. Many firms have reduced the ranks of middle managers in an effort to be more effi cient and competitive, but much of the restructuring and consolida tion is complete. The banking industry, on the other hand, is still undergoing mergers and consolidation, and may eliminate some financial management positions as a result. Earnings The median annual salary of financial managers was $39,700 in 1994. The lowest 10 percent earned $20,200 or less, while the top 10 percent earned over $77,800. According to a 1995 survey by Robert Half International, a staff ing services firm specializing in accounting and finance, salaries of assistant controllers ranged from $40,000 in the smallest firms to $77,800 in the largest firms; controllers, $46,000 to $134,000; and chief financial officers/treasurers, $60,000 to $295,000. The salary level depends upon the manager's experience and the size and location of the organization, and is likely to be higher in larger organizations and cities. Many financial managers in private industry receive additional compensation in the form of bonuses, which also vary substantially by the size of the firm. Related Occupations Financial managers combine formal education with experience in one or more areas of finance—such as asset management, lending, credit operations, securities investment, or insurance risk and loss control. Workers in other occupations which require similar training and ability include accountants and auditors, budget officers, credit analysts, loan officers, insurance consultants, portfolio managers, pension consultants, real estate advisors, securities analysts, and underwriters. Sources of Additional Information For information about financial management careers in banking and related financial institutions, contact; •"American Bankers Association, Center for Banking Information, 1120 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036. For information about financial careers in business credit manage ment, the Certified Credit Executive program, and institutions offer ing graduate courses in credit and financial management, contact: •"National Association of Credit Management (NACM), Credit Research Foundation, 8815 Centre Park Dr., Columbia, MD 21045-2117. For information about careers in corporate cash management and the Certified Cash Manager program, contact: •"Treasury Management Association, 7315 Wisconsin Ave., Bethesda, MD 20814. For information about the Chartered Financial Analyst program, contact: Job Outlook Like other managerial occupations, the number of applicants for financial management positions is expected to exceed the number of job openings, resulting in competition for jobs. Many opportunities will exist for the most skilled, adaptable, and knowledgeable finan cial managers. Those who keep abreast of the latest financial instru ments and changing regulations, and those familiar with a range of financial services—for example, banking, business credit, credit unions, insurance, real estate, and securities—and with data process ing and management information systems will enjoy the best em ployment opportunities. Developing expertise in a rapidly growing industry, such as health care, also may prove helpful. Employment of financial managers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The need for skilled financial management will increase due to the demands of global trade, the proliferation of complex financial instruments, and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis •"Association for Investment Management and Research, 5 Boar's Head Lane, P.O. Box 3668, Charlottesville, VA 22903. For information about financial management careers in the health care industry, contact: •"Healthcare Financial Management Association, Two Westbrook Corporate Center, Suite 700, Westchester, IL 60154. State bankers' associations can furnish specific information about job opportunities in their respective States, or write directly to a particular bank to inquire about job openings. For the names and addresses of banks and savings and related institutions, as well as the names of their principal officers, consult the following directories. •"The American Financial Directory (Norcross, Ga„ McFadden Business Publications). •"The U.S. Savings and Loan Directory (Chicago, Rand McNally & Co.). •"Rand McNally Credit Union Directory (Chicago, Rand McNally & Co.). •"Polk's World Bank Directory (Nashville, R.L. Polk & Co.). Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 43 INI' m Funeral Directors (D.O.T. 187.167-030) Nature of the Work Since the earliest of times, most peoples have held funeral ceremo nies. The dead have ritually been interred in pyramids, cremated on burning pyres, and sunk beneath the oceans' waves. Even today, funeral practices and rites vary greatly among various cultures and religions. Among the many diverse groups in the United States, funeral practices generally share some common elements: Removal of the remains of the deceased to a mortuary, preparation of the remains, performance of a ceremony that honors the deceased and addresses the spiritual needs of the living as well as the dead, and the burial or destruction of the remains. To unburden themselves of arranging and directing these tasks, grieving families turn to funeral directors. Funeral directors are also called morticians or undertakers. Although this career does not appeal to everyone, the men and women who work as funeral directors take great pride in the fact that they provide efficient and appropriate services that give comfort to their customers. Funeral directors interview the family to learn what they desire with regard to the nature of the funeral, the clergy members or other persons who will officiate, and the final disposition of the remains; sometimes the deceased leave detailed instructions for their own funerals. Together with the family, directors establish the location, dates, and times of wakes, memorial services, and burials. They also send a hearse to carry the body to the funeral home or mortuary. Burial in a casket is the most common method of disposing of remains in this country, although entombments also occur. Crema tion, which is the burning of a body in a special furnace, is increas ingly selected. Even when remains are cremated, the ashes are often placed in an urn and buried. Funeral directors usually stock a selec tion of caskets and urns for families to purchase. Directors arrange the details and handle the logistics of funerals. They prepare obituary notices and have them placed in newspapers, arrange for pallbearers and clergy, schedule with the cemetery the opening and closing of a grave, decorate and prepare the sites of all services, and provide for the transportation of the remains, mourners, and flowers between sites. They also direct preparation and shipment of remains for out-of-State burial. Funeral services may take place in the home, a house of worship, or the funeral home and at the grave site or crematory. Services may be nonreligious, but often they reflect the religion of the family, so funeral directors must be familiar with the funeral and burial customs of many faiths, ethnic groups, and fraternal organizations. For example, members of some religions seldom have the bodies of the deceased embalmed or cremated. Most funeral directors are also trained, licensed, and practicing embalmers. Embalming is a sanitary, cosmetic, and preservative process through which the body is prepared for interment. If more than 24 hours or so elapses between death and interment, State laws usually require that remains be refrigerated or embalmed. The embalmer washes the body with germicidal soap and replaces the blood with embalming fluid to preserve the body. Embalmers may reshape and reconstruct disfigured or maimed bodies using materials, such as clay, cotton, plaster of Paris, and wax. They also may apply cosmetics to provide a natural appearance, and then dress the body and place it in a casket. Embalmers maintain records such as em balming reports, and itemized lists of clothing or valuables delivered with the body. In large funeral homes, an embalming staff of two or more embalmers, plus several apprentices, may be employed. Funeral directors also handle the paper work involved with the person's death. They may help family members apply for veterans’ burial benefits, notify the Social Security Administration of the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis *- t*4 Funeral directors interview the family to learn what type offuneral they desire. death, apply on behalf of survivors for the transfer of any pensions, insurance policies, or annuities, and submit papers to State authori ties so that a formal certificate of death may be issued and copies distributed to heirs. Funeral directors are also responsible for the success and the profitability of their businesses. Directors keep records on expenses, purchases, and services rendered; prepare and send invoices for services; prepare and submit reports for unemployment insurance; prepare Federal, State, and local tax forms; and prepare itemized bills for customers. Directors also strive to foster a cooperative spirit and friendly attitude among employees and a compassionate de meanor toward the families. A growing number of funeral directors are also involved in helping individuals adapt to changes in their lives following a death through post-death counseling and support group activities. Most funeral homes have a chapel, one or more viewing rooms, a casket-selection room, and a preparation room. Some also have a crematory on the premises. Equipment may include a hearse, a flower car, limousines, and sometimes an ambulance. Working Conditions Funeral directors often work long, irregular hours. Shift work is sometimes necessary because funeral home hours include evenings and weekends. In smaller funeral homes, working hours vary, but in larger homes employees generally work 8 hours a day, 5 or 6 days a week. Funeral directors occasionally come into contact with the remains of persons who had contagious diseases, but the possibility of infec tion is remote if strict health regulations are followed. To show proper respect and consideration for the families and the dead, funeral directors must dress appropriately. The profession usually requires short, neat hair cuts and trim beards if any, for men. Suits, ties, and dresses are customary for a conservative look. Employment Funeral directors held about 26,000 jobs in 1994. About 1 in 8 were self-employed. Nearly all worked in the funeral service and crema tory industry, but a few worked for the Federal Government. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Funeral directors must be licensed in all but one State, Colorado. Licensing laws vary from State to State, but most require applicants to be 21 years old, have a high school diploma, complete some college training in mortuary science, and serve an apprenticeship. After passing a State board licensing examination, new funeral directors may join the staff of a funeral home. Embalmers are re 44 Occuptional Outlook Handbook quired to be licensed in all States, and some States issue a single license for both funeral directors and embalmers. In States that have separate licensing and apprenticeship requirements for the two positions, most people in the field obtain both licenses. Persons interested in a career as a funeral director should contact their state board for specific state requirements. College programs in mortuary science usually last from 1 to 4 years, depending on the school. There were 42 mortuary science programs accredited by the American Board of Funeral Service Education in 1994. One-year mortuary science programs offered by some -vocational schools emphasize basic subjects such as anatomy, physiology, embalming techniques, and restorative art. Two-year programs are offered by a small number of community and junior colleges, and a few colleges and universities offer both 2- and 4-year programs. Mortuary science programs include courses in business management, accounting, and use of computers in funeral home management and client services. They also include courses in the social sciences and legal, ethical, and regulatory subjects, such as psychology, grief counseling, oral and written communication, funeral service law, business law, and ethics. The National Foundation of Funeral Service offers a continuing education program designed for active practitioners in the field. It is a 3-week program in communications, counseling, and management. Over 25 States have continuing education requirements that funeral directors must meet before a license can be renewed. Apprenticeships must be completed under an experienced and licensed funeral director or embalmer. Depending on State regula tions, apprenticeships last from 1 to 2 years and may be served before, during, or after mortuary school. They provide practical experience in all facets of the funeral service from embalming to transporting remains. State board licensing examinations vary, but they usually con sist of written and oral parts and include a demonstration of practical skills. Persons who want to work in another State may have to pass the examination for that State, although many States will grant licenses to funeral directors from another State without further examination. High school students can start preparing for a career as a funeral director by taking courses in biology and chemistry and participating public speaking or debating clubs. Part-time or summer jobs in funeral homes consist mostly of maintenance and clean-up tasks, such as washing and polishing limousines and hearses, but these tasks can help students become familiar with the operation of funeral homes. Important personal traits for funeral directors are composure, tact, and the ability to communicate easily with the public. They also should have the desire and ability to comfort people in their time of sorrow. Advancement opportunities are best in large funeral homes at which directors may earn promotions to higher paying positions such as branch manager or general manager. Some directors eventually acquire enough money and experience to establish their own funeral businesses. Job Outlook Employment opportunities for funeral directors are expected to be excellent, because the number of graduates in mortuary science is likely to continue to be less than the number of job openings in the field. Employment of funeral directors is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. De mand for funeral services will rise as the population grows, and with it the number of deaths. The population is projected to become older because the number of persons age 55 and over is expected to in crease significantly faster than the population as a whole. Cremations have been increasing over the years. This trend may lessen the demand for embalming somewhat, because embalming is not required before cremation. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings Salaries of funeral directors depend on the size of the establishment and the number of services performed. A survey conducted by the National Funeral Directors Association found that the average salary, including bonus, for funeral directors who were owner-managers was $62,506 in 1994; mid-level managers averaged $44,062. Related Occupations The job of a funeral director requires tact, discretion, and compassion when dealing with grieving people. Others who need these qualities include members of the clergy, social workers, psychologists, psy chiatrists, and other health care professionals. Sources of Additional Information For information on the funeral service profession and funeral service statistics, write to: •"The National Funeral Directors Association, 11121 West Oklahoma Ave., Milwaukee, WI 53227. For information about college programs in mortuary science, scholarships, and funeral service as a career, contact: ••The American Board of Funeral Service Education, P.O. Box 1305, Brunswick, ME 04011. For information on continuing education programs in funeral service, contact: ••The National Foundation of Funeral Service, 2250 East Devon Ave., Suite 250, Des Plaines, IL 60018. For information on programs, publications, and statistics on cremations write to: •■The Cremation Association of North America, 401 N. Michigan, Chicago, IL 60611. General Managers and Top Executives (List of D.O.T. codes available upon request. See p. 478.) Nature of the Work Chief executive officer, president, executive vice president,, partner, financial institution president, brokerage office manager, college president, school superintendent, and police chief—all are examples of general managers and top executives who formulate the policies and direct the operations of corporations, nonprofit institutions, and government agencies. (The chief executives who formulate policy in government are discussed in detail in the Handbook statement on government chief executives and legislators.) The fundamental objective of private for-profit companies is to make a profit for their shareholders or owners, or to increase share holder value. Nonprofit organizations and government agencies must effectively implement programs that further their causes or policies within budgetary constraints and shifting public priorities. General managers and top executives work to ensure that their organizations meet these objectives. A corporation's general goals and policies are established by the chief executive officer in collaboration with other top executives, who are overseen by a board of directors. In a large corporation, chief executive officers must frequently meet with other executives of the corporation to ensure that operations are being carried out in accordance with the organization's policies. Although the chief executive officer of a corporation retains overall accountability, a chief operating officer may be delegated the authority to oversee the executives who direct the activities of various departments and are responsible for implementing the organization's policies in these departments on a day-to-day basis. In publicly-held corporations it is the board of directors that is ultimately accountable for the success or failure of the enterprise, and the chief executive officer reports to the Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 45 1994. They are found in every industry, but wholesale and retail trade and services industries employ over 6 out of 10. r’wr" P§ General managers and top executives held over 3 million jobs in 1994. board. In nonprofit corporations, the board of trustees fulfills the same role. The scope of other high level executive's responsibilities depends greatly upon the size of the organization. In large organizations, their duties may be highly specialized. For example, they may over see managers of marketing, sales promotion, purchasing, finance, personnel, training, industrial relations, administrative services, electronic data processing, property management, transportation, or legal services departments. (Some of these and other managerial occupations are discussed elsewhere in this section of the Hand book.) In smaller firms, the chief executive or general manager might be responsible for all or a number of these functions. Middle managers, in turn, direct their individual departments' activities within the framework of the organization's overall plan. With the help of supervisory managers and their staffs, these manag ers oversee and motivate their workers to achieve their departments' goals as rapidly and economically as possible. In smaller organiza tions, such as independent retail stores or small manufacturers, a partner, owner, or general manager may be responsible for all pur chasing, hiring, training, quality control, and other day-to-day su pervisory duties. (See the Handbook statement on retail managers.) Working Conditions General managers in large firms or government agencies are usually provided with offices close to the top executives to whom they report. Top executives are generally provided with spacious offices and secretarial and support staff. Long hours, including evenings and weekends, are the rule for most top executives and general managers, though their schedules may be flexible. Substantial travel is often required of managers and executives, who may travel between national, regional, and local offices or overseas to monitor operations and meet with customers and staff and other executives. Many attend meetings and conferences that are sponsored by associations which provide an opportunity to meet with prospective customers and keep abreast of technological and other developments. In large corporations, frequent job transfers between local offices or subsidiaries are common. With increasing domestic and interna tional competition, general managers and top executives are under intense pressure to attain ever higher profit, production, and market ing goals. Executives in charge of poorly performing companies or departments generally find their jobs in jeopardy. Employment General managers and top executives held over 3 million jobs in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The educational background of managers and top executives varies as widely as the nature of their responsibilities. Many general man agers and top executives have a bachelor's degree or higher in liberal arts or business administration. Their major often is related to the departments they direct—for example, accounting for a manager of finance or computer science for a manager of information systems. Graduate and professional degrees are common. Many managers in administrative, marketing, financial, and manufacturing activities have a master's degree in business administration. Managers in highly technical manufacturing and research activities often have a master's degree in engineering or a doctoral degree in a scientific discipline. A law degree is mandatory for managers of legal depart ments; hospital administrators generally have a master's degree in health services administration or business administration. (For addi tional information, see the Handbook statement on health services managers.) College presidents and school superintendents generally have a doctorate, often in education administration. (See the Hand book statement on education administrators.) On the other hand, in some industries, such as retail trade or transportation, it is fairly com mon for individuals without a college degree to become managers. In the public sector, many managers have liberal arts degrees in public administration or one of the social sciences. Park superinten dents, for example, often have liberal arts degrees, while police chiefs are generally graduates of police academies, and hold degrees in police science or a related field. Since most general manager and top executive positions are filled by promoting experienced, lower level managers, many are promoted from within the organization. Some companies prefer that their top executives have specialized backgrounds and hire individuals who are managers in other organizations. Qualities critical for success include leadership, self-confidence, motivation, decisiveness, flexi bility, the ability to communicate effectively, sound business judg ment, and stamina. Advancement may be accelerated by participation in company training programs to gain a broader knowledge of company policy and operations. Through attendance at national or local training programs sponsored by various industry and trade associations and by continuing education, normally at company expense, managers can become familiar with the latest developments in management techniques and improve their chances of promotion. Every year, thousands of senior managers, who often have experience in a par ticular field, such as accounting, engineering, or science, attend executive development programs to facilitate their promotion from functional specialists to general managers. Participation in interdis ciplinary conferences and seminars can expand knowledge of na tional and international issues influencing the firm and can help develop a network of useful business contacts. General managers and top executives must have highly developed personal skills. An analytical mind able to quickly assess large amounts of information and data is very important, as is the ability to consider and evaluate the interrelationships of numerous factors. General managers and top executives also must be able to communi cate clearly and persuasively with customers, subordinate managers, and others. General managers may advance to top executive positions, such as executive vice president, in their own firm or they may land a corresponding position in another firm. They may even advance to peak corporate positions such as chief operating officer or chief executive officer. Chief executive officers and other top executives often become members of the board of directors of one or more firms. Typically the chief executive is also a director of his or her own firm and often chairs the board of directors. Some general managers and top executives go on to establish their own firms or become independent consultants. 46 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Job Outlook Employment of general managers and top executives is expected to grow about as fast as average for all occupations through the year 2005 as new companies start up and established companies seek managers who can help them maintain a competitive edge in domes tic and world markets. In addition, because this is a large occupa tion, many openings will occur each year as executives transfer to other positions, start their own businesses, or retire. Nonetheless, competition for top managerial jobs will be keen. Many executives who leave their jobs transfer to other executive or managerial posi tions, limiting openings for new entrants. Continued management efforts to downsize and restructure—resulting in layoffs of, mostly, middle managers—will add to an ample supply of competent manag ers seeking positions. Projected employment growth of general managers and top executives varies widely among industries. For example, employ ment growth is expected to be faster than average in all services industries combined, but only about as fast as average in all finance, insurance, and real estate industries combined. Employment of general managers and top executives is projected to decline in manu facturing industries overall. Because of the growing importance of the global market, overseas experience may give a prospective general manager an edge in seeking additional responsibility. Experienced managers whose accomplishments reflect strong leadership qualities and the ability to improve the efficiency or competitive position of an organization will have the best opportuni ties. In an increasingly global economy, certain types of experience, such as international economics, marketing, information systems, or knowledge of several disciplines, will also help. Earnings General managers and top executives are among the highest paid workers in the Nation. However, salary levels vary substantially depending upon the level of managerial responsibility, length of service, and type, size, and location of the firm. At the highest level, chief executive officers (CEOs) of medium and large corporations are extremely well paid. Salaries often are related to the size of the corporation—a top manager in a very large corporation can earn significantly more than a counterpart in a small firm. Total compensation often includes, in addition to salaries, stock options and dividends, and other performance bonuses. Salaries also vary substantially by type and level of responsibili ties and by industry. According to a salary survey by Robert Half International, senior vice presidents/heads of lending in banks with $1 billion or more in assets earned about $200,000 in 1995. Based on a survey sponsored by the Administrative Management Society, the average salary for managers of large plants with more than 500 employees ranged from $70,000 to $108,000 in 1994. In the non profit sector, three quarters of the CEOs make under $81,700, accord ing to a survey by Abbott, Langer, & Associates. Company-paid insurance premiums and physical examinations, the use of executive dining rooms and company cars, and expense allowances are among benefits commonly enjoyed by general man agers and top executives in private industry. CEOs often enjoy company-paid club memberships, a limousine with driver, and other amenities. CEOs of very large corporations may have the use of private aircraft. Related Occupations General managers and top executives plan, organize, direct, control, and coordinate the operations of an organization and its major de partments or programs. The members of the board of directors and supervisory managers are also involved in these activities. Occupa tions in State and local government with similar functions are gover nor, mayor, commissioner, and director. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information For a wide variety of information on general managers and top executives, including educational programs and job listings, contact: ••American Management Association, 135 West 50th St., New York, NY 10020 ••National Management Association, 2210 Arbor Blvd., Dayton, OH 45439. Government Chief Executives and Legislators Nature of the Work Chief executives and legislators at the Federal, State, and local level direct governmental activities and make laws that affect all of us. They are elected or appointed officials who strive to meet the needs of their constituents through effective and efficient government. Chief executives are officials who run governmental bodies that formulate and enforce laws. These officials include the President and Vice President of the United States, State governors and lieuten ant governors, county executives, town and township officials, mayors, and city, county, town, and township managers. All except local government managers are elected by their constituents. Man agers are appointed by the local government council or commission. Government chief executives, like their counterparts in the private sector, have overall responsibility for how their organizations per form. Working in coordination with legislators, they establish goals and then organize programs and form policies to attain them. They appoint heads of departments, such as highway, health, law enforce ment, park and recreation, economic development, education, and finance departments. Through these departmental heads, chief executives oversee the work of the civil servants who carry out programs and enforce laws enacted by the legislative bodies. They prepare budgets, specifying how government resources will be used, and insure that these resources are used properly and programs are carried out as planned. Chief executives meet with legislators and constituents to discuss proposed programs and encourage their support. They also may confer with leaders of other governments to solve mutual problems. Chief executives nominate citizens for boards and commissions that oversee government activities addressing problems such as drug abuse, crime, deteriorating roads, and inadequate public education. They also solicit bids from and select contractors to do work for the government, encourage business investment and economic develop ment in their jurisdictions, and seek Federal or State funds. Chief executives of large jurisdictions rely on a staff of aides and assistants, but those in small ones often do much of the work themselves. City, county, town, and other managers, although appointed officials, may act as chief executives. Legislators are the elected officials who pass laws or amend existing ones in order to remedy problems or to promote certain activities. They include U.S. Senators and Representatives, State senators and representatives (called assemblypersons or delegates in some States), county legislators (called supervisors, commissioners, councilmembers, or freeholders in some States), and city and town council members (called trustees, clerks, supervisors, magistrates, and commissioners, among other titles). Legislators introduce bills in the legislative body and examine and vote on bills introduced by other legislators. In preparing legis lation, they read staff reports and work with constituents, representa tives of interest groups, members of boards and commissions, the chief executive and department heads, and others with an interest in the legislation. They generally approve budgets and the appointments of department heads and commission members submitted by the chief executive. In some jurisdictions, the legislative body appoints Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 47 Many government chief executives have a staff to help do research, prepare legislation, and resolve problems. a city, town, or county manager. Many legislators, especially at the State and Federal levels, have a staff to perform research, prepare legislation, and resolve constituents' problems. Both chief executives and legislators perform many ceremonial duties such as opening new buildings, making proclamations, wel coming visitors, and leading celebrations. Working Conditions The working conditions of chief executives and legislators vary with the size and budget of the governmental unit. Time spent at work ranges from meeting once a month for a local council member to 60 or more hours per week for a U. S. Senator. U.S. Senators and Representatives, governors and lieutenant governors, and chief executives and legislators in large local jurisdictions usually work full time year round, as do county and city managers. Many State legislators work full time while legislatures are in session (usually for 2 to 6 months a year) and part time the rest of the year. Local elected officials in most jurisdictions work a schedule that is officially designated part time, but many incumbents actually work a full-time schedule when unpaid duties are taken into account. In addition to their regular schedules, chief executives are on call at all hours to handle emergencies. Some jobs require only occasional out-of-town travel, but others involve long periods away from home to attend sessions of the legislature. Officials in rural districts covering a large area may drive long distances to perform their regular duties. Employment Chief executives and legislators held about 91,000 jobs in 1994. About 5 of 6 worked in local government, while the rest worked pri marily in State governments. The Federal Government had 535 Senators and Representatives and the President and Vice President. There were about 7,500 State legislators and, according to the Inter national City/County Management Association (ICMA), about 10,100 city managers. Executives and council members for local govern ments made up the remainder. Chief executives and legislators who do not hold full-time, yearround positions often work in a second occupation as well. This is commonly the one they held before being elected. Business owner or manager, teacher, and lawyer are common primary occupations, and there are many others as well. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because voters seek to elect the individual believed to be most qualified from among a slate of candidates who meet the minimum https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis age, residency, and citizenship requirements, the question becomes not "How does one become qualified?" but "How does one get elected?" Successful candidates usually have a strong record of accom plishment in paid and unpaid work. Some have business, teaching, or legal experience, but others come from a wide variety of occu pations. In addition, many have served as volunteers on school boards or zoning commissions; with charities, political action groups, and political campaigns; or with religious, fraternal, and social organizations. Management-level work experience and public service help develop the planning, organizing, negotiating, motivating, fundrais ing, budgeting, public speaking, and problem-solving skills needed to run a political campaign. Candidates must make decisions quickly, sometimes with little or contradictory information. They must inspire and motivate their constituents and their staff. They should appear sincere and candid, presenting their views thoughtfully and convincingly. Additionally, they must know how to hammer out compromises and satisfy the demands of constituents. National and Statewide campaigns also require massive amounts of energy and stamina, as well as superior fund raising skills. Town, city, and county managers are appointed by a council or commission. Managers come from a variety of educational back grounds. A master's degree in public administration—including courses such as public financial management and legal issues in public administration—is widely recommended but not required. Virtually all town, city, and county managers have at least a bache lor's degree and the majority hold a master's degree. Working as a student intern in government is recommended—the experience and personal contacts acquired can prove invaluable in eventually secur ing a position. Generally, a town, city, or county manager in a smaller jurisdic tion is required to have expertise in a wide variety of areas. Those who work for larger jurisdictions specialize in financial, administra tive, and personnel matters. For all managers, communication skills and the ability to get along with others are essential. Advancement opportunities for elected public officials are not clearly defined. Because elected positions normally require a period of residency and because local public support is critical, officials can usually advance to other offices only in the jurisdictions where they live. For example, council members may run for mayor or for a position in the State government, and State legislators may run for governor or for Congress. Many officials are not politically ambi tious, however, and do not seek advancement. Others lose their bids for reelection or voluntarily leave the occupation. A lifetime career as a government chief executive or legislator is rare. Town, city, and county managers have a clearer career path. They generally obtain a master's degree in public administration, then gain experience as management analysts or assistants in government departments working for councils or chief executives and learning about planning, budgeting, civil engineering, and other aspects of running a city. With sufficient experience, they may be hired to manage a town or a small city and may become manager of progres sively larger cities over time. Job Outlook Little, if any, growth is expected in the number of government chief executives and legislators through the year 2005. Few, if any, new governments are likely to form, and the number of chief executives and legislators in existing governments rarely changes. Some small increase may occur as growing communities—in the rapidly growing South and West, for example—become independent cities and towns and elect a chief executive and legislators and, perhaps, appoint a town manager. A few new positions may also develop as cities and counties without managers hire them and as unpaid offices—which are not counted as employment—are converted to paid positions. Elections give newcomers the chance to unseat incumbents or to fill vacated positions. In many elections, there is substantial compe 48 Occuptional Outlook Handbook tition, although the level of competition varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction and from year to year. Generally, there is less competi tion in small jurisdictions, which have part-time positions offering relatively low salaries and little or no staff to help with routine work, than in large jurisdictions, which have full-time positions offering higher salaries, more staff, and greater status. In some cases, an incumbent runs unopposed, or an incumbent resigns, leaving only one candidate for a job. The high cost of running for such positions in large jurisdictions may serve as a deterrent, or may leave the challenger dependent on contributions from special interest groups. Earnings Earnings of public administrators vary widely, depending on the size of the government unit and on whether the job is part time, full time and year round, or full time for only a few months a year. Salaries range from little or nothing for a small town council member to $200,000 a year for the President of the United States. According to the International City/County Management Asso ciation, the average annual salary of mayors was about $9,900 in 1994. ICMA data indicate that the average salary for city managers was about $65,700 in 1994. Salaries ranged from $30,800 in towns with fewer than 2,500 residents to $130,400 in cities with a popula tion over 1 million. According to the National Conference of State Legislatures, the salary for legislators in the 40 States that paid an annual salary ranged from about $10,000 to $47,000 per year. In 6 States, legisla tors received a daily salary plus an allowance for expenses while legislatures were in session. Two States paid no expenses and only nominal daily salaries, while 2 States paid no salary at all but did pay a daily expense allowance. Salaries and the expense allowance were generally higher in the larger States. Data from Book of the States, 1994-95 indicate that gubernatorial annual salaries ranged from $60,000 in Arkansas to $130,000 in New York. In addition to a salary, most governors received perquisites such as transportation and an official residence. In 1995, U.S. Senators and Representatives earned $133,600, the Senate and House Majority and Minority leaders $148,400, and the Vice President $171,500. Related Occupations Related occupations include managerial positions that require a broad range of skills in addition to administrative expertise, such as corpo rate chief executives and board members, and high ranking officers in the military. ager" encompasses individuals in many different positions who plan, organize, coordinate, and supervise the delivery of health care. Health services managers include both generalists—administrators who manage or help to manage an entire facility—and health special ists—managers in charge of specific clinical departments or services found only in the health industry. The structure and financing of health care is changing rapidly. Future health services managers must be prepared to deal with evolving integrated health care delivery systems, restructuring of work, and an increased focus on preventive care. The top administrator or chief executive officer (CEO) and the assistant administrators without specific titles are health care general ists, who set the overall direction of the organization. They concen trate on such areas as community outreach, planning, marketing, human resources, finance, and complying with government regula tions. Their range of knowledge is broad, including developments in the clinical departments as well as in the business arena. They often speak before civic groups, promote public participation in health programs, and coordinate the activities of the organization with those of government or community agencies. CEO’s make long-term institutional plans by assessing the need for services, personnel, facilities, and equipment and recommending changes such as opening a home health service. CEO's need leadership ability as well as technical skills to provide quality health care while, at the same time, satisfying demand for financial viability, cost containment, and public and professional accountability. Larger facilities typically have several assistant administrators to aid the top administrator and to handle day-to-day decisions. They may direct activities in clinical areas such as nursing, surgery, ther apy, food service, and medical records; or the activities in nonhealth areas such as finance, housekeeping, human resources, and informa tion management. (Because the nonhealth departments are not directly related to health care, these managers are not included in this statement. For information about them, see the statements on mana gerial occupations elsewhere in the Handbook). In smaller facilities, top administrators may handle more of the details of day-to-day operations. For example, many nursing home administrators directly manage personnel, finance, operations, and admissions. Clinical managers have more narrowly defined responsibilities than generalists and have training and/or experience in a specific clinical area. For example, directors of physical therapy are experi enced physical therapists, and most medical records administrators have a bachelor's degree in medical records administration. These managers establish and implement policies, objectives, and proce dures for their departments; evaluate personnel and work; develop reports and budgets; and coordinate activities with other managers. Sources of Additional Information Information on appointed officials in local government can be ob tained from: ••■International City/County Management Association, 777 North Capitol St. NE., Suite 500, Washington, DC 20002. Health Services Managers (D O.T. 072.117-010; 074.167-010, 075.117-014, -022, -026, -030 and -034; 076.117-010; 077.117-010; 078.131-010, .161-010 and -014, . 162-010; 079 117-010, .131-010, .151-010. and .167-014; 187.117-010, -058, 062, and .167-034, and-090; 188.117-082 Nature of the Work Health care is a business, albeit a special one. Like every other business, it needs good management to keep it running smoothly, especially during times of change. The term "health services man https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Health services managers coordinate the delivery of health care services. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 49 In group practices, managers work closely with the physician owners. While an office manager may handle business affairs in small medical groups, leaving policy decisions to the physicians themselves, larger groups generally employ a full-time administrator to advise on business strategies and coordinate day-to-day business. A small group of 10 or 15 physicians might employ a single administrator to oversee personnel matters, billing and collection, budgeting, planning, equipment outlays, and patient flow. A large practice of 40 or 50 physicians may have a chief administrator and several assistants, each responsible for different areas. Health services managers in health maintenance organizations (HMO's) and other managed care settings perform functions similar to those in large group practices, except their staffs may be larger. Also, they may do more work in the areas of community outreach and preventive care than managers of a group practice. The size of the administrative staff in HMO's varies according to the size and type of HMO. Some health services managers oversee the activities of a number of facilities in multifacility health organizations. Working Conditions Many health services managers work long hours. Facilities such as nursing homes and hospitals operate around the clock, and adminis trators and managers may be called at all hours to deal with prob lems. They may also travel to attend meetings or to inspect satellite facilities. Employment Health services managers held about 315,000 jobs in 1994. Over one-half of all jobs were in hospitals. About 1 in 4 were in nursing and personal care facilities or offices and clinics of physicians. The remainder worked in home health agencies, medical and dental laboratories, offices of dentists and other practitioners, and other health and allied services. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Health services managers must be familiar with management princi ples and practices. Some learn from work experience. However, formal education is usually necessary for advancement. Most CEO positions require a graduate degree in health services administration, nursing administration, or business administration. For some gen eralist positions, employers seek applicants with clinical experience (as nurses or therapists, for example) as well as academic preparation in business or health services administration. Bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degree programs in health administration are offered by colleges, universities, and schools of public health, medicine, allied health, public administration, and business administration. There are also some certificate or diploma programs, generally lasting less than 1 year, in health services ad ministration and in medical office management. A master’s degree— in health services administration, long term care administration, health sciences, public health, public administration, or business administration—is the standard credential for most generalist posi tions in this field. However, a bachelor's degree is adequate for some entry-level positions in smaller operations. A bachelor's degree is required to work in smaller nursing homes, and a master’s degree in larger long-term care facilities. Physicians' offices and some other facilities may substitute on-the-job experience for formal education. For clinical department heads, a degree in the appropriate field and work experience are usually sufficient, but a master's degree in health services administration usually is required to advance. In 1995, 69 schools had accredited programs leading to the master's degree in health services administration, according to the Accrediting Commission on Education for Health Services Administration. Some graduate programs seek students with undergraduate de grees in business or health administration; however, many programs prefer students with a liberal arts or health professions background. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Competition for entry to these programs is keen, and applicants need above-average grades to gain admission. The programs generally last between 2 and 3 years. They may include up to 1 year of super vised administrative experience, and course work in areas such as hospital organization and management, marketing, accounting and budgeting, human resources administration, strategic planning, health economics, and health information systems. Some programs allow students to specialize in one type of facility—hospitals; nursing homes; mental health facilities; HMO's; or outpatient care facilities, including medical groups. Other programs encourage a generalist approach to health administration education. New graduates with master's degrees in health services or hospital administration may start as department managers or in staff positions. The level of the starting position varies with the experience of the applicant and the size of the facility. Postgraduate residencies and fellowships are offered by hospitals and other health facilities; these usually are staff positions. Graduates from master's degree programs also take jobs in HMO's, large group medical practices, clinics, mental health facilities, and multifacility nursing home corporations. Graduates with bachelor's degrees in health administration usually begin as administrative assistants or assistant department heads in larger hospitals, or as department heads or assistant administrators in small hospitals or in nursing homes. A Ph.D. degree may be required to teach, consult, or do research. Nursing service administrators are usually chosen from among supervisory registered nurses with administrative abilities and a graduate degree in nursing administration. All States and the District of Columbia require nursing home administrators to have a bachelor’s degree, pass a licensing examina tion, complete a State-approved training program, and pursue con tinuing education. A license is not required in other areas of health services management. Health services managers are often responsible for millions of dollars of facilities and equipment and hundreds of employees. To make effective decisions, they need to be open to different opinions and good at analyzing contradictory information. They must under stand finance and information systems, and be able to interpret data. To motivate others to implement their decisions, they need strong leadership qualities. Tact, diplomacy, flexibility, and communication skills are essential. Health services managers advance by moving into more respon sible and higher paying positions such as assistant or associate ad ministrator, or by moving to larger facilities. Job Outlook Employment of health services managers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as health services continue to expand and diversify. Opportunities will be good in home health care, long-term care and nontraditional health organizations such as managed care operations, particularly for health services managers with strong business and management skills. Hospitals will continue to employ the most managers, although the number of jobs will not grow nearly as fast as in other areas, such as long-term and home health care. As hospitals continue to consoli date, centralize, and diversify functions, competition will increase at all job levels. Employment in home health agencies, offices of other health practitioners, and nursing and personal care facilities will grow the fastest, due to an increased number of elderly who will need care. In addition, many services previously provided in hospitals will be shifted to these sectors. Demand in medical group practices will also grow as medical group practices and HMO's become larger and more complex. Health services managers will need to deal with the pres sures of cost containment and financial accountability, as well as the increased focus on preventive and primary care. Health services managers will also be employed by hospital management companies who provide expertise in areas such as 50 Occuptional Outlook Handbook emergency department assistance, information management systems, managed care contract negotiations, and physician recruiting. They may also provide consulting services to medical group practices. Earnings Earnings vary by type and size of the facility, as well as by level of responsibility. For example, the Medical Group Management Asso ciation reported that the median salary for administrators in group practices was $65,000 in 1994. The median salary for those in small group practices—with net revenues of $2 million or less—was $48,000; for those in very large group practices—with net revenues over $10 million—$116,000. According to a survey by Modem Healthcare magazine, half of all hospital CEO's earned $165,500 or more in 1995. Salaries varied according to size of facility and geographic region. Clinical depart ment heads' salaries varied too. Median total compensation in 1995 for heads of the following clinical departments were: Home health, $55,000; radiology, $58,000; physical therapy, $58,200; ambula tory/outpatient services, $62,400, rehabilitation services, $66,700; and nursing services, $88,000. According to the Buck Survey conducted by the American Health Care Association, nursing home administrators had median annual compensation of about $47,400 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $40,900 and $55,400. Assistant administrators earned about $32,000. Executives often receive bonuses based on performance outcomes such as cost-containment, quality assurance, and patient satisfaction. Related Occupations Health services managers have training or experience in both health and management. Other occupations that require knowledge of both fields are public health directors, social welfare administrators, directors of voluntary health agencies and health professional asso ciations, and underwriters in health insurance companies. Sources of Additional Information General information about health administration is available from: •■American College of Healthcare Executives, One North Franklin St., Suite 1700, Chicago, IL 60606. Information about undergraduate and graduate academic pro grams in this field is available from: •■Association of University Programs in Health Administration, 1911 North Fort Myer Dr., Suite 503, Arlington, VA 22209. For a list of accredited graduate programs in health services administration, contact: •■Accrediting Commission on Education for Health Services Administration, 1911 North Fort Myer Dr., Suite 503, Arlington, VA 22209. Hotel managers are responsible for the efficient and profitable operation of their establishments. In a small hotel, motel, or inn with a limited staff, a single manager may direct all aspects of operations. However, large hotels may employ hundreds of workers, and the general manager may be aided by a number of assistant managers assigned to the various- departments of the operation. Assistant managers must ensure that the day-to-day operations of their depart ments meet the standards set by the general manager. The general manager has overall responsibility for the operation of the hotel. Within guidelines established by the owners of the hotel or executives of the hotel chain, the general manager sets room rates, allocates funds to departments, approves expenditures, and estab lishes standards for service to guests, decor, housekeeping, food quality, and banquet operations. Managers who work for chains also may be assigned to organize and staff a newly built hotel, refurbish an older hotel, or reorganize a hotel or motel that is not operating successfully. (For more information, see the statement on general managers and top executives elsewhere in the Handbook.) Resident managers live in hotels and are on call 24 hours a day to resolve problems or emergencies. However, they typically work an 8-hour day, while overseeing the day-to-day operations of the hotel. In many hotels, the general manager also serves as the resident manager. Executive housekeepers are responsible for ensuring guest rooms, meeting and banquet rooms, and public areas are clean, orderly, and well maintained. They train, schedule, and supervise the work of housekeepers, inspect rooms, and order cleaning supplies. Front office managers coordinate reservations and room assign ments as well as train and direct the hotel's front desk staff. They ensure guests are treated courteously, complaints and problems that may arise are resolved, and requests for special services are carried out. Food and beverage managers direct the food service operations of hotels. They oversee the hotels' restaurants, cocktail lounges, and banquet facilities. They supervise and schedule food and beverage preparation and service workers, plan menus, estimate costs, and deal with food suppliers. (For more information, see the statement on restaurant and food service managers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Convention services managers coordinate the activities of large hotels' various departments for meetings, conventions, and special events. They meet with representatives of groups or organizations to plan the number of rooms to reserve, the desired configuration of hotel meeting space, and any banquet services needed. During the meeting or event, they resolve unexpected problems and monitor activities to check that hotel operations conform to the expectations of the group. For information about career opportunities in long term care administration, contact: •"American College of Health Care Administrators, 325 S. Patrick St., Alexandria, VA 22314. For information about career opportunities in medical group practices and ambulatory care management, contact: ii.. ---I •■Medical Group Management Association, 104 Inverness Terrace East, Englewood, CO 80112. Hotel Managers and Assistants (D.O.T. 187.117-038, .137-018; .167-046, -078, -106, -122; and 320) Nature of the Work A comfortable room, good food, and a helpful hotel staff can make being away from home an enjoyable experience for both vacationing families and business travelers. Hotel managers and assistant man agers strive to ensure their guests will have a pleasant stay. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Hotel managers are responsible for the efficient and profitable operation of their establishments. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 51 Other assistant managers are responsible for personnel, account ing and office administration, marketing and sales, purchasing, security, maintenance, and recreational facilities. (For more infor mation, see the related statements on personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers; financial managers; and market ing, advertising, and public relations managers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Because hotels are open around the clock, night and weekend work is common. Many hotel managers work considerably more than 40 hours per week. Managers who live in the hotel usually have regular work schedules, but they may be called to work at any time. Some employees of resort hotels are managers during the busy season and have other duties during the rest of the year. Hotel managers sometimes experience the pressures of coordinat ing a wide range of functions. Conventions and large groups of tourists may present unusual problems. Dealing with irate patrons can be stressful. The job can be particularly hectic for front office managers around check-in and check-out time. Employment Hotel managers and assistant managers held about 105,000 wage and salary jobs in 1994. An additional number—primarily owners of small hotels and motels—were self-employed. Some were employed by companies that manage hotels and motels under contract. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Postsecondary training in hotel or restaurant management is preferred for most hotel management positions, although a college liberal arts degree may be sufficient when coupled with related hotel experience. In the past, most managers were promoted from the ranks of front desk clerks, housekeepers, waiters and chefs, and hotel sales workers. Although some employees still advance to hotel management posi tions without the benefit of education or training beyond high school, postsecondary education is preferred. Nevertheless, experience working in a hotel—even part time while in school—is an asset to anyone seeking a career in hotel management. Restaurant manage ment training or experience is also a good background for entering hotel management because the success of a hotel's food service and beverage operations is often of great importance to the profitability of the entire establishment. A bachelor's degree in hotel and restaurant administration pro vides particularly strong preparation for a career in hotel manage ment. In 1994, over 160 colleges and universities offered bachelor's and graduate programs in this field. Over 800 community and junior colleges, technical institutes, vocational and trade schools, and other academic institutions also have programs leading to an associate degree or other formal recognition in hotel or restaurant manage ment. Graduates of hotel or restaurant management programs usu ally start as trainee assistant managers, or at least advance to such positions more quickly. Hotel management programs include instruction in hotel admini stration, accounting, economics, marketing, housekeeping, food service management and catering, and hotel maintenance engineer ing. The widespread use of computers in hotel operations such as reservations, accounting, and housekeeping management is making some familiarity with computers essential. Programs encourage part time or summer work in hotels and restaurants because the experi ence gained and the contacts made with employers may benefit students when they seek full-time employment after graduation. Hotel managers must be able to get along with all kinds of people, even in stressful situations. They need initiative, self-discipline, and the ability to organize and direct the work of others. They must be able to solve problems and concentrate on details. Sometimes large hotels sponsor specialized on-the-job manage ment training programs which allow trainees to rotate among various departments and gain a thorough knowledge of the hotel's operation. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Other hotels may help finance the necessary training in hotel man agement for outstanding employees. Most hotels promote employees who have proven their ability. Newly built hotels, particularly those without well-established onthe-job training programs, often prefer experienced personnel for managerial positions. Large hotel and motel chains may offer better opportunities for advancement than small, independently owned establishments, but relocation every several years often is necessary for advancement. The large chains have more extensive career ladder programs and offer managers the opportunity to transfer to another hotel or motel in the chain or to the central office if an opening occurs. Career advancement can be accelerated by comple tion of certification programs offered by the associations listed below. These programs generally require a combination of course work, examinations, and experience. Job Outlook Opportunities to enter hotel management are expected to be good for persons who have college degrees in hotel or restaurant management. Employment of salaried hotel managers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Business travel will continue to grow, and increased domestic and foreign tourism will also create demand for additional hotels and motels. However, manager jobs are not expected to grow as rapidly as in the past because an increasing share of the hotel industry will be com prised of economy properties, which generally have fewer managers than full-service hotels. In the face of financial constraints, guests are becoming more bargain-conscious, and hotel chains are increas ing the number of rooms in economy class hotels. Economy hotels offer clean, comfortable rooms and front desk services without costly extras like restaurants and room service. Because there are not as many departments in each hotel, fewer managers are needed on the hotel premises. Economy hotels have a general manager, and re gional offices of the hotel management company employ department managers, such as executive housekeepers, to oversee several hotels. Although new employment growth is expected to be concentrated in economy hotels, large full-service hotels will continue to offer many trainee and managerial opportunities. Most openings are expected to occur as experienced managers transfer to other occupa tions, retire, or stop working for other reasons. Earnings Salaries of hotel managers vary greatly according to their responsi bilities and the segment of the hotel industry in which they are em ployed. In early 1995, annual salaries of assistant hotel managers averaged nearly $40,000, based on a hospitality industry survey conducted by Roth Young. Salaries of assistant managers also varied because of differences in duties and responsibilities. For example, food and beverage directors averaged $44,000, according to the same survey, whereas front office managers averaged $30,000. The man ager's level of experience is also an important factor. In 1995, salaries of general managers averaged nearly $57,000, according to the Roth Young survey. Their salaries ranged from $40,000 to $81,000 depending on the size and type of establishment. Managers may earn bonuses up to 25 percent of their basic salary in some hotels. In addition, they and their families may be furnished with lodging, meals, parking, laundry, and other services. Most managers and assistants receive 3 to 11 paid holidays a year, paid vacation, sick leave, life insurance, medical benefits, and pen sion plans. Some hotels offer profit-sharing plans, educational assistance, and other benefits to their employees. Related Occupations Hotel managers and assistants are not the only workers concerned with organizing and directing a business where customer service is the cornerstone of their success. Other occupations sharing similar responsibilities include restaurant managers, apartment building managers, retail store managers, and office managers. 52 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information For information on careers and scholarships in hotel management, contact: ••The American Hotel and Motel Association (AH&MA), Information Center, 1201 New York Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20005-3931. For information on educational programs, including correspon dence courses, in hotel and restaurant management, write to: •“The Educational Institute of AH&MA, P.O. Box 1240, East Lansing, MI 48826, Information on careers in housekeeping management may be obtained from: •■National Executive Housekeepers Association, Inc., 1001 Eastwind Dr., Suite 301, Westerville, OH 43081, or 1-800-200-6342. For information on hospitality careers, as well as how to purchase a directory of colleges and other schools offering programs and courses in hotel and restaurant administration, write to: •"Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, 1200 17th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20036-3097. General career information and a directory of accredited private trade and technical schools offering programs in hotel-motel man agement may be obtained from: •"Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201. Industrial Production Managers (D.O.T. 180.167-054; 181.117-010; 182.167-022; 183.117-010,-014, .161-014, .167-010, -014, -018, -022, -026, -034, -038; 188.167-094; 189.117-042, .167-042,-046) Nature of the Work Industrial production managers coordinate the resources and activi ties required to produce millions of goods every year in the United States. Due to the wide variety of these goods and differences among factories, managers' duties vary from plant to plant. In general, industrial production managers share many of the same major func tions, regardless of the industry. These functions include responsi bility for production scheduling, staffing, equipment, quality control, inventory control, and the coordination of production activities with those of other departments. The primary mission of industrial production managers is plan ning the production schedule within budgetary limitations and time constraints. This entails analyzing the plant's personnel and capital resources and selecting the best way to meet the production quota. Industrial production managers determine which machines will be used, whether overtime or extra shifts are necessary, and the se quence of production. They also monitor the production run to make sure that it stays on schedule and correct any problems that may arise. Industrial production managers also monitor product standards. When quality drops below the established standard, they must de termine why standards aren't being maintained and how to improve the product. If the problem is poor work, the manager may imple ment better training programs, reorganize the manufacturing process, or institute employee suggestion or involvement programs. If the cause is substandard materials, the manager works with the purchas ing department to improve the quality of the product's components. Working with the purchasing department, the production manager ensures that plant inventories are maintained at their optimal level. This is vital to a firm's operation because maintaining the inventory of materials necessary for production ties up the firm's financial resources, yet insufficient quantities of materials cause delays in production. A breakdown in communications between these departments can cause slowdowns and a failure to meet production schedules. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Industrial production managers must keep up to date with the latest production technologies. Because the work of many departments is dependent upon others, managers work closely with heads of other departments such as sales, purchasing, and traffic to plan and implement companies' goals, policies, and procedures. Production managers also work closely with, and act as a liaison between, executives and first-line supervisors. Production managers usually report to the plant manager or the vice president for manufacturing. (Information about these workers can be found in the statement on general managers and top execu tives elsewhere in the Handbook). In many plants, one production manager is responsible for all production. In large plants with several operations—aircraft assembly, for example—there are man agers in charge of each operation, such as machining, assembly, or finishing. Computers play an integral role in the coordination of the pro duction process by providing up-to-date data on inventory, work-in progress, and product standards. Industrial production managers analyze these data and, working with upper management and other departments, determine if adjustments need to be made. As the trend toward a flatter management structure and worker empowerment continues, production managers will increasingly perform the role of facilitators. Instead of independently making decisions and giving and taking orders, production managers will review and discuss recommendations with subordinates and superiors in the hopes of improving productivity. Because of the additional duties resulting from corporate downsizing, production managers are delegating more authority and responsibility to first-line supervisors. Working Conditions Most industrial production managers divide their time between the shop floor and their office. While on the floor, they must follow established health and safety practices and wear the required protec tive clothing and equipment. The time in the office—often located on or near the production floor—is usually spent meeting with sub ordinates or other department managers, analyzing production data, and writing and reviewing reports. Most industrial production managers work more than 40 hours a week, especially when production deadlines must be met. In facili ties that operate around the clock, managers may have to work shifts Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 53 or may be called at any hour to deal with emergencies. This could mean going to the plant to resolve the problem, regardless of the hour, and staying until the situation is under control. Dealing with production workers as well as superiors when working under the pressure of production deadlines or emergency situations can be stressful. In addition, restructuring has eliminated levels of man agement and support staff. As a result, production managers now have to accomplish more with less, and this has greatly increased job-related stress. Employment Industrial production managers held about 206,000 jobs in 1994. Although employed throughout manufacturing industries, about onehalf are employed in industrial machinery and equipment, transpor tation equipment, electronic and electrical equipment, fabricated metal products, and food products manufacturing. Production man agers work in all parts of the country, but jobs are most plentiful in areas where manufacturing is concentrated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because of the diversity of manufacturing operations and job re quirements, there is no standard preparation for this occupation. Many industrial production managers have a college degree in busi ness administration or industrial engineering. Some have a master's degree in business administration (MBA). Others are former pro duction line supervisors who have been promoted. Although many employers prefer candidates to have a degree in business or engineer ing, some companies hire liberal arts graduates. As production operations become more sophisticated, an increas ing number of employers are looking for candidates with MBA's. This, combined with an undergraduate degree in engineering, is considered particularly good preparation. Companies also are plac ing greater importance on a candidate's personality. Because the job demands technical knowledge and the ability to compromise, per suade, and negotiate, successful production managers must be well rounded and have excellent communication skills. Those who enter the field directly from college or graduate school often are unfamiliar with the firm's production process. As a result, they may spend their first few months on the job in the company's training program. These programs familiarize trainees with the production line, company policies and procedures, and the require ments of the job. In larger companies, they may also include as signments to other departments, such as purchasing and accounting. Blue-collar worker supervisors who advance to production man ager positions already have an intimate knowledge of the production process and the firm's organization. To be selected for promotion, these workers must have demonstrated leadership qualities, and often take company-sponsored courses in management skills and commu nications techniques. Some companies hire college graduates as blue-collar worker supervisors and then promote them. Once in their job, industrial production managers must stay abreast of new production technologies and management practices. To do this, they belong to professional organizations and attend trade shows where new equipment is displayed; they also attend industry conferences and conventions where changes in production methods and technological advances are discussed. Although certification in production management and inventory control is not required for most positions, it demonstrates an individ ual's knowledge of the production process and related areas. Various certifications are available through the American Production and Inventory Control Society. To be certified in production and inven tory management, candidates must pass a series of examinations that test their knowledge of inventory management, just-in-time systems, production control, capacity management, and materials planning. Industrial production managers with a proven record of superior performance may advance to plant manager or vice president for manufacturing. Others transfer to jobs at larger firms with more responsibilities. Opportunities also exist as consultants. (For more https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis information, see the statement on management analysts and consult ants elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Employment of industrial production managers is expected to decline slightly through the year 2005. Although manufacturing output is expected to rise significantly, the trend towards smaller management staffs and the lack of growth in production worker employment will limit demand for production managers. The widening use of com puters for scheduling and planning is also making production manag ers more productive, allowing fewer of them to accomplish the same amount of work. Nevertheless, some openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Many of these openings, however, may be filled through internal promotions. Opportunities should be best for those with college degrees in industrial engineering or business administration, and those with MBA's and undergraduate engineering degrees. Employers also are likely to seek candidates who have excellent communication skills, and who are personable, flexible, and eager to participate in ongoing training. Earnings Salaries of mdustrial production managers vary significantly by industry and plant size. According to Abbott, Langer, and Associ ates, the average salary for all production managers was $63,000 in 1994. In addition to salary, industrial production managers usually receive bonuses based on job performance. Benefits for industrial production managers tend to be similar to those offered many workers—vacation and sick leave, health and life insurance, and retirement plans. Related Occupations Industrial production managers oversee production staff and equip ment, insure that production goals and quality standards are being met, and implement company policies. Individuals with similar functions include materials, operations, purchasing, and traffic managers. Other occupations requiring similar training and skills are sales engineer, manufacturers' sales representative, and industrial engineer. Sources of Additional Information Information on industrial production management can be obtained from: •"National Management Association, 2210 Arbor Blvd., Dayton, OH 45439. •"American Management Association, 135 W. 50th St., New York, NY 10020. Inspectors and Compliance Officers, Except Construction (List of D.O.T. codes available upon request. See p. 478.) Nature of the Work Inspectors and compliance officers enforce a wide range of laws, regulations, policies, or procedures, and advise on standards that protect the public. They inspect and enforce rules on matters such as health, safety, food, immigration, licensing, interstate commerce, or international trade. Inspectors’ duties vary widely, depending upon their employer. Agricultural chemicals inspectors protect American agriculture by inspecting establishments where agricultural service products, such as livestock feed and remedies, fertilizers, and pesticides are manufactured, sold, or used. They may visit processing plants, distribution warehouses, sales outlets, agricultural service organiza- 54 Occuptional Outlook Handbook tions, and farmers to collect product samples for analysis. They call on dealers to determine that licensing requirements have been met. They then prepare reports for supervisors and for use as evidence in legal actions. Agricultural commodity graders apply quality standards to aid the buying and selling of commodities and to insure that retailers and consumers know the quality of the products they purchase. Although this grading is not required by law, buyers generally will not pur chase ungraded commodities. Graders usually specialize in an area such as eggs and egg products, meat, poultry, processed or fresh fruits and vegetables, grain, tobacco, cotton, or dairy products. They examine product samples to determine quality and grade, and issue official grading certificates. Graders also may inspect the plant and equipment to maintain sanitation standards. Attendance officers investigate continued absences of pupils from public schools. Aviation safety inspectors ensure that Federal Aviation Admini stration (FAA) regulations which govern the quality and safety of aircraft equipment, aircraft operations, and personnel are maintained. Aviation safety inspectors may inspect aircraft and equipment manu facturing, maintenance and repair, or flight procedures. They may work in the areas of flight operations, maintenance, or avionics, and usually specialize in either commercial or general aviation aircraft. They also examine and certify aircraft pilots, pilot examiners, flight instructors, repair stations, schools, and instructional materials. Bank examiners investigate financial institutions to enforce Federal and State laws and regulations governing the institution's operations and solvency. Examiners schedule audits, determine actions to protect the institution's solvency and the interests of share holders and depositors, and recommend acceptance or rejection of applications for mergers, acquisitions, establishment of a new insti tution, or acceptance in the Federal Reserve System. Consumer safety inspectors inspect food, feeds and pesticides, weights and measures, biological products, cosmetics, drugs and medical equipment, as well as radiation emitting products. Some are proficient in several areas. Working individually or in teams under a senior inspector, they check on firms that produce, handle, store, or market the products they regulate. They ensure that standards are maintained and respond to consumer complaints by questioning employees, vendors, and others to obtain evidence. Inspectors look for inaccurate product labeling, and for decomposition or chemical or bacteriological contamination that could result in a product becoming harmful to health. They may use portable scales, cameras, ultraviolet lights, thermometers, chemical testing kits, radiation monitors, or other equipment to find violations. They may send product samples collected as part of their examinations to laboratories for analysis. After completing their inspection, inspectors discuss their obser vations with plant managers or officials and point out areas where corrective measures are needed. They write reports of their findings and, when necessary, compile evidence that may be used in court if legal action must be taken. Customs inspectors enforce laws governing imports and exports. Stationed in the United States and overseas at airports, seaports, and border crossing points, they examine, count, weigh, gauge, measure, and sample commercial and noncommercial cargoes entering and leaving the United States to determine admissibility and the amount of duties that must be paid. They insure that all cargo is properly described on accompanying importers' declarations to determine the proper duty and interdict contraband. They inspect baggage and articles carried by passengers and crew members to insure that all merchandise is declared, proper duties are paid, and contraband is not present. They also ensure that people, ships, planes, and anything used to import or export cargo comply with all appropriate entrance and clearance requirements. Dealer compliance representatives inspect franchised estab lishments to ascertain compliance with the franchiser's policies and procedures. They may suggest changes in financial and other operations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Environmental health inspectors, or sanitarians, who work pri marily for State and local governments, ensure that food, water, and air meet government standards. They check the cleanliness and safety of food and beverages produced in dairies and processing plants, or served in restaurants, hospitals, and other institutions. They often examine the handling, processing, and serving of food for compliance with sanitation rules and regulations and oversee the treatment and disposal of sewage, refuse, and garbage. In addition, inspectors may visit pollution sources and test for pollutants by collecting air, water, or waste samples for analysis. They try to determine the nature and cause of pollution and initiate action to stop it. In large local and State health or agriculture departments, envi ronmental health inspectors may specialize in milk and dairy prod ucts, food sanitation, waste control, air pollution, water pollution, institutional sanitation, or occupational health. In rural areas and small cities, they may be responsible for a wide range of environ mental health activities. Equal opportunity representatives ascertain and correct unfair employment practices through consultation with and mediation between employers and minority groups. Federal and State laws require food inspectors to inspect meat, poultry, and their byproducts to ensure that they are safe for public consumption. Working onsite, frequently as part of a team, they inspect meat and poultry slaughtering, processing, and packaging operations. They also check for correct product labeling and proper sanitation. Immigration inspectors interview and examine people seeking to enter the United States and its territories. They inspect passports to determine whether people are legally eligible to enter and to verify their citizenship status and identity. Immigration inspectors also prepare reports, maintain records, and process applications and petitions for immigration or temporary residence in the United States. Logging operations inspectors review contract logging oper ations. They prepare reports and issue remedial instructions for violations of contractual agreements and of fire and safety regulations. Mine safety and health inspectors work to ensure the health and safety of miners. They visit mines and related facilities to obtain information on health and safety conditions and to enforce safety laws and regulations. They discuss their findings with the manage ment of the mine and issue citations describing violations and haz ards that must be corrected. Mine inspectors also investigate and report on mine accidents and may direct rescue and firefighting operations when fires or explosions occur. Motor vehicle inspectors verify the compliance of automobiles and trucks with State requirements for safe operation and emissions. They inspect truck cargoes to assure compliance with legal limita tions on gross weight and hazardous cargoes. Occupational safety and health inspectors visit places of em ployment to detect unsafe machinery and equipment or unhealthy working conditions. They discuss their findings with the employer or plant manager and order that violations be promptly corrected in accordance with Federal, State, or local government safety standards and regulations. They interview supervisors and employees in response to complaints or accidents, and may order suspension of activity posing threats to workers. Park rangers enforce laws and regulations in State and national parks. Their duties range from registering vehicles and visitors, collecting fees, and providing information regarding park use and points of interest, to patrolling areas to prevent fire, participating in first aid and rescue activities, and training and supervising other park workers. Some rangers specialize in snow safety and avalanche control. With increasing numbers of visitors to our national parks, some rangers specialize as law enforcement officers. Postal inspectors observe the functioning of the postal system and enforce laws and regulations. As law enforcement agents, postal inspectors have statutory powers of arrest and the authority to carry Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 55 firearms. They investigate criminal activities such as theft and misuse of the mail. In instances of suspected mismanagement or fraud, inspectors conduct management or financial audits. They also collaborate with other government agencies, such as the Internal Revenue Service, as members of special task forces. Quality control inspectors and coordinators inspect products manufactured or processed by private companies for government use to ensure compliance with contract specifications. They may special ize in specific products such as lumber, machinery, petroleum prod ucts, paper products, electronic equipment, or furniture. Others coordinate the activities of workers engaged in testing and evaluating pharmaceuticals in order to control quality of manufacture and ensure compliance with legal standards. Railroad inspectors verify the compliance of railroad systems and equipment with Federal safety regulations. They investigate acci dents and review railroads' operating practices. Revenue officers investigate and collect delinquent tax returns from individuals or businesses. They investigate leads from various sources. They attempt to resolve tax problems with taxpayers and recommend penalties, collection actions, and recommend criminal prosecutions when necessary. Securities compliance examiners implement regulations con cerning securities and real estate transactions. They investigate applications for registration of securities sales and complaints of irregular securities transactions, and recommend necessary legal action. Travel accommodations raters inspect hotels, motels, restaurants, campgrounds, and vacation resorts. They evaluate travel and tourist accommodations for travel guide publishers and organizations such as tourism promoters and automobile clubs. Other inspectors and compliance officers include coroners, cus toms import specialists, code inspectors, mortician investigators, and dealer-compliance representatives. Closely related work is done by construction and building inspectors. (Construction and building inspectors are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Inspectors and compliance officers meet all kinds of people and work in a variety of environments. Their jobs often involve considerable field work, and some inspectors travel frequently. They are generally furnished with an automobile or are reimbursed for travel expenses. Inspectors may experience unpleasant, stressful, and dangerous working conditions. For example, mine safety and health inspectors often are exposed to the same hazards as miners. Some food inspec tors examine and inspect the livestock slaughtering process in slaughterhouses and frequently come in contact with unpleasant conditions. Customs inspectors have to put up with an irritated public when they search individuals, luggage, and cargo, in addition to the danger inherent to making an occasional arrest. Park rangers often work outdoors—in many cases, on rugged terrain—in very hot or bitterly cold weather for extended periods. Many inspectors work long and often irregular hours. Even those inspectors not engaged in some form of law enforcement may find themselves in adversarial roles when the organization or individual being inspected objects. Employment Inspectors and compliance officers held about 157,000 jobs in 1994. State governments employed 34 percent, the Federal Government— chiefly the Departments of Defense, Labor, Treasury, Agriculture, and Justice—employed 29 percent, and local governments employed 18 percent. The remaining 19 percent were employed in the U.S. Postal Service and throughout the private sector—primarily in edu cation, hospitals, insurance companies, labor unions, and manufactur ing firms. Most consumer safety inspectors on the Federal level work for the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, but the majority of these inspec tors work for State governments. Most food inspectors and agricul tural commodity graders are employed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Many health inspectors work for State and local gov ernments. Compliance inspectors are employed primarily by the Treasury, Justice, and Labor departments on the Federal level, as well as by State and local governments. The Department of Defense employs the most quality assurance inspectors. The Treasury De partment employs internal revenue officers and customs inspectors. Aviation safety inspectors work for the Federal Aviation Admini stration. The Environmental Protection Agency employs inspectors to verify compliance with pollution control and other laws. The U.S. Department of Labor and many State governments employ occupa tional safety and health inspectors, equal-opportunity officers, and mine safety and health inspectors. Immigration inspectors are em ployed by the U.S. Department of Justice, while the U.S. Department of Interior employs park rangers. Immigration and customs inspec tors work in the United States and overseas at airports, seaports, and border crossing points. Many inspectors work long and irregular hours. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because of the diversity of the functions they perform, qualifications for inspector and compliance officer jobs differ greatly. Require ments include a combination of education, experience, and often a passing grade on a written examination. Employers may require 56 Occuptional Outlook Handbook college training, including courses related to the job. The following examples illustrate the range of qualifications for various inspector jobs. Postal inspectors must have a bachelor's degree and 1 year's work experience. It is desirable that they have one of several professional certifications, such as that of certified public accountant. They also must pass a background suitability investigation, and meet certain health requirements, undergo a drug screening test, possess a valid State driver's license, and be a U.S. citizen between 21 and 36 years of age when hired. Aviation safety inspectors working in operations must be pilots with varying certificates, ratings, and numbers of flight hours to their credit. Maintenance and avionics inspectors must have considerable experience in aviation maintenance and knowledge of industry standards and relevant Federal laws. In addition, FAA medical certificates are required. Some also are required to have an FAA flight instructor rating. Many aviation safety inspectors have had flight and maintenance training in the Armed Forces. No written examination is required. Applicants for positions as mine safety and health inspectors generally must have experience in mine safety, management, or supervision. Some may possess a skill such as that of an electrician (for mine electrical inspectors). Applicants must meet strict medical requirements and be physically able to perform arduous duties effi ciently. Many mine safety inspectors are former miners. Applicants for internal revenue officer jobs must be a U.S. citizen and have a bachelor's degree or 3 years of experience in business, legal, or financial, or investigative practices. Park rangers need at least 2 years of college with at least 12 credits in science and criminal justice, although some start as part time, seasonal workers with the U.S. Forest Service. Most positions require a bachelor's degree. Environmental health inspectors, called sanitarians in many States, sometimes must have a bachelor's degree in environmental health or in the physical or biological sciences. In most States, they are licensed by examining boards. All inspectors and compliance officers are trained in the applica ble laws or inspection procedures through some combination of classroom and on-the-job training. In general, people who want to enter this occupation should be able to accept responsibility and like detailed work. Inspectors and compliance officers should be neat and personable and able to express themselves well orally and in writing. Federal Government inspectors and compliance officers whose job performance is satisfactory advance through their career ladder to a specified full performance level. For positions above this level (usually supervisory positions), advancement is competitive, based on agency needs and individual merit. Advancement opportunities in State and local governments and the private sector are often similar to those in the Federal Government. Some civil service specifications, including those for mine inspec tors, aviation safety inspectors, and agricultural commodity graders, rate applicants solely on their experience and education. Others require a written examination. Job Outlook Employment of inspectors and compliance officers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005, reflecting a balance of growing public demand for a safe environment and quality products against the desire for smaller government and fewer regulations. Modest employment growth, particularly in local government, should stem from the expansion of regulatory and compliance programs in solid and hazardous waste disposal and water pollution. In private industry, employment growth will reflect industry growth, due to continuing self enforcement of government and company regulations and policies, particularly among franchise operations in various industries. Job openings will also arise from the need to replace those who transfer https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Employment of inspectors and compliance officers is seldom affected by general economic fluctuations. Federal, State, and local governments—which employ most inspectors—provide workers with considerable job security. As a result, inspectors are less likely to lose their jobs than many other workers. Earnings The median weekly salary of inspectors and compliance officers, except construction, was about $667 in 1994. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $388; the highest 10 percent earned over $1,130. In the Federal Government, the annual starting salaries for inspectors varied substantially in 1995—from $18,700 to $41,100—depending upon the nature of the inspection or compliance activity. Beginning salaries were slightly higher in selected areas where the prevailing local pay level was higher. The following tabulation presents 1995 average salaries for selected inspectors and compliance officers in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and mana gerial positions. Aviation safety inspectors.......................................................................$62,970 Highway safety inspectors........................................................................59,750 Railroad safety inspectors.........................................................................52,790 Equal opportunity compliance officials....................................................52,420 Mine safety and health inspectors.............................................................51,850 Internal revenue agent...............................................................................50,720 Environmental protection specialists........................................................49,170 Import specialists......................................................................................47,550 Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors................................................47,050 Safety and occupational health managers.................................................46,730 Quality assurance inspectors.....................................................................43,970 Customs inspectors...................................................................................39,050 Agricultural commodity graders............................................................... 36,040 Immigration inspectors.............................................................................35,540 Securities compliance examiners..............................................................35,400 Consumer safety inspectors......................................................................31,700 Food inspectors................. 31,280 Environmental protection assistants.........................................................26,630 Most inspectors and compliance officers work for Federal, State, and local governments and in large private firms, all of which gen erally offer more generous benefits than do smaller firms. Related Occupations Inspectors and compliance officers are responsible for seeing that laws and regulations are obeyed. Construction and building inspec tors, fire marshals, Federal, State, and local law enforcement profes sionals, corrections officers, and fish and game wardens also enforce laws and regulations. Sources of Additional Information Information on Federal Government jobs is available from offices of the State employment service, area offices of the U.S. Office of Personnel Management, and Federal Job Information Centers in large cities throughout the country. For information on a career as a specific type of Federal inspector or compliance officer, a Federal department or agency that employs them may also be contacted directly. Information about State and local government jobs is available from State civil service commissions, usually located in each State capital, or from local government offices. Information about jobs in private industry is available from the State Employment Service, which is listed under "Job Service" or "Employment" in the State government section of local telephone directories. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 57 Loan Officers and Counselors (D.O.T. 186.167-078, .267-018, -022, -026) Nature of the Work Banks and other financial institutions need up-to-date information on companies and individuals applying for loans and credit. Customers and clients provide this information to the financial institution's loan officers and counselors, generally the first employees to be seen by them. Loan officers prepare, analyze, and verify loan applications, make decisions regarding the extension of credit, and help borrowers fill out loan applications. Loan counselors help consumers with low income or a poor credit history qualify for credit, usually a home mortgage. Loan officers usually specialize in commercial, consumer, or mortgage loans. Commercial or business loans help companies pay for new equipment or to expand operations. Consumer loans include home equity, automobile, and personal loans. Mortgage loans are made to purchase real estate or to refinance an existing mortgage. Loan officers represent lending institutions that provide funds for a variety of purposes. Personal loans can be made to consolidate bills, purchase expensive items such as an automobile or furniture, or finance a college education. Loan officers attempt to lower their firm's risk by receiving collateral—security pledged for the payment of a loan. For example, when lending money for a college education, the bank may insist that the borrower offer his or her home as collat eral. If the borrower were ever unable to repay the loan, the bor rower would have to sell the home to raise the necessary money. Loans backed by collateral also are beneficial to the customer be cause they generally carry a lower interest rate. Loan officers and counselors must keep abreast of new financial products and services so they can meet their customers' needs; for example, banks and other lenders now offer a variety of mortgage products, including reverse equity mortgages, shared equity mort gages, and adjustable rate mortgages. Loan officers meet with customers and gather basic information about the loan request. Often customers will not fully understand the information requested, and will call the loan officer for assistance. Once the customer completes the financial forms, the loan officer begins to process them. The loan officer reviews the completed financial forms for accuracy and thoroughness, and requests addi tional information if necessary. For example, the loan officer verifies that the customer has correctly identified the type and purpose of the loan. The loan officer then requests a credit report from one or more of the major credit reporting agencies. This information, along with comments from the loan officer, is included in a loan file, and is compared to the lending institution's requirements. Banks and other lenders have established requirements for the maximum percentage of income that can safely go to repay loans. At this point, the loan officer, in consultation with his or her manager, decides whether or not to grant the loan. A loan that would otherwise be denied may be approved if the customer can provide the lender appropriate collat eral. Whether or not the loan request is approved, the loan officer informs the borrower of the decision. Loan counselors meet with consumers who are attempting to purchase a home or refinance debt, but who do not qualify for loans with banks. Often clients rely on income from self-employment or government assistance to prove that they can repay the loan. Coun selors also help to psychologically prepare consumers to be home owners and to pay their debts. Counselors frequently work with clients who have little or no experience with financial matters. Loan counselors provide positive reinforcement along with the financial tools needed to qualify for a loan—this assistance may take several forms. Occasionally, counselors simply need to explain what information loan officers need to complete a loan transaction. Most of the time loan counselors help clients qualify for a bank-financed https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Mortgage loan officers typically are paid on a commission basis. mortgage loan. The loan counselor helps the client complete an application, and researches Federal, State, and local government programs that could provide the money needed for the client to purchase the home. Often several government programs are com bined to provide the necessary money. Working Conditions Loan officers and counselors usually work in offices, but mortgage loan officers frequently move from office to office and often visit homes of clients while completing a loan request. Commercial loan officers employed by large firms may travel frequently to prepare complex loan agreements. Most loan officers and counselors work a standard 40-hour week, but may work longer, particularly mortgage loan officers who are free to take on as many customers as they choose. Loan officers and counselors usually carry a heavy caseload and sometimes cannot accept new clients until they complete current cases. They are especially busy when interest rates are low, resulting in a surge in loan applications. Employment Loan officers and counselors held about 214,000 jobs in 1994. About 6 out of 10 are employed by commercial banks, savings institutions, and credit unions. Others are employed by nonbank financial institutions, such as mortgage brokerage firms and personal credit firms. Most loan counselors work for State and local govern ments, or for nonprofit organizations. Loan officers and counselors generally work in urban areas where large banks are concentrated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most loan officer positions require a bachelor's degree in finance, economics, or a related field. Most employers also prefer applicants who are familiar with computers and their applications in banking. A mortgage loan officer is the exception, with training or experience in sales more crucial to potential employers. Some loan officers ad vance through the ranks in an organization, acquiring several years of work experience in various other occupations, such as teller or cus tomer service representative. Persons planning a career as a loan officer or counselor should be skilled in mathematics and in oral and written communication. Developing effective working relationships with different people— managers, clients, and the public—is essential to success as a loan officer or counselor. Loan officers must enjoy public contact and be willing to attend community events as a representative of their employer. Persons interested in counseling should have a strong interest in helping others and the ability to inspire trust, respect, and confidence. 58 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Because loan counselors frequently explain the complicated world of banking to clients who have never been exposed to it, patience and an understanding of mortgage banking is necessary to be an effective loan counselor. Loan counselors should be sensitive to their clients' needs and must consider the importance and pride their clients attach to home ownership. Counselors should be able to work independ ently or as part of a team. The American Institute of Banking, which is affiliated with the American Bankers Association, offers courses through correspon dence and in some colleges and universities for students and others interested in lending, as well as for experienced loan officers. The certification program for lenders leads to the title, "Certified Lender in Business Banking." Completion of these courses and programs enhances one's employment and advancement opportunities. Capable loan officers may advance to larger branches of the firm or to a managerial position, while less capable loan officers and those having inadequate academic preparation may be assigned to smaller branches and find promotion difficult. Advancement from a loan officer position usually includes becoming a supervisor over other loan officers and clerical staff. Most loan counselors receive substantial on-the-job training, gaining a thorough understanding of the requirements and procedures for approval of loans. Some acquire this knowledge through work experience in a related field. In addition, accounting skills can be very helpful. Educational requirements vary—some counselors are high school graduates while others have a college degree in econom ics, finance, or a related field. Like other workers, outstanding loan counselors can advance to supervisory positions. However, promotion potential is limited, and many loan counselors leave for better paying positions elsewhere. Job Outlook Employment of loan officers and counselors is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. As the population and economy grow, applications for commercial, consumer, and mortgage loans will increase, spurring demand for loan officers and counselors. Growth in the variety and complexity of loans, and the importance of loan officers to the success of banks and other lending institutions, also should assure rapid employment growth. Although increased demand will generate many new jobs, most openings will result from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation or retire. College graduates and those with banking or lending experience should have the best job prospects. Loan officers are less likely to lose their jobs than other workers in banks and other lending institutions during difficult economic times. Because loans are the major source of income for banks, loan officers are fundamental to the success of their organizations. Also, many loan officers are compensated in part on a commission basis. Loan counselors typically have so many clients that a reduction in their numbers would lead to a decline in the services provided to the community. However, job security is influenced by the spending patterns of local governments. Budget reductions could result in less hiring or even layoffs of loan counselors. Earnings The form of compensation for loan officers varies, depending on the lending institution. Some banks offer salary plus commission as an incentive to increase the number of loans processed, while others pay only salaries. According to a salary survey conducted by Robert Half Interna tional, a staffing services firm specializing in accounting and finance, residential real estate mortgage loan officers earned between $28,500 and $44,000 in 1995; commercial real estate mortgage loan officers earned between $43,300 and $70,500; consumer loan officers, be tween $27,200 and $45,700; and commercial lenders, between $36,100 and $82,500. Smaller banks generally paid 15 percent less than larger banks. Loan officers who are paid on a commission basis generally earn more than those on salary only. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The earnings for loan counselors varies widely, with local gov ernment employees in large cities earning the highest salaries. Banks and other lenders sometimes offer their loan officers free checking privileges and somewhat lower interest rates on personal loans. Loan counselors sometimes get awards for their service to the community. Related Occupations Loan officers and counselors help the public manage financial assets and secure loans. Occupations that involve similar functions include securities and financial services sales representatives, financial aid officers, real estate agents and brokers, and insurance agents and brokers. Sources of Additional Information Information about a career as a loan officer may be obtained from: «" American Bankers Association, 1120 Connecticut Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20036. State bankers' associations can furnish specific information about job opportunities in their State. Or, contact individual banks to inquire about job openings, and for more details about the activities, responsibilities, and preferred qualifications of their loan officers. For the names and addresses of banks and savings and related insti tutions, as well as the names of their principal officers, consult one of the following directories. “•"The American Financial Directory (Norcross, Ga., McFadden Business Publications). •"Polk's World Bank Directory (Nashville, R.L. Polk & Co.). •"Rand McNally Bankers Directory (Chicago, Rand McNally & Co.). •"The U.S. Savings and Loan Directory (Chicago, Rand McNally & Co.). •■Rand McNally Credit Union Directory (Chicago, Rand McNally & Co.). Your local State employment service office or municipal govern ment also may have information on job opportunities, particularly for loan counselors. Management Analysts and Consultants (D.O.T. 100.117-014; 161.117-014, .167-010, -014, -018, and -022, .267 except -014 and -030; 169.167-074; 184.267; and 310.267-010) Nature of the Work Management analysts and consultants suggest solutions to manage ment problems. For example, a rapidly growing small company may need help in designing a better system of control over inventories and expenses, or an established manufacturing company decides to relocate to another State and needs assistance planning the move, or a large company realizes that its corporate structure must be reorgan ized after acquiring a new division. These are just a few of the many organizational problems that management analysts, as they are called in government agencies, and management consultants, as business firms refer to them, help solve. The work of management analysts and consultants varies by client or employer and from project to project. For example, some projects require a team of consultants, each specializing in one area; at other times, they will work independently with the client's managers. In general, analysts and consultants first collect, review, and analyze information. They then make recommendations to management and often assist in the implementation of their proposal. Both public and private organizations use consultants for a variety of reasons. Some don’t have the internal resources needed to handle a project; others need a consultant's expertise to determine what resources will be required, and what problems may be encountered, if they pursue a particular course of action. Still others want to get outside help on how to resolve organizational problems that have Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 59 already been identified or to avoid troublesome problems that could arise. Firms providing consulting services range in size from solo practitioners to large international organizations employing thou sands of consultants. Some firms specialize by industry while others specialize by type of business function, such as human resources or information systems. In government, management analysts tend to specialize by type of agency. Consulting services usually are pro vided on a contract basis whereby a company solicits proposals from a number of consulting firms specializing in the area in which it needs assistance. These proposals include the estimated cost and scope of the project, staffing requirements, references from a number of previous clients, and the deadline. The company then selects the proposal which best meets its needs. Upon getting an assignment or contract, consultants and analysts try to define the nature and extent of the problem. During this phase of the job, they may analyze data such as annual revenues, employ ment, or expenditures. Next they interview managers and employees and observe the operations of the organizational unit. Next, they use their knowledge of management systems and their expertise in a particular area to develop solutions to the problem. In the course of preparing their recommendations, they must take into account the general nature of the business, the relationship the firm has with others in that industry, and the firm's internal organization and culture, as well as information gained through data collection and analysis. Once they have decided on a course of action, consultants usually report their findings and recommendations to the client, often in writing. In addition, they generally make oral presentations regard ing their findings. For some projects, this is all that is required; for others, consultants may assist in the implementation of their sugges tions. Management analysts in government agencies use the same skills as their private-sector colleagues to advise managers in government on many types of issues, most of which are similar to the problems faced by private firms. For example, if an agency is planning to purchase personal computers, it first must determine which type to buy, given its budget and data processing needs. Management analysts would assess the various types of machines available by price range and determine which best meets their department's needs. Working Conditions Management analysts and consultants usually divide their time between their offices and their client's site. Although much of their time is spent indoors in clean, well-lighted offices, they may have to Many innovative business ideas are contributed by management consultants. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis visit a client's production facility where conditions may not be so favorable. Typically, analysts and consultants work at least 40 hours a week. Overtime is common, especially when project deadlines are near. Since they must spend a significant portion of their time with clients, they may travel frequently. Self-employed consultants can set their workload and hours and work at home. On the other hand, their livelihood depends on their ability to maintain and expand their client base. Wage and salary consultants also must favorably impress potential clients to get and keep clients for their company. Employment Management analysts and consultants held about 231,000 jobs in 1994. About half of these workers were self-employed. Most of the rest worked in management consulting firms and for Federal, State, and local governments. The majority of those working for the Fed eral Government were found in the Department of Defense. Management analysts and consultants are found throughout the country, but employment is concentrated in large metropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Educational requirements for entry level jobs in this field vary widely, but there is an increasing emphasis on scientific and techno logical applications at the undergraduate level. Employers in private industry generally seek individuals with a master’s degree in business administration or a related discipline. Individuals hired straight out of school with only a bachelor's degree generally work as research associates, but find it difficult to advance up the career ladder unless they get an advanced degree, Most government agencies hire people with a bachelor's degree and no work experience as entry level management analysts, and often pay for graduate classes in manage ment analysis. Many fields of study provide a suitable educational background for this occupation because of the diversity of problem areas ad dressed by management analysts and consultants. These include most areas of business and management, as well as computer and information sciences and engineering. Management analysts and consultants who are hired directly from school may participate in formal company or government training programs. Such programs often include instruction on policies and procedures, computer systems and software, research processes, and management practices and principles. Analysts and consultants routinely attend conferences to keep abreast of current developments in their field. Many entrants to this occupation have, in addition to the appro priate formal education, several years of experience in management or in another specialization. The value of this experience enables many to land mid-level positions. Management analysts and consultants often work with little or no supervision, so they should be self-motivated and disciplined. Ana lytical skills, the ability to get along with a wide range of people, strong oral and written communication skills, good judgment, the ability to manage time well, and creativity in developing solutions to problems are other desirable qualities for prospective management analysts and consultants. In large consulting firms, beginners usually start as a researcher for a consulting team. The team is responsible for the entire project and each consultant is assigned to a particular area. As consultants gain experience, they may be assigned to work on one specific project full-time, taking on more responsibility and managing their own hours. At the senior level, consultants may supervise entry level workers and become increasingly involved in seeking out new busi ness. Those with exceptional skills may eventually become a partner or principal in the firm. Others with entrepreneurial ambition may open their own firm. A high percentage of management consultants are self-employed, partly because business start-up costs are low. Self-employed con 60 Occuptional Outlook Handbook sultants also can share office space, administrative help, and other resources with other self-employed consultants or small consulting firms—thus reducing overhead costs. Many such firms fail, how ever, because of an inability to acquire and maintain a profitable client base. The Institute of Management Consultants (a division of the Council of Consulting Organizations, Inc.) offers the Certified Man agement Consultant (CMC) designation to those who pass an exami nation and meet minimum levels of education and experience. Certification is not mandatory for management consultants to prac tice, but it may give a jobseeker a competitive advantage. Job Outlook Employment of management analysts and consultants is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as industry and government increasingly rely on outside exper tise to improve the performance of their organizations. Growth is expected in large consulting firms, but also in small consulting firms whose consultants will specialize in specific areas of expertise. Increased competition has forced American industry to take a closer look at its operations. As international and domestic markets become more competitive, firms must use what resources they have more efficiently. Management consultants are being increasingly relied upon to help reduce costs, streamline operations, and develop marketing strategies. As businesses downsize and eliminate needed functions as well as permanent staff, consultants will be used to perform those functions that were previously handled internally. Businesses attempting to expand, particularly into world markets, frequently need the skills of management consultants to help with organizational, administrative, and other issues. Continuing changes in the business environment also are expected to lead to demand for management consultants. Firms will use consultants to incorporate new technologies, to cope with more numerous and complex gov ernment regulations, and to adapt to a changing labor force. As businesses rely more on technology, there are increasing roles for consultants with a technical background, such as engineering or biotechnology, particularly when combined with an MBA. Federal, State, and local agencies also are expected to expand their use of management analysts. In the era of budget deficits, analysts' skills at identifying problems and implementing cost reduc tion measures are expected to become increasingly important. How ever, because almost one-half of the management analysts employed by the Federal Government work for the Department of Defense, Federal employment growth will increase slowly because of cutbacks in the Nation's defense budget. Despite projected rapid employment growth, competition for jobs as management consultants is expected to be keen in the private sector. Because management consultants can come from such di verse educational backgrounds, the pool of applicants from which employers hire is quite large. Additionally, the independent and challenging nature of the work combined with high earnings potential make this occupation attractive to many. Job opportunities are expected to be best for those with a graduate degree and some indus try expertise. Because many small consulting firms fail each year for lack of managerial expertise and clients, those interested in opening their own firm must have good organizational and marketing skills, plus several years of consulting experience. Earnings Salaries for management analysts and consultants vary widely by experience, education, and employer. In 1994, those who were wage and salary workers had median annual earnings of about $41,300. The middle 50 percent earned between $30,000 and $53,900. In 1994, according to the Association of Management Consulting Firms (ACME), earnings—including bonuses and/or profit sharing— for research associates in ACME member firms averaged $30,400; https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis for entry level consultants, $41,800; for management consultants, $58,300; for senior consultants, $89,200; for junior partners, $120,100; and for senior partners, $194,000. Typical benefits for salaried analysts and consultants include health and life insurance, a retirement plan, vacation and sick leave, profit sharing, and bonuses for outstanding work. In addition, all travel expenses usually are reimbursed by the employer. Selfemployed consultants usually have to maintain their own office and provide their own benefits. Related Occupations Management analysts and consultants collect, review, and analyze data; make recommendations; and assist in the implementation of their ideas. Others who use similar skills are managers, computer systems analysts, operations research analysts, economists, and financial analysts. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities in management consulting is available from: •"ACME, The Association of Management Consulting Firms, 521 Fifth Ave., 35th Floor, New York, NY 10175-3598. For information about a career as a State or local government management analyst, contact your State or local employment service. Persons interested in a management analyst position in the Fed eral Government can obtain information from: •"Office of Personnel Management, 1900 E St. NW„ Washington, DC 20415. Marketing, Advertising, and Public Relations Managers (D.O.T. 096.161-010, 141.137-010: 159.167-022; 163.117-014, -018, -022, -026, .167-010, -014, -018, -022, .267-010; 164.117-010, -014, -018, .167-010; 165.117-010, -014; 185.157-014, .167-042; 187.167-162, -170; 189.117-018) Nature of the Work The fundamental objective of any firm is to market its products or services profitably. In small firms, all marketing responsibilities may be assumed by the owner or chief executive officer. In large firms, which may offer numerous products and services nationally or even worldwide, experienced marketing, advertising, and public relations managers coordinate these and related activities. The executive vice president for marketing in large firms directs the overall marketing policy—including market research, marketing strategy, sales, advertising, promotion, pricing, product development, and public relations activities. (This occupation is included in the Handbook statement on general managers and top executives.) These activities are supervised by middle and supervisory managers who oversee staffs of professionals and technicians. Marketing managers develop the firm's detailed marketing strat egy. With the help of subordinates, including product development managers and market research managers, they determine the demand for products and services offered by the firm and its competitors and identify potential consumers—for example, business firms, whole salers, retailers, government, or the general public. Mass markets are further categorized according to various factors such as region, age, income, and lifestyle. Marketing managers develop pricing strategy with an eye towards maximizing the firm's share of the market and its profits while ensuring that the firm's customers are satisfied. In collaboration with sales, product development, and other managers, they monitor trends that indicate the need for new products and services and oversee product development. Marketing managers work with advertising and promotion managers to best promote the firm's products and services and to attract potential users. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 61 agement. They observe social, economic, and political trends that might ultimately have an effect upon the firm, and make recommen dations to enhance the firm's public image in view of those trends. Public relations managers may confer with labor relations managers to produce internal company communications—such as news about employee-management relations—and with financial managers to produce company reports. They assist company executives in draft ing speeches, arranging interviews, and other forms of public contact; oversee company archives; and respond to information requests. In addition, some public relations managers handle special events such as sponsorship of races, parties introducing new products, or other activities the firm supports in order to gain public attention through the press without advertising directly. A wide range of educational backgrounds are suitable for entry into marketing, advertising, and public relations jobs, but many employ ers prefer a broad liberal arts background. Sales managers direct the firm's sales program. They assign sales territories and goals and establish training programs for their sales representatives. Managers advise their sales representatives on ways to improve their sales performance. In large, multiproduct firms, they oversee regional and local sales managers and their staffs. Sales managers maintain contact with dealers and distributors. They analyze sales statistics gathered by their staffs to determine sales potential and inventory requirements and monitor the preferences of customers. Such information is vital to develop products and maxi mize profits. Except in the largest firms, advertising and promotion staffs generally are small and serve as a liaison between the firm and the advertising or promotion agency to which many advertising or pro motional functions are contracted out. Advertising managers oversee the account services, creative services, and media services depart ments. The account services department is managed by account executives, who assess the need for advertising and, in advertising agencies, maintain the accounts of clients. The creative services department develops the subject matter and presentation of advertis ing. This department is supervised by a creative director, who over sees the copy chief and art director and their staffs. The media services department is supervised by the media director, who over sees planning groups that select the communication media—for example, radio, television, newspapers, magazines, or outdoor signs—to disseminate the advertising. Promotion managers supervise staffs of promotion specialists. They direct promotion programs combining advertising with pur chase incentives to increase sales of products or services. In an effort to establish closer contact with purchasers—dealers, distributors, or consumers—promotion programs may involve direct mail, telemar keting, television or radio advertising, catalogs, exhibits, inserts in newspapers, in-store displays and product endorsements, and special events. Purchase incentives may include discounts, samples, gifts, rebates, coupons, sweepstakes, and contests. Public relations managers supervise public relations specialists (see the Handbook statement on public relations specialists). These managers direct publicity programs to a targeted public. They use any necessary communication media in their effort to maintain the support of the specific group upon whom their organization's success depends, such as consumers, stockholders, or the general public. For example, public relations managers may clarify or justify the firm's point of view on health or environmental issues to community or special interest groups. They evaluate advertising and promotion programs for compatibility with public relations efforts. Public relations managers, in effect, serve as the eyes and ears of top man https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Conditions Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers are provided with offices close to top managers. Long hours, including evenings and weekends, are common. Working under pressure is unavoidable as schedules change, problems arise, and deadlines and goals must be met. Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers meet frequently with other managers; some meet with the public and government officials. Substantial travel may be involved. For example, attendance at meetings sponsored by associations or industries is often mandatory. Sales managers travel to national, regional, and local offices and to various dealers and distributors. Advertising and promotion manag ers may travel to meet with clients or representatives of communica tions media. At times, public relations managers travel to meet with special interest groups or government officials. Job transfers be tween headquarters and regional offices are common—particularly among sales managers—and can disrupt family life. Employment Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers held about 461,000 jobs in 1994. These managers are found in virtually every industry. Industries employing them in significant numbers include motor vehicle dealers; printing and publishing firms; advertising agencies; department stores; computer and data processing services firms; and management and public relations firms. Training, Advancement, and Other Qualifications A wide range of educational backgrounds are suitable for entry into marketing, advertising, and public relations managerial jobs, but many employers prefer a broad liberal arts background. A bachelor's degree in sociology, psychology, literature, or philosophy, among other subjects, is acceptable. However, requirements vary depending upon the particular job. For marketing, sales, and promotion management positions, some employers prefer a bachelor's or master's degree in business admini stration with an emphasis on marketing. Courses in business law, economics, accounting, finance, mathematics, and statistics are also highly recommended. In highly technical industries, such as com puter and electronics manufacturing, a bachelor's degree in engineer ing or science combined with a master’s degree in business administration is preferred. For advertising management positions, some employers prefer a bachelor's degree in advertising or journal ism. A course of study should include courses in marketing, con sumer behavior, market research, sales, communications methods and technology, and visual arts—for example, art history and photog raphy. For public relations management positions, some employers prefer a bachelor's or master's degree in public relations or journal ism. The individual's curriculum should include courses in advertis ing, business administration, public affairs, political science, and creative and technical writing. For all these specialties, courses in management and completion of an internship while in school are highly recommended. Familiarity with computerized word process ing and data base applications also are important for many market ing, advertising, and public relations management positions. 62 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Most marketing, advertising, and public relations management positions are filled by promoting experienced staff or related profes sional or technical personnel—for example, sales representatives, purchasing agents, buyers, product or brand specialists, advertising specialists, promotion specialists, and public relations specialists. In small firms, where the number of positions is limited, advancement to a management position generally comes slowly. In large firms, promotion may occur more quickly. Although experience, ability, and leadership are emphasized for promotion, advancement can be accelerated by participation in management training programs conducted by many large firms. Many firms also provide their employees with continuing education opportunities, either in-house or at local colleges and universities, and encourage employee participation in seminars and conferences, often provided by professional societies. Often in collaboration with colleges and universities, numerous marketing and related associa tions sponsor national or local management training programs. Courses include brand and product management, international mar keting, sales management evaluation, telemarketing and direct sales, promotion, marketing communication, market research, organiza tional communication, and data processing systems procedures and management. Many firms pay all or part of the cost for those who successfully complete courses. Some associations (listed under sources of additional information) offer certification programs for marketing, advertising, and public relations managers. Certification is a sign of competence and achievement in this field that is particularly important in a competi tive job market. While relatively few marketing, advertising, and public relations managers currently are certified, the number of managers who seek certification is expected to grow. For example, Sales and Marketing Executives International offers a management certification program based on education and job performance. The Public Relations Society of America offers an accreditation program for public relations practitioners based on years of experience and an examination. The International Association of Business Communica tors offers an accreditation program for the manager or the person ready to move into communication management. The American Marketing Association is developing a certification program for marketing managers. Persons interested in becoming marketing, advertising, and public relations managers should be mature, creative, highly motivated, resistant to stress, and flexible, yet decisive. The ability to commu nicate persuasively, both orally and in writing, with other managers, staff, and the public is vital. Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers also need tact, good judgment, and exceptional ability to establish and maintain effective personal relationships with supervisory and professional staff members and client firms. Because of the importance and high visibility of their jobs, mar keting, advertising, and public relations managers often are prime candidates for advancement. Well-trained, experienced, successful managers may be promoted to higher positions in their own or other firms. Some become top executives. Managers with extensive experience and sufficient capital may open their own businesses. Job Outlook Marketing, advertising, and public relations manager jobs are highly coveted and will be sought by other managers or highly experienced professional and technical personnel, resulting in substantial job competition. College graduates with extensive experience, a high level of creativity, and strong communication skills should have the best job opportunities. Employment of marketing, advertising, and public relations managers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Increasingly intense domestic and global competition in products and services offered to consumers should require greater marketing, promotional, and public relations efforts. Management and public relations firms may experience https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis particularly rapid growth as businesses increasingly hire contractors for these services rather than support additional full-time staff. Projected employment growth varies by industry. For example, employment of marketing, advertising, and public relations managers is expected to grow much faster than average in most business services industries, such as computer and data processing, and man agement and public relations firms, while average growth is pro jected in manufacturing industries overall. Many companies that eliminated in-house marketing and advertising departments during downsizing in recent years are now relying on firms which specialize in promotion, marketing, and advertising activities to provide these services. Earnings , According to a National Association of Colleges and Employers survey, starting salary offers to marketing majors graduating in 1995 averaged about $25,000; advertising majors, about $22,000. The median annual salary of marketing, advertising, and public relations managers was $44,000 in 1994. The lowest 10 percent earned $21,000 or less, while the top 10 percent earned $98,000 or more. Many earn bonuses equal to 10 percent or more of their salaries. Surveys show that salary levels vary substantially depend ing upon the level of managerial responsibility, length of service, education, and the employer's size, location, and industry. For example, manufacturing firms generally pay marketing, advertising, and public relations managers higher salaries than nonmanufacturing firms. For sales managers, the size of their sales territory is another important factor. According to a 1994 survey by Abbot, Langer and Associates, of Crete, Illinois, annual incomes for sales/marketing managers varied greatly—from under $28,000 to over $250,000—depending on the manager's level of education, experience, industry, and the number of employees he or she supervised. The median annual income for top advertising managers was $44,000; top sales promotion managers was $45,000; product/brand managers, $57,000; top market research managers, $59,000; regional sales managers, $69,000; and chief marketing executives, $69,000. According to a 1994 survey by Advertising Age Magazine, an nual salaries of marketing, advertising, and public relations managers ranged from a low of $44,000 to a high of $145,000. Related Occupations Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers direct the sale of products and services offered by their firms and the communica tion of information about their firms' activities. Other personnel involved with marketing, advertising, and public relations include art directors, commercial and graphic artists, copy chiefs, copywriters, editors, lobbyists, marketing research analysts, public relations specialists, promotion specialists, sales representatives, and technical writers. (Some of these occupations are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Sources of Additional Information For information about careers in sales and marketing management, contact: •"American Marketing Association, 250 S. Wacker Dr., Chicago, IL 60606. •"Sales and Marketing Executives International, 458 Statler Office Tower, Cleveland, OH 44115. For information about careers in advertising management, con tact: •"American Advertising Federation, Education Services Department, 1101 Vermont Ave. NW., Suite 500, Washington, DC 20005. Information about careers in promotion management is available from: •"Council of Sales Promotion Agencies, 750 Summer St., Stamford, CT 06901. •"Promotion Marketing Association of America, Inc., 322 Eighth Ave., Suite 1201, New York, NY 10001. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 63 Information about careers in public relations management is available from: ••Public Relations Society of America, 33 Irving Place, New York, NY 10003-2376. Information on accreditation for business communicators is avail able from: ••International Business Communicators, One Hallidie Plaza, Suite 600, San Francisco, CA 94102. Personnel, Training, and Labor Relations Specialists and Managers (D.O.T. 079.127; 099.167-010; 166.067, .117, .167 except -046, .257, .267-014 through -046; 169.107, .167-062, .207; 188.117-010,-086, .217) Nature of the Work Attracting the most qualified employees available and matching them to the jobs for which they are best suited is important for the success of any organization. However, many enterprises are too large to permit close contact between top management and employees. Instead, personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and man agers, commonly known as human resources specialists and manag ers, provide this link. These individuals recruit and interview employees and advise on hiring decisions in accordance with policies and requirements that have been established in conjunction with top management. In an effort to improve morale and productivity and limit job turnover, they also help their firms effectively use employ ees' skills, provide training opportunities to enhance those skills, and boost employees’ satisfaction with their jobs and working conditions. Although some jobs in the human resources field require only limited contact with people outside the office, most involve frequent contact. Dealing with people is an essential part of the job. In a small organization, one person may handle all aspects of personnel, training, and labor relations work. In contrast, in a large corporation, the top human resources executive usually develops and coordinates personnel programs and policies. (Executives are in cluded in the Handbook statement on general managers and top executives.) These policies usually are implemented by a director or manager of human resources and, in some cases, a director of indus trial relations. The director of human resources may oversee several depart ments, each headed by an experienced manager, who most likely specializes in one personnel activity such as employment, compen sation, benefits, training and development, or employee relations. Employment and placement managers oversee the hiring and separation of employees and supervise various workers, including equal employment opportunity specialists and recruitment specialists. Recruiters maintain contacts within the community and may travel extensively—often to college campuses—to search for promis ing job applicants. Recruiters screen, interview, and, in some cases, test applicants. They may also check references and extend offers of employment to qualified candidates. These workers need to be thoroughly familiar with the organization and its personnel policies to discuss wages, working conditions, and promotional opportunities with prospective employees. They also need to keep informed about equal employment opportunity (EEO) and affirmative action guide lines and laws, such as the Americans With Disabilities Act. EEO representatives or affirmative action coordinators handle this area in large organizations. They investigate and resolve EEO grievances, examine corporate practices for possible violations, and compile and submit EEO statistical reports. Employer relations representatives—who usually work in gov ernment agencies—maintain working relationships with local em ployers and promote the use of public employment programs and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis services. Similarly, employment interviewers—sometimes called personnel consultants—help match jobseekers with employers. (For more information, see the statement on employment interviewers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job analysts, sometimes called position classifiers, perform very exacting work. They collect and examine detailed information about job duties to prepare job descriptions. These descriptions explain the duties, training, and skills each job requires. Whenever a large organization introduces a new job or reviews existing jobs, it calls upon the expert knowledge of the job analyst. Occupational analysts conduct research, generally in large firms. They are concerned with occupational classification systems and study the effects of industry and occupational trends upon worker relationships. They may serve as technical liaison between the firm and industry, government, and labor unions. Establishing and maintaining a firm's pay system is the principal job of the compensation manager. Assisted by staff specialists, compensation managers devise ways to ensure fair and equitable pay rates. They may conduct surveys to see how their rates compare with others and to see that the firm's pay scale complies with changing laws and regulations. In addition, compensation managers often oversee their firm's performance evaluation system, and they may design reward systems such as pay-for-performance plans. Employee benefits managers handle the company's employee benefits program, notably its health insurance and pension plans. Expertise in designing and administering benefits programs continues to gain importance as employer-provided benefits account for a growing proportion of overall compensation costs, and as benefit plans increase in number and complexity. For example, pension benefits might include savings and thrift, profit-sharing, and stock ownership plans; health benefits may include long-term catastrophic illness insurance and dental insurance. Familiarity with health benefits is a top priority at present, as more firms struggle to cope with the rising cost of health care for employees and retirees. In addition to health insurance and pension coverage, some firms offer their employees life and accidental death and dismemberment insur ance, disability insurance, and relatively new benefits designed to meet the needs of a changing work force, such as parental leave, child care and elder care, long-term nursing home care insurance, employee assistance and wellness programs, and flexible benefits plans. Benefits managers must keep abreast of changing Federal and State regulations and legislation that may affect employee benefits. Employee assistance plan managers—also called employee welfare managers—are responsible for a wide array of programs covering occupational safety and health standards and practices; health promotion and physical fitness, medical examinations, and minor health treatment, such as first aid; plant security; publications; food service and recreation activities; car pooling; employee sugges tion systems; child care and elder care; and counseling services. Child and elder care are increasingly important due to growth in the number of dual-income households and the elderly population. Counseling may help employees deal with emotional disorders, alcoholism, or marital, family, consumer, legal, and financial prob lems. Career counseling and second career counseling for employees approaching retirement age also may be provided. In large firms, some of these programs—such as security and safety—are in sepa rate departments headed by other managers. Training is supervised by training and development managers. Increasingly, management recognizes that training offers a way of developing skills, enhancing productivity and quality of work, and building loyalty to the firm. Training is widely accepted as a method of improving employee morale, but this is only one of the reasons for its growing importance. Other factors include the complexity of the work environment, the rapid pace of organizational and technological change, and the growing number of jobs in fields that constantly generate new knowledge. In addition, advances in learning theory have provided insights into how adults learn, and how training can be organized most effectively for them. 64 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Training specialists plan, organize, and direct a wide range of training activities. Trainers conduct orientation sessions and arrange on-the-job training for new employees. They help rank-and-file workers maintain and improve their job skills and possibly prepare for jobs requiring greater skill. They help supervisors improve their interpersonal skills in order to deal effectively with employees. They may set up individualized training plans to strengthen an employee’s existing skills or to teach new ones. Training specialists in some companies set up programs to develop executive potential among employees in lower-level positions. In government-supported train ing programs, training specialists function as case managers. They first assess the training needs of clients, then guide them through the most appropriate training method. After training, clients may either be referred to employer relations representatives or receive job placement assistance. Planning and program development is an important part of the train ing specialist's job. In order to identify and assess training needs within the firm, trainers may confer with managers and supervisors or con duct surveys. They also periodically evaluate training effectiveness. Depending on the size, goals, and nature of the organization, trainers may differ considerably in their responsibilities and in the methods they use. Training methods include on-the-job training; schools in which shop conditions are duplicated for trainees prior to putting them on the shop floor; apprenticeship training; classroom training; programmed instruction, which may involve interactive videos, videodiscs, and other computer-aided instructional technolo gies; simulators; conferences; and workshops. The director of industrial relations forms labor policy, oversees industrial labor relations, negotiates collective bargaining agree ments, and coordinates grievance procedures to handle complaints resulting from disputes under the contract for firms with unionized employees. The director of industrial relations also advises and collaborates with the director of human resources and other managers and members of their staff, because all aspects of personnel policy— such as wages, benefits, pensions, and work practices—may be involved in drawing up a new or revised contract. Industrial labor relations programs are implemented by labor relations managers and their staff. When a collective bargaining agreement is up for negotiation, labor relations specialists prepare information for management to use during negotiation, which re quires familiarity with economic and wage data as well as extensive knowledge of labor law and collective bargaining trends. The labor relations staff interprets and administers the contract with respect to grievances, wages and salaries, employee welfare, health care, pen sions, union and management practices, and other contractual stipu lations. As union membership is continuing to decline in most industries, industrial relations personnel are working more with employees who are not members of a labor union. Dispute resolution—that is, attaining tacit or contractual agree ments—has become increasingly important as parties to a dispute attempt to avoid costly litigation, strikes, or other disruptions. Dis pute resolution also has become more complex, involving employees, management, unions, other firms, and government agencies. Special ists involved in dispute resolution must be highly knowledgeable and experienced, and often report to the director of industrial relations. Conciliators, or mediators, advise and counsel labor and management to prevent and, when necessary, resolve disputes over labor agree ments or other labor relations issues. Arbitrators, sometimes called umpires or referees, decide disputes that bind both labor and man agement to specific terms and conditions of labor contracts. Labor relations specialists who work for unions perform many of the same functions on behalf of the union and its members. Other emerging specialists include international human resources managers, who handle human resources issues related to a company's foreign operations, and human resources information system special ists, who develop and apply computer programs to process personnel information, match jobseekers with job openings, and handle other personnel matters. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Orientation for new employees is often the responsibility ofpersonnel specialists. Working Conditions Personnel work generally takes place in clean, pleasant, and comfort able office settings. Many personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers work a standard 35- to 40-hour week. However, longer hours might be necessary for some workers—for example, labor relations specialists and managers—when contract agreements are being prepared and negotiated. Although most personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers work in the office, some travel extensively. For ex ample, recruiters regularly attend professional meetings and visit college campuses to interview prospective employees. Employment Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers held about 513,000 jobs in 1994. They were employed in virtually every industry. Specialists accounted for 3 out of 5 positions; managers, 2 out of 5. About 9,000—mostly specialists—were self-employed, working as consultants to public and private employers. The private sector accounted for about 85 percent of salaried jobs. Among these salaried jobs, services industries—including business, health, social, management, and educational services—accounted for 4 out of 10 jobs; labor organizations—the largest employer among specific industries—accounted for 1 out of 10. Manufacturing industries accounted for 2 out of 10 jobs, while finance, insurance, and real estate firms accounted for about 1 out of 10. Federal, State, and local governments employed about 15 percent of salaried personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers. They handled the recruitment, interviewing, job classifi cation, training, salary administration, benefits, employee relations, and related matters of the Nation's public employees. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because of the diversity of duties and level of responsibility, the educational backgrounds of personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers vary considerably. In filling entry-level jobs, firms generally seek college graduates. Some employers prefer applicants who have majored in human resources, personnel admini stration, or industrial and labor relations, while others look for col lege graduates with a technical or business background. Still others feel that a well-rounded liberal arts education is best. Many colleges and universities have programs leading to a degree in personnel, human resources, or labor relations. Some offer degree programs in personnel administration or human resources manage ment, training and development, or compensation and benefits. Depending on the school, courses leading to a career in human resources management may be found in departments of business Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 65 administration, education, instructional technology, organizational development, human services, communication, or public administra tion, or within a separate human resources institution or department. Because an interdisciplinary background is appropriate for work in this area, a combination of courses in the social sciences, business, and behavioral sciences is useful. Some jobs may require a back ground in engineering, science, finance, or law. Most prospective personnel specialists should take courses in compensation, recruit ment, training and development, and performance appraisal, as well as courses in principles of management, organizational structure, and industrial psychology. Other relevant courses include business administration, public administration, psychology, sociology, politi cal science, economics, and statistics. Courses in labor law, collec tive bargaining, labor economics, labor history, and industrial psychology also provide a valuable background for the prospective labor relations specialist. Knowledge of computers and information systems is important for some jobs. An advanced degree is increasingly important for some jobs. Many labor relations jobs require graduate study in industrial or labor relations. A law degree seldom is required for entry-level jobs, but many people responsible for contract negotiations are lawyers, and a combination of industrial relations courses and law is highly desir able. A background in law is also desirable for employee benefits managers and others who must interpret the growing number of laws and regulations. A degree in dispute resolution provides an excellent background for mediators, arbitrators, and related personnel. A master's degree in personnel, training, or labor relations, or in busi ness administration with a concentration in human resources man agement is desirable for those seeking general and top management positions. For many specialized jobs in this field, previous experience is an asset; for managerial positions, it is essential. Many employers prefer entry-level workers who have gained some experience through an internship or work-study program while in school. Personnel administration and human resources development require the ability to work with individuals as well as a commitment to organizational goals. This field also demands other skills that people may develop elsewhere—computer usage, selling, teaching, supervising, and volunteering, among others. This field offers clerical workers oppor tunities for advancement to professional positions. Responsible positions sometimes are filled by experienced individuals from other fields, including business, government, education, social services administration, and the military. Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers should speak and write effectively. The growing diversity of the workforce demands the ability to work with or supervise people with various cultural backgrounds, levels of education, and experience. Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers must be patient to cope with conflicting points of view and be able to handle the unexpected and the unusual. The ability to function under pressure is essential. Integrity, fair-mindedness, and a persuasive, congenial personality are also important qualities. Entry-level workers often enter formal or on-the-job training pro grams, in which they learn how to classify jobs, interview applicants, or administer employee benefits. Next, they are assigned to specific areas in the personnel department to gain experience. Later, they may advance to a managerial position, overseeing a major element of the personnel program—compensation or training, for example. Exceptional personnel, training, and labor relations workers may be promoted to director of personnel or industrial relations, which can eventually lead to a top managerial or executive position. Others may join a consulting firm or open their own business. A Ph.D. is an asset for teaching, writing, or consulting work. Though not widespread, some organizations offer certification examinations to members who meet certain education and experience requirements. Certification is a sign of competence and can enhance one's advancement opportunities. (Several of these organizations are listed under sources of additional information.) https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook The number of personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupa tions through the year 2005. As in other occupations, job growth among specialists is projected to outpace job growth among manag ers. In addition, many job openings will result from the need to replace workers who leave this occupation to transfer to other jobs, retire, or for other reasons. However, the job market is likely to remain competitive in view of the abundant supply of qualified college graduates and experienced workers. Most new jobs for personnel, training, and labor relations special ists and managers will be in the private sector as employers, increas ingly concerned about productivity and quality of work, devote greater resources to job-specific training programs in response to the growing complexity of many jobs, the aging of the work force, and technological advances that can leave employees with obsolete skills. In addition, legislation and court rulings setting standards in occupa tional safety and health, equal employment opportunity, wages, and health, pension, family leave, and other benefits will increase de mand for experts in these areas. Rising health care costs, in particu lar, should spur demand for specialists to develop creative compensation and benefits packages that firms can offer prospective employees. Employment of labor relations staff, including arbitra tors and mediators, should grow as firms become more involved in labor relations, and attempt to resolve potentially costly labormanagement disputes out of court. Increasing demand for interna tional human resources managers and human resources information systems specialists may spur additional job growth. Employment demand should be strong in management and con sulting firms as well as personnel supply firms as businesses increas ingly contract out personnel functions or hire personnel specialists on a contractual basis to meet the increasing cost and complexity of training and development programs. Demand should also increase in firms that develop and administer the increasingly complex employee benefits and compensation packages for other organizations. Demand for personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers also is governed by the staffing needs of the firms where they work. A rapidly expanding business is likely to hire additional personnel workers—either as permanent employees or consultants— while a business that has experienced a merger or a reduction in its work force will require fewer personnel workers. Also, as human resources management becomes increasingly important to the success of an organization, some small and medium-size businesses that do not have a human resources department may employ workers to perform human resources duties on a part-time basis while maintain ing other unrelated responsibilities within the company. In any particular firm, the size and the job duties of the human resources staff are determined by a variety of factors, including the firm's organizational philosophy and goals, the labor intensity and skill profile of the industry, the pace of technological change, government regulations, collective bargaining agreements, standards of profes sional practice, and labor market conditions. Factors that could limit job growth include the widespread use of computerized human resources information systems that make work ers more productive. Similar to other workers, employment of personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers, particularly in larger firms, may be adversely affected by corporate downsizing and restructuring. Earnings According to a salary survey conducted by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, bachelor's degree candidates majoring in human resources, including labor relations, received starting offers averaging $25,800 a year in 1995; master's degree candidates, $38,700. According to a 1994 survey of compensation in the human re sources field, conducted by Abbott, Langer, and Associates of Crete, 66 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Illinois, the median total cash compensation for selected personnel and labor relations occupations were: Regional human resources directors................................................... $98,900 Industrial/labor relations directors...................................................... 79,500 Compensation and benefits directors.................................................. 75,300 Benefits directors................................................................................ 74,300 Employee/community relations directors........................................... 68,000 Training directors............................................................................... 64,400 Plant/location personnel managers..................................................... 57,200 Recruitment and interviewing managers............................................. 55,000 Training generalists............................................................................ 54,600 Compensation and benefits supervisors............................................. 47,000 Benefits supervisors........................................................................... 45,900 Classroom instructors............................................ 45,900 Training material development specialists.......................................... 42,000 E.E.O./affirmative action specialists................................................... 42,000 Employment interviewing supervisors................................................ 40,600 Employee/plant nurses....................................................................... 40,300 Safety specialists................................................................................ 39,400 Employee assistance/employee counseling specialists....................... 39,100 Job evaluation specialists................................................................... 37,900 Human resources information systems specialists.............................. 35,900 Employee services/employee recreation specialists........................... 35,200 Benefits specialists............................................................................. 32,000 Personnel records specialists............................................................... 26,600 According to a survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas, personnel specialists with limited experience had median earnings of $25,000 a year in 1993. The middle half earned between $22,700 and $28,600 a year. Personnel supervisors/managers with limited experience had median earnings of $52,800 a year. The middle half earned between $46,300 and $58,600 a year. In the Federal Government in 1995, persons with a bachelor's degree or 3 years' general experience in the personnel field generally started at $18,700 a year. Those with a superior academic record or an additional year of specialized experience started at $23,200 a year. Those with a master's degree may start at $28,300, and those with a doctorate in a personnel field started at $34,300. Beginning salaries were slightly higher in areas where the prevailing local pay level was higher. There are no formal entry-level requirements for managerial positions. Applicants must possess a suitable combination of educa tional attainment, experience, and record of accomplishment. Labor relations specialists in the Federal Government averaged $54,000 a year in 1995; personnel managers, $52,100; equal em ployment opportunity specialists, $50,800; position classification specialists, $48,300; and personnel staffing specialists, $46,000. Related Occupations All personnel, training, and labor relations occupations are closely related. Other workers with skills and expertise in interpersonal relations include employment, rehabilitation, and college career planning and placement counselors; lawyers; psychologists; sociolo gists; social workers; public relations specialists; and teachers. These occupations are described elsewhere in the Handbook. Sources of Additional Information For information about careers in employee training and development, contact: ••American Society for Training and Development, 1640 King St., Box 1443, Alexandria, VA 22313. For information about careers and certification in employee compensation and benefits, contact: •"American Compensation Association, 14040 Northsight Blvd., Scottsdale, AZ 85260. Information about careers and certification in employee benefits is available from: ••International Foundation of Employee Benefit Plans, 18700 W. Bluemound Rd., Brookfield, WI53045. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis For information about careers in arbitration and other aspects of dispute resolution, contact: ••American Arbitration Association, 140 West 51st St., New York, NY 10020. For information about academic programs in industrial relations, write to: •■Industrial Relations Research Association, University of Wisconsin, 7226 Social Science Bldg., 1180 Observatory Dr., Madison, WI 53706. Information about personnel careers in the health care industry is available from; •■American Society for Healthcare Human Resources Administration, One North Franklin, 31st Floor, Chicago, IL 60606. For information about personnel and labor relations careers in government, contact: •"International Association of Personnel in Employment Security, 1801 Louisville Rd., Frankfort, KY 40601. Property and Real Estate Managers (DOT 186.117-042, -046, -058, and -062, .167-018, -030, -038, -042, -046, -062, -066, and -090; 187.167-190; 191.117-046 and -050) Nature of the Work Many people own real estate in the form of a home, but, to busi nesses and investors, commercial real estate is a source of income and profits rather than simply a place for shelter. For them, real estate—including land and structures such as office buildings, shop ping centers, and apartment complexes—is a valuable asset that can produce income and appreciate in value over time if well managed. Real estate can be a source of income when it is leased to others, and a substantial business expense when it is leased from others. For this reason, property and real estate managers perform an important function in increasing and maintaining the value of real estate in vestments for investors. Property managers oversee the performance of income-producing commercial and residential properties and manage the communal property and services of condominium and community associations. Real estate managers, also called real estate asset managers, plan and direct the purchase, development, and disposition of real estate for businesses and are usually employed by a sole owner, large corporation, bank, pension fund, or investment group. These managers are becoming increasingly involved in long term strategic financial planning rather than the day-to-day opera tions of the property. Most property and real estate managers work in the field of property management. When owners of apartments, office buildings, or retail and industrial properties lack the time or expertise to assume the day-to-day management of their real estate investments, they often hire a property manager, or contract for services with a real estate management company. Most property managers handle sev eral properties simultaneously. Property managers act as the owners’ agent and adviser for the property. They market vacant space to prospective tenants, through the use of a leasing agent, advertising, or by other means, and establish rental rates in accordance with prevailing local conditions. They negotiate and prepare lease or rental agreements with tenants and collect their rent payments and other fees. Property managers also handle the financial operations of the property. They see to it that rents are received and make sure that mortgages, taxes, insurance premiums, payroll, and maintenance bills are paid on time. They also supervise the preparation of financial statements and periodically report to the owners on the status of the property, occupancy rates, dates of lease expirations, and other matters. Property managers negotiate contracts for janitorial, security, groundskeeping, trash removal, and other services. When contracts are awarded competitively, managers must solicit bids from several Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 67 contractors and recommend to the owners which bid to accept. They monitor the performance of the contractors, and investigate and resolve complaints from residents and tenants. Managers also pur chase all supplies and equipment needed for the property, and make arrangements with specialists for any repairs that cannot be handled by the regular property maintenance staff. Property managers hire and direct the maintenance and on-site management personnel. At smaller properties, the property manager might employ only a building engineer who maintains the building’s heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning systems and performs other routine maintenance and repair. Larger properties require a sizable maintenance staff supervised by a full-time on-site manager, who works under the direction of the property manager. Building manag ers have similar duties and responsibilities to property managers, except they are responsible for one site only. Although some on-site managers oversee large office buildings or shopping centers, most manage apartments. They train, supervise, and assign duties to the maintenance staff as well as routinely inspect the grounds, facilities, and equipment to determine what repairs are needed. Occasionally, outside contractors are required, and the on site manager may obtain bids for the work and submit them to the property manager. On-site managers schedule routine servicing of the heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning systems and ensure that the work of the maintenance staff and contract workers is up to standards or contract specifications. They keep records of expendi tures incurred for operating the property and submit regular expense reports to the property manager or owners. They may recruit main tenance staff, interview job applicants, and make hiring recommen dations to the property manager. Property and on-site managers employed by condominium and homeowner associations—known as community association manag ers—must be particularly adept at dealing with people. Instead of tenants, they must deal on a daily basis with homeowners—members of the community association that employs the manager. Hired by the volunteer board of directors of the association, the community association manager administers its daily affairs and oversees the maintenance of property and facilities that the homeowners own and use jointly through the association. Smaller community associations usually cannot afford professional management, but managers of larger condominiums have many of the same responsibilities as the managers of large apartment complexes. Some homeowner associa tions encompass thousands of homes, and, in addition to administer ing the associations' financial records and budget, their managers may be responsible for the operation of community pools, golf courses, community centers, and the maintenance of landscaping, parking areas, and streets. Tenant relations (in commercial properties) and resident relations (in residential properties) are an important part of the work of on-site managers, particularly apartment, condominium, and community association managers. On-site managers are responsible for enforc ing rules and lease restrictions, such as pet restrictions or use of parking areas. Apartment and building managers handle requests for service or repairs and try to resolve complaints. They show vacant apartments or office space to prospective residents and explain the occupancy terms. Property managers must understand the provisions of legislation, such as the Americans With Disabilities Act and the Federal Fair Housing Amendment Act, and local fair housing laws to be sure they are not being discriminatory in the renting or advertising of apartments. Some real estate managers are employed by businesses to locate, acquire, and develop real estate needed for their operations and to dispose of property no longer suited to their uses. These managers, sometimes referred to as corporate real estate managers, locate desirable sites for factories, retail stores, hotels and motels, and other business ventures and arrange to purchase or lease the property. They select a site based on their assessment of considerations such as property values, zoning, population growth, and traffic volume and patterns. They negotiate contracts for the purchase or lease of the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis property, securing the most beneficial terms for their company. Corporate real estate managers periodically review their company’s real estate holdings, identifying properties that are no longer com mercially attractive. They negotiate the sale or termination of the lease of properties selected for disposal. Real estate managers who work for land development companies acquire land and plan the construction of shopping centers, houses and apartments, office buildings, or industrial parks. They negotiate with representatives of local government, other businesses, commu nity and public interest groups, and public utilities to eliminate obstacles to the development of the land and to gain support for the planned project. It sometimes takes years to win approval for a project, and in the process managers may have to modify the plans for the project many times. Once they are free to proceed with a project, managers negotiate short-term loans to finance the construc tion of the project, and later negotiate long-term permanent mortgage loans. They then contract with architectural firms to draw up de tailed plans, and with construction companies to build the project. Working Conditions Most property and real estate managers work in clean, modem, welllighted offices, but many spend a major portion of their time away from their desks. Property managers frequently visit the properties they oversee, sometimes on a daily basis when contractors are doing major repair or renovation work. On-site managers may spend a large portion of their workday away from their office visiting the building engineer in the boiler room, checking up on the janitorial and maintenance staff, or investigating a problem reported by a tenant. Many real estate managers spend the majority of their time away from home, traveling to company real estate holdings or searching for properties that might be acquired. Property managers often must attend meetings in the evening with property owners, community association boards of directors, or civic groups. Not surprisingly, many property and real estate managers put in long work weeks. Some apartment managers are required to live in the apartment complexes where they work so that they are available to handle any emergency that occurs while they are off duty. They usually receive compensatory time off, however, for working at night or on weekends. Many apartment managers receive time off during the week so that they are available on weekends to show apartments to prospective residents. Employment Property and real estate managers held about 261,000 jobs in 1994. Most worked for real estate operators and lessors or for property rm • M; ? Delegating responsibilities and communicating effectively are important to the success ofproperty and real estate managers. 68 Occuptional Outlook Handbook management firms. Others worked for real estate development com panies, banks, government agencies that manage public buildings, and corporations with extensive holdings of commercial properties. Many were self-employed developers, apartment owner-managers, or owners of property management or full-service real estate firms that manage as well as sell real estate for clients. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer to hire college graduates for property and real estate management positions. Degrees in business administration, finance, real estate, public administration, or related fields are pre ferred, but persons with degrees in the liberal arts are often accepted. Good speaking, writing, and financial skills, as well as an ability to deal tactfully with people, are essential. Most persons enter property and real estate management as on-site apartment or community association managers, or as assistants to property managers. Previ ous employment as a real estate agent may be an asset to apartment managers because it provides experience useful in showing apart ments and dealing with people, as well as an understanding that an attractive, well-maintained property can command higher rental rates and result in lower turnover among residents. In the past, many persons with backgrounds in building maintenance have advanced to apartment manager positions on the strength of their knowledge of building mechanical systems, but this is becoming uncommon as employers are placing greater emphasis on administrative, financial, and communication abilities for managerial jobs. On-site managers usually begin at smaller apartment complexes, condominiums, or community associations, or as an assistant man ager at a large property or management company. As they acquire experience working under the direction of a property manager, they may advance to positions with greater responsibility at larger proper ties. Persons who excel as on-site managers often transfer to assis tant property manager positions where they can acquire experience handling a broader range of property management responsibilities. Although most persons who enter jobs as assistant property managers do so on the strength of on-site management experience, employers are increasingly hiring inexperienced college graduates with bachelor's or master's degrees in business administration, fi nance, or real estate for these jobs. Assistants work closely with a property manager and acquire experience performing a variety of management tasks, such as preparing the budget, analyzing insurance coverage and risk options, marketing the property to prospective tenants, and collecting overdue rent payments. In time, many assis tants advance to property manager positions. The responsibilities and compensation of property managers increase as they manage larger properties. Most property managers are responsible for several properties at a time, and as their careers advance they are gradually entrusted with properties that are larger or whose management is more complex. Many specialize in the man agement of one type of property, such as apartments, office build ings, condominiums, cooperatives, homeowner associations, or retail properties. Managers who excel at marketing properties to tenants may specialize in managing new properties, while those who are particularly knowledgeable about buildings and their mechanical systems might specialize in the management of older properties that require renovation or more frequent repairs. Some experienced property and real estate managers open their own property or real estate management firms. Persons most commonly enter real estate manager jobs by trans ferring from positions as property managers or real estate brokers. Real estate managers must be good negotiators, adept at persuading and handling people, and good at analyzing data to assess the fair market value of property or its development potential. Resourceful ness and creativity in arranging financing are essential for managers who specialize in land development. Real estate managers may be required to hold a real estate broker's license. Many property and real estate managers attend short-term formal training programs conducted by various professional and trade https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis associations active in the real estate field. Employers send managers to these programs to improve their management skills and expand their knowledge of specialized subjects, such as the operation and maintenance of building mechanical systems, enhancing property values, insurance and risk management, personnel management, business and real estate law, resident/tenant relations, communica tions, and accounting and financial concepts. Managers also partici pate in these programs to prepare themselves for positions of greater responsibility in property and real estate management. Completion of these programs, together with meeting job experience standards and achieving a satisfactory score on a written examination, leads to certification, or the formal award of a professional designation, by the sponsoring association. In addition to these qualifications, some associations require their members to adhere to a specific code of ethics. Managers of public housing subsidized by the Federal Govern ment are required to be certified, but many property and real estate managers who work with all kinds of property choose to earn a professional designation voluntarily because it represents formal industry recognition of their achievements and status in the occupa tion. A number of organizations offer such programs. The Institute of Real Estate Management awards the designations Accredited Residential Manager and Certified Property Manager, while the National Association of Home Builders awards the designation Registered Apartment Manager. The National Apartment Associa tion confers the designations Certified Apartment Manager and Certified Apartment Property Supervisor. The Community Associa tions Institute bestows the designation Professional Community Association Manager and Association Management Specialist, while the Building Owners and Managers Institute International awards the designations Real Property Administrator and Facilities Management Administrator. Job Outlook Employment of property and real estate managers is projected to increase as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. In addition to rising demand for these workers, many job openings are expected to occur as property managers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Opportunities should be best for persons with college degrees in business administration and related fields, as well as those who attain professional designa tions. Growth in the demand for office buildings and retail establish ments will spur employment of property and real estate managers. The projected expansion in wholesale and retail trade; finance, insurance, and real estate; and services industries is expected to require growth in the Nation's supply of office and retail space. Some additional growth will come from adding on to existing build ings. However, growth will be tempered by downsizing and consoli dation, as well as by the leftover office space created during the building boom of the 1980s. Although some of these additions will be handled by the property manager already on the site, other addi tions will require the hiring of additional property managers. More complex responsibilities combined with larger facilities may lead to the hiring of more property managers per building. In addition, the expected faster than average employment growth in some retail trade industries should require greater numbers of real estate managers to acquire and develop properties for expanding restaurant, food, apparel, and specialized merchandise chains. Growth in the Nation's stock of apartments and houses also should require more property and real estate managers. Although the rate of new household formation is expected to slow somewhat over the 1994-2005 period, the high cost of purchasing a home is expected to force an increasing proportion of individuals to delay leaving rental housing. In addition, developments of new homes are increas ingly being organized with community or homeowner associations that provide community services and oversee jointly owned common areas, requiring professional management. To help properties be Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 69 come more profitable, more commercial and multi-unit residential property owners are expected to place their investments in the hands of professional managers. Growth in demand should also arise as a result of the changing demographic composition of the population. The number of older people will increase during the projection period, creating a need for various types of suitable housing, such as assisted living arrange ments and retirement communities. Accordingly, there will be a need for property managers to operate these facilities, especially those who have a background in the operation and administrative aspects of running a health unit. Earnings Median earnings of all property and real estate managers were $22,600 a year in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $15,300 and $35,100. Ten percent earned less than $10,200 and 10 percent earned more than $52,500 annually. Community association managers received compensation compa rable to on-site and property managers employed by other types of properties. Many resident apartment managers receive the use of an apartment as part of their compensation package. Property and real estate managers often are given the use of a company automobile, and managers employed in land development often receive a small percentage of ownership in projects that they develop. Related Occupations Property and real estate managers plan, organize, staff, and manage the real estate operations of businesses. Workers who perform similar functions in other fields include restaurant and food service manag ers, hotel and resort managers and assistants, health services manag ers, education administrators, and city managers. Sources of Additional Information General information about careers in property and real estate man agement and programs leading to the award of a professional desig nation in the field is available from: •“Building Owners and Managers Association International, 1201 New York Ave. NW, Suite 300, Washington, DC 20005. •“Building Owners and Managers Institute International, 1521 Ritchie Hwy., Arnold, MD 21012. •“Community Associations Institute, 1630 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314. •“Institute of Real Estate Management, 430 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, IL 60611. •“National Apartment Association, 1111 14th St. NW., Suite 900, Washing ton, DC 20005. •“National Association of Home Builders, 1201 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. •“International Association of Corporate Real Estate Executives, 440 Co lumbia Dr., Suite 100, West Palm Beach, FL 33409. Purchasers and Buyers (D.O.T. 162.117-018, .157-018, -022, -030, -034, and -038, .167-022, and -030; 163.117-010; 169.167-054; 184.117-078; and 185.167-034) Nature of the Work Purchasers and buyers seek to obtain the highest quality merchandise at the lowest possible price for their employers. In general, purchas ers buy goods and services for the use of their company or organiza tion and buyers buy items for resale. They determine which com modities or services are best, choose the suppliers of the product or service, negotiate the lowest price, and award contracts that ensure that the correct amount of the product or service is received at the appropriate time. In order to accomplish these tasks successfully, purchasers and buyers study sales records and inventory levels of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis current stock, identify foreign and domestic suppliers, and keep abreast of changes affecting both the supply of and demand for products and materials for which they are responsible. Purchasers and buyers evaluate and select suppliers based upon price, quality, availability, reliability, and selection. They review listings in catalogs, industry periodicals, directories, and trade jour nals, research the reputation and history of the suppliers, and adver tise anticipated purchase actions in order to solicit bids from suppliers. Meetings, trade shows, conferences, and visits to suppli ers' plants and distribution centers also provide opportunities for purchasers and buyers to examine products, assess a supplier's pro duction and distribution capabilities, as well as discuss other techni cal and business considerations that bear on the purchase. Specific job duties and responsibilities vary with the type of commodities or services to be purchased and the employer. Purchasing professionals who are employed by government agencies or manufacturing firms are usually called purchasing direc tors, managers, or agents; industrial buyers; or contract specialists. These workers acquire product materials, intermediate goods, ma chines, supplies, and other materials used in the production of a final product. Some purchasing managers who work in the industrial sector and specialize in negotiating and supervising supply contracts are called contract specialists or supply managers. Purchasing agents and managers obtain items ranging from raw materials, fabricated parts, machinery, and office supplies to construction services and airline tickets. The flow of work—or even the entire production process—can be slowed or halted if the right materials, supplies, or equipment are not on hand when needed. In order to be effective, purchasers and buyers must have a working technical knowledge of the goods or services to be purchased. In large industrial organizations, a distinction is often drawn between the work of a buyer or purchasing agent and that of a pur chasing manager. Purchasing agents and buyers typically focus on routine purchasing tasks, often specializing in a commodity or group of related commodities—for example, steel, lumber, cotton, fabri cated metal products, or petroleum products. This usually requires the purchaser to track such things as market conditions, price trends, or futures markets. Purchasing managers usually handle the more complex or critical purchases and may supervise a group of purchas ing agents handling other goods and services. Whether a person is titled purchasing agent, buyer, or manager depends more on specific industry and employer practices than on specific job duties. Changing business practices have altered the traditional roles of purchasing professionals. Manufacturing companies have begun to recognize the importance of purchasing professionals and increas ingly involve them at most stages of product development. Their ability to forecast a part's or material's cost, availability, and suitabil ity for its intended purpose can affect the entire product design. For example, potential problems with the supply of materials may be avoided by consulting the purchasing department in the early stages of product design. In addition, there is a trend toward limited-source, long-term contracting. These contracts increase the importance of supplier selection because agreements are larger in scope and longer in dura tion. A major responsibility of most purchasers is to work out prob lems that may occur with a supplier because the success of the relationship directly affects the buying firm's performance. Increasingly, purchasing professionals work closely with other employees in their own organization when deciding on purchases, an arrangement sometimes called team buying. For example, they may discuss the design of custom-made products with company design engineers, quality problems in purchased goods with quality assur ance engineers and production supervisors, or shipment problems with managers in the receiving department before submitting an order. Contract specialists in the Federal Government typically use sealed bids, but sometimes use negotiated agreements for complex items. Government purchasing agents and managers must follow 70 Occuptional Outlook Handbook strict laws and regulations in their work. These legal requirements are occasionally changed, so agents and contract specialists must stay informed about the latest regulations and their applications. Other professionals, who buy finished goods for resale, are em ployed by wholesale and retail establishments where they are com monly referred to as "buyers" or "merchandise managers." Whole sale and retail buyers are an integral part of a complex system of distribution and merchandising that caters to the vast an-ay of con sumer needs and desires. Wholesale buyers purchase goods directly from manufacturers or from other wholesale firms for resale to retail firms, commercial establishments, institutions, and other organiza tions. In retail firms, buyers purchase goods from wholesale firms or directly from manufacturers for resale to the public. Buyers largely determine which products their establishment will sell. Therefore, it is essential that they have the ability to accurately predict what will appeal to consumers. They must constantly stay informed of the latest fashions and trends because failure to do so could jeopardize profits and the reputation of their company. Buyers also follow ads in newspapers and other media to check competitors' sales activities and watch general economic conditions to anticipate consumer buying patterns. Buyers working for large and medium-sized firms usually specialize in acquiring one or two lines of merchandise, whereas buyers working for small stores may purchase their com plete inventory. The use of private-label merchandise and the consolidation of buying departments have increased the responsibilities of retail buyers. Private-label merchandise, produced for a particular retailer, requires buyers to work closely with vendors to develop and obtain the desired product. The downsizing and consolidation of buying departments is also increasing the demands placed on buyers be cause, although the amount of work remains unchanged, there are fewer people needed to accomplish it. The result is an increase in the workloads and levels of responsibility. Many merchandise managers assist in the planning and imple mentation of sales promotion programs. Working with merchandis ing executives, they determine the nature of the sale and purchase accordingly. They also work with advertising personnel to create the ad campaign. For example, they may determine the media in which the advertisement will be placed—newspapers, direct mail, televi sion, or some combination of these. In addition, merchandising managers often visit the selling floor to ensure that the goods are properly displayed. Often, assistant buyers are responsible for plac ing orders and checking shipments. Computers are having a major effect on the jobs of purchasers and buyers. In manufacturing and service industries, computers handle most of the more routine tasks—enabling purchasing professionals Computers allow purchasers and buyers easy access to current product, sales, and inventory information. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis to concentrate mainly on the analytical aspects of the job. Compu ters are used to obtain up-to-date product and price listings, to track inventory levels, process routine orders, and help determine when to make purchases. Computers also maintain bidders' lists, record the history of supplier performance, and issue purchase orders. Computerized systems have dramatically simplified many of the routine buying functions and improved efficiency in determining which products are selling. For example, cash registers connected to computers, known as point-of-sale terminals, allow organizations to maintain centralized, up-to-date sales and inventory records. This information can then be used to produce weekly sales reports that reflect the types of products in demand. As well as monitoring their company’s sales, buyers use computers to gain instant access to the specifications for thousands of commodities, inventory records, and their customers' purchase records. Some firms are linked with manu facturers or wholesalers by electronic purchasing systems. These systems speed selection and ordering and provide information on availability and shipment, allowing buyers to better concentrate on the selection of goods and suppliers. Working Conditions Most purchasers and buyers work in comfortable, well-lighted offices at stores, corporate headquarters, or production facilities. They frequently work more than a 40-hour week because of special sales, conferences, or production deadlines. Evening and weekend work is common. For those working in retail trade, this is especially true prior to holiday seasons. Consequently, many retail firms discourage the use of vacation time from late November until early January. Buyers and merchandise managers often work under great pres sure since wholesale and retail stores are so competitive; buyers need physical stamina to keep up with the fast-paced nature of their work. Traveling is usually required and many purchasers and buyers spend at least several days a month on the road. Fligh-fashion buyers and purchasers for worldwide manufacturing companies often travel outside the United States. Employment Purchasers and buyers held about 621,000 jobs in 1994. Purchasing agents and purchasing managers each accounted for slightly more than one-third of the total while buyers accounted for the remainder. Almost all worked full time. About one-half of all buyers and purchasers worked in wholesale and retail trade establishments such as grocery or department stores. One-fourth worked in manufacturing. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement. Qualified persons usually begin as trainees, purchasing clerks, ex pediters, junior buyers, or assistant buyers. Retail and wholesale firms prefer to hire applicants who are familiar with the merchandise they sell as well as with wholesaling and retailing practices. Some retail firms promote qualified employees to assistant buyer positions; others recruit and train college graduates as assistant buyers. Most employers use a combination of methods. Educational requirements tend to vary with the size of the organi zation. Large stores and distributors, especially those in wholesale and retail trade, prefer applicants who have completed a bachelor's degree program that focused on business related curriculum. Many manufacturing firms desire applicants with a bachelor's or master's degree in business, economics, or technical training such as engineer ing or one of the applied sciences and tend to put a greater emphasis on formal training. Regardless of academic preparation, new em ployees must learn the specifics of their employers' business. Although training periods vary in length, most last several years. In wholesale and retail establishments, most trainees begin by selling merchandise, supervising sales workers, checking invoices on mate rial received, and keeping track of stock on hand, although wide spread use of computers has simplified some of these tasks. As they Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 71 progress, retail trainees are given more buying-related responsibili ties. In manufacturing, new purchasing employees are often enrolled in company training programs and spend a considerable amount of time learning about company operations and purchasing practices. They work with experienced purchasers to learn about commodities, prices, suppliers, and markets. In addition, they may be assigned to production planning to learn about the material requirements system and the inventory system. Persons who wish to become wholesale or retail buyers should be good at planning and decision making and have an interest in mer chandising. Anticipating consumer preferences and ensuring that goods are in stock when they are needed require resourcefulness, good judgment, and self-confidence. Buyers must be able to make decisions quickly and take risks. Marketing skills and the ability to identify products that will sell are also very important. Employers often look for leadership ability and communication skills because buyers spend a large portion of their time supervising assistant buyers and dealing with manufacturers' representatives and store executives. Purchasing professionals must be able to analyze the technical data in suppliers' proposals, make buying decisions, and spend large amounts of money responsibly. The job requires the ability to work independently as well as a part of a team. In addition, these workers must be able to get along well with people to balance the needs of departments within the organization with budgetary constraints. They may consult with lawyers, engineers, and scientists when involved in complex procurements. Experienced buyers may advance by moving to a department that manages a larger volume or by becoming a merchandise manager. Others may go to work in sales for a manufacturer. An experienced purchasing agent or buyer may become an assis tant purchasing manager in charge of a group of purchasing profes sionals before advancing to purchasing, manager, supply manager, or director of materials management. At the top levels, duties may overlap into other management functions such as production, plan ning, and marketing. In high technology manufacturing firms, continuing education is essential for advancement. Many purchasers participate in seminars offered by professional societies and take college courses in purchas ing. Although no national standard exists, professional certification is becoming increasingly important. In private industry, the recognized marks of experience and professional competence are the designations Certified Purchasing Manager (CPM), conferred by the National Association of Purchas ing Management and Certified Purchasing Professional (CPP) and Certified Purchasing Executive (CPE), conferred by the American Purchasing Society upon candidates who pass examinations and meet specified educational, experience, and related requirements. In Fed eral, State, and local government, the indications of professional competence are the designations Certified Professional Public Buyer (CPPB) and Certified Public Purchasing Officer (CPPO), conferred by the National Institute of Governmental Purchasing, Inc. The CPPB is earned by passing a two-part written examination and meeting certain experience requirements. To earn the CPPO, a candidate must have additional purchasing and supervisory or man agement experience, pass a three-part written exam, and undergo an oral interview assessment. As more materials purchasing is conducted on a long-term basis, both private and public purchasing professionals are specializing in the contractual aspects of purchasing. The National Contract Man agement Association confers the designations Certified Associate Contract Manager (CACM) or Certified Professional Contract Man ager (CPCM). Candidates for these certifications must have related work experience, complete academic course-work, and pass written exams. These designations primarily apply to contract managers in the Federal Government and its suppliers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of purchasers and buyers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Demand for these workers will not keep pace with the rising level of economic activity because the increasing use of computers has allowed much of the paperwork typically involved in ordering and procuring supplies to be done away with, reducing the demand for lower-level buyers who traditionally performed these duties. Also, limited sourcing and long-term contracting have allowed companies to negotiate with fewer suppliers less frequently. Another industry wide trend is the increased use of credit cards by some employees to purchase supplies without using the services of the procurement or purchasing office. In retail trade, mergers and acquisitions have forced the consoli dation of buying departments, eliminating jobs. In addition, larger retail stores are removing their buying departments from geographic markets and centralizing them at their headquarters, eliminating more jobs. The Federal Acquisition Streamlining Act of 1994 will restrict demand of purchasing agents within the Federal Government because it requires certain purchases under a mandated dollar value to be made electronically. Consequently, most job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Persons who have a bachelor's degree in business should have the best chance of obtaining a buyer job in wholesale or retail trade or within government. A master's degree or bachelor's degree in a technical field will be an advantage for those interested in working for a manufacturing or industrial company Earnings Median annual earnings of purchasers and buyers were $31,700 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,100 and $43,000. The lowest 10 percent averaged less than $18,500 while the top 10 percent earned more than $57,400. Merchandise managers and purchasing managers generally earned higher salaries than buyers or agents. As a general rule, those with the most education in their field have the highest incomes. The average annual salaries for purchasing agents and contract specialists in the Federal Government in 1995 were about $26,579 and $47,885, respectively. Purchasers and buyers receive the same benefits package as their coworkers, frequently including vacations, sick leave, life and health insurance, and pension plans. In addition to standard benefits, retail buyers often earn cash bonuses based on their performance and may receive discounts on merchandise bought from the employer. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who need a knowledge of marketing and the ability to assess demand are retail sales workers, sales man agers, comparison shoppers, manufacturers' and wholesale sales representatives, insurance sales agents, services sales representatives, procurement services managers, and traffic managers. Sources of Additional Information Further information about careers in purchasing and certification is available from: ••American Purchasing Society, 11910 Oak Trail Way, Port Richey, FL 34668. •"National Association of Purchasing Management, Customer Service, 2055 East Centennial Circle, P.O. Box 22160, Tempe, AZ 85285. ••National Institute of Governmental Purchasing, 11800 Sunrise Valley Dr., Suite 1050, Reston, VA 22091. ••National Contract Management Association, 1912 Woodford Rd., Vienna, VA 22182. 72 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Restaurant and Food Service Managers (D.O.T. 185.137; 187.161-010 and .167-026, -106, -126, -206, and -210; 319.137-014, -018, and-030) Nature of the Work Food is consumed outside the home in a variety of settings. Eating places range from institutional cafeterias and fast food to elegant dining establishments. The cuisine, price, and setting where the meals are consumed vary, but managers of these dining facilities share many of the same responsibilities. Efficient and profitable operation of restaurants and institutional food service facilities requires managers and assistant managers to select and appropriately price menu items, use food and other supplies efficiently, and achieve consistent quality in food preparation and service. They also must attend to the various administrative aspects of the business, which includes recruiting, training, and supervising an adequate number of workers. In most restaurants and institutional food service facilities, the manager is assisted by one or more assistant managers, depending on the size and operating hours of the establishment. In large establish ments, as well as in many smaller ones, the management team con sists of a general manager, one or more assistant managers, and an executive chef. The executive chef is responsible for the operation of the kitchen, while the assistant managers oversee service in the dining room and other areas of the operation. In smaller restaurants, the executive chef may be the general manager, and sometimes an owner. In fast-food restaurants and other food service facilities open for long hours or 7 days a week, the manager is aided by several assistant managers, each of whom supervises a shift of workers. (For additional information, see the Handbook statements on general managers and top executives and chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers.) Many restaurants rarely change their menu, while others make frequent alterations. Institutional food service facilities and some restaurants offer a new menu every day. Managers or executive chefs select menu items, taking into account the likely number of customers, and the past popularity of dishes. Other issues taken into consideration when planning a menu include food left over from prior meals that should not be wasted, the need for variety, and the availability of foods due to seasonality and other factors. Managers or executive chefs analyze the recipes of the dishes to determine food, labor, overhead costs and to assign prices to the various dishes. Menus must be developed far enough in advance that supplies can be ordered and received in time. Ordering supplies and dealing with suppliers are important as pects of the work of restaurant and food service managers. On a daily basis, managers estimate food consumption, place orders with suppliers, and schedule the delivery of fresh food and beverages. They receive and check the content of deliveries, evaluating the quality of meats, poultry, fish, fruits, vegetables, and baked goods. Managers meet with the sales representatives from restaurant suppli ers to place orders replenishing stocks of tableware, linens, paper, cleaning supplies, cooking utensils, and furniture and fixtures. They also arrange for equipment maintenance and repairs, and for a variety of services such as waste removal and pest control. Managers interview, hire, and, when necessary, fire employees. They explain the establishment’s policies and practices to newly hired workers and oversee their training. Managers schedule the work hours of employees, making sure there are enough workers present to cover peak dining periods. Restaurant and food service managers supervise the kitchen and the dining room. They oversee food preparation and cooking, exam ining the quality and portion sizes to ensure that dishes are prepared https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and garnished correctly and in a timely manner. They also investi gate and resolve customers' complaints about food quality or service. During busy periods, managers "roll up their sleeves" and help with the cooking, clearing of tables, or other tasks. They direct the cleaning of the kitchen and dining areas and the washing of table ware, kitchen utensils, and equipment to maintain company and government sanitation standards. They monitor the actions of their employees and patrons on a continual basis to ensure the health and safety standards and local liquor regulations are obeyed. Managers have a variety of administrative responsibilities. In larger establishments, much of this work is delegated to a book keeper, but in others, managers must keep accurate records of the hours and wages of employees, prepare the payroll, and do paper work to comply with licensing laws and reporting requirements of tax, wage and hour, unemployment compensation, and Social Security laws. They also maintain the records of supplies and equipment purchased, and ensure that accounts with suppliers are paid on a regular basis. In addition, managers record the number, type, and cost of items sold to exclude dishes that are unpopular or less profitable. Many managers are able to ease the burden of record keeping and paperwork through the use of computers. Point-of-service-systems (POS) are used in many restaurants to increase employee productiv ity and allow managers to track the sales of specific menu items. Using a POS system, a server keys in the customer's order and the computer immediately sends the order to the kitchen so preparation can begin. The same system totals checks, acts as a cash register and credit card authorizer, and tracks daily sales. To minimize food costs and spoilage, many managers use inventory tracking software to compare the record of daily sales from the POS with a record of present inventory. In some establishments, when supplies needed for the preparation of popular menu items run low, additional inventory can be ordered directly from the supplier using the computer. Managers are among the first to arrive and the last to leave. At the conclusion of each day, or sometimes each shift, managers tally the cash and charge receipts received and balance them against the record of sales. They are responsible for depositing the day’s receipts at the bank, or securing it in a safe place. Managers are also respon sible for locking up, checking that ovens, grills, and lights are off, and switching on alarm systems. Working Conditions Evenings and weekends are popular dining periods, making night and weekend work common. However, many managers of institutional w Managers select and appropriately price menu items so food and other supplies are used efficiently. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 73 food service facilities work more conventional hours because factory and office cafeterias are generally open only on weekdays for break fast and lunch. It is common for restaurant and food service manag ers to work 50 hours or more per week. Managers often experience the pressure of simultaneously coordi nating a wide range of activities. When problems occur, it is the responsibility of the manager to resolve them with minimal disrup tion to customers. The job can be hectic during peak dining hours, and dealing with irate customers or uncooperative employees can be stressful. Employment Restaurant and food service managers held about 526,500 jobs in 1994. Most worked in restaurants or for contract institutional food service companies, but a small number were also employed by educational institutions, hospitals, nursing and personal care facili ties, and civic, social, and fraternal organizations. About two-fifths were self-employed. Jobs are located throughout the country, but are most plentiful in large cities and tourist areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many restaurant and food service manager positions are filled by promoting experienced food and beverage preparation and service workers. Waiters, waitresses, chefs, and fast-food workers who have demonstrated their potential for handling increased responsibility sometimes advance to assistant manager or management trainee jobs when openings occur. Executive chefs need extensive experience working as a chef, and general managers need experience working as assistant manager. However, most food service management com panies and national or regional restaurant chains also recruit man agement trainees from 2- and 4-year college hospitality management programs. Food service and restaurant chains prefer to hire people with degrees in restaurant and institutional food service management, but they often hire graduates with degrees in other fields who have demonstrated interest and aptitude. A bachelor's degree in restaurant and food service management provides a particularly strong preparation for a career in this occupa tion. In 1992, more than 160 colleges and universities offered 4-year programs in restaurant and hotel management or institutional food service management. For people not interested in pursing a 4-year degree, a good alternative is the more than 800 community and junior colleges, technical institutes, and other institutions that offer pro grams in these fields leading to an associate degree or other formal certification. Both 2 and 4-year programs provide instruction in subjects such as accounting, business law and management, food planning and preparation, and nutrition. Some programs combine classroom and laboratory study with internships that provide on-thejob experience. In addition, many educational institutions offer culinary programs that provide food preparation training which can lead to a career as a cook or chef and provide a foundation for ad vancement to an executive chef position. Most employers emphasize personal qualities. Restaurant and food service management can be demanding, so good health and stamina are important. Self-discipline, initiative, and leadership ability are essential. Managers must be able to solve problems and concentrate on details. They need good communication skills to deal with customers and suppliers, as well as to motivate and direct their subordinates. A neat and clean appearance is a must because they are often in close personal contact with the public. Most restaurant chains and food service management companies have rigorous training programs for their management positions. Through a combination of classroom and on-the-job training, trainees receive instruction and gain work experience in all aspects of the operations of a restaurant or institutional food service facility—food preparation, nutrition, sanitation, security, company policies and procedures, personnel management, record keeping, and preparation of reports. Usually after 6 months or a year, trainees receive their first permanent assignment as an assistant manager. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A measure of professional achievement for restaurant and food service managers is to earn the designation of certified Foodservice Management Professional (FMP). Although not a requirement for employment or advancement in the occupation, voluntary certifica tion provides recognition of professional competence, particularly for managers who acquired their skills largely on the job. The Educa tional Foundation of the National Restaurant Association awards the FMP designation to managers who achieve a qualifying score on a written examination, complete a series of courses that cover a range of food service management topics, and who meet standards of work experience in the field. Willingness to relocate often is essential for advancement to positions with greater responsibility. Managers advance to larger establishments, or regional management positions within restaurant chains. Some eventually open their own eating and drinking estab lishments. Others transfer to hotel management positions, because their restaurant management experience provides a good background for food and beverage manager jobs at hotels and resorts. Job Outlook Employment of restaurant and food service managers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. In addition to growth in demand, the need to replace managers who transfer to other occupations or stop working will create many job openings. Job opportunities are expected to be best for people with bachelor's or associate degrees in restaurant and institutional food service management. Employment growth is expected to vary by industry. Eating and drinking places will provide the most new jobs as the number of eating and drinking establishments increases and other industries continue to contract out their food services. Population growth, rising personal incomes, and increased leisure time will continue to produce growth in the number of meals consumed outside the home. To meet the demand for prepared food, more restaurants will be built, and more managers will be employed to supervise them. In addition, the number of manager jobs will increase in eating and drinking places as schools, hospitals, and other businesses contract out more of their food services to institutional food service compa nies located in the eating and drinking industry. Employment of wage and salary managers in eating and drinking places is expected to increase more rapidly than self-employed managers. New restaurants are increasingly affiliated with national chains rather than being independently owned and operated. As this trend continues, fewer owners will manage restaurants themselves, and more restaurant managers will be employed to run the establish ments. Employment in eating and drinking establishments is not very sensitive to changes in economic conditions, so restaurant and food service managers are rarely laid off during hard times. However, competition among restaurants is always intense, and many restau rants do not survive. Food service manager jobs are expected to increase in other industries, but growth will be slowed as contracting out becomes more common. Growth in the population of elderly people is ex pected to result in growth of food service manager jobs in nursing homes, residential care facilities, and other health care institutions. Earnings Median earnings for restaurant and food service managers were $421 a week in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between about $295 and $599 a week. The lowest paid 10 percent earned $220 a week or less, while the highest paid 10 percent earned over $884 a week. Earnings of restaurant and food service managers vary greatly according to their responsibilities and the type and size of establish ment. Based on a survey conducted for the National Restaurant Association, the median base salary of managers in restaurants was estimated to be about $28,600 a year in 1994, but managers of the largest restaurants and institutional food service facilities often had 74 Occuptional Outlook Handbook annual salaries in excess of $45,000. Managers of fast-food restau rants had an estimated median base salary of $25,000 a year; manag ers of full-menu restaurants with table service, almost $30,000; and managers of commercial and institutional cafeterias, nearly $31,400 a year in 1994. Besides a salary, most managers received an annual bonus or incentive payment based on their performance. In 1994, most of these payments ranged between $2,000 and $8,000 a year. Executive chefs had an estimated median base salary of about $37,000 a year in 1994, but those employed in the largest restaurants and institutional food service facilities often had base salaries over $43,000. Annual bonus or incentive payments of most executive chefs ranged between $1,500 and $6,000 a year. The estimated median base salary of assistant managers was over $22,000 a year in 1994, but ranged from less than $19,000 in fastfood restaurants to over $25,000 in some of the largest restaurants and food service facilities. Annual bonus or incentive payments of most assistant managers ranged between $ 1,000 and $4,000 a year. Manager trainees had an estimated median base salary of about $20,000 a year in 1994, but had salaries of nearly $30,000 in some of the largest restaurants and food service facilities. Annual bonus or incentive payments of most trainees ranged between $500 and $2,500 a year. Most salaried restaurant and food service managers received free meals, sick leave, health and life insurance, 1 to 3 weeks of paid vacation a year, and the opportunity for additional training depending on their length of service. Related Occupations Restaurant and food service managers direct the activities of busi nesses which provide a service to customers. Other managers in service-oriented businesses include hotel managers and assistants, health services administrators, retail store managers, and bank managers. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. Information about a career as a restaurant and food service man ager, 2- and 4-year college programs in restaurant and food service management, and certification as a Foodservice Management Pro fessional is available from: •"The Educational Foundation of the National Restaurant Association, Suite 1400, 250 South Wacker Dr., Chicago, IL 60606. General information on hospitality careers may be obtained from: •"Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, 1200 17th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20036-3097. For general career information and a directory of accredited private trade and technical schools offering programs in restaurant and food service management, write to: •"Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201. Underwriters (D.O.T. 169.267-046) Nature of the Work Insurance companies assume billions of dollars in risks each year by writing policies that transfer the risk of loss from their policyholders to themselves. Underwriters appraise and select the risks their com pany will insure. An insurance company may lose business to compe titors if the underwriter appraises risks too conservatively, or it may have to pay more claims if the underwriting actions are too liberal. Underwriters decide whether an applicant for insurance is an acceptable risk. They analyze information in insurance applications, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Underwriters should enjoy working with detail and analyzing infor mation. reports from loss control consultants, medical reports, and actuarial studies—reports that describe the probability of insured loss. They then decide whether to issue a policy and may outline the terms of the contract, including the amount of the premium. Underwriters sometimes correspond with policyholders, agents, and managers about policy cancellations or other matters. On rare occasions, they accompany sales representatives on appointments with prospective customers. (Life insurance agents and brokers are increasingly called "life underwriters;" they are included in the section on insurance agents and brokers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most underwriters specialize in one of three major categories of insurance: Life, property and casualty, or health. They further specialize in group or individual policies. Property and casualty underwriters specialize by type of risk insured, such as fire, home owner, automobile, marine, property, or workers' compensation. In cases where casualty companies insure in a single "package" policy, covering various types of risks, the underwriter must be familiar with different lines of insurance. Some underwriters, called commercial account underwriters, handle business insurance exclusively. They often evaluate a firm's entire operation in appraising its application for insurance. An increasing proportion of insurance sales, particularly in life and health insurance, are being made through group contracts. A standard group policy insures everyone in a specified group through a single contract at uniform premium rates. The group underwriter analyzes the overall composition of the group to ensure the total risk is not excessive. Another type of group policy provides members of a group—a labor union, for example—with individual policies reflecting their needs. These generally are casualty policies, such as those covering automobiles. The casualty underwriter analyzes the application of each group member and makes individual appraisals. Some group underwriters meet with union or employer representa tives to discuss the types of policies available to their group. Working Conditions Underwriters have desk jobs that require no unusual physical activ ity. Their offices generally are comfortable and pleasant. Although some overtime may be required, underwriters generally work from 35 to 40 hours a week. They occasionally attend meetings away from home for several days. Construction and marine underwriters often travel to inspect work sites and assess risks. Employment Insurance underwriters held about 96,000 jobs in 1994. The follow ing tabulation shows the percent distribution of wage and salary jobs by industry. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 75 Total......................................................................................................... 100 Fire, marine, and casualty insurance carriers............................................... 38 Insurance agents, brokers, and service......................................................... 31 Life insurance carriers.................................................................................. 16 Pension funds and miscellaneous insurance carriers.................................... 4 Medical service and health insurance carriers............................................. 3 Other industries............................................................................................ 8 The majority of underwriters worked for insurance companies, often called "carriers." Most of the remaining underwriters worked throughout the country in independent insurance agencies—firms which represent one or more insurance companies—and brokers— firms which may deal with any insurance company and represent the interests of the buyers of insurance, known as "insureds". A small number of underwriters worked for banks, mortgage companies, and real estate firms. Office underwriters in the life insurance industry are most likely to work in an insurance company's home office. In some large general agencies, underwriters help life insurance agents, or "producers", determine if the risk will be accepted or rejected by the home office. However, most regional life insurance offices deal predominantly with sales, not underwriting. Property and casualty underwriters also work in home offices, but more work for agencies or regional branch offices, where they have the authority to under write risks and determine an appropriate rating without consulting the home office. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For beginning underwriting jobs, most large insurance companies prefer college graduates who have a degree in business administra tion or finance, with courses or experience in accounting. However, a bachelor's degree in almost any field—plus courses in business law and accounting—provides a good general background and may be sufficient to qualify. Basic familiarity with computers is essential. Beginners typically start as underwriter trainees or assistant underwriters. They may help collect information on applicants and evaluate routine applications under the supervision of an experienced risk analyst. Property and casualty trainees study claim files to become familiar with factors associated with certain types of losses. Many larger insurers offer a training program, lasting from a few months to a year, that combines study with work. As trainees de velop the necessary judgment, they are assigned policy applications that are more complex and cover greater risks. These often require the use of computers for more efficient processing. Continuing education is necessary for advancement. Insurance companies generally pay tuition for underwriting courses that their trainees successfully complete; some also offer salary incentives. Independent study programs for experienced property and casualty underwriters are also available. The American Institute for Chartered Property Casualty Underwriters awards the designations "Associate in Underwriting" (AU), and "Chartered Property Casualty Under writer" (CPCU). To earn the AU designation, underwriters complete a series of courses and examinations; it usually takes about two years to earn the AU designation. Earning the more advanced CPCU designation generally takes about 5 years, and requires passing 10 examinations covering personal and commercial insurance, risk management insurance, business law, accounting, finance, manage ment, economics, and ethics. Although CPCU's may be underwrit ers, the CPCU is intended for everyone working in any and all aspects of insurance. An AU designation is the first, formal step in developing a career in underwriting. Underwriting can be a satisfying career for people who enjoy working with detail and analyzing information. In addition, under writers must possess good judgment in order to make sound deci sions. They must also be imaginative and aggressive, especially when they have to obtain information from outside sources. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Experienced underwriters who complete courses of study may advance to senior underwriter or underwriting manager. Some underwriting managers are promoted to senior managerial jobs. Others are attracted to the earnings potential of sales and obtain state licensing to sell insurance and insurance products as agents or brokers. Job Outlook Employment of underwriters is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Most job openings are expected to result from the need to replace underwriters who transfer to other occupations or stop working altogether. A number of factors underlie the continuing need for underwrit ers. Shifts in the age distribution of the population will result in an increase in the number of people who assume career and family responsibilities. People in this group have the greatest need for life and property and casualty insurance. In addition, expanding long term healthcare and pension benefits for retirees—an increasing proportion of the population—will increase underwriting require ments. Growing concerns for financial security and liability should also contribute to demand for more insurance protection for homes, automobiles, pleasure craft, and other valuables. New or expanding businesses will need protection for new plants and equipment, prod uct liability, and insurance for workers' compensation and employee benefits. Employment of underwriters, however, is expected to increase more slowly than growth in demand for insurance. The trend toward self-insurance is expected to lower the demand for some property and casualty underwriters. Businesses that self-insure set a rate for their own company and pay premiums into a reserve fund. Additionally, many property and casualty companies are foregoing personal lines of insurance—especially automobile—and concentrating on com mercial lines of business. The increased use of "intelligent" or "smart" underwriting software systems is also slowing the demand for new underwriters. These systems automatically analyze and rate insurance applications, then accept or deny the risk without human intervention. Underwriters specializing in one particular area of insurance may find it difficult to transfer to another type of insurance if their jobs are threatened. Because insurance is usually regarded as a necessity, regardless of economic conditions, underwriters are unlikely to be laid off because of a recession. Earnings Median annual earnings of full-time wage and salaried underwriters in 1994 were about $30,800. The middle 50 percent earned between $22,000 and $40,500 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,600; the top 10 percent, more than $54,800 a year. Most insurance companies have liberal vacation policies and other employee benefits. Almost all insurance companies provide employer-financed group life and retirement plans. Related Occupations Underwriters make decisions on the basis of financial data. Other workers with the same type of responsibility include auditors, budget analysts, financial advisors, loan officers, credit managers, real estate appraisers, and risk managers. Sources of Additional Information General information about a career as an insurance underwriter is available from the home offices of many life insurance and property and liability insurance companies. Information about the insurance business in general and the underwriting function in particular also may be obtained from: •■The American Institute for Chartered Property and Casualty Underwriters, 720 Providence Rd., P.O. Box 3016, Malvern, PA 19355-0716. Professional Specialty Occupations Engineers Nature of the Work Engineers apply the theories and principles of science and mathemat ics to the economical solution of practical technical problems. Usually their work is the link between a scientific discovery and its commercial application. Engineers design machinery, products, systems, and processes for efficient and economical performance. They design industrial machinery and equipment for manufacturing defense-related goods and weapons systems for the Armed Forces. They design, plan, and supervise the construction of buildings, highways, and rapid transit systems. They also design and develop systems for control and automation of manufacturing, business, and management processes. Engineers consider many factors in developing a new product. For example, in developing an industrial robot, they determine precisely what function it needs to perform; design and test compo nents; fit them together in an integrated plan; and evaluate the de sign's overall effectiveness, cost, reliability, and safety. This process applies to products as different as chemicals, computers, gas turbines, helicopters, and toys. In addition to design and development, many engineers work in testing, production, or maintenance. They supervise production in factories, determine the causes of breakdowns, and test manufactured products to maintain quality. They also estimate the time and cost to complete projects. Some work in engineering management or in sales, where an engineering background enables them to discuss the technical aspects of a product and assist in planning its installation or use. (See the statements on engineering, science, and data processing managers and manufacturers' and wholesale sales representatives elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most engineers specialize; more than 25 major specialties are recognized by professional societies,and within the major branches are numerous subdivisions. Structural, environmental, and transpor tation engineering, for example, are subdivisions of civil engineering. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as motor vehi cles, or in one field of technology, such as propulsion or guidance systems. This section, which contains an overall discussion of engineering, is followed by separate sections on 10 engineering branches: Aero space; chemical; civil; electrical and electronics; industrial; mechani cal; metallurgical, ceramic, and materials; mining; nuclear; and petroleum engineering. Branches of engineering not covered in detail here, but in which there are established college programs include; Architectural engineering—the design of a building's inter nal support structure; biomedical engineering—the application of engineering to medical and physiological problems; environmental engineering—a growing discipline involved with identifying, solv ing, and alleviating environmental problems; and marine engineer ing—the design and installation of ship machinery and propulsion systems. Engineers in each branch have knowledge and training that can be applied to many fields. Electrical and electronics engineers, for example, work in the medical, computer, missile guidance, and power distribution fields. Because there are many separate problems to solve in a large engineering project, engineers in one field often work closely with specialists in other scientific, engineering, and business occupations. Engineers often use computers to simulate and test how a 76 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis machine, structure, or system operates. Many engineers also use computer-aided design systems to produce and analyze designs. They spend a great deal of time writing reports and consulting with other engineers, as complex projects often require an interdiscipli nary team of engineers. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects. Working Conditions Many engineers work in laboratories, industrial plants, or at con struction sites, where they inspect, supervise, or solve onsite prob lems. Others work in offices almost all of the time. Engineers in branches such as civil engineering may work outdoors part of the time. A few engineers travel extensively to plants or construction sites. Many engineers work a standard 40-hour week. At times, dead lines or design standards may bring extra pressure to a job. When this happens, engineers may work long hours and experience consid erable stress. Employment In 1994, engineers held 1,327,000 jobs. Chart 1 shows the employ ment of the engineering disciplines covered in this statement. Fortyseven percent of all engineering jobs were located in manufacturing Chart 1. Electrical engineering accounted for more than one-quarter of all engineers in 1994. Engineering specialty Electrical Mechanical Industrial Aeronautical Chemical Materials Nuclear Petroleum Mining All other engineers 50 100 150 200 250 Employment (thousands) 300 350 Professional Specialty Occupations 77 industries—mostly in electrical and electronic equipment, industrial machinery, scientific instruments, aircraft and parts, motor vehicles, chemicals, guided missiles and space vehicles, fabricated metal products, and primary metals industries. In 1994, 684,000 jobs were in nonmanufacturing ndustries, primarily in engineering and architec tural services, research and testing services, and business services, where firms designed construction projects or did other engineering work on a contract basis for organizations in other parts of the econ omy. Engineers also worked in the communications, utilities, and construction industries. Federal, State, and local governments employed about 181,000 engineers. Over half of these were in the Federal Government, mainly in the Departments of Defense, Transportation, Agriculture, Interior, and Energy, and in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Most engineers in State and local government agencies worked in highway and public works departments. Some engineers are self-employed consultants. Engineers are employed in every State, in small and large cities, and in rural areas. Some branches of engineering are concentrated in particular industries and geographic areas, as discussed in statements later in this chapter. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor's degree in engineering from an accredited engineering program is usually required for beginning engineering jobs. College graduates with a degree in a physical science or mathematics may occasionally qualify for some engineering jobs, especially in engi neering specialties in high demand. Most engineering degrees are granted in branches such as electrical, mechanical, or civil engineer ing. However, engineers trained in one branch may work in another. This flexibility allows employers to meet staffing needs in new technologies and specialties where engineers are in short supply. It also allows engineers to shift to fields with better employment pros pects, or to ones that match their interests more closely. In addition to the standard engineering degree, many colleges offer degrees in engineering technology, which are offered as either 2- or 4-year programs. These programs prepare students for practical design and production work rather than for jobs that require more theoretical, scientific and mathematical knowledge. Graduates of 4year technology programs may get jobs similar to those obtained by graduates with a bachelor's degree in engineering. Some employers regard them as having skills between those of a technician and an engineer. Graduate training is essential for engineering faculty positions but is not required for the majority of entry-level engineering jobs. Many engineers obtain graduate degrees in engineering or business administration to learn new technology, broaden their education, and enhance promotion opportunities; others obtain law degrees and become attorneys. Many high-level executives in government and industry began their careers as engineers. About 340 colleges and universities offer a bachelor's degree in engineering, and nearly 300 colleges offer a bachelor's degree in engineering technology, although not all are accredited programs. Although most institutions offer programs in the larger branches of engineering, only a few offer some of the smaller specialties. Also, programs of the same title may vary in content. For example, some emphasize industrial practices, preparing students for a job in indus try, while others are more theoretical and are better for students preparing to take graduate work. Therefore, students should investi gate curricula and check accreditations carefully before selecting a college. Admissions requirements for undergraduate engineering schools include courses in advanced high school mathematics and the physical sciences. Bachelor's degree programs in engineering are typically designed to last 4 years, but many students find that it takes between 4 and 5 years to complete their studies. In a typical 4-year college curricu lum, the first 2 years are spent studying basic sciences (mathematics, physics, and chemistry), introductory engineering, and the humani https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ties, social sciences, and English. In the last 2 years, most courses are in engineering, usually with a concentration in one branch. For example, the last 2 years of an aerospace program might include courses such as fluid mechanics, heat transfer, applied aerodynamics, analytical mechanics, flight vehicle design, trajectory dynamics, and aerospace propulsion systems. Some programs offer a general engi neering curriculum; students then specialize in graduate school or on the job. A few engineering schools and 2-year colleges have agreements whereby the 2-year college provides the initial engineering education and the engineering school automatically admits students for their last 2 years. In addition, a few engineering schools have arrange ments whereby a student spends 3 years in a liberal arts college studying preengineering subjects and 2 years in the engineering school and receives a bachelor's degree from each. Some colleges and universities offer 5-year master's degree programs. Some 5- or even 6-year cooperative plans combine classroom study and practical work, permitting students to gain valuable experi ence and finance part of their education. All 50 States and the District of Columbia require registration for engineers whose work may affect life, health, or property, or who offer their services to the public. In 1994, between 250,000 and 300,000 engineers were registered. Registration generally requires a degree from an engineering program accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, 4 years of relevant work experience, and passing a State examination. Some States will not register people with degrees in engineering technology. Engineers may be registered in several states. Beginning engineering graduates usually do routine work under the supervision of experienced engineers and, in larger companies, may also receive formal classroom or seminar-type training. As they gain knowledge and experience, they are assigned more difficult tasks with greater independence to develop designs, solve problems, and make decisions. Engineers may become technical specialists or may supervise a staff or team of engineers and technicians. Some eventually become engineering managers or enter other managerial, management support, or sales jobs. (See the statements under ex ecutive, administrative, and managerial occupations; under sales occupations; and on computer scientists and systems analysts else where in the Handbook.) Engineers should be able to work as part of a team and should be creative, analytical, and detail-oriented. In addition, engineers should be able to communicate well—both orally and in writing. Job Outlook Employment opportunities in engineering are expected to be good through the year 2005 because employment is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations while the number of degrees granted in engineering is expected to remain near present levels through the year 2005. Many of the jobs in engineering are related to national defense. Because defense expenditures have declined, employment growth and job outlook for engineers may not be as strong as in times when defense expenditures were increasing. However, graduating engi neers will continue to be in demand for jobs in engineering and other areas, possibly even at the same time other engineers, especially defense industry engineers, are being laid off. Employers will rely on engineers to further increase productivity as they increase investment in plant and equipment to expand output of goods and services. In addition, competitive pressures and ad vancing technology will force companies to improve and update product designs more frequently. Finally, more engineers will be needed to improve deteriorating roads, bridges, water and pollution control systems, and other public facilities. Freshman engineering enrollments began declining in 1983, and the number of bachelor's degrees in engineering began declining in 1987, as shown in chart 2. Although it is difficult to project engi neering enrollments, this decline may continue through the late 1990s 78 Occupational Outlook Handbook Chart 2. The number of bachelor's degrees in engineering has leveled off after a period of decline. offer the greatest challenges, the most interesting work, and the highest salaries. Therefore, the choice of engineering specialty and employer involves an assessment not only of the potential rewards but also of the risk of technological obsolescence. Number of degrees (thousands) Earnings Starting salaries for engineers with the bachelor's degree are signifi cantly higher than starting salaries of bachelor’s degree graduates in other fields. According to the National Association of Colleges and Employers, engineering graduates with a bachelor's degree averaged about $34,100 a year in private industry in 1994; those with a mas ter's degree and no experience, $40,200 a year; and those with a Ph.D., $55,300. Starting salaries for those with the bachelor's degree vary by branch, as shown in the following tabulation. Aerospace................................................................................................$30,860 Chemical................................................................................................ 39,204 Civil............................................................................................ 29,809 Electrical.................................................................... Industrial................................................................................................ Mechanical............................................................................................. Metallurgical.......................................................................................... Mining................................................................................................... Nuclear.............................. Petroleum.........................................t.................................................... 1984 '85 '86 '87 '88 '89 '90 '91 '92 '93 '94 Source: Engineering Workforce Commission because the total college-age population is projected to decline. Furthermore, the proportion of students interested in engineering careers has declined as prospects for college graduates in other fields have improved and interest in other programs has increased. Also, engineering schools have restricted enrollments, especially in de fense-related fields such as aerospace engineering, to accommodate the reduced opportunities in defense-related industries. Only a relatively small proportion of engineers leave the profes sion each year. Despite this, over 70 percent of all job openings will arise from replacement needs. A greater proportion of replacement openings is created by engineers who transfer to management, sales, or other professional specialty occupations than by those who leave the labor force. Most industries are less likely to lay off engineers than other workers. Many engineers work on long-term research and develop ment projects or in other activities which may continue even during recessions. In industries such as electronics and aerospace, however, large government cutbacks in defense or research and development have resulted in significant layoffs for engineers. New computer-aided design systems have improved the design process, enabling engineers to produce or modify designs much more rapidly. Engineers now produce and analyze many more design variations before selecting a final one. However, this technology is not expected to limit employment opportunities. It is important for engineers to continue their education through out their careers because much of their value to their employer depends on their knowledge of the latest technology. The pace of technological change varies by engineering specialty and industry. Engineers in high-technology areas such as advanced electronics may find that technical knowledge can become obsolete rapidly. Even those who continue their education are vulnerable if the particular technology or product they have specialized in becomes obsolete. Engineers who have not kept current in their field may find them selves passed over for promotions and are vulnerable should layoffs occur. On the other hand, it is often these high-technology areas that https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 34,840 33,267 35,051 33,429 32,638 33,603 38,286 A survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas reported that beginning engineers had median annual earnings of about $33,900 in 1993, with the middle half earning between about $30,900 and $36,900 a year. Experienced midlevel engineers with no supervisory responsibilities had median annual earnings of about $54,400, with the middle half earning between about $49,800 and $59,600 a year. Median annual earnings for engineers at senior managerial levels were about $90,000. Median annual earnings for these and other levels of engineers are shown in the following tabulation. Engineer I............................. $33,900 Engineer II.............................................................................................. 38,500 Engineer III............................................................................................ 44,800 Engineer IV......................... 54,400 Engineer V............................................................................................. 65,400 Engineer VI............................................................................................ 78,100 Engineer VII........................................................................................... 90,000 Engineer VIII.......................................................................................... 105,700 Median annual salaries for all engineers was about $46,600 in 1994. Those with a bachelor's degree had median earnings of $47,100; master’s degree holders, $53,200; and PhDs, $62,300. Median salaries for some engineering specialties were: Aerospace................................................................................................$50,200 Chemical.................................................................................. 53,100 Civil........................................................................................................ 44,700 Electrical................................................................................................ 48,000 Industrial......................... 40,900 Mechanical............................................................................... 46,400 Engineers, nec........................................................................................ 45,400 The average annual salary for engineers in the Federal Govern ment in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $58,080 in 1995. Related Occupations Engineers apply the principles of physical science and mathematics in their work. Other workers who use scientific and mathematical principles include physical scientists, life scientists, computer scien tists, mathematicians, engineering and science technicians, and architects. Professional Specialty Occupations 79 Sources of Additional Information High school students interested in obtaining general information on a variety of engineering disciplines should contact the Junior Engineer ing Technical Society by sending a self-addressed business-size envelope with 6 first-class stamps affixed to: •\JETS-Guidance, at 1420 King St., Suite 405, Alexandria, VA 22314. Non-high school students and those wanting more detailed infor mation should contact societies representing the individual branches of engineering. Each can provide information about careers in the particular branch. Aeronautical and Aerospace Engineering, send $3 to: •"American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., AIAA Student Programs, The Aerospace Center, 370 L'Enfant Promenade SW., Washington, DC 20024-2518. Chemical Engineering •"American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 345 East 47th St., New York, NY 10017-2395. •"American Chemical Society, Career Services, 1155 16th St. NW., Washing ton, DC 20036. Civil Engineering •"American Society of Civil Engineers, 345 E. 47th St., New York, NY 10017. mm Electrical and Electronics Engineering •"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 1828 L St. NW., Suite 1202, Washington, DC 20036. Industrial Engineering •"Institute of Industrial Engineers, Inc., 25 Technology Park/Atlanta, Norcross, GA 30092. Mechanical Engineering •"The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 345 E. 47th St., New York, NY 10017. •"American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engi neers, Inc., 1791 Tullie Circle NE., Atlanta, GA 30329. Metallurgical, Ceramic, and Materials Engineering •"The Minerals, Metals, & Materials Society, 420 Commonwealth Dr., Warrendale, PA 15086-7514. •"ASM International, Student Outreach Program, Materials Park, OH 44073 0002. Mining Engineering •"The Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc., P.O. Box 625002, Littleton, CO 80162-5002. An aerospace engineer models the orbital position of a satellite. Nuclear Engineering •"American Nuclear Society, 555 North Kensington Ave., LaGrange Park, IL 60525. Petroleum Engineering •"Society of Petroleum Engineers, 222 Palisades Creek Dr„ Richardson, TX 75080. Aerospace Engineers manufacturing industries. Federal Government agencies, primarily the Department of Defense and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, provided more than 1 out of 7 jobs. Business serv ices, engineering and architectural services, research and testing services, and electrical and electronics manufacturing firms ac counted for most of the remainder. California, Washington, Texas, and Florida—States with large aerospace manufacturers—have the most aerospace engineers. D.O.T. 002.061 and. 167) Nature of the Work Aerospace engineers design, develop, test, and help manufacture commercial and military aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft. They develop new technologies for use in commercial aviation, defense systems, and space exploration, often specializing in areas like structural design, guidance, navigation and control, instrumentation and communication, or production methods. They also may special ize in a particular type of aerospace product, such as commercial transports, helicopters, spacecraft, or rockets. Aerospace engineers may be experts in aerodynamics, propulsion, thermodynamics, structures, celestial mechanics, acoustics, or guidance and control systems. Employment Aerospace engineers held about 56,000 jobs in 1994. About half were in the aircraft and parts and guided missile and space vehicle https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis lob Outlook Those seeking employment as aerospace engineers are likely to face keen competition because the number of job opportunities is ex pected to be significantly fewer than the relatively large pool of graduates. Defense Department expenditures for military aircraft, missiles, and other aerospace systems are declining, although funding for research and development of new systems has remained stable. Growth in the civilian sector, which needs to replace the present fleet of airliners with quieter and more fuel-efficient aircraft, is projected to be slow due to smaller orders from airlines and increasing foreign competition. This has caused a restructuring of firms and layoffs of personnel within both defense and civilian aircraft manufacturing that is expected to continue through the mid-1990s. Consequently, employment of aerospace engineers is expected to grow more slowly than the average through the year 2005. Future growth of employ ment in this field could also be limited because a higher proportion of engineers in aerospace manufacturing may come from the materials, mechanical, or electrical engineering fields. Most job openings will 80 Occupational Outlook Handbook result from the need to replace aerospace engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. (See introductory section of this chapter for information on train ing requirements, earnings, and sources of additional information.) however, will be in nonmanufacturing industries, especially service industries. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements, earnings, and sources of additional information.) Chemical Engineers Civil Engineers (D.O.T. 008.061) (D.O.T. 005.061 except-042, .167-014 and -018; and 019.167-018) Nature of the Work Chemical engineers apply the principles of chemistry and engineer ing to solve problems involving the production or use of chemicals. Most work in the production of chemicals and chemical products. They design equipment and develop processes for manufacturing chemicals, plan and test methods of manufacturing the products, and supervise production. Chemical engineers also work in industries other than chemical manufacturing such as electronics or aircraft manufacturing. Because the knowledge and duties of chemical engineers cut across many fields, they apply principles of chemistry, physics, mathematics, and mechanical and electrical engineering in their work. They frequently specialize in a particular operation such as oxidation or polymerization. Others specialize in a particular area such as pollution control or the production of a specific product like automotive plastics or chlorine bleach. Nature of the Work Civil engineers work in the oldest branch of engineering. They design and supervise the construction of roads, airports, tunnels, bridges, water supply and sewage systems, and buildings. Major specialties within civil engineering are structural, water resources, environmental, construction, transportation, and geotechnical engineering. Many civil engineers hold supervisory or administrative positions, ranging from supervisor of a construction site to city engineer. Others may work in design, construction, research, and teaching. Employment Chemical engineers held over 50,000 jobs in 1994. Manufac turing industries employed sixty-nine percent, primarily in the chemical, petroleum refining, and related industries. Most of the rest worked for engineering services, research and testing services, or consulting firms that design chemical plants or do other work on a contract basis, or worked for government agencies or as independent consultants. Job Outlook Although employment in the chemical manufacturing industry is projected to grow very little through 2005, employment of chemical engineers should increase about as fast as the average for all occupa tions as chemical companies research and develop new chemicals and more efficient processes to increase output. Areas relating to the production of specialty chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and plastics materials may provide better opportunities than other portions of the chemical industry. Much of the projected growth in employment, Employment Civil engineers held about 184,000 jobs in 1994. Over 40 percent of the jobs were in Federal, State, and local government agencies. Another 40 percent were in firms that provide engineering consulting services, primarily developing designs for new construction projects. The construction industry, public utilities, transportation, and manu facturing industries accounted for most of the rest. Civil engineers usually are found working near major industrial and commercial centers, often at construction sites. Some projects are situated in remote areas or in foreign countries. In some jobs, civil engineers move from place to place to work on different projects. Job Outlook Those wishing to become civil engineers should find favorable opportunities through 2005. Spurred by general population growth and an expanding economy, more civil engineers will be needed to design and construct higher capacity transportation, water supply, and pollution control systems; large buildings and building com plexes; and repair or replace existing roads, bridges, and other public structures. Employment of civil engineers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to r* - A chemical engineer adjusts the mix of chemicals during production using automated controls. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A civil engineer construction manager reviews the progress of differ ent components of the project. Professional Specialty Occupations 81 replace civil engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Because construction and related industries—including those providing design services—employ many civil engineers, employ ment opportunities will vary by geographic area and may decrease during economic slowdowns, when construction often is curtailed. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements, earnings, and sources of additional information.) Electrical and Electronics Engineers (D.O.T. 003.061, .167 except -034 and -070, and .187) Nature of the Work Electrical and electronics engineers design, develop, test, and super vise the manufacture of electrical and electronic equipment. Electri cal equipment includes power generating and transmission equipment used by electric utilities, and electric motors, machinery controls, and lighting and wiring in buildings, automobiles, and aircraft. Elec tronic equipment includes radar, computer hardware, and communi cations and video equipment. The specialties of electrical and electronics engineers include several major areas—such as power generation, transmission, and distribution; communications; computer electronics; and electrical equipment manufacturing—or a subdivision of these areas— industrial robot control systems or aviation electronics, for example. Electrical and electronics engineers design new products, write performance requirements, and develop maintenance schedules. They also test equipment, solve operating problems, and estimate the time and cost of engineering projects. Employment Electrical and electronics engineers held about 349,000 jobs in 1994, making it the largest branch of engineering. Most jobs were in engineering and business consulting firms, manufacturers of electri cal and electronic equipment, professional and scientific instruments, and government agencies. Communications and utilities firms, industrial machinery manufacturers, and computer and data process ing services firms accounted for most of the remaining jobs. Job Outlook Employment opportunities for electrical and electronics engineers are expected to be good through the year 2005. Most job openings will result from job growth and the need to replace electrical engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. These O An electrical engineer calibrates a laser. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis openings should be sufficient to absorb the number of new graduates and other entrants. Employment in this engineering specialty is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations. Job growth is ex pected to be fastest in industrial sectors other than manufacturing. The need for electronics manufacturers to invest heavily in research and development to remain competitive will provide openings for graduates who have learned the latest technologies. Increased de mand by businesses and government for computers and communica tions equipment is expected to account for much of the projected employment growth. Consumer demand for electrical and electronic goods should create additional jobs. Because many electrical engineering jobs are defense related, expected cutbacks in defense spending could result in layoffs of electrical engineers, especially if a defense-related project or contract is unexpectedly canceled. Furthermore, engineers who fail to keep up with the rapid changes in technology in some specialties risk technological obsolescence, which makes them more susceptible to layoffs or, at a minimum, more likely to be passed over for advancement. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements, earnings, and sources of additional information.) Industrial Engineers (D.O.T. 005.167-026; 012.061 -018, .067,. 167 except -022, -026, -034, -058, and -062, and .187) Nature of the Work Industrial engineers determine the most effective ways for an organi zation to use the basic factors of production—people, machines, materials, information, and energy—to make or process a product. They are the bridge between management and operations. They are more concerned with increasing productivity through the manage ment of people, methods of business organization, and technology than are engineers in other specialties, who generally work more with products or processes. To solve organizational, production, and related problems most efficiently, industrial engineers carefully study the product and its requirements, design manufacturing and information systems, and use mathematical analysis methods such as operations research to meet those requirements. They develop management control systems to aid in financial planning and cost analysis, design production f Industrial engineers work to make operations more efficient. 82 Occupational Outlook Handbook planning and control systems to coordinate activities and control product quality, and design or improve systems for the physical distribution of goods and services. Industrial engineers conduct surveys to find plant locations with the best combination of raw materials, transportation, and costs. They also develop wage and salary administration systems and job evaluation programs. Many industrial engineers move into management positions because the work is closely related. Employment Industrial engineers held about 115,000 jobs in 1994; about 75 percent of jobs were in manufacturing industries. Because their skills can be used in almost any type of organization, industrial engineers are more widely distributed among manufacturing industries than other engineers. Their skills can be readily applied outside manufacturing as well. Some work for insurance companies, banks, hospitals, and retail organizations; others work for government agencies or as independ ent consultants. Job Outlook Employment of industrial engineers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005, making for favorable opportunities. Industrial growth, more complex business operations, and the greater use of automation in factories and in offices underlie the projected employment growth. Because the main function of an industrial engineer is to make a higher quality product as efficiently as possible, their services should be in demand in the manufacturing sector as firms seek to reduce costs and increase productivity through scientific management and safety engineering. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace industrial engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements, earnings, and sources of additional information.) Mechanical Engineers (D.O.T. 007.061, .161-022, -034, and -038, and .267-010) Nature of the Work Mechanical engineers plan and design tools, engines, machines, and other mechanical equipment. They design and develop powerproducing machines such as internal combustion engines, steam and gas turbines, and jet and rocket engines. They also design and de velop power-using machines such as refrigeration and air conditioning equipment, robots, machine tools, materials handling systems, and industrial production equipment. The work of mechanical engineers varies by industry and func tion. Specialties include, among others, applied mechanics, design engineering, heat transfer, power plant engineering, pressure vessels and piping, and underwater technology. Mechanical engineers design tools needed by other engineers for their work. Mechanical engineering is the broadest engineering discipline, extending across many interdependent specialties. Mechanical engineers may work in production operations, maintenance, or technical sales. Many are administrators or managers. Employment Mechanical engineers held about 231,000 jobs in 1994. More than 6 out of 10 jobs were in manufacturing—of these, most were in the machinery, transportation equipment, electrical equipment, instru ments, and fabricated metal products industries. Business and engi neering consulting services and government agencies provided most of the remaining jobs. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 3? M A mechanical engineer reviews her titanium ring design and the final product. Job Outlook Employment of mechanical engineers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Al though overall employment in manufacturing is expected to decline, employment of mechanical engineers in manufacturing should in crease as the demand for machinery and machine tools grows and industrial machinery and processes become increasingly complex. Employment of mechanical engineers in other sectors of the econ omy, such as construction and services, is expected to grow faster than average as firms in these industries learn to apply these engi neers' skills. Job prospects in this field should be favorable through the year 2005. Most of the expected job openings resulting from employment growth and the need to replace those who will leave the occupation should be sufficient to absorb the supply of new graduates and other entrants. Many mechanical engineering jobs are in defense-related indus tries. Reductions in defense spending has and may continue to result in layoffs in these industries. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements, earnings, and sources of additional information.) Metallurgical, Ceramic, and Materials Engineers (D.O.T. 006.061; 011.061; and 019.061-014) Nature of the Work Metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers develop new types of metal alloys, ceramics, composites, and other materials which meet special requirements. Examples are graphite golf club shafts that are light but stiff, ceramic tiles on the space shuttle that protect it from burning up during reentry, and the alloy turbine blades in a jet engine. Most metallurgical engineers work in one of the three main branches of metallurgy—extractive or chemical, physical, and me chanical or process. Extractive metallurgists are concerned with removing metals from ores and refining and alloying them to obtain useful metal. Physical metallurgists study the nature, structure, and physical properties of metals and their alloys, and methods of proc essing them into final products. Mechanical metallurgists develop and improve metalworking processes such as casting, forging, roll ing, and drawing. Professional Specialty Occupations 83 Employment of metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Many of the industries in which they are concentrated, such as stone, clay, and glass products, primary metals, fabricated metal products, and transportation equipment industries, are expected to experience little if any employment growth through the year 2005. Anticipated employment growth in service industries, such as research and testing services and engineering and architec tural services, however, should provide significant job openings as these firms are employed to develop improved materials for their industrial customers. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements, earnings, and sources of additional information.) Mining Engineers (D.O.T. 010.061 except -018) Nature of the Work Mining engineers find, extract, and prepare metals and minerals for use by manufacturing industries. They design open pit and under ground mines, supervise the construction of mine shafts and tunnels in underground operations, and devise methods for transporting minerals to processing plants. Mining engineers are responsible for the safe, economical, and environmentally sound operation of mines. Some mining engineers work with geologists and metallurgical engineers to locate and appraise new ore deposits. Others develop new mining equipment or direct mineral processing operations to separate minerals from the dirt, rock, and other materials with which they are mixed. Mining engineers frequently specialize in the mining of one mineral or metal, such as coal or gold. With increased emphasis on protecting the environment, many mining engineers work solving problems related to land reclamation and water and air pollution. A materials engineer uses x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy to examine the structure of a new ceramic. Ceramic engineers develop new ceramic materials and methods for making ceramic materials into useful products. Ceramics include all nonmetallic, inorganic materials which require high temperatures in their processing. Ceramic engineers work on products as diverse as glassware, semiconductors, automobile and aircraft engine compo nents, fiber-optic phone lines, tile, and electric power line insulators. Materials engineers evaluate technical requirements and material specifications to develop materials that can be used, for example, to reduce the weight, but not the strength of an object. Materials engi neers also test and evaluate materials and develop new materials, such as the composite materials now being used in "stealth" aircraft. Employment Metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers held nearly 19,000 jobs in 1994. Over one-fourth worked in metal-producing and proc essing industries. They also worked in research and testing services, government agencies, industries that manufacture machinery, electri cal equipment, and aircraft and aircraft parts, and in engineering consulting firms. Job Outlook Individuals seeking to become employed as metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers should find good opportunities, as the number of anticipated job openings should be sufficient to absorb the relatively low number of new graduates in this engineering discipline. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment Mining engineers held about 3,200 jobs in 1994. Just under twothirds worked in the mining industry. Other jobs were located in government agencies, manufacturing industries, or engineering consulting firms. Mining engineers are usually employed at the location of mineral deposits, often near small communities. Those in research and & -;; ~ A mining engineer examines the plans of the current mine and the next phase to determine the best location for a conveyor system. 84 Occupational Outlook Handbook development, management, consulting, or sales, however, often are located in metropolitan areas. Job Outlook The mining industry traditionally has few openings. In fact, em ployment of mining engineers is expected to decline through the year 2005. Therefore, graduates in mining engineering will face competi tion despite the low number of mining engineering graduates. Opportunities in the mining industry are closely related to the price of the metals and minerals they produce. If the price of these products is high, it makes it worthwhile for a mining company to invest the many millions of dollars in material moving equipment and ore processing technology necessary to operate a mine. Although prices for mined products have been unstable, the increasing activity of auto manufacturing and expanded development and repair of the Nation's roadways will help provide demand for metals and minerals. The long-term business environment for min ing generally is perceived to be favorable, but because a mine takes years of research, planning, and development to become fully opera tional, it may, even then, not contribute to expansion in employment opportunities for mining engineers. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements, earnings, and sources of additional information.) a i ■? 5 W\ ' - mmm Nuclear Engineers (D.O.T. 005.061-042; 015.061, .067, .137, and .167) Nature of the Work Nuclear engineers conduct research on nuclear energy and radiation. They design, develop, monitor, and operate nuclear power plants used to generate electricity and power Navy ships. They may work on the nuclear fuel cycle—the production, handling, and use of nuclear fuel and the safe disposal of waste produced by nuclear energy—or on fusion energy. Some specialize in the development of nuclear weapons; others develop industrial and medical uses for radioactive materials, such as equipment to diagnose and treat medi cal problems. Employment Nuclear engineers held about 15,000 jobs in 1994; about one-fifth each were in utilities, the Federal Government, and engineering consulting firms. Another 10 percent were in research and testing services. Nearly half of all federally employed nuclear engineers were civilian employees of the Navy, about one-third worked for the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, and most of the rest worked for the Department of Energy or the Tennessee Valley Authority. Most nonfederally employed nuclear engineers worked for public utilities or engineering consulting companies. Some worked for defense manufacturers or manufacturers of nuclear power equipment. Job Outlook Little change in employment of nuclear engineers is expected through the year 2005. Because of public concerns over the cost and safety of nuclear power, there are only a small number of nuclear power plants under construction in the United States, two of which are scheduled to begin operating before 2005. Nevertheless, nuclear engineers will be needed to operate existing plants. In addition, nuclear engineers will be needed to work in defense-related areas and to improve and enforce safety standards. Despite the expected absence of employment growth, good oppor tunities for nuclear engineers should exist because the small number of nuclear engineering graduates is likely to be roughly in balance with the number of job openings. Most openings will arise as nuclear engineers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A team of nuclear engineers at the controls of a nuclear power plant. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements, earnings, and sources of additional information.) Petroleum Engineers (D.O.T. 010.061 except -014 and -026, .161-010, and .167-010 and -014) Nature of the Work Petroleum engineers explore for workable reservoirs containing oil or natural gas. When one is discovered, petroleum engineers work to achieve the maximum profitable recovery from the reservoir by determining and developing the most efficient production methods. Because only a small proportion of the oil and gas in a reservoir will flow out under natural forces, petroleum engineers develop and use various enhanced recovery methods. These include injecting water, chemicals, or steam into an oil reservoir to force more of the oil out, and horizontal drilling or fracturing to connect more of a gas reservoir to a well. Since even the best methods in use today recover only a portion of the oil and gas in a reservoir, petroleum engineers work to find ways to increase this proportion. Employment Petroleum engineers held about 14,000 jobs in 1994, mostly in the petroleum industry and closely allied fields. Employers include major oil companies and hundreds of smaller, independent oil explo ration, production, and service companies. Engineering consulting Professional Specialty Occupations 85 Most petroleum engineers work where oil and gas are found. Large numbers are employed in Texas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, and California, including offshore sites. Many American petroleum engineers also work overseas in oil-producing countries. » ' Petroleum engineers discuss a drilling problem on site. firms, government agencies, oil field services, and equipment suppli ers also employ petroleum engineers. Others work as independent consultants. Because petroleum engineers specialize in the discovery and production of oil and gas, relatively few are employed in the refining, transportation, and retail sectors of the oil and gas industry. Job Outlook The price of oil has a major effect on the level of employment oppor tunities for petroleum engineers in the United States. A high price of oil and gas makes it profitable for oil exploration firms to seek oil and gas reservoirs, and they will hire petroleum engineers to do so. With low oil prices, however, it is cheaper to purchase needed oil from other countries, such as Saudi Arabia, which have vast oil reserves. Also, the best exploration opportunities are in other coun tries because many of the most likely petroleum-producing areas in the United States have already been explored. Employment of petroleum engineers is expected to decline through the year 2005 unless oil and gas prices unexpectedly increase enough to encourage increased exploration for oil in this country. In spite of this projected decline, employment opportunities for petro leum engineers should be favorable because the number of degrees granted in petroleum engineering has traditionally been low. There fore, new graduates are not likely to significantly exceed the number of job openings that will arise as petroleum engineers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements, earnings, and sources of additional information.) Architects and Surveyors Architects (D.O.T. 001.061-010 and .167-010) Nature of the Work Architects design buildings and other structures. The design of a building involves far more than its appearance. Buildings must also be functional, safe, and economical and must suit the needs of the people who use them. Architects take all these things into consid eration when they design buildings and other structures. Architects provide a wide variety of professional services to individuals and organizations planning a construction project. They may be involved in all phases of development, from the initial dis cussion of general ideas with the client through construction. Their duties require a number of skills—design, engineering, managerial, communication, and supervisory. The architect and client first discuss the purposes, requirements, and budget of a project. Based on the discussions, architects may prepare a program—a report specifying the requirements the design must meet. In some cases, the architect assists in conducting feasi bility and environmental impact analyses and selecting a site. The architect then prepares drawings and written information presenting ideas for the client to review. After the initial proposals are discussed and accepted, architects develop final construction plans. These plans show the building's appearance and details for its construction. Accompanying these are drawings of the structural system; air-conditioning, heating, and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ventilating systems; electrical systems; plumbing; and possibly site and landscape plans. They also specify the building materials and, in some cases, the interior furnishings. In developing designs, archi tects follow building codes, zoning laws, fire regulations, and other ordinances, such as those that require easy access by disabled per sons. Throughout the planning stage, they make necessary changes. Although they have traditionally used pencil and paper to produce design and construction drawings, architects are increasingly turning to computer-aided design and drafting (CADD) technology for these important tasks. Architects may also assist the client in obtaining construction bids, selecting a contractor, and negotiating the construction contract. As construction proceeds, they may be employed by the client to visit the building site to ensure that the contractor is following the design, meeting the schedule, using the specified materials, and meeting the specified standards for the quality of work. The job is not complete until all construction is finished, required tests are made, and con struction costs are paid. Architects design a wide variety of buildings, such as office and apartment buildings, schools, churches, factories, hospitals, houses, and airport terminals. They also design multibuilding complexes such as urban centers, college campuses, industrial parks, and entire communities. In addition to designing buildings, they may advise on the selection of building sites, prepare cost analysis and land-use studies, and do long-range planning for land development. Architects sometimes specialize in one phase of work. Some specialize in the design of one type of building—for example, hospi tals, schools, or housing. Others specialize in construction manage ment or the management of their firm and do little design work. 86 Occupational Outlook Handbook ■_■ A. ■ Nearly one-third of all architects are self-employed. They often work with engineers, urban planners, interior designers, landscape architects, and others. During a training period leading up to licensure as architects, entry-level workers are called intern-architects. This training period gives them practical work experience while they prepare for the Architect Registration Examination. Typical duties may include preparing construction drawings on CADD, assisting in the design of one part of a project, or managing the production of a small project. Working Conditions Architects generally work in a comfortable environment. Most of their time is spent in offices advising clients, developing reports and drawings, and working with other architects and engineers. How ever, they also often work at construction sites reviewing the prog ress of projects. Architects may occasionally be under great stress, working nights and weekends to meet deadlines; a 40-hour workweek, however, is usual. Employment Architects held about 91,000 jobs in 1994. Most jobs were in archi tecture firms—the majority of which employ fewer than five work ers. Nearly one-third were self-employed architects, practicing as partners in architecture firms or on their own. A few worked for builders, real estate developers, and for government agencies re sponsible for housing, planning, or community development, such as the U.S. Departments of Defense, Interior, and Housing and Urban Development, and the General Services Administration. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require individuals to be licensed (registered) before they may call themselves architects or contract to provide architectural services. Many architecture school graduates work in the field even though they are not licensed. How ever, a licensed architect is required to take legal responsibility for all work. Three requirements generally must be met for licensure: A professional degree in architecture, a period of practical training or internship (usually for 3 years), and passage of all sections of the Architect Registration Examination. In many States, the professional degree in architecture must be from one of the approximately 100 schools of architecture with programs accredited by the National Architectural Accrediting Board (NAAB). However, State architectural registration boards set their own standards, so graduation from a non NAAB-accredited program may meet the education requirement for licensure in some States. There are several types of professional degrees in architecture. The https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis majority of all architecture degrees are from 5-year Bachelor of Architecture programs intended for students entering from high school or with no previous architecture training. Some schools offer a 2-year Master of Architecture program for students with a prepro fessional undergraduate degree in architecture or a related area, or a 3- or 4-year Master of Architecture program for students with a degree in another discipline. In addition, there are many combina tions and variations of these degree programs. The choice of degree type depends upon each individual's prefer ence and educational background. Prospective architecture students should carefully consider the available options before committing to a program. For example, although the 5-year Bachelor of Architec ture program offers the fastest route to the professional degree, courses are specialized and, if the student does not complete the program, moving to a nonarchitecture program may be difficult. A typical program includes courses in architectural history and theory, building design, including its technical and legal aspects, profes sional practice, math, physical sciences, and liberal arts. Many architecture schools also offer graduate education for those who already have a bachelor's or master’s degree in architecture or other areas. Although graduate education beyond the professional degree is not essential for practicing architects, it is normally required for research, teaching, and certain specialties. Architects must be able to visually communicate their ideas to clients. Artistic and drawing ability is very helpful in doing this, but not essential. More important is a visual orientation and the ability to conceptualize and understand spatial relationships. Good communi cation skills (both written and oral), the ability to work independently or as part of a team, and creativity are important qualities for anyone interested in becoming an architect. Computer literacy is also re quired as most firms use computers for word processing, specifica tions writing, two- and three- dimensional drafting, and financial management. A knowledge of computer-aided design and drafting (CADD) is helpful and will become more important as architecture firms continue to adopt this technology. New graduates usually begin in architecture firms, where they assist in preparing architectural documents or drawings. They also may do research on building codes and materials; or write specifica tions for building materials, installation criteria, the quality of fin ishes, and other related details. Graduates with degrees in archi tecture also enter related fields such as graphic, interior, or industrial design; urban planning; real estate development; civil engineering; or construction management. In large firms, architects may advance to supervisory or manage rial positions. Some architects become partners in established firms; others set up their own practice. Job Outlook Architects' employment has traditionally been affected by the level of local construction, particularly of noninstitutional structures such as office buildings, shopping centers, schools, and healthcare facilities. The boom in construction of commercial office space and some other types of non-residential structures during the 1980s means there will be less construction of this type between 1994 and 2005. Neverthe less, employment growth of architects is expected to increase as fast as the average for all occupations during this period. The needed renovation and rehabilitation of old buildings, par ticularly in urban areas where space for new buildings is becoming limited, is expected to provide jobs for architects and to compensate somewhat for any slowdowns in jobs related to new construction. Also, the expected expansion of the population under age 15 and over age 65 should spur the demand for public and private buildings, such as schools and healthcare facilities. The need to replace archi tects who retire or leave the labor force for other reasons will provide many additional job openings. Despite expected employment growth and the increased number of openings due to replacement needs, prospective architects may face competition, especially if the number of architecture degrees Professional Specialty Occupations 87 awarded remain at, or above, current levels. Traditionally, many individuals are attracted to this occupation, and there are often nu merous applicants for available openings, especially in the most prestigious firms. Because noninstitutional construction is sensitive to cyclical changes in the economy, architects will face particularly strong competition for jobs or clients during recessions, and layoffs may occur. Those involved in the design of institutional buildings such as schools, hospitals, nursing homes, and correctional facilities, will be less affected by fluctuations in the economy. Even in times of overall good opportunities, there may be areas of the country with poor opportunities. Architects who are licensed to practice in one State must meet the licensing requirements of other States before practicing elsewhere. These requirements are becom ing more standardized, however, facilitating movement to other States. Because the use of computer-aided design and drafting is becom ing more prevalent in architecture firms, prospective architects who know CADD technology may experience better opportunities in the future, particularly in a competitive job market. Earnings According to The American Institute of Architects, the median salary for intern-architects in architecture firms was $24,700 in 1993. Licensed architects with 8 to 10 years' experience but who were not managers or principals of a firm earned a median salary of $38,900 in 1993; and principals or partners of firms earned a median salary of $50,000 in 1993. Partners in some large practices earned over $110,000. Most employers of wage and salary architects offer paid vacation and sick leave, and a majority also provide medical and life insurance plans to their employees. Employees of very small archi tecture firms (fewer than 5 employees) are less likely to receive these benefits. Architects who are partners in well-established architecture firms generally earn much more than their salaried employees, but their income may fluctuate due to changing business conditions. Some architects may have difficulty getting established in their own prac tices and may go through a period when their expenses are greater than their income, requiring substantial financial resources. Related Occupations Architects design and construct buildings and related structures. Others who engage in similar work are landscape architects, building contractors, civil engineers, urban planners, interior designers, indus trial designers, and graphic designers. Sources of Additional Information Information about education and careers in architecture can be obtained from: •■Architecture Fact Book, The American Institute of Architects, 1735 New York Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20006. •"Society of American Registered Architects, 1245 S. Highland Ave., Lom bard, IL 60148. Landscape Architects (D.O.T. 001.061-018) Nature of the Work Everyone enjoys attractively designed residential areas, public parks, college campuses, shopping centers, golf courses, parkways, and industrial parks. Landscape architects design these areas so that they are not only functional but beautiful and compatible with the natural environment as well. They may plan the location of buildings, roads, and walkways and the arrangement of flowers, shrubs, and trees. Historic preservation and natural resource conservation and reclama https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis tion are other important objectives to which landscape architects may apply their knowledge of the environment as well as their design and artistic talents. Landscape architects are hired by many types of organizations— from real estate development firms starting new projects to munici palities constructing airports or parks. They are often involved with the development of a site from its conception. Working with archi tects, engineers, scientists, and other professionals, they help deter mine the best arrangement of roads and buildings, and the best way to conserve or restore natural resources. Once these decisions are made, landscape architects create detailed plans indicating new topography, vegetation, walkways, and landscape amenities. In planning a site, landscape architects first consider the nature and purpose of the project and the funds available. They analyze the natural elements of the site, such as the climate, soil, slope of the land, drainage, and vegetation. They observe where sunlight falls on the site at different times of the day and examine the site from vari ous angles. They assess the effect of existing buildings, roads, walkways, and utilities on the project. After studying and analyzing the site, they prepare a preliminary design. To account for the needs of the client as well as the condi tions at the site, they may have to make many changes before a final design is approved. They must also take into account any local, State, or Federal regulations such as those protecting wetlands or historic resources. An increasing number of landscape architects are using computer-aided design (CAD) systems to assist them in preparing their designs. Many landscape architects also use video simulation as a tool to help clients envision the proposed ideas and plans. For larger scale site planning, landscape architects also use geographic information systems technology, a computer mapping system. Throughout all phases of the planning and design, landscape architects consult with other professionals involved in the project. Once the design is complete, they prepare a proposal for the client. They produce detailed plans of the site, including written reports, sketches, models, photographs, land-use studies, and cost estimates, and submit them for approval by the client and by regulatory agen cies. If the plans are approved, landscape architects prepare working drawings showing all existing and proposed features. They also outline in detail the methods of construction and draw up a list of necessary materials. Although many landscape architects supervise the installation of their design, some are involved in the construction of the site. How ever, this usually is done by the developer or landscape contractor. Some landscape architects work on a wide variety of projects. Others specialize in a particular area, such as residential develop ment, historic landscape restoration, waterfront improvement proj ects, parks and playgrounds, or shopping centers. Still others work in regional planning and resource management; feasibility, environ mental impact, and cost studies; or site construction. Some land scape architects teach in colleges or universities. Although most landscape architects do at least some residential work, relatively few limit their practice to landscape design for individual homeowners because most residential landscape design projects are too small to provide suitable income compared with larger commercial or multiunit residential projects. Some nurseries offer residential landscape design services, but these services often are performed by lesser qualified landscape designers or others with training and experience in related areas. Landscape architects who work for government agencies do similar work at national parks, government buildings, and other government-owned facilities. In addition, they may prepare envi ronmental impact statements and studies on environmental issues such as public land-use planning. Working Conditions Landscape architects spend most of their time in offices creating plans and designs, preparing models and cost estimates, doing re search, or attending meetings. The remainder of their time is spent at 88 Occupational Outlook Handbook f~ fff’M Landscape architects combine their knowledge of design, construction, plants, soils, and ecology to create their final designs. the site. During the design and planning stage, landscape architects visit and analyze the site to verify that the design can be incorporated into the landscape. After the plans and specifications are completed, they may spend additional time at the site observing or supervising the construction. Those who work in large firms may spend consid erably more time out of the office because of travel to sites outside the local area. Salaried employees in both government and landscape architec tural firms usually work regular hours, although they may work overtime to meet a project deadline. Hours of self-employed land scape architects may vary. Employment Landscape architects held about 14,000 jobs in 1994. Three-fifths worked for firms that provide landscape architecture services. Most of the rest were employed by architectural firms. The Federal Gov ernment also employs these workers; most were found in the U.S. Departments of Agriculture, Defense, and Interior. About 1 of every 5 landscape architects was self-employed. Most employment for landscape architects is concentrated in urban and suburban areas in all parts of the country. Some landscape architects work in rural areas, particularly those in the Federal Gov ernment who plan and design parks and recreation areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor's or master's degree in landscape architecture is usually necessary for entry into the profession. The bachelor's degree in landscape architecture takes 4 or 5 years to complete. There are two types of accredited master's degree programs. The master's degree as a first professional degree is a 3-year program designed for students with an undergraduate degree in another discipline; this is the most common type. The master's degree as the second professional degree is a 2-year program for students who have a bachelor's degree in landscape architecture and wish to demonstrate mastery or specialize in some aspect of landscape architecture. In 1995, approximately 55 colleges and universities offered 72 undergraduate and graduate programs in landscape architecture that were accredited by the Landscape Architecture Accreditation Board of the American Society of Landscape Architects. College courses required in this field usually include technical subjects such as surveying, landscape design and construction, landscape ecology, structural design, and city and regional planning. Other courses include history of landscape architecture, plant and soil science, geology, design and color theory, and general management. In addition, most students at the undergraduate level take a year of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis prerequisite courses such as English, mathematics, and social and physical science. The design studio is an important aspect of many landscape architecture curriculums. Whenever possible, students are assigned real projects to work on, providing them with valuable hands-on experience. While working on real projects, students may become more proficient in the use of technologies such as computeraided design, geographic information systems, and video simulation. Forty-five States require landscape architects to be licensed or registered. Licensing is based on the Landscape Architect Registra tion Examination (L.A.R.E.), sponsored by the Council of Landscape Architectural Registration Boards. Admission to the exam usually requires a degree from an accredited school plus 1 to 4 years of work experience, although standards vary from State to State. Many States require additional examinations focusing on laws and/or plant mate rials indigenous to their State. Because States' requirements for licensure are not uniform, land scape architects may not find it easy to transfer their registration to another State to practice. However, those who meet the national standard of graduating from an accredited program, serving 3 years of internship under the supervision of a registered landscape archi tect, and passing the L.A.R.E. can satisfy requirements in most States. In the Federal Government, candidates for entry positions should have a bachelor's or master's degree in landscape architecture. The Federal Government does not require its landscape architects to be licensed. Persons planning a career in landscape architecture should appre ciate nature and enjoy working with their hands. Although creativity and artistic talent are also desirable qualities, they are not absolutely essential to success as a landscape architect. High school courses in mechanical or geometric drawing, art, botany, and mathematics are helpful. Good oral communication skills are important, because these workers must be able to convey their ideas to other profession als and clients and to make presentations before large groups. Land scape architects do research and prepare reports and land impact studies, so strong writing skills are valuable. A knowledge of com puter applications of all kinds, including computer-aided design and drafting (CADD), is becoming increasingly necessary. Those inter ested in starting their own firm should be skilled in small business management. In States where licensure is required, new hires are technically called intern landscape architects until they become licensed. Their duties vary depending on the type and size of employing firm. They may do project research or prepare base maps of the area to be landscaped, while some are allowed to participate in the actual design of a project. However, interns must perform all work under the supervision of a licensed landscape architect. Additionally, all drawings and specifications must be signed and/or sealed by the licensed landscape architect, who takes legal responsibility for the work. After gaining experience and becoming licensed, landscape architects usually can carry a design through all stages of develop ment. After several years, they may become associates, and even tually they may become partners in a firm or open their own offices. Job Outlook Despite expected stronger employment growth and higher replace ment needs due to retirements than in the past decade, new graduates can expect to face competition for jobs as landscape architects. The number of professional degrees awarded in landscape architecture has remained steady over the years, even during times of fluctuating demand due to economic conditions. If this trend continues, the number of openings in this small occupation will be too few to absorb all jobseekers. Traditionally, however, those with landscape architecture training qualify for jobs closely related to landscape architecture, and may become construction or landscape supervisors, landscape designers, drafters, land or environmental planners, or landscape consultants. Professional Specialty Occupations 89 Opportunities will be best for landscape architects who develop strong technical skills and a knowledge of environmental issues, codes, and regulation. Employment of landscape architects is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The level of new construction plays an important role in determining demand for landscape architects. Anticipated growth in construction is expected to increase demand for landscape architectural services over the long run. An increasing proportion of office and other commercial and industrial development will occur outside cities. These projects are typically located on larger sites with more sur rounding land which needs to be designed, in contrast to urban development, which often includes little or no surrounding land. Also, as the cost of land increases, the importance of good site plan ning and landscape design increases. Because employment is linked to new construction, however, landscape architects may face layoffs and competition for jobs when real estate sales and construction slow down, such as during a recession. Increased development of open space into recreation areas, wild life refuges, and parks will also require the skills of landscape archi tects. Continued concern for the environment should stimulate employment growth because of the need to design development projects which best fit in with the surrounding environment. In addition to the work related to new development and construc tion, landscape architects are expected to be involved in historic preservation, local, city, and regional planning, land reclamation, and refurbishment of existing sites. The need to replace landscape architects who retire or leave the labor force for other reasons is expected to result in nearly as many openings as new openings due to job growth. Earnings According to a 1994 American Society of Landscape Architects survey, the median salary for landscape architects in private practice was about $40,000; the median bonus, $4,000; and additional land scape architecture-related income, $5,000. Those who work in the public sector earned higher salaries—a median of $42,400—but median bonus amount and outside landscape architecture-related income were lower than for private practitioners. In 1995, the aver age annual salary for all landscape architects in the Federal Govern ment in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $49,570. Because many landscape architects work for small firms or are self-employed, benefits tend to be less generous than those of other workers with similar skills who work for large organizations. With the exception of those who are self-employed, however, most land scape architects receive health insurance, paid vacations, and sick leave. Related Occupations Landscape architects use their knowledge of design, construction, and land-use planning to develop a landscape project. Others whose work requires similar skills are architects, interior designers, civil engineers, and urban and regional planners. Landscape architects also know how to grow and use plants in the landscape. Botanists, who study plants in general, and horticulturists, who study ornamen tal plants as well as fruit, vegetable, greenhouse, and nursery crops, do similar work. Sources of Additional Information Additional information, including a list of colleges and universities offering accredited programs in landscape architecture, is available from: ••American Society of Landscape Architects, Career Information, 4401 Connecticut Ave. NW., Suite 500, Washington, DC 20008. General information on registration or licensing requirements is available from: ••Council of Landscape Architectural Registration Boards, 12700 Fair Lakes Circle, Suite 110, Fairfax, VA 22033. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Surveyors (D.O.T. 018 except. 167-022, and 024.061-014) Nature of the Work Three groups of workers measure and map the earth's surface. Land surveyors establish official land, air space, and water boundaries. They write descriptions of land for deeds, leases, and other legal documents; define air space for airports; and measure construction and mineral sites. Survey technicians, assist land surveyors by operating survey instruments and collecting information. Mapping scientists and other surveyors collect geographic information and prepare maps of large areas. Land surveyors manage survey parties that measure distances, directions, and angles between points and elevations of points, lines, and contours on the earth's surface. They plan the fieldwork, select known survey reference points, and determine the precise location of important features in the survey area. Surveyors research legal rec ords and look for evidence of previous boundaries. They record the results of the survey, verify the accuracy of data, and prepare plats, maps, and reports. Surveyors who establish boundaries must be licensed by the State in which they work. The information needed by the land surveyor is gathered by a survey party. A typical survey party is made up of a party chief and several survey technicians and helpers. The party chief, who may be either a land surveyor or a senior survey technician, leads the day-to day work activities. The party chief is assisted by survey techni cians, who adjust and operate surveying instruments such as the theodolite (used to measure horizontal and vertical angles) and electronic distance-measuring equipment. Survey technicians or assistants position and hold the vertical rods or targets that the theodolite operator sights on to measure angles, distances, or eleva tions. They may also hold measuring tapes and chains if electronic distance-measuring equipment is not used. Survey technicians compile notes, make sketches, and enter the data obtained from these instruments into computers. Some survey parties include laborers or helpers to clear brush from sight lines, drive stakes, carry equipment, and perform other less skilled duties. New technology is changing the nature of the work of surveyors and survey technicians. For larger surveying projects, surveyors are increasingly using the Global Positioning System (GPS), a satellite system which precisely locates points on the earth using radio signals transmitted by satellites. To use it, a surveyor places a satellite receiver—about the size of a backpack—on a desired point. The receiver collects information from several differently positioned satellites simultaneously to locate its precise position. Two receivers are generally operated in synchronization, one at a known point and the other at the unknown point. The receiver can also be placed in a vehicle to trace out road systems, or for other uses. The cost of the receivers has fallen and much more surveying work is being done by GPS. Mapping scientists, like land surveyors, measure, map, and chart the earth's surface but generally cover much larger areas. Unlike land surveyors, however, mapping scientists work mainly in offices and seldom visit the sites they are mapping. Mapping scientists include workers in several occupations. Cartographers prepare maps using information provided by geodetic surveys, aerial photographs, and satellite data. Photogrammetrists prepare maps and drawings by measuring and interpreting aerial photographs, using analytical processes and mathematical formulas. Photogrammetrists make detailed maps of areas that are inaccessible or difficult to survey by other methods. Map editors develop and verify map contents from aerial photographs and other reference sources. Some surveyors perform specialized functions which are closer to mapping science than traditional surveying. Geodetic surveyors use high-accuracy techniques, including satellite observations, to meas- 90 Occupational Outlook Handbook I Land surveyors and technicians spend a lot of their time outdoors, and may be exposed to all types of weather. sure large areas of the earth's surface. Geophysical prospecting surveyors mark sites for subsurface exploration, usually petroleum related. Marine surveyors survey harbors, rivers, and other bodies of water to determine shorelines, topography of the bottom, water depth, and other features. The work of mapping scientists is changing due to advancements in technology. These advancements include the GPS, Geographic Information Systems (GIS)—which are computerized data banks of spatial data—new earth resources data satellites, and improved aerial photography. From the older specialties of photogrammetrist or cartographer, a new type of mapping scientist is emerging. The geographic information specialist combines the functions of mapping science and surveying into a broader field concerned with the collec tion and analysis of geographic spatial information. Working Conditions Surveyors usually work an 8-hour day, 5 days a week, and spend a lot of their time outdoors. Sometimes they work longer hours during the summer, when weather and light conditions are most suitable for fieldwork. Land surveyors and technicians do active and sometimes strenu ous work. They often stand for long periods, walk long distances, and climb hills with heavy packs of instruments and equipment. They are also exposed to all types of weather. Occasionally, they may commute long distances, stay overnight, or even temporarily relocate near a survey site. Surveyors also spend considerable time in offices, planning surveys, analyzing data, and preparing reports and maps. Most computations and map drafting are performed on a computer. Map ping scientists spend virtually all their time in offices. Employment Surveyors held about 96,000 jobs in 1994. Engineering, architec tural, and surveying firms employed over three-fifths of all survey ors. Federal, State, and local government agencies employed an additional quarter. Major Federal Government employers are the U.S. Geological Survey, the Bureau of Land Management, the Army Corps of Engineers, the Forest Service, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the Defense Mapping Agency. Most surveyors in State and local government work for highway departments and urban planning and redevelopment agencies. Con struction firms, mining and oil and gas extraction companies, and public utilities also employ surveyors. About 7,000 surveyors were self-employed in 1994. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most people prepare for a career as a licensed surveyor by combining postsecondary school courses in surveying with extensive on-the-job training. About 25 universities offer 4-year programs leading to a B.S. degree in surveying. Junior and community colleges, technical institutes, and vocational schools offer 1-, 2-, and 3-year programs in both surveying and surveying technology. All 50 States license land surveyors. For licensure, most State licensing boards require that individuals pass two written examina tions, one prepared by the State and one given by the National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying. In addition, they must meet varying standards of formal education and work experience in the field. In the past, many surveyors started as mem bers of survey crews and worked their way up to licensed surveyor with little formal training in surveying. However, due to advancing technology and an increase in licensing standards, formal education requirements are increasing. Most States at the present time require some formal post-high school education course work and 10 to 12 years of surveying experience to gain licensure. However, require ments vary among the States. Generally, the quickest route to licen sure is a combination of 4 years of college, 2 to 4 years of experience (a few States do not require any), and passing the licensing examina tions. An increasing number of States require a bachelor's degree in surveying or in a closely related field, such as civil engineering or forestry, with courses in surveying. High school students interested in surveying should take courses in algebra, geometry, trigonometry, drafting, mechanical drawing, and computer science. High school graduates with no formal training in surveying usually start as an apprentice. Beginners with postsecondary school training in surveying can generally start as technicians or assistants. With on-the-job experience and formal training in surveying—either in an institutional program or from a correspondence school— workers may advance to senior survey technician, then to party chief, and in some cases, to licensed surveyor (depending on State licens ing requirements). The American Congress on Surveying and Mapping has a volun tary certification program for survey technicians. Technicians are certified at four levels that require progressive amounts of experience and passing written examinations. Although not required for State licensure, many employers require certification for promotion to positions with greater responsibilities. Cartographers and photogrammetrists usually have a bachelor's degree in engineering or a physical science. It also is possible to enter these positions through previous experience as a photogrammetric or cartographic technician. Most cartographic and photogrammetric technicians have had some specialized postsecondary school training. With the development of Geographic Information Systems, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and other mapping scientists need additional education and more experience with com puters than in the past. The American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing has voluntary certification programs for photogrammetrists and mapping scientists. To qualify for these professional distinctions, individuals must meet work experience standards and pass an oral or written examination. Surveyors should have the ability to visualize objects, distances, sizes, and other abstract forms. They have to work with precision and accuracy because mistakes can be costly. Surveying is a coop erative process, so good interpersonal skills and the ability to work as part of a team are important. Leadership qualities are important for party chief and other supervisory positions. Members of a survey party must be in good physical condition to work outdoors and carry equipment over difficult terrain. They need good eyesight, coordination, and hearing to communicate via hand and voice signals. Professional Specialty Occupations 91 Job Outlook Employment of surveyors is expected to decline slightly through the year 2005. The widespread use of GPS and remote sensing tech nologies is increasing both the accuracy and productivity of survey ors. Job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Growth in construction through the year 2005 should require surveyors to lay out streets, shopping centers, housing developments, factories, office buildings, and recreation areas. Continuing road and highway construction and improvements should also require survey ors. However, employment may fluctuate from year to year along with construction activity. The employment of mapping scientists and other surveyors by private firms, and the Federal Government is expected to decline due to budget cutbacks and technological efficiency. Opportunities will be best for surveyors and mapping scientists who have at least a bachelor's degree as a result of trends towards more complex technology, upgraded licensing requirements, and the increased demand for geographic spatial data (as opposed to tradi tional surveying services). New technology such as GPS and GIS may increase productivity for larger projects and may enhance em ployment opportunities for surveyors and survey technicians who have the educational background to use it, but limit opportunities for those with less education. Earnings The median weekly earnings for surveyors and mapping scientists were about $590 a week in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $420 and $840 a week; 10 percent earned less than $340 a week; 10 percent earned more than $950 a week. The median annual earnings for survey technicians were about $520 a week in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $390 and $750 a week; 10 percent earned less than $300 a week; 10 per cent earned more than $960 a week. In 1995, the Federal Government hired high school graduates with little or no training or experience at salaries or about $15,800 annually for entry level jobs on survey crews. Those with 1 year of related postsecondary training earned about $18,500 a year. Those with an associate degree that included coursework in surveying generally started as instrument assistants with an annual salary of about $21,300. In 1995, entry level land surveyors or cartographers with the Federal Government earned about $24,500 or $29,900 a year, depending on their qualifications. The average annual salary for Federal land surveyors in 1995 was about $44,200, for cartogra phers, about $47,700, and for geodesists, about $50,200. The aver age annual salary for Federal surveying technicians was about $24,400, for cartographic technicians, about $32,100, and for geo detic technicians, about $40,900. Related Occupations Surveying is related to the work of civil engineers and architects, since an accurate survey is the first step in land development and construction projects. Mapping science and geodetic surveying are related to the work of geologists and geophysicists, who study the earth's internal composition, surface, and atmosphere. Mapping science is also related to the work of geographers and urban planners, who study how the earth's surface is used. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities, licensure requirements, and the survey technician certification program is available from: "••American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, 5410 Grosvenor Lane, Bethesda, MD 20814-2122. General information on careers in photogrammetry is available from: ••American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 5410 Grosve nor Lane, Suite 200, Bethesda, MD 20814. Computer, Mathematical, and Operations Research Occupations Actuaries (D.O.T. 020.167-010) Nature of the Work Actuaries answer questions about future risk, make pricing decisions, and formulate investment strategies. Some design insurance, finan cial, and pension plans and ensure that they are maintained on a sound financial basis. Most actuaries specialize in either life, health, or property and casualty insurance; others specialize in pension plans or in financial planning and investment. Actuaries assemble and analyze statistics to calculate probabilities of death, sickness, injury, disability, retirement income level, prop erty loss, or return on investment. They use this information to determine the expected insured loss, or to make other business deci sions. For example, they may calculate the probability of claims due to automobile accidents, which can vary depending on the insured's age, sex, driving history, type of car, and other factors. They must https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis make sure that the price charged for such insurance will enable the company to pay all claims and expenses as they occur. Finally, this price must be profitable and yet be competitive with other insurance companies. The actuary calculates premium rates and determines policy contract provisions for each type of insurance offered. To perform their duties effectively, actuaries must keep informed about general economic and social trends and legislative, health, business, finance, and other developments that may affect insurance or investment practices. Because of their broad knowledge of mathe matics, actuaries may work in investment, risk classification, or pension planning. Actuaries in executive positions help determine company policy. In that role, they may be called upon to explain complex technical matters to other company executives, government officials, policyholders, and the public. They may testify before public agencies on proposed legislation affecting their businesses, for example, or explain changes in contract provisions to customers. They also may help companies develop plans to enter new lines of business. Some actuaries work in the financial services industry, where they manage credit, prepayment, and other risks, and help price corporate offerings. 92 Occupational Outlook Handbook 4 Actuaries need a strong background in mathematics. Consulting actuaries provide advice for a fee to various clients including insurance companies, corporations, hospitals and other health care providers, labor unions, government agencies, and attor neys. Some consulting actuaries set up pension and welfare plans, calculate future benefits, and determine the amount of employer contributions. Others provide advice to health care and Financial services firms. Consultants may be called upon to testify in court regarding the value of potential lifetime earnings lost by a person who has been disabled or killed in an accident, the current value of future pension benefits in divorce cases, or the calculation of auto mobile insurance rates. Pension actuaries enrolled under the provi sions of the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA) evaluate the pension plans covered by that act and report on their financial soundness to employers and regulators. Working Conditions Actuaries have desk jobs that require little physical activity; their offices generally are comfortable and pleasant. They usually work at least 40 hours a week. Some actuaries, particularly consulting actu aries, often travel to meet with clients. Consulting actuaries may also be expected to work more than 40 hours per week. Employment Actuaries held about 17,000 jobs in 1994. More than 1 in 10 were self-employed. Over one-half of the actuaries who were wage and salary workers were in the insurance industry. Most worked for life insurance companies; others worked for property, casualty, and health insur ance companies, pension funds, and insurance agents and brokers. Most of the remaining actuaries worked for firms providing services, especially management and public relations, and actuarial consulting services. A small number of actuaries worked for security and commodity brokers or government agencies. Some are employed developing computer software for actuarial calculations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A good educational background for a beginning job in a large life or casualty company is a bachelor's degree in mathematics or statistics, or a business-related discipline, such as actuarial science, economics, finance, or accounting. Some companies hire applicants with any major, provided the applicant has a working knowledge of mathemat ics, including calculus, probability, and statistics, and has demon strated this ability by passing at least the beginning actuarial exams required for professional designation. Courses in accounting, com puter science, and insurance also are useful. Companies increasingly prefer well-rounded individuals who, in addition to a strong technical https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis background, have some training in liberal arts and business. Good communication and interpersonal skills are important, particularly for prospective consulting actuaries. Although only about 55 colleges and universities offer an actuarial science program, most colleges and universities offer a degree in mathematics or statistics. A strong background in mathematics is essential for persons interested in a career as an actuary. It is an advantage to pass, while still in school, two or more of the examinations offered by profes sional actuarial societies. Two professional societies sponsor pro grams leading to full professional status in their specialty. The Society of Actuaries (SOA) gives a series of actuarial examinations for the life and health insurance, pension, and finance and investment fields. The Casualty Actuarial Society (CAS) gives a series of examinations for the property and casualty field, which covers risks such as fire, accidents, medical malpractice, and personal injury liability. Because the first parts of the examination series of each society are jointly sponsored and cover the same material, students need not commit themselves to a specialty until they have taken the initial examinations. These examinations test an individual's compe tence in subjects such as linear algebra, probability, calculus, statis tics, risk theory, and actuarial mathematics. The first few examinations help students evaluate their potential as actuaries. Those who pass usually have better opportunities for employment and higher starting salaries. Actuaries are encouraged to complete the entire series of exami nations as soon as possible, advancing first to the associate level, and then to the fellowship level. Completion of the promotion process generally takes from 5 to 10 years. Examinations are given twice each year. Extensive home study is required to pass the examina tions; many actuaries study for months to prepare for an examination. Most reach Associateship within 4 to 6 years. They generally spe cialize in the SOA courses leading to a career in either life insurance, health insurance, investment, or pension services, or else the CAS examinations in property and the casualty insurance careers. Fellow ship candidates usually have several years of experience. Most actuaries complete the Fellowship exams a few years after reaching Associateship. Both levels of examinations are extremely difficult. Pension actuaries who verify the financial status of defined benefit pension plans to the Federal Government must be enrolled by the Joint Board for the Enrollment of Actuaries. Applicants for enrollment must meet certain experience and examination require ments as stipulated by the Joint Board. Beginning actuaries often rotate between jobs to learn various actuarial operations and phases of insurance work, such as marketing, underwriting, or product development. At first, they prepare data for actuarial projects or perform other simple tasks. As they gain experi ence, they may supervise clerks, prepare correspondence and reports, and do research. They may move from one company to another in their early careers, as they move up to progressively more responsi ble positions. Advancement to more responsible work depends largely on job performance and the number of actuarial examinations passed. Actuaries with a broad knowledge of the insurance, pension, invest ment, or employee benefits fields can advance to administrative and executive positions in their companies. Actuaries with supervisory ability may advance to management positions in other areas, such as underwriting, accounting, data processing, marketing, advertising, or planning. Job Outlook Prospective actuaries will face competition for jobs. Employment of actuaries is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 due to expected slower growth in the insurance industry. Anticipated downsizing and merger activity in the insurance industry is likely to have the greatest negative effect on actuaries with the least experience. Since experience is of para mount importance in the actuarial field, experienced actuaries should enjoy a competitive edge when vying for available openings. Professional Specialty Occupations 93 Employment growth of consulting actuaries is expected to be faster than employment growth in insurance carriers, traditionally the leading employer of actuaries. As many companies seek to boost profitability by streamlining operations, actuarial employment may be cut back in insurance carriers. At the same time, insurance com panies will require fewer actuaries as a result of merger and acquisi tion activity within the insurance field. Investment firms and large corporations may increasingly turn to consultants to provide actuarial services formerly performed in-house. The liability of companies for damage resulting from their prod ucts has received much attention in recent years. Casualty actuaries will continue to be involved in the development of product liability insurance, medical malpractice and workers’ compensation coverage, and self-insurance, which may involve internal reserve funds estab lished by some large corporations. The growing need to evaluate catastrophic risks such as earthquakes and calculate prices for insur ing facilities against such risks, which may involve huge losses, will be an increasing source of demand for property and casualty actuar ies. So is planning for the systematic financing of environmental risks, such as toxic waste clean-up. Earnings In 1995, starting salaries for actuaries averaged about $36,000 for those with a bachelor's degree, according to the National Association of Colleges and Employers. New college graduates entering the actuarial field without having passed any actuarial exams averaged slightly lower salaries. Insurance companies and consulting firms give merit increases to actuaries as they gain experience and pass examinations. Some companies also offer cash bonuses for each professional designation achieved. A 1994 salary survey of insurance and financial services companies, conducted by the Life Office Management Association, Inc., indicated that the average base salary for a newly designated Associate, Society of Actuaries, was about $46,600. Newly desig nated Fellows, Society of Actuaries, received an average salary of nearly $72,700. Fellows with additional years of experience can earn substantially more. For example, the average base salary for a Fellow of the Society of Actuaries (FSA) who received the designa tion ten years previously (in 1984) was $96,000. Actuaries typically receive other benefits including vacation and sick leave, health and life insurance, and pension plans. Related Occupations Actuaries determine the probability of income or loss from various risk factors. Other workers whose jobs involve related skills include accountants, economists, financial analysts, mathematicians, rate analysts, rate engineers, risk managers, statisticians, and value engi neers. Sources of Additional Information For facts about actuarial careers, contact: •■American Academy of Actuaries, 1100 17th St. NW., 7th Floor, Washing ton, DC 20036. For information about actuarial careers in life and health insur ance, contact: •Society of Actuaries, 475 N. Martingale Rd., Suite 800, Schaumburg, IL 60173-2226. For information about actuarial careers in property and casualty insurance, contact: •Casualty Actuarial Society, 1100 N. Glebe Rd., Suite 600, Arlington, VA 22201. Career information on actuaries specializing in pensions is avail able from: •American Society of Pension Actuaries, 4350 N. Fairfax Dr., Suite 820, Arlington, VA 22203. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Computer Scientists and Systems Analysts (D.O.T. 030.062-010, .162-014, .167-014; 031; 032; 033; 039; and 109.067-010) Nature of the Work The rapid spread of computers and computer-based technologies over the past two decades has generated a need for skilled, highly trained workers to design and develop hardware and software systems and to incorporate these advances into new or existing systems. Although many narrow specializations have developed and no uniform job titles exist, this professional specialty group is widely referred to as computer scientists and systems analysts. Computer scientists generally design computers and conduct research to improve their design or use, and develop and adapt principles for applying computers to new uses. Computer scientists perform many of the same duties as other computer professionals throughout a normal workday, but their jobs are distinguished by the higher level of theoretical expertise and innovation they apply to complex problems and the creation or application of new technology. Computer scientists include computer engineers, database administra tors, computer support analysts, and a variety of other specialized workers. Computer scientists employed by academic institutions work in areas ranging from theory, to hardware, to language design. Some work on multi-discipline projects, for example, developing and advancing uses for virtual reality. Their counterparts in private industry work in areas such as applying theory, developing special ized languages, or designing programming tools, knowledge-based systems, or computer games. Computer engineers work with the hardware and software aspects of systems design and development. Computer engineers may often work as part of a team that designs new computing devices or com puter-related equipment. Software engineers design and develop both packaged and systems software. Database administrators work with database management sys tems software. They reorganize and restructure data to better suit the needs of users. They also may be responsible for maintaining the efficiency of the database, system security, and may aid in design implementation. Computer support analysts provide assistance and advice to users, interpreting problems and providing technical support for hardware, software, and systems. They may work within an organization or directly for the computer or software vendor. Far more numerous, systems analysts use their knowledge and skills in a problem solving capacity, implementing the means for computer technology to meet the individual needs of an organization. They study business, scientific, or engineering data processing problems and design new solutions using computers. This process may include planning and developing new computer systems or devising ways to apply existing systems to operations still completed manually or by some less efficient method. Systems analysts may design entirely new systems, including both hardware and software, or add a single new software application to harness more of the computer's power. They work to help an organization realize the maximum benefit from its investment in equipment, personnel, and business processes. Analysts begin an assignment by discussing the data processing problem with managers and users to determine its exact nature. Much time is devoted to clearly defining the goals of the system and understanding the individual steps used to achieve them so that the problem can be broken down into separate programmable proce dures. Analysts then use techniques such as structured analysis, data modeling, information engineering, mathematical model building, 94 Occupational Outlook Handbook sampling, and cost accounting to plan the system. Analysts must specify the files and records to be accessed by the system and design the processing steps, as well as the format for the output that will meet the users' needs. Once the design has been developed, systems analysts prepare charts and diagrams that describe it in terms that managers and other users can understand. They may prepare a costbenefit and return-on-investment analysis to help management decide whether the proposed system will be satisfactory and financially feasible. When a system is accepted, systems analysts may determine what computer hardware and software will be needed to set up the system or implement changes to it. They coordinate tests and observe initial use of the system to ensure it performs as planned. They prepare specifications, work diagrams, and structure charts for computer programmers to follow and then work with them to "debug," or eliminate errors from the system. Some organizations do not employ programmers; instead, a single worker called a programmer-analyst is responsible for both systems analysis and programming. As this becomes more commonplace, analysts will increasingly work with Computer Aided Software Engineering (CASE) tools and object-oriented programming lan guages, as well as client/server applications development and multi media and Internet technology. (The work of programmers is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) One obstacle associated with expanding computer use is the inability of different computers to communicate with each other. Many systems analysts are involved with connecting all the comput ers in an individual office, department, or establishment. This "net working" has many variations, and may be referred to as local area networks, wide area networks, or multi-user systems, for example. A primary goal of networking is to allow users of microcomputers— also known as personal computers or PCs—to retrieve data from a mainframe computer and use it on their machine. This connection also allows data to be entered into the mainframe from the PC. Because up-to-date information—accounting records, sales figures, or budget projections, for example—is so important in modem organizations, systems analysts may be instructed to make the computer systems in each department compatible so that facts and figures can be shared. Similarly, electronic mail requires open pathways to send messages, documents, and data from one computer "mailbox" to another across different equipment and program lines. Analysts must design the gates in the hardware and software to allow free exchange of data, custom applications, and the computer power to process it all. They study the seemingly incompatible pieces and V: * Systems analysts design new solutions to business, scientific, and engineering data processing problems. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis create ways to link them so that users can access information from any part of the system. Working Conditions Computer scientists and systems analysts normally work in offices or laboratories in comfortable surroundings. They usually work about 40 hours a week—the same as many other professional or office workers. However, evening or weekend work may be necessary to meet deadlines or solve problems. Given the technology available today, more work, including technical support, can be done from remote locations using modems, laptops, electronic mail, and even through the Internet. Because computer scientists and systems analysts spend long periods of time in front of a computer terminal typing on a keyboard, they are susceptible to eye strain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems. Employment Computer scientists and systems analysts held about 828,000 jobs in 1994. Although they are found in most industries, the greatest con centration is in the computer and data processing services industry. This includes firms that design and install computer systems; inte grate or network systems; perform data processing and database management; develop packaged software; and even operate entire computer facilities under contract. Many others work for govern ment agencies, manufacturers of computer and related electronic equipment, insurance companies, and universities. A growing number of computer scientists and systems analysts are employed on a temporary or contract basis, or as consultants. For example, a company installing a new computer system may need the services of several systems analysts just to get the system running. Because not all of them would be needed once the system is function ing, the company might contract directly with the systems analysts themselves or with a temporary help agency or consulting firm. Such jobs may last from several months up to 2 years or more. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There is no universally accepted way to prepare for a job as a com puter professional because employers' preferences depend on the work to be done. Prior work experience is very important. Many people develop advanced computer skills in other occupations in which they work extensively with computers and then transfer into computer occupations. For example, an accountant may become a systems analyst specializing in accounting systems development, or an individual may move into a systems analyst job after working as computer programmer. Employers almost always seek college graduates for computer professional positions; for some of the more complex jobs, persons with graduate degrees are preferred. Generally, a Ph.D., or at least a master’s degree in computer science or engineering, is required for computer scientist jobs in research laboratories or academic institu tions. Some computer scientists are able to gain sufficient experi ence for this type of position with only a bachelor's degree, but this is difficult. Computer engineers generally require a bachelor's degree in computer engineering, electrical engineering, or math. Computer support analysts may also need a bachelor's degree in a computerrelated field, as well as significant experience working with comput ers, including programming skills. For systems analyst or even database administrator positions, many employers seek applicants who have a bachelor's degree in computer science, information science, computer information sys tems, or data processing. Regardless of college major, employers generally look for people who are familiar with programming lan guages and have broad knowledge of and experience with computer systems and technologies. Courses in computer programming or systems design offer good preparation for a job in this field. For jobs in a business environment, employers usually want systems analysts to have a background in business management or a closely related Professional Specialty Occupations 95 field, while a background in the physical sciences, applied mathemat ics, or engineering is preferred for work in scientifically oriented organizations. Systems analysts must be able to think logically, have good communication skills, and like working with ideas and people. They often deal with a number of tasks simultaneously. The ability to concentrate and pay close attention to detail is important. Although both computer scientists and systems analysts often work independ ently, they also may work in teams on large projects. They must be able to communicate effectively with computer personnel, such as programmers and managers, as well as with other staff who have no technical computer background. Technological advances come so rapidly in the computer field that continuous study is necessary to keep skills up to date. Continu ing education is usually offered by employers, hardware and software vendors, colleges and universities, or private training institutions. Additional training may come from professional development semi nars offered by professional computing societies. The Institute for Certification of Computing Professionals offers the designation Certified Computing Professional (CCP) to those who have at least 4 years of work experience as a computer profes sional, or at least 2 years experience and a college degree. Candi dates must pass a core examination testing general knowledge, plus exams in two specialty areas, or in one specialty area and two com puter programming languages. The Quality Assurance Institute awards the designation Certified Quality Analyst (CQA) to those who meet education and experience requirements, pass an exam, and endorse a code of ethics. Neither designation is mandatory, but professional certification may provide a job seeker a competitive advantage. Systems analysts may be promoted to senior or lead systems analysts after several years of experience. Those who show leader ship ability also can advance to management positions, such as manager of information systems or chief information officer. Computer engineers and scientists employed in industry may eventually advance into managerial or project leadership positions. Those employed in academic institutions can become heads of re search departments or published authorities in their field. Computer professionals with several years of experience and considerable expertise in a particular area may choose to start their own computer consulting firms. Job Outlook Computer scientists and systems analysts will be among the fastest growing occupations through the year 2005. In addition, tens of thousands of job openings will result annually from the need to replace workers who move into managerial positions or other occu pations or who leave the labor force. The demand for computer scientists and engineers is expected to rise as organizations attempt to maximize the efficiency of their computer systems. There will continue to be a need for increasingly sophisticated technological innovation. Competition will place or ganizations under growing pressure to use technological advances in areas such as office and factory automation, telecommunications technology, and scientific research. As the complexity of these appli cations grows, more computer scientists and systems analysts will be needed to design, develop, and implement the new technology. As more computing power is made available to the individual user, more computer scientists and systems analysts will be required to provide support. As users develop more sophisticated knowledge of computers, they become more aware of the machine's potential and better able to suggest how computers could be used to increase their own productivity and that of the organization. Increasingly, users are able to design and implement more of their own applica tions and programs. As technology continues to advance, computer scientists and systems analysts will continue to need to upgrade their levels of skill and technical expertise and their ability to interact with users will increase in importance. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The demand for "networking" to facilitate the sharing of informa tion will be a major factor in the rising demand for systems analysts. Falling prices of computer hardware and software should continue to induce more small businesses to computerize their operations, further stimulating demand for these workers. In order to maintain a com petitive edge and operate more cost effectively, firms will continue to demand computer professionals who are knowledgeable about the latest technologies and able to apply them to meet the needs of businesses. A greater emphasis on problem solving, analysis, and client/server environments will also contribute to the growing de mand for systems analysts. Individuals with an advanced degree in computer science should enjoy very favorable employment prospects because employers are demanding a higher level of technical expertise. College graduates with a bachelor's degree in computer science, computer engineering, information science, or information systems should also experience good prospects for employment. College graduates with non-com puter science majors who have had courses in computer program ming, systems analysis, and other data processing areas, as well as training or experience in an applied field, should be able to find jobs as computer professionals. Those who are familiar with CASE tools, object-oriented and client/server programming, and multimedia technology will have an even greater advantage, as will individuals with significant networking, database, and systems experience. Employers should increasing seek computer professionals who can combine strong programming and traditional systems analysis skills with good interpersonal and business skills. Earnings Median annual earnings of computer systems analysts and scientists who worked full time in 1994 were about $44,000. The middle 50 percent earned between $34,100 and $55,000. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,100 and the highest tenth, more than $69,400. Computer scientists with advanced degrees generally earn more than systems analysts. According to Robert Half International Inc., starting salaries in 1994 for systems analysts employed by large establishments employ ing more than 50 staff members ranged from $43,500 to $54,000. Salaries for those employed in small establishments ranged from $35,000 to $45,000. Starting salaries ranged from $51,000 to $62,000 for data base administrators, and from $45,000 to $62,000 for software engineers. In the Federal Government, the entrance salary for systems ana lysts who are recent college graduates with a bachelor's degree was about $18,700 a year in 1995; for those with a superior academic record, $23,200. . Related Occupations Other workers who use research, logic, and creativity to solve busi ness problems are computer programmers, financial analysts, urban planners, engineers, operations research analysts, management ana lysts, and actuaries. Sources of Additional Information Further information about computer careers is available from: •"Association for Computing Machinery, 1515 Broadway, New York, NY 10036. Information about the designation Certified Computing Profes sional is available from: •"Institute for the Certification of Computing Professionals, 2200 East Devon Ave., Suite 268, Des Plaines, IL 60018. Information about the designation Certified Quality Analyst is available from: •"Quality Assurance Institute, 7575 Dr. Phillips Blvd., Suite 350, Orlando, FL 32819. 96 Occupational Outlook Handbook Mathematicians (D.O.T. 020.067-014, .167-030; 199.267-014) Nature of the Work Mathematics is one of the oldest and most basic sciences. Mathema ticians create new mathematical theories and techniques involving the latest technology and solve economic, scientific, engineering, and business problems using mathematical knowledge and computational tools. Mathematical work falls into two broad classes: theoretical (pure) mathematics and applied mathematics. However, these classes are not sharply defined and often overlap. Theoretical mathematicians advance mathematical science by developing new principles and new relationships between existing principles of mathematics. Although they seek to increase basic knowledge without necessarily considering its practical use, this pure and abstract knowledge has been instrumental in producing or fur thering many scientific and engineering achievements. Applied mathematicians use theories and techniques, such as mathematical modeling and computational methods, to formulate and solve practical problems in business, government, engineering, and the physical, life, and social sciences. For example, they may ana lyze the mathematical aspects of computer and communications networks, the effects of new drugs on disease, the aerodynamic characteristics of aircraft, or the distribution costs or manufacturing processes of businesses. Applied mathematicians working in indus trial research and development may develop or enhance mathemati cal methods when confronted with difficult problems. Some mathe maticians, called cryptanalysts, analyze and decipher encryption systems designed to transmit national security-related information. Mathematicians use computers extensively to analyze relation ships among variables, solve complex problems, develop models, and process large amounts of data. Much work in applied mathematics, however, is carried on by persons other than mathematicians. In fact, because mathematics is the foundation upon which many other academic disciplines are built, the number of workers using mathematical techniques is many times greater than the number actually designated as mathematicians. Engineers, computer scientists, physicists, and economists are among those who use mathematics extensively but have job titles other than mathematician. Some workers, such as statisticians, actuaries, and operations research analysts, actually are specialists in a particular A large majority of mathematicians have at least a master’s degree. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis branch of mathematics. (See statements on actuaries, operations research analysts, and statisticians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Mathematicians working for government agencies or private firms usually have structured work schedules. They may work alone, in a small group of mathematicians, or as an integral part of a team that includes engineers, computer scientists, physicists, technicians, and others. Deadlines, overtime work, special requests for information or analysis, and travel to attend seminars or conferences may be part of their jobs. Employment Mathematicians held about 14,000 jobs in 1994. In addition, about 20,000 persons held mathematics faculty positions in colleges and universities, according to the American Mathematical Society. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Many nonfaculty mathematicians work for either Federal or State governments. The Department of Defense is the primary Federal employer of mathematicians; more than three-fourths of the mathe maticians employed by the Federal Government work for the Navy, Army, or Air Force. In the private sector, major employers include research and testing services, educational services, security and commodity exchanges, and management and public relations serv ices. Within manufacturing, the drug industry is the key employer. Some mathematicians also work for banks, insurance companies, and public utilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor's degree in mathematics is the minimum education needed for prospective mathematicians. In the Federal Government, entry-level job candidates usually must have a 4-year degree with a major in mathematics or a 4-year degree with the equivalent of a mathematics major—24 semester hours of mathematics courses. In private industry, job candidates generally need a master's or a Ph.D. degree to obtain jobs as mathematicians. Most of the positions designated for mathematicians are in research and development labs as part of technical teams. These research scientists engage in either pure mathematical, or basic, research; or in applied research focusing on developing or improving specific products or processes. The majority of bachelor’s and master’s degree holders in private industry work, not as mathematicians, but in related fields such as computer science, where they are called computer programmers, systems analysts, or systems engineers. A bachelor's degree in mathematics is offered by most colleges and universities. Mathematics courses usually required for this degree are calculus, differential equations, and linear and abstract algebra. Additional coursework might include probability theory and statistics, mathematical analysis, numerical analysis, topology, modem algebra, discrete mathematics, and mathematical logic. Many colleges and universities urge or even require students major ing in mathematics to take several courses in a field that uses or is closely related to mathematics, such as computer science, engineer ing, operations research, a physical science, statistics, or economics. A double major in mathematics and another discipline such as com puter science, economics, or one of the sciences is particularly desir able. A prospective college mathematics major should take as many mathematics courses as possible while in high school. In 1994, about 240 colleges and universities offered a master's degree as the highest degree in either pure or applied mathematics; 195 offered a Ph.D. in pure or applied mathematics. In graduate school, students conduct research and take advanced courses, usually specializing in a subfield of mathematics. Some areas of concentra tion are algebra, number theory, real or complex analysis, geometry, topology, logic, and applied mathematics. For work in applied mathematics, training in the field in which the mathematics will be used is very important. Fields in which Professional Specialty Occupations 97 applied mathematics is used extensively include physics, actuarial science, engineering, and operations research; of increasing impor tance are computer and information science, business and industrial management, economics, statistics, chemistry, geology, life sciences, and the behavioral sciences. Mathematicians should have substantial knowledge of computer programming because most complex mathematical computation and much mathematical modeling is done by computer. Mathematicians need good reasoning ability and persistence in order to identify, analyze, and apply basic principles to technical problems. Communication skills are also important, as mathemati cians must be able to interact with others, including nonmathemati cians, and discuss proposed solutions to problems. Job Outlook Employment of mathematicians is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The number of jobs available for workers whose educational background is solely mathematics is not expected to increase significantly. Many firms engaged in civilian research and development that use mathe maticians are not planning to expand their research departments much, and, in some cases, may reduce them. Expected reductions in defense-related research and development will also affect mathema ticians' employment, especially in the Federal Government. Those whose educational background includes the study of a related disci pline will have better job opportunities. However, as advancements in technology lead to expanding applications of mathematics, more workers with a knowledge of mathematics will be required. Many of these workers have job titles which reflect the end product of their work rather than the discipline of mathematics used in that work. Bachelor's degree holders in mathematics are usually not qualified for most jobs as mathematicians. However, those with a strong background in computer science, electrical or mechanical engineer ing, or operations research should have good opportunities in indus try. Bachelor’s degree holders who meet State certification requirements may become high school mathematics teachers. (For additional information, see the statement on kindergarten, elemen tary, and secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Holders of a master's degree in mathematics will face very strong competition for jobs in theoretical research. However, job opportu nities in applied mathematics and related areas such as computer programming, operations research, and engineering design in indus try and government will be more numerous. Earnings According to a 1995 survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, starting salary offers for mathematics graduates with a bachelor's degree averaged about $30,300 a year and for those with a master's degree, $35,600. Starting salaries were generally higher in industry and government than in educational institutions. For exam ple, the American Mathematical Society reported that, based on a 1994 survey, median annual earnings for new recipients of doctorates in research were $35,000; for those in government, $45,500; and for those in business and industry, $52,500. In the Federal Government in 1995, the average annual salary for mathematicians in supervisory, nonsupervisory, and managerial positions was $58,150; for mathematical statisticians, $60,510; and for cryptanalysts, $52,840. Benefits for mathematicians tend to be similar to those offered to most professionals who work in office settings: Vacation and sick leave, health and life insurance, and a retirement plan, among others. Related Occupations Other occupations that require a degree in or extensive knowledge of mathematics include actuary, statistician, computer programmer, systems analyst, systems engineer, and operations research analyst. In addition, a strong background in mathematics facilitates employ ment in fields such as engineering, economics, finance, and physics. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information For more information about the field of mathematics, including career opportunities and professional training, contact: American Mathematical Society, Department of Professional Programs and Services, P.O. Box 6248, Providence, RI 02940-6248. ••Mathematical Association of America, 1529 18th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. For a 1995 resource guide on careers in mathematical sciences, send a self-addressed envelope with two first-class stamps to: •"Conference Board of the Mathematical Sciences, 1529 18th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. For specific information on careers in applied mathematics, contact: ••Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 3600 University City Science Center, Philadelphia, PA 19104-2688. Information on Federal job opportunities is available from area offices of the State employment service and the U.S. Office of Per sonnel Management's Federal Job Information Centers located in various large cities throughout the country. Operations Research Analysts (D.O.T. 020.067-018) Nature of the Work Efficiently running a complex organization or operation such as a large manufacturing plant, an airline, or a military deployment requires the precise coordination of materials, machines, and people. Operations research analysts help organizations coordinate and operate in the most efficient manner by applying scientific methods and mathematical principles to organizational problems. Managers can then evaluate alternatives and choose the course of action that best meets the organizational goals. Operations research analysts, sometimes also called management science analysts, are problem solvers. The problems they tackle are for the most part those encountered in large business and government organizations, including strategy, forecasting, resource allocation, facilities layout, inventory control, personnel schedules, and distri bution systems. Their methods generally use a mathematical model consisting of a set of equations that explains how things happen within the organization. Use of models enables the analyst to break down real-world problems into their component parts, assign numeri cal values to different components, and determine the mathematical relationships between them. These values can be altered to examine what will happen to the system under different circumstances. The situation under consideration determines the mathematical method used. Some of the methods available include simulation, linear optimization, networks, waiting lines, and game theory. Operations research analysts use computers extensively in their work. They are typically highly proficient in database collection and management, programming, and in the development and use of sophisticated software programs. Most of the models employed by operations research analysts are so large and complicated that only a computer can solve them efficiently. The type of problem they usually handle varies by industry. For example, an analyst for an airline coordinates flight and maintenance schedules, passenger level estimates, and fuel consumption to pro duce an optimal schedule that ensures safety and produces the great est profit. An analyst employed by a hospital concentrates on a different set of problems, such as scheduling admissions, managing patient flow, assigning shifts, monitoring use of pharmacy and labo ratory services, and forecasting demand for adding hospital services. The duties of the operations research analyst vary according to the structure and management philosophy of the employer or client. Some firms centralize operations research in one department, while 98 Occupational Outlook Handbook others disperse operations research personnel throughout all divi sions. Some operations research analysts specialize in one type of application, whereas others are generalists, especially at the begin ning of their careers. The degree of supervision varies by organizational structure and experience. In some organizations, analysts have a great deal of professional autonomy, while in others, analysts are more closely supervised. Operations research analysts work closely with senior managers, who have a wide variety of support needs. Analysts must adapt their work to reflect these requirements. Regardless of the industry or structure of the organization, opera tions research entails a similar set of procedures. Managers begin the process by describing the symptoms of a problem to the analyst, who then formally defines the problem. For example, an operations research analyst for an auto manufacturer may be asked to determine the best inventory level for each of the materials for a new produc tion line or, more specifically, to determine how many windshields should be kept in inventory. Analysts study the problem, then break it into its component parts. Then they gather information about each of these parts. Usually this involves consulting a wide variety of people and other sources of information, such as professional journals. To determine the most efficient amount of inventory to be kept on hand, for ex ample, operations research analysts might talk with engineers about production levels, discuss purchasing arrangements with industrial buyers, and examine data on storage costs provided by the account ing department. With this information in hand, the operations research analyst is ready to select the most appropriate analytical technique. There may be several techniques that could be used, but in some cases, the analyst must construct an original model to examine and explain the system. In almost all cases, the computer program used to run the selected model must be modified repeatedly to reflect the different circumstances of various solutions. A model for airline flight scheduling, for example, might include variables for the cities to be connected, amount of fuel required to fly the routes, projected levels of passenger demand, varying ticket and fuel prices, pilot scheduling, and maintenance costs. The analyst then chooses the values for these variables, enters them into a com puter which he or she has already programmed to make the calcula tions required, and runs the program to produce the best flight schedule consistent with various sets of assumptions. At this point, the operations research analyst presents the final work to management along with recommendations based on the results of the analysis. Additional computer runs based on different assumptions may be needed to help in making the final decision between various options. Once a decision has been reached, the analyst works with others in the organization to ensure the plan's successful implementation. Working Conditions Operations research analysts generally work regular hours in an office environment. Because they work on projects that are of im mediate interest to management, analysts often are under pressure to meet deadlines and often work more than a 40-hour week. Employment Operations research analysts held about 44,000 jobs in 1994. They are employed in most industries. Major employers include computer and data processing services, commercial banks and savings institu tions, insurance carriers, telecommunication companies, engineering and management services firms, manufacturers of transportation equipment, air carriers, and the Federal Government. About 2 out of 10 analysts work for management, research, public relations, and testing agencies that do operations research consulting for firms that do not have an in-house operations research staff. Most analysts in the Federal Government work for the Armed Forces. In addition, many operations research analysts who work in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis l r iKfi§ jjyjjr Operations research analysts rely on mathematics and computer skills to solve problems. private industry do work directly or indirectly related to national defense. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers strongly prefer applicants with at least a master's degree in operations research or management science, or other quantitative disciplines. A high level of computer skills is also required. Employers often sponsor skill-improvement training for experi enced workers, helping them keep up with new developments in operations research techniques as well as advances in computer science. Some analysts attend advanced university classes on these subjects at their employer's expense. Operations research analysts must be able to think logically and work well with people, so employers prefer workers with good oral and written communication skills. The computer is the most impor tant tool for quantitative analysis, and both training and experience in programming is a must. Beginning analysts usually do routine work under the supervision of more experienced analysts. As they gain knowledge and experi ence, they are assigned more complex tasks, with greater autonomy to design models and solve problems. Operations research analysts advance by assuming positions as technical specialists or supervisors. The skills acquired by operations research analysts are useful for higher-level management jobs, and experienced analysts may leave the field altogether to assume nontechnical managerial or adminis trative positions. Job Outlook Organizations are increasingly using operations research and man agement science techniques to improve productivity and quality and to reduce costs. This reflects growing acceptance of a systematic approach to decisionmaking by top managers. This trend is expected to continue and should greatly stimulate demand for these workers in the years ahead. Those seeking employment as operations research or management science analysts who hold a master's or Ph.D. degree should find good opportunities through the year 2005. The number of openings generated each year as a result of employment growth and the need to replace those leaving the occupation, is expected to exceed the number of persons graduating with master's and Ph.D. degrees from management science or operations research programs. Graduates with only a bachelors degrees in operations research or management science should find opportunities as research assistants or analyst assistants in a variety of related fields, which allow them to use their quantitative abilities. Only the most highly qualified are Professional Specialty Occupations 99 likely to find employment as operations research or management science analysts. Employment of operations research analysts is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 due to the increasing importance of quantitative analysis in decisionmaking. Much of the job growth is expected to occur in the transportation, manufacturing, finance, and services sectors, areas where the use of quantitative analysis can achieve dramatic im provements in operating efficiency and profitability. More airlines, for example, are using operations research to determine the best flight and maintenance schedules, select the best routes to service, analyze customer characteristics, and control fuel consumption, among other things. Motel chains are beginning to use operations research to improve their efficiency by analyzing automobile traffic patterns and customer attitudes to determine location, size, and style of proposed new motels. Like other management support functions, operations research grows by its own success. When one firm in an industry increases productivity by adopting a new procedure, its competitors usually follow. This competitive pressure will contribute to demand for operations research analysts. Demand also should be strong in the manufacturing sector as firms expand existing operations research staffs in the face of grow ing domestic and foreign competition. More manufacturers are using mathematical models to study the operations of the organization. For example, analysts will be needed to determine the best way to control product inventory, distribute finished products, and to decide where sales offices should be based. In addition, increasing factory auto mation will require more operations research analysts to alter exist ing models or develop new ones for production layout, robotics installation, work schedules, and inventory control. interpret the resulting information or data. In doing so, they often apply their knowledge of statistical methods to a particular subject area, such as biology, economics, engineering, medicine, or psychol ogy. They use statistical techniques to predict population growth or economic conditions, develop quality control tests for manufactured products, assess the nature of environmental problems, analyze legal and social problems, or help business managers and government officials make decisions and evaluate the results of new programs. Some statisticians develop new statistical methods. Often statisticians are able to obtain information about a group of people or things by surveying a small portion, called a sample, of the group. For example, to determine the size of the total audience for particular programs, television rating services ask only a few thou sand families, rather than all viewers, which programs they watch. Statisticians decide where and how to gather the data, determine the type and size of the sample group, and develop the survey question naire or reporting form. They also prepare instructions for workers who will collect and tabulate the data. Finally, statisticians analyze, interpret, and summarize the data, usually using sophisticated statis tical computer software packages. In manufacturing industries, statisticians play an important role in the area of quality improvement. For example, a statistician in an automobile manufacturing company might design experiments using statistical models to estimate the failure time of an engine exposed to extreme weather conditions and to identify factors that lead to im proved performance. In chemical companies, statisticians might Earnings According to recruiters and national operations research associations, operations research analysts with a master's degree generally earned starting salaries of about $36,000 to $45,000 a year in 1995. Experi enced operations research analysts earned about $50,000 to $60,000 a year in 1995. Top salaries exceed $90,000. The average annual salary for operations research analysts in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $62,450 in 1995. Related Occupations Operations research analysts apply mathematical principles to large, complicated problems. Workers in other occupations that stress quantitative analysis include computer scientists, engineers, mathe maticians, statisticians, and economists. Operations research is closely allied to managerial occupations in that its goal is improved organizational efficiency. - Sources of Additional Information Information on career opportunities for operations research analysts is available from: •"The Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences, 290 Westminster St., Providence, RI 02903. For information on careers in the Armed Forces and Department of Defense, contact: ••Military Operations Research Society, 101 South Whiting St., Suite 202, Alexandria, VA 22304. Statisticians (D.O.T. 020.067-022, .167-026) Nature of the Work Statistics is the collection, analysis, and presentation of numerical data. Statisticians design surveys and experiments, then collect and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Computers are essential tools for statisticians who handle large amounts of data. 100 Occupational Outlook Handbook design experiments to determine what combination of several chemi cals would lead to the best product. Statisticians working in all industries use computers extensively to process large amounts of data for statistical modeling and graphic analysis. Because statistics are used in so many areas, it sometimes is difficult to distinguish statisticians from specialists in other fields who use statistics. For example, a statistician working with data on economic conditions may have the title of economist. Working Conditions Statisticians usually work regular hours in offices. Some statisticians travel to provide advice on research projects, supervise or set up surveys, or to gather statistical data. Some may have fairly repetitive tasks, while others may have a variety of tasks, such as designing experiments. Employment Statisticians held about 14,000 jobs in 1994. Over one-fourth of these jobs were in the Federal Government, where statisticians were concentrated in the Departments of Commerce (especially the Bureau of the Census); Agriculture; and Health and Human Services. Most of the remaining jobs were in private industry, especially in the transportation equipment, research and testing services, management and public relations, and insurance industries. In addition, many statisticians work as teachers in post-secondary institutions, but they are counted as college and university faculty in the Handbook. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor's degree with a major in statistics or mathematics is the minimum educational requirement for many beginning jobs in statis tics. The training required for employment as an entry level statisti cian in the Federal Government is a college degree including at least 15 semester hours of statistics—or a combination of 15 hours of mathematics and statistics if at least 6 semester hours are in statistics. An additional 9 semester hours in another academic discipline, such as economics, physical or biological science, medicine, education, engineering, or social science, are also required. To qualify as a mathematical statistician in the Federal Government requires 24 semester hours of mathematics and statistics with a minimum of 6 semester hours in statistics and 12 semester hours in advanced mathematics, such as calculus, differential equations, or vector analysis. Research positions in institutions of higher education and many positions in private industry require a graduate degree, often a doctorate, in statistics. About 80 colleges and universities offered bachelor’s degrees in statistics in 1994. Many other schools also offered degrees in mathematics, operations research, and other fields which included a sufficient number of courses in statistics to qualify graduates for some beginning positions, particularly in the Federal Government. Required subjects for statistics majors include differential and inte gral calculus, statistical methods, mathematical modeling, and prob ability theory. Additional courses that undergraduates should take include linear algebra, design and analysis of experiments, applied multivariate analysis, and mathematical statistics. Because comput ers are used extensively for statistical applications, a strong back ground in computer science is highly recommended. For positions involving quality and productivity improvement, training in engineer ing or physical science is useful. A background in biological, chemi cal, or health science is important for positions involving the preparation and testing of pharmaceutical or agricultural products. For many jobs in market research, business analysis, and forecasting, courses in economics and business administration are helpful. In 1994, approximately 110 universities offered a master’s degree program in statistics, and about 58 had statistics departments which offered a doctoral degree program. Many other schools also offered graduate-level courses in applied statistics for students majoring in biology, business, economics, education, engineering, psychology, and other fields. Acceptance into graduate statistics programs does https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis not require an undergraduate degree in statistics although a good mathematics background is essential. Good communications skills are important for prospective statis ticians, not only for those who plan to teach, but also to qualify for many positions in industry, where the need to explain statistical processes to those who are not statisticians is common. A solid understanding of business and management is also important for those who plan to work in private industry. Beginning statisticians who have only the bachelor's degree often spend much of their time doing routine work supervised by an expe rienced statistician. With experience, they may advance to positions of greater technical and supervisory responsibility. However, oppor tunities for promotion are best for those with advanced degrees. Master's and Ph.D. degree holders enjoy greater independence in their work and are qualified to engage in research, to develop statisti cal methods, or, after several years of experience in a particular area of technological application, to become statistical consultants. Job Outlook Although employment of statisticians is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005, job opportunities should remain favorable for individuals with statis tics training. Many statistics majors, particularly at the bachelor's degree level, but also at the master's degree level, may find positions in which they do not have the title of statistician. This is especially true for those involved in analyzing and interpreting data from other disciplines such as economics, biological science, psychology, or engineering. Among graduates with a bachelor's degree in statistics, those with a strong background in mathematics, engineering, or health or com puter science should have the best prospects of finding jobs related to their field of study in private industry or government. Federal Gov ernment agencies will need statisticians in fields such as demogra phy, agriculture, consumer and producer surveys, Social Security, health, education, energy conservation, and environmental quality control. However, competition for entry level positions in the Fed eral Government is expected to be strong for those just meeting the minimum qualification standards for statisticians. Those who meet State certification requirements may become high school statistics teachers, a newly emerging field. (For additional information, see the statement on kindergarten, elementary, and secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Private industry, in the face of increasing competition and strong government regulation, will continue to require statisticians, espe cially at the master's and Ph.D. degree levels, to not only monitor but improve productivity and quality in the manufacture of various products including pharmaceuticals, motor vehicles, chemicals, and food products. For example, pharmaceutical firms will need more statisticians to assess the safety and effectiveness of the rapidly expanding number of drugs. To meet continuing competition, motor vehicle manufacturers will need statisticians to improve and monitor the quality of automobiles, trucks, and their components by develop ing tests for new and existing designs. Statisticians with a knowl edge of engineering and the physical sciences will find jobs in research and development, working with scientists and engineers to help improve design and production processes in order to ensure consistent quality of newly developed products. Business firms will rely more heavily than in the past on workers with a background in statistics to forecast sales, analyze business conditions, and help solve management problems. In addition, sophisticated statistical services will increasingly be contracted out to consulting firms. Earnings The average annual salary for statisticians in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $56,890 in 1995; mathematical statisticians averaged $60,510. Statisticians who hold advanced degrees generally earn higher starting salaries. Professional Specialty Occupations 101 Benefits for statisticians tend to resemble those offered most professionals who work in an office setting: Vacation and sick leave, health and life insurance, and a retirement plan, among others. Related Occupations People in numerous occupations work with statistics. Among them are actuaries, mathematicians, operations research analysts, computer programmers, computer systems analysts, engineers, economists, financial analysts, information scientists, life scientists, physical scientists, and social scientists. Sources of Additional Information For information about career opportunities in statistics, contact: ••American Statistical Association, 1429 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314. For information on a career as a mathematical statistician, con tact: •■Institute of Mathematical Statistics, 3401 Investment Blvd., No. 7, Hay ward, CA 94545. Information on Federal job opportunities is available from area offices of the State employment service and the U.S. Office of Per sonnel Management or from Federal Job Information Centers located in various large cities throughout the country. Life Scientists Agricultural Scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-010, -014, -018, -038, -042, and -058; 041.061-014, -018, -046, and -082; and 041.081) Nature of the Work The work agricultural scientists do plays an important part in main taining and increasing the Nation's agricultural productivity. Agri cultural scientists study farm crops and animals and develop ways of improving their quantity and quality. They look for ways to improve crop yield and quality with less labor, control pests and weeds more safely and effectively, and conserve soil and water. They research methods of converting raw agricultural commodities into attractive and healthy food products for consumers. Agricultural science is closely related to biological science, and agricultural scientists use the principles of biology, chemistry, and other sciences to solve problems in agriculture. They often work with biological scientists on basic biological research and in apply ing to agriculture the advances in knowledge brought about by biotechnology. Many agricultural scientists work in basic or applied research and development. Others manage or administer research and develop ment programs or manage marketing or production operations in companies that produce food products or agricultural chemicals, supplies, and machinery. Some agricultural scientists are consultants to business firms, private clients, or to government. Depending on the agricultural scientist's area of specialization, the nature of the work performed varies. scientists study plants and their growth in soils, helping producers of food, feed, and fiber crops to continue to feed a growing population while conserving natural resources and maintaining the environment. Agronomists and crop scientists not only help increase productivity, but also study ways to improve the nutritional value of crops and the quality of seed. Some crop scientists study the breeding, physiology, and management of crops and use genetic engineering to develop crops resistant to pests and drought. Soil science. Soil scientists study the chemical, physical, biological, and mineralogical composition of soils as they relate to plant or crop growth. They study the responses of various soil types to fertilizers, tillage practices, and crop rotation. Many soil scientists who work for the Federal Government conduct soil surveys, classifying and mapping soils. They provide information and recommendations to farmers and other landowners regarding the best use of land and how to avoid or correct problems such as erosion. They may also consult with engineers and other technical personnel working on construction projects about the effects of, and solutions to, soil problems. Since soil science is closely related to environmental science, persons trained in soil science also apply their knowledge to ensure environ mental quality and effective land use. Animal science. Animal scientists develop better, more efficient ways of producing and processing meat, poultry, eggs, and milk. Food science. Food scientists or technologists are usually employed in the food processing industry, universities, or the Federal Govern ment, and help meet consumer demand for food products that are healthful, safe, palatable, and convenient. To do this, they use their knowledge of chemistry, microbiology, and other sciences to develop new or better ways of preserving, processing, packaging, storing, and delivering foods. Some engage in basic research, discovering new food sources; analyzing food content to determine levels of vitamins, fat, sugar, or protein; or searching for substitutes for harmful or undesirable additives, such as nitrites. Many food technologists work in product development. Others enforce government regulations, inspecting food processing areas and ensuring that sanitation, safety, quality, and waste management standards are met. Plant science. Plant science includes the disciplines of agronomy, crop science, entomology, and plant breeding, among others. These https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis An entomologist talks to local farmers about insect problems in growing com. 102 Occupational Outlook Handbook Dairy scientists, poultry scientists, animal breeders, and other related scientists study the genetics, nutrition, reproduction, growth, and development of domestic farm animals. Some animal scientists inspect and grade livestock food products, purchase livestock, or work in technical sales or marketing. As extension agents or con sultants, animal scientists advise agricultural producers on how to upgrade animal housing facilities properly, lower mortality rates, or increase production of animal products, such as milk or eggs. Working Conditions Agricultural scientists involved in management or basic research tend to work regular hours in offices and laboratories. The working environment for those engaged in applied research or product devel opment varies, depending on the discipline of agricultural science and the type of employer. For example, food scientists in private industry may work in test kitchens while investigating new process ing techniques. Animal scientists working for Federal or State research stations may spend part of their time at dairies, farrowing houses, feedlots, farm animal facilities, or outdoors conducting research associated with livestock. Soil and crop scientists also spend time outdoors conducting research on farms or agricultural research stations. Employment Agricultural scientists held about 26,000 jobs in 1994. In addition, several thousand persons held agricultural science faculty positions in colleges and universities. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) About one-third of all nonfaculty agricultural scientists work for Federal, State, or local governments. Nearly 1 out of 4 worked for the Federal Government in 1994, mostly in the Department of Agri culture. In addition, large numbers worked for State governments at State agricultural colleges or agricultural research stations. Some worked for agricultural service companies; others worked for com mercial research and development laboratories, seed companies, pharmaceutical companies, wholesale distributors, and food products companies. About 4,000 agricultural scientists were self-employed in 1994, mainly as consultants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for agricultural scientists depend on specialty and the type of work they perform. A bachelor's degree in agricul tural science is sufficient for some jobs in applied research or in assisting in basic research, but a master’s or doctoral degree is re quired for basic research. A Ph.D. degree in agricultural science is usually needed for college teaching and for advancement to adminis trative research positions. Degrees in related sciences such as biol ogy, chemistry, or physics or in related engineering specialties also may qualify persons for some agricultural science jobs. All States have a land-grant college which offers agricultural science degrees. Many other colleges and universities also offer agricultural science degrees or some agricultural science courses. However, not every school offers all specialties. A typical under graduate agricultural science curriculum includes communications, economics, business, and physical and life sciences courses, in addition to a wide variety of technical agricultural science courses. For prospective animal scientists, these technical agricultural science courses might include animal breeding, reproductive physiology, nutrition, and meats and muscle biology; students preparing as food scientists take courses such as food chemistry, food analysis, food microbiology, and food processing operations; and those preparing as crop or soil scientists take courses in plant pathology, soil chemistry, entomology, plant physiology, and biochemistry, among others. Advanced degree programs include classroom and fieldwork, labora tory research, and a thesis based on independent research. Agricultural scientists should be able to work independently or as part of a team and be able to communicate clearly and concisely, both orally and in writing. Most agricultural scientists also need an understanding of basic business principles. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Agricultural scientists who have advanced degrees usually begin in research or teaching. With experience, they may advance to jobs such as supervisors of research programs or managers of other agri culture-related activities. Job Outlook Employment of agricultural scientists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Addi tionally, the need to replace agricultural scientists who retire or otherwise leave the occupation permanently will account for many more job openings than projected growth. Although the number of degrees awarded in agricultural science programs has been steady or even declined since the 1980s, new entrants, even those with ad vanced degrees, may still face competition for jobs as agricultural scientists. Animal and plant scientists with a background in molecu lar biology, microbiology, genetics, or biotechnology, soil scientists with an interest in the environment, and food technologists may find the best opportunities. Generally speaking, those with advanced degrees will be in the best position to enter jobs as agricultural scientists. However, com petition for teaching positions in colleges or universities and for some basic research jobs may be keen, even for doctoral holders. Federal and State budget cuts may limit funding for these positions through the year 2005. Bachelor's degree holders can work in some applied research and product development positions, but usually only in certain subfields, such as food science and technology. Also, the Federal Government hires bachelor's degree holders to work as soil scientists. Despite the more limited opportunities for those with only a bachelor's degree to obtain jobs as agricultural scientists, a bachelor's degree in agricul tural science is useful for managerial jobs in businesses that deal with ranchers and farmers such as feed, fertilizer, seed, and farm equip ment manufacturers; retailers or wholesalers; and farm credit institu tions. Four-year degrees may also help persons enter occupations such as farmer or farm or ranch manager, cooperative extension service agent, agricultural products inspector, technician, landscape architect, or purchasing or sales agent for agricultural commodities or farm supplies. Earnings According to the National Association of Colleges and Employers, beginning salary offers in 1995 for graduates with a bachelor's degree in animal science averaged about $24,200 a year, and for graduates in plant science, $22,500. Average Federal salaries for employees in nonsupervisory, super visory, and managerial positions in certain agricultural science specialties in 1995 were as follows: Animal science, $61,480; agro nomy, $49,270; soil science, $46,140; horticulture, $48,210; ento mology, $58,200. Related Occupations The work of agricultural scientists is closely related to that of biolo gists and other natural scientists such as chemists, foresters, and conservation scientists. It is also related to agricultural production occupations such as farmer and farm manager and cooperative ex tension service agent. Certain specialties of agricultural science are also related to other occupations. For example, the work of animal scientists is related to that of veterinarians; horticulturists, to land scape architects; and soil scientists, to soil conservationists. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in agricultural science is available from: •"American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Soil Science Society of America, 677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, WI 53711. •"Food and Agricultural Careers for Tomorrow, Attn.: Dr. Allan Goecker, Purdue University, 1140 Agricultural Administration Bldg., West Lafayette, IN 47907-1140. Professional Specialty Occupations 103 For information on careers in food technology, write to: •■Institute of Food Technologists, Attn.: Dean Duxbury, Suite 300, 221 N. LaSalle St., Chicago IL 60601. For information on careers in animal science, write to: ••The American Society of Animal Science, 309 West Clark St., Champaign, IL61820. Information on Federal job opportunities is available from local offices of State employment security agencies or offices of the U.S. Office of Personnel Management, located in major metropolitan areas. Biological and Medical Scientists (D.O.T. 022.081-010; 041.061, except -014, -018, -046, and -082; 041.067-010; 041.261-010) Nature of the Work Biological and medical scientists study living organisms and their relationship to their environment. Most specialize in some area of biology such as zoology (the study of animals) or microbiology (the study of microscopic organisms). Many biological scientists and virtually all medical scientists work in research and development. Some conduct basic research to increase knowledge of living organisms. Others, in applied research, use knowledge provided by basic research to develop new medicines, increase crop yields, and improve the environment. Biological and medical scientists who conduct research usually work in laboratories and use electron microscopes, computers, thermal cyclers, or a wide variety of other equipment. Some may conduct experiments on laboratory animals or greenhouse plants. For some biological scien tists, a good deal of research is performed outside of laboratories. For example, a botanist may do research in tropical rain forests to see what plants grow there, or an ecologist may study how a forest area recovers after a fire. Some biological and medical scientists work in management or administration. They may plan and administer programs for testing foods and drugs, for example, or direct activities at zoos or botanical gardens. Some biological scientists work as consultants to business firms or to government, while others test and inspect foods, drugs, and other products or write for technical publications. Some work in sales and service jobs for companies manufacturing chemicals or other technical products. (See the statement on manufacturers' and wholesale sales representatives elsewhere in the Handbook.) Advances in basic biological knowledge, especially at the genetic and molecular levels, continue to spur the field of biotechnology. Biological and medical scientists using this technology manipulate the genetic material of animals or plants, attempting to make organ isms more productive or disease resistant. The first application of this technology has been in the medical and pharmaceutical areas. Many substances not previously available in large quantities are starting to be produced by biotechnological means; some may be useful in treating cancer and other diseases. Advances in biotechnol ogy have opened up research opportunities in almost all areas of biology, including commercial applications in agriculture and the food and chemical industries. Most biological scientists who come under the broad category of biologist are further classified by the type of organism they study or by the specific activity they perform, although recent advances in the understanding of basic life processes at the molecular and cellular levels have blurred some traditional classifications. Aquatic biologists study plants and animals living in water. Marine biologists study salt water organisms and limnologists study fresh water organisms. Marine biologists are sometimes erroneously called oceanographers, but oceanography usually refers to the study https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis of the physical characteristics of oceans and the ocean floor. (See the statement on geologists and geophysicists elsewhere in the Hand book.) Biochemists study the chemical composition of living things. They try to understand the complex chemical combinations and reactions involved in metabolism, reproduction, growth, and hered ity. Much of the work in biotechnology is done by biochemists and molecular biologists because this technology involves understanding the complex chemistry of life. Botanists study plants and their environment. Some study all aspects of plant life; others specialize in areas such as identification and classification of plants, the structure and function of plant parts, the biochemistry of plant processes, the causes and cures of plant diseases, and the geological record of plants. Microbiologists investigate the growth and characteristics of microscopic organisms such as bacteria, algae, or fungi. Medical microbiologists study the relationship between organisms and disease or the effect of antibiotics on microorganisms. Other microbiologists may specialize in environmental, food, agricultural, or industrial microbiology, virology (the study of viruses), or immunology (the study of mechanisms that fight infections). Many microbiologists are using biotechnology to advance knowledge of cell reproduction and human disease. Physiologists study life functions of plants and animals, both in the whole organism and at the cellular or molecular level, under normal and abnormal conditions. Physiologists may specialize in functions such as growth, reproduction, photosynthesis, respiration, or movement, or in the physiology of a certain area or system of the organism. Zoologists study animals—their origin, behavior, diseases, and life processes. Some experiment with live animals in controlled or natural surroundings while others dissect dead animals to study their structure. Zoologists are usually identified by the animal group studied—ornithologists (birds), mammalogists (mammals), herpe tologists (reptiles), and ichthyologists (fish). Ecologists study the relationship among organisms and between organisms and their environments and the effects of influences such as population size, pollutants, rainfall, temperature, and altitude. Agricultural scientists, who may also be classified as biological scientists, are included in a separate statement elsewhere in the Handbook. Biological scientists who do biomedical research are usually called medical scientists. Medical scientists working on basic re search into normal biological systems often do so in order to under stand the causes of and to discover treatment for disease and other health problems. Medical scientists may try to identify the kinds of changes in a cell, chromosome, or even gene that signal the devel opment of medical problems, such as different types of cancer. After identifying structures of or changes in organisms that provide clues to health problems, medical scientists may then work on the treat ment of problems. For example, a medical scientist involved in cancer research might try to formulate a combination of drugs which will lessen the effects of the disease. Medical scientists who have a medical degree might then administer the drugs to patients in clinical trials, monitor their reactions, and observe the results. (Medical scientists who do not have a medical degree normally collaborate with a medical doctor who deals directly with patients.) The medical scientist might then return to the laboratory to examine the results and, if necessary, adjust the dosage levels to reduce negative side effects or to try to induce even better results. In addition to using basic research to develop treatments for health problems, medical scientists attempt to discover ways to prevent health problems from developing, such as affirming the link between smoking and in creased risk of lung cancer, or alcoholism and liver disease. Working Conditions Biological and medical scientists generally work regular hours in offices or laboratories and usually are not exposed to unsafe or 104 Occupational Outlook Handbook Demand will remain strong for biological and medical scientists to research health problems and discover new treatments. unhealthy conditions. Some work with dangerous organisms or toxic substances in the laboratory, so strict safety procedures must be followed to avoid contamination. Medical scientists also spend time working in clinics and hospitals administering drugs and treatments to patients in clinical trials. Many biological scientists such as botanists, ecologists, and zoologists take field trips which involve strenuous physical activity and primitive living conditions. Employment Biological and medical scientists held about 118,000 jobs in 1994. In addition, many biological and medical scientists held biology faculty positions in colleges and universities. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Almost 1 in 3 nonfaculty biological scientists were employed by Federal, State, and local governments. Federal biological scientists worked mainly in the U.S. Departments of Agriculture, the Interior, and Defense, and in the National Institutes of Health. Most of the rest worked in the drug industry, which includes pharmaceutical and biotechnology establishments; hospitals; or research and testing laboratories. About 6 percent of medical scientists worked in re search and testing laboratories, with most of the remainder found in hospitals and the drug industry. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For biological scientists, the Ph.D. degree generally is required for college teaching, independent research, and for advancement to https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis administrative positions. A master's degree is sufficient for some jobs in applied research and for jobs in management, inspection, sales, and service. The bachelor's degree is adequate for some nonre search jobs. Some graduates with a bachelor's degree start as bio logical scientists in testing and inspection, or get jobs related to biological science such as technical sales or service representatives. In some cases, graduates with a bachelor's degree are able to work in a laboratory environment on their own projects, but this is unusual. Some may work as research assistants. Others become biological technicians, medical laboratory technologists or, with courses in education, high school biology teachers. (See the statements on clinical laboratory technologists and technicians; science technicians; and kindergarten, elementary, and secondary school teachers else where in the Handbook.) Many with a bachelor's degree in biology enter medical, dental, veterinary, or other health profession schools. Some enter a wide range of occupations with little or no connection to biology. Most colleges and universities offer bachelor's degrees in biologi cal science and many offer advanced degrees. Curriculums for advanced degrees often emphasize a subfield such as microbiology or botany but not all universities offer all curriculums. Advanced degree programs include classroom and field work, laboratory re search, and a thesis or dissertation. Biological scientists who have advanced degrees often take temporary post-doctoral research posi tions which provide specialized research experience. In private industry, some may become managers or administrators within biology; others leave biology for nontechnical managerial, adminis trative, or sales jobs. Biological scientists should be able to work independently or as part of a team and be able to communicate clearly and concisely, both orally and in writing. Those in private industry who aspire to management or administrative positions should possess good busi ness skills and be familiar with regulatory issues and marketing and management techniques. Those doing field research in remote areas must have physical stamina. The Ph.D. degree in a biological science is the minimum educa tion required for prospective medical scientists because the work of medical scientists is almost entirely research oriented. A Ph.D. degree qualifies one to do research on basic life processes or on particular medical problems or diseases, and to analyze and interpret the results of experiments on patients. Medical scientists who admin ister drug or gene therapy to human patients, or who otherwise interact medically with patients (such as drawing blood, excising tissue, or performing other invasive procedures) must have a medical degree. It is particularly helpful for medical scientists to earn both Ph.D. and medical degrees. In addition to the formal education, medical scientists are usually expected to spend several years in a post-doctoral position before they are offered permanent jobs. Post-doctoral work provides valu able laboratory experience, including experience in specific proc esses and techniques (such as gene splicing) which are transferable to other research projects later on. In some institutions, the post doctoral position can lead to a permanent position. Job Outlook Employment of biological and medical scientists is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Nevertheless, jobseekers can expect to face considerable competition for highly sought-after basic research positions. Bio logical and medical scientists will continue to conduct genetic and biotechnological research and help develop and produce products developed by new biological methods. In addition, efforts to clean up and preserve the environment will continue to add to growth. More biological scientists will be needed to determine the environ mental impact of industry and government actions and to correct past environmental problems. Expected expansion in research related to health issues, such as AIDS, cancer, and the Human Genome project, should also result in growth. However, much research and develop Professional Specialty Occupations 105 ment, including many areas of medical research, is funded by the Federal Government. Anticipated budget tightening should lead to smaller increases in research and development expenditures, further limiting the dollar amount of each grant and slowing the growth of the number of grants awarded to researchers. If, at the same time, the number of newly trained scientists continues to increase at a rate similar to that of the 1980s, both new and established scientists will experience greater difficulty winning and renewing research grants. Persons with a bachelor's degree in biological science are usually not called biological scientists, but find jobs as science or engineer ing technicians or health technologists and technicians. Some be come high school biology teachers, where they are regarded as teachers rather than biologists. Those with a doctorate in biological science may become college and university faculty. (See statements on science and engineering technicians, health technologists and technicians, high school teachers, and college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Biological and medical scientists are less likely to lose their jobs during recessions than those in many other occupations because most are employed on long-term research projects or in agricultural re search. However, a recession could influence the amount of money allocated to new research and development efforts, particularly in areas of risky or innovative research. A recession could also limit the possibility of extension or renewal of existing projects. Earnings Median annual earnings for biological and life scientists were about $37,500 in 1994; the middle 50 percent earned between $26,700 and $49,600. Ten percent earned less than $16,300, and 10 percent earned over $67,000. For medical scientists, median annual earnings were about $36,300; the middle 50 percent earned between $27,800 and $56,700. Ten percent earned less than $20,000, and 10 percent earned over $73,900. According to the National Association of Colleges and Employers, beginning salary offers in private industry in 1995 averaged $22,900 a year for bachelor's degree recipients in biological science; about $29,400 for master's degree recipients; and about $48,000 for doctoral degree recipients. In the Federal Government in 1995, general biological scientists in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions earned an average salary of $48,290; microbiologists averaged $54,280; ecolo gists, $47,840; physiologists, $61,150; and geneticists, $60,110. Related Occupations Many other occupations deal with living organisms and require a level of training similar to that of biological and medical scientists. These include the conservation occupations of forester, range man ager, and soil conservationist; animal breeders, horticulturists, soil scientists, and most other agricultural scientists. Many health occu pations are also related to those in the biological sciences, such as medical doctors, dentists, and veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in physiology, contact: ••American Physiological Society, Membership Services Dept., 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20814. For information on careers in biotechnology, contact: •"Biotechnology Industry Organization, 1625 K St., NW., Suite 1100, Wash ington, DC 20006. For information on careers in biochemistry, contact: •"American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20814. For information on careers in botany, contact: ••Business Office, Botanical Society of America, 1725 Neil Ave., Columbus, OH 43210-1293. For information on careers in microbiology, contact: ••American Society for Microbiology, Office of Education and Training— Career Information, 1325 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20005. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Information on Federal job opportunities is available from local offices of State employment services or offices of the U.S. Office of Personnel Management, located in major metropolitan areas. Foresters and Conservation Scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-030, -046, -050, -054, and -062; .167-010; 049.127) Nature of the Work Forests and rangelands serve a variety of needs: They supply wood products, livestock forage, minerals, and water; serve as sites for recreational activities; and provide habitats for wildlife. Foresters and conservation scientists manage, develop, use, and help protect these and other natural resources. Foresters manage forested lands for a variety of purposes. Those working in private industry may procure timber from private land owners. To do this, foresters contact local forest owners and gain permission to take inventory of the type, amount, and location of all standing timber on the property, a process known as timber cruising. Foresters then appraise the timber's worth, negotiate the purchase of timber, and draw up a contract for procurement. Next, they subcon tract with loggers or pulpwood cutters for tree removal, aid in road layout, and maintain close contact with the subcontractor's workers and the landowner to ensure that the work meets the landowner's requirements, as well as Federal, State, and local environmental specifications. Forestry consultants often act as agents for the forest owner, performing the above duties and negotiating timber sales with industrial procurement foresters. Throughout the process, foresters consider the economics of the purchase as well as the environmental impact on natural resources, a function which has taken on added importance in recent years. To do this, they determine how best to conserve wildlife habitats, creek beds, water quality, and soil stability and how best to comply with environmental regulations. Foresters must balance the desire to conserve forested ecosystems for future generations with the need to use forest resources for recreational or economic purposes. Foresters also supervise the planting and growing of new trees, a process called regeneration. They choose and prepare the site, using controlled burning, bulldozers, or herbicides to clear weeds, brush, and logging debris. They advise on the type, number, and placement of trees to be planted. Foresters then monitor the trees to ensure healthy growth and to determine the best time for harvesting. If they detect signs of disease or harmful insects, they decide on the best course of treatment to prevent contamination or infestation of healthy trees. Foresters who work for State and Federal governments manage public forests and parks and also work with private landowners to protect and manage forest land outside of the public domain. They may also design campgrounds and recreation areas. Foresters use a number of tools to perform their jobs: Clinome ters measure the heights, diameter tapes measure the diameter, and increment borers and bark gauges measure the growth of trees so that timber volumes can be computed and future growth estimated. Photogrammetry and remote sensing (aerial photographs taken from airplanes and satellites) are often used for mapping large forest areas and for detecting widespread trends of forest and land use. Comput ers are used extensively, both in the office and in the field, for the storage, retrieval, and analysis of information required to manage the forest land and its resources. Range managers, also called range conservationists, range ecologists, or range scientists, manage, improve, and protect rangelands to maximize their use without damaging the environment. Rangelands cover about 1 billion acres of the United States, mostly 106 Occupational Outlook Handbook in the western States and Alaska. They contain many natural re sources, including grass and shrubs for animal grazing, wildlife habitats, water from vast watersheds, recreation facilities, and valu able mineral and energy resources. Range managers help ranchers attain optimum livestock production by determining the number and kind of animals to graze, the grazing system to use, and the best season for grazing. At the same time, however, they maintain soil stability and vegetation for other uses such as wildlife habitats and outdoor recreation. They also plan and implement revegetation of disturbed sites. Soil conservationists provide technical assistance to farmers, ranchers, State and local governments, and others concerned with the conservation of soil, water, and related natural resources. They develop programs designed to get the most productive use of land without damaging it. Conservationists visit areas with erosion problems, find the source of the problem, and help landowners and managers develop management practices to combat it. Foresters and conservation scientists often specialize in one area such as forest resource management, urban forestry, wood technol ogy, or forest economics. Working Conditions Working conditions vary considerably. Although some of the work is solitary, foresters and conservation scientists also deal regularly with landowners, loggers, forestry technicians and aides, farmers, ranchers, government officials, special interest groups, and the public in general. Some work regular hours in offices or labs. The work can be physically demanding. Many foresters and conservation scientists often work outdoors in all kinds of weather, sometimes in isolated areas. Some foresters may need to walk long distances through densely wooded land to carry out their work. Foresters also may work long hours fighting fires. Conservation scientists are often called in to prevent erosion after a forest fire, and they provide emergency help after floods, mudslides, and tropical storms. Employment Foresters and conservation scientists held about 41,000 jobs in 1994. About 12,000 of the salaried workers were in the Federal Govern ment, primarily in the Department of Agriculture's Forest Service and Natural Resource Conservation Service and in the Department of the Interior's Bureau of Land Management. Another 24 percent worked for State governments, and 7 percent worked for local governments. The remainder worked in private industry, mainly in the forestry industry. Other significant employers included logging and lumber companies and sawmills. Some were self-employed as consultants for private landowners, State and Federal governments, and forestryrelated businesses. Most soil conservationists work for the Department of Agricul ture's Natural Resource Conservation Service. Others are employed by State and local governments in their soil conservation districts. Although foresters and conservation scientists work in every State, employment of foresters is concentrated in the western and southeastern States, where many national and private forests and parks are, and where most of the lumber and pulpwood-producing forests are. Range managers work almost entirely in the western States, where most of the rangeland is located. Soil conservationists, on the other hand, are employed in almost every county in the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor's degree in forestry is the minimum educational require ment for professional careers in forestry. In the Federal Government, a combination of experience and appropriate education may occa sionally substitute for a 4-year forestry degree, but job competition makes this difficult. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Foresters and conservation scientists spend much time working outdoors. Fourteen States have either mandatory licensing or voluntary registration requirements which a forester must meet in order to acquire the title "professional forester." Becoming licensed or regis tered usually requires a 4-year degree in forestry, a minimum period of training time, and passing an exam. Foresters who wish to perform specialized research or teach should have an advanced degree, preferably a Ph.D. In 1995, about 60 colleges and universities offered bachelor's or higher degrees in forestry; 47 of these were accredited by the Society of American Foresters. Curriculums stress science, mathematics, communications skills, and computer science, as well as technical forestry subjects. Courses in forest economics and business admini stration supplement the student's scientific and technical knowledge. Prospective foresters should also have a strong grasp on policy issues and on the increasingly numerous and complex environmental regu lations which affect many forestry-related activities. Many colleges require students to complete a field session either in a camp operated by the college or in a cooperative work-study program with a Federal or State agency or private industry. All schools encourage students to take summer jobs that provide experience in forestry or conserva tion work. A bachelor's degree in range management or range science is the usual minimum educational requirement for range managers; gradu ate degrees generally are required for teaching and research posi tions. In 1994, 31 colleges and universities offered degrees in range management or range science or in a closely related discipline with a range management or range science option. A number of other schools offered some courses in range management or range science. Specialized range management courses combine plant, animal, and soil sciences with principles of ecology and resource management. Desirable electives include economics, forestry, hydrology, agron omy, wildlife, animal husbandry, computer science, and recreation. Very few colleges and universities offer degrees in soil conserva tion. Most soil conservationists have degrees in environmental studies, agronomy, general agriculture, hydrology, or crop or soil science; a few have degrees in related fields such as wildlife biology, forestry, and range management. Programs of study generally in clude 30 semester hours in natural resources or agriculture, including at least 3 hours in soil science. The Soil and Water Conservation Society sponsors a certification program based on education, experi ence, and testing. Upon completion of the program, individuals are designated as Certified Professional Erosion and Sediment Control specialist. In addition to meeting the demands of forestry and conservation research and analysis, foresters and conservation scientists generally must enjoy working outdoors, be physically hardy, and be willing to Professional Specialty Occupations 107 move to where the jobs are. They must also work well with people and have good communications skills. Recent forestry and range management graduates usually work under the supervision of experienced foresters or range managers. After gaining experience, they may advance to more responsible positions. In the Federal Government, most entry level foresters work in forest resource management. An experienced Federal for ester may supervise a ranger district, and may advance to forest supervisor, regional forester, or to a top administrative position in the national headquarters. In private industry, foresters start by learning the practical and administrative aspects of the business and acquiring comprehensive technical training. They are then introduced to contract writing, timber harvesting, and decision making. Some foresters work their way up to top managerial positions within their companies. Foresters in management usually leave the fieldwork behind, spending more of their time in an office, working with teams to develop management plans and supervising others. After gaining several years of experience, some foresters may become consulting foresters, working alone or with one or several partners. They con tract with State or local governments, private landowners, private industry, or other forestry consulting groups. Soil conservationists usually begin working within one county or conservation district and with experience may advance to the area, State, regional, or national level. Also, soil conservationists can transfer to related occupations such as farm or ranch management advisor or land appraiser. Job Outlook Employment of foresters and conservation scientists is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. At the State and local government level, demand will be spurred by a continuing emphasis on environmental protection and responsible land management. For example, urban foresters are increasingly needed to do environmental impact studies in urban areas and to help regional planning commissions make land use decisions, particularly in the Northeast and in other major population centers of the country. At the State level, more numerous and complex environmental regulations have created demand for more foresters and conservation scientists to deal with these issues. Also, the nationwide Stewardship Incentive Program, funded by the Federal Government, provides money to the States to encourage landowners to practice multiple-use forest management. Foresters will be needed to assist landowners in making decisions about how to manage their forested property. Job opportunities for soil conservationists will also grow as government regulations, such as those regarding the management of stormwater and coastlines, has created demand for persons knowledgeable about erosion, not only on farms, but in cities and suburbs. In private industry, more foresters should be needed to improve forest and logging practices, increase output and profitability, and deal with environmental regulations. Opportunities for foresters will be fewer in the Federal govern ment, partly due to budgetary constraints. Also, Federal land man agement agencies, such as the Forest Service, are de-emphasizing their timber programs and focusing increasingly on wildlife, recrea tion, and sustaining ecosystems, increasing demand for other life and social scientists relative to foresters. However, a large number of foresters is expected to retire or leave the labor force for other rea sons, which will provide additional opportunities for jobseekers. Although job openings between 1994 and 2005 are expected to be fewer than during the 1980s, the number of degrees awarded in forestry each year is also expected to be lower, creating good opportunities. However, if the number of students graduating with forestry degrees increases quickly, jobseekers may face increased competition. Certain areas of the country offer greater job opportunities for foresters and range conservationists than others. Employment for range conservationists is concentrated in the West and Midwest, and most forestry-related employment is in the South and West. Earnings Most graduates entering the Federal Government as foresters, range managers, or soil conservationists with a bachelor’s degree started at $18,700 or $23,200 a year, in 1995, depending on academic achievement. Those with a master's degree could start at $23,200 or $28,300. Holders of doctorates could start at $34,300 or, in research positions, at $41,100. Beginning salaries were slightly higher in selected areas where the prevailing local pay level was higher. In 1995, the average Federal salary for foresters in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $44,700; for soil conser vationists, $42,220; and for forest products technologists, $58,680. In private industry, starting salaries for students with a bachelor's degree were comparable to starting salaries in the Federal Govern ment, but starting salaries in State and local governments were generally lower. Foresters and conservation scientists who work for Federal, State, and local governments and large private firms generally receive more generous benefits—for example, pension and retirement plans, health and life insurance, and paid vacations—than those working for smaller firms. Related Occupations Foresters and conservation scientists are not the only workers who manage, develop, and protect natural resources. Other workers with similar responsibilities include agricultural scientists, agricultural engineers, biological scientists, environmental scientists, farm and ranch managers, soil scientists and soil conservation technicians, and wildlife managers. Sources of Additional Information For information about the forestry profession and lists of schools offering education in forestry, send a self-addressed, stamped busi ness envelope to: •■Society of American Foresters, 5400 Grosvenor Ln., Bethesda, MD 20814. Information about a career as a range manager as well as a list of schools offering training is available from: •"Society for Range Management, 1839 York St., Denver, CO 80206. Information about a career as a soil conservationist is available from: •■Soil and Water Conservation Society, 7515 Northeast Ankeny Rd„ RR #1, Ankeny, IA 50021-9764. For information about career opportunities in forestry in the Federal Government, contact: •"Chief, U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, P.O. Box 96090, Washington, DC 20090-6090. Physical Scientists Chemists (D.O.T. 022.061-010, -014, and .137-010) https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Chemists search for and put to practical use new knowledge about chemicals. Although chemicals are often thought of as artificial or toxic substances, all physical things, whether naturally occurring or of human design, are composed of chemicals. Chemists have devel- 108 Occupational Outlook Handbook oped a tremendous variety of new and improved synthetic fibers, paints, adhesives, drugs, cosmetics, electronic components, lubri cants, and thousands of other products. They also develop processes which save energy and reduce pollution, such as improved oil refin ing and petrochemical processing methods. Research on the chemis try of living things spurs advances in medicine, agriculture, food processing, and other areas. Many chemists work in research and development. In basic research, chemists investigate the properties, composition, and structure of matter and the laws that govern the combination of elements and reactions of substances. In applied research and devel opment, they create new products and processes or improve existing ones, often using knowledge gained from basic research. For exam ple, synthetic rubber and plastics resulted from research on small molecules uniting to form large ones (polymerization). Chemists also work in production and quality control in chemical manufacturing plants. They prepare instructions for plant workers which specify ingredients, mixing times, and temperatures for each stage in the process. They also monitor automated processes to ensure proper product yield, and they test samples to ensure they meet industry and government standards. Chemists also record and report on test results. Others are marketing or sales representatives who sell and provide technical information on chemical products. Chemists often specialize in a subfield. Analytical chemists determine the structure, composition, and nature of substances and develop analytical techniques. They also identify the presence and concentration of chemical pollutants in air, water, and soil. Organic chemists study the chemistry of the vast number of carbon com pounds. Many commercial products, such as drugs, plastics, and fertilizers, have been developed by organic chemists. Inorganic chemists study compounds consisting mainly of elements other than carbon, such as those in electronic components. Physical chemists study the physical characteristics of atoms and molecules and inves tigate how chemical reactions work. Their research may result in new and better energy sources. Biochemists, whose work encompasses both biology and chemis try, are included under biological scientists elsewhere in the Hand book. Working Conditions Chemists usually work regular hours in offices and laboratories. Research chemists spend much time in laboratories, but also work in offices when they do theoretical research or plan, record, and report on their lab research. Although some laboratories are small, others are large and may incorporate prototype chemical manufacturing facilities as well as advanced equipment. Chemists may also do J^ill it m Chemists who work in production and quality control test samples to ensure product specifications are met. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis some of their research in a chemical plant or outdoors—while gather ing samples of pollutants, for example. Some chemists are exposed to health or safety hazards when handling certain chemicals, but there is little risk if proper procedures are followed. Employment Chemists held about 97,000 jobs in 1994. The majority of chemists are employed in manufacturing firms—mostly in the chemical manu facturing industry, which includes firms that produce plastics and synthetic materials, drugs, soaps and cleaners, paints, industrial organic chemicals, and other miscellaneous chemical products. Chemists also work for State and local governments, primarily in health and agriculture, and for Federal agencies, chiefly in the De partments of Defense, Health and Human Services, and Agriculture. Others work for research and testing services. In addition, thousands of persons held chemistry faculty positions in colleges and universi ties. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Chemists are employed in all parts of the country, but they are mainly concentrated in large industrial areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor's degree in chemistry or a related discipline is usually the minimum education necessary to work as a chemist. However, many, if not most, research jobs require a Ph.D. degree. Many colleges and universities offer a bachelor's degree program in chemistry, 606 of which are approved by the American Chemical Society. Several hundred colleges and universities also offer ad vanced degree programs in chemistry. Students planning careers as chemists should enjoy studying science and mathematics, and should like working with their hands building scientific apparatus and performing experiments. Persever ance, curiosity, and the ability to concentrate on detail and to work independently are essential. In addition to required courses in ana lytical, inorganic, organic, and physical chemistry, undergraduate chemistry majors usually study biological sciences, mathematics, and physics. Computer courses are invaluable, as employers increasingly prefer job applicants to be not only computer literate, but able to apply computer skills to modeling and simulation tasks. Laboratory instruments are also computerized, and the ability to operate and understand equipment is essential. Because research and development chemists are increasingly expected to work on interdisciplinary teams, some understanding of other disciplines, including business and marketing or economics, is desirable, along with leadership ability and good oral and written communication skills. Experience, either in academic laboratories or through internships or co-op programs in industry, also is useful. Some employers of research chemists, particularly in the pharma ceutical industry, prefer to hire individuals with several years of postdoctoral experience. Although graduate students typically specialize in a subfield of chemistry, such as analytical chemistry or polymer chemistry, stu dents usually need not specialize at the undergraduate level. In fact, undergraduates who are broadly trained have more flexibility when job hunting or changing jobs than if they narrowly define their inter ests. Most employers provide new bachelor's degree chemists with additional training or education. In government or industry, beginning chemists with a bachelor's degree work in technical sales or services, quality control, or assist senior chemists in research and development laboratories. Some may work in research positions, analyzing and testing products, but these may be technicians' positions, with limited upward mobility. Many employers prefer chemists with a Ph.D. to work in basic and applied research. A Ph.D. is also generally preferred for advancement to many administrative positions. Chemists who work in sales, market ing, or professional research positions often move into management eventually. Professional Specialty Occupations 109 Many people with a bachelor’s degree in chemistry enter other occupations in which a chemistry background is helpful, such as technical writers or sales representatives in chemical marketing. Some enter medical, dental, veterinary, or other health profession schools. Others choose from a wide range of occupations with little or no connection to chemistry. Chemistry graduates may become high school teachers, and those with a Ph.D. may teach at the college or university level. However, they usually are then regarded as science teachers, or college or university faculty, rather than chemists. Others may qualify as engineers, especially if they have taken some courses in engineering. Job Outlook Employment of chemists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The chemical industry, the major employer of chemists, should face continued demand for goods such as new and better pharmaceuticals and per sonal care products, as well as more specialty chemicals designed to address specific problems or applications. To meet these demands, research and development expenditures in the chemical industry will continue to increase, contributing to employment opportunities for chemists. Within the chemical industry, job opportunities are expected to be most plentiful in pharmaceutical and biotechnology firms. Stronger competition among drug companies and an aging population are among the several factors contributing to the need for innovative and improved drugs discovered through scientific research. Although employment growth is expected to be slower in the remaining seg ments of the chemical industry, there will still be a need for chemists to develop and improve products, such as cosmetics and cleansers, as well as the technologies and processes used to produce chemicals for all purposes. Job growth will also be spurred by the need for chem ists to monitor and measure air and water pollutants to ensure com pliance with local, state, and federal environmental regulations. Because much employment growth of chemists is expected to relate to drug research and development and environmental issues, analytical, environmental, and synthetic organic chemists should have the best job prospects. During periods of economic recession, layoffs of chemists may occur—especially in the oil refining and industrial chemicals indus tries. Chemists are vulnerable to temporary slowdowns in automo bile manufacturing and construction, end users of many of the products of the chemical industry. Earnings According to a 1995 survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, the average starting salary offer for recently gradu ated chemists with a bachelor's degree was about $29,300 a year; with a master's degree, $38,000; with a Ph.D., $52,900. A survey by the American Chemical Society reports that the median salary of all their members with a bachelor's degree was $45,400 a year in 1994; with a master's degree, $53,500; and with a Ph.D., $66,000. In 1995, chemists in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions in the Federal Government earned an average salary of $56,070. Related (Occupations The work of chemical engineers, agricultural scientists, biological scientists, and chemical technicians is closely related to the work done by chemists. The work of other physical and life science occu pations, such as physicists and medical scientists, may also be similar to that of chemists. Sources of Additional Information General information on career opportunities and earnings for chem ists is available from: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis •■American Chemical Society. Department of Career Services, 1155 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Information on Federal job opportunities is available from local offices of State employment services or offices of the U.S. Office of Personnel Management, located in major metropolitan areas. Geologists and Geophysicists (D.O.T. 024.061 except -014, and .161) Nature of the Work Geologists and geophysicists, also known as geological scientists or geoscientists, study the physical aspects and history of the earth. They identify and examine rocks, study information collected by remote sensing instruments in satellites, conduct geological surveys, construct maps, and use instruments to measure the earth's gravity and magnetic field. They also analyze information collected through seismic studies, which involves bouncing energy waves off buried rock layers. Many geologists and geophysicists search for oil, natu ral gas, minerals, and groundwater. Other geological scientists play an important role in preserving and cleaning up the environment. Their activities include designing and monitoring waste disposal sites, preserving water supplies, and reclaiming contaminated land and water to comply with Federal environmental regulations. They also help locate safe sites for hazardous waste facilities and landfills. Geologists and geophysicists examine chemical and physical properties of specimens in laboratories. They study fossil remains of animal and plant life or experiment with the flow of water and oil through rocks. Some geoscientists use two- or three-dimensional computer modeling to portray water layers and the flow of water or other fluids through rock cracks and porous materials. They use a variety of sophisticated laboratory instruments, including x-ray diffractometers, which determine the crystal structure of minerals, and petrographic microscopes, for the study of rock and sediment samples. Geoscientists also use seismographs, instruments which measure energy waves resulting from movements in the earth's crust, to determine the locations and intensities of earthquakes. Geoscientists working in the oil and gas industry sometimes process and interpret the maps produced by remote sensing satellites to help identify potential new oil or gas deposits. Seismic technology is also an important exploration tool. Seismic waves are used to develop 3-dimensional computer models of underground or underwa ter rock formations. Geologists and geophysicists also apply geological knowledge to engineering problems in constructing large buildings, dams, tunnels, and highways. Some administer and manage research and explora tion programs; others become general managers in petroleum and mining companies. Geology and geophysics are closely related fields, but there are major differences. Geologists study the composition, structure, and history of the earth's crust. They try to find out how rocks were formed and what has happened to them since their formation. Geo physicists use the principles of physics and mathematics to study not only the earth's surface but its internal composition, ground and surface waters, atmosphere, and oceans as well as its magnetic, electrical, and gravitational forces. Both, however, commonly apply their skills to the search for natural resources and to solve environ mental problems. There are numerous subdisciplines or specialties that fall under the two major disciplines of geology and geophysics which further differentiate the kind of work geoscientists do. For example, petro leum geologists explore for oil and gas deposits by studying and mapping the subsurface of the ocean or land. They use sophisticated geophysical instrumentation, well log data, and computers to collect 110 Occupational Outlook Handbook information. Mineralogists analyze and classify minerals and pre cious stones according to composition and structure. Paleontologists study fossils found in geological formations to trace the evolution of plant and animal life and the geologic history of the earth. Stratigraphers help to locate minerals by studying the distribution and arrangement of sedimentary rock layers and by examining the fossil and mineral content of such layers. Those who study marine geology are usually called oceanographers or marine geologists. They study and map the ocean floor, and collect information using remote sensing devices aboard surface ships or underwater research craft. Geophysicists may specialize in areas such as geodesy, seismol ogy, or marine geophysics, also known as physical oceanography. Geodesists study the size and shape of the Earth, its gravitational field, tides, polar motion, and rotation. Seismologists interpret data from seismographs and other geophysical instruments to detect earthquakes and locate earthquake-related faults. Physical oceanog raphers study the physical aspects of oceans such as currents and the interaction of the surface of the sea with the atmosphere. Hydrology is a discipline closely related to geology and geophys ics. Hydrologists study the distribution, circulation, and physical properties of underground and surface waters. They study the form and intensity of precipitation, its rate of infiltration into the soil, movement through the earth, and its return to the ocean and atmos phere. The work they do is particularly important in environmental preservation and remediation. IS.IB 3*.,,, Geologists are able to classify rock and mineral specimens by examining the composition and structure of each. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Conditions Some geoscientists spend the majority of their time in an office, others divide their time between fieldwork and office or laboratory work. Geologists often travel to remote field sites by helicopter or four-wheel drive vehicles and cover large areas on foot. Exploration geologists and geophysicists often work overseas or in remote areas, and job relocation is not unusual. Marine geologists and oceanogra phers may spend considerable time at sea. Employment Geologists and geophysicists held about 46,000 jobs in 1994. Many more individuals held geology, geophysics, and oceanography fac ulty positions in colleges and universities, but they are counted as college and university faculty, not geologists, geophysicists, or oceanographers. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) About 1 in 5 were employed in oil and gas companies or oil and gas field service firms. Many other geologists worked for consulting firms and business services, especially engineering services. About 1 geologist in 7 was self-employed; most of whom were consultants to industry or government. The Federal Government employed about 6,100 geologists, geophysicists, oceanographers, and hydrologists in 1994. Over onehalf worked for the Department of the Interior, mostly within the U.S. Geological Survey. Others worked for the Departments of Defense, Agriculture, Commerce, Energy, and the Environmental Protection Agency. Some worked for State agencies such as State geological surveys and State departments of conservation. Geologists and geophysicists also worked for nonprofit research institutions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor's degree in geology or geophysics is adequate for entry into some lower level geology jobs, but better jobs with good ad vancement potential usually require at least a master's degree in geology or geophysics. Persons with strong backgrounds in physics, chemistry, mathematics, or computer science also may qualify for some geophysics or geology jobs. A Ph.D. degree is required for most research positions in colleges and universities, and is also important for work in Federal agencies and some State geological surveys that involve basic research. Hundreds of colleges and universities offer a bachelor's degree in geology, geophysics, oceanography, or other geoscience. Other programs offering related training for beginning geological scientists include geophysical technology, geophysical engineering, geophysi cal prospecting, engineering geology, petroleum geology, hydrology, and geochemistry. In addition, several hundred more universities award advanced degrees in geology or geophysics. Geologists and geophysicists need to be able to work as part of a team. Computer modeling, data processing, and effective oral and written communication skills are important, as well as the ability to think independently and creatively. Those involved in fieldwork must have physical stamina. Traditional geoscience courses emphasizing classical geologic methods and topics (such as mineralogy, paleontology, stratigraphy, and structural geology) are important for all geoscientists. However, those students interested in working in the environmental or regula tory fields should take courses in hydrology, hazardous waste man agement, environmental legislation, chemistry, fluid mechanics, and geologic logging. Also, some employers seek applicants with field experience, so a summer internship or employment in an environ mentally-related area may be beneficial to prospective geoscientists. Geologists and geophysicists often begin their careers in field exploration or as research assistants in laboratories. They are given more difficult assignments as they gain experience. Eventually they may be promoted to project leader, program manager, or another management and research position. Professional Specialty Occupations Job Outlook Many jobs for geologists and geophysicists are in or related to the petroleum industry, especially the exploration for oil and gas. This industry is subject to cyclical fluctuations. Low oil prices, higher production costs, improvements in energy efficiency, shrinking oil reserves, and restrictions on potential drilling sites have caused exploration activities to be curtailed in the United States. If these conditions continue, there will be limited openings in the petroleum industry for geoscientists working in the United States. As a result of generally poor job prospects in the past few years, the number of students enrolling in geology and geophysics has dropped considerably. Although enrollments are rising again, the number of students trained in petroleum geology is likely to be so low that even a small increase in openings in the oil industry will be greater than the number of petroleum geologists and geophysicists available to fill them, creating good employment opportunities if exploration activities increase significantly. Employment prospects will be best for jobseekers who hold a master's degree and are famil iar with the advanced technologies, such as computer modeling, which are increasingly used to locate new oil and gas fields or pin point hidden deposits in existing fields. Because of the cyclical nature of the oil and gas industry, hiring on a contractual basis is common. Despite the generally poor job prospects encountered by geosci entists in recent years in the petroleum industry, employment of geologists and geophysicists is expected to grow as fast as the aver age for all occupations through the year 2005. Recent setbacks have been offset by increased demand for these professionals in environ mental protection and reclamation. Geologists and geophysicists will continue to be needed to help clean up contaminated sites in the United States, and to help private companies and government comply with more numerous and complex environmental regulations. In particular, jobs requiring training in engineering geology, hydrology and geochemistry should be in demand. However, the number of geoscientists obtaining training in these areas has been increasing, so they may experience competition despite the increasing number of jobs available. Earnings Surveys by the National Association of Colleges and Employers indicate that graduates with bachelor's degrees in geology and the geological sciences received an average starting offer of about $27,900 a year in 1995. However, the starting salaries can vary widely depending on the employing industry. For example, accord ing to a 1994 American Association of Petroleum Geologists survey, the average salary in the oil and gas industry for geoscientists with less than 2 years of experience was about $42,500. Although the petroleum, mineral, and mining industries offer higher salaries, the competition in these areas is normally intense, and the job security less than in other areas. In 1995, the Federal Government's average salary for geologists in managerial, supervisory, and nonsupervisory positions was $55,540; for geophysicists, $62,220; for hydrologists, $51,080; and for oceanographers, $58,980. Related Occupations Many geologists and geophysicists work in the petroleum and natural gas industry. This industry also employs many other workers in the scientific and technical aspects of petroleum and natural gas explora tion and extraction, including engineering technicians, science tech nicians, petroleum engineers, and surveyors. Also, some life scientists, physicists, chemists, and meteorologists, as well as mathematicians, computer scientists, soil scientists, and mapping scientists, perform related work in both petroleum and natural gas exploration and extraction and in environment-related activities. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 111 Sources of Additional Information Information on training and career opportunities for geologists is available from: •■American Geological Institute, 4220 King St., Alexandria, VA 22302-1507. •■Geological Society of America, P.O. Box 9140, 3300 Penrose PI., Boulder, CO 80301. •"American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Communications Depart ment, P.O. Box 979, Tulsa, OK 74101. Information on training and career opportunities for geophysicists is available from: •"American Geophysical Union, 2000 Florida Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20009. A list of curricula in colleges and universities offering programs in oceanography and related fields is available from: •■Marine Technology Society, 1828 L St. NW., Suite 906, Washington, DC 20036. Information on Federal job opportunities is available from local offices of State employment services or branches of the U.S. Office of Personnel Management located in major metropolitan areas. Meteorologists (D.O.T. 025.062-010) Nature of the Work Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere, the air that covers the earth. Meteorologists study the atmosphere's physical characteristics, motions, and processes, and the way it affects the rest of our envi ronment. The best-known application of this knowledge is in fore casting the weather. However, weather information and meteoro logical research also are applied in air-pollution control, agriculture, air and sea transportation, defense, and the study of trends in the earth's climate such as global warming or ozone depletion. Meteorologists who forecast the weather, known professionally as operational meteorologists, are the largest group of specialists. They study information on air pressure, temperature, humidity, and wind velocity, and they apply physical and mathematical relationships to make short- and long-range weather forecasts. Their data come from weather satellites, weather radar, and remote sensors and observers in many parts of the world. Meteorologists use sophisticated computer models of the world's atmosphere to make long-term, short-term, and local-area forecasts. These forecasts inform not only the general public, but also those who need accurate weather information for both economic and safety reasons, as in the shipping, aviation, agri culture, fishing, and utilities industries. The use of weather balloons, launched several times a day, to measure wind, temperature, and humidity in the upper atmosphere, is supplemented by far more sophisticated weather equipment which transmits data as frequently as every few minutes. Doppler radar, for example, can detect rotational patterns in violent storm systems, allowing forecasters to better predict thunderstorms, tornadoes, flash floods, as well as their direction and intensity. Some meteorologists work in research. Physical meteorologists, for example, study the atmosphere's chemical and physical proper ties; the transmission of light, sound, and radio waves; and the trans fer of energy in the atmosphere. They also study factors affecting formation of clouds, rain, snow, and other weather phenomena, such as severe storms. Climatologists collect, analyze, and interpret past records of wind, rainfall, sunshine, and temperature in specific areas or regions. Their studies are used to design buildings and to plan heating and cooling systems, to aid in effective land use, and in agricultural production. Other research meteorologists examine the most effective ways to control or diminish air pollution or improve weather forecasting using mathematical models. 112 Occupational Outlook Handbook fggjgg 4 ■Av Mp- *. .j ?*>.**' idSBSfc? ___ The Federal Government’s National Weather Service is the largest employer of civilian meteorologists. Working Conditions Jobs in weather stations, most of which operate around the clock 7 days a week, often involve night, weekend, and holiday work and rotating shifts. During times of weather emergencies, such as hurri canes, operational meteorologists may work overtime. Operational meteorologists are also often under pressure to meet forecast dead lines. Weather stations are found all over the country: At airports, in or near cities, and in isolated and remote areas. Some meteorologists also spend time observing weather conditions and collecting data from aircraft. Meteorologists in smaller weather offices often work alone; in larger ones, they work as part of a team. Meteorologists not doing forecasting work regular hours, usually in offices. Those who work for private consulting firms or for companies that analyze and monitor emissions to improve air quality often work with other science or engineering professionals. Employment Meteorologists held about 6,600 jobs in 1994. The largest employer of civilian meteorologists is the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), which employs about 2,700 meteorologists. Nearly 90 percent of NOAA's meteorologists work in the National Weather Service at stations in all parts of the United States. The remainder of NOAA's meteorologists work mainly in research or in program management. The Department of Defense employs about 280 civilian meteorologists. Others work for private weather con sultants, research and testing services, and computer and data proc essing services. Although hundreds of people teach meteorology and related courses in college and university departments of meteorology or atmospheric science, physics, earth science, and geophysics, these individuals are classified as college or university faculty, rather than meteorologists. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) In addition to civilian meteorologists, thousands of members of the Armed Forces do forecasting and other meteorological work. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in meteorology or a closely related field with coursework in meteorology is the usual minimum require ment for a beginning job as a meteorologist. The preferred educational requirement for entry level meteorolo gists in the Federal Government is a bachelor's degree—not neces sarily in meteorology—with at least 20 semester hours of meteorology courses, including 6 hours in weather analysis and forecasting and 6 hours in dynamic meteorology. In addition to https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis meteorology coursework, differential and integral calculus and 6 hours of college physics are required. These requirements have recently been upgraded to include coursework in computer science and additional coursework appropriate for a physical science major, such as statistics, chemistry, physical oceanography, or physical climatology. Sometimes, a combination of experience and education may be substituted for a degree. Although positions in operational meteorology are available for those with only a bachelor's degree, obtaining a graduate degree enhances advancement potential. A master's degree is usually neces sary for conducting research and development, and a Ph.D. may be required for some research positions. Students who plan a career in research and development need not necessarily major in meteorology as an undergraduate. In fact, a bachelor's degree in mathematics, physics, or engineering is excellent preparation for graduate study in meteorology. Because meteorology is a small field, relatively few colleges and universities offer degrees in meteorology or atmospheric science, although many departments of physics, earth science, geography, and geophysics offer atmospheric science and related courses. Prospec tive students should make certain that courses required by the Na tional Weather Service and other employers are offered at the college they are considering. Computer science courses, additional meteor ology courses, and a strong background in mathematics and physics are important to prospective employers. Many programs combine the study of meteorology with another field, such as agriculture, engineering, or physics. For example, hydrometeorology is the blending of hydrology (the science of the earth's water) and meteor ology, and is the field concerned with the effect of precipitation on the hydrologic cycle and the environment. Beginning meteorologists often do routine data collection, compu tation, or analysis and some basic forecasting. Entry level meteor ologists in the Federal Government are usually placed in intern positions for training and experience. Experienced meteorologists may advance to various supervisory or administrative jobs, or may handle more complex forecasting jobs. Increasing numbers of mete orologists establish their own weather consulting services. Job Outlook Persons seeking employment as meteorologists are likely to face competition because the National Weather Service—the largest single employer of meteorologists—has curtailed hiring following an extensive modernization of its weather forecasting equipment. Employment of meteorologists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Employment of meteorologists in other parts of the Federal Government is not expected to increase either. Some employment growth is anticipated in private industry as the use of private weather forecasting and meteorological services by farmers, commodity investors, utilities, transportation and construction firms, and radio and television sta tions increases. For people in these and other areas, additional weather information, which is more closely targeted to their needs than the more general information provided by the National Weather Service, can yield significant benefits. However, because many customers for private weather services are in industries sensitive to fluctuations in the economy, the sales and growth of private weather services depend on the health of the economy. There will continue to be demand for meteorologists to analyze and monitor the dispersion of pollutants into the air to ensure com pliance with the Federal environmental regulations outlined in the Clean Air Act of 1990. Earnings According to an American Meteorological Society survey, the aver age salary for meteorologists in entry level positions with a bache lor's degree was about $22,000 in 1992; for those with a master's degree, $27,000; and for those with a Ph.D. degree, $37,000. Professional Specialty Occupations 113 The average salary for meteorologists in nonsupervisory, supervi sory, and managerial positions employed by the Federal Government was $50,540 in 1995. In 1995, meteorologists in the Federal Gov ernment with a bachelor's degree and no experience received a starting salary of about $18,700 or $23,200 a year, depending on their college grades. Those with a master's degree could start at $23,200 or $28,300; those with the Ph.D. degree, at $34,300 or $41,100. Beginning salaries for all degree levels were slightly higher in selected areas of the country where the prevailing local pay level was higher. ■I Related Occupations Workers in other occupations concerned with the physical environ ment include oceanographers; geologists and geophysicists; hy drologists; civil, chemical, and environmental engineers; physicists; and mathematicians. Sources of Additional Information Information on career opportunities in meteorology is available from: •■American Meteorological Society, 45 Beacon St., Boston, MA 02108. ••National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Human Resources Management Office, 1315 East West Hwy., Route Code OA/22, Silver Spring, MD 20910. Physicists and Astronomers (D.O.T. 015.021-010; 021.067-010; 023.061-010, -014, and .067; 079.021-014) Nature of the Work Physicists explore and identify basic principles governing the struc ture and behavior of matter, the generation and transfer of energy, and the interaction of matter and energy. Some physicists use these principles in theoretical areas, such as the nature of time and the origin of the universe; others apply their physics knowledge to practical areas such as the development of advanced materials, electronic and optical devices, and medical equipment. Physicists design and perform experiments with lasers, cyclo trons, telescopes, mass spectrometers, and other equipment. Based on observations and analysis, they attempt to discover the laws that describe the forces of nature, such as gravity, electromagnetism, and nuclear interactions. They also find ways to apply physical laws and theories to problems in nuclear energy, electronics, optics, materials, communications, aerospace technology, navigation equipment, and medical instrumentation. Astronomy is sometimes considered a subfield of physics. As tronomers use the principles of physics and mathematics to learn about the fundamental nature of the universe, including the sun, moon, planets, stars, and galaxies. They also apply their knowledge to problems in navigation and space flight. Most physicists work in research and development. Some do basic research to increase scientific knowledge. Physicists who conduct applied research build upon the discoveries made through basic research and work to develop new devices, products, and processes. For instance, basic research in solid-state physics led to the development of transistors and then to the integrated circuits used in computers. Physicists also design research equipment. This equipment often has additional unanticipated uses. For example, lasers are used in surgery; microwave devices are used for ovens; and measuring instruments can analyze blood or the chemical content of foods. A small number work in inspection, testing, quality control, and other production-related jobs in industry. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Astronomers occasionally use high powered telescopes to observe stars and planets. Much physics research is done in small or medium-size laborato ries. However, experiments in plasma, nuclear, high energy, and some other areas of physics require extremely large, expensive equipment such as particle accelerators. Physicists in these subfields often work in large teams. Although physics research may require extensive experimentation in laboratories, research physicists still spend time in offices planning, recording, analyzing, and reporting on research. Almost all astronomers do research. They analyze large quanti ties of data gathered by observatories and satellites and write scien tific papers or reports on their findings. Most astronomers spend only a few weeks each year making observations with optical tele scopes, radio telescopes, and other instruments. Contrary to the popular image, astronomers almost never make observations by looking directly through a telescope because enhanced photographic and electronic detecting equipment can see more than the human eye. Physicists generally specialize in one of many subfields— elementary particle physics; nuclear physics; atomic and molecular physics; physics of condensed matter (solid-state physics); optics; acoustics; plasma physics; or the physics of fluids. Some specialize in a subdivision of one of these subfields; for example, within con densed matter physics, specialties include superconductivity, crystal lography, and semiconductors. However, all physics involves the same fundamental principles, so specialties may overlap, and physi cists may switch from one subfield to another. Also, growing num bers of physicists work in combined fields such as biophysics, chemical physics, and geophysics. Working Conditions Physicists often work regular hours in laboratories and offices. At times, however, those who are deeply involved in research may work long or irregular hours. Most do not encounter unusual hazards in their work. Some physicists temporarily work away from home at national or international facilities with unique equipment such as particle accelerators. Astronomers who make observations may travel to observatories, which are usually in remote locations, and routinely work at night. Employment Physicists and astronomers held nearly 20,000 jobs in 1994. Also, a significant number held physics or astronomy faculty positions in colleges and universities. (See the statement on college and univer sity faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) About one-fourth of all nonfaculty physicists and astronomers worked for commercial or noncommercial research, development, and testing laboratories. The 114 Occupational Outlook Handbook Federal Government employed almost one-fifth, mostly in the De partments of Defense and Commerce and in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Others worked in colleges and universi ties in nonfaculty positions and for State governments, electrical and electronic equipment manufacturers, drug companies, and search and navigation equipment manufacturers. Although physicists and astronomers are employed in all parts of the country, most work in areas that have universities and large research and development laboratories or observatories. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A doctoral degree is the usual educational requirement for physicists and astronomers, because most jobs are in research and development. (Many physics and astronomy Ph.D. holders ultimately take jobs teaching at the college or university level. See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Addi tional experience and training in a post-doctoral research assignment, although not required, is helpful in preparing physicists and astrono mers for permanent research positions. Those having bachelor's or master's degrees in physics are rarely qualified to fill positions as physicists. They are, however, usually qualified to work in an engineering-related area or other scientific fields, to work as technicians, or to assist in setting up laboratories. Some may qualify for applied research jobs in private industry or nonresearch positions in the Federal Government, and a master's degree often suffices for teaching jobs in 2-year colleges. Astronomy bachelor's degree holders often enter a field unrelated to astronomy, but they are also qualified to work in planetariums running science shows or to assist astronomers doing research. (See statements on engineers, geologists and geophysicists, computer programmers, and computer scientists and systems analysts elsewhere in the Handbook.) Hundreds of colleges and universities offer a bachelor's degree in physics. The undergraduate program provides a broad background in the natural sciences and mathematics. Typical physics courses include mechanics, electromagnetism, optics, thermodynamics, atomic physics, and quantum mechanics. About 180 colleges and universities have physics departments which offer Ph.D. degrees in physics. Graduate students usually concentrate in a subfield of physics such as elementary particles or condensed matter. Many begin studying for their doctorate immedi ately after their bachelor's degree. About 40 universities offer the Ph.D. degree in astronomy, either through an astronomy department, a physics department, or a com bined physics/astronomy department. Applicants to astronomy doctoral programs face keen competition for available slots. Those planning a career in astronomy should have a very strong physics background. In fact, an undergraduate degree in physics is excellent preparation, followed by a Ph.D. in astronomy. Mathematical ability, computer skills, an inquisitive mind, imagi nation, and the ability to work independently are important traits for anyone planning a career in physics or astronomy. Prospective physicists who hope to work in industrial laboratories applying physics knowledge to practical problems should broaden their edu cational background to include courses outside of physics, such as economics, computer technology, and current affairs. Good oral and written communication skills are also important because many physicists work as part of a team or have contact with persons with non-physics backgrounds, such as clients or customers. The beginning job for most Ph.D. physics and astronomy gradu ates is conducting research in a postdoctoral position, where they may work with experienced physicists as they continue to learn about their specialty and develop ideas and results to be used in later work. The initial work may be routine and under the close supervision of senior scientists. After some experience, they perform more complex tasks and work more independently. Physicists who develop new products or processes sometimes form their own companies or join new firms to exploit their own ideas. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook A large proportion of physicists and astronomers are employed on research projects, many of which, in the past, were defense related. Expected reductions in defense-related research and an expected slowdown in the growth of civilian physics-related research will cause employment of physicists and astronomers to decline through the year 2005. Proposed employment cutbacks and overall budget tightening in the Federal government will also affect employment of physicists, especially those dependent on Federal research grants. The number of doctorates granted in physics has been much greater than the number of openings for physicists for several years. Al though physics enrollments are starting to decline slightly, the num ber of new Ph.D. graduates is likely to continue to be high enough to result in keen competition for the kind of research and academic jobs that those with new doctorates in physics have traditionally sought. Also, more prospective researchers will likely compete for less grant money. Although research and development budgets in private industry will continue to grow, many research laboratories in private industry are expected to reduce basic research, which is where much physics research takes place, in favor of applied or manufacturing research and product and software development. Furthermore, although the median age of physicists and astronomers is higher than the average for all occupations and many will be eligible for retirement in the next decade, it is possible that many of them will not be replaced when they retire. Persons with only a bachelor's degree in physics or astronomy are not qualified to enter most physicist or astronomer jobs. However, many find jobs as high school physics teachers and in engineering, technician, mathematics, and computer- and environment-related occupations. (See the statements on these occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.) Despite the strong competition for, and expected employment declines in, traditional physics and astronomical re search oriented jobs, individuals with a physics degree at any level will find their skills useful for entry to many other occupations. Earnings The American Institute of Physics reported a median salary of $64,000 in 1994 for its members with Ph.D.'s. Those working in 4year colleges (9-10 months a year) earned the least—$45,000—while those employed in industry and hospitals earned the most—$75,000 and $77,000, respectively. Average earnings for physicists in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions in the Federal Government in 1995 were $67,240 a year, and for astronomy and space scientists, $71,660. Related Occupations The work of physicists and astronomers relates closely to that of other scientific and mathematics occupations such as chemist, ge ologist, geophysicist, and mathematician. Engineers and engineering and science technicians also use the principles of physics in their work. Sources of Additional Information General information on career opportunities in physics is available from: •■American Institute of Physics, Career Planning and Placement, One Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740-3843. •"American Physical Society, Education Department, One Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740-3844. For a pamphlet containing information on careers in astronomy, send your request to: •■American Astronomical Society, Education Office, University of Texas, Department of Astronomy, Austin, TX 78712-1083. Lawyers and Judges (D.O.T. 110; 111; 119.107, .117, .167-010, .267-014; 169.267-010) Nature of the Work Lawyers. Lawyers, also called attorneys, act as both advocates and advisors in our society. As advocates, they represent one of the opposing parties in criminal and civil trials by presenting evidence that supports their client in court. As advisors, lawyers counsel their clients as to their legal rights and obligations, and suggest particular courses of action in business and personal matters. Whether acting as advocates or advisors, all attorneys interpret the law and apply it to specific situations. This requires excellent research and communi cation skills. Lawyers perform in-depth research into the purposes behind the applicable laws and into judicial decisions that have been applied to those laws under circumstances similar to those currently faced by the client. While all lawyers continue to make use of law libraries to prepare cases, some supplement their search of the conventional printed sources with computer software packages. Software can be used to automatically search legal literature and identify legal texts relevant to a specific case. In litigation involving many supporting documents, lawyers may use computers to organize and index the material. Tax lawyers are increasingly using computers for making tax computations and exploring alternative tax strategies for clients. Lawyers then communicate to others the information obtained by research. They advise what actions clients may take and draw up legal documents, such as wills and contracts, for clients. Lawyers must deal with people in a courteous, efficient manner and not dis close matters discussed in confidence with clients. They hold posi tions of great responsibility, and are obligated to adhere to a strict code of ethics. The more detailed aspects of a lawyer’s job depend upon his or her field of specialization and position. While all lawyers are li censed to represent parties in court, some appear in court more frequently than others. Some lawyers specialize in trial work. These lawyers need an exceptional ability to think quickly and speak with ease and authority, and must be thoroughly familiar with courtroom rules and strategy. Trial lawyers still spend most of their time out side the courtroom conducting research, interviewing clients and witnesses, and handling other details in preparation for trial. Besides trials, lawyers may specialize in other areas, such as bankruptcy, probate, or international law. Environmental lawyers, for example, may represent public interest groups, waste disposal companies, or construction firms in their dealings with the Environ mental Protection Agency (EPA) and other State and Federal agen cies. They help clients prepare and file for licenses and applications for approval before certain activities can occur. They also represent clients' interests in administrative adjudications and during drafting of new regulations. Some lawyers concentrate in the emerging field of intellectual property. These lawyers help protect clients' claims to copyrights, art work under contract, product designs, and computer programs. Still other lawyers advise insurance companies about the legality of insurance transactions. They write insurance policies to conform with the law and to protect companies from unwarranted claims. They review claims filed against insurance companies and represent the companies in court. The majority of lawyers are in private practice where they may concentrate on criminal or civil law. In criminal law, lawyers repre sent individuals who have been charged with crimes and argue their cases in courts of law. In civil law, attorneys assist clients with https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis litigation, wills, trusts, contracts, mortgages, titles, and leases. Some manage a person's property as a trustee or, as an executor, to ensure the provisions of a client's will are carried out. Others handle only public interest cases—civil or criminal—which have a potential impact extending well beyond the individual client. Lawyers sometimes are employed full time by a single client. If the client is a corporation, the lawyer is known as "house counsel" and usually advises the company about legal issues related to its business activities. These issues might involve patents, government regulations, contracts with other companies, property interests, or collective bargaining agreements with unions. Attorneys employed at the various levels of government make up still another category. Lawyers that work for State attorneys general, prosecutors, public defenders, and courts play a key role in the criminal justice system. At the Federal level, attorneys investigate cases for the Department of Justice or other agencies. Also, lawyers at every government level help develop programs, draft laws, inter pret legislation, establish enforcement procedures, and argue civil and criminal cases on behalf of the government. Other lawyers work for legal aid societies—private, nonprofit organizations established to serve disadvantaged people. These lawyers generally handle civil rather than criminal cases. A relatively small number of trained attorneys work in law schools. Most are faculty members who specialize in one or more subjects, and others serve as administrators. Some work full time in nonacademic settings and teach part time. (For additional informa tion, see the section on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some lawyers become judges, although not all judges have practiced law. Judges. Judges apply the law. They oversee the legal process in courts of law, resolving civil disputes and determining guilt in criminal cases according to local, State, and Federal statutes. They preside over cases touching on virtually every aspect of society, from traffic offenses to disputes over management of professional sports, from the rights of huge corporations to questions of disconnecting life support equipment for terminally ill persons. They must ensure trials and hearings are conducted fairly and that the court administers justice in a manner safeguarding the legal rights of all parties involved. Judges preside over trials or hearings and listen as attorneys representing the parties present and argue their cases. They rule on the admissibility of evidence and methods of conducting testimony, and settle disputes between the opposing attorneys. They ensure the rules and procedures are followed, and if unusual circumstances arise for which standard procedures have not been established, judges direct how the trial will proceed based on their knowledge of the law. Judges often hold pretrial hearings for cases. They listen to allegations and, based on the evidence presented, determine whether there is enough merit for a trial to be held. In criminal cases, judges may decide that persons charged with crimes should be held in jail pending their trial, or may set conditions for release through the trial. In civil cases, judges may impose restrictions upon the parties until a trial is held. When trials are held, juries are often selected to decide cases. However, judges decide cases when the law does not require a jury trial, or when the parties waive their right to a jury. Judges instruct juries on applicable laws, direct them to deduce the facts from the evidence presented, and hear their verdict. Judges sentence those convicted in criminal cases in many States. They also award relief to 115 116 Occupational Outlook Handbook litigants including, where appropriate, compensation for damages in civil cases. Judges also work outside the courtroom "in chambers." In their private offices, judges read documents on pleadings and motions, research legal issues, hold hearings with lawyers, write opinions, and oversee the court's operations. Running a court is like running a small business, and judges manage their courts' administrative and clerical staff, too. Judges' duties vary according to the extent of their jurisdictions and powers. General trial court judges of the Federal and State court systems have jurisdiction over any case in their system. They gen erally try civil cases that transcend the jurisdiction of lower courts, and all cases involving felony offenses. Federal and State appellate court judges, although few in number, have the power to overrule decisions made by trial court or administrative law judges if they determine that legal errors were made in a case, or if legal precedent does not support the judgment of the lower court. They rule on fewer cases and rarely have direct contacts with the people involved. The majority of State court judges preside in courts in which jurisdiction is limited by law to certain types of cases. A variety of titles are assigned to these judges, but among the most common are municipal court judge, county court judge, magistrate, or justice of the peace. Traffic violations, misdemeanors, small claims cases, and pretrial hearings constitute the bulk of the work of these judges, but some States allow them to handle cases involving domestic relations, probate, contracts, and selected other areas of the law. Administrative law judges, formerly called hearing officers, are employed by government agencies to rule on appeals of agency administrative decisions. They make decisions on a person's eligi bility for various Social Security benefits or worker's compensation, protection of the environment, enforcement of health and safety regulations, employment discrimination, and compliance with eco nomic regulatory requirements. Working Conditions Lawyers and judges do most of their work in offices, law libraries, and courtrooms. Lawyers sometimes meet in clients' homes or places of business and, when necessary, in hospitals or prisons. They frequently travel to attend meetings; to gather evidence; and to appear before courts, legislative bodies, and other authorities. Salaried lawyers in government and private corporations gener ally have structured work schedules. Lawyers in private practice may work irregular hours while conducting research, conferring with clients, or preparing briefs during nonoffice hours. Lawyers often work long hours, and about half regularly work 50 hours or more per week. They are under particularly heavy pressure, for example, when a case is being tried. Preparation for court includes keeping abreast of the latest laws and judicial decisions. HP Lawyers and judges often work long and irregular hours. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Although work generally is not seasonal, the work of tax lawyers and other specialists may be an exception. Because lawyers in private practice can often determine their own workload and when they will retire, many stay in practice well beyond the usual retire ment age. Many judges work a standard 40-hour week, but a third of all judges work over 50 hours per week. Some judges with limited jurisdiction are employed part time and divide their time between their judicial responsibilities and other careers. Employment Lawyers and judges held about 735,000 jobs in 1994. About threefourths of the 656,000 lawyers practiced privately, either in law firms or in solo practices. Most of the remaining lawyers held positions in government, the greatest number at the local level. In the Federal Government, lawyers work for many different agencies but they are concentrated in the Departments of Justice, Treasury, and Defense. Other lawyers are employed as house counsel by public utilities, banks, insurance companies, real estate agencies, manufacturing firms, welfare and religious organizations, and other business firms and nonprofit organizations. Some salaried lawyers also have part time independent practices; others work as lawyers part time while working full time in another occupation. Judges held 79,000 jobs in 1994. All worked for Federal, State, or local governments, with about 40 percent holding positions in the Federal Government. The remainder were mostly employed at the State level. Many people trained as lawyers are not employed as lawyers or judges; they work as law clerks, law school professors, managers and administrators, and in a variety of other occupations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Lawyers. To practice law in the courts of any State or other juris diction, a person must be licensed, or admitted to its bar, under rules established by the jurisdiction's highest court. Nearly all require that applicants for admission to the bar pass a written bar examination. Most jurisdictions also require applicants to pass a separate written ethics examination. Lawyers who have been admitted to the bar in one jurisdiction occasionally may be admitted to the bar in another without taking an examination if they meet that jurisdiction's stan dards of good moral character and have a specified period of legal experience. Federal courts and agencies set their own qualifications for those practicing before them. To qualify for the bar examination in most States, an applicant must complete at least 3 years of college and graduate from a law school approved by the American Bar Association (ABA) or the proper State authorities. (ABA approval signifies that the law school—particularly its library and faculty—meets certain standards developed by the Association to promote quality legal education.) In 1994, the American Bar Association approved 178 law schools. Others were approved by State authorities only. With certain excep tions, graduates of schools not approved by the ABA are restricted to taking the bar examination and practicing in the State or other juris diction in which the school is located; most of these schools are in California. Seven States accept the study of law in a law office or in combination with study in a law school; only California accepts the study of law by correspondence as qualifying for taking the bar examination. Several States require registration and approval of students by the State Board of Law Examiners, either before they enter law school or during the early years of legal study. Although there is no nationwide bar examination, 47 States, the District of Columbia, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the Virgin Islands require the 6-hour Multistate Bar Examination (MBE) as part of the bar examination; the MBE is not required in Indiana. Louisiana, Washington, and Puerto Rico. The MBE, covering issues of broad interest, is given in addition to a locally prepared 6-hour State bar examination. The 3-hour Multistate Essay Examination (MEE) is used as part of the State bar examination in a few States. States vary in their use of MBE and MEE scores. Professional Specialty Occupations 117 The required college and law school education usually takes 7 years of full-time study after high school—4 years of undergraduate study followed by 3 years in law school. Although some law schools accept a very small number of students after 3 years of college, most require applicants to have a bachelor's degree. To meet the needs of students who can attend only part time, a number of law schools have night or part-time divisions which usually require 4 years of study. In 1994, about one 1 in 8 graduates from ABA-approved schools attended part time. Preparation for a career as a lawyer really begins in college. Although there is no recommended "prelaw" major, the choice of an undergraduate program is important. Certain courses and activities are desirable because they give the student the skills needed to succeed both in law school and in the profession. Essential skills— proficiency in writing, reading and analyzing, thinking logically, and communicating verbally—are learned during high school and col lege. An undergraduate program that cultivates these skills while broadening the student's view of the world is desirable. Courses in English, a foreign language, public speaking, government, philoso phy, history, economics, mathematics, and computer science, among others, are useful. Whatever the major, students should study a variety of disciplines. Students interested in a particular aspect of law may find related courses helpful. For example, many law schools with patent law tracks require bachelor's degrees, or at least several courses, in engineering and science. Future tax lawyers should have a strong undergraduate background in accounting. Acceptance by most law schools depends on the applicant's ability to demonstrate an aptitude for the study of law, usually through good undergraduate grades, the Law School Admission Test (LSAT), the quality of the applicant's undergraduate school, any prior work experience, and sometimes a personal interview. How ever, law schools vary in the weight that they place on each of these factors. All law schools approved by the American Bar Association require that applicants take the LSAT. Nearly all law schools require applicants to have certified transcripts sent to the Law School Data Assembly Service, which then sends applicants' LSAT scores and their standardized records of college grades to the law schools of their choice. Both this service and the LSAT are administered by the Law School Admission Council. Competition for admission to many law schools is intense. En rollments rose very rapidly during the 1970s, with applicants far outnumbering available seats. Since then, law school enrollments have remained relatively unchanged, and the number of applicants has fluctuated. However, the number of applicants to most law schools still greatly exceeds the number that can be admitted. En rollments are expected to remain at about their present level through the year 2005, and competition for admission to the more prestigious law schools will remain keen. During the first year or year and a half of law school, students generally study fundamental courses such as constitutional law, contracts, property law, torts, civil procedure, and legal writing. In the remaining time, they may elect specialized courses in fields such as tax, labor, or corporation law. Law students often acquire practi cal experience by participation in school sponsored legal aid or legal clinic activities, in the school's moot court competitions in which students conduct appellate arguments, in practice trials under the supervision of experienced lawyers and judges, and through research and writing on legal issues for the school's law journal. In 1994, law students in 38 States were required to pass the Multistate Professional Responsibility Examination (MPRE), which tests their knowledge of the ABA codes on professional responsibil ity and judicial conduct. In some States, the MPRE may be taken during law school, usually after completing a course on legal ethics. A number of law schools have clinical programs where students gain legal experience through practice trials and law school projects under the supervision of practicing lawyers and law school faculty. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Law school clinical programs might include work in legal aid clinics, for example, or on the staff of legislative committees. Part-time or summer clerkships in law firms, government agencies, and corporate legal departments also provide experience that can be extremely valuable later on. Such training can provide references or lead directly to a job after graduation, and can help students decide what kind of practice best suits them. Clerkships also may be an important source of financial aid. Graduates receive the degree of juris doctor (J.D.) or bachelor of law (LL.B.) as the first professional degree. Advanced law degrees may be desirable for those planning to specialize, do research, or teach. Some law students pursue joint degree programs, which generally require an additional year. Joint degree programs are offered in a number of areas, including law and business administra tion and law and public administration. After graduation, lawyers must keep informed about legal and nonlegal developments that affect their practice. Thirty-seven States and jurisdictions mandate Continuing Legal Education (CLE). Furthermore, many law schools and State and local bar associations provide continuing education courses that help lawyers stay abreast of recent developments. The practice of law involves a great deal of responsibility. Indi viduals planning careers in law should like to work with people and be able to win the respect and confidence of their clients, associates, and the public. Integrity and honesty are vital personal qualities. Perseverance and reasoning ability are essential to analyze complex cases and reach sound conclusions. Lawyers also need creativity when handling new and unique legal problems. Most beginning lawyers start in salaried positions. Newly hired salaried attorneys usually act as research assistants to experienced lawyers or judges. After several years of progressively more re sponsible salaried employment, some lawyers are admitted to part nership in their firm, or go into practice for themselves. Some lawyers, after years of practice, become full-time law school faculty or administrators; a growing number have advanced degrees in other fields as well. Some attorneys use their legal training in administrative or mana gerial positions in various departments of large corporations. A transfer from a corporation's legal department to another department often is viewed as a way to gain administrative experience and rise in the ranks of management. Judges. Most judges, although not all, have been lawyers first. All Federal judges and State trial and appellate court judges are required to be lawyers or "learned in law." About 40 States presently allow nonlawyers to hold limited jurisdiction judgeships, but opportunities are better with law experience. Federal administrative law judges must be lawyers and pass a competitive examination administered by the U.S. Office of Personnel Management. Many State administra tive law judges and other hearing officials are not required to be lawyers, but law degrees are preferred for most positions. Federal judges are appointed for life by the President, with the consent of the Senate. Federal administrative law judges are ap pointed by the various Federal agencies with virtually lifetime tenure. About half of all State judges are appointed, while the remainder are elected in partisan or nonpartisan State elections. Most State and local judges serve fixed terms, which range from 4 or 6 years for most limited jurisdiction judgeships to as long as 14 years for some appellate court judges. Judicial nominating commissions, composed of members of the bar and the public, are used to screen candidates for judgeships in many States, as well as for Federal judgeships. All States have some type of orientation for newly elected or appointed judges. The National Judicial College and the National Center for State Courts provide judicial education and training for judges and other judicial branch personnel. General and continuing education courses usually run from a couple of days to 3 weeks in length. Over half of the States, including Puerto Rico, reauire judges to enroll in continuing education courses while serving on the bench. 118 Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Outlook Individuals interested in pursuing careers as lawyers or judges should encounter keen competition through the year 2005. Law schools still attract large numbers of applicants and are not expected to decrease their enrollments, so the supply of persons trained as lawyers should continue to exceed job openings. As for judges, the prestige associ ated with serving on the bench should insure continued intense competition for openings. Lawyers. Employment of lawyers has grown very rapidly since the early 1970s, and is expected to continue to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. New jobs created by growth in the profession should exceed job openings that arise from the need to replace lawyers who stop working or leave the profession. The strong growth in demand for lawyers will result from growth in the population and the general level of business activities. Demand will also be spurred by growth of legal action in such areas as employee benefits, health care, intellectual property, sexual harassment, the environment, and real estate. Legal services can be expensive, but the availability of legal clinics and prepaid legal service programs should increase the use of legal services by middle-income groups. Even though jobs for lawyers are expected to increase rapidly, competition for job openings should continue to be keen because of the large numbers graduating from law school each year. During the 1970s, the annual number of law school graduates more than dou bled, outpacing the rapid growth of jobs. Growth in the yearly number of law school graduates tapered off during the 1980s, but again increased in the early 1990s. The high number of graduates will strain the economy's capacity to absorb them. Although gradu ates with superior academic records from well-regarded law schools will continue to enjoy good opportunities, most graduates will en counter competition for jobs. As in the past, some graduates may have to accept positions in areas outside their field of interest or for which they feel they are overqualified. They may have to enter jobs for which legal training is an asset but not normally a requirement. For example, banks, insurance firms, real estate companies, govern ment agencies, and other organizations seek law graduates to fill many administrative, managerial, and business positions. Due to the competition for jobs, a law graduate's geographic mobility and work experience assume greater importance. The willingness to relocate may be an advantage in getting a job, but to be licensed in a new State, a lawyer may have to take an additional State bar examination. In addition, employers increasingly seek graduates who have advanced law degrees and experience in a par ticular field such as tax, patent, or admiralty law. Employment growth of lawyers will continue to be concentrated in salaried jobs, as businesses and all levels of government employ a growing number of staff attorneys, and as employment in the legal services industry is increasingly concentrated in larger law firms. The number of self-employed lawyers is expected to continue to increase slowly, reflecting the difficulty of establishing a profitable new practice in the face of competition from larger, established law firms. Also, the growing complexity of law—which encourages specialization—and the cost of maintaining up-to-date legal research materials favor larger firms. Nevertheless, for lawyers who wish to work independently, establishing a new practice probably will continue to be easiest in small towns and expanding suburban areas, as long as an active market for legal services exists. In such communities, competition from larger established law firms is likely to be less than in big cities, and new lawyers may find it easier to become known to potential clients. Additionally, rent and other business costs are somewhat lower in small towns than metropolitan areas. Yet, starting a new practice will remain an expensive and risky undertaking that should be weighed carefully. Most salaried positions will remain in urban areas where government agencies, law firms, and big corporations are concentrated. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Some lawyers are adversely affected by cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, the demand declines for some discre tionary legal services, such as planning estates, drafting wills, and handling real estate transactions. Also, corporations are less likely to litigate cases when declining sales and profits result in budgetary restrictions. Although few lawyers actually lose their jobs during these times, earnings may decline for many. Some corporations and law firms will not hire new attorneys until business improves. Sev eral factors, however, mitigate the overall impact of recessions on lawyers. During recessions, individuals and corporations face other legal problems, such as bankruptcies, foreclosures, and divorces, that require legal action. Furthermore, new laws and legal interpretations will create new opportunities for lawyers. Judges. Employment of judges is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations. Contradictory social forces affect the demand for judges. Pushing up demand are public con cerns about crime, safety, and efficient administration of justice; on the other hand, tight public funding should slow job growth. Competition for judgeships should remain keen. Most job open ings will arise as judges retire. Traditionally, many judges have held their positions until late in life. Now, early retirement is becoming more common, creating more job openings. However, becoming a judge will still be difficult. Besides competing with other qualified people, judicial candidates must gain political support in order to be elected or appointed. Earnings Annual salaries of beginning lawyers in private industry averaged about $37,000 in 1993, but top graduates obtaining positions at the Nation's largest law firms in some cases started at over $80,000 a year. In the Federal Government, annual starting salaries for attor neys in 1994 were about $29,200 or $36,400, depending upon aca demic and personal qualifications. Factors affecting the salaries offered to new graduates include: Academic record; type, size, and location of employer; and the specialized educational background desired. The field of law makes a difference, too. Patent lawyers, for example, generally are among the highest paid attorneys. Salaries of experienced attorneys also vary widely according to the type, size, and location of their employer. The average salary of the most experienced lawyers in private industry in 1993 was nearly $115,00Cf, but some senior lawyers who were partners in the Nation's top law firms earned over $1 million. General attorneys in the Federal Government averaged around $67,900 a year in 1995; the relatively small number of patent attorneys in the Federal Govern ment averaged around $76,300. Lawyers on salary receive increases as they assume greater re sponsibility. Lawyers starting their own practice may need to work part time in other occupations during the first years to supplement their income. Their incomes usually grow as their practices develop. Lawyers who are partners in law firms generally earn more than those who practice alone. Federal district court judges had salaries of $133,600 in 1995, as did judges in the Court of Federal Claims. Circuit court judges earned $141,700 a year. Federal judges with limited jurisdiction, such as magistrates and bankruptcy court judges, had salaries of $122,900 in 1995. Full-time Federal administrative law judges had average salaries of $94,800 in 1995. The Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court earned $171,500 in 1995, and the Associate Justices earned $164,100. Annual salaries of associate justices of States' highest courts averaged $91,093 in 1995, according to a survey by the National Center for State Courts, and ranged from about $64,452 to $131,085. Salaries of State intermediate appellate court judges averaged $93,970, but ranged from $75,589 to $122,893. Salaries of State judges with limited jurisdiction varied widely; many salaries are set locally. Professional Specialty Occupations 119 Most salaried lawyers and judges were provided health and life insurance, and contributions were made on their behalf to retirement plans. Lawyers who practiced independently were only covered if they arranged and paid for such benefits themselves. ments for admission to legal practice, a directory of State bar exami nation administrators, and other information on legal education. Single copies are free from the ABA, but there is a fee for multiple copies. Free information on the bar examination, financial aid for law students, and law as a career may also be obtained from: Related Occupations Legal training is useful in many other occupations. Some of these are paralegal, arbitrator, journalist, patent agent, title examiner, legislative assistant, lobbyist, FBI special agent, political office holder, and corporate executive. ••American Bar Association, 750 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60611. Information on the LSAT, the Law School Data Assembly Serv ice, applying to law school, and financial aid for law students may be obtained from: •■Law School Admission Council, P.O. Box 40, Newtown, PA 18940. Telephone: (215)968-1001. Sources of Additional Information The American Bar Association annually publishes A Review of Legal Education in the United States, which provides detailed information on each of the 178 law schools approved by the ABA, State require The specific requirements for admission to the bar in a particular State or other jurisdiction may also be obtained at the State capital from the clerk of the Supreme Court or the administrator of the State Board of Bar Examiners. Social Scientists (D.O.T. 029.067; 045.061, .067, .107-022, -026, -030, -034, -046; 050.067; 051; 052 except .067-014; 054; 055; 059) Nature of the Work Social scientists study all aspects of human society—from the distri bution of goods and services to the beliefs of newly formed religious groups to modern mass transportation systems. Their research provides insights that help us understand the different ways in which individuals and groups make decisions, exercise power, or respond to change. Through their studies and analyses, social scientists and urban planners assist educators, government officials, business leaders, and others in solving social, economic, and environmental problems. Research is a basic activity for many social scientists. They use established or newly discovered methods to assemble facts and theory that contribute to human knowledge. Applied research usu ally is designed to produce information that will enable people to make better decisions or manage their affairs more effectively. Interviews and surveys are widely used to collect facts, opinions, or other information. Data collection takes many forms, however, such as living and working among the population being studied, including speaking their native language; field investigations, including the analysis of historical records and documents; experiments with human or animal subjects in a laboratory; the administration of standardized tests and questionnaires; and the preparation and inter pretation of maps and computer graphics. Social sciences are interdisciplinary in nature. Specialists in one field often find that their research overlaps work that is being con ducted in another discipline. Anthropologists study the origin and the physical, social, and cultural development and behavior of humans. They may study the way of life, remains, language, or physical characteristics of people in various parts of the world. Some compare the customs, values, and social patterns of different cultures. Anthropologists generally concentrate in sociocultural anthropology, archaeology, linguistics, or biological-physical anthropology. Sociocultural anthropologists study the customs, cultures, and social lives of groups in settings from nonindustrialized societies to modem urban centers. Archae ologists engage in the systematic recovery and examination of mate rial evidence, such as tools and pottery remaining from past human cultures, in order to determine the history, customs, and living habits of earlier civilizations. Linguistic anthropologists study the role of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis language in various cultures. Biological-physical anthropologists study the evolution of the human body, look for the earliest evi dences of human life, and analyze how culture and biology influence one another. Most anthropologists specialize in one particular region of the world. Economists study the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. They may analyze data to determine public demand for a specific mix of goods and services. Most economists are concerned with the practical applications of economic policy in a particular area, such as finance, labor, agriculture, transportation, energy, or health. Others develop theories to explain economic phenomena such as unemployment or inflation. Marketing research analysts study market conditions in localities, regions, the Nation, or the world to determine potential sales of a product or service. They analyze data on past sales and trends to develop forecasts, and con duct extensive market surveys to test their conclusions. Geographers analyze distributions of physical and cultural phe nomena on local, regional, continental, and global scales. Geogra phers specialize, as a rule. Economic geographers study the distribution of resources and economic activities. Political geogra phers are concerned with the relationship of geography to political phenomena, while cultural geographers study the geography of cultural phenomena. Physical geographers study the variations in climates, vegetation, soil, and land forms, and their implications for human activity. Urban and transportation geographers study cities and metropolitan areas, while regional geographers study the physi cal, economic, political, and cultural characteristics of regions, ranging in size from a congressional district to entire continents. Medical geographers study health care delivery systems, epidemiol ogy, and the effect of the environment on health. (Some occupa tional classification systems include geographers under physical scientists rather than social scientists.) Historians research, analyze, and interpret the past. They use many sources of information in their research, including government and institutional records, newspapers and other periodicals, photo graphs, interviews, films, and unpublished manuscripts such as personal diaries and letters. Historians usually specialize in a spe cific country or region; in a particular time period; or in a particular field, such as social, intellectual, political, or diplomatic history. Biographers collect detailed information on individuals. Genealo gists trace family histories. Other historians help study and preserve archival materials, artifacts, and historic buildings and sites. Political scientists study the origin, development, and operation 120 Occupational Outlook Handbook of political systems and public policy. They conduct research on a wide range of subjects such as relations between the United States and all other countries, the institutions and political life of all nations, the politics of small towns or a major metropolis, or the decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court. Studying topics such as public opinion, political decisionmaking, ideology, and public policy, they analyze the structure and operation of governments as well as various politi cal entities. Depending on the topic under study, a political scientist might conduct a public opinion survey, analyze election results, analyze public documents, or interview public officials. Psychologists, who constitute over half of all social scientists, study human behavior and counsel or advise individuals or groups. Their research also assists business advertisers, politicians, and others interested in influencing or motivating people. While clinical psychology is the largest specialty, psychologists specialize in many other fields such as counseling, experimental, social, and industrial psychology. Sociologists study human society and social behavior by examin ing the groups and social institutions that people form, as well as various social, religious, political, and business organizations. They also study the behavior and interaction of groups, trace their origin and growth, and analyze the influence of group activities on individ ual members. They are concerned with the characteristics of social groups, organizations, and institutions; the ways individuals are affected by each other and by the groups to which they belong; and the effect of social traits such as sex, age, or race on a person's daily life. The results of sociological research aid educators, lawmakers, administrators, and others interested in resolving social problems and formulating public policy. Expanding opportunities exist for practicing sociologists, who apply sociological knowledge, theory and methods to effect inter ventions at the individual, group or community levels. Practicing sociologists, including clinical sociologists, work in business, gov ernment, social service and education, performing evaluations, counseling, substance abuse prevention and treatment, and economic and community development. Most sociologists work in one or more specialties, such as social organization, stratification, and mobility; racial and ethnic relations; education; family; social psychology; urban, rural, political, and comparative sociology; sex roles and relations; demography; geron tology; criminology; and sociological practice. Urban and regional planners develop comprehensive plans and programs for the use of land. Planners prepare for situations that are likely to develop as a result of population growth or social and economic change. Working Conditions Most social scientists have regular hours. Generally working behind a desk, either alone or in collaboration with other social scientists, they read and write research reports. Many experience the pressures of writing and publishing articles, deadlines and tight schedules, and sometimes they must work overtime, for which they generally are not reimbursed. Social scientists often work as an integral part of a research team. Their routine may be interrupted frequently by tele phone calls, letters to answer, special requests for information, meetings, or conferences. Travel may be necessary to collect infor mation or attend meetings. Social scientists on foreign assignment must adjust to unfamiliar cultures, climates, and languages. Some social scientists do fieldwork. For example, anthropolo gists, archaeologists, and geographers often travel to remote areas, live among the people they study, learn their languages, and stay for long periods at the site of their investigations. They may work under rugged conditions, and their work may involve strenuous physical exertion. Social scientists employed by colleges and universities generally have flexible work schedules, often dividing their time among teaching, research and writing, consulting, or administrative respon sibilities. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment Social scientists held about 259,000 jobs in 1994. Over half of all social scientists are psychologists. Almost one-third of all social scientists—overwhelmingly psychologists—are self-employed, in volved in counseling, consulting, or research. Salaried social scientists worked as researchers, administrators, and counselors for a wide range of employers, including Federal, State, and local governments, educational institutions, hospitals, research and testing services, and management and public relations firms. Other employers include social service agencies, international organizations, associations, museums, historical societies, computer and data processing firms, and business firms. In addition, many persons with training in a social science disci pline teach in colleges and universities, and in secondary and elemen tary schools. (For more information, see the Handbook statements on college and university faculty, and kindergarten, elementary, and secondary school teachers.) The proportion of social scientists who teach varies by occupation—for example, the academic world gen erally is a more important source of jobs for graduates in sociology than for graduates in psychology. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Educational attainment of social scientists is among the highest of all occupations. The Ph.D. or equivalent degree is a minimum require ment for most positions in colleges and universities and is important for advancement to many top level nonacademic research and admin istrative posts. Graduates with master's degrees in applied specialties generally have better professional opportunities outside of colleges and universities, although the situation varies by field. For example, job prospects for master's degree holders in urban or regional plan ning are brighter than for master’s degree holders in history. Gradu ates with a master's degree in a social science qualify for teaching positions in junior colleges. Bachelor's degree holders have limited opportunities and in most social science occupations do not qualify for "professional" positions. The bachelor's degree does, however, provide a suitable background for many different kinds of entry level jobs, such as research assistant, administrative aide, or management or sales trainee. With the addition of sufficient education courses, social science graduates also can qualify for teaching positions in secondary and elementary schools. Training in statistics and mathematics is essential for many social scientists. Mathematical and quantitative research methods are increasingly used in economics, geography, political science, ex perimental psychology, and other fields. The ability to use comput ers for research purposes is mandatory in most disciplines. Depending on their jobs, social scientists and urban planners may need a wide range of personal characteristics. Because they con stantly seek new information about people, things, and ideas, intellec tual curiosity and creativity are fundamental personal traits. The ability to think logically and methodically is important to a political scientist comparing the merits of various forms of government. The ability to analyze data is important to an economist studying propos als to reduce Federal budget deficits. Objectivity, openmindedness, and systematic work habits are important in all kinds of social science research. Perseverance is essential for an anthropologist, who might spend years accumulating artifacts from an ancient civili zation. Emotional stability and sensitivity are vital to a clinical psychologist working with mental patients. Written and oral com munication skills are essential for all these professionals. Job Outlook Employment of social scientists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005, due to concern over the environment, crime, the increasingly competitive global economy, and a wide range of other issues. The largest social sci ence occupation, psychologists, is expected to grow faster than average, as are economists and marketing research analysts, and urban and regional planners. All other social scientists combined, Professional Specialty Occupations 121 including anthropologists, geographers, historians, political scientists, and sociologists, should experience average growth. Most job open ings, however, will result from the need to replace social scientists who transfer to other occupations or stop working altogether. Prospects are best for those with advanced degrees, and generally are better in disciplines such as economics, psychology, and urban and regional planning, which offer many opportunities in nonaca demic settings. However, graduates in all social science fields are expected to find enhanced job opportunities in applied fields due to the excellent research, communication, and quantitative skills they develop in graduate school. Government agencies, health and social service organizations, marketing, research and consulting firms, and a wide range of businesses seek social science graduates. Social scientists currently face stiff competition for academic positions. However, the growing importance and popularity of social science subjects in secondary schools is strengthening the demand for social science teachers at this level. Other considerations that affect employment opportunities in these occupations include specific skills and technical expertise, salary requirements, and geographic mobility. In addition, experi ence acquired through internships can prove invaluable later in obtaining a full-time position in a social science field. Earnings Median annual earnings of all social scientists were about $38,000 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $23,200 and $52,600 annually. The lowest 10 percent earned under $17,300, while the highest 10 percent earned over $70,800. According to a 1995 survey by the National Association of Col leges and Employers, people with a bachelor's degree in a social science field received starting offers averaging about $22,000 a year in 1995. In the Federal Government, social scientists with a bachelor's degree and no experience could start at $18,700 or $23,200 a year in 1995, depending on their college records. Those with a master's degree could start at $28,300, and those having a Ph.D. degree could begin at $34,300, while some individuals with experience and an advanced degree could start at $41,100. Beginning salaries were slightly higher in selected areas of the country where the prevailing local pay level was higher. The average salary of social scientists working for the Federal Government in 1995 in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions in geography was about $45,230; in history was $51,180; in sociology was $56,780; and in archeology was $38,770. Related Occupations A number of fields that require training and personal qualities similar to those of the various social science fields are covered elsewhere in the Handbook. These include lawyers, statisticians, mathematicians, computer programmers, computer scientists and systems analysts, reporters and correspondents, social workers, college and university faculty, and counselors. Sources of Additional Information More detailed information about economists and marketing research analysts, psychologists, and urban and regional planners is presented in the Handbook statements that follow this introductory statement. Anthropology For information about careers in anthropology, contact; •"The American Anthropological Association, 4350 N. Fairfax Dr., Suite 640, Arlington, VA 22203. Archaeology For information about careers in archaeology, contact: •"Society for American Archaeology, 900 2nd Street NE., Suite 12, Washing ton, DC 20002. •"Archaeological Institute of America, 656 Beacon Street, Boston, MA 02215. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Geography For information about careers in geography, contact: •■Association of American Geographers, 1710 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20009. History Information on careers for historians is available from: •■American Historical Association, 400 A St. SE., Washington, DC 20003. •■Organization of American Historians, 112 North Bryan St., Bloomington, IN 47408. •"American Association for State and Local History, 530 Church St., 6th Floor, Nashville, TN 37219. Political Science For information about careers in political science, contact: •"American Political Science Association, 1527 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036. •"National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration, 1120 G St. NW., Suite 730, Washington, DC 20005. Sociology Information about careers in sociology is available from: •"American Sociological Association, 1722 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20036-2981. For information about careers in demography, contact: •"Population Association of America, 1722 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. For information about careers and certification in clinical and applied sociology, contact: •"Sociological Practice Association, Department of Pediatrics/Human Devel opment, B240 Life Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824-1317. Economists and Marketing Research Analysts (D.O.T. 050.067) Nature of the Work Economists. Economists study the ways a society distributes scarce resources such as land, labor, raw materials, and machinery to pro duce goods and services. They conduct research, collect and analyze data, monitor economic trends, and develop forecasts. They might research topics such as energy costs, inflation, interest rates, farm prices, rents, imports, or employment levels. Most economists are concerned with practical applications of economic policy in a particular area. Thfey use their understanding of economic relationships to advise businesses and other organizations, including insurance companies, banks, securities firms, industry and trade associations, labor unions, and government agencies. Econo mists use mathematical models to develop programs predicting the nature and length of business cycles, the effects of inflation on the economy, or the effects of tax legislation on unemployment levels. Economists devise methods and procedures for obtaining the data they need. For example, sampling techniques may be used to con duct a survey, and various mathematical modeling techniques may be used to develop forecasts. Preparing reports on the results of their research is an important part of the economist's job. Relevant data must be reviewed and analyzed, applicable tables and charts pre pared, and the results presented in clear, concise language that can be understood by non-economists. Being able to present economic and statistical concepts in a meaningful way is particularly important for economists whose research is directed toward making policy for their organization. Economists who work for government agencies may assess economic conditions in the United States or abroad in order to esti mate the economic effects of specific changes in legislation or public policy. They may study areas such as how the dollar's fluctuation 122 Occupational Outlook Handbook against foreign currencies affects import and export levels. The majority of government economists work in the area of agriculture, labor, or quantitative analysis, and some economists work in almost every area of government. For example, economists in the U.S. Department of Commerce study domestic production, distribution, and consumption of commodities or services, while economists employed with the Bureau of Labor Statistics analyze data on prices, wages, employment, productivity, and safety and health. An economist working in State or local government might analyze data on trade and commerce, industrial growth, and employment and unemployment rates in order to project employment trends. Marketing Research Analysts. Marketing research analysts are concerned with the potential sales of a product or service. They analyze statistical data on past sales to predict future sales. They gather data on competitors and analyze prices, sales, and methods of marketing and distribution. Like economists, marketing research analysts devise methods and procedures for obtaining the data they need. They often design telephone, personal, or mail interview surveys to assess consumer preferences. The surveys usually are conducted by trained interviewers under the marketing research analyst's direction. Once the data are compiled, marketing research analysts evaluate it. They then make recommendations based upon their findings. They provide a company's management with infor mation needed to make decisions on the promotion, distribution, design, and pricing of company products or services, or to determine the advisability of adding new lines of merchandise, opening new branches, or otherwise diversifying the company's operations. Ana lysts may conduct opinion research to determine public attitudes on various issues. This can help political or business leaders and others assess public support for their policies or products. Working Conditions Economists and marketing research analysts who work for govern ment agencies and private firms have structured work schedules. They often work alone writing reports, preparing statistical charts, and using computers, but they may also be an integral part of a research team. Most work under pressure of deadlines and tight schedules, and sometimes must work overtime. Their routine may be interrupted by special requests for data, letters, meetings, or confer ences. Regular travel may be necessary to collect data or attend conferences or meetings. Employment Economists and marketing research analysts held about 48,000 jobs in 1994. Private industry, particularly economic and marketing research firms, management consulting firms, banks, securities and commodities brokers, and computer and data processing companies, employed about 8 out of 10 salaried workers. The remainder, pri marily economists, were employed by a wide range of government agencies, primarily in the State Government. The Departments of Labor, Agriculture, and Commerce are the largest Federal employers of economists. A number of economists and marketing research analysts combine a full-time job in government or business with part time or consulting work in academia or another setting. Employment of economists and marketing research analysts is concentrated in large cities. Some economists work abroad for companies with major international operations, for U.S. Government agencies, and for international organizations like the World Bank and the United Nations. Besides the jobs described above, many economists and market ing research analysts held economics and marketing faculty positions in colleges and universities. Economics and marketing faculty have flexible work schedules, and may divide their time among teaching, research, consulting, and administration. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Ml HI Economists and marketing research analysts are concerned with practical applications of their work. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Graduate training is required for most private sector economist and marketing research analyst jobs, and for advancement to more re sponsible positions. Economics includes many specialties at the graduate level, such as advanced economic theory, econometrics, international economics, and labor economics. Students should select graduate schools strong in specialties in which they are inter ested. Marketing research analysts may earn advanced degrees in economics, business administration, marketing, statistics, or some closely related discipline. Some schools help graduate students find internships or part-time employment in government agencies, eco nomic consulting firms, Financial institutions, or marketing research firms prior to graduation. In the Federal Government, candidates for entry level economist positions must have a bachelor's degree with a minimum of 21 semester hours of economics and 3 hours of statistics, accounting, or calculus. Competition is keen for those positions which require only a bachelor's degree, however, and additional education or superior academic performance is likely to be required. For a job as an instructor in many junior and some community colleges, a master's degree is the minimum requirement. In most colleges and universities, however, a Ph.D. is necessary for appoint ment as an instructor. A Ph.D. and extensive publications in aca demic journals are required for a professorship, tenure, and promotion. Whether working in government, industry, research organizations, marketing, or consulting firms, economists and marketing research Professional Specialty Occupations 123 analysts who have a graduate degree usually qualify for more re sponsible research and administrative positions. A Ph.D. is neces sary for top economist or marketing positions in many organizations. Many corporation and government executives have a strong back ground in economics or marketing. A bachelor's degree with a major in economics or marketing is generally not sufficient to obtain positions as economist or marketing analyst, but is excellent preparation for many entry level positions as a research assistant, administrative or management trainee, marketing interviewer, or any of a number of professional sales jobs. Economics majors can choose from a variety of courses, ranging from those which are intensely mathematical such as microeconom ics, macroeconomics, and econometrics, to more philosophical courses such as the history of economic thought. In addition to courses in business, marketing, and consumer behavior, marketing majors should take courses in related disciplines, including economics, psychology, organizational behavior, sociol ogy, finance, business law, and international relations. Because of the importance of quantitative skills to economists and marketing researchers, courses in mathematics, statistics, econometrics, sam pling theory and survey design, and computer science are extremely helpful. Aspiring economists and marketing research analysts should gain experience gathering and analyzing data, conducting interviews or surveys, and writing reports on their findings while in college. This experience can prove invaluable later in obtaining a full-time posi tion in the field, since much of their work in the beginning may center around these duties. With experience, economists and market ing research analysts eventually are assigned their own research projects. Persons considering careers as economists or marketing research analysts should be able to work accurately because much time is spent on data analysis. Patience and persistence are necessary quali ties since economists and marketing research analysts must spend long hours on independent study and problem solving. At the same time, they must be able to work well with others, especially market ing research analysts, who often interview or oversee interviews for a wide variety of individuals. Economists and marketing research analysts must be able to present their findings, both orally and in writing, in a clear, meaningful way. Job Outlook Employment of economists and marketing research analysts is ex pected to grow faster than average for all occupations through the year 2005. Most job openings, however, are likely to result from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupa tions, or retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. Opportunities for economists should be best in private industry, especially in research, testing, and consulting firms, as more compa nies contract out for economic research services. Competition, the growing complexity of the global economy, and increased reliance on quantitative methods for analyzing business trends, forecasting sales, and planning purchasing and production should spur demand for economists. The continued need for economic analyses in vir tually every industry should result in additional jobs for economists. Employment of economists in the Federal Government should de cline in line with the rate of growth projected for the Federal work force as a whole. Slower than average employment growth is expected among economists in State and local government. A strong background in economic theory, mathematics, statistics, and econometrics provides the basis for acquiring any specialty within the field. Those skilled in quantitative techniques and their application to economic modeling and forecasting, including the use of computers, coupled with good communications skills, should have the best job opportunities. Persons who graduate with a bachelor's degree in economics through the year 2005 will face keen competition for the limited number of economist positions for which they qualify. They will https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis qualify for a number of other positions, however, where they can take advantage of their economic knowledge in conducting research, developing surveys, or analyzing data. Many graduates with bache lor's degrees will find good jobs in industry and business as manage ment or sales trainees, or administrative assistants. Economists with good quantitative skills are qualified for research assistant positions in a broad range of fields. Those who meet State certification re quirements may become high school economics teachers. The demand for secondary school economics teachers is expected to grow as economics becomes an increasingly important and popular course. (See the statement on kindergarten, elementary, and secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Candidates who hold a master's degree in economics have much better employment prospects than bachelor's degree holders. Many businesses, research and consulting firms, and government agencies seek master's degree holders who have strong computer and quanti tative skills and can perform complex research, but do not command the higher salary of a Ph.D. Ph.D. degree holders are likely to face competition for teaching positions in colleges and universities. Demand for marketing research analysts should be strong due to an increasingly competitive global economy. Marketing research provides organizations valuable feedback from purchasers, allowing companies to evaluate consumer satisfaction and more effectively plan for the future. As companies seek to expand their market and consumers become better informed, the need for marketing profes sionals is increasing. Opportunities for marketing research analysts should be good in a wide range of employment settings, particularly in marketing research firms, as companies find it more profitable to contract out for marketing research services rather than supporting their own marketing department. Other organizations, including financial services organizations, health care institutions, advertising firms, manufacturing firms that produce consumer goods, and insur ance companies may offer job opportunities for marketing research analysts. A strong background in economic theory, mathematics, statistics, and econometrics provides the basis for acquiring any specialty within the field. Those skilled in quantitative techniques and their application to marketing research, including the use of computers, should have the best job opportunities. Like economists, marketing research graduates with related work experience and an advanced degree in marketing or a closely related business field should have the best job opportunities. Those with only a bachelor's degree but who have a strong back ground in mathematics, statistics, survey design, and computer science may be hired by private firms as assistants to marketing research professionals. Earnings According to a 1995 salary survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, persons with a bachelor's degree in eco nomics received offers averaging $27,600 a year; for those with a bachelor's degrees in marketing, $25,400. The median base salary of business economists in 1994 was $70,000, according to a survey by the National Association of Busi ness Economists. Ninety two percent of the respondents held ad vanced degrees. The highest salaries were reported by those who had a Ph.D., with a median salary of $80,000. Master's degree holders earned a median salary of $62,000, while bachelor's degree holders earned $60,500. The highest paid business economists were in the securities and investment industry, which reported a median income of $95,000, followed by the nondurable manufacturing at $94,000 and the banking industry at $85,000. The lowest paid were in aca demia, wholesale and retail trade, and publishing. The Federal Government recognizes education and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions. In general, the en trance salary for economists having a bachelor's degree averaged about $18,700 a year in 1995; however, those with superior academic records could begin at $23,200. Those having a master's degree 124 Occupational Outlook Handbook could qualify for positions at an annual salary of $28,300. Those with a Ph.D. could begin at $34,300, while some individuals with experience and an advanced degree could start at $41,100. Starting salaries were slightly more in selected areas where the prevailing local pay was higher. Economists in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions averaged around $59,030 a year in 1995. Related Occupations Economists are concerned with understanding and interpreting financial matters, among other subjects. Other jobs in this area include financial managers, financial analysts, underwriters, actuar ies, securities and financial services sales workers, credit analysts, loan officers, and budget officers. Marketing research analysts do research to find out how well products or services sell. This may include the planning, implemen tation, and analysis of surveys to determine people's needs and preferences. Other jobs using these skills include psychologists, sociologists, and urban and regional planners. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in economics and business, contact: •■National Association of Business Economists, 1233 20th St. NW., Suite 505, Washington. DC 20036. For information about careers and salaries in marketing research, contact: •"Marketing Research Association, 2189 Silas Deane Hwy., Suite 5, Rocky Hill, CT 06067. •■Council of American Survey Research Organizations, 3 Upper Devon, Port Jefferson, NY 11777. Psychologists (D.O.T. 045.061, .067, .107-022, -026, -030, -034, and -046) Nature of the Work Psychologists study human behavior and the mental processes related to that behavior. Research psychologists investigate the physical, cognitive, emotional, or social aspects of human behavior. Psy chologists in applied fields provide mental health services in hospi tals, clinics, schools, or private settings. Like other social scientists, psychologists formulate hypotheses and collect data to test their validity. Research methods depend on the topic under study. Psychologists may gather information through controlled laboratory experiments, as well as through personality, performance, aptitude, and intelligence tests. Other methods include observation, interviews, questionnaires, clinical studies, and surveys. Computers are widely used to record and analyze this information. Psychologists apply their knowledge and techniques to a wide range of endeavors including human services, management, educa tion, law, and sports. In addition to a variety of work settings, psy chologists specialize in many different areas. Clinical psychologists —who constitute the largest specialty—generally work in independ ent or group practice or in hospitals or clinics. They assist mentally or emotionally disturbed clients adjust to life and increasingly help medical and surgical patients deal with their illnesses or injuries. Some work in physical rehabilitation settings, treating patients with spinal cord injuries, chronic pain or illness, stroke, arthritis, and neurologic conditions such as multiple sclerosis. Others help people deal with life stresses such as divorce or the death of a loved one. Clinical psychologists interview patients and give diagnostic tests. They provide individual, family, and group psychotherapy, and design and implement behavior modification programs. They may collaborate with physicians and other specialists in developing and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis implementing treatment and intervention programs that patients can understand and comply with. Some clinical psychologists work in universities, where they train graduate students in the delivery of mental health and behavioral medicine services. Others administer community mental health programs. Relatively new specialties within clinical psychology include cognitive psychology, health psychology, neuropsychology, and geropsychology. Cognitive psychologists deal with memory, think ing, and perceptions. Some conduct research related to computer programming and artificial intelligence. Health psychologists pro mote good health through health maintenance counseling programs that are designed to help people achieve goals such as to stop smok ing or lose weight. Neuropsychologists study the relation between the brain and behavior. They often work in stroke and head injury programs. Geropsychologists deal with the special problems faced by the elderly. The emergence and growth of these specialties re flects the increasing participation of psychologists in providing direct services to special patient populations. Counseling psychologists use various techniques, including inter viewing and testing, to advise people on how to deal with problems of everyday living, including career choices. (Also see the state ments on counselors and social workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Developmental psychologists study the patterns and causes of behavioral change as people progress from infancy to adulthood. Some specialize in behavior during infancy, childhood, and adoles cence, while others study changes that take place during maturity or old age. The study of developmental disabilities and how they affect people is a relatively new area within developmental psychology. Experimental psychologists study behavior processes as they work with human beings and animals, such as rats, monkeys, and pigeons. Prominent areas of study in experimental research include motivation, thinking, attention, learning and retention, sensory and perceptual processes, effects of substance use and abuse, and genetic and neurological factors affecting behavior. Industrial-organizational psychologists (I/O) apply psychological techniques to personnel administration, management, and marketing problems. They are involved in applicant screening, training and development, counseling, and organizational development and analysis. An industrial psychologist might work with management to develop better training programs and to reorganize the work setting to improve worker productivity or quality of worklife. They may also act as consultants to management. School psychologists work with students, teachers, parents, and administrators to resolve students' learning and behavior problems. They collaborate with teachers, parents, and school personnel about classroom management strategies, parenting skills, substance abuse, Many psychologists are self-employed. Professional Specialty Occupations 125 working with students with disabilities or gifted and talented stu dents, and teaching and learning strategies. They may evaluate the effectiveness of academic programs, behavior management proce dures, and other services provided in the school setting. Social psychologists examine people's interactions with others and with the social environment. Prominent areas of study include group behavior, leadership, attitudes, and interpersonal perception. Working Conditions A psychologist's specialty and place of employment determine working conditions. Clinical, school, and counseling psychologists in private practice have pleasant, comfortable offices and set their own hours. However, they often must offer evening hours to ac commodate their clients. Those employed in hospitals, nursing homes, and other health facilities may work evenings and weekends, while those who work in schools and clinics generally work regular hours. Psychologists employed as faculty by colleges and universi ties divide their time between teaching and research, and a few have administrative responsibilities as well. Many have part-time consult ing practices as well. Most psychologists in government and industry have structured schedules. Psychologists often work alone, reading and writing reports. Many experience pressures due to deadlines, tight schedules, and overtime work. Their routine may be interrupted frequently. Travel may be required to attend conferences or conduct research. Employment Psychologists held about 144,000 jobs in 1994. Educational institu tions employed nearly 4 out of 10 salaried psychologists in positions other than teaching, involving counseling, testing, research, and administration. Three out of 10 were employed in health services, primarily in hospitals, mental health clinics, rehabilitation centers, nursing homes, and other health facilities. Government agencies at the Federal, State, and local levels employed one-sixth. Govern ments employ psychologists in hospitals, clinics, correctional facili ties, and other settings. The Department of Veterans Affairs and the Department of Defense employ about 80 percent of the psycholo gists working for Federal agencies. Some psychologists work in social service organizations, research organizations, management consulting firms, marketing research firms, and other businesses. After several years of experience, some psychologists—usually those with doctoral degrees—enter private practice or set up their own research or consulting firms. Over 40 percent of all psycholo gists are self-employed. In addition to the jobs described above, many persons held posi tions as psychology faculty at colleges and universities, and as high school psychology teachers. (See the statements on college and uni versity faculty and kindergarten, elementary, and secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A doctoral degree generally is required for employment as a clinical or counseling psychologist. Psychologists with a Ph.D. qualify for a wide range of teaching, research, clinical, and counseling positions in universities, elementary and secondary schools, private industry, and government. Psychologists with a Psy.D.—Doctor of Psychology— generally work in clinical positions. Persons with a master's degree in psychology can work as organizational or industrial psychologists. Others work as psychological assistants, under the supervision of doctoral-level psychologists, and may conduct research or psycho logical evaluations or counsel patients. Many work as school psy chologists or counselors, and some teach in- high schools or 2-year colleges. A bachelor’s degree in psychology qualifies a person to assist psychologists and other professionals in community mental health centers, vocational rehabilitation offices, and correctional programs. They may work as research or administrative assistants or become sales or management trainees in business. However, without addi https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis tional academic training, their opportunities in psychology are se verely limited. In the Federal Government, candidates having at least 24 semester hours in psychology and one course in statistics qualify for entrylevel positions. Because this is one of the few areas where one can work as a psychologist without an advanced degree, competition for these jobs is keen. Clinical psychologists generally must have com pleted the Ph.D. or Psy.D. requirements and have served an intern ship. Vocational and guidance counselors usually need 2 years of graduate study in counseling and 1 year of counseling experience. School psychology requires a master's degree followed by a 1-year internship. Most students need at least 2 years of full-time graduate study to earn a master's degree in psychology. Requirements usually include practical experience in an applied setting or a master's thesis based on an original research project. A doctoral degree usually requires 5 to 7 years of graduate study. The Ph.D. degree culminates in a dissertation based on original research. Courses in quantitative research methods, which include the use of computer-based analysis, are an integral part of graduate study and are necessary to complete the dissertation. The Psy.D. usually is based on practical work and examinations rather than a dissertation. In clinical or counseling psychology, the requirements for the doctoral degree generally include a year or more of internship. Competition for admission into graduate programs is keen. Some universities require an undergraduate major in psychology. Others prefer only basic psychology with courses in the biological, physical, and social sciences, statistics, and mathematics. Most colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree in psy chology. Over 600 departments offer either a master's or a full Ph.D. program. A smaller number of professional schools of psychology offer the Psy.D. The American Psychological Association (APA) presently ac credits doctoral training programs in clinical, counseling, and school psychology. The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, with the assistance of the National Association of School Psychologists, also is involved in the accreditation of advanced degree programs in school psychology. The APA also accredits institutions that provide internships for doctoral students in school, clinical, and counseling psychology. Psychologists in independent practice or those who offer any type of patient care, including clinical, counseling, and school psycholo gists, must meet certification or licensing requirements. All States and the District of Columbia have such requirements. Licensing laws vary by State and by type of position. Clinical and counseling psy chologists generally require a doctorate in psychology, completion of an approved internship, and 1 to 2 years of professional experience. In addition, most States require that applicants pass an examination. Most State boards administer a standardized test and many supple ment that with additional oral or essay questions. Most States certify those with a master's degree as school psychologists after completion of an internship. Some States require continuing education for license renewal. Most States require that licensed or certified psychologists limit their practice to those areas in which they have developed profes sional competence through training and experience. The American Board of Professional Psychology recognizes professional achievement by awarding certification, primarily in clinical psychology, clinical neuropsychology, counseling, forensic, industrial and organizational, and school psychology. Candidates need a doctorate in psychology, 5 years of experience, professional endorsements, and a passing grade on an examination. Aspiring psychologists who are interested in direct patient care must be emotionally stable, mature, and able to deal effectively with people. Sensitivity, compassion, and the ability to lead and inspire others are particularly important for clinical work and counseling. Research psychologists should be able to do detailed work independ ently and as part of a team. Verbal and writing skills are necessary to 126 Occupational Outlook Handbook communicate research findings. Patience and perseverance are vital qualities because results from psychological treatment of patients or from research usually take a long time. level was higher. The average salary for psychologists in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial posi tions was about $58,300 a year in 1995. Job Outlook Employment of psychologists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The need to combat alcohol and drug abuse, marital strife, family violence, crime, and other problems plaguing society should stimulate employment growth. Other factors spurring demand for psychologists include increased emphasis on mental health maintenance in conjunction with the treatment of physical illness and public concern for the development of human resources, including the growing elderly population and children in school. Job opportunities in health care should remain strong in health care provider networks, such as health maintenance and preferred provider organizations, and in nursing homes and alcohol and drug abuse programs. Job opportunities will arise in businesses, nonprofit organizations, and research and computer firms for psychologists working as consultants. Companies will use psychologists’ expertise in survey design, analysis, and research to provide marketing evalua tion and statistical analysis. The increase in employee assistance programs, which offer employees help with personal problems, also should spur job growth. Opportunities are best for candidates with a doctoral degree. Persons holding doctorates from leading universities in applied areas, such as clinical, counseling, health, industrial, and educational psy chology should have particularly good prospects. Psychologists with extensive training in quantitative research methods and computer science may have a competitive edge over applicants without this background. Graduates with a master's degree in psychology will encounter competition for the limited number of jobs for which they qualify. Graduates of master's degree programs in school psychology should have the best job prospects, as schools are expected to increase student counseling and mental health services. Other master's degree holders may find jobs as psychological assistants in the community mental health field, which often requires direct supervision by a licensed psychologist. Still others may find jobs involving research and data collection and analysis in universities, government, or private companies. Bachelor's degree holders can expect very few opportunities directly related to psychology. Some may find jobs as assistants in rehabilitation centers or in other jobs involving data collection and analysis. Those who meet State certification requirements may become high school psychology teachers. Related Occupations Psychologists are trained to conduct research and teach, evaluate, counsel, and advise individuals and groups with special needs. Others who do this kind of work include psychiatrists, clinical social workers, sociologists, clergy, special education teachers, and counselors. Earnings According to a 1993 survey by the American Psychological Associa tion, the median starting salary of psychologists with a doctoral degree was $39,100 in counseling psychology; $39,000 in research positions; $40,000 in clinical psychology; and $45,000 in school psychology. The median annual salary of master's degree holders was $26,000 in counseling psychology; $24,000 in clinical psychol ogy; $28,000 in research positions; $34,500 in school psychology, and $58,000 in industrial-organizational psychology. Some psy chologists have much higher earnings, particularly those in private practice. The Federal Government recognizes education and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions. In general, the starting salary for psychologists having a bachelor's degree was about $18,700 a year in 1995; those with superior academic records could begin at $23,200. Counseling and school psychologists with a mas ter's degree and 1 year of counseling experience could start at $28,300. Clinical psychologists having a Ph.D. or Psy.D. degree and 1 year of internship could start at $34,300 and some individuals with experience could start at $41,100. Beginning salaries were slightly higher in selected areas of the country where the prevailing local pay https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information For information on careers, educational requirements, financial assistance, and licensing in all fields of psychology, contact: •■American Psychological Association, Research Office and Education in Psychology and Accreditation Offices, 750 1st St. NE., Washington, DC 20002. For information on careers, educational requirements, and licens ing of school psychologists, contact: •"National Association of School Psychologists, 4030 East West Highway, Suite 402, Bethesda, MD 20814. Information about State licensing requirements is available from: •■Association of State and Provincial Psychology Boards, P.O. Box 4389, Montgomery, AL 36103-4389. Information on traineeships and fellowships also is available from colleges and universities that have graduate departments of psychology. Urban and Regional Planners (D.O.T. 188.167-110 and 199.167-014) Nature of the Work Urban and regional planners are often referred to as community or city planners because many are employed by local governments. They develop long and short-term land use plans to provide for growth and revitalization of urban, suburban, and rural communities, while helping local officials make decisions on social, economic, and environmental problems. Planners devise plans promoting the best use of a community's land and resources for residential, commercial, and recreational activities. Planners also are involved in various other planning activities, including social services, transportation, resource devel opment, and the protection of ecologically sensitive regions. They address issues such as traffic congestion, air pollution, and the effect of growth and change on an area. They may formulate capital im provement plans for the construction of new school buildings, public housing, or sewage systems. Planners are involved in environmental issues ranging from pollution control to wetland preservation, forest conservation, and the location of new landfills. Planners also may be involved with drafting legislation on social issues such as the needs of the elderly, sheltering the homeless, or meeting the demand for new correctional facilities. Planners examine proposed community facilities such as schools to be sure these facilities will meet the demands placed upon them over time by population growth. They keep abreast of the economic and legal issues involved in zoning codes, building codes, and envi ronmental regulations. They ensure that builders and developers follow these codes and regulations. Planners also deal with land use and environmental issues created by population movements. For example, as suburban growth increases the need for traveling, some planners design new transportation systems and parking facilities. Before preparing plans for community development, planners report on the current use of land for residential, business, and com- Professional Specialty Occupations 127 munity purposes. These reports include information on the location of streets, highways, water and sewer lines, schools, libraries, and cultural and recreational sites, and provide data on the types of industries in the community, characteristics of the population, and employment and economic trends. With this information, along with input from citizens' advisory committees, planners design the layout of recommended buildings and other facilities such as subway lines and stations, and prepare reports that show how their programs can be carried out and what they will cost. Planners increasingly use computers to record and analyze infor mation and to prepare their reports and recommendations for gov ernment leaders and others. Computer databases, spreadsheets, and analytical techniques are widely used to determine program costs and forecast future trends in employment, housing, transportation, or population. Computerized geographic information systems enable planners to map land areas and overlay maps with geographic vari ables, such as population density, as well as to combine and manipu late geographic information to produce alternative plans for land use or development. Urban and regional planners often confer with land developers, civic leaders, and public officials. They may function as mediators in community disputes by presenting alternatives that are acceptable to opposing parties. Planners may prepare material for community relations programs, speak at civic meetings, and appear before legis lative committees and elected officials to explain and defend their proposals. In large organizations, planners usually specialize in a single area such as transportation, housing, historic preservation, urban design, environmental and regulatory issues, or economic development. In small organizations, planners must be generalists, able to do various kinds of planning. Working Conditions Urban and regional planners spend much of their time in offices. To be familiar with areas that they are developing, however, they peri odically spend time outdoors inspecting the features of land under consideration for development, including its current use and the types of structures on it. Some local government planners involved in site development inspections spend most of their time in the field. Al though most planners have a scheduled 40-hour workweek, they frequently attend evening or weekend meetings or public hearings with citizens' groups. Planners may experience the pressure of deadlines and tight work schedules, as well as political pressure generated by interest groups affected by their land use proposals. ■a Most entry level jobs for urban and regional planners require a master’s degree. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment Urban and regional planners held about 29,000 jobs in 1994, 2 out of 3 of whom were employed by local governments. An increasing proportion of planners work in the private sector for companies involved with real estate and transportation. Others are employed in State agencies that deal with housing, transportation, or environ mental protection, and a small number work for the Federal Govern ment. Many planners do consulting work, either part time as a supple ment to their regular jobs, or full time. They provide services to private developers or government agencies. Private sector employers include architectural and surveying firms, management and public relations firms, educational institutions, large land developers, and law firms specializing in land use. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer workers who have advanced training. Most entry level jobs in Federal, State, and local government agencies require a master's degree in urban or regional planning or urban design, or the equivalent in work experience. A bachelor's degree from an accred ited planning program, coupled with a master’s degree in architec ture, landscape architecture, or civil engineering, is good preparation for entry-level planning jobs in areas such as urban design, traffic, or the environment. A master's degree from an accredited planning program provides the best training for a number of planning fields. Although graduates from one of the limited number of accredited bachelor's degree programs qualify for many beginning positions, their advancement opportunities often are limited unless they acquire an advanced degree. Courses in related disciplines such as architec ture, law, earth sciences, demography, economics, finance, health administration, geographic information systems, and management are highly recommended. In addition, familiarity with computer models and statistical techniques is necessary because of the increasing use of computerized modeling and geographic information systems in planning analyses. In 1994, about 80 colleges and universities offered an accredited master's degree program and about 10 offered an accredited bache lor's degree program in urban or regional planning. These programs are accredited by the Planning Accreditation Board, which consists of representatives of the American Institute of Certified Planners and the Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning. Most graduate programs in planning require a minimum of 2 years. Specializations most commonly offered by planning schools are environmental planning, land use and comprehensive planning, economic development, and housing. Other popular offerings in clude community development, transportation, and urban design. Graduate students spend considerable time in studios, workshops, and laboratory courses learning to analyze and solve planning prob lems. They often are required to work in a planning office part time or during the summer. Local government planning offices frequently offer students internships that provide experience that proves invalu able in obtaining a full-time planning position after graduation. The American Institute of Certified Planners (AICP), a profes sional institute within the American Planning Association (APA), grants certification to individuals who have the appropriate combina tion of education and professional experience and who pass an examination. Certification may be helpful for promotion. Planners must be able to think in terms of spatial relationships and visualize the effects of their plans and designs. Planners should be flexible and able to reconcile different viewpoints and to make constructive policy recommendations. The ability to communicate effectively, both orally and in writing, is necessary for anyone inter ested in this field. After a few years' experience, planners may advance to assign ments requiring a high degree of independent judgment, such as designing the physical layout of a large development or recommend ing policy and budget options. Some public sector planners are promoted to jobs as planning directors and spend a great deal of time 128 Occupational Outlook Handbook meeting with officials, speaking to civic groups, and supervising a staff. Further advancement occurs through a transfer to a larger jurisdiction with more complex problems and greater responsibilities, or into related occupations, such as director of community or eco nomic development. In the private sector, experience leads to in creases in independence and compensation. Job Outlook A master's degree from an accredited planning program, or a master's degree in civil engineering or landscape architecture coupled with training in transportation, environmental planning, geographic infor mation systems, or urban design, provide the most marketable back ground. Graduates with a bachelor's degree in planning but no graduate degree will have more difficulty finding a job in this field, although prospects are much brighter for entry-level jobs for those from one of the ten undergraduate programs in the country with an accredited bachelor's degree. Employment of urban and regional planners is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Most job openings, however, are expected to arise from the need to replace experienced planners who transfer to other occupations, or retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. The continuing importance of transportation, environmental, and housing planning will increase demand for urban and regional plan ners. Specific factors contributing to job growth include the need to regulate commercial development of suburban areas with rapidly growing populations and legislation related to the environment, transportation, housing, and land use and development. Movements such as historic preservation and central city redevelopment will provide additional openings. However, local communities have limited resources and many demands for services. When communi ties need to cut expenditures, planning services may be cut before more basic services such as police or education. Most new jobs for urban and regional planners will arise in rap idly expanding communities. Local governments need planners to address an array of problems associated with population growth. For example, new housing developments require roads, sewer systems, fire stations, schools, libraries, and recreation facilities that must be planned while considering budgetary constraints. Small town cham bers of commerce, economic development authorities and tourism bureaus are eager to hire planners, provided that the candidate has some background in marketing and public relations. Earnings Salaries of planners vary by educational attainment, type of em ployer, experience, size of community in which they work, and geographic location. According to a 1994 report by the APA, urban and regional planners with less than 5 years of experience earned median annual salaries of about $30,000 to $37,000. Planners with between 5 and 10 years' experience earned median salaries of about $39,000 to $42,000. Those with more than 10 years' experience earned median annual salaries of about $52,000 to $63,000. According to limited data, median annual earnings of full-time wage and salary urban and regional planners were about $45,000 in 1994. Planners with a master's degree were hired by the Federal Gov ernment at a starting average salary of $28,300 a year in 1994. In some cases, persons having less than 2 years of graduate work could enter Federal service as interns at yearly salaries of about $18,700 or $23,200. Salaries of community planners employed by the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial posi tions averaged about $55,500 a year in 1995. Related Occupations Urban and regional planners develop plans for the orderly growth of urban and rural communities. Others whose work is similar to the work of planners include architects, landscape architects, city man agers, civil engineers, environmental engineers, and geographers. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers, salaries, and certification in urban and re gional planning is available from: •■American Planning Association, Education Division, 122 South Michigan Avenue, Suite 1600, Chicago, IL 60630-6107. Social and Recreation Workers Human Services Workers (D.O.T. 195.367 except -026 and -030) Nature of the Work "Human services worker" is a generic term for people with various job titles, such as social service assistant, case management aide, social work assistant, residential counselor, community support worker, alcohol or drug abuse counselor, mental health technician, child-care worker, community outreach worker, life skill counselor, and gerontology aide. They generally work under the direction of professionals from a wide variety of fields, such as nursing, psychia try, psychology, rehabilitation, or social work. The amount of re sponsibility and supervision they are given varies a great deal. Some are on their own most of the time and have little direct supervision; others work under close direction. Human services workers provide direct and indirect client serv ices. They assess clients’ needs, establish their eligibility for benefits and services, and help clients obtain them. They examine financial documents such as rent receipts and tax returns to determine whether https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis the client is eligible for food stamps, Medicaid, welfare, and other human service programs. They also arrange for transportation and escorts, if necessary, and provide emotional support. Human serv ices workers monitor and keep case records on clients and report progress to supervisors. Human services workers may transport or accompany clients to group meal sites, adult daycare programs, or doctors' offices; tele phone or visit clients' homes to make sure services are being re ceived; or help resolve disagreements, such as those between tenants and landlords. Human services workers play a variety of roles in community settings. They may organize and lead group activities, assist clients in need of counseling or crisis intervention, or administer a food bank or emergency fuel program. In halfway houses, group homes, and government-supported housing programs, they assist adult residents who need supervision in personal hygiene and daily living skills. They review clients' records, ensure they take correct doses of medication, talk with their families, and confer with medical personnel to gain better insight into clients' backgrounds and needs. They also provide emotional support and help clients become involved in community recreation programs and other activities. Professional Specialty Occupations 129 ;J1S if .&?.■ AGING WAVNf Human services workers may accompany clients to adult daycare programs. In psychiatric hospitals, rehabilitation programs, and outpatient clinics, they may help clients master everyday living skills and teach them how to communicate more effectively and get along better with others. They support the client's participation in the treatment plan, such as individual or group counseling and occupational therapy. Working Conditions Working conditions of human services workers vary. They work in offices, group homes, shelters, day programs, sheltered workshops, hospitals, clinics, and in the field visiting clients. Most work a regular 40-hour week, although some work may be in the evening and on weekends. Human services workers in residential settings generally work in shifts because residents need supervision around the clock. The work, while satisfying, can be emotionally draining. Under staffing and an inadequate work environment may add to the pres sure. Turnover is reported to be high, especially among workers without academic preparation for this field. Employment Human services workers held about 168,000 jobs in 1994. About one-fourth were employed by State and local governments, primarily in public welfare agencies and facilities for mentally disabled and developmentally delayed individuals. Another fourth worked in private social or human services agencies offering a variety of serv ices, including adult daycare, group meals, crisis intervention, and counseling. Many human services workers supervised residents of group homes and halfway houses. Human services workers also held jobs in clinics, detoxification units, community mental health centers, psychiatric hospitals, day treatment programs, and sheltered workshops. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement While some employers hire high school graduates, most prefer applicants with some college preparation in human services, social work, or one of the social or behavioral sciences. Some prefer to hire persons with a 4-year college degree. The level of formal education of human service workers often influences the kind of work they are assigned and the amount of responsibility entrusted to them. Work ers with no more than a high school education are likely to receive on-the-job training to work in direct care services, while those with a college degree might be assigned to do supportive counseling, coordinate program activities, or manage a group home. Employers may also look for experience in other occupations, leadership expe rience in an organization, or human service volunteer exposure. Some enter the field on the basis of courses in human services, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis psychology, rehabilitation, social work, sociology, or special educa tion. Most employers provide in-service training such as seminars and workshops. Because so many human services jobs involve direct contact with people who are vulnerable to exploitation or mistreatment, employers try to select applicants with appropriate personal qualifications. Relevant academic preparation is generally required, and volunteer or work experience is preferred. A strong desire to help others, patience, and understanding are highly valued characteristics. Other important personal traits include communication skills, a strong sense of responsibility, and the ability to manage time effectively. Hiring requirements in group homes tend to be more stringent than in other settings. In some settings, applicants may need a valid driver's license and must meet the Criminal Offense Record Investigation (CORI) requirement. Special licensure or State certifications may also apply. In 1994, 375 certificate and associate degree programs in human services or mental health were offered at community and junior colleges, vocational-technical institutes, and other postsecondary institutions. In addition, 390 programs offered a bachelor's degree in human services. Master's degree programs in human services ad ministration are offered as well. Generally, academic programs in this field educate students for specialized roles. Human services programs have a core curriculum that trains students in observation and recording, interviewing, communication techniques, behavior management, group dynamics, counseling, crisis intervention, case management, and referral. General education courses in liberal arts, sciences, and the humani ties are also part of the curriculum. Many degree programs require completion of an internship. Formal education is almost always necessary for advancement. In general, advancement requires a bachelor's or master's degree in counseling, rehabilitation, social work, or a related field. Job Outlook Opportunities for human services workers are expected to be excel lent for qualified applicants. The number of human services workers is projected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations between 1994 and the year 2005—ranking among the most rapidly growing occupations. Also, the need to replace workers who retire or stop working for other reasons will create additional job opportuni ties. These jobs are not attractive to everyone due to the emotionally draining work and relatively low pay, so qualified applicants should have little difficulty finding employment. Opportunities are expected to be best in job training programs, residential settings, and private social service agencies, which in clude such services as adult daycare and meal delivery programs. Demand for these services will expand with the growing number of older people, who are more likely to need services. In addition, human services workers will continue to be needed to provide serv ices to the mentally disabled and developmentally delayed, those with substance abuse problems, the homeless, and pregnant teenag ers. Faced with rapid growth in the demand for services, but slower growth in resources to provide the services, employers are expected to rely increasingly on human services workers rather than other occupations that command higher pay. Job training programs are expected to require additional human services workers as the economy grows and businesses change their mode of production, requiring workers to be retrained. Human services workers help determine workers’ eligibility for public assis tance programs and help them obtain services while unemployed. Residential settings should expand also as pressures to respond to the needs of the chronically mentally ill persist. For many years, chronic mental patients have been deinstitutionalized and left to their own devices. Now, more community-based programs, supported inde pendent living sites, and group residences are expected to be estab lished to house and assist the homeless and chronically mentally ill, and demand for human services workers will increase accordingly. 130 Occupational Outlook Handbook Jobs for human services workers will grow more rapidly than overall employment in State and local governments. State and local governments employ most of their human services workers in cor rections and public assistance departments. Corrections departments are growing faster than other areas of government, so human services workers should find that their job opportunities increase along with other corrections jobs. Public assistance programs have been em ploying more human services workers in an attempt to employ fewer social workers, who are more educated and higher paid. Earnings Based on limited information, starting salaries for human services workers ranged from about $13,000 to $20,000 a year in 1994. Experienced workers generally earned between $18,000 and $27,000 annually, depending on their education, experience, and employer. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations that require skills similar to those of human services workers include social workers, religious workers, occupational therapy assistants, physical therapy assistants, psychi atric aides, and activity leaders. Sources of Additional Information Information on academic programs in human services may be found in most directories of 2- and 4-year colleges, available at libraries or career counseling centers. For information on programs and careers in human services, contact: ••National Organization for Human Service Education, Brookdale Commu nity College, Lyncroft, NJ 07738. •■Council for Standards in Human Service Education, Northern Essex Com munity College, Haverhill, MA 01830. Information on job openings may be available from State em ployment service offices or directly from city, county, or State de partments of health, mental health and mental retardation, and human resources. Recreation Workers (D.O.T. 153.137-010; 159.124-010; 187.167-238; 195.227-010, -014; 352.167-010) Nature of the Work Many people spend some of their leisure time participating in organ ized recreation ranging from aerobics or crafts to hiking or softball. Recreation programs, as diverse as the people they serve, are offered at local playgrounds and recreation areas, parks, community centers, health clubs, churches and synagogues, camps, and theme parks and tourist attractions. Recreation workers plan, organize, and direct these activities. Recreation workers organize and lead programs and watch over recreational facilities and equipment. They help people to pursue their interest in crafts, art, or sports. They enable people to share common interests in physical or mental activities for their mutual entertainment, physical fitness, and self-improvement. Recreation workers organize teams and leagues and also teach the correct use of equipment and facilities. In the workplace, recreation workers oganize and direct leisure activities and athletic programs for all ages, such as bowling and softball leagues, social functions, travel programs, discount services, and, to an increasing extent, exercise and fitness programs. These activities are generally for adults. Camp counselors lead and instruct children and teenagers in outdoor-oriented forms of recreation, such as swimming, hiking, and horseback riding as well as camping. Activities often are intended to https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis enhance campers' appreciation of nature and responsible use of the environment. In addition, counselors provide campers with special ized instruction in activities such as archery, boating, music, drama, gymnastics, tennis, or computers. In resident camps, counselors also provide guidance and supervise daily living and general socialization. Recreation workers occupy a variety of positions at different levels of responsibility. Recreation leaders are responsible for a recreation program s daily operation and organize and direct partici pants. They may lead and give instruction in dance, drama, crafts, games, and sports; schedule use of facilities and keep records of equipment use; and monitor the use of recreation facilities and equipment to make sure they are used properly. Workers who pro vide instruction in specialties such as art, music, drama, swimming, or tennis may be called activity specialists. They often conduct classes and coach teams in the activity in which they specialize. Recreation supervisors plan programs to meet the needs of the population they serve and supervise recreation leaders and activity specialists, sometimes over a large region. They may also direct specialized activities and special events. A growing number of supervisors use computers in their work. In a related occupation, recreational therapists help individuals recover or adjust to illness, disability, or specific social problems; this occupation is described elsewhere in the Handbook. Working Conditions Recreation workers must work while others engage in leisure time activities. While most recreation workers put in about 40 hours a week, people entering this field—especially camp counselors— should expect some night and weekend work and irregular hours. About 3 out of 10 worked part time and many jobs are seasonal. The work setting for recreation workers may be anywhere from a cruise ship to a woodland recreational park. Recreation workers often spend much of their time outdoors and may work under a variety of weather conditions. Recreation supervisors may spend most of their time in an office. Since full-time recreation workers spend more time acting as managers than hands-on activities leaders, they engage in less physical activity. However, as is the case for anyone engaged in physical activity, recreation workers risk injuries, and the work can be physically tiring. Employment Recreation workers held about 222,000 jobs in 1994, and many additional workers held summer jobs in this occupation. Of those who held full-time jobs as recreation workers, about half worked in park and recreation departments of municipal and county govern ments. About 17 percent worked in membership organizations with a *•> Recreation workers often work outdoors with children. Professional Specialty Occupations 131 civic, social, fraternal, or religious orientation—the Boy Scouts, the YWCA, and Red Cross, for example. Another 11 percent were in programs run by social service organizations—senior centers and adult daycare programs, or residential care facilities such as halfway houses, group homes, and institutions for delinquent youth. An additional 10 percent worked for nursing and other personal care facilities. Other employers included commercial recreation establishments, amusement parks, sports and entertainment centers, wilderness and survival enterprises, tourist attractions, vacation excursion compa nies, hotels and resorts, summer camps, health and athletic clubs, and apartment complexes. The recreation field has an unusually large number of part-time, seasonal, and volunteer jobs. These jobs include summer camp counselors, lifeguards, craft specialists, and after-school and week end recreation program leaders. Teachers and college students take many jobs as recreation workers when school is not in session. Many unpaid volunteers assist paid recreation workers. The vast majority of volunteers serve as activity leaders at local day-camp programs, or in youth organizations, camps, nursing homes, hospi tals, senior centers, YMCA's, and other settings. Some volunteers serve on local park and recreation boards and commissions. Volun teer experience, part-time work during school, or a summer job can lead to a full-time job. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Education needed for recreation worker jobs ranges from a high school diploma, or sometimes less, for many summer jobs to gradu ate education for some administrative positions in large public sys tems. Full-time career professional positions usually require a college degree with a major in parks and recreation or leisure studies, but a bachelor's degree in any liberal arts field may be sufficient for some jobs in the private sector. In industrial recreation, or employee services as it is more commonly called, companies prefer to hire those with a bachelor's degree in recreation or leisure studies and a background in business administration. Specialized training or experience in a particular field, such as art, music, drama, or athletics, is an asset for many jobs. Some jobs also require a certification. For example, when teaching or coaching water-related activities, a lifesaving certificate is a prerequisite. Graduates of associate degree programs in parks and recreation, social work, and other human services disciplines also enter some career recreation positions. Occasionally high school graduates are able to enter career positions, but this is not common. Some college students work part time as recreation workers while earning degrees. A bachelor's degree and experience are preferred for most recrea tion supervisor jobs and required for most higher level administrator jobs. However, increasing numbers of recreation workers who aspire to administrator positions are obtaining master's degrees in parks and recreation or related disciplines. Also, many persons in other disci plines, including social work, forestry, and resource management, pursue graduate degrees in recreation. Programs leading to an associate or bachelor's degree in parks and recreation, leisure studies, or related fields are offered at several hundred colleges and universities. Many also offer master's or doctoral degrees in this field. In 1995, approximately 90 bachelor's degree programs in parks and recreation were accredited by the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA). Accredited programs provide broad exposure to the history, theory, and philosophy of park and recreation man agement. Courses offered include community organization, supervi sion and administration, recreational needs of special populations, such as older adults or the disabled, and supervised fieldwork. Students may specialize in areas such as therapeutic recreation, park management, outdoor recreation, industrial or commercial recreation, and camp management. The American Camping Association has developed a curriculum for camp director education. Many national youth associations offer https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis training courses for camp directors at the local and regional levels. Persons planning recreation careers should be outgoing, good at motivating people, and sensitive to the needs of others. Good health and physical fitness are required. Activity planning calls for creativ ity and resourcefulness. Willingness to accept responsibility and the ability to exercise good judgment are important qualities since rec reation personnel often work without close supervision. Part-time or summer recreation work experience while in high school or college may help students decide whether their interests really point to a human services career. Such experience also may increase their leadership skills and understanding of people. Individuals contemplating careers in recreation at the supervisory or administrative level should develop managerial skills. College courses in management, business administration, accounting, and personnel management are likely to be useful. Certification for this field is offered by the NRPA National Certi fication Board and the American Camping Association. The Na tional Recreation and Parks Association, along with its State chapters, offers certification as a Certified Leisure Professional (CLP) for those with a college degree in recreation, and as a Certified Leisure Associate (CLA) for those with less than 4 years of college, for example. The American Camping Association offers a certifica tion program for camp directors. Continuing education is necessary to remain certified in either field. Certification is not usually required for employment or advance ment in this field, but it is an asset. Employers choosing among qualified job applicants may opt to hire the person with a demon strated record of professional achievement represented by certifica tion. Job Outlook Applicants for full-time career positions in recreation will face keen competition. All college graduates can enter recreation jobs, regard less of major, as well as some high school and junior college gradu ates, so the number of full-time career jobseekers often greatly exceed the number of job openings. Opportunities for staff positions should be best for persons with job experience gained in part-time or seasonal recreation jobs, together with formal recreation training. Those with graduate degrees should have the best opportunities for supervisory or administrative positions. Prospects are better for the large number of temporary seasonal jobs. These positions, typically filled by high school or college students, do not generally have formal education requirements and are open to anyone with the desired personal qualities. Employers compete for a share of the vacationing student labor force, and, while salaries in recreation are often lower than those in other fields, the nature of the work and the opportunity to work outdoors is attractive to many. Seasonal employment prospects should be good for appli cants with specialized training and certification in an activity like swimming. These workers may obtain jobs as program directors. Employment of recreation workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as growing numbers of people possess both the time and the money to purchase leisure services. Growth in these jobs will also stem from increased interest in fitness and health and the rising demand for recreational opportunities for older adults in senior centers and retirement communities. However, overall job growth in local government—where half of all recreation workers are employed—is expected to be slow due to budget constraints, and local park and recreation departments are expected to do less hiring for permanent, full-time positions than in the past. As a result, this sector's share of recreation worker employment will continue to shrink. Nonetheless, opportunities will vary widely by region, since resources as well as priorities for public services differ from one community to another. Thus, hiring prospects for recreation workers will be much better in some park and recreation departments than overall projections would suggest, but worse in others. Recreation worker jobs should also increase in social services— 132 Occupational Outlook Handbook more recreation workers will be needed to develop and lead activity programs in senior centers, halfway houses, children s homes, and daycare programs for the mentally retarded or developmentally disabled. Similarly, the increasing elderly population will spur job growth in nursing homes and other personal care facilities. Recreation worker jobs in employee services and recreation will continue to increase as more businesses recognize the benefits to their employees of recreation programs and other services such as wellness programs and elder care. Job growth will also occur in the commercial recreation industry, composed of amusement parks, athletic clubs, camps, sports clinics, and swimming pools. Earnings Median annual earnings of recreation workers who worked full time in 1994 were about $15,500. The middle 50 percent earned between about $10,600 and $24,800, while the top 10 percent earned $38,900 or more. However, earnings of recreation directors and others in supervisory or managerial positions can be substantially higher. Most public and private recreation agencies provide full-time recreation workers with vacation and other benefits, such as paid vacation, sick leave, and health insurance. Part-time workers receive few, if any, benefits. Related Occupations .... . Recreation workers must exhibit leadership and sensitivity in dealing with people. Other occupations that require similar personal qualities include recreational therapists, social workers, parole officers, human relations counselors, school counselors, clinical and counseling psychologists, and teachers. Sources of Additional Information For information on jobs in recreation, contact employers such as local government departments of parks and recreation, nursing and personal care facilities, and YMCA's. Ordering information for materials describing careers and aca demic programs in recreation is available from: •"National Recreation and Park Association, Division of Professional Serv ices, 2775 South Quincy St., Suite 300, Arlington, VA 22206. For information on careers in employee services and recreation, contact: •■National Employee Services and Recreation Association, 2211 York Rd., Suite 207, Oakbrook, II, 60521. For information on careers in camping and summer counselor opportunities, contact: •"American Camping Association, 5000 State Rd. 67 North, Martinsville, IN 46151. Social Workers (D.O.T. 045.107-058; 189.267-010; 195.107, .137, .164, .167-010, -014, .267-018, -022, and .367-026) Nature of the Work Social workers help people deal with a wide range of problems. They help individuals and families cope with mental illness and problems such as inadequate housing, unemployment, lack of job skills, financial mismanagement, serious illness, disability, substance abuse, unwanted pregnancy, or antisocial behavior. They also work with families who have serious conflicts, including those involving child or spousal abuse. Through direct counseling, social workers help clients identify their concerns, consider solutions, and find resources. Often, social workers provide concrete information such as where to go for debt counseling, how to find child care or elder care, how to apply for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis public assistance or other benefits, or how to get an alcoholic or drug addict admitted to a rehabilitation program. Social workers may also arrange for services in consultation with clients and then follow through to assure the services are actually helpful. They may review eligibility requirements, fill out forms and applications, arrange for services, visit clients on a regular basis, and provide support during crises. Most social workers specialize in a clinical field such as child welfare and family services, mental health, or school social work. Clinical social workers offer psychotherapy or counseling and a range of services in public agencies, clinics, as well as in private practice. Other social workers are employed in community organi zation, administration, or research. Social workers in child welfare or family services may counsel children and youths who have difficulty adjusting socially, advise parents on how to care for disabled children, or arrange for home maker services during a parent's illness. If children have serious problems in school, child welfare workers may consult with parents, teachers, and counselors to identify underlying causes and develop plans for treatment. Some social workers assist single parents, arrange adoptions, and help find foster homes for neglected, aban doned, or abused children. Child welfare workers also work in residential institutions for children and adolescents. Social workers in child or adult protective services investigate reports of abuse and neglect and intervene if necessary. They may institute legal action to remove children from homes and place them temporarily in an emergency shelter or with a foster family. Mental health social workers provide services for persons with mental or emotional problems, such as individual and group therapy, outreach, crisis intervention, social rehabilitation, and training in skills of everyday living. They may also help plan for sup portive services to ease patients' return to the community. (Also see the statements on counselors and psychologists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Health care social workers help patients and their families cope with chronic, acute, or terminal illnesses and handle problems that may stand in the way of recovery or rehabilitation. They may organ ize support groups for families of patients suffering from cancer, AIDS, Alzheimer's disease, or other illnesses. They also advise family caregivers, counsel patients, and help plan for their needs after discharge by arranging for at-home services—from meals-on-wheels to oxygen equipment. Some work on interdisciplinary teams that evaluate certain kinds of patients—geriatric or transplant patients, for example. School social workers diagnose students' problems and arrange needed services, counsel children in trouble, and help integrate disabled students into the general school population. School social workers deal with problems such as student pregnancy, misbehavior in class, and excessive absences. They also advise teachers on how to deal with problem students. Social workers in criminal justice make recommendations to courts, do pre-sentencing assessments, and provide services for prison inmates and their families. Probation and parole officers provide similar services to individuals sentenced by a court to parole or probation. Occupational social workers generally work in a corporation's personnel department or health unit. Through employee assistance programs, they help workers cope with job-related pressures or personal problems that affect the quality of their work. They offer direct counseling to employees, often those whose performance is hindered by emotional or family problems or substance abuse. They also develop education programs and refer workers to specialized community programs. Some social workers specialize in gerontological services. They run support groups for family caregivers or for the adult children of aging parents; advise elderly people or family members about the choices in such areas as housing, transportation, and long-term care; and coordinate and monitor services. Professional Specialty Occupations 133 My} Social workers must establish and maintain good relationships with their clients. Social workers also focus on policy and planning. They help develop programs to address such issues as child abuse, homeless ness, substance abuse, poverty, and violence. These workers re search and analyze policies, programs, and regulations. They identify social problems and suggest legislative and other solutions. They may help raise funds or write grants to support these programs. Working Conditions Most social workers have a standard 40-hour week. However, they may work some evenings and weekends to meet with clients, attend community meetings, and handle emergencies. Some, particularly in voluntary nonprofit agencies, work part time. They may spend most of their time in an office or residential facility, but may also travel locally to visit clients or meet with service providers. The work, while satisfying, can be emotionally draining. Under staffing and large caseloads add to the pressure in some agencies. Employment Social workers held about 557,000 jobs in 1994. Nearly 40 percent of the jobs were in State, county, or municipal government agencies, primarily in departments of human resources, social services, child welfare, mental health, health, housing, education, and corrections. Most in the private sector were in voluntary social service agencies, community and religious organizations, hospitals, nursing homes, or home health agencies. Although most social workers are employed in cities or suburbs, some work in rural areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor's degree is the minimum requirement for most positions. Besides the bachelor's in social work (BSW), undergraduate majors in psychology, sociology, and related fields satisfy hiring require ments in some agencies, especially small community agencies. A masters degree in social work (MSW) is generally necessary for positions in health and mental health settings. Jobs in public agen cies may also require an MSW. Supervisory, administrative, and staff training positions usually require at least an MSW. College and University teaching positions and most research appointments nor mally require a doctorate in social work. In 1994, the Council on Social Work Education accredited 383 BSW programs and 117 MSW programs. There were 56 doctoral programs for Ph.D.'s in social work and DSW’s (Doctor of Social Work). BSW programs prepare graduates for direct service positions such as case worker or group worker. They include courses in social work practice, social welfare policies, human behavior and the social https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis environment, and social research methods. Accredited BSW pro grams require at least 400 hours of supervised field experience. An MSW degree prepares graduates to perform assessments, manage cases, and supervise other workers. Master's programs usually last 2 years and include 900 hours of supervised field in struction, or internship. Entry into an MSW program does not re quire a bachelor's in social work, but courses in psychology, biology, sociology, economics, political science, history, social anthropology, urban studies, and social work are recommended. Some schools offer an accelerated MSW program for those with a BSW. Social workers may advance to supervisor, program manager, assistant director, or executive director of an agency or department. Advancement generally requires an MSW, as well as experience. Although some social workers with a BSW may be promoted to these positions after gaining experience, some employers choose to hire managers directly from MSW programs that focus specifically on management. These graduates often have little work experience but have an understanding of management through their education and training. Other career options for social workers include teaching, research, and consulting. Some help formulate government policies by analyzing and advocating policy positions in government agen cies, in research institutions, and on legislators' staffs. Some social workers go into private practice. Most private prac titioners are clinical social workers who provide psychotherapy, usually paid through health insurance. Private practitioners must have a MSW and a period of supervised work experience. A network of contacts for referrals is also essential. Since 1993, all States and the District of Columbia have had licensing, certification, or registration laws regarding social work practice and the use of professional titles. Standards for licensing vary by State. In addition, voluntary certification is offered by the National Association of Social Workers (NASW), which grants the title ACSW (Academy of Certified Social Worker) or ACBSW (Academy of Certified Baccalaureate Social Worker) to those who qualify. For clinical social workers, who are granted the title QCSW (Qualified Clinical Social Worker), professional credentials include listing in the NASW Register of Clinical Social Workers. Advanced credentials include the NASW Diplomate in Clinical Social Work, and School Social Work Specialist. An advanced credential is also offered by the Directory of American Board of Examiners in Clinical Social Work. Credentials are particularly important for those in private practice; some health insurance providers require them for reimbursement. Social workers should be emotionally mature, objective, and sensitive to people and their problems. They must be able to handle responsibility, work independently, and maintain good working relationships with clients and coworkers. Volunteer or paid jobs as a social work aide offer ways of testing one's interest in this field. Job Outlook Employment of social workers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The number of older people, who are more likely to need social services, is growing rapidly. In addition, rising crime and juvenile delinquency as well as increasing concern about services for the mentally ill, the mentally retarded, AIDS patients, and individuals and families in crisis will spur demand for social workers. Many job openings will also arise due to the need to replace social workers who leave the occupation. Projected employment growth among social workers in hospitals reflects greater emphasis on discharge planning, which facilitates early discharge of patients by assuring that the necessary medical services and social supports are in place when individuals leave the hospital. Employment of social workers in private social service agencies will grow, but not as rapidly as demand for their services. Agencies will increasingly restructure services and hire more lower paid hu man services workers instead of social workers. Employment in government should also grow in response to increasing needs for 134 Occupational Outlook Handbook public welfare and family services. However, employment levels will depend on government funding for various social service programs. Social worker employment in home health care services is grow ing, not only because hospitals are releasing patients more quickly, but because a large and growing number of people have impairments or disabilities that make it difficult to live at home without some form of assistance. Opportunities for social workers in private practice will expand because of the anticipated availability of funding from health insur ance and public-sector contracts. Also, with increasing affluence, people will be better able to pay for professional help to deal with personal problems. The growing popularity of employee assistance programs is also expected to spur demand for private practitioners, some of whom provide social work services to corporations on a contractual basis. Employment of school social workers is expected to grow, due to expanded efforts to respond to the adjustment problems of immi grants, children from single-parent families, and rising rates of teen pregnancy. Moreover, continued emphasis on integrating disabled children into the general school population—a requirement under the Education for All Handicapped Children Act—will lead to more jobs. Availability of State and local funding will dictate the actual increase in jobs in this setting, however. Competition for social worker jobs is stronger in cities where training programs for social workers abound; rural areas often find it difficult to attract and retain qualified staff. Earnings According to a membership survey of the National Association of Social Workers, social workers with MSW degrees had median earnings of $30,000 in 1993. For those with BSW degrees, median earnings were between $17,500 and $20,000. In hospitals, social workers who worked full-time averaged about $33,300 in 1994, according to a survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Salaries ranged from a minimum of about $26,700 to a maximum of about $40,100. The average annual salary for all social workers in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial posi tions was about $44,000 in 1995. Related Occupations Through direct counseling or referral to other services, social work ers help people solve a range of personal problems. Workers in occupations with similar duties include the clergy, counselors, coun seling psychologists, and vocational rehabilitation counselors. Sources of Additional Information For information about career opportunities in social work, contact: •"National Association of Social Workers, IC-Career Information, 750 First St. NE., Suite 700, Washington, DC 20002-4241. •"National Network For Social Work Managers, Inc., 1316 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Suite 602, Washington, DC 20036. An annual Directory of Accredited BSW and MSW Programs is available for a nominal charge from: •-Council on Social Work Education, 1600 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314 3421. Clergy (D.O.T. 120.107-010) Nature of the Work Religious beliefs, be they Buddist, Christian, Jewish, Moslem, or based on some other religion, are significant influences in the lives of millions of Americans and prompt many believers to participate in organizations that reinforce their faith. In the United States about 95 percent of all religious organization members are Christians. Protes tants (52 percent) comprise the largest group but consist of many denominations such as Baptists, Lutherans, Methodists, and Presby terians. The Christian Roman Catholic Church accounts for 37 percent of religious organization membership and is the single largest religious body in the United States. Other Christians belong to the Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter Day Saints (3 percent) and Eastern Orthodox sects (1 percent). Non-Christians account for the remaining 5 percent of religious organization members; 4 out of 5 are Jewish. Clergy are religious and spiritual leaders, and teachers and inter preters of their traditions and faith. They organize and lead regular religious services on the Sabbath and on religious holidays, and conduct special wedding and funeral ceremonies upon request. They may lead worshipers in prayer, administer sacraments, deliver ser mons, and read from sacred texts such as the Bible, Talmud, or Koran. When not conducting worship services, clergy organize, supervise, and lead religious education programs for their congrega tions. Clergy often visit the sick or bereaved to provide comfort, and counsel persons who are seeking religious or moral guidance, or who are troubled by family or personal problems. They also may work to expand the membership of their congregations and solicit donations to support its activities and facilities. Clergy serving large congregations often share their duties with an associate or have more junior members of the clergy to assist https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis them. They often spend considerable time on administrative duties. They oversee the management of buildings, order supplies, contract for services and repairs when necessary, and supervise the work of paid staff and volunteers. Clergy also work with committees and officials, elected by the congregation, who guide the management of the congregation's finances and real estate. Working Conditions Members of the clergy typically work long and irregular hours. Of those who served full time as clergy, about one-third spent at least 60 hours a week on their duties. Although many of their activities are sedentary and intellectual in nature, they are frequently called upon at short notice to visit the sick, comfort the dying and their families, and provide counseling to those in need. Involvement in community, administrative, and educational activities may require clergy to work evenings, early mornings, holidays, and weekends. Training and Other Qualifications Educational requirements for entry into the clergy vary greatly. About 3 out of 4 members of the clergy have completed at least a bachelor's degree. Many denominations require that clergy complete a bachelor's degree and a program of theological study; others will admit anyone who has been "called" to the vocation. Some sects do not allow women to become clergy. The following statements on Protestant ministers, Rabbis, and Roman Catholic priests provide more detailed information; those considering careers in the clergy should check with their religious leaders to verify specific entrance requirements. Individuals considering a career in the clergy should realize they are choosing not only a career but a way of life. Religious leaders need to exude self-confidence and self motivation, while remaining tolerant and able to listen to the needs of others. They should be Professional Specialty Occupations 135 capable of making difficult decisions, working under pressure, and living up to the moral standards set by their community. Protestant Ministers (D.O.T. 120.107-010) Nature of the Work Protestant ministers lead their congregations in worship services and administer the various rites of the church, such as baptism, confirma tion, and Holy Communion. There are many Protestant denomina tions. The services that ministers conduct differ among denomin ations and also among congregations within a denomination. In many denominations, ministers follow a traditional order of worship; in others, they adapt the services to the needs of youth and other groups within the congregation. Most services include Bible reading, hymn singing, prayers, and a sermon. In some denominations, Bible reading by a member of the congregation and individual testimonials may constitute a large part of the service. Each Protestant denomination has its own hierarchical structure. Some ministers are responsible only to the congregation they serve, while others are assigned duties by elder ministers, or by the bishops of the diocese they serve. In some denominations, ministers are reassigned to a new pastorate by a central governing body or diocese every few years. Ministers serving small congregations generally work personally with parishioners. Those serving large congregations may share specific aspects of the ministry with one or more associates or assis tants, such as a minister of education who assists in educational programs for different age groups, or a minister of music. Employment In 1994, there were an estimated 300,000 Protestant ministers who served individual congregations. Thousands of others served without a regular congregation, or worked in closely related fields, such as chaplains in hospitals, the Armed Forces, universities, and correc tional institutions. While there are numerous denominations, most ministers are employed by the five largest Protestant bodies— Baptist, Episcopalian, Lutheran, Methodist, and Presbyterian. All cities and most towns in the United States have at least one Protestant church with a full-time minister. Although most ministers are located in urban areas, many serve two or more small congregations in less densely populated areas. Some small I .« wm * Many Protestant denominations allow women to attend seminary and be ordained. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis churches increasingly are employing part-time ministers who may be seminary students, retired ministers, or holders of secular jobs. Unpaid pastors serve other churches with meager funds. Some churches employ specially trained members of the laity to conduct nonliturgical functions. Training and Other Qualifications Educational requirements for entry into the Protestant ministry vary greatly. Many denominations require—or at least strongly prefer—a college bachelor's degree followed by study at a theological school. However, some denominations have no formal educational require ments, and others ordain persons having various types of training in Bible colleges, Bible institutes, or liberal arts colleges. Many de nominations now allow women to be ordained, but others do not. Persons considering a career in the ministry should verify the en trance requirements with their particular denomination before decid ing on a career as a minister. In general, each large denomination has its own school or schools of theology that reflect its particular doctrine, interests, and needs. However, many of these schools are open to students from other denominations. Several interdenominational schools associated with universities give both undergraduate and graduate training covering a wide range of theological points of view. In 1994, over 200 American Protestant theological schools were accredited by the Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada. These admit only students who have received a bachelor's degree or its equivalent in liberal arts from an accredited college. After college graduation, many denominations require a 3year course of professional study in one of these accredited schools or seminaries for the degree of Master of Divinity. The standard curriculum for accredited theological schools con sists of four major categories; Biblical, historical, theological, and practical. Courses of a practical nature include pastoral care, preaching, religious education, and administration. Many accredited schools require that students work under the supervision of a faculty member or experienced minister. Some institutions offer Doctor of Ministry degrees to students who have completed additional study, usually 2 or more years, and served at least 2 years as a minister. Scholarships and loans are available for students of theological institutions. Persons who have denominational qualifications for the ministry usually are ordained after graduation from a seminary or after serving a probationary pastoral period. Denominations that do not require seminary training ordain clergy at various appointed times. Some evangelical churches may ordain ministers with only a high school education. Men and women entering the clergy often begin their careers as pastors of small congregations or as assistant pastors in large churches. Job Outlook Competition is expected to continue for paid Protestant ministers through the year 2005 due to slow growth of church membership and the large number of qualified candidates. Opportunities are expected to be best for graduates of theological schools. The amount of com petition for paid positions will vary among denominations and geo graphic regions. Competition will still be strong for more responsible positions serving large, urban congregations. Relatively favorable prospects are expected for ministers in evangelical churches. Ministers willing to work part time or for smaller, rural congregations also should have relatively favorable opportunities. Most of the openings for ministers through the year 2005 will arise from the need to replace retirees and, to a lesser extent, those who die or leave the ministry. Employment alternatives for newly ordained Protestant ministers who are unable to find positions in parishes include working in youth counseling, family relations, and welfare organizations; teaching in 136 Occupational Outlook Handbook religious educational institutions; and serving as chaplains in the Armed Forces, hospitals, universities, and correctional institutions. Earnings Salaries of Protestant clergy vary substantially, depending on age, experience, denomination, size and wealth of congregation, and geographic location. Based on limited information, the estimated average annual income of Protestant ministers was about $20,000 in 1993. Including benefits such as housing, insurance, and transporta tion, average compensation was an estimated $40,000. In large, wealthier denominations, ministers often earned significantly higher salaries. Increasingly, ministers with modest salaries earn additional income from employment in secular occupations. Sources of Additional Information Persons who are interested in entering the Protestant ministry should seek the counsel of a minister or church guidance worker. Theologi cal schools can supply information on admission requirements. Prospective ministers also should contact the ordination supervision body of their particular denomination for information on special requirements for ordination. Rabbis Rabbis teach and interpret Jewish law and tradition. (D.O.T. 120.107-010) Nature of the Work Rabbis serve either Orthodox, Conservative, Reform, or Reconstruc tionist Jewish congregations. Regardless of their particular point of view, all preserve the substance of Jewish religious worship. Con gregations differ in the extent to which they follow the traditional form of worship—for example, in the wearing of head coverings, the use of Hebrew as the language of prayer, or the use of instrumental music or a choir. The format of the worship service and, therefore, the ritual that the rabbi uses may vary even among congregations belonging to the same branch of Judaism. Rabbis have a large amount of independence compared to other clergy since there is no formal hierarchy in their religion. They are only responsible to the Board of Trustees of the congregation they serve. Rabbis serving large congregations may spend considerable time in administrative duties, working with their staffs and commit tees. Large congregations frequently have an associate or assistant rabbi. Many assistant rabbis serve as educational directors. Rabbis also may write for religious and lay publications and teach in theological seminaries, colleges, and universities. Employment In 1994, there were approximately 1,800 Reform, 1,250 Conserva tive, 1,000 Orthodox, and 175 Reconstructionist rabbis. Although the majority served congregations, many rabbis functioned in other settings. Some taught in Jewish studies programs at colleges and universities. Others served as chaplains in the military services, in hospitals, in college settings, and other institutions, or in one of the many Jewish community service agencies. Although rabbis serve Jewish communities throughout the Nation, they are concentrated in major metropolitan areas with large Jewish populations. Training and Other Qualifications To become eligible for ordination as a rabbi, a student must complete a course of study in a seminary. Entrance requirements and the curriculum depend upon the branch of Judaism with which the seminary is associated. In general, the curriculums of Jewish theological seminaries provide students with a comprehensive knowledge of the Bible, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Talmud, Rabbinic literature, Jewish history, theology, and courses in education, pastoral psychology, and public speaking. Students get extensive practical training in dealing with social problems in the community. Training for alternatives to the pulpit, such as leadership in community services and religious education, is increasingly stressed. Some seminaries grant advanced academic degrees in such fields as Biblical and Talmudic research. All Jewish theological seminaries make scholarships and loans available. About 35 seminaries educate and ordain Orthodox rabbis. The Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary and the Beth Medrash Govoha Seminary are representative of the two basic kinds of Ortho dox seminaries. The former requires a bachelor’s degree for entry and has a formal 4-year ordination program. The latter has no formal admission requirements but may require more years of study for ordination. The training is rigorous. When students have become sufficiently learned in the Talmud, the Bible, and other religious studies, they may be ordained with the approval of an authorized rabbi, acting either independently or as a representative of a rabbini cal seminary. The Jewish Theological Seminary of America educates rabbis for the Conservative branch. The Hebrew Union College Jewish Institute of Religion educates rabbis for the Reform branch. For admission to their rabbinical programs leading to ordination, both seminaries require the completion of a 4-year college course, as well as earlier preparation in Jewish studies. The Conservative seminary usually requires 5 years to complete the course of study. Normally, 5 years of study are also required to complete the rabbinical course at the Reform seminary, including 1 year of preparatory study in Jerusa lem. Exceptionally well-prepared students can shorten this 5-year period to a minimum of 3 years. The Reconstructionist Rabbinical College educates rabbis in the newest branch of Judaism. A bachelor’s degree is required for ad mission. The rabbinical program is based on a 5-year course of study which emphasizes, in each year, a period in the history of Jewish civilization. A preliminary preparatory year is required for students without sufficient grounding in Hebrew and Jewish studies. Gradu ates are awarded the title Rabbi and the Master of Arts in Hebrew Letters and, with special study, can earn the Doctor of Hebrew Letters degree. Professional Specialty Occupations Newly ordained rabbis usually begin as spiritual leaders of small congregations, assistants to experienced rabbis, directors of Hillel Foundations on college campuses, teachers in educational institutions, or chaplains in the Armed Forces. As a rule, experi enced rabbis fill the pulpits of large and well-established Jewish congregations. Job Outlook Job opportunities for rabbis are expected to be generally favorable in the four major branches of Judaism through the year 2005. Present unmet needs for rabbis, together with the need to replace the many rabbis approaching retirement age, should insure that the numbers of persons completing rabbinical training in the years ahead will en counter good job prospects. Since most rabbis prefer to serve in large, urban areas, employment opportunities generally are best in nonmetropolitan areas, particularly in smaller communities in the South, Midwest, and Northwest. Graduates of Orthodox seminaries who seek pulpits should have good opportunities as growth in enrollments slows and as many graduates choose not to seek pulpits. Orthodox rabbis willing to work in small communities should have particularly good prospects. Conservative and Reform rabbis are expected to have good em ployment opportunities throughout the country. Reconstructionist rabbis are expected to have very good employ ment opportunities since membership is expanding rapidly. Earnings Based on limited information, annual average earnings of rabbis generally ranged from $38,000 to $62,000 in 1993, including bene fits. Benefits may include housing, health insurance, and a retire ment plan. Income varies widely, depending on the size and financial status of the congregation, as well as its denominational branch and geographic location. Rabbis may earn additional income from gifts or fees for officiating at ceremonies such as bar mitzvahs and weddings. Sources of Additional Information Persons who are interested in becoming rabbis should discuss their plans for a vocation with a practicing rabbi. Information on the work of rabbis and allied occupations can be obtained from: •"Rabbinical Council of America, 305 7th Ave., New York, NY 10001. (Orthodox) •"The Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 3080 Broadway, New York, NY 10027. (Conservative) •Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion, 3101 Clifton Avenue, Cincinnati, OH 45220-2488. (Reform) •Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, Church Rd. and Greenwood Ave., Wyncote, PA 19095. Roman Catholic Priests (D.O.T. 120.107-010) Nature of the Work Roman Catholic priests attend to the spiritual, pastoral, moral, and educational needs of the members of their church. A priest's day usually begins with morning meditation and mass and may end with an individual counseling session or an evening visit to a hospital or home. Many priests direct and serve on church committees, work in civic and charitable organizations, and assist in community projects. Priests in the Catholic church belong to one of two groups— diocesan or religious. Both types of priests have the same powers, acquired through ordination by a bishop. Their differences lie in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 137 their way of life, their type of work, and the church authority to whom they are responsible. Diocesan priests commit their lives to serving the people of a diocese, a church administrative region, and generally work in parishes assigned by the bishop of their diocese. Religious priests belong to a religious order, such as the Jesuits, Dominicans, or Franciscans. Religious priests are assigned duties by their superiors in their respective religious orders. Some religious priests specialize in teaching, while others serve as missionaries in foreign countries, where they may live under difficult and primitive conditions. Others live a communal life in monasteries, where they devote their lives to prayer, study, and assigned work. Both religious and diocesan priests hold teaching and admini strative posts in Catholic seminaries, colleges and universities, and high schools. Priests attached to religious orders staff a large pro portion of the church's institutions of higher education and many high schools, whereas diocesan priests are usually concerned with the parochial schools attached to parish churches and with diocesan high schools. The members of religious orders do most of the mis sionary work conducted by the Catholic Church in this country and abroad. Employment There were approximately 51,000 priests in 1994, about two-thirds of them diocesan priests, according to the Official Catholic Directory. There are priests in nearly every city and town and in many rural communities. The majority are in metropolitan areas, where most Catholics reside. Large numbers of priests are located in communi ties near Catholic educational and other institutions. Training and Other Qualifications Preparation for the priesthood generally requires 8 years of study beyond high school in one of 349 seminaries. Priests commit them selves to celibacy, remaining unmarried. Only men are ordained as priests; women, may serve in only select church positions. Preparatory study for the priesthood may begin either in the first year of high school, at the college level, or in theological seminaries after college graduation. Today, most candidates for the priesthood take a 4-year degree at a conventional college or university. After graduation from college, candidates generally receive 2 years of "Pre-theology" preparatory study (philosophy, religious studies, and prayer) before entering the seminary. Theology coursework in the seminary includes sacred scripture; dogmatic, moral, and pastoral theology; homiletics (art of preaching); church history; liturgy (sacraments); and canon (church) law. Fieldwork experience usually is required; in recent years, this aspect of a priest's training has been emphasized. Diocesan and religious priests attend different major seminaries, where slight variations in the training reflect the differ ences in their duties. Alternatively, high school seminaries provide a college prepara tory program that emphasizes English grammar, speech, literature, and social studies. Latin may be required, and modem languages are encouraged. In Hispanic communities, knowledge of Spanish is mandatory. Candidates may also choose to enter a seminary college that offers a liberal arts program stressing philosophy and religion, the study of humankind through the behavioral sciences and history, and the natural sciences and mathematics. In many college seminar ies, a student may concentrate in any one of these fields. Young men never are denied entry into seminaries because of lack of funds. In seminaries for secular priests, scholarships or loans are available. Those in religious seminaries are financed by contri butions of benefactors. Postgraduate work in theology is offered at a number of American Catholic universities or at ecclesiastical universities around the world, particularly in Rome. Also, many priests do graduate work in fields unrelated to theology. Priests are encouraged by the Catholic Church to continue their studies, at least informally, after ordination. In recent years, continuing education for ordained priests has stressed 138 Occupational Outlook Handbook ■JjjLdk I— Diocesan priests perform mass, administer sacraments, and hear confession, in addition to teaching and performing administrative work. social sciences, such as sociology and psychology. A newly ordained secular priest usually works as an assistant pastor or curate. Newly ordained priests of religious orders are assigned to the specialized duties for which they are trained. De pending on the talents, interests, and experience of the individual, many opportunities for greater responsibility exist within the church. Job Outlook The job outlook for Roman Catholic priests is expected to be very favorable through the year 2005. Many priests will be needed in the years ahead to provide for the spiritual, educational, and social needs of the increasing number of Catholics. In recent years, the number of ordained priests has been insufficient to fill the needs of newly established parishes and other Catholic institutions, and to replace priests who retire, die, or leave the priesthood. This situation is likely to continue—even if the recent modest increase in seminary enrollments continues—as an increasing proportion of priests ap proach retirement age. In response to the shortage of priests, certain traditional functions increasingly are being performed by permanent deacons and by teams of clergy and laity. Presently about 10,400 permanent deacons have been ordained to preach and perform liturgical functions such as baptisms, distributing Holy Communion, and reading the gospel at the mass. The only services a deacon cannot perform are saying mass and hearing confessions. Teams of clergy and laity undertake nonliturgical functions such as hospital visits and religious teaching. Priests will continue to perform mass, administer sacraments, and hear confession, but may be less involved in teaching and adminis trative work. Earnings Diocesan priests' salaries vary from diocese to diocese. Based on limited information, salaries averaged about $9,000 in 1993. In addition to a salary, diocesan priests receive a package of benefits which may include a car allowance, free room and board in the parish rectory, health insurance, and a retirement plan. Including benefits, the total value of a priest's compensation package averaged about $29,000 a year in 1993. Priests who do special work related to the church, such as teach ing, usually receive a partial salary which is less than a lay person in the same position would receive. The difference between the usual salary for these jobs and the salary that the priest receives is called "contributed service." In some of these situations, housing and related expenses may be provided; in other cases, the priest must make his own arrangements. Some priests doing special work re ceive the same compensation that a lay person would receive. Religious priests take a vow of poverty and are supported by their religious order. Any personal earnings are given to the order. Their vow of poverty is recognized by the Internal Revenue Service, which exempts them from paying Federal income tax. Sources of Additional Information Young men interested in entering the priesthood should seek the guidance and counsel of their parish priests. For information regard ing the different religious orders and the secular priesthood, as well as a list of the seminaries which prepare students for the priesthood, contact the diocesan director of vocations through the office of the local pastor or bishop. Individuals seeking additional information about careers in the Catholic Ministry should contact their local diocese. Teachers, Librarians, and Counselors Adult Education Teachers (DOT 075 127-010;090.222, .227-018; 097.221, .227; 099.223, .224-014, 227-014,-018, -026, -030,-038; 149.021; 150.027-014; 151.027-014; 152.021; 153.227-014; 159.227; 166.221, .227; 235.222; 239.227; 375.227; 522.264; 621.221; 683.222; 689.324; 715.221; 740.221; 788.222; 789.222; 919.223; and 955.222) Nature of the Work Adult education teachers work in four main areas—adult vocationaltechnical education, adult remedial education, adult continuing education, and prebaccalaureate training. Some adult education teachers provide instruction for occupations that do not require a college degree, such as welder, dental hygienist, automated systems manager, x-ray technician, farmer, and cosmetologist. Other instruc https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis tors help people update their job skills or adapt to technological advances. For example, an adult education teacher may train stu dents how to use new computer software programs. Other teachers provide instruction in basic education courses for school dropouts or others who need to upgrade their skills to find a job. Some adult education teachers in junior or community colleges prepare students for a 4-year degree program, teaching classes for credit that can be applied towards that degree. Adult education teachers also teach courses which students take for personal enrichment, such as cook ing, dancing, writing, exercise and physical fitness, photography, and finance. Adult education teachers may lecture in classrooms and also give students hands-on experience. Increasingly, adult vocationaltechnical education teachers integrate academic and vocational curriculums so that students obtain a variety of skills. For example, an electronics student may be required to take courses in principles Professional Specialty Occupations 139 of mathematics and science in conjunction with hands-on electronics skills. Generally, teachers demonstrate techniques, have students apply them, and critique the students' work. For example, welding instructors show students various welding techniques, including the use of tools and equipment, watch them use the techniques, and have them repeat procedures until specific standards required by the trade are met. Adult education teachers who instruct in adult basic education programs may work with students who do not speak English; teach adults reading, writing, and mathematics up to the 8th-grade level; or teach adults through the 12th-grade level in preparation for the General Educational Development Examination (GED). The GED offers the equivalent of a high school diploma. These teachers may refer students for counseling or job placement. Because many people who need adult basic education are reluctant to seek it, teachers also may recruit participants. Adult education teachers also prepare lessons and assignments, grade papers and do related paperwork, attend faculty and profes sional meetings, and stay abreast of developments in their field. (For information on vocational education teachers in secondary schools, see the Handbook statement on kindergarten, elementary, and secon dary school teachers.) Working Conditions Since adult education teachers work with adult students, they do not encounter some of the behavioral or social problems sometimes found when teaching younger students. The adults are there by ; Many adult education teachers instruct part time while working other jobs related to their subjects. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis choice, and usually are highly motivated—attributes that can make teaching these students rewarding and satisfying. However, teachers in adult basic education deal with students at different levels of development who may lack effective study skills and self-confidence, and who may require more attention and patience than other students. Many adult education teachers work part time. To accommodate students who may have job or family responsibilities, many courses are offered at night or on weekends, and range from 2- to 4-hour workshops and 1-day minisessions to semester-long courses. Some adult education teachers have several part-time teaching assignments or work a full-time job in addition to their part-time teaching job, leading to long hours and a hectic schedule. Although most adult education teachers work in a classroom setting, some may act as consultants to a business and teach classes at the job site. Employment Adult education teachers held about 590,000 jobs in 1994. About half taught part time, a larger proportion than for other teachers, and many taught only intermittently. However, many of them also held other jobs, in many cases doing work related to the subject they taught. Many adult education teachers are self-employed. Adult education teachers are employed by public school systems; community and junior colleges; universities; businesses that provide formal education and training for their employees; automotive repair, bartending, business, computer, electronics, medical technology, and similar schools and institutes; dance studios; health clubs; job train ing centers; community organizations; labor unions; and religious organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements vary widely by State and by subject. In general, teachers need work or other experience in their field, and a license or certificate in fields where these usually are required for full professional status. In some cases, particularly at educational insti tutions, a master's or doctoral degree is required to teach nonvocational courses which can be applied towards a 4-year degree program. Many vocational teachers in junior or community colleges do not have a master's degree but draw on their work experience and knowledge, bringing valuable practical experience to the classroom. For general adult education classes that are taken for interest or enjoyment, an acceptable portfolio of work is required. For example, to secure a job teaching a flower arranging course, an applicant would need to show examples of previous work. Most States and the District of Columbia require adult basic education teachers and adult literacy instructors to have a bachelor's degree from an approved teacher training program, and some require teacher certification. Adult education teachers update their skills through continuing education to maintain certification—requirements vary among insti tutions. Teachers may take part in seminars, conferences, or gradu ate courses in adult education, training and development, or human resources development, or may return to work in business or industry for a limited time. Businesses are playing a growing role in adult education, forming consortiums with training institutions and junior colleges and providing input to curriculum development. In this way, adult education teachers maintain an ongoing dialogue with busi nesses to determine the most current skills required in the workplace. Adult education teachers should communicate and relate well with students, enjoy working with them, and be able to motivate them. Adult basic education instructors, in particular, must be pa tient, understanding, and supportive to make students comfortable, develop trust, and help them better understand their needs and aims. Some teachers advance to administrative positions in departments of education, colleges and universities, and corporate training de partments. Such positions may require advanced degrees, such as a doctorate in adult and continuing education. (See the statement on education administrators elsewhere in the Handbook.) 140 Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Outlook Employment of adult education teachers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as the demand for adult education programs continues to rise. The 35-44 year old population—the largest users of adult education—is ex pected to grow, contributing to increasing enrollment. Participation in continuing education grows as the educational attainment of the population increases. More people are realizing that life-long learn ing is important to success in their careers. To keep abreast of changes in their fields and advances in technology, an increasing number of adults are taking courses for career advancement, personal enrichment, and to upgrade their skills, spurring demand for adult education teachers. In addition, enrollment in adult basic education programs is increasing because of changes in immigration policy that require basic competency in English and civics, and an increased awareness of the difficulty in finding a good job without basic aca demic skills. Employment growth of adult vocational-technical education teachers will result from the need to train young adults for entry-level jobs, and experienced workers who want to switch fields or whose jobs have been eliminated due to changing technology or business reorganization. Businesses are finding it essential to provide training to their workers to remain productive and globally competitive. Cooperation between businesses and educational institutions is increasing to insure that students are taught the skills employers desire. This should result in greater demand for adult education teachers, particularly at community and junior colleges. Since adult education programs receive State and Federal funding, employment growth may be affected by government budgets. Many job openings for adult education teachers will stem from the need to replace persons who leave the occupation. Many teach part time and move into and out of the occupation for other jobs, family responsibilities, or to retire. Opportunities should be best in fields such as computer technology, automotive mechanics, and medical technology, which offer very attractive, and often higher paying, job opportunities outside of teaching. Earnings In 1994, salaried adult education teachers who usually worked full time had median earnings around $27,600 a year. The middle 50 percent earned between $18,700 and $39,700. The lowest 10 percent earned about $12,600, while the top 10 percent earned more than $50,000. Earnings varied widely by subject, academic credentials, experience, and region of the country. Part-time instructors generally are paid hourly wages and do not receive benefits or pay for prepara tion time outside of class. Related Occupations Adult education teaching requires a wide variety of skills and apti tudes, including the ability to influence, motivate, train, and teach; organizational, administrative, and communication skills; and crea tivity. Workers in other occupations that require these aptitudes include other teachers, counselors, school administrators, public relations specialists, employee development specialists and inter viewers, and social workers. Sources of Additional Information Information on adult basic education programs and teacher certifica tion requirements is available from State departments of education and local school districts. For information about adult vocational-technical education teaching positions, contact State departments of vocational-technical education. For information on adult continuing education teaching positions, contact departments of local government, State adult education departments, schools, colleges and universities, religious organiza tions, and a wide range of businesses that provide formal training for their employees. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis General information on adult education is available from: ••American Association for Adult and Continuing Education, 1200 19th St. NW., Suite 300, Washington, DC 20036. •"American Vocational Association, 1410 King St., Alexandria, VA 22314. •"ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education, 1900 Kenny Rd., Columbus, OH 43210-1090. Archivists and Curators (D.O.T. 099.167-030; 101; 102 except .261-014 and .367-010; 109.067-014, .267-010, .281, .361, .364) Nature of the Work Archivists, curators, museum and archives technicians, and conserva tors search for, acquire, appraise, analyze, describe, arrange, cata logue, restore, preserve, exhibit, maintain, and store items of lasting value so that they can be used by researchers or for exhibitions, publications, broadcasting, and other educational programs. Depend ing on the occupation, these items may consist of historical docu ments, audiovisual materials, institutional records, works of art, coins, stamps, minerals, clothing, maps, living and preserved plants and animals, buildings, computer records, or historic sites. Archivists and curators plan and oversee the arrangement, cata loguing, and exhibition of collections and, along with technicians and conservators, maintain collections. Archivists and curators may coordinate educational and public outreach programs, such as tours, workshops, lectures, and classes, and may work with the boards of institutions to administer plans and policies. They also may conduct research on topics or items relevant to their collections. Although some duties of archivists and curators are similar, the types of items they deal with differ. Curators usually handle objects found in cultural, biological, or historical collections, such as sculptures, textiles, and paintings, while archivists mainly handle valuable records, documents, or objects that are retained because they origi nally accompanied and relate specifically to the document. Archivists determine what portion of the vast amount of records maintained by various organizations, such as government agencies, corporations, or educational institutions, or by families and indi viduals, should be made part of permanent historical holdings, and which of these records should be put on exhibit. They maintain records in their original arrangement according to the creator's organ izational scheme, and describe records to facilitate retrieval. Records may be saved on any medium, including paper, film, videotape, audiotape, electronic disk, or computer. They also may be copied onto some other format to protect the original from repeated han dling, and to make them more accessible to researchers who use the records. As computers and various storage media evolve, archivists must keep abreast of technological advances in electronic informa tion storage. Archives may be part of a library, museum, or historical society, or may exist as a distinct archival unit within an organization. Ar chivists consider any medium containing recorded information as documents, including letters, books, and other paper documents, photographs, blueprints, audiovisual materials, and computer records, among others. Any document which reflects organizational transac tions, hierarchy, or procedures can be considered a record. Archi vists often specialize in an area of history or technology so they can better determine what records in that area qualify for retention and should become part of the archives. Archivists also may work with specialized forms of records—for example, manuscripts, electronic records, photographs, cartographic records, motion pictures, and sound recordings. Computers are increasingly used to generate and maintain archi val records. However, professional standards for use of computers in handling archival records are still evolving. Professional Specialty Occupations 141 Curators oversee collections in museums, zoos, aquariums, botanic gardens, nature centers, and historic sites. They acquire items through purchases, gifts, field exploration, intermuseum ex changes, or, in the case of some plants and animals, reproduction. Curators also plan and prepare exhibits. In natural history museums, curators collect and observe specimens in their natural habitat. Their work involves describing and classifying species, while specially trained collection managers and technicians provide hands-on care of natural history collections. Most curators use computers to catalogue and organize their collections, and to make information about the collection available to other curators and the public. Most curators specialize in a specific field, such as botany, art, paleontology, or history. Those working in large institutions may be highly specialized. A large natural history museum, for example, would have specialists in birds, fishes, insects, and mollusks. Some curators maintain the collection while others perform administra tive tasks. Registrars, for example, are responsible for keeping track of and moving objects in the collection. In small institutions, with only one or a few curators, one curator may be responsible for mul tiple tasks, from maintaining collections to directing the affairs of museums. Conservators—also called preservation specialists or preparators—manage, care for, preserve, treat, and document works of art, artifacts, and specimens. This may require substantial historical, scientific, and archaeological research. They use x rays, chemical testing, microscopes, special lights, and other laboratory equipment and techniques to examine objects and determine their condition, the need for treatment or restoration, and the appropriate method for preservation. Conservators usually specialize in a particular material or group of objects, such as documents, paintings, decorative arts, textiles, metals, or architectural material. Emerging specialties in conservation include collections care, exhibit conservation, and environmental monitoring. Museum directors formulate policies, plan budgets, and raise funds for their museums. They coordinate activities of their staff to establish and maintain collections. As their role has evolved, museum directors increasingly need business backgrounds in addi tion to an understanding and empathy for the subject matter of their collections. Museum technicians assist curators and conservators by perform ing various preparatory and maintenance tasks on museum items. Some museum technicians may also assist curators with research. Archives technicians help archivists organize, maintain, and provide access to historical documentary materials. Employment as an archivist or curator generally requires a master's degree and substantial practical or work experience. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Conditions The working conditions of archivists and curators vary. Some spend most of their time working with the public, providing reference assistance and educational services. Others perform research or process records, which often means working alone or in offices with only one or two other persons. Those who restore and install exhibits or work with bulky, heavy record containers may climb, stretch, or lift, and those in zoos, botanical gardens, and other outdoor museums or historic sites frequently walk great distances. Curators may travel extensively to evaluate potential additions to the collection, to organize exhibitions, and to conduct research in their area of expertise. Employment Archivists and curators held about 19,000 jobs in 1994. About a quarter were employed in museums, botanical gardens, and zoos, and approximately 2 in 10 worked in educational services, mainly in college and university libraries. About 4 in 10 worked in Federal, State, and local government. Most Federal archivists work for the National Archives and Records Administration; others manage military archives in the Department of Defense. Most Federal Gov ernment curators work at the Smithsonian Institution, in the military museums of the Department of Defense, and in archaeological and other museums managed by the Department of Interior. All State governments have archival or historical records sections employing archivists. State and local governments have numerous historical museums, parks, libraries, and zoos employing curators. Some large corporations have archives or records centers, em ploying archivists to manage the growing volume of records created or maintained as required by law or necessary to the firms' opera tions. Religious and fraternal organizations, professional associa tions, conservation organizations, major private collectors, and research firms also employ archivists and curators. Conservators may work under contract to treat particular items, rather than as a regular employee of a museum or other institution. These conservators may work on their own as private contractors, or as an employee of a conservation laboratory which contracts their services to museums. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employment as an archivist, conservator, or curator generally re quires graduate education and substantial practical or work experi ence. Many archivists and curators work in archives or museums while completing their formal education, to gain the "hands-on" experience that many employers seek when hiring. Employers generally look for archivists with undergraduate and graduate degrees in history or library science, with courses in archi val science. Some positions may require knowledge of the discipline related to the collection, such as business or medicine. An increasing number of archivists have a double master's degree in history and library science. Approximately 65 colleges and universities offer courses or practical training in archival science as part of history, library science, or other discipline; some also offer a master's degree in archival studies. The Academy of Certified Archivists offers vol untary certification for archivists. Certification requires the applicant to have experience in the field and to pass an examination offered by the Academy. Archivists need research and analytical ability to understand the content of documents and the context in which they were created, and to decipher deteriorated or poor quality printed matter, handwrit ten manuscripts, or photographs and films. A background in preser vation management is often required of archivists since they are responsible for taking proper care of their records. Archivists also must be able to organize large amounts of information and write clear instructions for its retrieval and use. In addition, computer skills and the ability to work with electronic records and databases are increasingly important. 142 Occupational Outlook Handbook Many archives are very small, including one-person shops, with limited promotion opportunities. Archivists typically advance by transferring to a larger unit with supervisory positions. A doctorate in history, library science, or a related field may be needed for some advanced positions, such as director of a State archives. In most museums, a master’s degree in an appropriate discipline of the museum's specialty—for example, art, history, or archaeol ogy—or museum studies is required for employment as a curator. Many employers prefer a doctoral degree, particularly for curators in natural history or science museums. Earning two graduate degrees— in museum studies (museology) and a specialized subject—gives a candidate a distinct advantage in this competitive job market. In small museums, curatorial positions may be available to individuals with a bachelor's degree. For some positions, an internship of full time museum work supplemented by courses in museum practices is needed. Museum technicians generally need a bachelor's degree in an appropriate discipline of the museum's specialty, museum studies training, or previous museum work experience, particularly in exhibit design. Similarly, archives technicians generally need a bachelor's degree in library science or history, or relevant work experience. Technician positions often serve as a stepping stone for individuals interested in archival and curatorial work. With the exception of small museums, a master's degree is needed for advancement. When hiring conservators, employers look for a master's degree in conservation, or in a closely related field, and substantial experience. There are only a few graduate programs in museum conservation techniques in the United States. Competition for entry to these programs is keen; to qualify, a student must have a background in chemistry, studio art, and art history, as well as work experience. For some programs, knowledge of a foreign language is also helpful. Conservation apprenticeships or internships as an undergraduate can also enhance one’s admission prospects. Graduate programs last 2 to 4 years; the latter years include internship training. A few individu als enter conservation through apprenticeships with museums, non profit organizations, and conservators in private practice. Appren ticeships should be supplemented with courses in chemistry, studio art, and history. Apprenticeship training, although accepted, gener ally is a more difficult route into the conservation profession. Students interested in museum work may take courses or obtain a bachelor's or master's degree in museum studies. Colleges and uni versities throughout the country offer bachelor's and master's degrees in museum studies. However, many employers feel that, while museum studies are helpful, a thorough knowledge of the museum's specialty and museum work experience are more important. Curatorial positions often require knowledge in a number of fields. For historic and artistic conservation, courses in chemistry, physics, and art are desirable. Since curators—particularly those in small museums—may have administrative and managerial respon sibilities, courses in business administration and public relations also are recommended. Similar to archivists, curators need computer skills and the ability to work with electronic databases. Curators must be flexible because of their wide variety of duties. They need an aesthetic sense to design and present exhibits, and, in small museums, manual dexterity is needed to erect exhibits or restore objects. Leadership ability and business skills are important for museum directors, while public relations skills are valuable in increasing museum attendance and fundraising. In large museums, curators may advance through several levels of responsibility, eventually to museum director. Curators in smaller museums often advance to larger ones. Individual research and publications are important for advancement. Continuing education, which enables archivists, curators, conser vators, and museum technicians to keep up with developments in the field, is available through meetings, conferences, and workshops sponsored by archival, historical, and curatorial associations. Some larger organizations, such as the National Archives, offer such train ing in-house. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Despite the anticipated increase in the employment of archivists and curators, competition for jobs is expected to be keen. Graduates with highly specialized training, such as master's degrees in both library science and history, with a concentration in archives or records management, may have the best opportunities for jobs as archivists. A job as a curator is attractive to many people, and many have the necessary subject knowledge; yet there are only a few openings. Consequently, candidates may have to work part time, or as an intern, or even as a volunteer assistant curator or research associate after completing their formal education, and substantial work experi ence in collection management, exhibit design, or restoration will be necessary for permanent status. Job opportunities for curators should be best in art and history museums, since these are the largest em ployers in the museum industry. The job outlook for conservators may be more favorable, particu larly for graduates of conservator programs. However, competition is stiff for the limited number of openings in these programs, and applicants need a technical background. Students who qualify and successfully complete the program, have knowledge of a foreign language, and are willing to relocate, will have an advantage over less qualified candidates in obtaining a position. Employment of archivists and curators is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Archival and curator jobs are expected to grow as public and private organizations put more emphasis on establishing archives and organizing records and information, and as public interest in science, art, history, and technology increases. Although the rate of turnover among archivists and curators is relatively low, the need to replace workers who leave the occupation or stop working will create some additional job openings. Museums and other cultural institutions may be subject to cuts in funding during recessions, reducing demand for archivists and cura tors during these periods. Earnings Earnings of archivists and curators vary considerably by type and size of employer, and often by specialty. Average salaries in the Federal Government, for example, are generally higher than those in religious organizations. Salaries of curators in large, well-funded museums may be several times higher than those in small ones. Salaries in the Federal Government depend on education and experience. In 1995, inexperienced archivists and curators with a bachelor's degree started at $18,700, while those with some experi ence started at $23,200. Those with a master's degree typically started at $28,300, and with a doctorate, $34,300 or $41,100. Be ginning salaries were slightly higher in selected areas where the prevailing local pay level was higher. The average annual salary for all museum curators in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was about $51,600 in 1995. Archivists averaged $50,000; museum specialists and technicians, $32,800; and archives technicians, $29,500. According to a survey by the Association of Art Museum Direc tors, salaries generally are highest for museum workers in Western and Mid-Atlantic States and in metropolitan areas having populations over 2 million. The following tabulation shows median salaries for selected workers in art museums in 1995: Director......................................................................................$100,000 Senior conservator....................................................................... 48,900 Chief curator............................................................................... 48,600 Curator.................................................................. .................... 47,000 Curatorial assistant...................................................................... 22,500 Related Occupations Archivists' and curators' interests in preservation and display are shared by anthropologists, arborists, archaeologists, artifacts conser vators, botanists, ethnologists, folklorists, genealogists, historians, Professional Specialty Occupations 143 horticulturists, information specialists, librarians, paintings restorers, records managers, and zoologists. Sources of Additional Information For information on archivists and on schools offering courses in archival studies, contact: •"Society of American Archivists, 600 South Federal St., Suite 504, Chicago, IL 60605. Oi<3Wy3 lA For information about certification for archivists, contact: Saussu J ••Academy of Certified Archivists, 600 South Federal St., Suite 504, Chi cago, IL 60605. For general information about careers as a curator and schools offering courses in museum studies, contact: ••American Association of Museums, 1225 I St. NW., Suite 200, Washing ton, DC 20005. For information about curatorial careers and internships in botani cal gardens, contact: •"American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta, 786 Church Rd., Wayne, PA 19087. Many college and university faculty hold a doctoral degree. For information about conservation and preservation careers and education programs, contact: ••American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, 1717 K St. NW., Suite 301, Washington, DC 20006. (D.O.T. 090.227-010) mental matters, academic issues, curricula, budgets, equipment purchases, and hiring. Some work with student as well as commu nity organizations. Department chairpersons are faculty members who usually teach some courses but generally have heavier adminis trative responsibilities. The amount of time spent on each of these activities varies by individual circumstance and type of institution. Faculty members at universities generally spend a significant part of their time doing research; those in 4-year colleges, somewhat less; and those in 2year colleges, relatively little. However, the teaching load usually is heavier in 2-year colleges and somewhat lower at 4-year institutions. Nature of the Work College and university faculty teach and advise over 15 million fulland part-time college students and perform a significant part of our Nation's research. They also study and meet with colleagues to keep up with developments in their field and consult with government, business, nonprofit, and community organizations. Faculty generally are organized into departments or divisions, based on subject or field. They usually teach several different courses in their department—algebra, calculus, and differential equations, for example. They may instruct undergraduate or gradu ate students, or both. College and university faculty may give lectures to several hun dred students in large halls, lead small seminars, or supervise stu dents in laboratories. They prepare lectures, exercises, and laboratory experiments, grade exams and papers, and advise and work with students individually. In universities, they counsel, ad vise, teach, and supervise graduate student teaching and research. Technology is increasingly used in the classroom as well as in re search. Faculty may use computers—including the Internet, elec tronic mail, and CD-ROMs—videotapes, and other teaching aids. Some professors may teach "satellite" courses that are broadcast to students through closed-circuit or cable television. New technology permits the collaboration and sharing of classes between institutions. Faculty keep abreast of developments in their field by reading current literature, talking with colleagues, and participating in pro fessional conferences. They also do their own research to expand knowledge in their field. They experiment, collect and analyze data, and examine original documents, literature, and other source mate rial. From this, they develop hypotheses, arrive at conclusions, and publish their findings in scholarly journals, books, and electronic media. Most faculty members serve on academic or administrative committees which deal with the policies of their institution, depart- Working Conditions College faculty generally have flexible schedules. They must be present for classes, usually 12 to 16 hours a week, and for faculty and committee meetings. Most establish regular office hours for student consultations, usually 3 to 6 hours per week. Otherwise, faculty have some flexibility to decide when and where they will work, and how much time to devote to course preparation, grading papers and ex ams, study, research, graduate student supervision, and other activi ties. Initial adjustment to these responsibilities can be challenging as new faculty adapt to switching roles from student to teacher. This adjustment may be even more difficult as class size grows in re sponse to faculty and budget cutbacks, increasing an instructor's workload. Some faculty members work staggered hours and teach classes at night and on weekends. This is particularly true for faculty who teach students with full-time jobs or family responsibilities on week days. Most faculty are employed on a 9-month contract. This pro vides them with great flexibility during the summer and school holidays, when they may teach or do research, travel, or pursue nonacademic interests. Most colleges and universities have funds to support faculty research or other professional development needs, including travel to conferences and research sites. Faculty may experience a conflict between their responsibilities to teach students and the pressure to do research. This may be a par ticular problem for young faculty seeking advancement. Increasing emphasis on undergraduate teaching performance in tenure decisions may alleviate some of this pressure, however. Part-time faculty generally spend little time on campus, because they usually don't have an office. In addition, they may teach at more than one college, requiring travel between their various places of employment. Colleges increasingly rely on part-time faculty to stretch shrinking budgets. Part-time faculty are usually not eligible for tenure. Dealing with this lack of job security and low pay can be stressful. For information on curatorial and other positions in natural his tory museums, contact: •"Association of Systematics Collections, 730 11th St. NW., Second Floor, Washington, DC 20001. • College and University Faculty https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 144 Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment College and university faculty held about 823,000 jobs in 1994, mostly in public institutions. About 4 out of 10 college and university faculty work part time. Some part-timers, known as "adjunct faculty," have primary jobs outside of academia—in government, private industry, or in non profit research—and teach "on the side." Others seek full-time jobs but are unable to obtain them due to intense competition for available openings. Some work part time in more than one institution. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most college and university faculty are in four academic ranks: Professor, associate professor, assistant professor, and instructor. A small number are lecturers. Most faculty members are hired as instructors or assistant profes sors. Four-year colleges and universities generally only consider doctoral degree holders for full-time, tenure-track positions, but may hire master's degree holders or doctoral candidates for certain disci plines, such as the arts, or for part-time and temporary jobs. In 2year colleges, master's degree holders often qualify for full-time positions. However, with increasing competition for available jobs, institutions can be more selective in their hiring practices. Master's degree holders may find it increasingly difficult to obtain employ ment as they are passed over in favor of candidates holding a Ph.D. Doctoral programs usually take 6 to 8 years of full-time study beyond the bachelor's degree (including time spent completing a master's degree and a dissertation). Some programs, such as the humanities, may take longer to complete; others, such as engineering, generally are shorter. Candidates usually specialize in a subfield of a discipline—for example, organic chemistry, counseling psychology, or European history—but also take courses covering the whole discipline. Programs include 20 or more increasingly specialized courses and seminars plus comprehensive examinations on all major areas of the field. Candidates also must complete a dissertation. This is a report on original research to answer some significant question in the field; it sets forth an original hypothesis or proposes a model and tests it. Students in the natural sciences and engineering usually do laboratory work; in the humanities, they study original documents and other published material. The dissertation, done under the guidance of one or more faculty advisors, usually takes 1 or 2 years of full-time work. In some fields, particularly the natural sciences, some students spend an additional 2 years on postdoctoral research and study before taking a faculty position. A major step in the traditional academic career is attaining tenure. Newly hired tenure-track faculty serve a certain period (usually 7 years) under term contracts. Then, their record of teaching, research, and overall contribution to the institution is reviewed; tenure is granted if the review is favorable. With tenure, a professor cannot be fired without just cause and due process. Those denied tenure usu ally must leave the institution. Tenure protects the faculty's aca demic freedom—the ability to teach and conduct research without fear of being fired for advocating unpopular ideas. It also gives both faculty and institutions the stability needed for effective research and teaching, and provides financial stability for faculty members. About 6 out of 10 full-time faculty are tenured, and many others are in the probationary period. Some institutions have adopted post-tenure review policies to encourage ongoing evaluation of tenured faculty members. The number of tenure-track positions is expected to decline. Some institutions have placed "caps" on the percentage of faculty that can be tenured. Other institutions offer prospective faculty limited term contracts—typically 2-, 3-, or 5-year full-time con tracts—in an effort to adapt to changes in the budget and the size of the student body. These contracts may be terminated or extended at the end of the period. Institutions are not obligated to grant tenure to these contract holders. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Some faculty—based on teaching experience, research, publica tion, and service on campus committees and task forces—move into administrative and managerial positions, such as departmental chair person, dean, and president. At 4-year institutions, such advance ment requires a doctoral degree. At 2-year colleges, a doctorate is helpful but not generally required, except for advancement to some top administrative postitions. (Deans and departmental chairpersons are covered in the Handbook statement on education administrators, while college presidents are included in the Handbook statement on general managers and top executives.) College faculty need intelligence, inquiring and analytical minds, and a strong desire to pursue and disseminate knowledge. They must be able to communicate clearly and logically, both orally and in writing. They should be able to establish rapport with students and, as models for them, be dedicated to the principles of academic in tegrity and intellectual honesty. Finally, they must be able to work in an environment where they receive little direct supervision. Job Outlook Employment of college and university faculty is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as enrollments in higher education increase. Many additional open ings will arise as faculty members retire. Faculty retirements should increase significantly from the late 1990s through 2005 as a large number of faculty who entered the profession during the 1950s and 1960s reach retirement age. Most faculty members likely to retire are full-time tenured professors. However, in an effort to cut costs, institutions are expected to either leave many of these positions vacant or hire part-time faculty members as replacements. Prospec tive job applicants should be prepared to face intense competition for available jobs as growing numbers of Ph.D. graduates vie for fewer full-time openings. Enrollments in institutions of higher education increased in the 1980s and early 1990s despite a decline in the traditional college-age (18-24) population. This resulted from a higher proportion of 18- to 24-year-olds attending college, along with a growing number of part time, female, and older students. Enrollments are expected to con tinue to grow through the year 2005, particularly as the traditional college-age population begins increasing after 1996, when the lead ing edge of the baby-boom "echo" generation (children of the baby boomers) reaches college age (see accompanying chart). In the past two decades, keen competition for faculty jobs forced some applicants to accept part-time or short-term academic appoint ments that offered little hope of tenure, and others to seek nonaca demic positions. This trend of hiring adjunct or part-time faculty is likely to continue due to financial difficulties faced by colleges and universities. Many States have reduced funding for higher education. As a result, colleges have increased the hiring of part-time faculty to save money on pay and benefits. With uncertainty over future fund ing, many colleges and universities are taking steps to cut costs. They are emphasizing certain academic programs while eliminating others, increasing class size, stepping up fundraising efforts, and closely monitoring expenses. Once enrollments and retirements start increasing at a faster pace in the late 1990s, opportunities for college faculty positions may begin to improve somewhat. Job prospects will continue to be better in certain fields—business, engineering, health science, computer science, physical sciences, and mathematics, for example—largely because very attractive nonacademic jobs will be available for many potential faculty. Employment of college faculty is related to the nonacademic job market through an "echo effect." Excellent job prospects in a field— for example, computer science from the late 1970s to the mid1980s—cause more students to enroll, increasing faculty needs in that field. On the other hand, poor job prospects in a field, such as history in recent years, discourages students and reduces demand for faculty. Professional Specialty Occupations 145 Enrollments in institutions of higher education will continue to increase. Millions 18 i— 12 - 10 - For information about faculty union activities on 2- and 4-year college campuses, contact: •"American Federation of Teachers, 555 New Jersey Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001. Special publications on higher education, available in libraries, list specific employment opportunities for faculty. Counselors (D.O.T. 045.107-010, -014, -018, -038, -042 -050, -054, .117; 090.107; and 169.267-026) 2000 2005 Source: National Center for Education Statistics Earnings Earnings vary according to faculty rank and type of institution and, in some cases, by field. Faculty in 4-year institutions earn higher salaries, on the average, than those in 2-year schools. According to a 1994-95 survey by the American Association of University Profes sors, salaries for full-time faculty on 9-month contracts averaged $49,500. By rank, the average for professors was $63,500; associate professors, $47,000; assistant professors, $39,100; lecturers, $32,600; and instructors, $29,700. Those on 11- or 12-month contracts obvi ously earned more. In fields with high-paying nonacademic alterna tives—notably medicine and law but also engineering and business, among others—earnings exceed these averages. In others—the fine arts, for example—they are lower. Many faculty members have added earnings, both during the academic year and the summer, from consulting, teaching additional courses, research, writing for publication, or other employment. Most college and university faculty enjoy some unique benefits, including access to campus facilities, tuition waivers for dependents, housing and travel allowances, and paid sabbatical leaves. Part-time faculty have fewer benefits than full-time faculty, and usually do not receive health insurance, retirement benefits, or sabbatical leave. Related Occupations College and university faculty function both as teachers and re searchers. They communicate information and ideas. Related occu pations include elementary and secondary school teachers, librarians, writers, consultants, lobbyists, trainers and employee development specialists, and policy analysts. Faculty research activities often are similar to those of scientists, as well as managers and administrators in industry, government, and nonprofit research organizations. Sources of Additional Information Professional societies generally provide information on academic and nonacademic employment opportunities in their fields. Names and addresses of these societies appear in statements elsewhere in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Counselors assist people with personal, family, social, educational, mental health, and career decisions, problems, and concerns. Their duties depend on the individuals they serve and the settings in which they work. School and college counselors—who work at the elementary, middle, secondary, and postsecondary school levels—help students understand their abilities, interests, talents, and personality character istics so that the student can develop realistic academic and career options. Counselors use interviews, counseling sessions, tests, or other tools when evaluating and advising students. They may operate career information centers and career education programs. High school counselors advise on college majors, admission requirements, entrance exams, and financial aid, and on trade, technical school, and apprenticeship programs. They help students develop jobfinding skills such as resume writing and interviewing techniques. College career planning and placement counselors may assist alumni or students with career development and job hunting techniques. Counselors also help students understand and deal with their social, behavioral, and personal problems. They emphasize preven tive and developmental counseling to provide students with the life skills needed to deal with problems before they occur, and to enhance personal, social, and academic growth. Counselors provide special services, including alcohol and drug prevention programs, and classes that teach students to handle conflicts without resorting to violence. Counselors also try to identify cases involving do mestic abuse and other family problems that can affect a student's development. Counselors work with students individually, in small groups, or with entire classes. Counselors consult and work with parents, teachers, school administrators, school psychologists, school nurses, and social workers. Elementary school counselors do more social and personal counseling, and less vocational and academic counsel ing than secondary school counselors. They observe younger chil dren during classroom and play activities and confer with their teachers and parents to evaluate their strengths, problems, or special needs. They also help students develop good study habits. Rehabilitation counselors help persons deal with the personal, social, and vocational effects of their disabilities. They may counsel people with disabilities resulting from birth defects, illness or dis ease, accidents, or the stress of daily life. They evaluate the strengths and limitations of individuals, provide personal and vocational counseling, and may arrange for medical care, vocational training, and job placement. Rehabilitation counselors interview individuals with disabilities and their families, evaluate school and medical reports, and confer and plan with physicians, psychologists, occupa tional therapists, and employers to determine the capabilities and skills of the individual. Conferring with the client, they develop and implement a rehabilitation program, which may include training to help the person become more independent and employable. They also work toward increasing the client's capacity to adjust and live independently. 146 Occupational Outlook Handbook * 3m A master's degree, including a period of supervised clinical experience, is typically required for employment as a counselor. Employment counselors help individuals make wise career deci sions. They help clients explore and evaluate their education, train ing, work history, interests, skills, personal traits, and physical capacities, and may arrange for aptitude and achievement tests. They also work with individuals in developing jobseeking skills and assist clients in locating and applying for jobs. Mental health counselors emphasize prevention and work with individuals and groups to promote optimum mental health. They help individuals deal with addictions and substance abuse, family, parenting, and marital problems, suicide, stress management, prob lems with self-esteem, issues associated with aging, job and career concerns, educational decisions, and issues of mental and emotional health. Mental health counselors work closely with other mental health specialists, including psychiatrists, psychologists, clinical social workers, psychiatric nurses, and school counselors. (See the statements on psychologists and social workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Counselors can specialize in a particular area, such as marriage and family, multicultural, and gerontological counseling. A geron tological counselor may provide services to elderly persons who face changing lifestyles due to health problems, as well as help families cope with these changes. A multicultural counselor might help employers adjust to an increasingly diverse workforce. Working Conditions Most school counselors work the traditional 9- to 10-month school year with a 2- to 3-month vacation, although an increasing number are employed on 10 1/2- or 11-month contracts. They generally have the same hours as teachers. Rehabilitation and employment counselors generally work a standard 40-hour week. Self-employed counselors and those work ing in mental health and community agencies often work evenings to counsel clients who work during the day. College career planning and placement counselors may work long and irregular hours during recruiting periods. Counselors must possess high physical and emotional energy to handle the array of problems they must address. Dealing with these day to day problems can cause stress and emotional burnout. Since privacy is essential for confidential and frank discussions with clients, counselors usually have private offices. Employment Counselors held about 165,000 jobs in 1994. About 7 out of 10 were school counselors. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis In addition to elementary and secondary schools and colleges and universities, counselors worked in a wide variety of public and private establishments. These include health care facilities; job training, career development, and vocational rehabilitation centers; social agencies; correctional institutions; and residential care facili ties, such as halfway houses for criminal offenders and group homes for children, the aged, and the disabled. Counselors also worked in organizations engaged in community improvement and social change, as well as drug and alcohol rehabilitation programs and State and local government agencies. A growing number of counselors work in health maintenance organizations, insurance companies, group practice, and private practice. This growth has been spurred by laws allowing counselors to receive payments from insurance companies, and requiring employers to provide rehabilitation and counseling services to employees. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Generally, counselors have a master's degree in college student affairs, elementary or secondary school counseling, education, geron tological counseling, marriage and family counseling, substance abuse counseling, rehabilitation counseling, agency or community counseling, clinical mental health counseling, counseling psychol ogy, career counseling, or a related field. Graduate level counselor education programs in colleges and universities usually are in departments of education or psychology. Courses are grouped into eight core areas: Human growth and development; social and cultural foundations; helping relationships; groups; lifestyle and career development; appraisal; research and evaluation; and professional orientation. In an accredited program, 48 to 60 semester hours of graduate study, including a period of supervised clinical experience in counseling, are required for a master's degree. In 1995, the Council for Accreditation of Counsel ing and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) accredited 105 graduate counseling programs in counselor education, and in career, community, gerontological, mental health, school, student affairs, and marriage and family counseling. In 1995, 41 States and the District of Columbia had some form of counselor credentialing legislation, licensure, certification, or registry for practice outside schools. Requirements vary from State to State. In some States, credentialing is mandatory; in others, voluntary. Many counselors elect to be nationally certified by the National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC), which grants the general practice credential, "National Certified Counselor." To be certified, a counselor must hold a master's degree in counseling from a region ally accredited institution, have at least 2 years of supervised profes sional counseling experience, and pass NBCC's National Counselor Examination for Licensure and Certification. This national certifica tion is voluntary and distinct from State certification. However, in some States those who pass the national exam are exempt from taking a State certification exam. NBCC also offers specialty certifi cation in career, gerontological, school, clinical mental health, and addictions counseling. To maintain their certification, counselors must complete 100 hours of acceptable continuing education credit every 5 years. All States require school counselors to hold State school counsel ing certification; however, certification varies from State to State. Some States require public school counselors to have both counseling and teaching certificates. Depending on the State, a master's degree in counseling and 2 to 5 years of teaching experience may be re quired for a counseling certificate. Vocational and related rehabilitation agencies generally require a master's degree in rehabilitation counseling, counseling and guid ance, or counseling psychology for rehabilitation counselor jobs. Some, however, may accept applicants with a bachelor's degree in rehabilitation services, counseling, psychology, sociology, or related fields. A bachelor's degree may qualify a person to work as a coun seling aide, rehabilitation aide, or social service worker. Experience Professional Specialty Occupations 147 in employment counseling, job development, psychology, education, or social work may be helpful. The Council on Rehabilitation Education (CORE) accredits graduate programs in rehabilitation counseling. A minimum of 2 years of study—including 600 hours of supervised clinical internship experience—are required for the master's degree. In most State vocational rehabilitation agencies, applicants must pass a written examination and be evaluated by a board of examiners to obtain licensure. In addition, many employers require rehabilita tion counselors to be nationally certified. To become certified by the Commission on Rehabilitation Counselor Certification, counselors must graduate from an accredited educational program, complete an internship, and pass a written examination. They are then designated as "Certified Rehabilitation Counselors." To maintain their certifica tion, counselors must complete 100 hours of acceptable continuing education credit every 5 years. Some States require counselors in public employment offices to have a master's degree; others accept a bachelor's degree with appro priate counseling courses. Clinical mental health counselors generally have a master's degree in mental health counseling, another area of counseling, or in psy chology or social work. They are voluntarily certified by the Na Generally, to receive tional Board for Certified Counselors. certification as a clinical mental health counselor, a counselor must have a master's degree in counseling, 2 years of post-master's experi ence, a period of supervised clinical experience, a taped sample of clinical work, and a passing grade on a written examination. Some employers provide training for newly hired counselors. Many have work-study programs so that employed counselors can earn graduate degrees. Counselors must participate in graduate studies, workshops, institutes, and personal studies to maintain their certificates and licenses. Persons interested in counseling should have a strong interest in helping others and the ability to inspire respect, trust, and confidence. They should be able to work independently or as part of a team. Counselors follow the code of ethics associated with their respective certifications and licenses. Prospects for advancement vary by counseling field. School counselors may move to a larger school; become directors or super visors of counseling, guidance, or pupil personnel services; or, usually with further graduate education, become counselor educators, counseling psychologists, or school administrators. (See the state ments on psychologists and education administrators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some counselors also may advance to work at the State department of education. Rehabilitation, mental health, and employment counselors may become supervisors or administrators in their agencies. Some coun selors move into research, consulting, or college teaching, or go into private or group practice. Job Outlook Overall employment of counselors is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. In addition, replacement needs should increase significantly as a large number of counselors reach retirement age. Employment of school counselors is expected to grow as a result of increasing enrollments, particularly in secondary schools, State legislation requiring counselors in elementary schools, and the ex panded responsibilities of counselors. Counselors increasingly are becoming involved in crisis and preventive counseling, helping students deal with issues ranging from drug and alcohol abuse to death and suicide. Despite the increasing use of counselors, how ever, employment growth may be dampened by budgetary con straints—some counselors serve more than one school. Also, counselor positions are usually cut before teacher positions when funding is tight. Rehabilitation and mental health counselors should be in strong demand. Under managed care systems, insurance companies increas https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ingly provide for reimbursement of counselors, enabling many counselors to move from schools and government agencies to private practice. Counselors are also forming group practices to receive expanded insurance coverage. The number of people who need rehabilitation services will rise as advances in medical technology continue to save lives that only a few years ago would have been lost. In addition, legislation requiring equal employment rights for persons with disabilites will spur demand for counselors. Counselors not only will help individuals with disabilities with their transition into the work force, but also will help companies comply with the law. An increasing number of employers are also offering employee assistance programs which provide mental health and alcohol and drug abuse services. More rehabilitation and mental health counsel ors will be needed as the elderly population grows, and as society focuses on ways of developing mental well-being, such as controlling stress associated with job and family responsibilities. Similar to other government jobs, the number of employment counselors, who work primarily for State and local government, could be limited by budgetary constraints. Opportunities for em ployment counselors working in private job training services, how ever, should grow as counselors provide skill training and other services to a growing number of laid-off workers, experienced work ers seeking a new or second career, full-time homemakers seeking to enter or reenter the work force, and workers who want to upgrade their skills. Earnings Median earnings for full-time educational and vocational counselors were about $36,100 a year in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $26,500 and $46,200 a year. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $20,000 a year, while the top 10 percent earned over $50,000 a year. According to the Educational Research Service, the average salary of public school counselors in the 1994-95 academic year was about $42,500. Many school counselors are compensated on the same pay scale as teachers. School counselors can earn additional income working summers in the school system or in other jobs. Self-employed counselors who have well-established practices, as well as counselors employed in group practices, generally have the highest earnings, as do some counselors working for private firms, such as insurance companies and private rehabilitation companies. Related Occupations Counselors help people evaluate their interests, abilities, and dis abilities, and deal with personal, social, academic, and career prob lems. Others who help people in similar ways include college and student personnel workers, teachers, personnel workers and manag ers, human services workers, social workers, psychologists, psychia trists, members of the clergy, occupational therapists, training and employee development specialists, and equal employment opportu nity/affirmative action specialists. Sources of Additional Information For general information about counseling, as well as information on specialties such as school, college, mental health, rehabilitation, multicultural, career, marriage and family, and gerontological coun seling, contact: ••American Counseling Association, 5999 Stevenson Ave., Alexandria, VA 22304. For information on accredited counseling and related training programs, contact: ••Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs, American Counseling Association, 5999 Stevenson Ave., Alexandria, VA 22304. For information on national certification requirements for coun selors, contact: ••National Board for Certified Counselors, 3 Terrace Way, Suite D, Greens boro, NC 27403. 148 Occupational Outlook Handbook For information about rehabilitation counseling, contact: •■National Rehabilitation Counseling Association, 1910 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091. •"National Council on Rehabilitation Education, Department of Special Education, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-2870. For information on certification requirements for rehabilitation counselors and a list of accredited rehabilitation education programs, contact: •■Council on Rehabilitation Counselor Certification, 1835 Rohlwing Rd., Suite E, Rolling Meadows, IL 60008. For general information about school counselors, contact: •"American School Counselor Association, 5999 Stevenson Ave., Alexandria, VA 22304. State departments of education can supply information on col leges and universities that offer approved guidance and counseling training for State certification and licensure requirements. State employment service offices have information about job opportunities and entrance requirements for counselors. Librarians (D.O.T. 100 except .367-018; 109.267-014) Nature of the Work Librarians assist people in finding information and using it effec tively in their personal and professional lives. They must have knowledge of a wide variety of scholarly and public information sources, and follow trends related to publishing, computers, and the media to effectively oversee the selection and organization of library materials. Librarians manage staff and develop and direct informa tion programs and systems for the public, to ensure information is being organized to meet the needs of users. There are generally three aspects of library work—user services, technical services, and administrative services. Increasingly, distinc tions between these services is blurred, and many librarian positions incorporate all three aspects of the work. Even librarians who spe cialize in one of these areas may perform other responsibilities. Librarians in user services, such as reference and children's librari ans, work with the public to help them find the information they need. This may involve analyzing users' needs to determine what information is appropriate, and searching for, acquiring, and provid ing the information. Librarians in technical services, such as acqui sitions and cataloguing, acquire and prepare materials for use and may not deal directly with the public. Librarians in administrative services oversee the management and planning of libraries, negotiate contracts for services, materials, and equipment, supervise library employees, perform public relations and fundraising duties, prepare budgets, and direct activities to ensure that everything functions properly. In small libraries or information centers, librarians generally handle all aspects of the work. They read book reviews, publishers' announcements, and catalogues to keep up with current literature and other available resources, and select and purchase materials from publishers, wholesalers, and distributors. Librarians prepare new materials for use by classifying them by subject matter, and describe books and other library materials in a way that users can easily find them. They supervise assistants who prepare cards, computer rec ords, or other access tools that direct users to resources. In large libraries, librarians may specialize in a single area, such as acquisi tions, cataloguing, bibliography, reference, special collections, or administration. Teamwork is increasingly important to ensure qual ity service to the public. Librarians also compile lists of books, periodicals, articles, and audiovisual materials on particular subjects, analyze collections, and recommend materials to be acquired. They may collect and organize https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis books, pamphlets, manuscripts, and other materials in a specific field, such as rare books, genealogy, or music. In addition, they coordinate programs such as storytelling for children, and literacy skills and book talks for adults; publicize services; provide reference help; supervise staff; prepare budgets; write grants; and oversee other administrative matters. Librarians may be classified according to the type of library in which they work—public libraries, school library media centers, academic libraries, and special libraries. They may work with spe cific groups, such as children, young adults, adults, or the disadvan taged. In school library media centers, librarians help teachers develop curricula, acquire materials for classroom instruction, and sometimes team teach. Librarians may also work in information centers or libraries maintained by government agencies, corporations, law firms, adver tising agencies, museums, professional associations, medical centers, hospitals, religious organizations, and research laboratories. They build and arrange the organization's information resources, usually limited to subjects of special interest to the organization. These special librarians can provide vital information services by preparing abstracts and indexes of current periodicals, organizing bibliogra phies, or analyzing background information and preparing reports on areas of particular interest. For instance, a special librarian working for a corporation may provide the sales department with information on competitors or new developments affecting their field. Many libraries have access to remote databases, as well as main taining their own computerized databases. The widespread use of automation in libraries makes database searching skills important to librarians. Librarians develop and index databases and act as trainers to help users develop searching skills to obtain the information they need. Some libraries are forming consortiums with other libraries through electronic mail (e-mail). This allows patrons to submit information requests to several libraries at once. Use of Internet and other world-wide computer systems is also expanding the amount of available reference information. Librarians must be increasingly aware of how to use these resources to locate information. Libraries may employ automated systems librarians who plan and operate computer systems, and information science librarians who design information storage and retrieval systems and develop proce dures for collecting, organizing, interpreting, and classifying infor mation. These librarians may analyze and plan for future information needs. (See statement on computer scientists and sys tems analysts elsewhere in the Handbook.) The increasing use of automated information systems enables librarians to focus on admin istrative and budgeting responsibilities, grant writing, and specialized research requests, while delegating more technical and user services responsibilities to technicians. (See statement on library technicians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some librarians apply their information management and research skills to other arenas outside libraries—for example, database devel opment, reference tool development, information systems, publish ing, Internet coordination, marketing, and training of database users. Entrepreneurial librarians may start their own consulting practices. They act as free-lance librarians or information brokers and provide services to other libraries, businesses, or government agencies. Working Conditions Working conditions in user services are different from those in technical services. Assisting users in obtaining the information for their jobs or for recreational and other needs can be challenging and satisfying. Working with users under deadlines may be demanding and stressful. In technical services, selecting and ordering new materials can be stimulating and rewarding. However, librarians may spend a significant portion of time at their desks or in front of computer terminals. Extended work at video display terminals may cause eyestrain and headaches. Nearly 1 out of 4 librarians works part time. Public and college librarians often work weekends and evenings and may have to work Professional Specialty Occupations 149 mm . , A master's degree in library science (M.L.S.) is necessary for most librarian jobs. some holidays. School librarians generally have the same workday schedule as classroom teachers and similar vacation schedules. Special librarians may work normal business hours, but in fast-paced industries, such as advertising or legal services, may work longer hours during peak times. Employment Librarians held about 148,000 jobs in 1994. Most were in school and academic libraries; others were in public libraries and special librar ies. A small number of librarians worked for hospitals and religious organizations. Others worked for governments at all levels. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A master's degree in library science (M.L.S.) is necessary for librar ian positions in most public, academic, and special libraries, and in some school libraries. In the Federal Government, an M.L.S. or the equivalent in education and experience is needed. Many colleges and universities offer M.L.S. programs, but many employers prefer graduates of the approximately 50 schools accredited by the Ameri can Library Association. Most M.L.S. programs require a bachelor's degree; any liberal arts major is appropriate. Most programs take 1 year to complete; others take 2. A typical graduate program includes courses in the foundations of library and information science, including the history of books and printing, intellectual freedom and censorship, and the role of libraries and information in society. Other basic courses cover material selection https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and processing; the organization of information; reference tools and strategies; and- user services. Courses are being adapted to educate librarians to use new resources brought about by advancing technol ogy such as on-line reference systems and automated circulation systems. Course options can include resources for children or young adults; classification, cataloguing, indexing, and abstracting; library administration; and library automation. The M.L.S. provides general, all-round preparation for library work, but some people specialize in a particular area such as refer ence, technical services, or children's services. A Ph.D. degree in library and information science is advantageous for a college teach ing or top administrative position, particularly in a college or uni versity library or in a large library system. In special libraries, the M.L.S. is usually required. In addition, most special librarians supplement their education with knowledge of the subject specialization, or a master's, doctoral, or professional degree in the subject. Subject specializations include medicine, law, business, engineering, and the natural and social sciences. For example, a librarian working for a law firm may also be a licensed attorney, holding both library science and law degrees. In some jobs, knowledge of a foreign language is needed. State certification requirements for public school librarians vary widely. Most States require that school librarians—often called library media specialists—be certified as teachers and have courses in library science. In some cases, the M.L.S., perhaps with a library media specialization, or a master's in education with a specialty in school library media or educational media is needed. Some States require certification of public librarians employed in municipal, county, or regional library systems. Experienced librarians may advance to administrative posi tions, such as department head, library director, or chief information officer. Job Outlook Employment of librarians is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. However, the number of job openings resulting from the need to replace librarians who leave the occupation is expected to increase by 2005, as many workers reach retirement age. Willingness to relocate will greatly enhance job prospects. Budgetary constraints will likely contribute to the slow growth in employment of librarians in school, public, and college and univer sity libraries as libraries reduce staff to cut costs. Although fewer new positions have become available in recent years, the number of MLS graduates has been increasing. Thus, more applicants are competing for fewer jobs. The increasing use of computerized information storage and retrieval systems may also dampen the demand for librarians. For example, computerized systems make cataloguing easier, and this task can now be handled by other library staff. In addition, many libraries are equipped for users to access library computers directly from their homes or offices. These systems allow users to bypass librarians and conduct research on their own. However, librarians will be needed to manage staff, help users develop database search ing techniques, address complicated reference requests, and define users' needs. Opportunities will be best for librarians outside traditional set tings. Nontraditional library settings include information brokers, private corporations, and consulting firms. Many companies are turning to librarians because of their excellent research and organ izational skills, and knowledge of library automation systems. Librarians can review the vast amount of information that is available and analyze, evaluate, and organize it according to a company's specific needs. Librarians are also moving into organizations to set up information on the Internet. Librarians working in these settings are often classified as systems analysts, database specialists and trainers, managers, and researchers. 150 Occupational Outlook Handbook Earnings Salaries of librarians vary by the individual's qualifications and the type, size, and location of the library. ( According to a survey by the American library Association, the average salary of children's librarians in academic and public librar ies was $35,000 in 1995; reference/information librarians averaged $35,600; cataloguers and classifiers earned $36,300; and department heads earned $42,000. Library directors had an average salary of $58,200. Beginning librarians with a master's degree but no profes sional experience averaged $28,300 in 1995. According to the Educational Research Service, experienced librarians in public schools averaged about $40,400 during the 1994OS school year. According to the Special Libraries Association, 1994 salaries for special librarians with 2 years or less of library experience averaged $31,100, and those with 3 to 5 years of experience averaged $35,200. Salaries for special librarians with primarily administrative respon sibilities averaged $54,600. Salaries for medical librarians with 1 year or less experience averaged $25,300 in 1994, according to the Medical Library Asso ciation. The average salary for all medical librarians was $38,000. The average annual salary for all librarians in the Federal Gov ernment in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $48,200 in 1995. Related Occupations Librarians play an important role in the transfer of knowledge and ideas by providing people with access to the information they need and want. Jobs requiring similar analytical, organizational, and communicative skills include archivists, information scientists, museum curators, publishers' representatives, research analysts, information brokers, and records managers. The management aspect of a librarian's work is similar to the work of managers in a variety of business and government settings. School librarians have many duties similar to those of school teachers. Sources of Additional Information Information on librarianship, including a listing of accredited educa tion programs and information on scholarships or loans, is available from; •■American Library Association, Office for Library Personnel Resources, 50 East Huron St., Chicago, IL 60611. For information on a career as a special librarian, write to; ••Special Libraries Association, 1700 18th St. NW., Washington, DC 20009. Material about a career in information science is available from: •"American Society for Information Science, 8720 Georgia Ave., Suite 501, Silver Spring, MD 20910. Information on graduate schools of library and information sci ence can be obtained from: •"Association for Library and Information Science Education, 4101 Lake Boone Trail, Suite 201, Raleigh, NC 27607. Information on schools receiving Federal financial assistance for library training is available from: •■Office of Educational Research and Improvement, Library Programs, Library Development Staff, U.S. Department of Education, 555 New Jersey Ave. NW., Room 402, Washington, DC 20208-5571. For information on a career as a law librarian, as well as a list of ALA-accredited schools offering programs in law librarianship and scholarship information, contact: •■American Association of Law Libraries, 53 West Jackson Blvd., Suite 940, Chicago, IL 60604. For information on employment opportunities as a health sciences librarian, a list of ALA-accredited schools offering programs in health sciences librarianship and scholarship information, and credentialing information, contact: •“Medical Library Association, 6 N. Michigan Ave., Suite 300, Chicago, IL 60602. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Those interested in a position as a librarian in the Federal service should write to: •■Office of Personnel Management, 1900 E St. NW., Washington, DC 20415. Information concerning requirements and application procedures for positions in the Library of Congress may be obtained directly from: •"Personnel Office, Library of Congress, 101 Independence Ave. SE., Wash ington, DC 20540. State library agencies can furnish information on scholarships available through their offices, requirements for certification, and general information about career prospects in the State. Several of these agencies maintain job hotlines which report openings for librarians. State departments of education can furnish information on certifi cation requirements and job opportunities for school librarians. Many library science schools offer career placement services to their alumni and current students. Some will allow non-affiliated students and jobseekers to use their services. School Teachers—Kindergarten, Elementary, and Secondary D.O.T. 091.221, .227; 092.227-010, -014; 099.224-010, .227-022) Nature of the Work The role of a teacher is changing from that of a lecturer or presenter to one of a facilitator or coach. Interactive discussions and "handson" learning are replacing rote memorization. For example, rather than merely telling students about science, mathematics, or psychol ogy, teachers ask students to help solve a mathematical problem or perform a laboratory experiment and discuss how these apply to the real world. Similarly, some teachers arrange to bring 3- and 4-yearolds into the classroom to demonstrate certain concepts of child psychology. As teachers move away from the traditional repetitive drill ap proaches, they are using more "props" or "manipulatives" to help children understand abstract concepts, solve problems, and develop critical thought processes. For example, they teach the concepts of numbers or adding and subtracting by playing board games. As children get older, they may use more sophisticated materials such as tape recorders, science apparatus, or cameras. Classes are becoming less structured, and students are working in groups to discuss and solve problems together. Preparing students for the future workforce is the major stimulus generating the changes in education. To be prepared, students must be able to interact with others, adapt to new technology, and logically think through prob lems. Teachers provide the tools and environment for their students to develop these skills. Kindergarten and elementary school teachers—who generally teach 5- to 13-year olds—play a vital role in the development of children. What children leant and experience during their early years can shape their views of themselves and the world, and affect later success or failure in school, work, and their personal lives. Kinder garten and elementary school teachers introduce children to numbers, language, science, and social studies. They use games, music, art work, films, slides, computers, and other teaching technology to teach basic skills. Most elementary school teachers instruct one class of children in several subjects. In some schools, two or more teachers work as a team and are jointly responsible for a group of students in at least one subject. In other schools, a teacher may teach one special subject— usually music, art, reading, science, arithmetic, or physical educa tion—to a number of classes. A small but growing number of teach ers instruct multilevel classrooms—those with students at several different learning levels. Professional Specialty Occupations 151 Secondary school teachers—who generally teach 14- to 17-year olds—help students delve more deeply into subjects introduced in elementary school and expose them to more information about the world and themselves. Secondary school teachers specialize in a specific subject, such as English, Spanish, mathematics, history, or biology. They teach a variety of related courses—for example, American history, contemporary American problems, and world geography. Special education teachers—who instruct students with a variety of disabilities in lower grades and high schols—are discussed sepa rately in this section of the Handbook. Teachers may use films, slides, overhead projectors, and the latest technology in teaching, such as computers, telecommunication systems, and video discs. Telecommunication technology exposes students to a vast range of experiences and promotes interactive learning. Through telecommunications, American students can communicate with students in other countries to share personal experiences or research projects of interest to both groups. Comput ers are used in many classroom activities, from helping students solve math problems to learning English as a second language. Increasingly, students are using the Internet for research and infor mation gathering. Many teachers also use computers to record grades and for other administrative and clerical duties. Teachers must continually update their skills to use the latest technology in the classroom. Teachers work with students from increasingly diverse ethnic, racial, and religious backgrounds. With growing minority popula tions, it is important for teachers to learn about and establish rapport with a diverse student population. Teachers factor multicultural programming into their lesson plans so that no student, regardless of his or her cultural background, is at a disadvantage. Some schools offer training to help teachers enhance their awareness and under standing of different cultures. Teachers design their classroom presentations to meet student needs and abilities. They also work with students individually. Teachers assign lessons, give tests, listen to oral presentations, and maintain classroom discipline. They observe and evaluate a student's performance and potential, and increasingly use new assessment methods, such as examining a portfolio of a student's artwork or writing, to measure student achievement. Teachers assess the port folio at the end of a learning period to judge a student's overall progress. They then provide additional assistance in areas where a student needs help. In addition to classroom activities, teachers plan and evaluate lessons, sometimes in collaboration with teachers of related subjects. They also prepare tests, grade papers, prepare report cards, oversee study halls and homerooms, supervise extracurricular activities, and meet with parents and school staff to discuss a student's academic progress or personal problems. They identify physical or mental problems and refer students to the proper agency for treatment. Secondary school teachers assist students in choosing courses, col leges, and careers. Teachers also participate in education confer ences and workshops. In recent years, site-based management, which allows teachers and parents to participate actively in management decisions, has gained popularity. In many schools, teachers help make decisions regarding the budget, personnel, textbook choices, curriculum design, and teaching methods. Working Conditions Seeing students develop new skills and gain an appreciation of the joy of learning can be very rewarding. However, teaching may be frustrating when dealing with unmotivated and disrespectful students. In urban areas, teachers may experience stress when dealing with large classes, a large number of students from disadvantaged back grounds, and heavy workloads. Also, the relatively low pay causes some teachers to leave the profession. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Teachers must understand the emotional and educational needs of their students. Teachers face isolation from their colleagues since they often work alone in a classroom of students. However, this autonomy provides teachers considerable freedom to choose their own teaching styles and methods. Including school duties performed outside the classroom, many teachers work more than 40 hours a week. Most teachers work the traditional 10-month school year with a 2-month vacation during the summer. Those on the 10-month schedule may teach in summer sessions, take other jobs, travel, or pursue other personal interests. Many enroll in college courses or workshops to continue their edu cation. Teachers in districts with a year-round schedule typically work 8 weeks, are on vacation for 1 week, and have a 5-week mid winter break. Most States have tenure laws that prevent teachers from being fired without just cause and due process. Teachers may obtain tenure after they have satisfactorily completed a probationary period of teaching, normally 3 years. Tenure does not absolutely guarantee a job, but it does provide some security. Employment Teachers held over 2.9 million jobs in 1994. Of those, nearly 1.6 million were kindergarten and elementary school teachers, and over 1.3 million were secondary school teachers. Employment is distrib uted geographically, much the same as the population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Columbia require public school teachers to be licensed. Licensure is generally offered for one or several related subjects. Usually licensure is granted by the State board of education or a licensure advisory committee. Teachers may be licensed to teach the early childhood grades (usually nursery school through grade 3); the elementary grades (grades 1 through 6 or 8); or a special subject, such as reading or music. Requirements for regular licenses vary by State. However, all States require a bachelor's degree and completion of an approved teacher training program with a prescribed number of subject and education credits and supervised practice teaching. Many States require teachers to obtain a master's degree in education, which involves at least 1 year of additional coursework beyond the bache lor's degree with a specialization in a particular subject. The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education currently accredits over 500 teacher education programs across the United States. Generally, 4-year colleges require students to wait until their sophomore year before applying for admission to teacher education programs. Traditional education programs for kindergar 152 Occupational Outlook Handbook ten and elementary school teachers include courses—designed spe cifically for those preparing to teach—in mathematics, physical science, social science, music, art, and literature, as well as pre scribed professional education courses, such as philosophy of educa tion, psychology of learning, and teaching methods. Aspiring secondary school teachers either major in the subject they plan to teach while also taking education courses, or major in education and take subject courses. Most programs require students to perform student teaching. Some States require specific grade point averages for teacher licensure. Many States now offer professional development schools, which involve partnerships between universities and elementary or secon dary schools. Students enter these 1-year programs after completion of their bachelor's degree. Professional development schools merge theory with practice and allow the student to experience a year of teaching first-hand, with professional guidance. Many States offer alternative teacher licensure programs for people who have bachelor's degrees in the subject they will teach, but lack the necessary education courses required for a regular license. Alternative licensure programs were originally designed to ease teacher shortages in certain subjects, such as mathematics and sci ence. The programs have expanded to attract other people into teaching, including recent college graduates and midcareer changers. In some programs, individuals begin teaching quickly under provi sional licensure. After working under the close supervision of expe rienced educators for 1 or 2 years while taking education courses outside school hours, they receive regular licensure if they have progressed satisfactorily. Under other programs, college graduates who do not meet licensure requirements take only those courses that they lack, and then become licensed. This may take 1 or 2 semesters of full-time study. States may issue emergency licenses to individu als who do not meet requirements for a regular license when schools cannot attract enough qualified teachers to fill positions. Teachers who need licensure may enter programs that grant a master's degree in education, as well as licensure. Almost all States require applicants for teacher licensure to be tested for competency in basic skills such as reading and writing, teaching skills, or subject matter proficiency. Most States require continuing education for renewal of the teacher's license—some require a master’s degree. Many States have reciprocity agreements that make it easier for teachers licensed in one State to become licensed in another. Recently, the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards began offering voluntary national certification for teachers. Teachers are required to obtain State licensure, but may choose whether they wish to obtain national certification. A teacher who is nationally certified may find it easier to obtain employment in another State. Certified teachers may also earn higher salaries, have more senior titles, and be eligible for more bonuses than non-certified teachers. Policies vary by State and since this is a fairly new credential, many States' policies regarding recognition of national certification have not been established. In addition to being knowledgeable in their subject, the ability to communicate, inspire trust and confidence, and motivate students, as well as understand their educational and emotional needs, is essential for teachers. Teachers must be able to recognize and respond to individual differences in students, and employ different teaching methods that will result in high student achievement. They also should be organized, dependable, patient, and creative. Teachers must also be able to work cooperatively and communicate effectively with other teaching staff, support staff, and parents and other mem bers of the community. With additional preparation and certification or licensure, teachers may move into positions as school librarians, reading specialists, curriculum specialists, or guidance counselors. Teachers may be come administrators or supervisors, although the number of these positions is limited. In some systems, highly qualified, experienced teachers can become senior or mentor teachers, with higher pay and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis additional responsibilities. They guide and assist less experienced teachers while keeping most of their teaching responsibilities. Job Outlook The job market for teachers varies widely among States and school districts. Some central cities and rural areas have difficulty attracting enough teachers, so job prospects should continue to be better in these areas than in suburban districts. Teachers in some subjects— mathematics, science (especially chemistry and physics), bilingual education, and computer science, for example—seem to be in short supply. Areas that seem to be experiencing an oversupply of teach ers, on the other hand, include general elementary education, physi cal education, and social studies. Teachers who are geographically mobile and who obtain licensure in more than one subject should have a distinct advantage in finding a job. With enrollments of minorities increasing, and a shortage of minority teachers, efforts to recruit minority teachers should intensify. Overall employment of kindergarten, elementary, and secondary school teachers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. However, projected employment growth varies among individual teaching occupations. Job openings for all teachers are expected to increase substantially by the end of the decade as the large number of teachers now in their forties and fifties reach retirement age. Employment of secondary school teachers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005, while average employment growth is projected for kindergarten and elementary school teachers. Assuming relatively little change in average class size, employment growth of teachers depends on population growth rates and corresponding student enrollments. Enrollment of 14- to 17-year-olds is expected to experience relatively strong growth through the year 2005, spurring demand for secondary school teachers (see chart 1). Enrollment of 5- to 13-year olds also is projected to increase, but at a slower rate, resulting in divergent growth rates for individual teaching occupations (see chart 2). Chart 1. High school enrollment will increase throughout the 1994-2005 period. Millions 171— 1994 '95 '96 '97 '98 '99 2000 '01 Source: National Center for Education Statistics '02 '03 '04 '05 Professional Specialty Occupations 153 Chart 2. Elementary school enrollment will increase through the year 2003, then decline slightly. Millions 401- abilities; research and communication skills; the power to influence, motivate, and train others; patience; and creativity. Workers in other occupations requiring some of these aptitudes include college and university faculty, counselors, education administrators, employment interviewers, librarians, preschool teachers, public relations special ists, sales representatives, social workers, and trainers and employee development specialists. Sources of Additional Information Information on licensure or certification requirements and approved teacher training institutions is available from local school systems and State departments of education. Information on teachers' unions and education-related issues may be obtained from: •■American Federation of Teachers, 555 New Jersey Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001. ••National Education Association, 1201 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. A list of institutions with accredited teacher education programs can be obtained from: ••National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, 2010 Massachu setts Ave. NW., 5th Floor, Washington, DC 20036. For information on voluntary teacher certification requirements, contact: ••National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, 300 River Pl„ Detroit, MI 48207. Source: National Center for Education Statistics Special Education Teachers The number of teachers employed is also dependent on State and local expenditures for education. Pressures from taxpayers to limit spending could result in fewer teachers than projected; pressures to spend more to improve the quality of education could increase the teacher workforce. The supply of teachers also is expected to increase in response to reports of improved job prospects, more teacher involvement in school policy, and greater public interest in education. In fact, enrollments in teacher training programs already have increased in recent years. In addition, more teachers will be drawn from a reserve pool made up of career changers, teachers completing alternative certification programs, teachers relocating to different schools, substitute teachers, and teachers reentering the workforce. Earnings According to the National Education Association, the estimated average salary of all elementary and secondary school teachers in 1995 was $36,900. Public secondary school teachers averaged about $37,800 a year, while public elementary school teachers averaged $36,400. Starting salaries for teachers in 1995 ranged from about $20,000 to $25,000 a year. Private school teachers generally earn less than public school teachers. In 1994, over half of all public school teachers belonged to un ions—mainly the American Federation of Teachers and the National Education Association—that bargain with school systems over wages, hours, and the terms and conditions of employment. In some schools, teachers receive extra pay for coaching sports and working with students in extracurricular activities. Some teach ers earn extra income during the summer working in the school system or in other jobs. Related Occupations Kindergarten, elementary, and secondary school teaching requires a wide variety of skills and aptitudes, including a talent for working with children; organizational, administrative, and recordkeeping https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis D.O.T. 094.107, .224, .227, .267; 099.227-042; 195.227-018) Nature of the Work Special education teachers work with students—from toddlers to those in their early 20s—who have a variety of disabilities. Most special education teachers are found at the elementary, middle, and secondary school level. Special education teachers design and modify instruction to meet a student's special needs. Teachers also work with students who have other special instructional needs, including those who are gifted and talented. The various types of disabilities delineated in federal special education programs include specific learning disabilities, mental retardation, speech or language impairment, serious emotional dis turbance, visual and hearing impairment, orthopedic impairment, autism, traumatic brain injury, and other health impairments. Stu dents are classified under one of the categories, and special education teachers are prepared to work with specific groups. Special education teachers use various teaching techniques to promote learning. Depending on the disability, teaching methods can include individualized instruction, problem-solving assignments, and group or individual work. Since special education students often progress at slower rates than their peers in certain areas, teachers tailor a program to meet a student's specific needs. Special education teachers are legally required to participate in the development of an Individualized Education Program (IEP) for each special education student. The IEP sets personalized goals for each student and is tailored to a student's individual learning style and ability. This program includes a transition plan which outlines specific steps and procedures to prepare special education students for a job or for postsecondary study. Teachers review the IEP with the student's parents, school administrators, and often the student's general education teacher. Teachers work closely with parents to inform them of their child's progress and suggest techniques to promote learning at home. Teachers design curricula, assign work geared toward each stu dent's ability, and grade papers and homework assignments. Special 154 Occupational Outlook Handbook education teachers are involved in a student's behavioral as well as academic development. They help special education students de velop emotionally, be comfortable in social situations, and be aware of socially acceptable behavior. Preparing special education students for daily life after graduation is an important aspect of the job. Teachers may help students with routine skills, such as balancing a check book, or provide them with career counseling. As schools become more inclusive, special education teachers and general education teachers are working together in general education classrooms. Special education teachers help general educators adapt curriculum materials and teaching techniques to meet the needs of students with disabilities. Special education teachers work in a variety of settings. Some have their own classrooms and teach classes comprised entirely of special education students; others work as special education resource teachers and offer individualized help to students in general educa tion classrooms; others teach along with general education teachers in classes composed of both general and special education students. Some teachers work in a resource room, where special education students work several hours a day, separate from their general educa tion classroom. A significantly smaller proportion of special educa tion teachers work in residential facilities or tutor students in homebound or hospital environments. A large part of a special education teacher's job involves interact ing with others. They communicate frequently with social workers, school psychologists, occupational and physical therapists, parents, school administrators, and other teachers. Early identification of children with special needs is another important part of a special education teacher's job. Early intervention is recognized as essential to educating children with special needs. Technology is playing an increasingly important role in special education. Special education teachers may use specialized equip ment such as computers with synthesized speech, interactive educa tional software programs, and audio tapes in the classroom. Working Conditions Helping students with disabilities achieve goals and making a differ ence in their lives can be highly rewarding. Special education teach ers enjoy the challenge of working with these students and the opportunity to establish meaningful relationships. However, the work can also be intensely demanding, and attending to physical needs of students can be draining. These demands, coupled with relatively low wages and lack of prestige, result in a high "burnout" rate among special education teachers. Many school districts throughout the Nation are experiencing shortages of special education teachers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Special education teachers are under considerable stress due to heavy workloads and tedious administrative tasks. They must pro duce a substantial amount of paperwork and records documenting each student's progress. Exacerbating this stress is the threat of litigation by students' parents if correct procedure is not followed or if the parent feels their child is not receiving an adequate education. Some special educators feel that they are not adequately supported by school administrators, and feel isolated from general education teachers. Lack of support can lead to frustration. Many schools offer year-round education for special education students, but most special education teachers work the traditional 10month school year with a 2-month vacation during the summer. Including school duties performed outside the classroom, most special education teachers work more than 40 hours a week. Employment Special education teachers held about 388,000 jobs in 1994 in ele mentary, middle, and secondary schools. The majority of special education teachers were employed in public schools. The rest worked in separate educational facilities—public or private— residential facilities, or in homebound or hospital environments. Employment is distributed geographically, much the same as the population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Columbia require special education teachers to be licensed. Special education licensure varies by State. In many States, special education teachers receive a general educa tion credential to teach kindergarten through grade 12. These teach ers train in a specialty, such as teaching children with learning disabilities or behavioral disorders. Some States offer general special education licensure, others license several different specialties within special education, while others require teachers to first obtain general education licensure and then additional licensure in special educa tion. Usually licensure is granted by the State board of education or a licensure advisory committee. All States require a bachelor's degree and completion of an ap proved teacher preparation program with a prescribed number of subject and education credits and supervised practice teaching. Many States require special education teachers to obtain a master's degree in special education, involving at least one year of additional coursework, including a specialization, beyond the bachelor's degree. Some States have reciprocity agreements which allow special education teachers to transfer their licensure from one State to an other, but many still require special education teachers to pass licen sure requirements for that State. National certification standards for special education teachers are being developed by the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards. Voluntary national certification should be available in 1998. About 700 colleges and universities across the United States offer programs in special education, including undergraduate, master's, and doctoral programs. Special education teachers usually undergo longer periods of training than general education teachers. Most bachelor's degree programs are 4-year programs that include general and specialized courses in special education. However, an increasing number of institutions require a fifth year or other postbaccalaureate preparation. Courses include educational psychology, legal issues of special education, child growth and development, and knowledge and skills needed for teaching students with disabilities. Some programs require a specialization, such as teaching students with specific learning disabilities. Others offer generalized special education degrees, or study in several specialized areas. The last year of the program is usually spent student teaching in a classroom supervised by a certified teacher. Alternative and emergency licensure is available in many States due to the need to fill special education teaching positions. Alterna tive licensure is designed to bring college graduates and those changing careers into teaching more quickly. Requirements for Professional Specialty Occupations 155 alternative licensure may be less stringent than for regular licensure and vary by State. In some programs, individuals begin teaching quickly under provisional licensure. They can obtain regular licen sure by teaching under the supervision of licensed teachers for a period of one to two years while taking education courses. Emer gency licensure is enacted when States are having difficulty finding licensed special education teachers to fill positions. Special education teachers must be able to motivate students, understand their students' special needs, and be accepting of differ ences in others. Teachers must be creative and apply different types of teaching methods to reach students who are having difficulty. Communication and cooperation are also essential traits since special education teachers spend a great deal of time interacting with others, including students, parents, and school faculty and administrators. Special education teachers can advance to become supervisors or administrators. They may also earn advanced degrees and become instructors in colleges that prepare other special education teachers. In some school systems, highly experienced teachers can become mentor teachers to less experienced ones. They provide guidance to these teachers while maintaining a light teaching load. Job Outlook Special education teachers have excellent job prospects, as many school districts report shortages of qualified teachers. Job outlook varies by geographic area and subject specialty. Positions in rural areas and inner cities are more plentiful than job openings in subur ban or wealthy urban areas. Also, job opportunities may be better in certain specialties—such as multiple disabilities, mental retardation, visual impairment, learning disabilities, and preschool special educa tion—due to the considerable shortages of teachers in these fields. Special education teachers who are bilingual or have multicultural experience are also needed to work with an increasingly diverse student population. Employment of special education teachers is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005, spurred by continued growth in the number of special educa tion students needing services, legislation emphasizing training and employment for individuals with disabilities, growing public interest in individuals with special needs, and educational reform. Many job openings also arise when special education teachers switch to general education or change careers altogether. Job openings stemming from rapid employment growth and job turnover, coupled with a declining number of graduates from special education teaching programs, are expected to result in a favorable job market for special education teachers. The number of students requiring special education services has been steadily increasing, as indicated by the accompanying chart. This trend is expected to continue due to Federal legislation which expanded the age range of special education students to include those ages 3 to 21; medical advances which result in more survivors of accidents and illness; the postponement of childbirth by more women, resulting in a greater number of premature births and children bom with birth defects; and the increase in the general population. The growing use of inclusive school settings, where special education students are integrated into general education settings, will also necessitate more reliance on special education teachers. The role of special education teachers is expanding to include acting as a consultant to general education teachers, in addition to teaching special education students in resource rooms, general education https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The number of special education students has risen dramatically. Millions 5.3 r fcwfl Special education students 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 Source: U.S. Department of Education classrooms, and separate classrooms made up entirely of special education students. Earnings Salaries of special education teachers generally follow the same scale as those for general education teachers. According to the National Education Association, the estimated average salary of all teachers was $36,900 in 1995. The estimated average salary for public secon dary school teachers was $37,800; public elementary school teachers averaged $36,400. Starting salaries for teachers were in the $20,000 to $25,000 range. Earnings in private schools generally are lower than in public schools. Related Occupations Special education teachers work with students who have disabilities and special needs. Other occupations involved with the identifica tion, evaluation, and development of students with disabilities in clude school psychologists, social workers, speech pathologists, rehabilitation counselors, adapted physical education teachers, and occupational, physical, creative arts, and recreational therapists. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as a special education teacher, a list of accredited schools and financial aid information, and general infor mation on special education-related personnel issues, contact: •"National Clearinghouse for Professions in Special Education, Council for Exceptional Children, 1920 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091. To learn more about the special education teacher certification and licensing requirements in your State, contact your State's de partment of education. 156 Occupational Outlook Handbook Health Diagnosing Occupations Chiropractors (D.O.T. 079.101-010) Nature of the Work Chiropractors, also known as chiropractic doctors, diagnose and treat patients whose health problems are associated with the body's muscu lar, nervous, and skeletal systems, especially the spine. Chiroprac tors believe interference with these systems impairs normal functions and lowers resistance to disease. They also hold that spinal or verte bral dysfunction alters many important body functions by affecting the nervous system. The chiropractic approach to health care is holistic, stressing the patient's overall well-being. It recognizes that many factors affect health, including exercise, diet, rest, environment, and heredity. Chiropractors use natural, drugless, nonsurgical health treatments, and rely on the body's inherent recuperative abilities. They also recommend lifestyle changes—in eating, exercise, and sleeping habits, for example—to their patients. When appropriate, chiroprac tors consult with and refer patients to other health practitioners. Like other health practitioners, chiropractors follow a standard routine to secure the information needed for diagnosis and treatment: They take the patient's medical history, conduct physical, neurologi cal, and orthopedic examinations, and may order laboratory tests. X rays and other diagnostic images are important tools because of the emphasis on the spine and its proper function. Chiropractors also employ a postural and spinal analysis unique to chiropractic diagnosis. In cases where difficulties can be traced to involvement of muscu loskeletal structures, chiropractors manually manipulate or adjust the spinal column. Many chiropractors also use water, light, massage, ultrasound, electric, and heat therapy and may apply supports such as straps, tapes, and braces. They may also counsel patients about nutrition, exercise, and stress management, but do not prescribe drugs or perform surgery. Some chiropractors specialize in sports injuries, neurology, orthopedics, nutrition, internal disorders, or diagnostic imaging. ■^\l Many chiropractors are self-employed. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Almost all chiropractors are solo or group practitioners who also have the administrative responsibilities of running a practice. In larger offices, chiropractors delegate these tasks to office managers and chiropractic assistants. Chiropractors in private practice are responsible for developing a patient base, hiring employees, and keeping records. Working Conditions Chiropractors work in clean, comfortable offices. The average workweek is about 42 hours, although longer hours are not uncom mon. Solo practitioners set their own hours, but may work evenings or weekends to accommodate patients. Chiropractors who take x rays must take appropriate precautions against the dangers of repeated exposure to radiation. Employment Chiropractors held about 42,000 jobs in 1994. About 70 percent of active chiropractors are in solo practice. The remainder are in group practice or work for other chiropractors. A small number teach, conduct research at chiropractic colleges, or work in hospitals and HMO's. Many chiropractors are located in small communities. There are geographic imbalances in the distribution of chiropractors, in part because many establish practices close to colleges of chiropractic. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia regulate the practice of chiropractic and grant licenses to chiropractors who meet educational requirements and pass a State board examination. Chiropractors can only practice in States where they are licensed. Some States have reciprocity agreements that permit chiropractors licensed in one State to obtain a license in another without further examination. Most State licensing boards require completion of a 4-year chiro practic college course following at least 2 years of undergraduate education, although a few States require a bachelor's degree. All State boards recognize academic training in chiropractic colleges accredited by the Council on Chiropractic Education. For licensure, most State boards recognize either all or part of the three-part test administered by the National Board of Chiropractic Examiners. State examinations may supplement the National Board tests, depending on State requirements. To maintain licensure, almost all States require completion of a specified number of hours of continuing education each year. Con tinuing education programs are offered by accredited chiropractic colleges and chiropractic associations. Special councils within some chiropractic associations also offer programs leading to clinical specialty certification, called "diplomate" certification, in areas such as orthopedics, neurology, sports injuries, occupational and industrial health, nutrition, radiology, thermography, and internal disorders. In 1994, 15 of the 17 chiropractic colleges in the United States were accredited by the Council on Chiropractic Education. All chiropractic colleges require applicants to have at least 2 years of undergraduate study, including courses in English, the social sciences or humanities, organic and inorganic chemistry, biology, physics, and psychology. Many applicants have a bachelors’ degree, which may eventually become the minimum entry requirement. Several chiro practic colleges offer prechiropractic study, as well as a bachelors' degree program. During the first 2 years, most chiropractic colleges emphasize classroom and laboratory work in basic science subjects such as anatomy, physiology, public health, microbiology, pathology, and Professional Specialty Occupations 157 biochemistry. The last 2 years stress courses in skeletal manipulation and spinal adjustments and provide clinical experience in physical and laboratory diagnosis, neurology, orthopedics, geriatrics, physio therapy, and nutrition. Colleges grant the degree of Doctor of Chiro practic (D.C.). Chiropractic requires keen observation to detect physical abnor malities. It also takes considerable hand dexterity to perform ma nipulations, but not unusual strength or endurance. Chiropractors should be able to work independently and handle responsibility. As in other health-related occupations, empathy, understanding, and the desire to help others are desirable qualities for dealing effectively with patients. Newly licensed chiropractors can set up a new practice, purchase an established one, or enter into partnership with an established practitioner. They may also take a salaried position with an estab lished chiropractor, a group practice, or a health care facility. Job Outlook Employment of chiropractors is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Demand for chiropractic is related to the ability of patients to pay, either directly or through health insurance, and to public awareness of the profes sion, which is growing. The rapidly expanding older population, with their increased likelihood of mechanical and structural prob lems, will also increase demand. In this occupation, replacement needs arise almost entirely from retirements. Chiropractors generally remain in the occupation until they retire; few transfer to other occupations. Earnings In 1994, median income for chiropractors was about $75,000, after expenses, according to the American Chiropractic Association. In chiropractic, as in other types of independent practice, earnings are relatively low in the beginning, and increase as the practice grows. In 1994, the lowest 10 percent of chiropractors had median net incomes of $28,000 or less, and the highest 10 percent earned $150,000 or more. Earnings are also influenced by the characteris tics and qualifications of the practitioner, and geographic location. Self-employed chiropractors must provide for their own health insurance and retirement. Related Occupations Chiropractors diagnose, treat, and work to prevent bodily disorders and injuries. So do physicians, dentists, optometrists, podiatrists, veterinarians, occupational therapists, and physical therapists. Dentists (D.O.T. 072, except .117) Nature of the Work Dentists diagnose, prevent, and treat problems of the teeth and tissues of the mouth. They remove decay and fill cavities, examine x rays, place protective plastic sealants on children's teeth, straighten teeth, and repair fractured teeth. They also perform corrective surgery of the gums and supporting bones to treat gum diseases. Dentists extract teeth and make molds and measurements for dentures to replace missing teeth. Dentists provide instruction in diet, brushing, flossing, the use of fluorides, and other aspects of dental care, as well. They also administer anesthetics and write prescriptions for antibiotics and other medications. Dentists use a variety of equipment including x-ray machines, drills, and instruments such as mouth mirrors, probes, forceps, brushes, and scalpels. Dentists in private practice oversee a variety of administrative tasks, including bookkeeping, and buying equipment and supplies. They may employ and supervise dental hygienists, dental assistants, dental laboratory technicians, and receptionists. (These occupations are described elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most dentists are general practitioners who handle a wide variety of dental needs. Other dentists practice in one of eight specialty areas. Orthodontists, the largest group of specialists, straighten teeth. The next largest group, oral and maxillofacial surgeons, operate on the mouth and jaws. The remainder specialize in pediatric dentistry (dentistry for children); periodontics (treating the gums and the bone supporting the teeth); prosthodontics (making artificial teeth or dentures); endodontics (root canal therapy); dental public health; and oral pathology (studying diseases of the mouth). Working Conditions Most dentists work 4 or 5 days a week. Some dentists work evenings and weekends to meet their patients' needs. Most full-time dentists work about 40 hours a week; some worked more. Younger dentists may work fewer hours as they establish their practice, while older dentists often work fewer hours. A considerable number continue in part-time practice well beyond the usual retirement age. Most dentists are "solo practitioners," that is they own their own businesses and work alone or with a small staff. Some dentists have partners, and a few work for other dentists as associate dentists. Sources of Additional Information General information on chiropractic as a career is available from: •■American Chiropractic Association, 1701 Clarendon Blvd., Arlington VA 22209. •■International Chiropractors Association, 1110 North Glebe Rd., Suite 1000, Arlington, VA 22201. •■World Chiropractic Alliance, 2950 N. Dobson Rd., Suite 1, Chandler AZ 85224-1802. For a list of chiropractic colleges, as well as general information on chiropractic as a career, contact: ••Council on Chiropractic Education, 7975 North Hayden Rd., Suite A-210, Scottsdale, AZ 85258. For information on State education and licensure requirements, contact: •■Federation of Chiropractic Licensing Boards, 901 54th Ave., Suite 101 Greeley, CO 80634. For information on requirements for admission to a specific chiropractic college, as well as scholarship and loan information, contact the admissions office of the individual college. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most dentists own their own businesses and work alone or with a small staff. 158 Occupational Outlook Handbook Dentists wear masks, gloves, and safety glasses to protect them selves and their patients from infectious diseases like hepatitis. Employment Dentists held about 164,000 jobs in 1994. About 9 out of 10 dentists are in private practice. Others work in private and public hospitals and clinics, and in dental research. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Columbia require dentists to be licensed. To qualify for a license in most States, a candidate must graduate from a dental school accredited by the American Dental Association's Commission on Dental Accreditation and pass written and practical examinations. Candidates may fulfill the written part of the State licensing by passing the National Board Dental Examina tions. Individual States or regional testing agencies give the written and/or practical examinations. Currently, about 17 States require dentists to obtain a specialty license before practicing as a specialist. Requirements include 2 to 4 years of post graduate education and, in some cases, completion of a special State examination. Most State licenses permit dentists to engage in both general and specialized practice. Dentists who want to teach or do research usually spend an additional 2 to 5 years in advanced dental training in programs operated by dental schools or hospitals. Dental schools require a minimum of 2 years of college-level predental education. However, most dental students have at least a bachelor's degree. Predental education emphasizes course work in the sciences. All dental schools require applicants to take the Dental Admis sions Test (DAT). They consider scores earned on the DAT, the applicants' overall grade point average (GPA), science course GPA, and information gathered through recommendations and interviews when selecting students. Dental school generally lasts 4 academic years. Studies begin with classroom instruction and laboratory work in basic sciences including anatomy, microbiology, biochemistry, and physiology. Beginning courses in clinical sciences, including laboratory tech nique courses, also are provided at this time. During the last 2 years, students treat patients, usually in dental clinics under the supervision of licensed dentists. Most dental schools award the degree of Doctor of Dental Sur gery (D.D.S). The rest award an equivalent degree, Doctor of Dental Medicine (D.M.D.). Dentistry requires diagnostic ability and manual skills. Dentists should have good visual memory, excellent judgment of space and shape, and a high degree of manual dexterity, as well as scientific ability. Good business sense, self-discipline, and communication skills, are helpful for success in private practice. High school stu dents who want to become dentists should take courses in biology, chemistry, physics, health, and mathematics. Some recent dental school graduates work for established dentists as associates for a year or two in order to gain experience and save money to equip an office of their own. Most dental school graduates, however, purchase an established practice or open a new practice immediately after graduation. Each year about one-fourth to onethird of new graduates enroll in postgraduate training programs to prepare for a dental specialty. Job Outlook Employment of dentists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. While employ ment growth will provide some job opportunities, the vast majority will result from the need to replace the large number of dentists projected to retire. Job prospects should be good if the number of dental school graduates does not grow thus keeping the supply of newly qualified dentists at current levels. A stable number of gradu ates is consistent with data showing that first-year enrollees in dental school programs have changed little since the late-1980s. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Demand for dental care should grow substantially through 2005. As members of the baby boom generation advance into middle age, a large number will need maintenance on complicated dental work like bridges. Plus, elderly people are more likely to retain their teeth than their predecessors, so they will require much more care than in the past. The younger generation will continue to need preventive check-ups despite treatments like fluoridation of the water supply which decrease the incidence of dental caries. However, the employment of dentists is not expected to grow as rapidly as the demand for dental services. As their practices expand, dentists are likely to hire more dental hygienists and dental assistants to handle routine services that they now perform themselves. Earnings The net median income of dentists in private practice was about $100,000 a year in 1994, according to the American Dental Associa tion. Net median income of those in specialty practices was about $132,500 a year, and for those in general practice, $97,450 a year. Dentists in the beginning years of their practice often earn less, while those in mid-careers earn more. A relatively large proportion of dentists are self-employed. Like other business owners, these dentists must provide their own health insurance, life insurance, and retirement benefits. Related Occupations Dentists examine, diagnose, prevent, and treat diseases and abnor malities. So do clinical psychologists, optometrists, physicians, chiropractors, veterinarians, and podiatrists. Sources of Additional Information For information on dentistry as a career and a list of accredited dental schools, contact: ••American Dental Association, Department of Career Guidance, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, IL 60611. •"American Association of Dental Schools, 1625 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036. The American Dental Association also will furnish a list of State boards of dental examiners. Persons interested in practicing dentistry should obtain the requirements for licensure from the board of dental examiners of the State where they plan to work. Prospective dental students should contact the office of student financial aid at the schools to which they apply for information on scholarships, grants, and loans, including Federal financial aid. Optometrists D.O.T. 079.101-018) Nature of the Work Over half the people in the United States wear glasses or contact lenses. Optometrists (doctors of optometry, also known as O.D.'s) provide most of the primary vision care people need. Optometrists examine people's eyes to diagnose vision problems and eye diseases. They treat vision problems, and in most States, they treat certain eye diseases such as conjunctivitis, glaucoma, or corneal infections. Optometrists use instruments and observation to examine eye health and to test patients' visual acuity, depth and color perception, and their ability to focus and coordinate the eyes. They analyze test results and develop a treatment plan. Optometrists prescribe eyeglasses, contact lenses, and vision therapy. They use drugs for diagnosis in all States and, as of 1995, may use topical and oral drugs to treat some eye diseases in 46 States. Optometrists often provide postoperative care to cataract and other eye surgery patients. When optometrists diagnose conditions that require care beyond the optometric scope of practice such as diabetes or high blood pressure, they refer patients to other health practitioners. Professional Specialty Occupations 159 Optometrists examine people's eyes to diagnose vision problems and eye disease. Optometrists should not be confused with ophthalmologists or dispensing opticians. Ophthalmologists are physicians who diagnose and treat eye diseases and injuries. They perform surgery and pre scribe drugs. Like optometrists, they also examine eyes and pre scribe eyeglasses and contact lenses. Dispensing opticians fit and adjust eyeglasses and in some States may fit contact lenses according to prescriptions written by ophthalmologists or optometrists. (See statements on physicians and dispensing opticians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most optometrists are in general practice. Some specialize in work with the elderly, children, or partially sighted persons who need specialized visual aids to improve their vision. Others develop and implement ways to protect workers' eyes from on-the-job strain or injury. Some specialize in contact lenses, sports vision, or vision therapy. A few teach optometry, do research, or consult. Most optometrists are private practitioners who also handle the business aspects of running an office, such as developing a patient base, hiring employees, keeping records, and ordering equipment and supplies. Optometrists who operate franchise optical stores may also have some of these duties. Working Conditions Optometrists work in places—usually their own offices—that are clean, well lighted, and comfortable. The work requires attention to detail and manual dexterity. Most full-time optometrists work about 40 hours a week, but a substantial number work more than 50 hours a week. Many work Saturdays and evenings to suit the needs of pa tients, but emergency calls are few. Employment Optometrists held about 37,000 jobs in 1994. The number of jobs is greater than the number of practicing optometrists because some optometrists hold two or more jobs. For example, an optometrist may have a private practice, but also work in another practice, clinic, or vision care center. About one-half of all optometrists are selfemployed. Although many optometrists practice alone, a growing number are in a partnership or group practice. Some optometrists work as sala ried employees of other optometrists or of ophthalmologists, hospi tals, health maintenance organizations (HMO’s), or retail optical stores. A small number of optometrists are consultants for industrial safety programs, insurance companies, manufacturers of ophthalmic products, HMO's, and others. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require that optometrists be licensed. Applicants for a license must have a Doctor of Optometry degree from an accredited optometry school and pass both a written and a clinical State board examination. In many States, applicants can substitute the examinations of the National Board of Examiners in Optometry, usually taken during the student's academic career, for part or all of the written examination. Licenses are renewed every 1 to 2 years and in most States, continuing education credits are needed for renewal. The Doctor of Optometry degree requires completion of a 4-year program at an accredited optometry school preceded by at least 3 years of preoptometric study at an accredited college or university (most optometry students hold a bachelor's degree). In 1995, 17 U.S. schools and colleges of optometry were accredited by the Council on Optometric Education of the American Optometric Association. Requirements for admission to schools of optometry include courses in English, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology. A few schools require or recommend courses in psychology, history, sociology, speech, or business. Applicants must take the Optometry Admissions Test (OAT), which measures academic ability and scientific comprehension. Most applicants take the test after their sophomore or junior year. Competition for admission is keen. Optometry programs include classroom and laboratory study of health and visual sciences, as well as clinical training in the diagnosis and treatment of eye disorders. Included are courses in pharmacol ogy, optics, vision science, biochemistry, and systemic disease. Business ability, self-discipline, and the ability to deal tactfully with patients are important for success. Optometrists wishing to teach or do research may study for a master's or Ph.D. degree in visual science, physiological optics, neurophysiology, public health, health administration, health infor mation and communication, or health education. One-year post graduate clinical residency programs are available for optometrists who wish to specialize in family practice optometry, pediatric op tometry, geriatric optometry, vision therapy, contact lenses, hospital based optometry, primary care optometry, or ocular disease. Job Outlook Employment of optometrists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 in response to the vision care needs of a growing and aging population. The maturing of the baby-boom generation, together with rapid growth in the oldest age group will drive this growth. As baby boomers reach the age of 45 they will be more likely to visit optometrists and ophthalmologists because of the onset of vision problems in middle age. The demand for optometric services will also increase because of growth in the oldest age group, with their increased likelihood of cataracts, glau coma, diabetes, and hypertension. Employment of optometrists will also grow due to greater recognition of the importance of vision care, rising personal incomes, and growth in employee vision care plans. Employment of optometrists would grow more rapidly were it not for anticipated productivity gains which will allow each optometrist to see more patients. These gains will result from greater use of optometric assistants and other support personnel, and the introduc tion of new equipment and procedures. Replacement needs are low. In this occupation, replacement needs arise almost entirely from retirements. Optometrists generally remain in practice until they retire; few transfer to other occupations. Earnings According to the American Optometric Association, new optometry graduates in their first year of practice earned median net incomes of about $55,500 in 1994. Overall, optometrists earned median net incomes of about $80,000. Incomes vary depending upon location, specialization, and other factors. Salaried optometrists tend to earn more initially than op- 160 Occupational Outlook Handbook tometrists who set up their own independent practice. In the long run, those in private practice generally earn more. Table 1. Percent distribution of M.D.'s by specialty, 1993 Percent Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who apply scientific knowledge to prevent, diagnose, and treat disorders and injuries are chiropractors, dentists, physicians, podiatrists, veterinarians, speech-language pathologists, and audiologists. Sources of Additional Information For information on optometry as a career and a listing of accredited optometric educational institutions, as well as required preoptometry courses write to: ••American Optometric Association, Educational Services, 243 North Lind bergh Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63141-7881. •-Association of Schools and Colleges of Optometry, 6110 Executive Blvd., Suite 690, Rockville, MD 20852. The Board of Optometry in each State can supply information on licensing requirements. For information on specific admission requirements and sources of financial aid, contact the admissions officer of individual optome try schools. Physicians (D.O.T. 070 and 071) Nature of the Work Physicians serve a fundamental role in our society and have an effect upon all our lives. They diagnose illnesses, and prescribe and admin ister treatment for people suffering from injury or disease. Physi cians examine patients; obtain medical histories; and order, perform, and interpret diagnostic tests. They counsel patients on diet, hygiene, and preventive health care. They may be part of a team that coordi nates care for a population of patients. There are two types of physicians: The M.D.—Doctor of Medi cine—an(j the D.O.—Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine. M.D.'s are also known as allopathic physicians. While M.D.'s and D.O.'s may use all accepted methods of treatment, including drugs and surgery, D.O.'s place special emphasis on the body's musculoskeletal system. They believe that good health requires proper alignment of bones, muscles, ligaments, and nerves. D.O's use osteopathic manipulative techniques to diagnose and treat patients. About one third of M.D.'s are primary care physicians— pediatricians, general and family practitioners, or general internists— who are usually the first health professionals patients consult. They tend to see the same patients on a regular basis for preventive care and to treat a variety of ailments. When appropriate, they refer patients to other specialists (See table 1.) D.O.’s are more likely to be primary care providers than allopathic physicians, although they can be found in all specialties. Working Conditions Many physicians work long, irregular hours. About one-half of all full-timers in 1994 worked 60 hours a week or more. In general, as doctors approach retirement age, they may accept fewer new patients and tend to work shorter hours. Physicians who are on-call may make emergency visits to hospitals. Increasingly, physicians are practicing in groups or health care organizations that provide back-up coverage and allow for more time off. Many physicians must travel frequently between office and hospital to care for their patients. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Total.................................. General and family practice.... Internal medicine..................... Pediatrics................................. Medical specialties Allergy.............................. Cardiovascular diseases .... Dermatology..................... Gastroenterology.............. Obstetrics and gynecology Pediatric cardiology......... Pulmonary diseases.......... Surgical specialties Colon and rectal surgery......................... General surgery....................................... Neurological surgery............................... Ophthalmology....................................... Orthopedic surgery................................. Otalaryngology....................................... Plastic surgery........................................ Thoracic surgery.................................... Urological surgery................................. Other specialties Aerospace medicine............................... Anesthesiology....................................... Child psychiatry..................................... Diagnostic radiology.............................. Emergency medicine.............................. Forensic pathology................................. General preventive medicine................. Neurology............................................... Nuclear medicine................................... Occupational medicine........................... Pathology............................................... Physical medicine and rehabilitation..... Psychiatry.............................................. Public health........................................... Radiology.............................................. Radiation oncology................................ Other specialty....................................... Unspecified/unknown/inactive.............. 100.0 ... 10.7 ... 16.5 ... 6.9 ... .5 2.6 1.2 1.2 5.3 .2 1.0 .1 5.7 .7 2.5 3.1 1.3 .7 .3 1.4 .1 4.4 .7 2.8 2.4 .1 .2 1.5 .2 .4 2.6 .7 5.5 .3 1.1 .5 1.1 13.4 SOURCE: American Medical Association Employment Physicians (M.D.'s and D.O.'s) held about 539,000 jobs in 1994. About 2 out of 3 were in office-based practice, including clinics and HMO's; about one-quarter were employed in hospitals. Others practiced in the Federal Government, most in Department of Veter ans Affairs hospitals and clinics or in the Public Health Service of the Department of Health and Human Services. A growing number of physicians are partners or salaried employ ees of group practices. Organized as clinics or as groups of physi cians, medical groups can afford expensive medical equipment and realize other business advantages. The Northeast and West have the highest ratio of physicians to population; the South, the lowest. D.O.'s are more likely than M.D.'s to practice in small cities and towns and in rural areas. M.D.'s tend to locate in urban areas, close to hospital and educational centers. Some rural and inner city areas remain underserved, although the situation has improved. Osteopathic physicians locate chiefly in States that have osteo pathic schools and hospitals. In 1995, 3 out of 4 D.O.'s practiced in 12 States. Michigan had the most D.O.’s, followed by Pennsylvania, Ohio, Florida, New Jersey, and Texas. Professional Specialty Occupations 161 Job prospects are goodfor primary care physicians such as family practitioners and internists. Training and Other Qualifications It usually takes about 11 years to become a physician: 4 years of undergraduate school, 4 years of medical school, and 3 years in residency. However, a few medical schools offer a combined college and medical school program that lasts 6 years instead of the custom ary 8 years. For some specialties, residency may take longer, up to 8 years. Premedical students must complete undergraduate work in phys ics, biology, mathematics, English, and inorganic and organic chem istry. Students should also take courses in humanities and the social sciences. Applicants may also want to volunteer at a local hospital or clinic to gain practical experience in the health professions. The minimum educational requirement for entry to a medical or osteopathic school is 3 years of college; most applicants, however, have at least a bachelor's degree, and many have advanced degrees. There are 141 medical schools in the United States—125 teach allopathic medicine and award a Doctor of Medicine (M.D.); 16 teach osteopathic medicine and award the Doctor of Osteopathy (D.O.). Acceptance to medical school is very competitive. Appli cants must submit transcripts, scores from the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT), and letters of recommendation. Most schools require an interview with an admissions officer. Schools also consider character, personality, leadership qualities, and participation in extracurricular activities. Students spend most of the first 2 years of medical school in laboratories and classrooms taking courses such as anatomy, bio chemistry, physiology, pharmacology, psychology, microbiology, pathology, medical ethics, and laws governing medicine. They also learn to take medical histories, examine patients, and recognize symptoms. During the last 2 years, students work with patients under the supervision of experienced physicians in hospitals and clinics to learn acute, chronic, preventive, and rehabilitative care. Through rotations in internal medicine, family practice, obstetrics and gyne cology, pediatrics, psychiatry, and surgery, they gain experience in the diagnosis and treatment of illness. Following medical school, almost all M.D.'s go directly on to graduate medical education, called a residency. All students, includ ing foreign medical school graduates, applying for licensure-a requirement for the job of resident-take a standard examination. Most D.O.'s serve a 12-month rotating internship after graduation. The National Board of Osteopathic Medical Examiners gives an examination for internship application. Following their internship, many D.O.'s take a residency program in a specialty area. All States, the District of Columbia, and U.S. territories license physicians. To be licensed, physicians must graduate from an ac credited medical school, pass a licensing examination, and complete https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1 to 7 years of graduate medical education—a residency for M.D.'s and an internship and residency for D.O.'s. Although physicians licensed in one State can usually get a license to practice in another without further examination, some States limit reciprocity. Gradu ates of foreign medical schools can qualify for licensure after passing an examination and completing a U.S. hospital residency training program. M.D.'s and D.O.'s seeking board certification in a specialty may spend up to 7 years—depending on the specialty—in residency training. A final examination immediately after residency, or after 1 or 2 years of practice, is also necessary for board certification by the American Board of Medical Specialists (ABMS) or the American Osteopathic Association (AOA). There are 24 specialty boards: Allergy and immunology; anesthesiology; colon and rectal surgery; dermatology; emergency medicine; family practice; internal medi cine; neurological surgery; nuclear medicine; obstetrics and gynecol ogy; ophthalmology; orthopedic surgery; otolaryngology; pathology; pediatrics; physical medicine and rehabilitation; plastic surgery; preventive medicine; psychiatry and neurology; radiology; surgery; thoracic surgery; and urology. For those training in a subspecialty, another 1 to 2 years of residency is usual. To teach or do research, physicians may need a master's or Ph.D. in such fields as biochemistry or microbiology. They may otherwise spend 1 year or more in research or in an advanced clinical training fellowship. A physician's training is costly. While education costs have increased, student financial assistance has not. Over 80 percent of medical students borrow money to cover their expenses. People who wish to become physicians must have a desire to serve patients, be self-motivated, and be able to survive the pressures and long hours of medical education and practice. Prospective physicians must also be willing to study throughout their career to keep up with medical advances. Physicians should have a good bedside manner, emotional stability, and the ability to make deci sions in emergencies. Job Outlook Employment of physicians is expected to grow faster than the aver age for all occupations through the year 2005 due to continued expansion of the health industry. New technologies permit more intensive care: Physicians can do more tests, perform more proce dures, and treat conditions previously regarded as untreatable. In addition, the population is growing and aging, and health care needs increase sharply with age. The need to replace physicians is lower than for most occupations because almost all physicians remain in the profession until they retire. Job prospects are good for primary care physicians such as family practitioners and internists, and for geriatric and preventive care specialists. Because of efforts to control health care costs and in creased reliance on utilization guidelines that often limit the use of specialty services, a lower percentage of specialists will be in de mand. Some shortages have been reported in the specialty area of general surgery, and in some rural and low income areas. This is because physicians find these areas unattractive due to low earnings potential, isolation from medical colleagues, or other reasons, not because of any overall shortage. Some health care analysts believe that there is, or that there soon could be a general oversupply of physicians; others disagree. In analyzing job prospects, it should be kept in mind that an oversupply may not necessarily limit the ability of physicians to find employ ment or to set up and maintain a practice. It could result in physi cians delegating fewer tasks and working fewer hours. Physicians might be able to spend more time with each patient, give more attention to preventive care, and provide more services in rural and poor areas. It is also possible that physicians trained in specialties would provide services outside their specialty area. Unlike their predecessors, newly trained physicians face radically different choices of where and how to practice. Many new physi- 162 Occupational Outlook Handbook cians are less likely to enter solo practice and more likely to take salaried jobs in group medical practices, clinics, and HMO's in order to have regular work hours and the opportunity for peer consultation. Others will take salaried positions simply because they cannot afford the high costs of establishing a private practice while paying off student loans. Earnings Physicians have among the highest earnings of any occupation. According to the American Medical Association, average (mean) income, after expenses, for allopathic physicians was about $189,300 in 1993, and median income was $156,000. The middle 50 percent earned between $108,000 and $240,000. Self-employed physiciansthose who own or are part owners of their medical practice-had higher median incomes than salaried physicians. Earnings vary according to number of years in practice; geographic region; hours worked; and skill, personality, and professional reputation. As shown in table 2, median income of allopathic physicians, after expenses, also varies by specialty. Table 2. Median net income of M.D.’s after expenses, 1993 All physicians............................................................................ $156,000 Radiology................................................................................. Surgery...................................................................................... Anesthesiology.......................................................................... Obstetrics/gynecology............................................................... Pathology.................................................................................. Emergency medicine................................................................ Internal medicine...................................................................... Psychiatry................................................................................. Pediatrics.................................................................................. General/Family practice........................................................... 240.000 225.000 220.000 200,000 170.000 164.000 150.000 120.000 120,000 110,000 SOURCE: American Medical Association Average salaries of medical residents ranged from $30,753 in 1994-95 for those in their first year of residency to $41,895 for those in their eighth year, according to the Association of American Medi cal Colleges. Related Occupations Physicians work to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, disorders, and injuries. Professionals in other occupations that require similar kinds of skill and critical judgment include acupuncturists, audiolo gists, chiropractors, dentists, nurse practitioners, optometrists, podia trists, speech pathologists, and veterinarians. Podiatrists (D.O.T. 079.101-022) Nature of the Work The human foot is a complex structure. It contains 26 bones—plus muscles, nerves, ligaments, and blood vessels—and is designed for balance and mobility. Podiatrists, also known as doctors of podiatric medicine (DPM's), diagnose and treat disorders, diseases and injuries of the foot and lower leg to keep this part of the body working properly. Podiatrists treat corns, calluses, ingrown toenails, bunions, heel spurs, and arch problems; ankle and foot injuries, deformities and infections; and foot complaints associated with diseases such as diabetes. To treat these problems, podiatrists prescribe drugs, order physical therapy, set fractures, and perform surgery. They also fit corrective inserts called orthotics, design plaster casts and strappings to correct deformities, and design custom-made shoes. Podiatrists may use a force plate to help design the orthotics and shoes. Patients walk across a plate connected to a computer that "reads" the patients' feet. From the computer readout, podiatrists order the correct design. To diagnose a foot problem, podiatrists order x rays and labora tory tests. The foot may be the first area to show signs of serious conditions such as arthritis, diabetes, and heart disease. For example, diabetics are prone to foot ulcers and infections due to their poor circulation. Podiatrists consult with and refer patients to other health practitioners when they detect symptoms of these disorders. Most podiatrists have a general practice. Some specialize in surgery, orthopedics, or public health. Besides these certified spe cialties, podiatrists may practice a subspecialty such as sports medi cine, pediatrics, dermatology, radiology, geriatrics, or diabetic foot care. Podiatrists generally are in private practice, which means that they run a small business. They may hire employees, order supplies, and keep records. Working Conditions Podiatrists usually work independently in their own offices. They may also spend time visiting patients in nursing homes or performing surgery at a hospital. Those with private practices set their own hours, but to meet the needs of their patients, they may work eve nings and weekends. Employment Podiatrists held about 13,000 jobs in 1994. Most podiatrists are solo practitioners, although more are entering partnerships and multi- Sources of Additional Information For a list of allopathic medical schools, as well as general informa tion on premedical education, financial aid, and medicine as a career, contact; •"American Medical Association, 515 N. State St., Chicago, IL 60610. •"Association of American Medical Colleges, Section for Student Services, 2450 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20037-1131. For general information on osteopathic medicine as a career, contact: •"American Osteopathic Association, Department of Public Relations, 142 East Ontario St., Chicago, IL 60611. •"American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine, 6110 Execu tive Blvd., Suite 405, Rockville, MD 20852. Information on Federal scholarships and loans is available from the directors of student financial aid at schools of allopathic and osteopathic medicine. Information on licensing is available from State boards of examiners. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most podiatrists are solo practitioners. Professional Specialty Occupations specialty group practices. Others are employed in hospitals, nursing homes, and offices and clinics of physicians, including health main tenance organizations (HMO's). Public health departments employ podiatrists, too. Geographic imbalances are pronounced in podiatric medicine. Most podiatry graduates establish their practices in or near one of the seven States that have colleges of podiatric medicine— California, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. Large areas of the country—particularly the South, the Southwest, and nonmetropolitan areas—have few podiatrists. In these areas, foot care is typically provided by primary care physi cians and orthopedists. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require a license for the practice of podiatric medicine. Each defines its own licensing re quirements. Generally, the applicant must be a graduate of an ac credited college of podiatric medicine and pass written and oral examinations. Some States permit applicants to substitute the ex amination of the National Board of Podiatric Examiners, given in the second and fourth years of podiatric medical college, for part or all of the written State examination. Thirty-two States also require com pletion of an accredited residency program. Certain States grant reciprocity to podiatrists who are licensed in another State. Thirtyeight States require continuing education for licensure renewal. Prerequisites for admission to a college of podiatric medicine include the completion of at least 90 semester hours of undergraduate study, an acceptable grade point average, and suitable scores on the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT). All require 8 semester hours each of biology, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, and physics and 6 hours of English. Over 90 percent of podiatric students have a bachelor's degree. Colleges of podiatric medicine offer a 4-year program whose core curriculum is similar to that in other schools of medicine. During the first 2 years, students receive classroom instruction in basic sciences, including anatomy, chemistry, pathology, and pharmacology. Thirdand fourth-year students have clinical rotations in private practices, hospitals, and clinics. During these rotations, they learn how to take general and podiatric histories, perform routine physical examina tions, interpret tests and findings, make diagnoses, and perform therapeutic procedures. Graduates receive the doctor of podiatric medicine (DPM) degree. Most graduates complete a hospital residency program after receiving a DPM. Residency programs last from 1 to 3 years. Resi dents receive advanced training in podiatric medicine and surgery and serve clinical rotations in anesthesiology, internal medicine, pathology, radiology, emergency medicine, and orthopedic and general surgery. Residencies lasting more than 1 year provide more extensive training in specialty areas. There are a number of certifying boards for podiatric specialties. Certification means that the DPM meets higher standards than those required for licensure. Each board requires advanced training, com pletion of written and oral examinations, and experience as a practic ing podiatrist. People planning a career in podiatry should have scientific apti tude, manual dexterity, interpersonal skills, and good business sense. Podiatrists may advance to become professors at colleges of podiatric medicine, department chiefs of hospitals, or general health administrators. They may also enter a higher degree program. Job Outlook Employment of podiatrists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. More people will turn to podiatrists for foot care as the elderly population grows. The elderly have more years of wear and tear on their feet and lower legs than most younger people, so they are more prone to foot ailments. In addition to growth, the need to replace podiatrists who leave the occupation will create employment opportunities. Relatively few https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 163 opportunities from this source are expected, however, since most podiatrists continue to practice until they retire; few transfer to other occupations. Even when combined, the number of job openings resulting from both growth and replacement needs is very low be cause the occupation is small. Like dental services, podiatric care is more dependent on dispos able income than other medical services. Medicare and most private health insurance programs cover acute medical and surgical foot services, as well as diagnostic x rays and leg braces. However, routine foot care—including the removal of corns and calluses—is ordinarily not covered. Because disposable income is expected to rise, more people are expected to pay for podiatric care out-of pocket. Establishing a new podiatric practice will be most difficult in the areas surrounding the seven colleges of podiatric medicine and in the Northeast since podiatrists are concentrated in these locations. Newly trained podiatrists will be more likely to work in group medi cal practices, clinics, and HMO's than in a traditional solo practice. Earnings According to a survey by Podiatry Management, median net income of podiatrists was about $95,600 in 1994. Earnings vary according to practice size and location, and years of experience. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who apply scientific knowledge to prevent, diagnose, and treat disorders and injuries are chiropractors, dentists, optometrists, physicians, and veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information For information on podiatric medicine as a career, contact: ••American Podiatric Medical Association, 9312 Old Georgetown Rd., Bethesda, MD 20814-1621. Information on colleges of podiatric medicine, entrance require ments, curriculums, and student financial aid is available from: •American Association of Colleges of Podiatric Medicine, 1350 Piccard Dr., Suite 322, Rockville, MD 20850-4307. Veterinarians (D.O.T. 073.) Nature of the Work Veterinarians care for pets, livestock, sporting and laboratory ani mals, and protect humans against diseases carried by animals. Vet erinarians diagnose medical problems, dress wounds, set broken bones, perform surgery, prescribe and administer medicines, and vaccinate animals against diseases. They also advise owners on care and breeding. Most veterinarians are in private practice. Some have a general practice, treating all kinds of animals. The majority, however, just treat small companion animals such as dogs, cats, and birds. Others treat both small and larger animals, and some treat only large ani mals, such as cattle and horses. Veterinarians in companion animal medicine provide services in over 20,000 animal hospitals or clinics. Veterinarians for large animals treat and care for cattle, horses, sheep, and swine. They also advise ranchers and farmers on the care, breeding, and management of livestock. Others specialize in fish and poultry. Veterinarians contribute to human as well as animal health. A number of veterinarians engage in research, food safety inspection, or education. Some work with physicians and scientists on research to prevent and treat diseases in humans. Veterinarians are also in regu latory medicine or public health. Those who are livestock inspectors 164 Occupational Outlook Handbook Most veterinarians are in private practice. check animals for disease, advise owners on treatment, and may quarantine animals. Veterinarians who are meat inspectors examine slaughtering and processing plants, check live animals and carcasses for disease, and enforce government food purity as well as sanitation regulations. Some veterinarians care for zoo or aquarium animals or for laboratory animals. , Veterinarians help prevent the outbreak and spread of animal diseases, some of which—like rabies—can be transmitted to humans, and perform autopsies on diseased animals. Some specialize in epidemiology or animal pathology to control diseases transmitted through food animals and to deal with problems of residues from herbicides, pesticides, and antibiotics in animals used for food. Working Conditions Veterinarians usually treat pets in hospitals and clinics. Often these facilities are noisy. Those in large animal practice usually work out of well-equipped mobile clinics and may drive considerable distances to farms and ranches. They may work outdoors in all kinds of weather. Veterinarians can be exposed to disease and infection and may be kicked, bitten, or scratched. Most veterinarians work 50 or more hours a week, however, about a fifth worked 40 hours. Those in private practice may work nights and weekends. Employment Veterinarians held about 56,000 jobs in 1994. About a third was self-employed, in solo or group practices. Most others were employ ees of a practice. The Federal Government employed about 2,800 civilian veterinarians, chiefly in the U.S. Departments of Agriculture, Defense, and Health and Human Services. Other employers of veterinarians are State and local governments, colleges of veterinary medicine, medical schools, research laboratories, animal food com panies, and pharmaceutical companies. A few veterinarians work for zoos. Most veterinarians caring for zoo animals are private practitio ners who contract with zoos to provide services, usually on a part time basis. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require that veterinarians be licensed. To obtain a license, applicants must have a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (D.V.M. or V.M.D.) degree from an accredited college of veterinary medicine and pass a State board examination. The majority of States allow an individual to apply for licensure upon receiving the D.V.M. degree without a residency and without https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis completing a prescribed number of hours of practice. Some States issue licenses without further examination to veterinarians already licensed by another State. For research and teaching jobs, a master's or Ph.D. degree usually is required. Veterinarians who seek specialty certification in a field such as ophthalmology, pathology, surgery, radiology, or laboratory animal medicine must complete a 3-year residency program, and pass an examination. The D.V.M. degree requires a minimum of 6 years of college consisting of at least 2 years of preveterinary study that emphasizes the physical and biological sciences and a 4-year veterinary program. Most successful applicants to veterinary programs have completed 4 years of college. In addition to academic instruction, training in cludes clinical experience in diagnosing and treating animal diseases, performing surgery, and performing laboratory work in anatomy, biochemistry, and other scientific and medical subjects. In 1994, all 27 colleges of veterinary medicine were accredited by the Council on Education of the American Veterinary Medical As sociation (AVMA). Admission is highly competitive. There are approximately 3.5 applicants for every position. Applicants usually have grades of "B" or better, especially in sciences. Applicants must take the Veterinary Aptitude Test, Medical College Admission Test, or the Graduate Record Examination and submit evidence they have experience working with animals. Colleges usually give preference to in-State applicants, because most are State supported. There are regional educational agreements in which States without veterinary schools send students to designated regional schools. In other areas, schools give preference to applicants from nearby States that do not have veterinary schools. To meet State licensure requirements, foreign-trained veterinari ans must fulfill the English language and clinical evaluation require ments of the Educational Commission for Foreign Veterinary Graduates. Most veterinarians begin as employees or partners in established practices. With experience, they may set up their own practice or purchase an established one. Newly trained veterinarians may become U.S. Government meat and poultry inspectors, disease-control workers, epidemiologists, research assistants, or commissioned officers in the U.S. Public Health Service. A State license may be required. Veterinarians need good manual dexterity. They should be able to calm animals that are upset, and get along with animal owners, and be able to make decisions in emergencies. Job Outlook The outlook for veterinarians is good, especially for those with specialty training in toxicology, laboratory animal medicine, animal behavior, or pathology. Prospects for veterinarians who specialize in farm animals are also better than average because most veterinarians prefer working in metropolitan areas. Employment of veterinarians is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The number of pets is expected to show a steady increase because of rising in comes and the movement of baby boomers into the 34-59 year age group, for which pet ownership is highest. Pet owners may also more willingly pay for more intensive care than in the past. In addition, emphasis on scientific methods of breeding and raising livestock and poultry, and continued support for public health and disease control programs will contribute to the demand for veteri narians. Jobs will also open as veterinarians retire. Earnings The average starting salary of 1994 veterinary medical college graduates was $30,694, according to the American Veterinary Medi cal Association. The average income of veterinarians in private practice was $59,188 in 1994. Professional Specialty Occupations 165 The average annual salary for veterinarians in the Federal Gov ernment in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $53,929 in 1995. Related Occupations Veterinarians prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, disorders, and injuries in animals. Workers who do this for humans include audi ologists, chiropractors, dentists, optometrists, physicians, podiatrists, and speech pathologists. Other occupations that involve working with animals include animal trainers, zoologists, marine biologists, naturalists, and veterinary technicians. Sources of Additional Information For more information on careers in veterinary medicine and veteri nary technology write to: •“American Veterinary Medical Association, 1931 N. Meacham Rd„ Suite 100, Schaumburg, IL 60173-4360. For information on scholarships, grants, and loans, contact the financial aid officer at the veterinary schools to which you wish to apply. For information on veterinary education, write to: •"Association of American Veterinary Medical Colleges, 1101 Vermont Ave. NW„ Suite 710, Washington, DC 20005. Health Assessment and Treating Occupations Dietitians and Nutritionists (D.O.T. 077 except .117-010 and .124-010) Nature of the Work Dietitians and nutritionists plan nutrition programs and supervise the preparation and serving of meals. They help prevent and treat ill nesses by promoting healthy eating habits, scientifically evaluating clients' diets, and suggesting modifications such as less salt for those with high blood pressure or reduced fat and sugar intake for those who are overweight. Dietitians run food service systems for institutions such as hospi tals and schools, promote sound eating habits through education, and conduct research. Major areas of practice are clinical, community, management, and consultant dietetics. Clinical dietitians provide nutritional services for patients in institutions such as hospitals and nursing homes. They assess pa tients' nutritional needs, develop and implement nutrition programs, and evaluate and report the results. They also confer with doctors and other health care professionals in order to coordinate medical and nutritional needs. Some clinical dietitians specialize in the manage ment of overweight patients, care of the critically ill, or care of renal (kidney) and diabetic patients. In addition, clinical dietitians in nursing homes or small hospitals may also manage the food service department. Community dietitians counsel individuals and groups on nutri tional practices designed to prevent disease and to promote good health. Working in such places as public health clinics, home health agencies, and health maintenance organizations, they evaluate indi vidual needs, develop nutritional care plans, and instruct individuals and their families. Dietitians working in home health agencies may provide instruction on grocery shopping and food preparation to the elderly, or patients with AIDS, cancer, or diabetes. Popular interest in nutrition has led to opportunities in food manufacturing, advertising, and marketing, where dietitians analyze foods, prepare literature for distribution, or report on issues such as the nutritional content of recipes, dietary fiber, or vitamin supplements. Management dietitians oversee large-scale meal planning and preparation in such places as health care facilities, company cafete rias, prisons, and schools. They hire, train, and direct other dietitians and food service workers; budget for and purchase food, equipment, and supplies; enforce sanitary and safety regulations; and prepare records and reports. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Consultant dietitians work under contract with health care facili ties or in their own private practice. They perform nutrition screen ing for their clients, and offer advice on diet-related concerns such as weight loss or cholesterol reduction. Some work for wellness pro grams, sports teams, supermarkets, and other nutrition-related busi nesses. They may consult with food service managers, providing expertise in sanitation, safety procedures, budgeting, and planning. Working Conditions Most dietitians work a regular 40-hour week, although some work weekends. Many dietitians work part time. Dietitians and nutritionists spend much of their time in clean, well-lighted, and well-ventilated areas. However, some dietitians spend time in hot, steamy kitchens. Dietitians and nutritionists may be on their feet for most of the workday. Employment Dietitians and nutritionists held about 53,000 jobs in 1994. Over half were in hospitals and nursing homes. State and local governments provided about 1 job in 6-mostly in health departments and other public health related areas. Other jobs were in social service agencies, residential care facilities, diet work shops, physical fitness facilities, school systems, colleges and uni- Employment of dietitians will grow due to increased emphasis on the prevention of disease by improved health habits. 166 Occupational Outlook Handbook versities, and the Federal Govemment-mostly in the Department of Veterans Affairs. Others were employed by firms that provide food services on contract to such facilities as colleges and universities, airlines, and company cafeterias. Some dietitians were self-employed, working as consultants to facilities like hospitals and nursing homes and seeing individual clients. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The basic educational requirement is a bachelor's degree with a major in dietetics, foods and nutrition, food service systems management, or a related area. Students take courses in foods, nutrition, institution management, chemistry, biology, microbiology, and physiology. Other suggested courses include business, mathematics, statistics, computer science, psychology, sociology, and economics. Of the 37 States that have laws governing dietetics, 24 require licensure, 12 require certification, and 1 requires registration. The Commission on Dietetic Registration of the American Dietetic Association (ADA) awards the Registered Dietitian credential to those who pass a certification exam after completing their academic education and supervised experience. As of 1995, there were 233 ADA-approved bachelor's degree programs. Supervised practice experience can be acquired in two ways. There are 51 ADA-accredited coordinated programs that combine academic and supervised practice experience in a 4-year program. The second option requires completion of 900 hours of supervised practice experience, either in one of the 157 ADAaccredited internships or in one of the 91 ADA-approved preprofes sional practice programs. Internships and preprofessional practice programs may be full-time programs lasting 9 to 12 months or part time programs lasting 2 years. Students interested in research, advanced clinical positions, or public health should get a graduate degree. Recommended high school courses include biology, chemistry, mathematics, health, and home economics. Experienced dietitians may advance to assistant, associate, or director of a dietetic department or become self-employed. Some dietitians specialize in areas such as renal or pediatric dietetics. Others may leave the occupation to become sales representatives for equipment or food manufacturers. Job Outlook Employment of dietitians is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 due to increased emphasis on the prevention of disease by improved health habits. A growing and aging population will increase demand for meals and nutritional counseling in nursing homes, schools, prisons, community health programs, and home health care agencies. Public interest in nutrition and the emphasis on health education and prudent lifestyles will also spur demand. Besides employment growth, job openings will also result from the need to replace experienced workers who leave the occupation. Employment of dietitians in hospitals is expected to show little change because of anticipated slow growth in the number of inpa tients, and as hospitals contract out food service operations. On the other hand, faster than average growth in employment is expected in nursing homes as the number of very old people rises sharply, in contract providers of food services, in residential care facilities, in offices and clinics of physicians, and in other social services. Employment growth for dietitians and nutritionists may be some what constrained by the substitutability of other workers such as nurses, health educators, food service managers, and dietetic techni cians. Growth would also be faster except for limitations on insur ance reimbursement for dietetic services. Earnings According to the American Dietetic Association, full-time registered dietitians with 5 years or less experience earned a median annual https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis salary of $29,600 a year in 1993; those with 6-10 years of experi ence, $34,400; 11-15 years, $37,900; 16-20 years, $40,400; and 20 years or more, $41,600. Management and self-employed dietitians earned more than clinical and community dietitians. Salaries also vary by educational level, geographic region, and size of community. According to a University of Texas Medical Branch survey of hospitals and medical centers, the median annual salary of dietitians was $31,372 in October 1994. The average minimum salary was $26,138 and the average maximum was $38,987. Related Occupations Dietitians and nutritionists apply the principles of nutrition in a variety of situations. Workers with duties similar to those of man agement dietitians include home economists and food service man agers. Nurses and health educators often provide services related to those of community dietitians. Sources of Additional Information For a list of academic programs, scholarships, and other information about dietetics, contact: ••The American Dietetic Association, 216 West Jackson Blvd., Chicago, IL 60606-6995. Occupational Therapists (D.O.T. 076.121-010 and .167-010) Nature of the Work Occupational therapists help individuals with mentally, physically, developmental^, or emotionally disabling conditions to develop, recover, or maintain daily living and work skills. They not only help patients improve basic motor functions and reasoning abilities, but also to compensate for permanent loss of function. Their goal is to help patients have independent, productive, and satisfying lifestyles. Occupational therapists assist patients in performing activities of all kinds, ranging from using a computer to caring for daily needs, such as dressing, cooking, and eating. Physical exercises may be used to increase strength and dexterity, while paper and pencil games may be chosen to improve visual acuity and the ability to discern patterns. A patient suffering short-term memory loss, for instance, might be encouraged to make lists to aid recall. One with coordina tion problems might be given extra tasks to improve hand-eye coor dination. Computer programs have been designed to help patients improve decisionmaking, abstract reasoning, problem solving, and perceptual skills, as well as memory, sequencing, and coordination— all of which are important for independent living. For those with permanent functional disabilities, such as spinal cord injuries, cerebral palsy, or muscular dystrophy, therapists pro vide such adaptive equipment as wheelchairs, splints, and aids for eating and dressing. They also design or make special equipment needed at home or at work. Therapists develop and teach patients to operate computer-aided adaptive equipment, such as microprocessing devices that permit individuals with severe limitations to communi cate, walk, operate telephones and television sets, and control other aspects of their environment. Some occupational therapists, called industrial therapists, help patients find and hold a job. They arrange employment, plan work activities and evaluate the patient's progress. Occupational therapists may work exclusively with individuals in a particular age group or with particular disabilities. In schools, for example, they evaluate children’s abilities, recommend therapy, modify classroom equipment, and in general, help children partici pate as fully as possible in school programs and activities. Occupational therapists in mental health settings treat mentally ill, mentally retarded, or emotionally disturbed individuals. To treat Professional Specialty Occupations -"I, Occupational therapists may use physical exercises to increase patients' strength and dexterity. these problems, therapists choose activities that help people learn to cope with daily life. Activities include time management skills, budgeting, shopping, homemaking, and use of public transportation. They may also work with patients suffering from alcoholism, drug abuse, depression, eating disorders, and stress related disorders. Recording a patient's activities and progress is an important part of an occupational therapist's job. Accurate records are essential for evaluating patients, billing, and reporting to physicians. Working Conditions Occupational therapists in hospitals and other health care settings generally work a regular 40-hour week. Those in schools may also participate in meetings and other activities, during and after the school day. In large rehabilitation centers, therapists may work in spacious rooms equipped with machines, tools, and other devices that may generate noise. The job can be tiring because therapists are on their feet much of the time. Those providing home health care may spend several hours a day driving from appointment to appointment. Therapists also face hazards such as backstrain from lifting and moving patients and equipment. Employment Occupational therapists held about 54,000 jobs in 1994. The largest number of jobs were in hospitals, including many in rehabilitation and psychiatric hospitals. School systems are the second largest employer of occupational therapists. Other major employers include offices of occupational therapists and other health practitioners, nursing homes, community mental health centers, adult daycare programs, job training services, and residential care facilities. A small but rapidly growing number of occupational therapists are in private practice. Some are solo practitioners, while others are in group practices. They see patients referred by physicians or other health professionals, or provide contract or consulting services to nursing homes, adult daycare programs, and home health agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor's degree in occupational therapy is the minimal require ment for entry into this field. In addition, 39 States, Puerto Rico, and the District of Columbia require a license to practice occupational therapy. To obtain a license, applicants must have a degree or a post bachelor's certificate from an accredited educational program and pass a national certification examination given by the American Occupational Therapy Certification Board. Those who pass the test are awarded the title of registered occupational therapist. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 167 In 1994, entry level education was offered in 69 bachelor's degree programs; 9 post-bachelor's certificate programs for students with a degree other than occupational therapy; and 19 entry level master's degree programs. Most schools have full-time programs, although a growing number also offer weekend or part-time programs. Occupational therapy coursework includes physical, biological, and behavioral sciences and the application of occupational therapy theory and skills. Completion of 6 months of supervised clinical internship is also required. Persons considering this profession should take high school courses in biology, chemistry, physics, health, art, and the social sciences. College admissions offices also look with favor on paid or volunteer experience in the health-care field. Warmth and patience are needed to inspire both trust and respect. Ingenuity and imagination in adapting activities to individual needs are assets. Individuals working in home health care must be able to successfully adapt to a variety of settings. Job Outlook Job opportunities for occupational therapists are expected to continue to be excellent. Employment of occupational therapists is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 due to anticipated growth in demand for rehabilitation and long-term care services. Several factors are increasing the need for rehabilitative services. Medical advances are now making it possible for more patients with critical problems to survive. These patients, however, may need extensive therapy. Also, there is the anticipated demand generated by the baby-boom generation's move into middle age, a period during which the incidence of heart attack and stroke increases. Additional services will also be demanded by the population 75 years of age and above, a rapidly growing age group that suffers from a very high incidence of disabling conditions. Finally, additional therapists will be needed to help children with disabilities prepare to enter special education programs, as required by recent Federal legislation. Due to industry growth and more intensive care, hospitals will continue to employ the largest number of occupational therapists. Hospitals will also need occupational therapists to staff their growing home health-care and outpatient rehabilitation programs. Moderate growth in schools will result from expansion of the school-age population and extended services for disabled students. Movement into private practice has been made more attractive by a legislative change which permits occupational therapists to bill Medicare directly for services provided. Previously, billings were submitted through a hospital, home health agency, or other Medi care-approved facility. Employment of occupational therapists in the home health field is expected to grow very fast. The rapidly growing number of people age 75 and older who are more likely to need home health care, and the greater use of at-home followup care will encourage this growth. Earnings According to a national survey of hospitals and medical centers conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch, the median annual salary for occupational therapists, based on a 40-hour week and excluding shift or area differentials, was $39,634 in October 1994. The average minimum was $33,728 and the average maxi mum was $49,392. Some States classify occupational therapists employed in public schools as teachers and pay accordingly. Therapists in private practice generally earned more than salaried workers. Related Occupations Occupational therapists use specialized knowledge to help individu als perform daily living skills and achieve maximum independence. Other workers performing similar duties include orthotists, prosthe tists, physical therapists, chiropractors, speech pathologists and audiologists, rehabilitation counselors, recreational therapists, art 168 Occupational Outlook Handbook therapists, music therapists, dance therapists, horticultural therapists, and manual arts therapists. Sources of Additional Information For more information on occupational therapy as a career, a list of education programs, and requirements for certification, write to: •■The American Occupational Therapy Association, 4720 Montgomery Ln., P.O. Box 31220, Bethesda, MD 20824-1220. Pharmacists (D.O.T. 074.161-010 and -014) Nature of the Work Pharmacists dispense drags prescribed by physicians and other health practitioners and provide information to patients about medications and their use. They advise physicians and other health practitioners on the selection, dosages, interactions, and side effects of medica tions. Pharmacists must understand the use, composition, and effects of drugs. Compounding-the actual mixing of ingredients to form powders, tablets, capsules, ointments, and solutions-is only a small part of a pharmacist's practice, because most medicines are produced by pharmaceutical companies in a standard dosage and form. Pharmacists in community (retail) pharmacies answer customers’ questions about prescription drags, such as possible adverse reactions and interactions. They provide information about over-the-counter drags and make recommendations after asking a series of health questions, such as whether the customer is on any other medication. They also give advice about durable medical equipment and home health care supplies. Those who own or manage community phar macies may buy and sell nonhealth-related merchandise, hire and supervise personnel, and oversee the general operation of the pharmacy. Pharmacists in hospitals and clinics dispense medications and advise the medical staff on the selection and effects of drags. They may make sterile solutions and buy medical supplies. They also monitor drag regimens, advise patients on the use of drags when they are discharged from the hospital, and evaluate drug use patterns in the hospital. Pharmacists who work in home health care prepare medications for use in the home and monitor drag therapy. Most pharmacists keep computerized records of patients’ drug therapies to ensure that harmful drug interactions do not occur. They may also teach health professions students. Some pharmacists specialize in specific aspects of drug therapy, such as drags for psychiatric disorders, intravenous nutrition, or the diagnostic use of radiopharmaceuticals. Working Conditions Pharmacists usually work in clean, well-lighted, and well-ventilated areas. Many pharmacists spend most of their time on their feet. When working with potentially dangerous or sterile pharmaceutical products, pharmacists wear gloves and masks and work with special protective equipment. Many community and hospital pharmacies are open long hours or around the clock, so pharmacists may work evenings, nights, weekends, and holidays. Pharmacists who consult may travel to nursing homes or other facilities. About 1 out of 6 pharmacists worked part time in 1994. Most full-time salaried pharmacists worked about 40 hours a week. Some, including most self-employed pharmacists, worked more than 50 hours a week. Employment Pharmacists held about 168,000 jobs in 1994. Three out of 5 worked in community pharmacies, either independently owned, part of a https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ' f ,■ , I Community pharmacies employed 3 out of 5 pharmacists. drug store chain, or part of a grocery or department store. Most community pharmacists were salaried, but a substantial number were self employed. About one-quarter worked in hospitals, and some worked for health maintenance organizations (HMO’s), clinics, home health care services, nursing homes, and the Federal Government. Some pharmacists hold more than one job. They may work a standard week in their primary work setting and also work part time elsewhere. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license to practice pharmacy is required in all States, the District of Columbia, and U.S. territories. To obtain a license, one must gradu ate from an accredited college of pharmacy (a few States allow graduation from certain foreign pharmacy programs), pass a State examination, and serve an internship under a licensed pharmacist. In 1995, all States except California and Florida usually granted a license without extensive reexamination to qualified pharmacists already licensed by another State. Many pharmacists are licensed to practice in more than one State. Most States require continuing education for license renewal. At least 5 years of study beyond high school are required to graduate from programs accredited by the American Council on Pharmaceutical Education. A Bachelor of Science (B.S.) in Phar macy, the degree received by most graduates, takes 5 years. A Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.) normally requires at least 6 years, during which an intervening bachelor's degree usually is not awarded. Those who already hold the bachelor's degree may enter Professional Specialty Occupations 169 Pharm.D. programs, but the combined period of study is usually longer than 6 years. In 1995, 75 colleges of pharmacy conferred degrees. The number of schools offering the Pharm.D. as the only professional degree increased to 27 and the number offering the B.S. in Pharmacy as the only professional degree continued to decline, reaching 25. Requirements for admission to colleges of pharmacy vary. A few colleges admit students directly from high school. Most colleges of pharmacy, however, require 1 or 2 years of college-level prephar macy education. Entry requirements usually include mathematics and basic sciences, such as chemistry, biology, and physics, as well as courses in the humanities and social sciences. Some colleges require the applicant to take the Pharmacy College Admissions Test (P-CAT). All colleges of pharmacy offer courses in pharmacy practice, designed to teach students to dispense prescriptions, communicate with patients and other health professionals, and to strengthen their understanding of professional ethics and practice management re sponsibilities. Pharmacists' training increasingly emphasizes direct patient care as well as consultative services to other health profes sionals. The bachelor's degree in pharmacy is generally acceptable for most positions in community pharmacies. However, a growing number of hospital employers prefer that a pharmacist have a Pharm.D. degree. A master's or Ph.D. degree in pharmacy or a related field usually is required to do research, and a Pharm.D. with additional residency or fellowship training, master's, or Ph.D. usually is necessary for faculty positions. In 1994-95, 60 colleges of pharmacy awarded the Master of Science degree or the Ph.D. degree. Although a number of pharmacy graduates interested in further training pursue an advanced degree in pharmacy, there are other options. Some enter 1- or 2-year residency programs or fellowships. Pharmacy residencies are organized, directed, postgraduate training programs in a defined area of phar macy practice, such as pediatrics, cardiology, oncology, or hospital pharmacy management. Pharmacy fellowships are directed, highly individualized programs designed to prepare participants to do independent research. Areas of graduate study include pharmaceutics and pharmaceuti cal chemistry (physical and chemical properties of drugs and dosage forms), pharmacology (effects of drugs on the body), and pharmacy administration, including social-behavioral aspects of patient care. Prospective pharmacists should have scientific aptitude, manual dexterity, and good interpersonal skills. In community pharmacies, pharmacists usually begin at the staff level. After they gain experience and secure the necessary capital, many become owners or part owners of pharmacies. Pharmacists in chain drug stores may be promoted to supervisory pharmacist at the store level and then at the district level, and later to an executive position within the chain's headquarters. Hospital pharmacists may advance to director of pharmacy serv ices or to other administrative positions. Pharmacists in the pharma ceutical industry may advance in marketing, sales, research, quality control, production, packaging, and other areas. Job Outlook Employment of pharmacists is expected to grow as fast as the aver age for all occupations through the year 2005, due to the increased pharmaceutical needs of a larger and older population and greater use of medication. As in other occupations, most job openings will result from the need to replace pharmacists who leave the profession. The increased number of middle-aged and elderly people will spur demand in all practice settings. Projected rapid growth in the elderly population is especially important because the number of prescriptions influences demand for pharmacists, and the elderly use more prescription drugs, on average, than younger people. Other factors likely to increase demand for pharmacists through the year 2005 include the likelihood of scientific advances that will https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis make more drug products available; new developments in administer ing medication; and increasingly sophisticated consumers seeking more information about drugs. The number of pharmacists in health services is expected to grow as pharmacists consult more and become more actively involved in patient drug therapy decision-making. The increased severity of the typical hospital patient's illness, together with rapid strides in drug therapy, will sustain demand for pharmacists in hospitals, HMO's, and other health care settings. Because of efforts to control prescription drug costs, retail phar macies are taking steps to increase their prescription volume to make up for declining dispensing fees. Employment of community phar macists would grow even more rapidly were it not for automation of drug dispensing that allows pharmacists to fill more prescriptions, and greater use of pharmacy technicians. If enrollments in colleges of pharmacy continue to rise, pharmacists may face competition for jobs. Earnings Median weekly earnings of full-time, salaried pharmacists were $954 in 1994. Half earned between $757 and $1,111. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $511 and the top 10 percent more than $1,319. According to a survey by Drug Topics magazine, published by Medical Economics, Inc., average base salaries of full-time, salaried pharmacists were $53,600 per year in 1994. Pharmacists working in chain drug stores had an average base salary of $54,900 per year, while pharmacists working in independent drug stores averaged $49,000, and hospital pharmacists averaged $54,300. Overall, sala ries for pharmacists were highest in the West and second highest in the East. Many pharmacists also receive compensation in the form of bonuses, overtime, and profit-sharing. Related Occupations Persons in other professions who work with pharmaceutical com pounds are pharmaceutical chemists and pharmacologists. Sources of Additional Information For information on pharmacy as a career, preprofessional and pro fessional requirements, programs offered by all the colleges of pharmacy, and student financial aid, contact: •"American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy, 1426 Prince St., Alexan dria, VA 22314. Information on requirements for licensure in a particular State is available from the Board of Pharmacy of the State or from: •"National Association of Boards of Pharmacy, 700 Busse Hwy., Park Ridge, IL 60068. Information on specific college entrance requirements, curriculums, and financial aid is available from the dean of any college of pharmacy. Physical Therapists D.O.T. 076.121-014) Nature of the Work Physical therapists improve mobility, relieve pain, and prevent or limit permanent physical disabilities of patients suffering from injuries or disease. Their patients include accident victims and disabled individuals with conditions such as multiple sclerosis, cerebral palsy, nerve injuries, bums, amputations, head injuries, fractures, low back pain, arthritis, and heart disease. Therapists evaluate patients’ medical histories, test and measure their strength, range of motion, and ability to function, and then develop treatment plans accordingly. These plans, which may be 170 Occupational Outlook Handbook based on physician's orders, describe the treatment strategy, its purpose, and the anticipated outcome. After devising a treatment strategy, physical therapists often delegate specific procedures to physical therapy assistants and aides. (Physical therapy assistants and aides are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Treatment often includes exercise for patients who have been immobilized and lack flexibility. Using a technique known as pas sive exercise, therapists increase the patient's flexibility by stretching and manipulating stiff joints and unused muscles. Later in the treat ment, they encourage patients to use their own muscles to further increase flexibility and range of motion before finally advancing to weights and other exercises that improve strength, balance, coordi nation, and endurance. Physical therapists also use electrical stimulation, hot or cold compresses, and ultrasound to relieve pain, improve the condition of muscles or related tissues, and to reduce swelling. They may use traction or deep-tissue massage to relieve pain and restore function. Therapists also teach patients to use crutches, prostheses, and wheel chairs to perform day-to-day activities, and show them exercises to do at home to expedite their recovery. As treatment continues, physical therapists document progress, conduct periodic evaluations, and modify treatments when necessary. Such documentation is used to track the patient’s progress, identify areas requiring more or less attention, justify billings, and for legal purposes. Some physical therapists treat a wide range of ailments; others specialize in areas such as pediatrics, geriatrics, orthopedics, sports medicine, neurology, and cardiopulmonary physical therapy. Working Conditions Physical therapists work in hospitals, clinics, and private offices that have specially equipped facilities, or they treat patients in hospital rooms, homes, or schools. Most physical therapists work a 40-hour week, which may in clude some evenings and weekends. The job can be physically demanding because therapists often have to stoop, kneel, crouch, lift, and stand for long periods of time. In addition, therapists move heavy equipment and lift patients or help them turn, stand, or walk. Employment Physical therapists held about 102,000 jobs in 1994; about 1 in 4 worked part time. Hospitals employed one-third and offices of physical therapists employed about one-quarter of all salaried physical therapists in 1994. Other jobs were in offices of physicians, home health agen cies, nursing homes, and schools. Some physical therapists are self Competition for entry into physical therapy programs is intense. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis employed in private practices. They may provide services to individ ual patients or contract to provide services in hospitals, rehabilitation centers, nursing homes, home health agencies, adult daycare pro grams, and schools. They may be in solo practice or be part of a consulting group. Some physical therapists teach in academic insti tutions and conduct research. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States require physical therapists to pass a licensure exam after graduating from an accredited physical therapy program, before they can practice. According to the American Physical Therapy Association (APTA), there were 145 accredited and 39 developing professional physical therapist programs as of June 1995. Of the accredited programs, 65 offered bachelor's degrees and 80 were master's degree programs. The bachelor's degree curriculum usually starts with basic science courses such as biology, chemistry, and physics, and then introduces specialized courses such as biomechanics, neuroanatomy, human growth and development, manifestations of disease and trauma, evaluation and assessment techniques, research, and thera peutic procedures. Besides classroom and laboratory instruction, students receive supervised clinical experience in hospitals. Individuals who have a 4-year degree in a related field, such as genetics or biology, and want to be a physical therapist, should enroll in a master's level physical therapy program. A master's degree is also recommended for those with a bachelor's degree in physical therapy who are interested in promotion to an administrative posi tion, or attaining a research or teaching job. Competition for entry to physical therapy programs is very in tense, so interested students should attain superior grades in high school and college, especially in science courses. Courses useful when applying to physical therapy programs include anatomy, biol ogy, chemistry, social science, mathematics, and physics. Before granting admission, many education programs require experience as a volunteer in the physical therapy department of a hospital or clinic. Physical therapists should have strong interpersonal skills so they can make patients understand the treatments. They should also be compassionate and posses a desire to help the patient adjust to their disabilities. Similar traits are also needed to deal with the patient’s family. Physical therapists should also have manual dexterity and physical stamina. Physical therapists are expected to continue to develop profes sionally by participating in continuing education courses and work shops from time to time. A number of States require continuing education for maintaining licensure. Job Outlook Anecdotal reports about shortages of physical therapists that existed in recent years are no longer common. The number of physical therapy education programs has increased and more graduates have moved into the labor force. Nonetheless, most graduates receive multiple job offers and job prospects are expected to continue to be excellent. Physical therapists who are willing to work in rural areas will experience even better job opportunities. Physical therapists is expected to be one of the fastest growing occupations through the year 2005. The rapidly growing elderly population is particularly vulnerable to chronic and debilitating conditions that require therapeutic services. Also, the baby-boom generation is entering the prime age for heart attacks and strokes, increasing the demand for cardiac and physical rehabilitation. More young people will also need physical therapy as medical advances save the lives of a larger proportion of newborns with severe birth defects. Future medical developments will also permit a higher percentage of trauma victims to survive, creating additional demand for rehabilitative care. Growth will also result from advances in medical technology which permit treatment of more disabling conditions. In the past, for example, the development of hip and knee replacements for those Professional Specialty Occupations 171 with arthritis gave rise to employment for physical therapists to improve flexibility and strengthen weak muscles. The widespread interest in health promotion should also increase demand for physical therapy services. A growing number of em ployers are using physical therapists to evaluate worksites, develop exercise programs, and teach safe work habits to employees in the hope of reducing injuries. Earnings In 1994, median annual earnings of salaried physical therapists who usually work full time were $37,596. The middle 50 percent earned between $26,34 and $46,956. The top 10 percent earned at least $61,776 and the bottom 10 percent earned less than $19,968. According to a University of Texas Medical Branch survey of hospitals and medical centers, the median salary of physical thera pists, based on a 40-hour week and excluding shift or area differen tials, was $41,288 a year in October 1994. The average minimum salary was $35,074 and the average maximum salary was $51,950. Physical therapists in private practice tend to earn more than salaried workers. Also, many sources report that salaries are higher in rural areas as employers try to attract therapists to where there are severe shortages. Related Occupations Physical therapists treat and rehabilitate persons with physical dis abilities. Others who work in the rehabilitation field include occupa tional therapists, corrective therapists, recreational therapists, manual arts therapists, speech pathologists and audiologists, orthotists, prosthetists, respiratory therapists, chiropractors, acupuncturists, and athletic trainers. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on a career as a physical therapist and a list of accredited educational programs in physical therapy are available from: •"American Physical Therapy Association, 1111 North Fairfax St., Alexan dria, VA 22314-1488. Employment opportunities are expected to be excellent for physician assistants. Physician Assistants (D.O.T. 079.364-018) Nature of the Work As their title suggests, physician assistants (PA's) support physicians. However, they should not be confused with medical assistants (see separate statement elsewhere in the Handbook). PA's are formally trained to provide routine diagnostic, therapeutic, and preventive health care services under the direction and supervision of a physi cian. They take medical histories, examine patients, order and interpret laboratory tests and X-rays, and make preliminary diagno ses. They also treat minor injuries by suturing, splinting, and casting. PA's record progress notes, instruct and counsel patients, and order or carry out therapy. In 39 States and the District of Columbia, physi cian assistants may prescribe medications. PA’s may have manage rial duties too. Some order medical and laboratory supplies and equipment; others supervise technicians and assistants. Physician assistants always work under the supervision of a physician. The extent of supervision, however, depends upon the location. For example, PA's working in rural or inner city clinics, where a physician may be available just 1 or 2 days each week, may provide most of the health care for patients and consult with the supervising physician by telephone. Other PA's may make house calls or go to hospitals and nursing homes to check on patients and report back to the physician. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis In some States, the duties of a physician assistant are determined by the supervising physician; in others, they are determined by the State's regulatory agency. Aspiring PA's should investigate the laws and regulations in the States where they wish to practice. Many PA's work in primary care areas such as general internal medicine, pediatrics, and family practice. Others work in specialty areas, such as general and thoracic surgery, emergency medicine, orthopedics, and geriatrics. PA's specializing in surgery, also called surgeon assistants, provide pre- and post-operative care and may work as first or second assistants during major surgery. Working Conditions Although PA's generally work in a comfortable, well-lighted envi ronment, those in surgery often stand for long periods, and others do considerable walking. Schedules vary according to practice setting and often depend on the hours of the supervising physician. The workweek of PA’s in physicians' offices may include weekends, night hours, or early morning hospital rounds to visit patients. They may be on-call. PA's in clinics usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week. Employment Physician assistants held about 56,000 jobs in 1994. Most PA's work in physicians' offices and clinics. Others work in hospitals. The rest work for public health clinics, nursing homes, prisons, and rehabili tation centers. 172 Occupational Outlook Handbook About one-third of all PA's provide health care to communities having fewer than 50,000 residents where physicians may be in limited supply, according to the American Academy of Physician Assistants. Many PA's work in primary care areas such as family medicine, general internal medicine, and pediatrics. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Almost all States require that new PA's complete an accredited, formal education program. In 1995, there were 61 such educational programs for physician assistants, including three programs for surgeon assistants. Thirty-seven of these programs offered a bacca laureate degree or a degree option. The rest offered either a certifi cate, an associate degree, or a master’s degree. Admission requirements vary, but many programs require 2 years of college and some work experience in the health care field. Stu dents should take courses in biology, English, chemistry, math, psychology, and social sciences. More than half of all applicants hold a bachelor's or master's degree. Many applicants are former emergency medical technicians, other allied health professionals, or nurses. PA programs generally last 2 years. Most programs are in medi cal schools, schools of allied health, or 4-year colleges; a few are in community colleges and in hospitals. Many accredited PA programs have clinical teaching affiliations with medical schools. PA education includes classroom instruction in biochemistry, nutrition, human anatomy, physiology, microbiology, clinical phar macology, clinical medicine, geriatric and home health care, disease prevention, and medical ethics. Students obtain supervised clinical training in several areas, including family medicine, inpatient and ambulatory medicine, general surgery, obstetrics and gynecology, geriatrics, emergency medicine, internal medicine, ambulatory psychiatry, and pediatrics. Sometimes, PA students serve one or more of these "rotations" under the supervision of a physician who is seeking to hire a PA. These rotations often lead to permanent em ployment. As of 1995, 49 States, the District of Columbia, and Guam had legislation governing the qualifications or practice of physician assistants. Mississippi did not. Forty-nine States required physician assistants to pass a certifying exam that is only open to graduates of an accredited educational program. Only those successfully complet ing the examination may use the credential "Physician AssistantCertified (PA-C)." In order to remain certified, PA's must have 100 hours of continuing medical education every 2 years and pass a recertification examination every 6 years. PA postgraduate residency training programs, as yet unaccredited, are available in gynecology, geriatrics, surgery, pediatrics, neonatol ogy, and occupational medicine. Candidates must be graduates of an accredited program and be certified by the National Commission on Certification of Physician Assistants. Physician assistants need leadership skills, self-confidence, and emotional stability. They must be willing to continue studying throughout their career to keep up with medical advances. Some PA's pursue additional education in order to practice in a specialty area such as surgery, neonatology, or emergency medicine. Others—as they attain greater clinical knowledge and experience— advance to added responsibilities and higher earnings. However, by the very nature of the profession, individual PA's are always super vised by physicians. Job Outlook Employment opportunities are expected to be excellent for physician assistants, particularly in areas or settings that have difficulty attract ing enough physicians, such as rural and inner city clinics. Employment of PA's is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 due to anticipated expan sion of the health services industry and an emphasis on cost contain ment. Physicians and institutions are expected to employ more PA's to provide primary care and assist with medical and surgical proce https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis dures, thus freeing physicians to perform more complicated and revenue generating tasks. The public and third party payers also seem to approve of PA's use. For example, Medicare now allows physicians to bill the government for services provided by PA's in hospitals and nursing homes. Opportunities will be best in States that allow PA's a wider scope of practice, such as the ability to prescribe medication. Besides the traditional office-based setting, PA's should find a growing number of jobs in institutional settings such as hospitals, academic medical centers, public clinics, and prisons. The growth of managed care and group medical practices should also lead to more jobs since they use PA's to provide a wide variety of services because their salaries are lower than those of physicians. Earnings According to a University of Texas Medical Branch survey of hospi tals and medical centers, the median annual salary of physician assistants, based on a 40 hour week and excluding shift or area differentials, was $48,264 in October 1994. The average minimum salary was $37,639 and the average maximum was $57,005. According to the American Academy of Physician Assistants, median income for all physician assistants in 1994 was $53,284; median income for first year graduates was $44,176. Income varies by specialty, practice setting, geographical location, and years of experience. Related Occupations Other health workers who provide direct patient care that requires a similar level of skill and training include nurse practitioners, physical therapists, occupational therapists, clinical psychologists, speechlanguage pathologists, and audiologists. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as a physician assistant, contact: •"American Academy of Physician Assistants, 950 North Washington St., Alexandria, VA 22314. For a list of accredited programs and a catalog of individual PA training programs, contact: •"Association of Physician Assistant Programs, 950 North Washington St., Alexandria, VA 22314. For eligibility requirements and a description of the Physician Assistant National Certifying Examination, write to: •"National Commission on Certification of Physician Assistants, Inc., 2845 Henderson Mill Rd. NE„ Atlanta, GA 30341. Recreational Therapists (D.O.T. 076.124-014) Nature of the Work Recreational therapists employ activities to treat or maintain the physical, mental, and emotional well-being of patients. Activities include sports, games, dance, drama, arts and crafts, and music, as well as field trips for sightseeing, ball games, or picnics. They help individuals build confidence, socialize effectively, and remediate the effects of illness or disability. Recreational therapists should not be confused with recreation workers, who organize recreational activi ties primarily for enjoyment. (Recreation workers are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) In clinical settings, such as hospitals and rehabilitation centers, recreational therapists treat and rehabilitate individuals with speci fic medical problems, usually in cooperation with physicians, nurses, psychologists, social workers, and physical and occupational therapists. In nursing homes, residential facilities, and community recreation departments, they use leisure activities—mostly group Professional Specialty Occupations oriented—to improve general health and well-being, but may also treat medical problems. In these settings they may be called activity directors or therapeutic recreation specialists. Recreational therapists assess patients based on information from medical records, medical staff, family, and patients themselves. They then develop and carry out therapeutic activity programs con sistent with patient needs and interests. For instance, patients having trouble socializing may be helped to play games with others, a right handed person with a right-side paralysis may be helped to use their left arm to throw a ball or swing a racket. They may instruct patients in relaxation techniques to reduce stress and tension, in stretching and limbering exercises, and in individual and group sports. Community based recreational therapists work in park and rec reation departments, special education programs, or programs for the elderly or disabled. In these programs therapists help patients de velop leisure activities and provide them with opportunities for exercise, mental stimulation, creativity, and fun. Recreational therapists observe and record patients' participation, reactions, and progress. These records are used by the medical staff and others, to monitor progress, to justify changes or end treatment, and for billing. Working Conditions Recreational therapists often plan events and keep records in offices and provide services in special activity rooms. In community set tings they might also work with clients in a recreation room, on a playing field, or in a swimming pool. Therapists often lift and carry equipment as well as participate in activities. Recreational therapists generally work a 40-hour week, which may include some evenings, weekends, and holidays. Employment Recreational therapists held about 31,000 jobs in 1994. About onehalf were in hospitals and one-third were in nursing homes. Others were in residential facilities, community "mental health centers, adult day care programs, correctional facilities, community programs for people with disabilities, and substance abuse centers. Some thera pists were self-employed, generally contracting with nursing homes or community agencies to develop and oversee programs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor's degree in therapeutic recreation (or in recreation with an option in therapeutic recreation) is the usual requirement for hospital and other clinical positions. An associate degree in recreational ther apy; training in art, drama, or music therapy; or qualifying work exper ience may be sufficient for activity director positions in nursing homes. 173 The National Council for Therapeutic Recreation Certification certifies therapeutic recreation specialists. Specialists must have a bachelor's degree and pass a certification exam. Some employers require individuals to be certified. There are about 150 programs that prepare recreational therapists. As of 1994, 73 programs were accredited by the National Council on Accreditation. Most offer bachelor's degrees, although some offer associate, master's, or doctoral degrees. In addition to therapeutic recreation courses in clinical practice and helping skills, program design, management, and professional issues, students study human anatomy, physiology, abnormal psy chology, medical and psychiatric terminology, characteristics of illnesses and disabilities, and the concepts of mainstreaming and normalization. Courses cover professional ethics, assessment and referral procedures, and the use of adaptive and medical equipment. In addition, 360 hours of internship under the supervision of a certi fied therapeutic recreation specialist are required. Recreational therapists should be comfortable working with disabled people and be patient, tactful, and persuasive. Ingenuity and imagination are needed in adapting activities to individual needs and good physical coordination is necessary when demonstrating or participating in recreational events. Job Outlook Employment of recreational therapists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005, because of anticipated expansion in long-term care, physical and psychiatric rehabilitation, and services for the disabled. Job prospects are ex pected to be favorable for those with a strong clinical background. Hospitals will provide a large number of recreational therapy jobs through the year 2005. A growing number of these will be in hospi tal-based adult day care and out-patient programs, or in units offering short-term mental health and alcohol or drug abuse services. Long term rehabilitation and psychiatric hospitals will provide additional jobs. The rapidly growing number of older people is expected to spur job growth for activity directors in nursing homes, retirement com munities, adult day care programs, and social service agencies. Continued growth is expected in community residential facilities as well as day care programs for people with disabilities. Earnings According to a survey by the National Therapeutic Recreation Soci ety, the average salary for recreational therapists was $31,472 in 1994. The average annual salary for all recreational therapists in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was about $35,954 in 1995. Related Occupations Recreational therapists design activities to help people with disabili ties lead more fulfilling and independent lives. Other workers who have similar jobs are orientation therapists for the blind, art thera pists, drama therapists, dance therapists, music therapists, occupa tional therapists, and rehabilitation counselors. Sources of Additional Information For information on how to order materials describing careers and academic programs in recreational therapy, write to: •"American Therapeutic Recreation Association, C.O. Associated Manage ment Systems, P.O. Box 15215, Hattiesburg, MS 39402-5215. ••National Therapeutic Recreation Society, 2775 S. Quincy St., Suite 300, Arlington, VA 22206-2204. Recreational therapists should not be confused with recreation workers, who organize activities for enjoyment. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Certification information may be obtained from: •National Council for Therapeutic Recreation Certification, P.O. Box 479, Thiells, NY 10984-0479. 174 Occupational Outlook Handbook Registered Nurses (D.O.T. 075.124-010 and -014, .127-014, -026, -030 and -034, .137-010 and -014, .167-010 and -014, .264-010 and -014, .364-010, .371-010, .374-014, -018, and -022) Nature of the Work Registered nurses (R.N.'s) care for the sick and injured and help people stay well. They are typically concerned with the "whole person," providing for the physical, mental, and emotional needs of their patients. They observe, assess, and record symptoms, reactions, and progress; assist physicians during treatments and examinations; administer medications; and assist in convalescence and rehabilita tion. R.N.'s also develop and manage nursing care plans; instruct patients and their families in proper care; and help individuals and groups take steps to improve or maintain their health. While State laws govern the tasks R.N.'s may perform, it is usually the work setting which determines their day-to-day job duties. Hospital nurses form the largest group of nurses. Most are staff nurses, who provide bedside nursing care and carry out the medical regimen prescribed by physicians. They may also supervise licensed practical nurses and aides. Hospital nurses usually are assigned to one area such as surgery, maternity, pediatrics, emergency room, intensive care, or treatment of cancer patients or may rotate among departments. Office nurses assist physicians in private practice, clinics, surgicenters, emergency medical centers, and health maintenance or ganizations (HMO's). They prepare patients for and assist with examinations, administer injections and medications, dress wounds and incisions, assist with minor surgery, and maintain records. Some also perform routine laboratory and office work. Home health nurses provide periodic services, prescribed by a physician, to patients at home. They care for and instruct patients and their families. Home health nurses care for a broad range of patients, such as those recovering from illnesses and accidents, cancer, and child birth. They must be able to work independently. Nursing home nurses manage nursing care for residents with conditions ranging from a fracture to Alzheimer's disease. Although they generally spend most of their time on administrative and super visory tasks, R.N.'s also assess residents' medical condition, develop treatment plans, supervise licensed practical nurses and nursing aides, and perform difficult procedures such as starting intravenous fluids. They also work in specialty-care departments, such as long term rehabilitation units for strokes and head-injuries. Public health nurses work in government and private agencies and clinics, schools, retirement communities and other community settings. They instruct individuals, families, and other groups in health education, disease prevention, nutrition, and child care. They arrange for immunizations, blood pressure testing, and other health screening. These nurses also work with community leaders, teachers, parents, and physicians in community health education. Occupational health or industrial nurses provide nursing care at worksites to employees, customers, and others with minor injuries and illnesses. They provide emergency care, prepare accident re ports, and arrange for further care if necessary. They also offer health counseling, assist with health examinations and inoculations, and work on accident prevention programs. Head nurses or nurse supervisors direct nursing activities. They plan work schedules and assign duties to nurses and aides, provide or arrange for training, and visit patients to observe nurses and to insure that care is proper. They may also insure that records are maintained and that equipment and supplies are ordered. At the advanced level, nurse practitioners provide basic health care. They diagnose and treat common acute illnesses and injuries. Nurse practitioners can prescribe medications in some States. Other advanced practice nurses include clinical nurse specialists, nurse anesthetists, and certified nurse-midwives. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Registered nurses held over 1.9 million jobs in 1994. Working Conditions Most nurses work in well-lighted, comfortable medical facilities. Home health and public health nurses travel to patients' homes and to schools, community centers, and other sites. Nurses may spend considerable time walking and standing. They need emotional stability to cope with human suffering, emergencies, and other stresses. Because patients in hospitals and nursing homes require 24hour care, nurses in these institutions may work nights, weekends, and holidays. They may also be on-call. Office, occupational health, and public health nurses are more likely to work regular business hours. Nursing has its hazards, especially in hospitals, nursing homes, and clinics where nurses may care for individuals with infectious diseases such as hepatitis and AIDS. Nurses must observe rigid guidelines to guard against these and other dangers such as radiation, chemicals used for sterilization of instruments, and anesthetics. In addition, they face back injury when moving patients, shocks from electrical equipment, and hazards posed by compressed gases. Employment Registered nurses held about 1,906,000 jobs in 1994. About 2 out of 3 jobs were in hospitals. Others were in offices and clinics of physi cians, home health care agencies, nursing homes, temporary help agencies, schools, and government agencies. More than one-fourth of all R.N.'s worked part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In all States, students must graduate from an accredited nursing school and pass a national licensing examination to obtain a nursing license. Nurses may be licensed in more than one State, either by examination or endorsement of a license issued by another State. Licenses must be periodically renewed. Some States require continu ing education for licensure renewal. In 1993, there were 1,493 entry level R.N. programs. There are three major educational paths to nursing: Associate degree (A.D.N.), diploma, and bachelor of science degree in nursing (B.S.N.). A.D.N. programs, offered by community and junior colleges, take about 2 years. About two-thirds of graduates in 1993 were from A.D.N. programs. B.S.N. programs, offered by colleges and universities, take 4 or 5 years. More than one-quarter of graduates in 1993 were from these programs. Diploma programs, given in hospitals, last 2 to 3 years. Only a small number of graduates come from these pro grams. Generally, licensed graduates of any of the three program types qualify for entry level positions as staff nurses. There have been attempts to raise the educational requirements for an R.N. license to a bachelor's degree and, possibly, create new Professional Specialty Occupations 175 job titles. However, such proposals have been around for years. These changes, should they occur, will be made State by State, through legislation or regulation. Changes in licensure requirements would not affect currently licensed R.N.'s, who would be "grandfathered" in, no matter what their educational preparation. However, individuals considering nursing should carefully weigh the pros and cons of enrolling in a B.S.N. program, since their advance ment opportunities are broader. In fact, some career paths are open only to nurses with bachelor's or advanced degrees. While A.D.N. or diploma preparation may be sufficient for a nursing home nurse to advance to director of nursing, a bachelor's degree is generally necessary for administrative positions in hospitals and for positions in community nursing. Moreover, the B.S.N. is a prerequisite for admission to graduate nursing programs in research, consulting, teaching, or a clinical specialization. A growing number of A.D.N. and diploma-trained nurses are entering bachelor's programs to prepare for a broader scope of nurs ing practice. They can often find a hospital position and then take advantage of tuition reimbursement programs to get a B.S.N. Nursing education includes classroom instruction and supervised training in hospitals and other health facilities. Students take courses in anatomy, physiology, microbiology, chemistry, nutrition, psychol ogy and other behavioral sciences, and nursing. Supervised clinical experience is provided in hospital departments such as pediatrics, psychiatry, maternity, and surgery. A growing number of programs include courses in gerontological nursing and clinical practice in nursing homes. Some provide clinical training in public health departments and home health agencies. Nurses should be caring and sympathetic. They must be able to accept responsibility, direct or supervise others, follow orders pre cisely, and determine when consultation is required. Experience and good performance can lead to promotion to increasingly more responsible positions. Nurses can advance, in management, to assistant head nurse or head nurse. From there, they can advance to assistant director, director, and vice president. In creasingly, management level nursing positions require a graduate degree in nursing or health services administration. They also re quire leadership, negotiation skills, and good judgment. Graduate programs preparing executive level nurses usually last 1 to 2 years. Within patient care, nurses can advance to clinical nurse special ist, nurse practitioner, certified nurse-midwife, or nurse anesthetist. These positions require 1 or 2 years of graduate education, leading to a certificate or master's degree. Some nurses move into the business side of health care. Their nursing expertise and experience on a health care team equip them to manage ambulatory, acute, home health, and chronic care services. Some are employed by health care corporations in health planning and development, marketing, and quality assurance. Job Outlook Job prospects in nursing are good. Employment of registered nurses is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 and, because the occupation is large, many new jobs will result. Job prospects will be even better if nursing school enrollments level off or decline, as they have on a cyclical basis in the past, thus reducing the number of qualified applicants. There will always be a need for traditional hospital nurses, but a large number of new nurses will be employed in home health, long term, and ambulatory care. Faster than average growth will be driven by technological ad vances in patient care, which permit a greater number of medical problems to be treated, and increasing emphasis on primary care. In addition, the number of older people, who are much more likely than younger people to need medical care, is projected to grow very rapidly. Many job openings also will result from the need to replace experienced nurses who leave the occupation, especially as the average age of the registered nurse population continues to rise. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment in hospitals, the largest sector, is expected to grow more slowly than in other health-care sectors. While the intensity of nursing care is likely to increase, requiring more nurses per pa tient, the number of inpatients (those who remain overnight) is not likely to increase much. Also, patients are being released earlier and more procedures are being done on an outpatient basis, both in and outside hospitals. Most rapid growth is expected in hospitals' outpa tient facilities, such as same-day surgery, rehabilitation, and chemo therapy. Employment in home health care is expected to grow the fastest. This is in response to a growing number of older persons with func tional disabilities, consumer preference for care in the home, and technological advances which make it possible to bring increasingly complex treatments into the home. The type of care demanded will require nurses who are able to perform complex procedures. Employment in nursing homes is expected to grow much faster than average due to increases in the number of people in their eight ies and nineties, many of whom will require long-term care. In addition, the financial pressure on hospitals to release patients as soon as possible should produce more nursing home admissions. Growth in units to provide specialized long-term rehabilitation for stroke and head injury patients or to treat Alzheimer's victims will also increase employment. An increasing proportion of sophisticated procedures, which once were performed only in hospitals, are being performed in physicians' offices and clinics, including HMO's, ambulatory surgicenters, and emergency medical centers. Accordingly, employment is expected to grow faster than average in these places as health care in general expands. In evolving integrated health care networks, nurses may rotate among employment settings. Since jobs in traditional hospital nursing positions are no longer the only option, R.N.'s will need to be flexible. Opportunities will be best for nurses with advanced training. Earnings Median weekly earnings of full-time salaried registered nurses were $682 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $542 and $838. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $395; the top 10 percent, more than $1,005. According to a University of Texas Medical Branch survey of hospitals and medical centers, the median annual salary of staff nurses, based on a 40-hour week and excluding shift or area differ entials, was $35,256 in October 1994. The average minimum salary was $28,531 and the average maximum was $43,711. For head nurses, the median was $50,700; clinical nurse specialists, $47,674; professional nurse practitioners, $47,432; and nurse anesthetists, $73,444. According to the Buck Survey conducted by the American Health Care Association, staff R.N.’s in chain nursing homes had median annual earnings of about $32,200 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $29,200 and $35,400. Many employers offer flexible work schedules, child care, educa tional benefits, bonuses, and other incentives. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations with responsibilities and duties related to those of registered nurses are occupational therapists, paramedics, physical therapists, physician assistants, and respiratory therapists. Sources of Additional Information The National League for Nursing (NLN) publishes a variety of nursing and nursing education materials, including a list of nursing schools and information on student financial aid. For a complete list of NLN publications, write for a career information brochure. Send your request to: •■Communications Department, National League for Nursing, 350 Hudson St., New York, NY 10014. 176 Occupational Outlook Handbook For a list of B.S.N. and graduate programs, write to: ••American Association of Colleges of Nursing, 1 Dupont Circle, Suite 530, Washington, DC 20036. Information on career opportunities as a registered nurse is avail able from: ••American Nurses' Association, 600 Maryland Ave. SW., Washington. DC 20024-2571. For information on nursing careers in long-term care, write to: •■American Health Care Association, 1201 L St. NW„ Washington, DC 20005-4014. Respiratory Therapists (D.O.T. 076.361-014) Nature of the Work You may live without water for a few days and without food for a few weeks. But without air, you will suffer brain damage within a few minutes and die after 9 minutes or more. Respiratory therapists, also known as respiratory care practitioners, evaluate, treat, and care for patients with breathing disorders. In evaluating patients, therapists test the capacity of the lungs and analyze the oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration and potential of hydrogen (pH), a measure of the acidity or alkalinity level of the blood. To measure lung capacity, therapists have patients breathe into an instrument that measures the volume and flow of air during inhalation and exhalation. By comparing the reading with the norm for the patient's age, height, weight, and sex, respiratory therapists can determine whether lung deficiencies exist. To analyze oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH levels, therapists draw an arterial blood sample, place it in a blood gas analyzer, and relay the results to a physician. Respiratory therapists treat all sorts of patients, be they premature infants whose lungs are not fully developed or elderly people whose lungs are diseased. They provide temporary relief to patients with chronic asthma or emphysema and emergency care for heart failure, stroke, drowning, or shock victims. Respiratory therapists most commonly use oxygen or oxygen mixtures, chest physiotherapy, and aerosol medications. Therapists may place an oxygen mask or nasal cannula on a patient and set the oxygen flow at the level prescribed by a physician to increase a patient's concentration of oxygen. Therapists also connect patients who cannot breathe on their own to ventilators which deliver pressurized air into the lungs. They insert a tube into a patient's trachea, or windpipe; connect the tube to the ventilator; and set the rate, volume, and oxygen concentration of the air entering the patient's lungs. Therapists regularly check on pa tients and equipment. If the patient appears to be having difficulty or if the oxygen, carbon dioxide, or pH level of the blood is abnormal, they change the ventilator setting according the doctor's order or check equipment for mechanical problems. In homecare, therapists teach patients and their families to use ventilators and other life support systems. They visit several times a month to inspect and clean equipment and ensure its proper use and make emergency visits if equipment problems arise. Respiratory therapists perform chest physiotherapy on patients to remove mucus from their lungs to make it easier for them to breathe. For example, during surgery, anesthesia depresses respiration, so this treatment may be prescribed to help get the patient's lungs back to normal and prevent congestion. Chest physiotherapy also is used on patients suffering from lung diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, that cause mucus to collect in the lungs. Therapists place patients in positions to help drain mucus, thump and vibrate patients' rib cages, and instruct them to cough. Respiratory therapists also administer aerosols—generally liquid medications suspended in a gas that forms a mist which is inhaled https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis About 9 out of 10 jobs in respiratory therapy are in hospitals. and teach patients how to inhale the aerosol properly to assure its effectiveness. Therapists are increasingly working under the supervision of nurses and are being asked to perform tasks that fall outside of their traditional role. They are expanding into cardiopulminary proce dures like electrocardiograms and stress testing, but also perform other tasks like drawing blood samples from patients. They also keep records of the materials used and charges to patients. Some therapists teach or supervise other respiratory therapy personnel. Working Conditions Respiratory therapists generally work between 35 and 40 hours a week. Because hospitals operate around the clock, therapists may work evenings, nights, or weekends; they spend long periods stand ing and walking between patients' rooms. In an emergency, they work under a great deal of stress. Gases used by respiratory thera pists are potentially hazardous because they are used and stored under pressure. However, adherence to safety precautions and regular maintenance and testing of equipment minimize the risk of injury. As with many health occupations, respiratory therapists run a risk of catching infectious diseases. Careful adherence to proper procedures minimizes this risk as well. Employment Respiratory therapists held about 73,000 jobs in 1994. About 9 out of 10 jobs were located in hospitals in departments of respiratory care, anesthesiology, or pulmonary medicine. Durable medical equipment rental companies, home health agencies, and nursing homes accounted for most of the remaining jobs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Formal training is necessary for entry to this field. Training is of fered at the postsecondary level by hospitals, medical schools, col leges and universities, trade schools, vocational-technical institutes, and the Armed Forces. Some programs prepare graduates for jobs as respiratory therapists; other, shorter programs lead to jobs as respira tory therapy technicians. In 1994, 275 programs for respiratory therapists were accredited by the Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs (CAAHEP) of the American Medical Association (AMA). Another 174 programs offered CAAHEP-accredited preparation for respiratory therapy technicians. Formal training programs vary in length and in the credential or degree awarded. Most of the CAAHEP-accredited therapist pro grams last 2 years and lead to an associate degree. Some, however, are 4-year bachelor's degree programs. Technician programs last about 1 year, and award certificates. Areas of study for respiratory Professional Specialty Occupations therapist programs include human anatomy and physiology, chemis try, physics, microbiology, and mathematics. Technical courses deal with procedures, equipment, and clinical tests. More and more therapists receive on-the-job training, allowing them to administer electrocardiograms and stress tests, as well as draw blood samples from patients. Therapists should be sensitive to patients' physical and psycho logical needs. Respiratory care workers must pay attention to detail, follow instructions, and work as part of a team. Operating compli cated respiratory therapy equipment requires mechanical ability and manual dexterity. High school students interested in a career in respiratory care are encouraged to take courses in health, biology, mathematics, chemis try, and physics. Respiratory care involves basic mathematical problem-solving. An understanding of basic chemical and physical principles is also important. Computing medication dosages and calculating gas concentrations are just two examples of the need for knowledge of science and mathematics. Thirty-eight States license respiratory care personnel. The Na tional Board for Respiratory Care offers voluntary certification and registration to graduates of CAAHEP-accredited programs. Two credentials are awarded to respiratory care practitioners who satisfy the requirements: Certified Respiratory Therapy Technician (CRTT) and Registered Respiratory Therapist (RRT). All graduates—those from 2- and 4-year programs in respiratory therapy, as well as those from 1-year technician programs—may take the CRTT examination first. CRTT's who meet education and experience requirements can take a separate examination, leading to the award of the RRT. Individuals who have completed a 4-year program in a nonrespiratory field, but have college level courses in anatomy, physiology, chemistry, biology, microbiology, physics, and mathematics, can become a CRTT after graduating from an AM A accredited 1- or 2year program. After they receive 2 years of clinical experience, they are eligible to take the registry exam to become an RRT. Most employers require that applicants for entry level or general ist positions hold the CRTT or are eligible to take the certification examination. Supervisory positions and those in intensive care specialties, usually require the RRT (or RRT eligibility). Respiratory therapists advance in clinical practice by moving from care of "general" to "critical" patients, whom have significant problems in other organ systems such as the heart or kidneys. Respi ratory therapists, especially those with 4-year degrees, may also advance to supervisory or managerial positions in a respiratory therapy department. Respiratory therapists in home care and equip ment rental firms may become branch manager. Others leave the occupation to work as sales representatives or as equipment designers for equipment manufacturers. Job Outlook Job opportunities are expected to remain good. Employment of respiratory therapists is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 because of sub stantial growth of the middle-aged and elderly population, a devel opment that will heighten the incidence of cardiopulmonary disease. The elderly are the most common sufferers from respiratory ailments and cardiopulmonary diseases such as pneumonia, chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and heart disease. As their numbers in crease, the need for respiratory therapists will increase as well. In addition, advances in treating victims of heart attacks, accident victims, and premature infants (many of whom may be dependent on a ventilator during part of their treatment) will require the services of respiratory care practitioners. Rapid growth in the number of pa tients with AIDS also will boost demand because lung disease often accompanies AIDS. Opportunities are expected to be highly favorable for respiratory therapists having cardiopulmonary care skills and experience work ing with infants. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 177 Very rapid growth is expected in home health agencies, equip ment rental companies, and firms that provide respiratory care on a contract basis. Earnings Median annual earnings for respiratory therapists who worked year round full time in 1994 were $30,212. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,544 and $34,996. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,200; the top 10 percent, more than $43,420. According to the the University of Texas Medical Branch, median annual salary, based on a 40-hour week and excluding shift and area differentials, for respiratory therapists in hospitals and medical centers was about $30,888 in October 1994. The average minimum annual salary was $25,978 and the average maximum was $38,233. Related Occupations Respiratory therapists, under the supervision of a physician, adminis ter respiratory care and life support to patients with heart and lung difficulties. Other workers who care for, treat, or train people to improve their physical condition include dialysis technicians, regis tered nurses, occupational therapists, physical therapists, and radia tion therapy technologists. Sources of Additional Information Information concerning a career in respiratory care is available from: •"American Association for Respiratory Care, 11030 Abies Ln., Dallas, TX 75229. Information on gaining credentials as a respiratory therapy practi tioner can be obtained from: •"The National Board for Respiratory Care, Inc., 8310 Nieman Rd., Lenexa, KS 66214. For the current list of CAAHEP-accredited educational programs for respiratory therapy occupations, write to: •"Joint Review Committee for Respiratory Therapy Education, 1701 W. Euless Blvd., Suite 300, Euless, TX 76040. Speech-Language Pathologists and Audiologists (D.O.T. 076.101-010, .104-010, and .107-010) Nature of the Work Speech-language pathologists assess and treat persons with speech, language, voice, and fluency disorders; audiologists assess and treat those with hearing and related disorders. Speech-language pathologists work with people who cannot make speech sounds, or cannot make them clearly; those with speech rhythm and fluency problems, such as stuttering; people with speech quality problems, such as inappropriate pitch or harsh voice; and those with problems understanding and producing language. They may also work with people who have oral motor problems that cause eating and swallowing difficulties. Speech and language problems may result from causes such as hearing loss, brain injury or deterioration, cerebral palsy, stroke, cleft palate, voice pathology, mental retardation, or emotional problems. Speech-language pathologists use special instruments, as well as written and oral tests, to determine the nature and extent of impair ment, and to record and analyze speech irregularities. For individu als with little or no speech, speech-language pathologists select alternative communication systems, including automated devices and sign language, and teach their use. They teach other patients how to make sounds, improve their voices, or increase their language skills. Audiologists work with people who have hearing and related problems. They use audiometers and other testing devices to meas 178 Occupational Outlook Handbook ure the loudness at which a person begins to hear sounds, the ability to distinguish between sounds, and other tests of the nature and extent of their hearing loss. Audiologists may coordinate these results with medical, educational, and psychological information, make a diagnosis, and determine a course of treatment. Hearing disorders may result from causes such as viral infections, genetic disorders, or exposure to loud noise. Treatment may include examining and cleaning the ear canal, fitting a hearing aid, auditory training, and instruction in speech or lip reading. They may recommend use of amplifiers and alerting devices. Audiologists also test noise levels in workplaces and conduct hearing protection programs. Most speech-language pathologists and audiologists provide direct clinical services to individuals with communication disorders. In speech, language, and hearing clinics, they may independently develop and carry out a treatment program. In medical facilities, they may work with physicians, social workers, psychologists, and other therapists to develop and execute a treatment plan. Speechlanguage pathology and audiology personnel in schools also develop individual or group programs, counsel parents, and assist teachers with classroom activities. Speech-language pathologists and audiologists keep records on the initial evaluation, progress, and discharge of clients. This helps pinpoint problems, tracks client progress, and justifies the cost of treatment when applying for reimbursement. They counsel indi viduals and their families about communication disorders and how to cope with the stress and misunderstanding that often accom pany them. They also work with family members to recognize and change behavior patterns that impede communication and treatment, and show them communication-enhancing techniques to use at home. Some speech-language pathologists and audiologists conduct research on how people speak and hear. Others design and develop equipment or techniques for diagnosing and treating problems. Working Conditions Speech-language pathologists and audiologists usually work at a desk or table in clean comfortable surroundings. The job is not physically demanding, but does require attention to detail and intense concen tration. The emotional needs of clients and their families may be demanding and there may be frustration when clients do not improve. Most full-time speech-language pathologists and audiologists work about 40 hours per week. Some work part-time. Those who work on a contract basis may spend a substantial amount of time traveling between facilities. Most speech-language pathologists and audiologists provide direct clinical services to individuals with communication disorders. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment Speech-language pathologists and audiologists held about 85,000 jobs in 1994. About one-half provided services in preschools, ele mentary and secondary schools, or colleges and universities. More than 10 percent were in hospitals. Others were in offices of physi cians; offices of speech-language pathologists and audiologists; speech, language, and hearing centers; home health care agencies; and other facilities. Some were in private practice, working either as solo practitioners or in a group practice. Some experienced speech-language pathologists or audiologists contract to provide services in schools, hospitals, or nursing homes or work as consultants to industry. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A master's degree in speech-language pathology or audiology is the standard credential in this field. By the year 2005, a doctoral degree may be required for entry into audiology practice. Of the 45 States that regulate speech-language pathologists and/or audiologists, all currently require a master's degree or equivalent, 300-375 hours of supervised clinical experience, a passing score on a national exami nation, and 9 months of post-graduate professional experience. For licensure renewal, 27 States have continuing education requirements. Medicaid, Medicare, and private insurers generally require a license to qualify for reimbursement. In some States, people with bachelor's degrees in speech-language pathology may work in schools with students who have communica tion problems. They may have to be certified by the State educa tional agency, and may be classified as special education teachers rather than speech-language pathologists or audiologists. Federal law requires speech-language pathologists in school systems in almost every State to have a minimum of a master's degree or equivalent. All States require audiologists to hold a master's degree or equivalent. About 230 colleges and universities offered master's programs in speech-language pathology and/or audiology in 1995. Courses cover anatomy and physiology of the areas involved in speech, language, and hearing; the development of normal speech, language, and hearing and the nature of disorders; acoustics; and psychological aspects of communication. Graduate students also learn to evaluate and treat speech, language, and hearing disorders and receive super vised clinical training in communication disorders. Those with a master's degree can acquire the Certificate of Clini cal Competence (CCC) offered by the American Speech-Language Hearing Association or the Fellowship-AAA (F-AAA) offered by the American Academy of Audiology. To earn the CCC or F-AAA, a person must have a master's degree, have 300-375 hours of super vised clinical experience, complete a 9-month post-graduate intern ship, and pass a written examination. Speech-language pathologists and audiologists should be able to effectively communicate test results, diagnoses, and proposed treat ment in a manner easily understood by their clients. They also need to be able to approach problems objectively and provide support to clients and their families. Patience and compassion are important because a client's progress may be slow. With experience, some salaried speech-language pathologists and audiologists enter private practice; others become directors or admin istrators of services in schools, hospitals, health departments, and clinics. Some become researchers. Job Outlook Employment of speech-language pathologists and audiologists is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Some job openings also will arise from the need to replace speech-language pathologists and audiologists who leave the occupation. Employment in the health services industry will increase as a result of several factors. Because hearing loss is strongly associated with older age, rapid growth in the population age 75 and over will Professional Specialty Occupations 179 cause the number of hearing-impaired persons to increase markedly. In addition, baby boomers are now entering middle age, when the possibility of neurological disorders and their associated speech, language, and hearing impairments increases. Medical advances are also improving the survival rate of premature infants and trauma victims, who then need treatment. Employment in schools will increase as elementary and secondary school enrollments grow. Federal law guarantees special education and related services to all eligible children with disabilities. Greater awareness of the importance of early identification and diagnosis of speech, language, and hearing disorders will also increase employ ment. The number of speech-language pathologists and audiologists in private practice, though small, is likely to rise sharply by the year 2005. Encouraging this growth is the increasing use of contract services by hospitals, schools, and nursing homes. Earnings Median weekly earnings of full-time salaried speech-language pa thologists and audiologists were $693 in 1994. The middle 50 per cent earned between $548 and $782. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $424 and the top 10 percent more than $1,015. According to a 1994 survey by the American Speech-Language Hearing Association, the median annual salary for full-time certified speech-language pathologists with 1 to 3 years experience was about $31,000; for certified audiologists, it was about $29,000. Speech- language pathologists with 16 years or more experience earned a median annual salary of about $42,430, while experienced audiolo gists earned about $50,000. Salaries also vary according to geo graphic location. Speech-language pathologists and audiologists in hospitals earned a median annual salary of about $35,372, according to a 1994 survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Related Occupations Speech-language pathologists and audiologists specialize in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of speech, language, and hearing problems. Workers in related occupations include occupational therapists, optometrists, physical therapists, psychologists, recrea tional therapists, and rehabilitation counselors. Sources of Additional Information State licensing boards in each State can provide information on licensure requirements. State departments of education can supply information on certification requirements for those who wish to work in public schools. General information on speech-language pathology and audiology is available from: ••American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 10801 Rockville Pike, Rockville, MD 20852. Information on a career in audiology is also available from: •"American Academy of Audiology, 1735 N. Lynn St., #900, Arlington, VA 22209. Communications Occupations Public Relations Specialists (D.O.T. 165.017, .167) Nature of the Work An organization's reputation, profitability, and even its continued existence can depend on the degree to which its goals and policies are supported by its targeted "publics." Public relations specialists serve as advocates for businesses, governments, universities, hospi tals, schools, and other organizations, and strive to build and main tain positive relationships with the public. As managers recognize the growing importance of good public relations to the success of their organizations, they increasingly rely on public relations special ists for advice on strategy and policy. Public relations specialists handle such functions as media, com munity, consumer, and governmental relations; political campaigns; interest-group representation; conflict mediation; or employee and investor relations. Public relations is not only "telling the organiza tion’s story," however. Understanding the attitudes and concerns of consumers, employees, and various other groups also is a vital part of the job. To improve communications, public relations specialists establish and maintain cooperative relationships with representatives of community, consumer, employee, and public interest groups and those in print and broadcast journalism. Public relations specialists put together information that keeps the general public, interest groups, and stockholders aware of an organi zation's policies, activities, and accomplishments. Their work keeps management aware of public attitudes and concerns of the many groups and organizations with which it must deal. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Public relations specialists prepare press releases and contact people in the media who might print or broadcast their material. Many radio or television special reports, newspaper stories, and magazine articles start at the desks of public relations specialists. Sometimes the subject is an organization and its policies towards its employees or its role in the community. Often the subject is a public issue, such as health, nutrition, energy, or the environment. Public relations specialists also arrange and conduct programs for contact between organization representatives and the public. For example, they set up speaking engagements and often prepare the speeches for company officials. These specialists represent employ ers at community projects; make film, slide, or other visual presenta tions at meetings and school assemblies; and plan conventions. In addition, they are responsible for preparing annual reports and writ ing proposals for various projects. In government, public relations specialists—who may be called press secretaries, information officers, public affairs specialists, or communications specialists—keep the public informed about the activities of government agencies and officials. For example, public affairs specialists in the Department of Energy keep the public in formed about the proposed lease of offshore land for oil exploration. A press secretary for a member of Congress keeps constituents aware of their elected representative's accomplishments. In large organizations, the key public relations executive, who is often a vice president, may develop overall plans and policies with other executives. In addition, public relations departments employ public relations specialists to write, do research, prepare materials, maintain contacts, and respond to inquiries. People who handle publicity for an individual or who direct public relations for a small organization may deal with all aspects of the job. They contact people, plan and do research, and prepare 180 Occupational Outlook Handbook : ■ * h. v*'<- Creativity, initiative, good judgement, and the ability to express thoughts clearly and simply are essential for public relations specialists. material for distribution. They may also handle advertising or sales promotion work to support marketing. Working Conditions Some public relations specialists work a standard 35- to 40-hour week, but unpaid overtime is common. In addition, schedules often have to be rearranged to meet deadlines, deliver speeches, attend meetings and community activities, and travel out of town. Occa sionally they have to be at the job or on call around the clock, espe cially if there is an emergency or crisis. Employment Public relations specialists held about 107,000 jobs in 1994. About two-thirds worked in services industries—management and public relations firms, educational institutions, membership organizations, health care organizations, social service agencies, and advertising agencies, for example. Others worked for a wide range of employ ers, including manufacturing firms, financial institutions, and gov ernment agencies. Some were self-employed. Public relations specialists are concentrated in large cities where press services and other communications facilities are readily avail able, and where many businesses and trade associations have their headquarters. Many public relations consulting firms, for example, are in New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Washington, DC. There is a trend, however, for public relations jobs to be dispersed through out the Nation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although there are no defined standards for entry into a public rela tions career, a college degree combined with public relations experi ence, usually gained through an internship, is considered excellent preparation for public relations work. The ability to write and speak well is essential. Many beginners have a college major in public relations, journalism, advertising, or communications. Some firms seek college graduates who have worked in electronic or print jour nalism. Other employers seek applicants with demonstrated com munications skills and training or experience in a field related to the firm's business—science, engineering, sales, or finance, for example. In 1994, well over 200 colleges and about 100 graduate schools offered degree programs or special curricula in public relations, usually in a journalism or communications department. In addition, many other colleges offered at least one course in this field. A https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis commonly used public relations sequence includes the following courses: Public relations principles and techniques; public relations management and administration, including organizational develop ment; writing, emphasizing news releases, proposals, annual reports, scripts, speeches, and related items; visual communications, includ ing desktop publishing and computer graphics; and research, empha sizing social science research and survey design and implementation. Courses in advertising, journalism, business administration, political science, psychology, sociology, and creative writing also are helpful, as is familiarity with word processing and other computer applica tions. Specialties are offered in public relations for business, gov ernment, or nonprofit organizations. Many colleges help students gain part-time internships in public relations that provide valuable experience and training. The Armed Forces also can be an excellent place to gain training and experience. Membership in local chapters of the Public Relations Student Society of America or the International Association of Business Communica tors provides an opportunity for students to exchange views with public relations specialists and to make professional contacts that may help them find a full-time job in the field. A portfolio of pub lished articles, television or radio programs, slide presentations, and other work is an asset in finding a job. Writing for a school publica tion or television or radio station provides valuable experience and material for one's portfolio. Creativity, initiative, good judgment, and the ability to express thoughts clearly and simply are essential. Decision making, problem solving, and research skills are also important. People who choose public relations as a career need an outgoing personality, self-confidence, an understanding of human psychology, and an enthusiasm for motivating people. They should be competi tive, yet flexible and able to function as part of a team. Some organizations—particularly those with large public rela tions staffs—have formal training programs for new employees. In smaller organizations, new employees work under the guidance of experienced staff members. Beginners often maintain files of mate rial about company activities, scan newspapers and magazines for appropriate articles to clip, and assemble information for speeches and pamphlets. After gaining experience, they write news releases, speeches, and articles for publication, or design and carry out public relations programs. Public relations specialists in smaller firms generally get all-around experience, whereas those in larger firms tend to be more specialized. The Public Relations Society of America accredits public rela tions specialists who have at least 5 years of experience in the field and have passed a comprehensive 6-hour examination (5 hours written, 1 hour oral). The International Association of Business Communicators also has an accreditation program for professionals in the communications field, including public relations specialists. Those who meet all the requirements of the program earn the desig nation, Accredited Business Communicator. Candidates must have at least 5 years of experience in a communication field and pass a written and oral examination. They also must submit a portfolio of work samples demonstrating involvement in a range of communi cation projects and a thorough understanding of communication planning. Employers consider professional recognition through ac creditation a sign of competence in this field, and it may be espe cially helpful in a competitive job market. Promotion to supervisory jobs may come as public relations specialists show they can handle more demanding managerial as signments. In public relations firms, a beginner may be hired as a research assistant or account assistant and be promoted to account executive, account supervisor, vice president, and eventually senior vice president. A similar career path is followed in cor porate public relations, although the titles may differ. Some experi enced public relations specialists start their own consulting firms. (For more information on public relations managers, see the Hand book statement on marketing, advertising, and public relations managers.) Professional Specialty Occupations 181 Job Outlook Keen competition for public relations jobs will likely continue among recent college graduates with a degree in communications— journalism, public relations, advertising, or a related field—as the number of applicants is expected to exceed the number of job open ings. People without the appropriate educational background or work experience will face the toughest obstacles in finding a public relations job. Employment of public relations specialists is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Recognition of the need for good public relations in an in creasingly competitive business environment should spur demand for public relations specialists in organizations of all sizes. However, corporate restructuring and downsizing, in an effort to cut costs, could limit employment growth. Employment in public relations firms should grow as firms hire contractors to provide public rela tions services rather than support full-time staff. The vast majority of job opportunities should result from the need to replace public rela tions specialists who leave the occupation to take another job, retire, or for other reasons. Earnings Median annual earnings for salaried public relations specialists who usually worked full time were about $23,000 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $16,000 and $33,000 annually; the lowest 10 percent earned less than $13,000; and the top 10 percent earned more than $47,000. A National Association of Colleges and Employers survey indi cated new college graduates entering the public relations field were offered average starting salaries of $21,000 in 1995. According to a 1993 salary survey by the Public Relations Jour nal, the median entry level salary of public relations account execu tives was almost $21,500 a year. Median annual salaries of all public relations account executives ranged from $29,000 in public relations firms to about $36,000 in corporations. Manufacturers, utilities, and scientific and technical firms were among the highest paying em ployers; museums and miscellaneous nonprofit organizations, relig ious and charitable organizations, and advertising agencies were among the lowest paying employers. The survey indicated an annual median salary for all respondents, including managers, of about $46,000. Some highly successful public relations workers earn con siderably more. Public affairs specialists in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions averaged about $49,180 a year in 1995. Radio and Television Announcers and Newscasters (D.O.T. 131.067-010, .262-010; 159.147-010,-014, and’018) Nature of the Work Announcers and newscasters are well-known to radio and television audiences. Radio announcers, often called disk jockeys, select and introduce recorded music; present news, sports, weather, and com mercials; interview guests; and report on community activities and other matters of interest to their audience. If a written script is required, they may do the research and writing. They often "ad-lib" much of the commentary. They also may operate the control board, sell commercial time to advertisers, and write commercial and news copy. Some announcers at large stations usually specialize in sports or weather, or in general news, and may be called newscasters or an chors. Others are news analysts. In small stations, one announcer may do everything. News anchors, or a pair of co-anchors, present news stories and introduce in-depth videotaped news or live transmissions from onthe-scene reporters. (See statement on reporters and correspondents elsewhere in the Handbook.) Weathercasters, also called weather reporters or meteorologists, report and forecast weather conditions. They gather information from national satellite weather services, wire services, and other local and regional weather bureaus. Sportscasters select, write, and deliver the sports news. This may include interviews with sports personalities and coverage of games played. Broadcast news analysts, called commentators, present news stories and also interpret them and discuss how they may affect the Nation or listeners. Show hosts interview guests about their lives, work, or topics of current interest. Announcers frequently participate in community activities. Sports announcers, for example, are masters of ceremonies at touch down club banquets or are on hand to greet customers at openings of sporting goods stores. Working Conditions Announcers and newscasters usually work in well-lighted, airconditioned, soundproof studios. The broadcast day is long for radio and TV stations—some are on the air 24 hours a day—so announcers can expect to work unusual Related Occupations Public relations specialists create favorable attitudes among various organizations, special interest groups, and the public through effec tive communication. Other workers with similar jobs include fund raisers, lobbyists, promotion managers, advertising managers, and police officers involved in community relations. Sources of Additional Information A comprehensive directory of schools offering degree programs or a sequence of study in public relations, a brochure on careers in public relations, and a $5 brochure entitled Where Shall I go to Study Ad vertising and Public Relations are available from: •"Public Relations Society of America, Inc., 33 Irving Place, New York, NY 10003-2376. Current information on the public relations field, salaries, and other items is available from: *"PR Reporter, P.O. Box 600, Exeter, NH 03833. Career information on public relations in hospitals/health care is available from: •■The American Society for Health Care Marketing and Public Relations, American Hospital Association, One North Franklin St., Chicago, IL 60606. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Radio and television announcers use computers to create and edit stones. 182 Occupational Outlook Handbook hours. Many announcers present early morning shows, when many people are getting ready for work or commuting, or do late night newscasts. They work within tight schedule constraints, which can be physi cally and mentally stressful. For many announcers, the intangible rewards—creative work, many personal contacts, and the satisfaction of becoming widely known—far outweigh the disadvantages of irregular and often unpredictable hours, work pressures, and dis rupted personal lives. Employment Radio and television announcers and newscasters held about 50,000 jobs in 1994. Nearly all were staff announcers, but some were freelance announcers who sold their services for individual assign ments to networks and stations, or to advertising agencies and other independent producers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Entry to this occupation is highly competitive. While formal training in broadcast journalism from a college or technical school (private broadcasting school) is valuable, station officials pay particular attention to taped auditions that show an applicant's delivery and—in television—appearance and style on commercials, news, and inter views. Those hired by television stations usually start out as produc tion secretaries, production assistants, researchers, or reporters and are given a chance to move into announcing if they show an aptitude for "on-air" work. Newcomers to TV broadcasting also may begin as news camera operators. (See the statement on photographers and camera operators elsewhere in the Handbook.) A beginner’s chance of landing an on-air newscasting job is remote, except possibly for a small radio station. In radio, newcomers generally start out taping interviews and operating equipment. Announcers usually begin at a station in a small community and, if qualified, may move to a better paying job in a large city. Announ cers also may advance by hosting a regular program as a disc jockey, sportscaster, or other specialist. In the national networks, competition for jobs is particularly intense, and employers look for college grad uates with at least several years of successful announcing experience. Announcers must have a pleasant and well-controlled voice, good timing, excellent pronunciation, and correct English usage. Televi sion announcers need a neat, pleasing appearance as well. Knowl edge of theater, sports, music, business, politics, and other subjects likely to be covered in broadcasts improves chances for success. Announcers also must be computer literate because stories are cre ated and edited on the computer. In addition, they should be able to "ad-lib" all or part of a show and to work under tight deadlines. The most successful announcers attract a large audience by combining a pleasing personality and voice with an appealing style. High school courses in English, public speaking, drama, foreign languages, and electronics are valuable, and hobbies such as sports and music are additional assets. Students may gain valuable experi ence at campus radio or TV facilities and at commercial stations. Some stations and cable systems offer financial assistance and onthe-job training in the form of internships, apprentice programs, co op work programs, scholarships, or fellowships. Persons considering enrolling in a broadcasting school should contact personnel managers of radio and television stations as well as broadcasting trade organizations to determine the school's reputation for producing suitably trained candidates. Announcers who operate transmitters must obtain a Federal Communications Commission (FCC) restricted radiotelephone oper ator permit. (For additional information on FCC requirements, see the statement on broadcast technicians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Competition for jobs as announcers will be very keen because the broadcasting field typically attracts many more jobseekers than there are jobs. Small radio stations are more inclined to hire beginners, but the pay is low. Because competition for ratings is so intense in major https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis metropolitan areas, large stations will continue to seek announcers and newscasters who have proven that they can attract and retain a large audience. Newscasters who are knowledgeable in such areas as business, consumer, and health news may have an advantage over others. While specialization is more common at larger stations and the networks, many smaller stations also encourage it. Little change in the employment of announcers is expected through the year 2005 due to the slowing in the growth of new radio and television stations and cable systems. Most openings in this relatively small field will arise from the need to replace those who transfer to other kinds of work or leave the labor force. Many an nouncers leave the field because they can not advance to better paying jobs. Employment in this occupation is not significantly affected by downturns in the economy. If recessions cause advertising revenues to fall, stations tend to cut "behind-the-scenes" workers rather than announcers and broadcasters. Earnings Salaries in broadcasting vary widely. They are higher in television than in radio, higher in larger markets than in small ones, and higher in commercial than in public broadcasting. According to a survey conducted by the National Association of Broadcasters and the Broadcast Cable Financial Management Asso ciation, the average salary for radio news announcers was $27,901 a year in 1994. Salaries ranged from $23,000 in the smallest markets to $39,291 in the largest markets. Sports announcers’ average was $38,950, ranging from $26,663 in the smallest to $75,029 in the largest markets. Among television announcers, news anchors' average salary was $65,520, ranging from $24,935 in the smallest to $199,741 in the largest markets. Weathercasters' average was $52,562, ranging from $25,638 to $130,919. Sportscasters' average was $48,704, ranging from $22,400 to $128,877. Related Occupations The success of announcers and news broadcasters depends upon how well they speak to their audiences. Others for whom oral communi cation skills are vital are interpreters, sales workers, public relations specialists, teachers, and actors. Sources of Additional Information For a list of schools that offer programs and courses in broadcasting, contact: •"Broadcast Education Association, 1771 N St. NW„ Washington, DC 20036. For information on FCC licenses, write to: •■Federal Communications Commission, Consumer Assistance Office, 1270 Fairfield Rd„ Gettysburg, PA 17325-7245 or call toll free 1-800-322-1117. General information on the broadcasting industry is available from: •■National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. For information on careers in broadcast news, contact: ••Radio-Television News Directors Association, 1717 K St. NW., Suite 615, Washington, DC 20006. Reporters and Correspondents (D.O.T. 131.262-018) Nature of the Work Reporters and correspondents play a key role in our society. They gather information and prepare stories that inform us about local, State, national, and international events; present points of view on current issues; and report on the actions of public officials, corporate executives, special interest groups, and others who exercise power. Professional Specialty Occupations 183 In covering a story, they investigate leads and news tips, look at documents, observe on the scene, and interview people. Reporters take notes and may also take photographs or shoot videos. At their office, they organize the material, determine their focus or emphasis, write their stories, and may also edit videos. Many enter information or write stories on portable computers, then submit them t to their offices using a telephone modem. In some cases, newswriters write the story from information collected and submitted by the reporter. Radio and television reporters often compose stories and report "live" from the scene. Later, they may tape a commentary in the studio. General assignment reporters write up news as assigned, such as an accident, a political rally, the visit of a celebrity, or a company going out of business. Large newspapers and radio and television sta tions assign reporters to gather news at specific locations or "beats," such as police stations or courts. Some reporters specialize in fields such as health, politics, foreign affairs, sports, theater, consumer affairs, social events, science, business, and religion. Investigative reporters cover stories that take many days or weeks of information gathering. News correspondents are stationed in large U.S. and foreign cities to report on news occurring there. Reporters on small publications cover all aspects of the news: They take photographs, write head lines, lay out pages, edit wire service copy, and write editorials. They also may solicit advertisements, sell subscriptions, and perform general office work. Radio and television reporters often compose stories and report “live” from the scene. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Conditions The work of reporters and correspondents is usually hectic. They are under great pressure to meet deadlines. Some reporters work in comfortable, private offices; others work in large rooms filled with the sound of keyboards and computer printers as well as the voices of other reporters. Those reporting from the scene for radio and televi sion may be distracted by curious onlookers or police or other emer gency workers. Covering wars, political uprisings, fires, floods, and similar events often is dangerous. Working hours vary. Reporters on morning papers often work from late afternoon until midnight. Those on afternoon or evening papers generally work from early morning until early or midafter noon. Radio and television reporters usually are assigned to a day or evening shift. Magazine reporters generally work during the day. Reporters may have to change their work hours to meet a deadline or to follow late-breaking developments. Their work demands long hours, irregular schedules, and some travel. Employment Reporters and correspondents held about 59,000 jobs in 1994. About 7 of every 10 worked for newspapers, either large city dailies or suburban and small town dailies or weeklies. Almost 2 in 10 worked in radio and television broadcasting, and others worked for maga zines and wire services. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer people with a bachelor's degree in journalism, but some hire graduates with other majors. They look for experience on school newspapers or broadcasting stations and internships with news organizations. Large city newspapers and stations may also prefer candidates with a degree in a subject-matter specialty such as economics, political science, or business. Large newspapers and broadcasters also require a minimum of 3 to 5 years experience as a reporter. Bachelor's degree programs in journalism are available in over 400 colleges. About three-fourths of the courses in a typical curricu lum are in liberal arts; the remainder are in journalism. Journalism courses include introductory mass media, basic reporting and copy editing, history of journalism, and press law and ethics. Students planning a career in broadcasting take courses in radio and television newscasting and production. Those planning newspaper or magazine careers usually specialize in news-editorial journalism. Many community and junior colleges offer journalism courses or programs; credits may be transferable to 4-year journalism programs. A master's degree in journalism was offered by over 100 schools in 1994; about 20 schools offered a Ph.D. degree. Some graduate programs are intended primarily as preparation for news careers, while others prepare journalism teachers, researchers and theorists, and advertising and public relations workers. High school courses in English, journalism, and social studies, provide a good foundation. Useful college liberal arts courses in clude English with an emphasis on writing, sociology, political science, economics, history, and psychology. Courses in computer science, business, and speech are useful as well. Fluency in a foreign language is necessary in some jobs. Reporters need good word processing skills, and computer graphics and desktop publishing skills are useful. A knowledge of news photography is valuable for entry level positions which are for combination reporter/camera operator or reporter/photographer. Experience in a part-time or summer job or an internship with a news organization is important. The Dow Jones Newspaper Fund and newspapers, magazines, and broadcast news organizations offer summer reporting and editing internships. Work on high school and college newspapers and broadcasting stations, community papers, and Armed Forces publications also helps. In addition, more than 3,000 journalism scholarships, fellowships, and assistantships were awarded to college journalism students by universities, newspapers, foundations, and professional organizations in 1994. 184 Occupational Outlook Handbook Experience as a "stringer"—a part-time reporter who is paid only for stories printed—is also helpful. Reporters should be dedicated to providing accurate and impartial news. Accuracy is important both to serve the public and because untrue or libelous statements can lead to costly lawsuits. A "nose for news," persistence, initiative, poise, resourcefulness, a good memory, and the physical stamina and emotional stability to deal with pressing deadlines, irregular hours, and sometimes dangerous assignments are important. Broadcast reporters need to be at ease on camera. All reporters must be at ease in unfamiliar places with all kinds of people. Most reporters start with small publications or broadcast stations as general assignment reporters or copy editors. Large publications and stations hire very few recent graduates; they generally require their new reporters to have several years of experience. Beginning reporters cover court proceedings and civic and club meetings, summarize speeches, and write obituaries. With experi ence, they report more difficult assignments, cover an assigned "beat," or specialize in a particular field. Some reporters may advance by moving to larger papers or stations. A few experienced reporters become columnists, corre spondents, writers, announcers, or public relations specialists. Others become editors in print journalism or program managers in broadcast journalism, who supervise reporters. Some eventually become broadcasting or publications industry managers. Broadcasters. For all stations, the median salary was $23,612. Salaries of television reporters ranged from $17,435 in the smallest stations to $79,637 in the largest ones. For all stations, the median salary was $31,239. Job Outlook Competition for reporting jobs on large metropolitan newspapers and broadcast stations and on national magazines will continue to be keen. Small town and suburban newspapers will continue to offer better opportunities for beginners. Many openings arise on small publications as reporters become editors or reporters on larger publi cations or leave the field. Talented writers who can handle highly specialized scientific or technical subjects have an advantage. Also, "stringers" and freelancers are being hired by more newspapers. Employment of reporters and correspondents is expected to decline through the year 2005—the result of mergers, consolidations and closures of newspapers, decreased circulations, increased ex penses, and a decline in advertising profits. Some growth is expected in radio and television stations. Most job openings will arise from the need to replace reporters and correspondents who leave the occupation. Turnover is relatively high in this occupation—some find the work too stressful and hectic, or don't like the lifestyle and transfer to other occupations where their skills are valuable, especially public relations and advertising work. Others leave because they are unable to move up to better paid jobs in bigger cities. Journalism graduates have the background for work in such closely related fields as advertising and public relations and many take jobs in these fields. Other graduates accept sales, managerial, and other nonmedia positions, in many cases because it is difficult to find media jobs. The newspaper and broadcasting industries are sensitive to eco nomic ups and downs. During recessions, few new reporters are hired and some reporters lose their jobs. For a list of schools with accredited programs in their journalism departments, send a stamped, self-addressed envelope to: Earnings The Newspaper Guild negotiates with individual newspapers on minimum salaries for both starting reporters and those still on the job after 3 to 6 years. The median minimum salary for reporters was about $443 a week as of August 1, 1994. Ten percent of the con tracts called for minimums of $326 or less; 10 percent, $618 or more. The median minimum weekly salary for reporters after 3 to 6 years on the job was about $713 a week. Ten percent of the contracts called for top minimums of $522 or less; 10 percent, $933 or more. Annual average salaries of radio reporters ranged from $18,600 in the smallest stations to $28,989, in the largest stations in 1994, according to a survey conducted by the National Association of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations Reporters and correspondents must write clearly and effectively to succeed in their profession. Others for whom writing ability is essential include technical writers, advertising copy writers, public relations workers, educational writers, fiction writers, biographers, screen writers, and editors. • Sources of Additional Information Career information, including pamphlets entitled Facts about News papers, and Newspaper: What's In It For Mel is available from: ••Newspaper Association of America Foundation, 11600 Sunrise Valley Dr., Reston, VA 22091-1412. Information on careers in journalism, colleges and universities that offer degree programs in journalism or communications, and journalism scholarships and internships may be obtained from: ••The Dow Jones Newspaper Fund, Inc., P.O. Box 300, Princeton, NJ 08543 0300. Information on union wage rates for newspaper and magazine reporters is available from: •■The Newspaper Guild, Research and Information Department, 8611 Second Ave., Silver Spring, MD 20910. ••Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communica tions, University of Kansas School of Journalism, Stauffer-Flint Hall, Law rence, KS 66045. For general information about careers in journalism, contact: ••Association For Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, University of South Carolina, 1621 College St., Columbia, SC 29208-0251. A pamphlet titled A Career in Newspapers, can be obtained from: ••National Newspaper Association, 1627 K St. NW., Suite 400, Washington, DC 20006. Names and locations of newspapers and a list of schools and departments of journalism are published in the Editor and Publisher International Year Book, available in most public libraries and newspaper offices. Writers and Editors (D.O.T. 052.067-010; 131 except .262-010 and -018; 132; and 203.362-026) Nature of the Work Writers and editors communicate through the written word. Writers develop original fiction and nonfiction for books, magazines and trade journals, newspapers, technical reports, company newsletters, radio and television broadcasts, movies, and advertisements. Editors select and prepare material for publication or broadcasting and supervise writers. Writers first select a topic or are assigned one by an editor. They then gather information through personal observation, library re search, and interviews. Writers select and organize the material and put it into words that effectively convey it to the reader, and often revise or rewrite sections, searching for the best organization of the material or just the right phrasing. Newswriters prepare news items for newspapers or news broad casts, based on information supplied by reporters or wire services. Columnists analyze news and write commentaries, based on personal knowledge and experience. Editorial writers write comments to stimulate or mold public opinion, in accordance with their publica tion's viewpoint. Reporters and correspondents, who may also write Professional Specialty Occupations 185 articles or copy for broadcast, are described elsewhere in this section of the Handbook. Technical writers make scientific and technical information easily understandable to a nontechnical audience. They prepare operating and maintenance manuals, catalogs, parts lists, assembly instructions, sales promotion materials, and project proposals. They also plan and edit technical reports and oversee preparation of illustrations, photo graphs, diagrams, and charts. Copy writers write advertising copy for use by publication or broadcast media to promote the sale of goods and services. Established writers may work on a freelance basis; they sell their work to publishers or publication units, manufacturing firms, and public relations and advertising departments or agencies. They sometimes contract to complete specific assignments such as writing about a new product or technique. Editors frequently write and almost always review, rewrite, and edit the work of writers. However, their primary duties are to plan the contents of books, magazines, or newspapers and to supervise their preparation. They decide what will appeal to readers, assign topics to reporters and writers, and oversee the production of the publications. In small organizations, a single editor may do every thing. In larger ones, an executive editor oversees associate or assistant editors who have responsibility for particular subjects, such as fiction, local news, international news, or sports, or who edit one or a few publications. Editors hire writers, reporters, or other em ployees, plan budgets, and negotiate contracts with freelance writers. In broadcasting companies, program directors have similar respon sibilities. Editors and program directors often have assistants, with the title of assistant editor, editorial assistant, copy editor, or production assistant. Many assistants hold entry level jobs. They review copy for errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling. They check manu scripts for readability, style, and agreement with editorial policy. They add and rearrange sentences to improve clarity or delete incor rect and unnecessary material. Editorial assistants do research for writers and verify facts, dates, and statistics. Assistants also may arrange page layouts of articles, photographs, and advertising. They also may compose headlines, prepare copy for printing, and proof read printer's galleys. Some editorial assistants read and evaluate manuscripts submitted by freelance writers or answer letters about published or broadcast material. Production assistants on small papers or in radio stations clip stories that come over the wire serv ices' printers, answer phones, and make photocopies. Most writers and editors use personal computers or word processors; many use desktop or electronic publishing systems. Working Conditions Some writers and editors work in comfortable, private offices; others work in noisy rooms filled with the sound of keyboards and computer printers as well as the voices of other writers tracking down infor mation over the telephone. The search for information sometimes requires travel and visits to diverse workplaces, such as factories, offices, laboratories, the ballpark, or the theater, but many have to be content with telephone interviews and the library. The workweek usually runs 35 to 40 hours. Those who prepare morning or weekend publications and broadcasts work nights or weekends. Writers may work overtime to meet deadlines or to cover late-developing stories. They often face deadlines and the pressure to meet them. On some jobs, deadlines are daily. Employment Writers and editors held about 272,000 jobs in 1994. Nearly a third of salaried writers and editors work for newspapers, magazines, and book publishers. Substantial numbers also work in advertising agen cies, in radio and television broadcasting, in public relations firms, and on journals and newsletters published by business and nonprofit organizations, such as professional associations, labor unions, and religious organizations. Others develop publications for government agencies or write for motion picture companies. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nearly a third of salaried writers and editors work for newspapers, magazines, and book publishers. Many technical writers work for computer software firms or manufacturers of aircraft, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and computers and other electronic equipment. Jobs with major book publishers, magazines, broadcasting com panies, advertising agencies and public relations firms, and the Federal Government are concentrated in New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Boston, Philadelphia, San Francisco, and Washington, D.C. More widely dispersed throughout the country are jobs with newspa pers; and professional, religious, business, technical, and trade union magazines or journals. Technical writers are employed throughout the country but the largest concentrations are in the Northeast, Texas, and California. Thousands of other persons work as freelancers—earning some income from their articles, books, and, less commonly, television and movie scripts. Most support themselves primarily with income from other sources. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A college degree generally is required. Although some employers look for a broad liberal arts background, most prefer to hire people with degrees in communications, journalism, or English. Technical writing requires a degree in or some knowledge about a specialized field—engineering, business, or one of the sciences, for example. In many cases, people with good writing skills can pick up specialized knowledge on the job. Some transfer from jobs as technicians, scientists, or engineers. Some begin as research assis- 186 Occupational Outlook Handbook tants, editorial assistants, or trainees in a technical information department, develop technical communication skills, and then as sume writing duties. Writers and editors must be able to express ideas clearly and logically and should love to write. Creativity, curiosity, a broad range of knowledge, self-motivation, and perseverance are also valuable. For some jobs, the ability to concentrate amid confusion and to produce under pressure is essential. Familiarity with elec tronic publishing, graphics, and video production equipment is increasingly needed. Editors must have good judgment in deciding what material to accept and what to reject. They need tact and the ability to guide and encourage others in their work. High school and college newspapers, literary magazines, and community newspapers and radio and television stations all provide valuable—but sometimes unpaid—practical writing experience. Many magazines, newspapers, and broadcast stations have intern ships for students. Interns write short pieces, conduct research and interviews, and learn about the publishing or broadcasting business. In small firms, beginning writers and editors may not only work as editorial or production assistants but also write or edit material right away. They often advance by moving to other firms. In larger firms, jobs usually are structured more formally. Beginners generally do research, fact checking, or copy editing. They take on full-scale writing or editing duties less rapidly than do the employees of small companies. Advancement comes as they are assigned more impor tant articles. Job Outlook Through the year 2005, the outlook for most writing and editing jobs is expected to continue to be keenly competitive primarily because so many people are attracted to the field. However, oppor tunities will be good for technical writers because of the more limited number of writers who can handle technical material. Opportunities should be better on small dailies and weekly newspapers and in small radio and television stations, where the pay is low. Persons preparing to be writers and editors should also have academic preparation in another field as well, either to qualify them as writers specializing in that field or to enter that field if they are unable to get a writing job. Employment of writers and editors is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Em ployment of salaried writers and editors by newspapers, periodicals, book publishers, and nonprofit organizations is expected to increase with growing demand for their publications. Growth of advertising and public relations agencies should also be a source of new jobs. Demand for technical writers is expected to increase because of the continuing expansion of scientific and technical information and the continued need to communicate it. Many job openings will also occur as experienced workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Turnover is relatively high in this occupation—many freelancers leave because they can not earn enough. Earnings In 1994, beginning salaries for writers and editorial assistants aver aged $18,000 annually, according to the Dow Jones Newspaper Fund. Those who had at least 5 years experience averaged more than $30,000 and senior editors at the largest newspapers earned over $60,000 a year. According to the 1994 Technical Communicator's Salary Survey, the median annual salary for technical writers was $42,469 annually. The average annual salary for technical writers and editors in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was about $44,041 in 1995; other writers and editors aver aged about $43,161. Related Occupations Writers and editors communicate ideas and information. Other communications occupations include newspaper reporters and corre spondents, radio and television announcers, advertising and public relations workers, and teachers. Sources of Additional Information For a guide to journalism careers and scholarships, contact: ••The Dow Jones Newspaper Fund, P.O. Box 300, Princeton, NJ 08540. For information on college internships in magazine editing, contact: •"American Society of Magazine Editors, 919 3rd. St., New York, NY 10022. For information on careers in technical writing, contact: •“Society for Technical Communication, Inc., 901 N. Stuart St., Suite 904, Arlington, VA 22203. Visual Arts Occupations Designers (D.O.T. 141.051, .061, .067; 142 except .051-010, .061-030, -054) Nature of the Work Designers organize and design articles, products, and materials so they serve the purpose for which they were intended and are visually pleasing. Pleasant surroundings, beautiful clothes, and floral ar rangements can boost our spirits, and products and packaging that are eye catching are more likely to attract buyers than those that are not. Many designers specialize in one particular area of design—for example, automobiles, clothing, furniture, home appliances, indus trial equipment, interiors of homes and office buildings, exhibits, movie and theater sets, packaging, or floral arrangements. Others work in more than one design field. The first step in developing a https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis new design or altering an existing one is to determine the needs of the client. Then the designer considers various factors, including the size, shape, weight, color, materials used, and the way the product functions. The ease of use, safety, and cost of the design are addi tional factors. Designers may compare similar or competitive prod ucts. They take into account, and often set, style and fashion trends. Designers develop, by hand or with the aid of a computer, sketches of several design concepts that they present for final selection to a client, an art or design director, a product development team, or producer of a play, film, or television production. The designer then makes a model, a prototype, or detailed plans drawn to scale. Design ers in some specialties increasingly use computer-aided design (CAD) tools to create and better visualize a final product. Computers greatly reduce the cost and time necessary to create a model or prototype, which gives a real idea of what the product will look like. Industrial designers use computer-aided industrial design (CAID) to create designs and to communicate them to automated production tools. Professional Specialty Occupations 187 Designers may supervise craft workers who carry out their de signs. Those who run their own businesses also may devote a con siderable amount of time to developing new business contacts and to administrative tasks such as reviewing catalogs and ordering samples. Design encompasses a number of different fields. Industrial designers develop and design countless manufactured products like cars, home appliances, children's toys, computer equipment, and medical, office, or recreational equipment. They combine artistic talent with research on product use, marketing, materials, and pro duction methods to create the most functional and appealing design and to make the product competitive with others in the marketplace. Furniture designers design furniture for manufacture, according to knowledge of design trends, competitors’ products, production costs, capability of production facilities, and characteristics of a company's market. They may also prepare detailed drawings of fixtures, forms, or tools required to be used in production of furni ture, along with designing custom pieces or styles according to a specific period or country. They must be strongly involved with the fashion industry and must be aware of current trends and styles. Interior designers plan the space and furnish the interiors of private homes, public buildings, and commercial establishments, such as offices, restaurants, hospitals, hotels, and theaters. They also may plan additions and renovations. With a client's tastes, needs, and budget in mind, they develop designs and prepare working drawings and specifications for interior construction, furnishings, lighting, and finishes. Increasingly, designers use computers to plan layouts that can be changed easily to include ideas received from the client. They also design lighting and architectural details such as crown molding, coordinate colors, and select furniture, floor coverings, and curtains. Interior designers must design space in accordance with Federal, State, and local laws, including building codes. Increasingly, they plan spaces that meet accessibility standards for the disabled and elderly. Set designers design movie, television, and theater sets. They study scripts, confer with directors, and conduct research to deter mine appropriate architectural styles. Fashion designers design clothing and accessories. Some highfashion designers are self-employed and design for individual clients. They make fashion news by establishing the "line," colors, and kinds of materials that will be worn each season. Other high-fashion designers cater to specialty stores or high-fashion department stores. They design original garments as well as follow the established fashion trends. Most fashion designers, however, work for apparel manufacturers, adapting men’s, women's, and children's fashions for the mass market. rm Creativity is crucial in all design occupations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Textile designers design fabric for garments, upholstery, rugs, and other products, using their knowledge of textile materials and fashion trends. Computers are widely used in pattern design and grading. In the future, intelligent pattern engineering (IPE) systems will enable even greater automation in generating patterns. Floral designers cut and arrange live, dried, or artificial flowers and foliage into designs to express the sentiments of the customer. They trim flowers and arrange bouquets, sprays, wreaths, dish gar dens, and terrariums. They usually work from a written order indi cating the occasion, customer preference for color and type of flower, price, and the date, time, and place the floral arrangement or plant is to be delivered. The variety of duties performed by a floral designer depends on the size of the shop and the number of designers em ployed. In a small operation, the floral designer may own the shop and do almost everything from growing flowers to keeping books. Working Conditions Working conditions and places of employment vary. Designers employed by manufacturing establishments or design firms generally work regular hours in well-lighted and comfortable settings. Selfemployed designers tend to work longer hours—especially at first, when they are trying to establish themselves and cannot afford to hire assistants or clerical help. Designers frequently adjust their workday to suit their clients, meeting with them evenings or on weekends when necessary. They may transact business in their own offices, clients' homes or offices, or may travel to other locations such as showrooms or manufacturing facilities. Industrial designers usually work regular hours but occasionally work overtime to meet deadlines. In contrast, set designers, espe cially those in television broadcasting, often work long and irregular hours. The pace of television production is very fast, and set design ers are often under pressure to make rapid changes in the sets. Fashion designers who work in the apparel industry usually have regular hours. During production deadlines or before fashion shows, however, they may be required to put in overtime. In addition, fashion designers may be required to travel to production sites over seas and across the United States. Interior designers generally work under deadlines and often work overtime to finish a job. Floral designers usually work regular hours in a pleasant work environment, except during holidays when overtime usually is required. All designers face frustration at times when their designs are rejected or when they cannot be as creative as they would like. Independent consultants, who are paid by the assignment, are under pressure to please clients and to find new ones to maintain their incomes. Employment Designers held about 301,000 jobs in 1994. About one-third were self-employed, a much higher proportion than in most occupations. Salaried designers work in a number of different industries, depending on their design specialty. Most industrial designers, for example, work for consulting firms or for large corporations. Interior designers usually work for design or architectural firms, department stores and home furnishing stores, or hotel and restaurant chains. Many do freelance work—full time, part time, or in addition to a salaried job in another occupation. Set designers work for theater companies and film and television production companies. Fashion designers generally work for textile, apparel, and pattern manufacturers, or for fashion salons, highfashion department stores, and specialty shops. Some work in the entertainment industry, designing costumes for theater, dance, tele vision, and movies. Most floral designers work for retail flower shops but growing numbers work in floral departments of grocery stores. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Creativity is crucial in all design occupations. People in this field must have a strong sense of color, an eye for detail, a sense of bal 188 Occupational Outlook Handbook ance and proportion, and sensitivity to beauty. Sketching ability is especially important for fashion designers. A good portfolio—a collection of examples of a person's best work—is often the deciding factor in landing a job. However, formal preparation in design is important in all fields with the exception of floral design. Educational requirements for entry-level positions vary. Some design occupations, notably industrial design, require a bachelor's degree. Interior designers also generally need a college education, preferably a bachelor of arts or a bachelor of applied arts degree. Few clients—especially commercial clients—are willing to entrust responsibility for designing living and working space to a designer with no formal credentials. Interior designers must also be knowl edgeable about Federal, State, and local codes, and toxicity and flammability standards for furniture and furnishings. In fashion design, some formal career preparation such as a 2-year or 4-year degree, is usually needed to enter the field. Employers seek individuals who are knowledgeable about textiles, fabrics, and orna mentation as well as trends in the fashion world. In contrast to the other design occupations, a high school diploma ordinarily suffices for floral design jobs. Most floral designers learn their skills on the job. When they hire trainees, employers generally look for high school graduates who have a flair for color and a desire to learn. However, completion of formal training is an asset for floral designers, particularly for advancement to the lead floral designer level. Vocational and technical schools offer programs in floral design that usually last less than a year, while 2- and 4-year programs in floriculture, horticulture, floral design, or ornamental horticulture are offered by community and junior colleges, and colleges and universities. Formal training for some design professions is also available in 2and 3-year professional schools which award certificates or associate degrees in design. Graduates of 2-year programs generally qualify as assistants to designers. Four-year colleges and universities grant the Bachelor of Fine Arts degree. The curriculum in these schools includes art and art history, principles of design, designing and sketching, and specialized studies for each of the individual design disciplines such as garment construction, textiles, mechanical and architectural drawing, computerized design, sculpture, architecture, and basic engineering. A liberal arts education, with courses in merchandising, business administration, marketing, and psychology, along with training in art is also a good background for most design fields, excluding industrial design. Persons with training or experi ence in architecture also qualify for some design occupations, par ticularly interior design. Computer-aided design (CAD) courses are very useful. CAD is used in various areas of design, and many employers expect new designers to be familiar with the use of the computer as a design tool. For example, industrial designers extensively use computers in the aerospace, automotive, and electronics industries. Interior designers are using computers to create numerous versions of space designs. Images can be inserted, edited, or replaced—making it possible for a client to see and choose among several designs. In furniture design, a chair's basic shape and structure may be duplicated and updated by applying new upholstery styles and fabrics with the use of computers. In 1994, the National Association of Schools of Art and Design accredited 179 postsecondary institutions with programs in art and design. Most of these schools award a degree in art. Some award degrees in industrial design, interior design, textile design, graphic design, or fashion design. Many schools do not allow formal entry into a bachelor's degree program until a student has successfully finished a year of basic art and design courses. Applicants may be required to submit sketches and other examples of their artistic ability. The Foundation for Interior Design Education Research accredits interior design programs and schools. Currently, there are over 100 accredited programs in the United States and Canada located in schools of art, architecture, and home economics. People in the design field must be creative, imaginative, persis https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis tent, and able to communicate their ideas both visually and verbally. Because tastes in style and fashion can change quickly, designers need to be open to new ideas and influences. Problem-solving skills and the ability to work independently are important traits. People in this field need self-discipline to start projects on their own, budget their time, and meet deadlines and production schedules. Business sense and sales ability are important for those who are freelancers or run their own businesses. Beginning designers usually receive on-the-job training and normally need 1 to 3 years of training before they advance to higher level positions. Experienced designers in large firms may advance to chief designer, design department head, or other supervisory posi tions. Some experienced designers open their own firms. Interior design is the only design field subject to government regulation: The District of Columbia licenses interior designers, and 16 States regulate use of the title. Since licensing is not mandatory in all States, membership in a professional association is universally recognized as a mark of achievement for designers. Professional membership usually requires the completion of 3 or 4 years of post secondary education in design, at least 2 years of practical experience in the field, and completion of the National Council for Interior Design qualification examination. Job Outlook Many talented individuals are attracted to careers as designers. Consequently, designers in most fields—with the exception of floral and furniture design—can expect to face competition throughout their careers. Due to this competition, individuals with little or no formal education in design, and without the necessary personal traits—particularly creativity and perseverance—may find it very difficult to establish and maintain a career in design. While most areas of design are highly competitive, this is not the case in floral design. Relatively low pay and limited opportunities for advancement restrict the supply of suitable applicants. As a result, finding a job as a floral designer should be relatively easy. Opportunities should also be good for qualified persons in special ized fields, such as furniture design. Employment in design occupations is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Demand for industrial designers will stem from continued emphasis on product quality and safety; design of new products that are easy and comfort able to use; high-technology products in medicine, transportation, and other fields; and increasing global competition among busi nesses. Increasing demand for professional design of private homes, office space, restaurants and other retail establishments, and institu tions that care for the elderly should spur employment growth among interior designers. Floral design should experience healthy growth with the addition of floral departments in many grocery stores. Growth in population and in personal incomes is expected to encour age increased demand for fashion, textile, and set designers. In addition to employment growth, many job openings will result from the need to replace designers who leave the field. Earnings Median weekly earnings of experienced full-time designers in all fields of design were about $590 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $380 and $840 a week. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $330, while the top 10 percent earned over $1,100. Earnings of floral designers were lower than most types of de signers. According to a survey conducted by Floral Finance Inc., beginning floral designers had average earnings of $5.52 an hour in 1994. Designers with 1 to 3 years of experience earned $6.44, while designers with over 3 years of experience averaged $7.68. Managers had average earnings of $9.63 an hour in 1994. According to the Industrial Designers Society of America, the average base salary for an entry-level industrial designer with 1 to 2 years of experience was about $25,800 in 1994. Staff designers with 5 years of experience earned $33,500, while senior designers with 8 Professional Specialty Occupations 189 years of experience earned $42,800. Industrial designers in manage rial or executive positions earned substantially more—up to $140,000 annually. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who design or arrange objects, materi als, or interiors to improve their appearance and function include visual artists, architects, landscape architects, engineers, photogra phers, and merchandise displayers. Sources of Additional Information For a list of accredited schools of art and design, contact: •"National Association of Schools of Art and Design, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 22090. For price and ordering information regarding a brochure that describes careers in industrial design and lists academic programs in the field, write to: ••Industrial Designers Society of America, 1142-E Walker Rd., Great Falls, VA 22066. For information about careers in interior design, contact: •"American Society for Interior Designers, 608 Massachusetts Ave. NE., Washington, DC 20002-6006. For a list of accredited programs in interior design, contact: ••Foundation for Interior Design Education Research, 60 Monroe Center NW„ Grand Rapids, MI 49503. For information about careers in floral design, contact: ••Society of American Florists, 1601 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314. For a list of schools with accredited programs in furniture design, contact: ••American Society of Furniture Designers, P.O. Box 1613, Lexington, NC 27293. Photographers and Camera Operators (D.O.T. 143) Nature of the Work Photographers and camera operators use cameras to capture the special feeling or mood that sells products, provides entertainment, highlights news stories, or brings back memories. Photographers use a wide variety of cameras that can accept lenses designed for close-up, medium-range, or distance photogra phy. Some cameras also offer adjustment settings that allow the photographer greater creative and technical control over the picture taking process. In addition to cameras and film, photographers and camera operators use an array of equipment, from filters, tripods, and flash attachments to specially constructed motorized vehicles and lighting equipment. Photography increasingly involves the use of computers. A photographer may take a picture, scan it to digital form, and, using a computer, manipulate it to create a desired effect. The images may be stored on a compact disk (CD) in the same way that music is stored on a CD. Currently, some photographers use this technology to create an electronic portfolio. However, due to inferior image quality and high cost, this technology has not been widely adopted. Camera operators generally use 35- or 16-millimeter cameras or video cameras to film commercial motion pictures and documentary or industrial films. Some film events for television news, or film private ceremonies and special events. Making commercial quality photographs and movies requires technical expertise and creativity. Composing a picture includes https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis choosing and presenting a subject to achieve a particular effect and selecting equipment to accomplish the desired goal. By creatively using lighting, lenses, film, filters, and camera settings, photogra phers and camera operators produce pictures that capture a mood or tell a story. For example, photographers and camera operators may enhance the subject's appearance with lighting or by drawing atten tion to a particular aspect by blurring the background. Some photographers develop and print their own photographs, especially those requiring special effects, but this requires a fully equipped darkroom and the technical skill to operate it. As a result, many professional photographers send their film to laboratories for processing. This is especially true for color film, which requires very expensive equipment and exacting conditions for processing and printing. (See the statement on photographic process workers else where in the Handbook.) Most photographers specialize in commercial, portrait, or media photography. Some specialize in weddings or school photographs. Portrait photographers take pictures of individuals or groups of people and often work in their own studios. Portrait photographers who are business owners arrange for advertising, schedule appoint ments, set and adjust equipment, develop and retouch negatives, and mount and frame pictures. They also hire and train employees, purchase supplies, keep records, and bill customers. Self-employed photographers may license the use of their photo graphs through stock photo agencies. These agencies grant maga zines and other customers the right to purchase the use of a photograph, and, in turn, pay the photographer on a commission basis. Stock photo agencies require an application from the photog rapher and a sizable portfolio. Once accepted, a large number of new submissions are generally required each year. Photographers fre quently have their photos placed on CD's for this purpose. Commercial and industrial photographers take pictures of such subjects as manufactured articles, buildings, livestock, landscapes, and groups of people. Their work is used in a wide variety of medi ums, such as reports, advertisements, and catalogs. Industrial pho tographers use photographs or videotapes for analyzing engineering projects, publicity, or as records of equipment development or de ployment, such as the placement of an off-shore oil rig. Automobile manufacturers hire photographers every year to publicize their new models. Companies use photographs in publications to report to stockholders or to advertise company products or services. This photography frequently is done on location. Scientific photographers provide illustrations and documentation for scientific publications, research reports, and textbooks. They usually specialize in a field such as engineering, medicine, biology, or chemistry. Some use photographic or video equipment as research tools. For example, biomedical photographers use photomicrogra phy, photographs of small objects magnified many times to obtain information not visible under normal conditions, and time-lapse photography, where time is stretched or condensed. Biomedical photographers record medical procedures such as surgery. Photojournalists photograph newsworthy events, places, people, and things for newspapers, journals, magazines, or television. Some are salaried staff, while others are independent and known as free lance photographers. Photography also is an art medium. Some photographers sell their photographs as artwork, placing even greater emphasis on self expression and creativity, in addition to technical proficiency. Unlike other specializations, however, very few artistic photogra phers are successful enough to support themselves in this manner. Many camera operators are employed by independent television stations, local affiliates, or networks. They often cover news events as part of a reporting team. Camera operators employed in the entertainment field use motion picture cameras to film movies, television programs, and commer cials. Some camera operators specialize in filming cartoons or other special effects for television and movies, 190 Occupational Outlook Handbook MVf#**' Camera operators and photographers need good eyesight, artistic ability, and manual dexterity. Working Conditions Working conditions for photographers and camera operators vary considerably. Photographers employed in government, commercial studios, and advertising agencies usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week. News photographers and camera operators often work long and irregular hours and must be available on short notice. Self-employment allows for greater autonomy, freedom of ex pression, and flexible scheduling. However, income is uncertain and necessitates a continuous, time consuming, and sometimes stressful search for new clients. Some photographers hire an assistant solely for this responsibility. Portrait photographers often work in their own studios but may travel to take photographs at schools and other places and weddings and other events. Press and commercial photographers and camera operators frequently travel locally or overnight; some travel to distant places for long periods of time. Their work may put them in uncom fortable or even dangerous surroundings. This is especially true for photojoumalists covering natural disasters, civil strife, or military conflicts. Some photographers and camera operators wait long hours in all kinds of weather for an event to take place and stand or walk for long periods while carrying heavy equipment. Photographers often work under severe time restrictions to meet deadlines and satisfy customers. Employment Photographers and camera operators held about 139,000 jobs in 1994. About 4 out of 10 were self-employed, a much higher propor tion than the average for all occupations. Some self-employed photographers contracted with advertising agencies, magazines, or others to do individual projects at a predetermined fee, while others operated portrait studios or provided photographs to stock photo agencies. Most salaried photographers worked in portrait or commercial photography studios. Others were employed by newspapers, maga zines, advertising agencies, and government agencies. Most camera operators were employed in television broadcasting or in motion picture studios; relatively few were self-employed. Most photogra phers and camera operators worked in metropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers usually seek applicants with a good technical understand ing of photography who are imaginative and creative. Entry level positions in photojournalism, and in industrial, scientific, or technical photography are likely to require a college degree in photography https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis with courses in the specific field being photographed, such as indus trial products or botany. Camera operators generally acquire their skills through formal post-secondary training at colleges, photo graphic institutes, universities, or through on-the-job training. Those in entry level jobs, including photography and cinematography assistants, learn to set up lights and cameras. They may receive routine assignments requiring few camera adjustments or decisions on what subject matter to capture. With increasing experience, they may advance to more demanding assignments. Photography assis tants often learn to mix chemicals, develop film, print photographs, and the various skills vital to running their own business. Individuals interested in this occupation should subscribe to photographic newsletters and magazines, join camera clubs, and seek work in camera stores or photo studios. Individuals also should de cide on an area of interest and specialize in it. Completing a course of study at a private photographic institute, university, or community college provides many of the necessary skills to be successful. Sum mer or part-time work for a photographer, network, newspaper, or magazine is an excellent way to gain experience and eventual entry to this field. Many sources, including universities, community and junior colleges, vocational-technical institutes, and private trade and techni cal schools, offer courses in photography. Courses in cinematogra phy are most often offered by photography institutes and universities. Many photographers enhance their technical expertise by attending seminars. Basic courses in photography cover equipment, processes, and techniques. Bachelor's degree programs provide a well-rounded edu cation, including business courses. Art schools offer useful training in design and composition, but may be weak in the technical and commercial aspects of photography. Photographers who wish to operate their own business need business skills as well as talent. They must know how to submit bids; write contracts; hire models, if needed; get permission to take on-site photographs at locations normally not open to the public; get clearances to use photographs of people; price photographs; and keep financial records. They should develop an individual style of photog raphy to differentiate themselves from the competition. Some selfemployed photographers enter the field by submitting unsolicited photographs to magazines or art directors at advertising agencies. Photographers and camera operators need good eyesight, artistic ability, and manual dexterity. They should be patient, accurate, and enjoy working with detail. They should be able to work alone or with others, as photographers frequently deal with clients, graphic designers, and advertising and publishing specialists. Knowledge of mathematics, physics, and chemistry is helpful for understanding the workings of lenses, films, light sources, and developing processes. Commercial photographers must be imaginative and original. Portrait photographers need the ability to help people relax in front of the camera. Photojoumalists must not only be good with a camera but also understand the story behind an event so that their pictures match the story. They must be decisive in recognizing a potentially good photograph and act quickly to capture it. This requires journal istic skills and explains why such employers increasingly look for individuals with a 4-year degree in photojournalism or journalism with an emphasis on photography. Camera operators can become directors of photography for movie studios, advertising agencies, or television programs. Magazine and news photographers may become photography editors. A few pho tographers and camera operators become teachers and provide in struction in their own area of expertise. Job Outlook Photography, particularly commercial photography and photojourna lism, is a highly competitive field because there are more people who want to be photographers than there is employment to support them. Only the most skilled and those with the best business ability, and who have developed the best reputations in the industry, are able to Professional Specialty Occupations 191 find salaried positions or attract enough work to support themselves as self-employed photographers. Many have full-time jobs in other fields and take photographs or videos of weddings and other events on weekends. Employment of photographers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The growing demand for visual images in education, communication, entertain ment, marketing, research and development, and other areas should spur demand for photographers. Demand for portrait photographers should increase as the population grows. Digital cameras use electronic memory rather than a film negative to record the image, which, in turn, can be transmitted instantly via a computer modem and telephone lines. For this reason, they are used widely by news photographers. However, these cameras are much more expensive than conventional cameras, and are not capable of producing an equally clear image, or one where the subject is in motion. As the technology improves and the prices drop, however, they may be more widely used, increasing demand for commercial photographers with a high degree of computer skills. Employment of camera operators also is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005, even though businesses are making greater use of videos for training films, business meetings, sales campaigns, and public relations work. Expansion of the entertainment industry will create additional open ings, but competition will be keen for what generally is regarded as an exciting field. Earnings The median annual earnings for salaried photographers and camera operators who worked full time were about $25,100 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $16,300 and $39,200. The top 10 percent earned more than $46,300, while the lowest 10 percent earned less than $12,400. Most salaried photographers work full time and earn more than the majority of self-employed photographers, who work part time, but some self-employed photographers have very high earnings. Earnings are affected by the number of hours worked, skills, market ing ability, and general business conditions. Unlike photojoumalists and commercial photographers, very few artistic photographers are successful enough to support themselves solely through this specialty. Related Occupations Other jobs requiring visual arts talents include illustrators, designers, painters, sculptors, and photo editors. Sources of Additional Information Career information on photography is available from: ••Professional Photographers of America, Inc., 57 Forsythe Street, Suite 1600, Atlanta, GA 30303 For reprints of a publication describing the work of various types of photographers and lists of colleges and universities offering courses or a degree in photography, write to: •■American Society of Media Photographers, Washington Rd„ Suite 502, Princeton Junction, NJ 08550-1033. Visual Artists (D.O.T. 102.261-014; 141.031-010, .061-010, -014, -018, -022, -026, -030, -034, .081-010; 142.061-030, -054; 144; 149.041, .051, .261; 970.131-014 .281-014, .361-018) Nature of the Work Visual artists use a variety of methods and materials to communicate ideas, thoughts, and feelings, including computers, oils, watercolors, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis acrylics, pastels, magic markers, pencils, pen and ink, silkscreen, plaster, clay, or any of a number of other media, such as photographs and sound. They create realistic and abstract works or images of objects, people, nature, topography, or events. (Designers, a closely related occupation, are discussed in a separate Handbook statement.) Visual artists generally fall into one of two categories—"graphic artists" and "fine artists"—depending not so much on the medium, but on the artist's purpose in creating a work of art. Graphic artists, many of whom own their own studios, put their artistic skills and vision at the service of commercial clients, such as major corpora tions, retail stores, and advertising, design, or publishing firms. Fine artists, on the other hand, often create art to satisfy their own need for self-expression, and may display their work in museums, corporate collections, art galleries, and private homes. Some of their work may be done on request from clients, but not as exclusively as that of graphic artists. Graphic artists, whether freelancers or employed by a firm, use a variety of print, electronic, and film media to create art that meets a client's needs. Most graphic artists use computer software to design new images. As the computer software becomes increasingly so phisticated, more artists are likely to become involved with this medium. Some graphic artists create packaging, promotional dis plays, and marketing brochures for new products, visual designs of annual reports and other corporate literature, or distinctive logos for products or businesses. They are responible for the overall layout and design of magazines, newspapers, journals, and other publica tions, and they create graphics for television and computer-generated media. Fine artists may sell their works to stores, commercial art galler ies, and museums, or directly to collectors. Commercial galleries may sell artists' works on consignment. The gallery and artist prede termine how much each earns from a sale. Only the most successful fine artists are able to support themselves solely through sale of their works, however. Most fine artists hold other jobs as well. Those with teaching certification may teach art in elementary or secondary schools, while those with a master's or Ph.D. degree may teach in colleges or universities. Some fine artists work in arts administration in city, State, or Federal arts programs. Others may work as art critics, art consultants, or as directors or representatives in fine art galleries; give private art lessons; or work as curators setting up art exhibits in museums. Sometimes fine artists work in a totally unre lated field in order to support their careers as artists. Fine artists usually work independently, choosing whatever subject matter and medium suits them. Usually, they specialize in one or two forms of art. Painters generally work with two dimensional art forms. Using techniques of shading, perspective, and color mixing, painters produce works that depict realistic scences or may evoke different moods and emotions, depending on the artist's goals. Sometimes artists combine mediums and include sound and motion in their works. Sculptors design three-dimensional art works—either molding and joining materials such as clay, glass, wire, plastic, or metal, or cutting and carving forms from a block of plaster, wood, or stone. Some sculptors combine various materials such as concrete, metal, wood, plastic, and paper. Printmakers create printed images from designs cut into wood, stone, or metal, or from computer driven data. The designs may be engraved, as in the case of woodblocking; etched, as in the produc tion of etchings; or derived from computers in the form of inkjet or laser prints. Painting restorers preserve and restore damaged and faded paintings. They apply solvents and cleaning agents to clean the surfaces, reconstruct or retouch damaged areas, and apply preserva tives to protect the paintings. This is very detailed work and is usually reserved for experts in the field. Illustrators paint or draw pictures for books, magazines, and other publications, films, and paper products, including greeting cards, calenders, wrapping paper, and stationery. Many do a variety of 192 Occupational Outlook Handbook illustrations, while others specialize in a particular style. Some illustrators draw "story boards" for television commercials, movies, and animated features. Story boards present television commercials in a series of scenes similar to a comic strip, so an advertising agency and client (the company doing the advertising) can evaluate proposed commercials. Story boards may also serve as guides to placement of actors and cameras and to other details during the production of commercials. Medical and scientific illustrators combine artistic skills with knowledge of the biological sciences. Medical illustrators draw illustrations of human anatomy and surgical procedures. Scientific illustrators draw illustrations of animals and plants. These illustra tions are used in medical and scientific publications, and in audiovis ual presentations for teaching purposes. Medical illustrators also work for lawyers, producing exhibits for court cases, and for doctors. Fashion artists draw illustrations of women's, men's, and children's clothing and accessories for newspapers, magazines, and other media. Cartoonists draw political, advertising, social, and sports car toons. Some cartoonists work with others who create the idea or story and write the captions. Most cartoonists, however, have hu morous, critical, or dramatic talents in addition to drawing skills. Animators work in the motion picture and television industries. They draw by hand and use computers to create the large series of pictures which, when transferred to film or tape, form the animated cartoons seen in movies and on television. Art directors, also called visual journalists, read the material to be printed in periodicals, newspapers, and other printed media, and decide how to best visually present the information in an eye catching, yet organized manner. They make decisions about which photographs or artwork to use, and in general oversee production of the printed material. Working Conditions Graphic and fine artists generally work in art and design studios located in office buildings or their own studios. While their sur roundings are usually well lighted and ventilated, odors from glues, paint, ink, or other materials may be present. They may use comput ers for extended periods of time. Graphic artists employed by publishing companies and art and design studios generally work a standard 40-hour week. During busy periods, they may work overtime to meet deadlines. Self-employed graphic artists can set their own hours, but may spend much time and effort selling their services to potential customers or clients and establishing a reputation. i: ‘ Visual artists communicate ideas, thoughts, and feelings through original artwork. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment Visual artists held about 273,000 jobs in 1994. About 3 out of 5 were self-employed. Self-employed artists are either graphic artists who freelance, offering their services to advertising agencies, pub lishing firms, and other businesses, or fine artists who earn income when they sell a painting or other art work. Of the artists who were not self-employed, many were graphic artists who worked for advertising agencies, design firms, commer cial art and reproduction firms, or publishing and publishing firms. Other artists were employed by the motion picture and television industries, wholesale and retail trade establishments, and public relations firms. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In the fine arts field, formal training requirements do not exist, but it is very difficult to become skilled enough to make a living without some basic training. Bachelor's and graduate degree programs in fine arts are offered in many colleges and universities. In the graphic arts field, demonstrated ability and appropriate training or other qualifi cations are needed for success. Evidence of appropriate talent and skill, displayed in an artist’s "portfolio," is an important factor used by art and design directors and others in deciding whether to hire or contract out work to an artist. The portfolio is a collection of hand made, computer-generated, or printed examples of the artist's best work. Assembling a successful portfolio requires skills generally developed in a postsecondary art or design school program, such as a bachelor's degree program in fine art, graphic design, or visual communications. Internships also provide excellent opportunities for artists to develop and enhance their portfolios. Most programs in art and design also provide training in computer design techniques. This training is increasingly important as a qualification for many jobs in commercial art. The appropriate training and education for prospective medical illustrators is more specific. Medical illustrators must not only demonstrate artistic ability but also have a detailed knowledge of living organisms, surgical and medical procedures, and human and sometimes animal anatomy. A 4-year bachelor's degree combining art and pre-medical courses is usually required, followed by a mas ter's degree in medical illustration, a degree offered in only a few accredited schools in the United States. Persons hired in advertising agencies or graphic design studios often start with relatively routine work. While doing this work, however, they may observe and practice their skills on the side. Many graphic artists work part time as freelancers while continuing to hold a full-time job until they get established. Others have enough talent, perseverance, and confidence in their ability to start out free lancing full-time immediately after they graduate from art school. Many freelance part time while still in school in order to develop experience and a portfolio of published work. The freelance artist develops a set of clients who regularly con tract for work. Some successful freelancers are widely recognized for their skill in specialties such as children's book illustration, design, or magazine illustration. These artists can earn high incomes and can pick and choose the type of work they do. Fine artists and illustrators advance as their work circulates and as they establish a reputation for a particular style. The best artists and illustrators continue to grow in ideas, and their work constantly evolves over time. Graphic artists may advance to assistant art director, art director, design director, and in some companies, crea tive director of an art or design department. Some may gain enough skill to succeed as a freelancer or may prefer to specialize in a par ticular area. Others decide to open their own businesses. Job Outlook The graphic and fine arts fields have a glamorous and exciting image. Many people with a love for drawing and creative ability qualify for entry to these fields. As a result, the supply of aspiring artists will continue to exceed the number of job openings, resulting in keen Professional Specialty Occupations competition for both salaried jobs and freelance work. Freelance work may be hard to come by, especially at first, and many freelanc ers earn very little until they acquire experience and establish a good reputation. Fine artists, in particular, may find it difficult to earn a living solely by selling their artwork. Nonetheless, graphic arts studios, clients, and galleries alike are always on the lookout for artists who display outstanding talent, creativity, and style. Talented artists who have developed a mastery of artistic techniques and skills, including computer skills, will be in high demand. Employment of visual artists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Demand for graphic artists will be strong as producers of information, goods, and services put even more emphasis on visual appeal in product design, advertising, marketing, and television. Employment growth for graphic artists, however, may be limited by increases in productivity due to computers, and because some firms are turning to employees without formal artistic or design training to operate computer-aided design systems. Employment of fine artists is expected to grow because of population growth, rising incomes, and growth in the number of people who appreciate fine arts. Demand for artists may also depend on the level of government funding for certain programs. For example, the National Endowment for the Arts offers a variety of grants to artists; however, competition is intense for most awards. 193 Earnings for self-employed visual artists vary widely. Those struggling to gain experience and a reputation may be forced to charge what amounts to less than the minimum wage for their work. Well-established freelancers and fine artists may earn much more than salaried artists. Self-employed artists do not receive benefits such as paid holidays, sick leave, health insurance, or pensions. Related Occupations Many occupations in the advertising industry, such as account ex ecutive or creative director, are related to commercial and graphic art and design. Workers in other occupations which apply visual art skills are architects, display workers, floral designers, industrial designers, interior designers, landscape architects, and photogra phers. The various printing occupations are also related to graphic art, as is the work of art and design teachers. Sources of Additional Information Students in high school or college who are interested in careers as illustrators should contact; •"The Society of Illustrators, 128 East 63rd St., New York, NY 10021-7392. ••The National Association of Schools of Art and Design, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 22090-5202. For information on careers in medical illustration, contact: ••The Association of Medical Illustrators, 1819 Peachtree St. NE„ Suite 602, Atlanta, GA 30309-1848. For information on careers in scientific illustration, contact: Earnings Median earnings for salaried visual artists who usually work full time were about $25,500 a year in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $18,800 and $34,500 a year. The top 10 percent earned more than $46,600, and the bottom 10 percent earned less than $14,100. According to the Society of Publication Designers, entry-level graphic designers earned between $21,000 and $24,000 annually. •"Guild of Natural Science Illustrators, P.O. Box 652, Ben Franklin Station, Washington, DC 20044-0652. For a list of schools offering degree programs in graphic design, contact: ••The American Institute of Graphic Arts, 164 Fifth Ave., New York, NY 10010. For information on art careers in the publishing industry, contact: •■The Society of Publication Designers, 60 East 42nd St„ Suite 721, New York, NY 10165-1416. Performing Arts Occupations Actors, Directors, and Producers (D.O.T. 139.167; 150 except .027-014; 159.041. .044, .047, .067, .117, .167-010 through -022, .267, .341, .344-010, -014, .347 except -010, .367, .647 except -018; 184.117-010, .162, .167-014, -022, -034; 187.167-174, -178, -182; 961.364, .667-014; 962.162-010, .167-014) Nature of the Work Actors, directors, and producers include stage and screen actors; narrators; magicians; clowns; comedians; impersonators; acrobats; jugglers; equestrians; amusement park entertainers; stunt, rodeo, and aquatic performers; casting, stage, news, sports, and public service directors; production, stage, and artist and repertoire managers; and producers and their assistants. This Handbook statement focuses on actors, directors, and producers. Actors, directors, and producers express ideas and create images, based on a script, in theaters, film, television, and radio. They "make the words come alive" for their audiences. Actors entertain and communicate with people through their interpretation of dramatic roles. But, only a few actors achieve recognition as stars on the stage, in motion pictures, or on television. A somewhat larger number are well-known, experienced performers, who frequently are cast in supporting roles. Most actors struggle for a toehold in the profession and pick up parts wherever they can. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Many successful actors continue to accept small roles, including commercials and product endorsements. Some actors employed by theater companies teach acting courses to the public. In addition to the actors with speaking parts, "extras," who have small parts with no lines to deliver, are used throughout the industry. Directors interpret plays or scripts. In addition, they audition and select cast members, conduct rehearsals, and direct the work of the cast and crew. Directors use their knowledge of acting, voice, and movement to achieve the best possible performance and usually approve the scenery, costumes, choreography, and music. Producers are entrepreneurs. They select plays or scripts, arrange financing, and decide on the size and content of the production and its budget. They hire directors, principal members of the cast, and key production staff members, and they negotiate contracts with artistic personnel, often in accordance with collective bargaining agreements. Producers also coordinate the activities of writers, directors, managers, and other personnel. Working Conditions Acting demands patience and total commitment, because there are often long periods of unemployment between jobs. While under contract, actors are frequently required to work long hours and travel. Evening work is a regular part of a stage actor's life. Flawless per formances require tedious memorizing of lines and repetitive re hearsals. On television, actors must deliver a good performance with 194 Occupational Outlook Handbook Directors conduct rehearsals, guiding the work of the cast and crew. very little preparation. Actors need stamina to withstand the heat of stage or studio lights, heavy costumes, the long, irregular hours, and the adverse weather conditions that may exist "on location." When plays are "on the road," traveling is necessary. Actors often face the anxiety of intermittent employment and rejections when auditioning for work. Directors and producers often work under stress as they try to meet schedules, stay within budgets, and resolve personnel problems while putting together a production. Employment In 1994, actors, directors, and producers held an average of about 93,000 jobs in motion pictures, stage plays, television, and radio. Many others were between jobs, so that the total number of people actually employed as actors, directors, and producers over the course of the year was higher. In the winter, most employment opportuni ties on the stage are in New York and other large cities, many of which have established professional regional theaters. In the sum mer, stock companies in suburban and resort areas also provide employment. Cruise Lines and amusement parks also provide oppor tunities. In addition, many cities have small nonprofit professional companies such as "little theaters," repertory companies, and dinner theaters, which provide opportunities for local amateur talent as well as for professional entertainers. Normally, casts are selected in New York City for shows that go on the road. Employment in motion pictures and films for television is cen tered in Hollywood and New York City. However, studios are also located in Florida, Seattle, and other parts of the country. In addi tion, many films are shot on location and employ local professionals and nonprofessionals as day players and extras. In television, oppor tunities are at the network entertainment centers in New York and Los Angeles and at local television stations around the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Aspiring actors and directors should take part in high school and college plays, or work with little theaters and other acting groups for experience. Formal dramatic training or acting experience is generally neces sary, although some people enter the field without it. Most people take college courses in theater, arts, drama, and dramatic literature. Many experienced actors get additional formal training to learn new skills and improve old ones. Training can be obtained at dramatic arts schools in New York and Los Angeles, and at colleges and universities throughout the country offering bachelor's or higher degrees in dramatic and theater arts. College drama curriculums usually include courses in liberal arts, stage speech and movement, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis directing, playwriting, play production, design, and history of the drama, as well as practical courses in acting. The best way to start is to use local opportunities and to build on them. Local and regional theater experience may help in obtaining work in New York or Los Angeles. Modeling experience may also be helpful. Actors need talent, creative ability, and training that will enable them to portray different characters. Training in singing and dancing is especially useful. Actors must have poise, stage presence, the ability to affect an audience, plus the ability to follow directions. Physical appearance is often a deciding factor in being selected for particular roles. Many professional actors rely on agents or managers to find work, negotiate contracts, and plan their careers. Agents generally earn a percentage of an actor's contract. To become a movie extra, one must usually be listed by a casting agency, such as Central Casting, a no-fee agency that supplies all extras to the major movie studios in Hollywood. Applicants are accepted only when the number of persons of a particular type on the list—for example, athletic young women, old men, or small chil dren—is below the foreseeable need. In recent years, only a very small proportion of the applicants have succeeded in being listed. There are no specific training requirements for directors and producers. However, talent, experience, and business acumen are very important. Directors and producers come from different backgrounds. Actors, writers, film editors, and business managers often enter these fields. Producers often start in the industry working behind the scenes with successful directors. Formal training in directing and producing is available at some colleges and universities. As actors', directors', and producers' reputations grow, they work on larger productions or in more prestigious theaters. Actors also advance to lead or specialized roles. A few actors move into actingrelated jobs as drama coaches or directors of stage, television, radio, or motion picture productions. Some teach drama in colleges and universities. The length of a performer's working life depends largely on training, skill, versatility, and perseverance. Some actors, directors, and producers continue working throughout their lives; however, many leave the occupation after a short time because they cannot find enough work to make a living. Job Outlook The large number of people desiring acting careers and the lack of formal entry requirements should continue to cause keen competition for actor, director, and producer jobs. Only the most talented will find regular employment. Employment of actors, directors, and producers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Rising foreign demand for American productions, combined with a growing domestic market—fueled by the growth of cable television, home movie rentals, and television syndications—should stimulate demand for actors and other production personnel. Growth of opportunities in recorded media should be accompanied by in creasing jobs in live productions. Growing numbers of people who enjoy live theatrical entertainment will continue to go to theaters for excitement and aesthetics. Touring productions of Broadway plays and other large shows are providing new opportunities for actors and directors. However, employment may be somewhat affected by government funding for the arts—a decline in funding could dampen future employment growth in this segment of the entertainment industry. Workers leaving the field will continue to create more job openings than will growth. Earnings Minimum salaries, hours of work, and other conditions of employ ment are covered in collective bargaining agreements between pro ducers of shows and unions representing workers in this field. The Actors' Equity Association represents stage actors; the Screen Actors Professional Specialty Occupations 195 Guild and the Screen Extras Guild cover actors in motion pictures, including television, commercials, and films; and the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA) represents television and radio performers. Most stage directors belong to the Society of Stage Directors and Choreographers, and film and televi sion directors belong to the Directors Guild of America. Of course, any actor or director may negotiate for a salary higher than the minimum. According to limited information, the minimum weekly salary for actors in Broadway stage productions was $1,000 in 1995. Those in small "off-Broadway" theaters received minimums ranging from $380 to $650 a week, depending on the seating capacity of the thea ter. For shows on the road, actors receive about $100 per day more for living expenses. Actors usually work long hours during rehearsals. Once the show opens, they have more regular hours, working about 30 hours a week. According to the Screen Actors Guild, motion picture and televi sion actors with speaking parts earned a minimum daily rate of about $500, or $1,750 for a 5-day week, in 1995. Those without speaking parts, "extras," earned a minimum daily rate of about $100. Actors also receive contributions to their health and pension plans and additional compensation for reruns. Earnings from acting are low because employment is so irregular. The Screen Actors Guild also reports that the average income its members earned from acting was $1,400 a year, and 80 percent of its members earned less than $5,000 a year from acting. Therefore, many actors must supplement their incomes by holding jobs in other fields. Some well-known actors have salary rates well above the mini mums, and the salaries of the few top stars are many times the figures cited, creating a false impression that all actors are highly paid. Many actors who work more than a set number of weeks per year are covered by a union health, welfare, and pension fund, including hospitalization insurance, to which employers contribute. Under some employment conditions, Actors' Equity and AFTRA members have paid vacations and sick leave. Earnings of stage directors vary greatly. According to the Society of Stage Directors and Choreographers, summer theatres offer com pensation, including "royalties" (based on the number of perform ances), usually ranging from $2,000 to $8,000 for a 3- to 4-week run of a production. Directing a production at a dinner theater will usually pay less than a summer theatre but has more potential for royalties. Regional theaters may hire directors for longer periods of time, increasing compensation accordingly. The highest paid direc tors work on Broadway productions, typically earning $80,000 plus royalties. Producers seldom get a set fee; instead, they get a percentage of a show’s earnings or ticket sales. Dancers and Choreographers (D.O.T. 151.027-010 and .047-010) Nature of the Work From ancient times to the present, dancers have expressed ideas, stories, rhythm, and sound with their bodies. Many perform in classical ballet. Others perform modem dance, which allows more free movement and self-expression. Still others perform in dance adaptations for musical shows, in folk, ethnic, tap, and jazz dances, and in other popular kinds of dancing. In addition to being an art form for its own sake, dance also complements opera, musical com edy, television, movies, music videos, and commercials. Therefore, many dancers sing and act, as well as dance. Dancers most often perform as a group, although a few top artists dance solo. Many dancers combine stage work with teaching or choreographing. Choreographers create original dances. They may also create new interpretations to traditional dances like the ballet, "Nutcracker", since few dances are written down. Choreographers instruct per formers at rehearsals to achieve the desired effect. They also audi tion performers. Working Conditions Dancing is strenuous. Rehearsals require very long hours and usually take place daily, including weekends and holidays. For shows on the Related Occupations People who work in occupations requiring acting skills include dancers, choreographers, disc jockeys, drama teachers or coaches, and radio and television announcers. Others working in occupations related to acting are playwrights, scriptwriters, stage managers, costume designers, makeup artists, hair stylists, lighting designers, and set designers. Workers in occupations involved with the busi ness aspects of theater productions include managing directors, company managers, booking managers, publicists, and actors', direc tors', and playwrights' agents. Sources of Additional Information Information about opportunities in regional theaters may be obtained from: •"Theatre Communications Group, Inc., 355 Lexington Ave., New York, NY 10017. A directory of theatrical programs may be purchased from: •"National Association of Schools of Theatre, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 22090. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Dance routines require many hours of rehearsals. 196 Occupational Outlook Handbook road, weekend travel often is required. Most performances take place in the evening, while rehearsals and practice generally are scheduled during the day. Dancers must also work late hours. Due to the physical demands, most dancers stop performing by their late thirties, but they sometimes continue to work in the dance field as choreographers, dance teachers and coaches, or as artistic directors. Some celebrated dancers, however, continue performing beyond the age of 50. Employment Professional dancers held an average of about 24,000 jobs at any one time in 1994. Many others were between engagements so that the total number of people employed as dancers over the course of the year was greater. Dancers work in a variety of settings, including eating and drinking establishments, theatrical and television produc tions, dance studios and schools, dance companies and bands, and amusement parks. In addition, there were many dance instructors in secondary schools, colleges and universities, and private studios. Many teach ers also perform from time to time. New York City is the home of many of the major dance compa nies. Other cities with full-time professional dance companies in clude Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Columbus, Dallas, Houston, Miami, Milwaukee, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Salt Lake City, San Francisco, Seattle, and Washington, D.C. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training depends upon the type of dance. Early ballet training for women usually begins at 5 to 8 years of age and is often given by private teachers and independent ballet schools. Serious training traditionally begins between the ages of 10 and 12. Men often begin their training between the ages of 10 and 15. Students who demon strate potential in the early teens receive more intensive and ad vanced professional training at regional ballet schools or schools conducted under the auspices of the major ballet companies. Lead ing dance school companies often have summer training programs from which they select candidates for admission to their regular full time training program. Most dancers have their professional audi tions by age 17 or 18; however, training and practice never end. Professional ballet dancers have 1 to 1 1/2 hours of lessons every day and spend many additional hours practicing and rehearsing. Early and intensive training also is important for the modem dancer, but modem dance generally does not require as many years of training as ballet. Because of the strenuous and time-consuming training required, a dancer's formal academic instruction may be minimal. However, a broad, general education including music, literature, history, and the visual arts is helpful in the interpretation of dramatic episodes, ideas, and feelings. Many colleges and universities confer bachelor's or higher de grees in dance, generally through the departments of physical educa tion, music, theater, or fine arts. Most programs concentrate on modem dance, but also offer courses in ballet/classical techniques, dance composition, dance history, dance criticism, and movement analysis. A college education is not essential to obtaining employment as a professional dancer. In fact, ballet dancers who postpone their first audition until graduation may compete at a disadvantage with younger dancers. On the other hand, a college degree can help the dancer who retires at an early age, as often happens, and wishes to enter another field of work. Completion of a college program in dance and education is es sential to qualify for employment as a college or elementary/high school dance teacher. Colleges, as well as conservatories, generally require graduate degrees, but performance experience often may be substituted. However, a college background is not necessary for teaching dance or choreographing professionally. Studio schools usually require teachers to have experience as performers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The dancer's life is one of rigorous practice and self-discipline; therefore, patience, perseverance, and a devotion to dance are essen tial. Good health and physical stamina are necessary in order to practice and perform and to follow the rugged schedule often re quired. Above all, one must have flexibility, agility, coordination, grace, a sense of rhythm, and a feeling for music, as well as a crea tive ability to express oneself through movement. Dancers seldom perform unaccompanied, so they must be able to function as part of a team, highly motivated, and should be prepared to face the anxiety of intermittent employment and rejections when auditioning for work. For dancers, advancement takes the form of a growing reputation, more frequent work, bigger and better roles, and higher pay. Job Outlook Dancers and choreographers face very keen competition for jobs. The number of applicants will continue to exceed the number of job openings, and only the most talented will find regular employment. Employment of dancers and choreographers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 due to the public's continued interest in this form of artistic expression. However, cuts in funding for the National Endowment for the Arts and related organizations could adversely affect employment in this field. Although jobs will arise each year due to increased demand, most job openings will occur as dancers and choreographers retire and leave the occupation for other reasons, and as dance companies search for and find outstanding talent. The best job opportunities are expected to be with national dance companies because of the demand for performances outside of New York City. Opera companies will also provide some employment opportunities. Dance groups affiliated with colleges and universities and television and motion pictures will also offer some opportunities. Moreover, the growing popularity of dance in recent years has re sulted in increased employment opportunities in teaching dance. With innovations such as electronic sounds and music videos, choreography is becoming a more challenging field of endeavor, and will offer some employment opportunities for highly talented and creative individuals. Earnings Earnings of many professional dancers are governed by union con tracts. Dancers in the major opera ballet, classical ballet, and modern dance corps belong to the American Guild of Musical Artists, Inc., AFL-CIO; those on live or videotaped television belong to the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists; those who perform in films and on TV belong to the Screen Actors Guild or the Screen Extras Guild; and those in musical comedies are members of the Actors' Equity Association. The unions and producers sign basic agreements specifying minimum salary rates, hours of work, benefits, and other conditions of employment. However, the contract each dancer signs with the producer of the show may be more favorable than the basic agreement. For 1994-95, the minimum weekly salary for dancers in ballet and modem productions was $610. According to the American Guild of Musical Artists, new first year dancers being paid for single perform ances under a union agreement earned about $475 per week and $70 per rehearsal hour. Dancers on tour received an additional allowance for room and board. The minimum performance rate for dancers in theatrical motion pictures was around $100 per day of filming. The normal workweek is 30 hours including rehearsals and matinee and evening performances, but may be longer. Extra compensation is paid for additional hours worked. Earnings of choreographers vary greatly. Earnings from fees and performance royalties range from about $970 a week in small pro fessional theaters, to over $30,000 for an 8- to 10-week rehearsal period for a Broadway production. In high budget films, choreogra phers make $3,000 for a 5-day week; in television, $7,500 to $10,000 for up to 14 work days. Professional Specialty Occupations 197 Earnings from dancing are generally low because dancers' em ployment is irregular. They often must supplement their income by taking temporary jobs unrelated to dancing. Dancers covered by union contracts are entitled to some paid sick leave, paid vacations, and various health and pension benefits, in cluding extended sick pay and child birth provisions, provided by their unions. Employers contribute toward these benefits. Most other dancers do not receive any benefits. Related Occupations Other occupations require the dancer's knowledge of conveying ideas through physical motion. These include ice skaters, dance critics, dance instructors, dance notators, and dance therapists. Athletes in most sports also need the same strength, flexibility, agility, and body control as dancers. Sources of Additional Information For information on purchasing directories about colleges and uni versities that teach dance, including details on the types of courses offered, and scholarships, write to: + '*• Many professional musicians began studying at an early age. ••National Dance Association, 1900 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091; or call 1-800-321-0789. A directory of dance, art and design, music, and theater programs may be purchased from: •"National Association of Schools of Dance, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 22090. For information on all aspects of dance, including job listings, send a self-addressed stamped envelope to: •■American Dance Guild, 31 West 21st St., Third Floor, New York, NY 10010. A directory of dance companies and related organizations, plus other information on professional dance, is available from: ••Dance/USA, 777 14th St. NW„ Suite 540, Washington, DC 20005. Musicians (D.O.T. 152 except .021) Nature of the Work Musicians may play musical instruments, sing, compose,arrange, or conduct groups in instrumental or vocal performances. Musicians may perform alone or as part of a group, before live audiences or on radio, or in recording studios, television, or movie productions. Musicians may specialize in a particular kind of music or per formance. Instrumental musicians play a musical instrument in an orchestra, band, rock group, or jazz group. Musicians may play any of a wide variety of string, brass, woodwind, or percussion instru ments or electronic synthesizers. Musicians may learn several re lated instruments, such as the flute and clarinet, often improving their employment opportunities. Singers interpret music using their knowledge of voice produc tion, melody, and harmony. They sing character parts or perform in their own individual style. Singers are often classified according to their voice range—soprano, contralto, tenor, baritone, or bass—or by the type of music they sing, such as opera, rock, reggae, folk, rap, or country and western. Composers create original music such as symphonies, operas, sonatas, or popular songs. They transcribe ideas into musical nota tion using harmony, rhythm, melody, and tonal structure. Many songwriters now compose and edit music using computers. Some even have a musical keyboard linked to a computer which compiles the digital information into musical notation while they play. Also, they may program the composition in musical notation into the computer, which can play back the piece. Arrangers transcribe and adapt musical composition to a particular style for orchestras, bands, choral groups, or individuals. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Orchestra conductors lead instrumental music groups, such as orchestras, dance bands, and various popular ensembles. Conductors audition and select musicians, choose the music to accommodate the talents and abilities of the musicians, and direct rehearsals and per formances, applying conducting techniques to achieve desired musi cal effects. Choral directors lead choirs and glee clubs, sometimes working with a band or orchestra conductor. Directors audition and select singers and direct them at rehearsals and performances to achieve harmony, rhythm, tempo, shading, and other desired musical effects. All musicians spend a considerable amount of time practicing, individually and with their band, orchestra, or other musical group. Working Conditions Musicians often perform at night and on weekends and spend consid erable time in practice and rehearsal. Performances frequently re quire travel. Because many musicians find only part-time work or experience unemployment between engagements, they often supple ment their income with other types of jobs. In fact, many decide they cannot support themselves as musicians and take permanent, full time jobs in other occupations, while working only part time as musicians. Most instrumental musicians come into contact with a variety of other people, including their colleagues, agents, employers, sponsors, and audiences. They usually work indoors, although some may perform outdoors for parades, concerts, and dances. Certain per formances create noise and vibration. In some taverns and restau rants, smoke and odors may be present, and lighting and ventilation may be inadequate. Employment An average of about 256,000 musicians held jobs in 1994. Many were between engagements, so that the total number of people em ployed as musicians during the course of the year might have been greater. Nearly 3 out of 5 musicians employed in 1994 worked part time; over 1 out of 4 were self-employed. Many work in cities in which entertainment and recording activi ties are concentrated, such as New York, Los Angeles, and Nashville. Classical musicians may perform with professional orchestras or in small chamber music groups like quartets or trios. Musicians may work in opera, musical comedy, and ballet productions. Many are organists who play in churches and synagogues—2 out of 3 musi cians who are paid a wage or salary work in religious organizations. Musicians also perform in clubs and restaurants, and for weddings and other events. Well-known musicians and groups give their own concerts, appear "live" on radio and television, make recordings and 198 Occupational Outlook Handbook music videos, or go on concert tours. The Armed Forces, too, offer careers in their bands and smaller musical groups. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many people who become professional musicians begin studying an instrument at an early age. They may gain valuable experience playing in a school or community band or orchestra, or with a group of friends. Singers usually start training when their voices mature. Participation in school musicals or in a choir often provides good early training and experience. Musicians need extensive and pro longed training to acquire the necessary skill, knowledge, and ability to interpret music. This training may be obtained through private study with an accomplished musician, in a college or university music program, in a music conservatory, or through practice with a group. For study in an institution, an audition frequently is neces sary. Formal courses include musical theory, music interpretation, composition, conducting, and instrumental and voice instruction. Composers, conductors, and arrangers need advanced training in these subjects as well. Many colleges, universities, and music conservatories grant bachelor's or higher degrees in music. Many also grant degrees in music education to qualify graduates for a State certificate to teach music in an elementary or secondary school. Those who perform popular music must have an understanding of and feeling for the style of music that interests them, but classical training can expand their employment opportunities, as well as their musical abilities. Although voice training is an asset for singers of popular music, many with untrained voices have successful careers. As a rule, musicians take lessons with private teachers when young, and seize every opportunity to make amateur or professional appear ances. Young persons who are considering careers in music should have musical talent, versatility, creative ability, and poise and stage pres ence to face large audiences. Since quality performance requires constant study and practice, self-discipline is vital. Moreover, musi cians who play concert and nightclub engagements must have physi cal stamina because frequent travel and night performances are required. They must also be prepared to face the anxiety of intermit tent employment and rejections when auditioning for work. Advancement for musicians generally means becoming better known and performing for greater earnings with better known bands and orchestras. Successful musicians often rely on agents or manag ers to find them performing engagements, negotiate contracts, and plan their careers. Job Outlook Competition for musician jobs is keen, and talent alone is no guaran tee of success. The glamour and potentially high earnings in this occupation attract many talented individuals. However, being able to play several instruments and types of music enhances a musician's employment prospects. Overall employment of musicians is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Almost all new wage and salary jobs for musicians will arise in religious organi zations and bands, orchestras, and other entertainment groups. A decline in employment is projected for salaried musicians in restau rants and bars, although they comprise a very small proportion of all wage and salary musicians. Bars, which regularly employ musicians, are expected to grow more slowly than eating establishments because consumption of alcoholic beverages outside the home is expected to continue to decline. The fastest growing segment of restaurants is the moderately priced, family dining restaurants, which seldom https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis provide live entertainment to their customers. Overall, most job openings for musicians will arise from the need to replace those who leave the field each year because they are unable to make a living solely as musicians. Earnings Earnings often depend on a performer’s professional reputation, place of employment, and on the number of hours worked. The most successful musicians can earn far more than the minimum salaries indicated below. According to the American Federation of Musicians, minimum salaries in major orchestras ranged from about $1,000 to $1,200 per week during the 1994-95 performing season. Each orchestra works out a separate contract with its members. The season of these top orchestras ranged from 48 to 52 weeks, with most being 52 weeks. In regional orchestras, the minimum salaries were between $400 and $700 per week, and the seasons lasted 25 to 38 weeks, with an aver age of 30 weeks; some now work a 52-week season. Community orchestras, however, had more limited levels of funding and offered salaries that were much lower for seasons of shorter duration. Musicians employed in motion picture or television recording and those employed by recording companies were paid a minimum ranging from about $200 to $260 a week in 1995, depending on the size of the ensemble. Musicians employed by some symphony orchestras work under master wage agreements, which guarantee a season’s work up to 52 weeks. Many other musicians may face relatively long periods of unemployment between jobs. Even when employed, however, many work part time. Thus, their earnings generally are lower than those in many other occupations. Moreover, since they may not work steadily for one employer, some performers cannot qualify for un employment compensation, and few have either sick leave or vaca tions with pay. For these reasons, many musicians give private lessons or take jobs unrelated to music to supplement their earnings as performers. Many musicians belong to a local of the American Federation of Musicians. Professional singers usually belong to a branch of the Associated Actors and Artists of America. Related Occupations There are many music-related occupations. These include librettists, songwriters, and music therapists. A large number of music teachers work in elementary and secondary schools, music conservatories, and colleges and universities, or are self-employed. Many who teach music also perform. Technical knowledge of musical instruments is required by instrument repairers, tuners, and copyists. In addition, there are a number of occupations in the business side of music such as booking agents, concert managers, music publishers, and music store owners and managers, as well as salespersons of records, sheet music, and musical instruments. Others whose work involves music include disc jockeys, music critics, sound and audio technicians, music librarians, and radio and television announcers. Sources of Additional Information For a directory of accredited programs in music teacher education, contact: •"National Association of Schools of Music, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 22091. Information on careers and employment opportunities for organ ists is available from: ••American Guild of Organists, 475 Riverside Dr., Suite 1260, New York, NY 10115. Technicians and Related Support Occupations Health Technologists and Technicians Cardiovascular Technologists and Technicians D.O.T. 078.264-010, .362-018, -030, -050, -062, .364-014, and .367-010) Nature of the Work Cardiovascular technologists and technicians assist physicians in diagnosing and treating cardiac (heart) and peripheral vascular (blood vessel) ailments. Cardiovascular technicians who obtain electro (electrical)- cardio (heart)- grams (record), abbreviated EKG's or ECG's, which trace electrical impulses transmitted by the heart, are known as electro cardiograph (ECG or EKG) technicians. To take a "basic" EKG, technicians attach electrodes to the patient's chest, arms, and legs, then manipulate switches on a electrocardiograph machine to obtain the reading. The test is done before most kinds of surgery and as part of a routine physical examination, especially for persons who have reached middle age or have a history of cardiovascular problems. More skilled EKG technicians perform Holter monitor and stress testing. For a Holter monitoring, technicians place electrodes on the patient's chest and attach a portable EKG monitor to the patient's belt. Following 24-48 hours of normal routine for the patient, the technician removes a cassette tape from the monitor and places it in a scanner. After checking the quality of the recorded impulses on an electronic screen, the technician prints the informa tion from the tape so that it can be interpreted later. The printed output from the scanner is eventually used by a physician to diagnose heart ailments. For a treadmill stress test, EKG technicians document the patient’s medical history, explain the procedure, connect the patient to an EKG monitor, and obtain a baseline reading and resting blood pres sure. Next, they monitor the heart's performance while the patient is walking on a treadmill, gradually increasing the treadmill's speed to observe the effect of increased exertion. Those cardiovascular technicians who perform EKG and stress tests are known as noninvasive technicians because the techniques they use do not require the insertion of probes or other instruments into the patient's body. Cardiovascular technologists who specialize in cardiac catheteri zation procedures are called cardiology technologists. They assist physicians with invasive procedures in which a small tube, or cathe ter, is wound through a patient's blood vessel from a spot on the patient's leg into the heart to determine if a blockage exists or for other diagnostic purposes. In balloon angioplasty, a procedure used to treat blockages of blood vessels, technologists assist physicians who insert a catheter with a balloon on the end to the point of the obstruction. Technologists may prepare patients for these procedures by positioning them on an examining table, then shaving, cleaning, and administering anesthesia to the top of the patient's leg near the groin. During the procedures, they monitor patients' blood pres sure and heart rate using EKG equipment and notify the physician if something appears wrong. Technologists may also prepare and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis monitor patients during open heart surgery and the implantation of pacemakers. Cardiovascular technologists and technicians may also specialize in noninvasive peripheral vascular tests. They use ultrasound equip ment that transmits sound waves, then collects the echoes to form an image on a screen. Individuals who focus on blood flows and circulation problems are known as vascular technologists, while those who use ultrasound on the heart are referred to as echocar diographers. Some cardiovascular technologists and technicians schedule appointments, type doctor's interpretations, maintain patient's fdes, and care for equipment. Working Conditions Technologists and technicians generally work a 5-day, 40- hour week, which may include Saturdays and Sundays. Those in cathe terization labs tend to work longer hours and also may work eve nings. They may also be on call during the night and on weekends. Cardiovascular technologists and technicians spend a lot of time walking and standing. Those who work in catheterzation labs may face stressful working conditions, because they are in close contact with patients who have serious heart ailments. Some patients, for example, may encounter complications from time to time that have life or death implications. Employment Cardiovascular technologists and technicians held about 30,000 jobs in 1994. Most worked in hospital cardiology departments, while some worked in cardiologists' offices, cardiac rehabilitation centers, or health maintenance organizations. About one-half were EKG technicians. Cardiovascular technologists and technicians spend a lot of time walking or standing. 199 200 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For basic EKGs, Holter monitoring, and stress testing, 1-year certifi cate programs exist, although most EKG technicians are still trained on the job by an EKG supervisor or a cardiologist. On-the-job training usually lasts about 8 to 16 weeks. Applicants must be high school graduates. Most employers prefer to train people already in the health care field, nursing aides, for example. Some EKG techni cians are students who are enrolled in 2-year programs to become technologists, but work part-time to get experience and make contact with employers. Most vascular technologists are trained on the job although some have backgrounds in nursing and sonography. Cardiology technologists need to complete a 2-year junior or community college program. One year is dedicated to core courses followed by a year of specialized instruction in either invasive, noninvasive, or noninvasive peripheral cardiology. Those who are qualified in a related allied health profession only need to complete the year of specialized instruction. Cardiovascular technologists must be reliable, have mechanical aptitude, and be able to follow detailed instructions. A pleasant, relaxed manner for putting patients at ease is an asset. Job Outlook Employment of cardiovascular technologists and technicians is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005, with technologists and technicians experienc ing different patterns of employment change. Employment of cardi ology technologists is expected to grow faster than average for all occupations. Growth will occur as the population ages, because older people have a higher incidence of heart problems. In contrast, employment of EKG technicians is expected to decline as hospitals train registered nurses and others to perform basic EKG procedures. Individuals trained in Holter monitoring and stress testing are ex pected to have more favorable job prospects than those who can only perform a basic EKG. Most job openings for cardiovascular technologists and techni cians should arise from replacement needs as individuals transfer to other jobs or leave the labor force. Relatively few job opportunities due to both growth and replacement needs are expected, however, because these occupations are small. Earnings According to a University of Texas Medical Branch survey of hospi tals and medical centers, the median annual salary of EKG techni cians, based on a 40 hour week and excluding shift and area differ entials, was $18,396 in October 1994. The average minimum salary was $15,793 and the average maximum was $22,985. Based on limited information, the average salary for cardiovascu lar technologists was about $32,000 in 1994. For information on vascular technology, contact: •"The Society of Vascular Technology, 4601 Presidents Dr., Suite 260, Lanham, MD 20706-4365. Clinical Laboratory Technologists and Technicians (D.O.T. 078.221-010, .261-010, -014, -026, -030, and -038, .281-010, .381-014, .687-010, and 559.361-010) Nature of the Work Clinical laboratory testing plays a crucial role in the detection, diag nosis, and treatment of disease. Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians, also known as medical technologists and technicians, perform most of these tests. Clinical laboratory personnel examine and analyze body fluids, tissues, and cells. They look for bacteria, parasites, or other micro organisms; analyze the chemical content of fluids; match blood for transfusions, and test for drug levels in the blood to show how a patient is responding to treatment. They also prepare specimens for examination, count cells, and look for abnormal cells. They use automated equipment and instruments that perform a number of tests simultaneously, as well as microscopes, cell counters, and other kinds of sophisticated laboratory equipment to perform tests. Then they analyze the results and relay them to physicians. The complexity of tests performed, the level of judgment needed, and the amount of responsibility workers assume depend largely on the amount of education and experience they have. Medical technologists generally have a bachelor's degree in medical technology or in one of the life sciences, or have a combina tion of formal training and work experience. They perform complex chemical, biological, hematological, immunologic, microscopic, and bacteriological tests. Technologists microscopically examine blood, tissue, and other body substances; make cultures of body fluid or tissue samples to determine the presence of bacteria, fungi, parasites, or other micro-organisms; analyze samples for chemical content or reaction; and determine blood glucose or cholesterol levels. They also type and cross-match blood samples for transfusions. They may evaluate test results, develop and modify procedures, and establish and monitor programs to insure the accuracy of tests. Some medical technologists supervise medical laboratory techni cians. Related Occupations Cardiovascular technologists and technicians operate sophisticated equipment that helps physicians and other allied health practitioners diagnose and treat patients, so do nuclear medicine technologists, radiologic technologists, diagnostic medical sonographers, electroencephalographic technologists, perfusionists, and respiratory thera pists. Sources of Additional Information Local hospitals can supply information about employment opportu nities. For general information about a career in cardiovascular technol ogy contact: •"American Society for Cardiovascular Professionals, 10500 Wakeman Dr., Fredericksburg, VA 22407. For a list of accredited programs in cardiovascular technology, contact: ••Division of Allied Health Education and Accreditation, American Medical Association, 515 N. State St., Chicago, IL 60610. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis L—..... Clinical laboratory personnel analyze body bluids, tissues, and cells to detect disease. Technicians and Related Support Occupations 201 Technologists in small laboratories perform many types of tests, while those in large laboratories generally specialize. Technologists who prepare specimens and analyze the chemical and hormonal contents of body fluids are clinical chemistry technologists. Those who examine and identify bacteria and other micro-organisms are microbiology technologists. Blood bank technologists collect, type, and prepare blood and its components for transfusions; immunology technologists examine elements and responses of the human immune system to foreign bodies. Cytotechnologists, prepare slides of body cells and microscopically examine these cells for abnormalities which may signal the beginning of a cancerous growth. Medical laboratory technicians perform less complex tests and laboratory procedures than technologists. Technicians may prepare specimens and operate automatic analyzers, for example, or they may perform manual tests following detailed instructions. Like tech nologists, they may work in several areas of the clinical laboratory or specialize in just one. Histology technicians cut and stain tissue specimens for microscopic examination by pathologists, and phlebotomists draw and test blood. They usually work under the super vision of medical technologists or laboratory managers. Working Conditions Hours and other working conditions vary according to the size and type of employment setting. In large hospitals or in independent laboratories that operate continuously, personnel usually work the day, evening, or night shift, and may work weekends and holidays. Laboratory personnel in small facilities may work on rotating shifts rather than on a regular shift. In some facilities, laboratory personnel are on call, available in case of an emergency, several nights a week or on weekends. Clinical laboratory personnel are trained to work with infectious specimens. When proper methods of infection control and steriliza tion are followed, few hazards exist. Laboratories generally are well lighted and clean; however, specimens, solutions, and reagents used in the laboratory sometimes produce odors. Laboratory workers may spend a great deal of time on their feet. Employment Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians held about 274,000 jobs in 1994. More than half worked in hospitals. Most others worked in medical laboratories and offices and clinics of physicians. Some worked in blood banks, research and testing laboratories, and in the Federal Government—at Department of Veterans Affairs hospitals and U.S. Public Health Service facilities. About 1 laboratory worker in 6 worked part-time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The usual requirement for an entry level position as a medical tech nologist is a bachelor's degree with a major in medical technology or in one of the life sciences. Universities and hospitals offer medical technology programs. It is also possible to qualify through a combi nation of on-the-job and specialized training. Bachelor's degree programs in medical technology include courses in chemistry, biological sciences, microbiology, and mathe matics, and specialized courses devoted to knowledge and skills used in the clinical laboratory. Many programs also offer or require courses in management, business, and computer applications. Masters degrees in medical technology and related clinical labora tory sciences provide training for specialized areas of laboratory work or teaching, administration, or research. After September 1, 1997, the Clinical Laboratory Improvement Act (CLIA) will require technologists who perform certain highly complex tests to have at least an associate's degree. A grandfather clause will allow experienced workers to continue performing these tests. Medical laboratory technicians generally have an associate's degree from a community or junior college, or a certificate from a https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis hospital, vocational or technical school, or from one of the Armed Forces. A few technicians learn on the job. Nationally recognized accrediting agencies in the clinical labora tory science include the National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sciences, and the Accrediting Bureau of Health Educa tion Schools (ABHES). National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sciences accredits over 391 programs that provide edu cation for medical technologists, cytotechnologists, histologic tech nicians, specialists in blood bank technology, and medical laboratory technicians. ABHES accredits training programs for medical labora tory technicians. Licensure and certification are methods of assuring the skill and competence of workers. Licensure refers to the process by which a government agency authorizes individuals to engage in a given occupation and use a particular job title. Some States require labora tory personnel to be licensed or registered. (Information on licensure is available from State departments of health, boards of occupational licensing, or occupational information coordinating committees.) Certification is a voluntary process by which a nongovernmental organization such as a professional society or certifying agency grants recognition to an individual whose professional competence meets prescribed standards. Widely accepted by employers in the health industry, certification is a prerequisite for most jobs and often is necessary for advancement. Agencies that certify medical labora tory technologists and technicians include the Board of Registry of the American Society of Clinical Pathologists, the American Medical Technologists, the National Certification Agency for Medical Labo ratory Personnel, and the Credentialing Commission of the Interna tional Society for Clinical Laboratory Technology. These agencies have different requirements for certification and different organiza tional sponsors. Clinical laboratory personnel need analytical judgment and the ability to work under pressure. Close attention to detail is essential because small differences or changes in test substances or numerical readouts can be crucial for patient care. Manual dexterity and normal color vision are highly desirable. With the widespread use of auto mated laboratory equipment, computer skills are important. In addition, technologists in particular are expected to be good at prob lem solving. Technologists may advance to supervisory positions in laboratory work or become chief medical technologists or laboratory managers in hospitals. Manufacturers of home diagnostic testing kits and laboratory equipment and supplies seek experienced technologists to work in product development, marketing, and sales. Graduate edu cation in medical technology, one of the biological sciences, chemis try, management, or education usually speeds advancement. A doctorate is needed to become a laboratory director. Technicians can become technologists through additional education and experience. Job Outlook Overall, employment of clinical laboratory workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The rapidly growing older population will spur demand, since older people generally have more medical problems. Technological changes will have two opposite effects on employment. New, more powerful diagnostic tests will encourage more testing and spur employment. However, advances in laboratory automation and simpler tests, which make it possible for each worker to perform more tests, should slow growth. Research and development efforts are targeted at simplifying routine testing procedures so that nonlabo ratory personnel—physicians and patients in particular—can perform tests now done in laboratories. Also, robots may prepare specimens, a job now done by technologists and technicians. Because the Clini cal Laboratory Improvement Act regulations that are to take effect will impose academic standards for persons conducting some eval uations, job opportunities will be best for technologists who have at least an associate's degree. 202 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Fastest growth is expected in independent medical laboratories, as hospitals continue to send them a greater share of their testing. Rapid growth is also expected in offices and clinics of physicians. Slower growth is expected in hospitals. Although significant, growth will not be primary source of opportunities. As in most occupations, most will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or stop working for some other reason. Earnings Median annual earnings of full time, salaried clinical laboratory technologists and technicians were $26,988 in 1994. Half earned between $19,240 and $35,204. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,820 and the top 10 percent more than $44,304. Table 1 presents salary data for selected medical technology occupations from a University of Texas Medical Branch survey of hospitals and medical centers. The data are based on a 40 hour week and exclude shift and area differentials. Table 1: Median annual salary, medical technology occupations, 1994 Occupation Cytotechnologist Histology technician Medical laboratory technician Medical technologist Phlebotomist Minimum Median Maximum $29,772 21,975 20,443 26,033 15,344 $37,107 26,624 24,461 32,282 17,166 $43,477 32,337 30,414 38,844 22,339 Source: National Survey of Hospitals and Medical Centers, University of Texas Medical Branch Related Occupations Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians analyze body fluids, tissue, and other substances using a variety of tests. Similar or related procedures are performed by analytical, water purification, and other chemists; science technicians; crime laboratory analysts; food testers; and veterinary laboratory technicians. Dental Hygienists (D.O.T. 078.361-010) Nature of the Work Dental hygienists clean teeth and provide other preventive dental care as well as teach patients how to practice good oral hygiene. Hygienists examine patients’ teeth and gums, recording the presence of diseases or abnormalities. They remove calculus, stains, and plaque from teeth; apply cavity preventive agents such as fluorides and pit and fissure sealants; take and develop dental xrays; place temporary fillings and periodontal dressings; remove sutures; and smooth and polish metal restorations. In some States, hygienists administer local anesthetics and anesthetic gas, and place and carve filling materials. Dental hygienists also help patients develop and maintain good oral health. For example, they may explain the relationship between diet and oral health, inform patients how to select toothbrushes, and show patients how to brush and floss their teeth. Dental hygienists use hand and rotary instruments to clean teeth, x-ray machines to take dental pictures, syringes with needles to administer local anesthetics, and models of teeth to explain oral hygiene. Working Conditions Flexible scheduling is a distinctive feature of this job. Full-time, part-time, evening, and weekend work is widely available. Dentists frequently hire hygienists to work only 2 or 3 days a week, so hy gienists may hold jobs in more than one dental office. Dental hygienists work in clean, well-lighted offices. Important health safeguards include strict adherence to proper radiological procedures and use of appropriate protective devices when adminis tering anesthetic gas. Dental hygienists also wear safety glasses, surgical masks and gloves to protect themselves from infectious diseases such as hepatitis. The occupation is one of several covered by the Consumer-Patient Radiation Health and Safety Act of 1981, Sources of Additional Information Career and certification information is available from: ••American Society of Clinical Pathologists, Board of Registry, P.O. Box 12277, Chicago, IL 60612. •■American Medical Technologists, 710 Higgins Rd., Park Ridge, IL 60068. •■American Society of Cytopathology 400 West 9th St., Suite 201, Wilming ton, DE 19801. •■National Certification Agency for Medical Laboratory Personnel, 7910 Woodmont Ave., Suite 1301, Bethesda, MD 20814. •"International Society for Clinical Laboratory Technology, 818 Olive St., Suite 918, St. Louis, MO 63101. For more career information, write to: •"American Association of Blood Banks, 8101 Glenbrook Rd., Bethesda, MD 20814-2749. •■Clinical Ligand Assay Society, 3139 S. Wayne Rd., Wayne, MI 48184. For a list of educational programs accredited for clinical labora tory personnel, write to: •■National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sciences, 8410 W. Bryn Mawr Ave., Suite 670, Chicago, IL 60631. For a list of training programs for medical laboratory technicians accredited by the Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools, write to: ••Secretary-ABHES, 29089 U.S. 20 West, Elkhart, IN 46514. Information about employment opportunities in Department of Veterans Affairs medical centers is available from local medical centers and also from: •"Title 38 Employment Division (054D), Department of Veterans Affairs, 810 Vermont Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20420. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Dental hygienists must be licensed by the State in which they practice. Technicians and Related Support Occupations 203 which encourages the States to adopt uniform standards for the training and certification of individuals who perform medical and dental radiological procedures. Employment Dental hygienists held about 127,000 jobs in 1994. Because multiple jobholding is common in this field, the number of jobs greatly ex ceeds the number of hygienists. About half of all dental hygienists usually worked part time—less than 35 hours a week. Almost all dental hygienists work in private dental offices. Some work in public health agencies, school systems, hospitals, and clinics. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Dental hygienists must be licensed by the State in which they prac tice. To qualify for licensure, a candidate must graduate from an accredited dental hygiene school and pass both a written and a clini cal examination. The American Dental Association Joint Commis sion on National Dental Examinations administers the written examination that is accepted by all States and the District of Colum bia. State or regional testing agencies administer the clinical exami nation. In addition, examinations on legal aspects of dental hygiene practice are required by most States. Alabama also allows candidates to take its examination if they have been trained through a Stateregulated on-the-job program in a dentist's office. In 1995, 212 programs in dental hygiene were accredited by the Commission on Dental Accreditation. Although some programs lead to a bachelor's degree, most grant an associate degree. Ten universi ties offer master's degree programs in dental hygiene. An associate degree is sufficient for practice in a private dental office. A bachelor's or master’s degree is usually required for research, teaching, or clinical practice in public or school health programs. About half of the dental hygiene programs prefer applicants who have completed at least 1 year of college. Some of the bachelor's degree programs require applicants to have completed 2 years. However, requirements vary from school to school. These schools offer laboratory, clinical, and classroom instruction in subjects such as anatomy, physiology, chemistry, microbiology, pharmacology, nutrition, radiography, histology (the study of tissue structure), periodontology (the study of gum diseases), pathology, dental mate rials, clinical dental hygiene, and social and behavioral sciences. Dental hygienists should work well with others and must have manual dexterity because they use dental instruments with little room for error within a patient's mouth. Recommended high school courses for aspiring dental hygienists include biology, chemistry, and mathematics. Job Outlook Employment of dental hygienists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 in re sponse to increasing demand for dental care and the greater substitu tion of hygienists for services previously performed by dentists. Job prospects are expected to remain very good unless the number of dental hygienist program graduates grows much faster than during the last decade and results in a much larger pool of qualified applicants. Demand will be stimulated by population growth, and greater retention of natural teeth by the larger number of middle-aged and elderly people. Also, dentists are likely to employ more hygienists, for several reasons. Older dentists, who are less likely to employ dental hygienists, will leave and be replaced by recent graduates, who are more likely to do so. In addition, as dentists' workloads increase, they are expected to hire more hygienists to perform pre ventive dental care such as cleaning, so they may use their own time more profitably. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings Earnings of dental hygienists are affected by geographic location, employment setting, and education and experience. Dental hygien ists who work in private dental offices may be paid on an hourly, daily, salary, or commission basis. According to the American Dental Association, dental hygienists who worked 32 hours a week or more averaged $675.50 a week in 1993; the average hourly earnings for all dental hygienists was $21.10. Benefits vary substantially by practice setting, and may be con tingent upon full-time employment. Dental hygienists who work for school systems, public health agencies, the Federal Government, or State agencies usually have substantial benefits. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations supporting health practitioners in an office setting include dental assistants, ophthalmic medical assistants, podiatric assistants, office nurses, medical assistants, physician assistants, physical therapy assistants, and occupational therapy assistants. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career in dental hygiene and the educational requirements to enter this occupation, contact: •"Division of Professional Development, American Dental Hygienists' Association, 444 N. Michigan Ave., Suite 3400, Chicago, IL 60611. •"American Dental Association, Department of Career Guidance, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Suite 1804, Chicago, IL 60611. For information about accredited programs and educational requirements, contact: •“Commission on Dental Accreditation, American Dental Association, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Suite 1814, Chicago, IL 60611. The State Board of Dental Examiners in each State can supply information on licensing requirements. Dispensing Opticians (D.O.T. 299.361-010 and -014) Nature of Work Dispensing opticians fit eyeglasses and contact lenses, following prescriptions written by ophthalmologists or optometrists. (The work of optometrists is described in a statement elsewhere in the Hand book. See the statement on physicians for information about oph thalmologists.) Dispensing opticians help customers select appropriate frames, order the necessary ophthalmic laboratory work, and adjust the finished eyeglasses. In some States, they fit contact lenses under the supervision of an optometrist or ophthalmologist. Dispensing opticians examine written prescriptions to determine lens specifications. They recommend eyeglass frames, lenses, and lens coatings after considering the prescription and the customer's occupation, habits, and facial features. Dispensing opticians measure clients' eyes, including the distance between the centers of the pupils and the distance between the eye surface and the lens. For customers without prescriptions, dispensing opticians may use a lensometer to record the present eyeglass prescription. They also may obtain a customer's previous record, or verify a prescription with the examin ing optometrist or ophthalmologist. Dispensing opticians prepare work orders that give ophthalmic laboratory technicians information needed to grind and insert lenses into a frame. The work order includes lens prescriptions and infor mation on lens size, material, color, and style. Some dispensing opticians grind and insert lenses themselves. After the glasses are made, dispensing opticians verify that the lenses have been ground to specifications. Then they may reshape or bend the frame, by hand or 204 Occuptional Outlook Handbook using pliers, so that the eyeglasses fit the customer properly and comfortably. Dispensing opticians also fix, adjust, and refit broken frames. They instruct clients about adapting to, wearing, or caring for eyeglasses. Some dispensing opticians specialize in fitting contacts, artificial eyes, or cosmetic shells to cover blemished eyes. To fit contact lenses, dispensing opticians measure eye shape and size, select the type of contact lens material, and prepare work orders specifying the prescription and lens size. Fitting contact lenses requires consider able skill, care, and patience. Dispensing opticians observe custom ers' eyes, corneas, lids, and contact lenses with special instruments and microscopes. During several visits, opticians show customers how to insert, remove, and care for their contacts, and ensure the fit is correct. Dispensing opticians keep records on customer prescriptions, work orders, and payments; track inventory and sales; and perform other administrative duties. Working Conditions Dispensing opticians work indoors in attractive, well lighted, and well ventilated surroundings. They may work in medical offices or small stores where customers are served one at a time, or in large stores where several dispensing opticians serve a number of custom ers at once. Opticians spend a lot of time with customers, most of it on their feet. If they also prepare lenses, they need to take precau tions against the hazards associated with glass cutting, chemicals, and machinery. Most dispensing opticians work a 40-hour week, although some work longer hours. Those in retail stores may work evenings and weekends. Some work part time. Employment Dispensing opticians held about 63,000 jobs in 1994. About half work for ophthalmologists or optometrists who sell glasses directly to patients. Many also work in optical stores that offer one-stop shop ping. Customers may have their eyes examined, choose frames, and have glasses made on the spot. Some work in optical departments of drug and department stores. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers generally hire individuals with no background in opticianry or those who have worked as ophthalmic laboratory techni cians and then provide the required training. (See the statement on ophthalmic laboratory technicians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training may be informal, on-the-job or formal apprenticeship. Some employers, however, seek people with postsecondary training in opticianry. Knowledge of physics, basic anatomy, algebra, geometry, and mechanical drawing is particularly valuable because training usually includes instruction in optical mathematics, optical physics, and the use of precision measuring instruments and other machinery and tools. Because dispensing opticians deal directly with the public, they should be tactful and pleasant and communicate well. Large employers generally offer structured apprenticeship pro grams, and small employers provide more informal on-the-job train ing. In the 21 States that license dispensing opticians, individuals without postsecondary training work from 2 to 4 years as apprentices. Apprenticeship or formal traineeship is offered in most of the other States as well. Apprentices receive technical training and learn office manage ment and sales. Under the supervision of an experienced optician, optometrist, or ophthalmologist, apprentices work directly with pa tients, fitting eyeglasses and contact lenses. In States requiring licen sure, information about apprenticeships and licensing procedures is available from the State board of occupational licensing. Formal opticianry training is offered in community colleges and a few colleges and universities. In 1995, there were about 40 pro grams. Of these, 24 were accredited by the Commission on Opti cianry Accreditation and awarded 2-year associate degrees in ophthalmic dispensing or optometric technology. There are also shorter programs, including some under 1 year. Some States that license dispensing opticians allow graduates to take the licensure exam immediately upon graduation; others require a few months to a year of experience. Dispensing opticians may apply to the American Board of Opti cianry and the National Contact Lens Examiners for certification of their skills. Certification must be renewed every 3 years through continuing education. Many experienced dispensing opticians open their own optical stores. Others become managers of optical stores or sales represen tatives for wholesalers or manufacturers of eyeglasses or lenses. Job Outlook Employment in this occupation is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 in response to rising demand for corrective lenses. The number of middle-aged and elderly persons is projected to increase rapidly. Middle age is a time when many people use corrective lenses for the first time, and elderly persons require more vision care, on the whole, than others. Fashion, too, influences demand. Frames come in a growing variety of styles and colors—encouraging people to buy more than one pair. Finally, demand is expected to grow in response to prod ucts such as special lens treatments; photochromic lenses (glasses with lenses that become darker in sunlight), now available in plastic as well as glass; tinted lenses; and bifocal, extended wear, and dis posable contact lenses. Like other occupations in retail trade, a disproportionate number of openings will occur as young workers transfer to jobs in other occupations. Nevertheless, the need to replace those who leave the occupation and employment growth will result in relatively few job openings—because the occupation is small. This occupation is vulnerable to changes in the business cycle, with employment falling somewhat during downturns. Earnings According to the Opticians Association of America, salaries for nonmanagerial dispensing opticians averaged about $26,700 in 1994, while managers averaged about $30,400. Apprentice opticians averaged about $19,400 a year. Those who run their own stores earned more than salaried workers. In addition to base salaries, many employers provide commissions, bonuses, and profitsharing. About one-half of dispensing opticians work for opthalmologists or optometrists who sell glasses directly to patients. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations Other workers who deal with customers and perform delicate work include jewelers, locksmiths, ophthalmic laboratory technicians, Technicians and Related Support Occupations 205 orthodontic technicians, dental laboratory technicians, prosthetics technicians, camera repairers, and watch repairers. Sources of Additional Information For general information about this occupation, contact: •"Opticians Association of America, 10341 Democracy Lane, Fairfax, VA 22030-2521. For a list of accredited training programs, contact: ••Commission on Opticianry Accreditation, 10111 Martin Luther King, Jr. Hwy., Suite 100, Bowie, MD 20720-4299. For general information on opticianry and a list of home-study programs, seminars, and review materials, contact: •■National Academy of Opticianry, 10111 Martin Luther King, Jr. Hwy., Suite 112, Bowie, MD 20720-4299. Electroneurodiagnostic Technologists Electroneurodiagnostic technicians record electrical activity of the brain and other nervous system functions. (D.O.T. 078.362-022, -042) Nature of the Work Electroneurodiagnostic technologists use an electroencephalograph (EEG) machine to record electrical impulses transmitted by the brain and the nervous system. They help physicians diagnose brain tu mors, strokes, toxic/metabolic disorders, epilepsy and sleep disor ders. They also measure the effects of infectious diseases on the brain, as well as determine whether individuals with mental or behav ioral problems have an organic impairment such as Alzheimer's disease. Furthermore, they determine "cerebral" death, the absence of brain activity, and assess the probability of a recovery from a coma. Electroneurodiagnostic technologists who specialize in basic or, "resting" EEG's are called EEG technologists. The range of tests performed by electroneurodiagnostic technologists is broader than, but includes, those conducted by EEG technologists. Because it provides a more accurate description of work typically performed in the field, the title electroneurodiagnostic technologists generally has replaced that of EEG technologist. Electroneurodiagnostic technologists take patients' medical histories and help them relax, then apply electrodes to designated spots on the patient's head. They must choose the most appropriate combination of instrument controls and electrodes to correct for mechanical or electrical interference that come from somewhere other than the brain, such as eye movement or radiation from electri cal sources. Increasingly, technologists perform EEG's in the operating room, which requires that they understand anesthesia's effect on brain waves. For special procedure EEG's, technologists may secure electrodes to the chest, arm, leg, or spinal column to record activity from both the central and peripheral nervous systems. In ambulatory monitoring, technologists monitor the brain, and sometimes the heart, while patients carry out normal activities over a 24-hour period. Then they remove the small recorder carried by the patients and obtain a readout. Technologists review the readouts, selecting sections for the physician to examine. Using "evoked potential" testing, technologists measure sensory and physical responses to specific stimuli. After the electrodes have been attached, they set the instrument for the type and intensity of the stimulus, increase the intensity until the patient reacts, and note the sensation level. The tests may take from 1 to 4 hours. For nerve conduction tests, used to diagnose muscle and nerve problems, technologists place electrodes on the patient's skin over a nerve and over the muscle. Then they stimulate the nerve with an electrical current and record how long it takes the nerve impulse to reach the muscle. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Technologists who specialize in and administer sleep disorder studies are called polysomnographic technologists. The sleep studies are conducted in a clinic called a "sleep center." During the proce dure technologists monitor the patient's respiration and heart activity in addition to brain wave activity and must know the dynamics of the cardiopulmonary systems during each stage of sleep. They coordi nate readings from several organ systems, separating them according to the stages of sleep, and relay them to the physician. For quantita tive EEG's, technologists decide which sections of the EEG should be transformed into color-coded pictures of brain wave frequency and intensity, for interpretation by a physician. They may also write technical reports summarizing test results. Technologists also look for changes in the patient's neurologic, cardiac, and respiratory status, which may indicate an emergency, such as a heart attack, and provide emergency care until help arrives. Electomeurodiagnostic technologists may have supervisory or administrative responsibilities. They may manage an eletroneurodiagnostic laboratory, arrange work schedules, keep records, schedule appointments, order supplies, provide instruction to less experienced technologists, and may also be responsible for the equipment's upkeep. Working Conditions Electroneurodiagnostic technologists usually work in clean, welllighted surroundings, and spend about half of their time on their feet. Bending and lifting are necessary because they may work with patients who are very ill and require assistance. Technologists who are employed in hospitals may do all their work in a single room, or may push equipment to a patient's bedside and obtain recordings there. Most technologists work a standard workweek, although those in hospitals may be "on call" evenings, weekends, and holidays. Those performing sleep studies usually work evenings and nights. Employment Electroneurodiagnostic technologists held more than 6,000 jobs in 1994. Most worked in neurology laboratories of hospitals. Others worked in offices and clinics of neurologists and neurosurgeons, health maintenance organizations, and psychiatric facilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although most electroneurodiagnostic technologists currently em ployed learned their skills on the job, employers are beginning to favor those who have completed formal training. Some hospitals 206 Occuptional Outlook Handbook require applicants for trainee positions to have postsecondary training while others only expect a high school diploma. Often, on-the-job trainees are transfers from another hospital job, such as a licensed practical nurse. Formal postsecondary training is offered in hospitals and com munity colleges. In 1994, the Joint Review Committee on Education in Electroneurodiagnostic Technology had approved 14 formal programs. Programs usually last from 1 to 2 years and include laboratory experience as well as classroom instruction in human anatomy and physiology, neurology, neuroanatomy, neurophysiol ogy, medical terminology, computer technology, electronics and instrumentation. Graduates receive associate degrees or certificates. The American Board of Registration of Electroencephalographic and Evoked Potential Technologists awards the credential "Registered EEG Technologist" and "Registered Evoked Potential Technologist" to qualified applicants. The Association of Polysomnographic Technologists registers polysomnographic technologists. Applicants interested in taking the registration exam must have worked in a sleep center for at least 1 year. Although not generally required for staff level jobs, registration indicates professional com petence, and usually is necessary for supervisory or teaching jobs. Technologists should have manual dexterity, good vision, writing skills, an aptitude for working with electronic equipment, and the ability to work with patients as well as with other health personnel. High school courses in health, biology, and mathematics are useful. Electomeurodiagnostic technologists who have significant experi ence can advance to chief or manager of a electroneurodiagnostic laboratory in a large hospital. Chief technologists generally are supervised by a physician—an electroencephalographer, neurologist, or neurosurgeon. Technologists may also teach or go into research. Job Outlook Job prospects for qualified applicants are expected to be good. Employment of electroneurodiagnostic technologists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005, reflecting the increased numbers of neurodiagnostic tests performed. There will be more testing as new procedures are devel oped and as the size of the population grows. A very low number of openings each year are expected, however, because the occupation is very small. Most jobs will be found in hospitals but growth will be fastest in offices and clinics of neurologists. Earnings According to a University of Texas Medical Branch survey of hospi tals and medical centers, the median annual salary of EEG technolo gists, based on a 40 hour week and excluding shift or area differentials, was $24,710 in October 1994. The average minimum salary was $20,356 and the average maximum was $29,691. Related Occupations Other health personnel who operate medical equipment include radi ologic technologists, nuclear medicine technologists, sonographers, perfusionists, and cardiovascular technologists. Sources of Additional Information Local hospitals can supply information about employment opportu nities. For general information about a career in electroneurodiagnostics as well as a list of accredited training programs, contact: •■Executive Office, American Society of Electroneurodiagnostic Technolo gists, Inc., 204 W. 7th, Carroll, IA 51401. For information on work in sleep studies, contact: •"Association of Polysomnographic Technology, P.O. Box 14861, Lenexa, KS 66285-4861. Information about specific accredited training programs is also available from: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis •■Joint Review Committee on Electroneurodiagnostic Technology, Route 1, Box 63A, Genoa, WI54632. Information on becoming a registered Electroneurodiagnostic technologist is available from: ••American Board of Registration of Electroencephalgraphic and Evoked Potential Technologists, P.O. Box 916633, Longwood, FL 32791-6633. Emergency Medical Technicians (D.O.T. 079.364-026 and .374-010) Nature of the Work Automobile accident injuries, heart attacks, near drownings, un scheduled childbirths, poisonings, and gunshot wounds all demand urgent medical attention. Emergency medical technicians (EMT's) give immediate care and then transport the sick or injured to medical facilities. Following instructions from a dispatcher, EMT's—who usually work in teams of two—drive specially equipped vehicles to the scene of emergencies. If necessary, they request additional help from police or fire department personnel. They determine the nature and extent of the patient's injuries or illness while also trying to deter mine whether the patient has epilepsy, diabetes, or other preexisting medical conditions. EMT’s then give appropriate emergency care following strict guidelines for which procedures they may perform. All EMT's, including those with basic skills, the EMT-Basic, may open airways, restore breathing, control bleeding, treat for shock, administer oxygen, immobilize fractures, bandage wounds, assist in childbirth, manage emotionally disturbed patients, treat and assist heart attack victims, give initial care to poison and bum victims, and treat patients with anti-shock trousers (which prevent a person's blood pressure from falling too low). EMT-Intermediates, or EMT-I's, have more advanced training that allows them to administer intravenous fluids; use defibrillators to give lifesaving shocks to a stopped heart, as well as other intensive care procedures. EMT-Paramedics, EMT-P's, provide the most extensive pre hospital care. In addition to the procedures already described, para medics may administer drugs orally and intravenously, interpret eletrocardiograms (EKG's), perform endotracheal intubations, and use monitors and other complex equipment. When victims are trapped, as in the case of an automobile acci dent, cave-in, or building collapse, EMT's free them or provide emergency care while others free them. Some conditions are simple enough to be handled following general rules and guidelines. More complicated problems can only be carried out under the step-by-step direction of medical personnel by radio contact. When transporting patients to a medical facility, EMT's may use special equipment such as backboards to immobilize them before placing them on stretchers and securing them in the ambulance. While one EMT drives, the other monitors the patient's vital signs and gives additional care as needed. Some EMT's work for hospital trauma centers or jurisdictions which use helicopters to transport critically ill or injured patients. At a medical facility, EMT's transfer patients to the emergency department, report to the staff their observations and the care they provided, and help provide emergency treatment. In rural areas, some EMT-P's are trained to treat patients with minor injuries on the scene of an accident or at their home without transporting them to a medical facility. After each run, EMT's replace used supplies and check equip ment. If patients have had a contagious disease, EMT's decontami nate the interior of the ambulance and report cases to the proper authorities. Technicians and Related Support Occupations 207 Many emergency medical technicians find their work exciting despite its stressful working conditions. Working Conditions EMT's work both indoors and outdoors, in all kinds of weather. Much of their time is spent standing, kneeling, bending, and lifting. They may risk noise-induced hearing loss from ambulance sirens and back injuries from lifting patients. EMT's may be exposed to dis eases such as Hepatitis-B and AIDS, as well as violence from drug overdose victims. The work is not only physically strenuous, but stressful—not surprising in a job that involves life-or-death situa tions. Nonetheless, many people find the work exciting and chal lenging. EMT's employed by fire departments often have about a 50-hour workweek. Those employed by hospitals frequently work between 45 and 58 hours a week and those in private ambulance services between 48 and 51 hours. Some EMT's, especially those in police and fire departments, are on call for extended periods. Because most emergency services function 24 hours a day, EMT's have irregular working hours that add to job stress. Employment EMT's held about 138,000 jobs in 1994. Two-fifths were in private ambulance services, about a third were in municipal fire, police, or rescue squad departments, and a quarter were in hospitals. In addi tion, there are many volunteer EMT's. Most paid EMT's work in metropolitan areas. In many smaller cities, towns, and rural areas, there are no paid EMT jobs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Formal training is needed to become an EMT. EMT-Basic training is 100 to 120 hours of classroom work plus 10 hours of internship in a hospital emergency room. Training is available in all 50 States and the District of Columbia, and is offered by police, fire, and health departments; in hospitals; and as a nondegree course in colleges and universities. The EMT-Basic program provides instruction and practice in dealing with bleeding, fractures, airway obstruction, cardiac arrest, and emergency childbirth. Students learn to use and care for com mon emergency equipment, such as backboards, suction devices, splints, oxygen delivery systems, and stretchers. EMT-Intermediate training varies from State to State, but in cludes 35-55 hours of additional instruction in patient assessment as well as the use of esophageal airways, intravenous fluids, and an tishock garments. Training programs for EMT-Paramedics, of which there were about 85 in 1993, generally last between 750 and 2,000 hours. Refresher courses and continuing education are available for EMT's at all levels. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Applicants to an EMT training course generally must be at least 18 years old and have a high school diploma or the equivalent and a driver's license. Recommended high school subjects for prospective EMT’s are driver education, health, and science. Training in the Armed Forces as a "medic" is also good preparation. In addition to EMT training, EMT's in fire and police departments must be qualified as firefighters or police officers. Graduates of approved EMT-Basic training programs who pass a written and practical examination administered by the State certify ing agency or the National Registry of Emergency Medical Techni cians earn the title of Registered EMT-Basic. Prerequisites for taking the EMT-Intermediate examination include registration as an EMT-Basic, required classroom work, and a specified amount of clinical experience and field internship. Registration for EMTParamedics by the National Registry of Emergency Medical Techni cians or a State emergency medical services agency requires current registration or State certification as an EMT-Basic, completion of an EMT-Paramedic training program and required clinical and field internships as well as passing of a written and practical examination. Although not a general requirement for employment, registration acknowledges an EMT’s qualifications and makes higher paying jobs easier to obtain. All 50 States have some kind of certification procedure. In 31 States and the District of Columbia, registration with the National Registry is required at some or all levels of certification. Other States require their own certification examination or provide the option of taking the National Registry examination. To maintain their certification, all EMT’s must reregister, usually every 2 years. In order to reregister, an individual must be working as an EMT and meet a continuing education requirement. EMT’s should be emotionally stable, have good dexterity, agility, an physical coordination, and be able to lift and carry heavy loads. EMT’s need good eyesight (corrective lenses may be used) with accurate color vision. Advancement beyond the EMT-Paramedic level usually means leaving fieldwork. An EMT-Paramedic can become a supervisor, operations manager, administrative director, or executive director of emergency services. Some EMT's become EMT instructors, fire fighters, dispatchers, or police officers, or others move into sales or marketing of emergency medical equipment. Finally, some become EMT's to assess their interest in health care and then decide to return to school and become registered nurses, physicians, or other health workers. Job Outlook Competition for jobs will be keen in fire, police, and rescue squad departments because of attractive pay and benefits and good job security. Opportunities for EMT's are expected to be excellent in hospitals and private ambulance services, where pay and benefits usually are low. Employment of EMT's is expected to grow much faster than average for all occupations through the year 2005. Driving the growth will be an expanding population. Also, the number of older people, who are more likely to need emergency services, is increas ing rapidly. Additional job openings will occur as more States begin to allow EMT-Paramedics to perform primary care on the scene without transporting the patient to a medical facility. Most job openings will occur because of this occupation's sub stantial replacement needs. Turnover is quite high, reflecting this occupation's stressful working conditions, limited advancement potential, and the modest pay and benefits in the private sector. Earnings Earnings of EMT's depend on the employment setting and geo graphic location as well as the individual's training and experience. According to a survey conducted by the Journal of Emergency Medical Services, average starting salaries in 1995 were $19,919 for EMT-Ambulance or Basic, $21,818 for EMT-Intermediate, and 208 Occuptional Outlook Handbook $23,861 for EMT-Paramedic. EMT's working in fire departments command the highest salaries, as the accompanying table shows. .A"’ Table 1: Average annual salaries of emergency medical technicians, by type of employer, 1995 Employer All employers Private ambulance services Hospitals Fire departments Source: Paramedic EMT-I EMT-Basic $31,137 28,619 29,264 37,690 $26,102 23,330 28,000 28,667 $26,333 22,238 22,500 33,962 Journal of Emergency Medical Services Those in emergency medical services which are part of fire or police departments receive the same benefits as firefighters or police officers. Related Occupations Other workers in occupations that require quick and level-headed reactions to life-or-death situations are police officers, firefighters, air traffic controllers, workers in other health occupations, and mem bers of the Armed Forces. Sources of Additional Information Information concerning training courses, registration, and job oppor tunities for EMT's can be obtained by writing to the State Emergency Medical Service Director. General information about EMT's is available from: ••National Association of Emergency Medical Technicians, 102 W. Leake St., Clinton, MS 39056. ••National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians, P.O. Box 29233, Columbus, OH 43229. Licensed Practical Nurses (D.O.T. 079.374-014) Nature of the Work Licensed practical nurses (L.P.N.'s), or licensed vocational nurses (L.V.N.'s) as they are called in Texas and California, care for the sick, injured, convalescing, and handicapped, under the direction of physicians and registered nurses. (The work of registered nurses is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most L.P.N.'s provide basic bedside care. They take vital signs such as temperature, blood pressure, pulse, and respiration. They also treat bedsores, prepare and give injections and enemas, apply dressings, give alcohol rubs and massages, apply ice packs and hot water bottles, and insert catheters. L.P.N's observe patients and report adverse reactions to medications or treatments. They may collect samples from patients for testing and perform routine labora tory tests. They help patients with bathing, dressing, and personal hygiene, feed them and record food and liquid intake and output, keep them comfortable, and care for their emotional needs. In States where the law allows, they may administer prescribed medicines or start intravenous fluids. Some L.P.N.'s help deliver, care for, and feed infants. Some experienced L.P.N.'s supervise nursing assistants and aides. L.P.N.'s in nursing homes, in addition to providing routine bed side care, may also help evaluate residents' needs, develop care plans, and supervise nursing aides. In doctors' offices and clinics, including health maintenance organizations, they may also make appointments, keep records, and perform other clerical duties. L.P.N.'s who work https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most practical nursing programs last about 1 year and include both classroom study and supervised clinical practice. in private homes may also prepare meals and teach family members simple nursing tasks. Working Conditions Most licensed practical nurses in hospitals and nursing homes work a 40-hour week, but because patients need round-the-clock care, some work nights, weekends, and holidays. They often stand for long periods and help patients move in bed, stand, or walk. They also face the stress of working with sick patients and their families. L.P.N.'s may face hazards from caustic chemicals, radiation, and infectious diseases such as AIDS and hepatitis. L.P.N.'s also are subject to back injuries when moving patients and shock from elec trical equipment. They often face heavy workloads. In addition, the people they take care of may be confused, irrational, agitated, or uncooperative. Employment Licensed practical nurses held about 702,000 jobs in 1994. About a quarter worked part time. Two out of 5 L.P.N.'s worked in hospitals, about one-quarter worked in nursing homes, and over a tenth in doctors' offices and clinics. Others worked for temporary help agencies, home health care services, or government agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States require L.P.N.'s to pass a licensing examination after completing a State-approved practical nursing program. A high school diploma is usually required for entry, but some programs accept people without a diploma. In 1993, approximately 1,098 State-approved programs provided practical nursing training. Almost 6 out of 10 students were enrolled in technical or vocational schools, while 3 out of 10 were in com munity and junior colleges. Others were in high schools, hospitals, and colleges and universities. Most practical nursing programs last about 1 year and include both classroom study and supervised clinical practice (patient care). Classroom study covers basic nursing concepts and patient-care related subjects, including anatomy, physiology, medical-surgical nursing, pediatrics, obstetrics, psychiatric nursing, administration of drugs, nutrition, and first aid. Clinical practice is usually in a hospi tal, but sometimes includes other settings. L.P.N.'s should have a caring, sympathetic nature. They should be emotionally stable because work with the sick and injured can be stressful. As part of a health care team, they must be able to follow orders and work under close supervision. Technicians and Related Support Occupations 209 Job Outlook Job prospects for L.P.N.'s are expected to be good if the current balance between jobs and job seekers continues. Over the past few years, the number of graduates from L.P.N. training programs has increased in pace with the need for additional workers. However, if enrollments in L.P.N. training programs level off or decline as they have on a cyclical basis in the past, job prospects will be even better. Employment of L.P.N.'s is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 in response to the long-term care needs of a rapidly growing population of very old people and to the general growth of health care. As in most other occupations, replacement needs will be the main source of job openings. Employment in nursing homes is expected to grow much faster than the average. Nursing homes will offer the most new jobs for L.P.N.'s as the number of aged and disabled persons in need of long term care rises rapidly. In addition to caring for the aged, nursing homes will be called on to care for the increasing number of patients who have been released from the hospital and have not yet recovered enough to return home. Much faster than average growth is also expected in home health care services. This is in response to a growing number of older persons with functional disabilities, consumer preference for care in the home, and technological advances which make it possible to bring increasingly complex treatments into the home. An increasing proportion of sophisticated procedures, which once were performed only in hospitals, are being performed in physicians' offices and clinics, including health maintenance organizations, ambulatory surgicenters, and emergency medical centers-thanks largely to advances in technology. As a result, employment is pro jected to grow much faster than average in these places as health care in general expands. Employment of L.P.N.'s in hospitals is expected to show only a small increase, largely because the number of inpatients, with whom most work, is not expected to increase much. Earnings Median weekly earnings of full-time salaried L.P.N's were $450 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $383 and $537. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $316; the top 10 percent, more than $636. According to a University of Texas Medical Branch survey of hospitals and medical centers, the median annual salary of L.P.N's, based on a 40-hour week and excluding shift or area differentials, was $23,394 in October 1994. The average minimum salary was $19,122 and the average maximum was $28,234. According to the Buck Survey conducted by the American Health Care Association, staff L.P.N.'s in chain nursing homes had median annual earnings of about $23,900 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $21,500 and $27,100. Related Occupations L.P.N.'s work closely with people while helping them. So do emer gency medical technicians, social service aides, human service workers, and teacher aides. Medical Record Technicians (D.O.T. 079.362-014, -018) Nature of the Work When you enter a hospital, you see a whirl of white coats of physi cians, nurses, radiologic technologists, and others. Every time these health care personnel treat a patient, they record what they observed and did to the patient. This record includes information the patient provides about their symptoms and medical history, and also the results of examinations, reports of x rays and laboratory tests, and diagnoses and treatment plans. Medical record technicians organize and evaluate these records for completeness and accuracy. When assembling a patient's medical record, technicians, who may also be called health information technicians, first make sure that the medical chart is complete. They ensure that all forms are present and properly identified and signed, and that all necessary information is on a computer file. Sometimes, they talk to physicians or others to clarify diagnoses or get additional information. Technicians assign a code to each diagnosis and procedure. They consult a classification manual and rely, too, on their knowledge of disease processes. Technicians then use a software program to assign the patient to one of several hundred "diagnosis-related groups" or DRG's. The DRG determines the amount the hospital will be reim bursed if the patient is covered by Medicare or other insurance programs that use the DRG system. Technicians who specialize in coding are called medical record coders, coder/abstractors, or coding specialists. Technicians also use computer programs to tabulate and analyze data to help improve patient care, to control costs, to be used in legal actions, or to respond to surveys. Tumor registrars compile and maintain records of patients who have cancer to provide information to physicians and for research studies. Medical record technicians' duties vary with the size of the facil ity. In large to medium facilities, technicians may specialize in one aspect of medical records or supervise medical record clerks and transcribers while a medical record administrator manages the department (see the statement on health services managers else where in the Handbook). In small facilities an accredited record technician Working Conditions Medical record technicians generally work a 40-hour week. Some overtime may be required. In hospitals where medical record yir- ViK % vak- IT Sources of Additional Information A list of State-approved training programs and information about practical nursing are available from: ••Communications Department, National League for Nursing, 350 Hudson St., New York, NY 10014. •"National Association for Practical Nurse Education and Service, Inc., 1400 Spring St., Suite 310, Silver Spring, MD 20910. For information on nursing careers in long-term care, write to: ••American Health Care Association, 1201 L St. NW„ Washington, DC 20005. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Medical record technicians are one of the only health occupations that have little or no contact with patients. 210 Occuptional Outlook Handbook departments are open 18-24 hours a day, 7 days a week, they may work on day, evening, and night shifts. They work in pleasant and comfortable offices. Medical record technician is one of the few health occupations in which there is little or no contact with patients. Accuracy is essential, and this demands concentration and close attention to detail. Medical record techni cians who work at video display terminals for prolonged periods may experience eyestrain and muscle pain. Employment Medical record technicians held about 81,000 jobs in 1994. About one half of the jobs were in hospitals. Most of the remainder were in nursing homes, medical group practices, health maintenance organi zations, and clinics. In addition, insurance, accounting, and law firms that deal in health matters employ medical record technicians to tabulate and analyze data from medical records. Public health departments hire technicians to supervise data collection from health care institutions and to assist in research. Some self-employed medical record technicians are consultants to nursing homes and physicians' offices. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Medical record technicians entering the field usually have formal training in a 2-year associate degree program offered at community and junior colleges. Courses include medical terminology and diseases, anatomy and physiology, legal aspects of medical records, coding and abstraction of data, statistics, databases, quality assurance methods, and computers as well as general education. Applicants can improve their chances of admission into a program by taking biology, chemistry, health and computer courses in high school. Technicians may also gain training through an Independent Study Program in Medical Record Technology offered by the American Health Information Management Association (AHIMA). Hospitals sometimes advance promising medical record clerks to jobs as medi cal record technicians, although this practice may be less common in the future. Advancement generally requires 2-4 years of job experi ence and completion of the hospital's in-house training program. Most employers prefer to hire Accredited Record Technicians (ART). Accreditation is obtained by passing a written examination offered by the AHIMA. To take the examination, a person must be a graduate of a 2-year associate degree program accredited by the Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs (CAAHEP) of the American Medical Association, or a graduate of the Independent Study Program in Medical Record Technology who has also obtained 30 semester hours of academic credit in prescribed areas. Technicians who have received training in non-CAAHEP accredited programs or on the job are not eligible to take the exami nation. In 1995, CAAHEP accredited 134 programs for medical record technicians. Experienced medical record technicians generally advance in one of two ways—by specializing or managing. Many senior medical record technicians specialize in coding, particularly Medicare coding, or in tumor registry. In large medical record departments, experienced technicians may become section supervisors, overseeing the work of the coding, correspondence, or discharge sections, for example. Senior techni cians with ART credentials may become director or assistant director of a medical record department in a small facility. However, in larger institutions the director is a medical records administrator, with a bachelor's degree in medical record administration. (See the statement on health services managers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Job prospects for formally trained technicians should be very good. Employment of medical record technicians is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 due https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis to rapid growth in the number of medical tests, treatments, and procedures and because medical records will be increasingly scruti nized by third-party payers, courts, and consumers. Hospitals will continue to employ the most medical record tech nicians, but growth will not be as fast as in other areas. The need for detailed records in offices and clinics of doctors of medicine should result in faster employment growth in large group practices and offices of specialists. Rapid growth is also expected in health main tenance organizations, nursing homes, and home health agencies. Earnings According to a 1994 survey by American Health Consultant's, the median annual salary for accredited record technicians was $36,700 a year. The average annual salary for medical record technicians in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $23,779 in 1995. Related Occupations Medical record technicians need a strong clinical background to analyze the contents of medical records. Other occupations that require a knowledge of medical terminology, anatomy, and physiol ogy without directly touching the patient are medical secretaries, medical transcribers, medical writers, and medical illustrators. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in medical record technology, including the Independent Study Program, and a list of CAAHEP-accredited programs is available from: •■American Health Information Management Association, 919 N. Michigan Ave., Suite 1400, Chicago, IL 60611. Nuclear Medicine Technologists (D.O.T. 078.361-018) Nature of the Work In nuclear medicine, radionuclides—unstable atoms that emit radia tion spontaneously—are used to diagnose and treat disease. Radi onuclides are purified and compounded like other drugs to form radiopharmaceuticals. Nuclear medicine technologists administer these radiopharmaceuticals to patients, then monitor the characteris tics and functions of tissues or organs in which they localize. Ab normal areas show higher or lower concentrations of radioactivity than normal. Nuclear medicine technologists operate cameras that detect and map the radioactive drug in the patient's body to create an image on photographic film. Radiologic technologists also operate diagnostic imaging equipment, but their equipment creates an image by project ing an x ray through the patient. (See the statement on radiologic technologists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Nuclear medicine technologists explain test procedures to pa tients. They prepare a dosage of the radiopharmaceutical and admin ister it by mouth, injection, or other means. When preparing radio pharmaceuticals, technologists adhere to safety standards that keep the radiation dose to workers and patients as low as possible. Technologists position patients and start a gamma scintillation camera, or scanner, which creates images of the distribution of a radiopharmaceutical as it passes through or localizes in the patient's body. Technologists produce the images on a computer screen or on film for a physician to interpret. Some nuclear medicine studies, such as cardiac function studies, are processed with the aid of a computer. Technicians and Related Support Occupations 211 SS I; Nuclear medicine technologists may work evenings and on weekends. Nuclear medicine technologists also perform radioimmunoassay studies which assess the behavior of a radioactive substance inside the body. For example, technologists may add radioactive substances to blood or serum to determine levels of hormones or therapeutic drug content. Technologists keep patient records and record the amount and type of radionuclides received, used, and disposed of. Working Conditions Nuclear medicine technologists generally work a 40-hour week. This may include evening or weekend hours in departments which operate on an extended schedule. Opportunities for part-time and shift work are also available. In addition, technologists in hospitals may be on call duty on a rotational basis. Because technologists are on their feet much of the day, and may lift or turn disabled patients, physical stamina is important. Although there is potential for radiation exposure in this field, it is kept to a minimum by the use of shielded syringes, gloves, and other protective devices. Technologists also wear badges that measure radiation levels. Because of safety programs, however, badge meas urements rarely exceed established safety levels. Employment Nuclear medicine technologists held about 13,000 jobs in 1994. About 9 out of 10 jobs were in hospitals. The rest were in physi cians' offices and clinics, including imaging centers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Nuclear medicine technology programs range in length from 1 to 4 years and lead to a certificate, associate's degree, or bachelor’s de gree. Generally, certificate programs are offered in'hospitals; asso ciate programs in community colleges; and bachelor's programs in 4-year colleges and in universities. Courses cover physical sciences, the biological effects of radiation exposure, radiation protection and procedures, the use of radiopharmaceuticals, imaging techniques, and computer applications. Associate's and bachelor's programs also cover liberal arts. One-year certificate programs are for health professionals, espe cially radiologic technologists and ultrasound technologists wishing to specialize in nuclear medicine. They also attract medical tech nologists, registered nurses, and others who wish to change fields or specialize. Others interested in the nuclear medicine technology field have three options: A 2-year certificate program, a 2-year associate program, or a 4-year bachelor's program. The Joint Review Committee on Education Programs in Nuclear Medicine Technology accredits most formal training programs in nuclear medicine technology. In 1994, there were 120 accredited programs. All nuclear medicine technologists must meet the minimum Federal standards on the administration of radioactive drugs and the operation of radiation detection equipment. In addition, about half of all States require technologists to be licensed. Technologists also may obtain voluntary professional certification or registration. Registration or certification is available from the American Registry of Radiologic Technologists and from the Nuclear Medicine Tech nology Certification Board. Most employers prefer to hire certified or registered technologists. Technologists may advance to supervisor, then to chief technolo gist, and to department administrator or director. Some technologists specialize in a clinical area such as nuclear cardiology or computer analysis or leave patient care to take positions in research laborato ries. Some become instructors or directors in nuclear medicine technology programs, a step that usually requires a bachelor's degree or a master's in nuclear medicine technology. Others leave the occupation to work as sales or training representatives for health equipment and radiopharmaceutical manufacturing firms, or as radiation safety officers in regulatory agencies or hospitals. Job Outlook Job prospects for nuclear medicine technologists are expected to be good. The number of openings each year, however, will be very low because the occupation is small. Employment of nuclear medicine technologists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Substantial growth in the number of middle-aged and older persons will spur demand for diagnostic procedures, including nu clear medicine tests. Furthermore, technological innovations seem likely to increase the diagnostic uses of nuclear medicine. One example is the use of radiopharmaceuticals in combination with monoclonal antibodies to detect cancer at far earlier stages than is customary today, and without resorting to surgery. Another is the use of radionuclides to examine the heart's ability to pump blood. Wider use of nuclear medical imaging to observe metabolic and biochemical changes for neurology, cardiology, and oncology proce dures, will also spur demand for nuclear medicine technologists. Cost considerations will affect the speed with which new applica tions of nuclear medicine grow. Some promising nuclear medicine procedures, such as positron emission tomography, are extremely costly, and hospitals contemplating them will have to consider equipment costs, reimbursement policies, and the number of potential users. Earnings According to a University of Texas Medical Branch survey of hospi tals and medical centers, the median annual salary of nuclear medi 212 Occuptional Outlook Handbook cine technologists, based on a 40-hour week and excluding shift or area differentials, was $35,027 in October 1994. The average mini mum salary was $28,044 and the average maximum was $41,598. Related Occupations Nuclear medical technologists operate sophisticated equipment to help physicians and other health practitioners diagnose and treat patients. Radiologic technologists, diagnostic medical sonographers, cardiovascular technologists, electroneurodiagnostic technologists, clinical laboratory technologists, perfusionists, and respiratory therapists also perform similar functions. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on a career as a nuclear medicine technolo gist is available from: •"The Society of Nuclear Medicine-Technologist Section, 1850 Samuel Morse Dr., Reston, VA 22090. For information on a career as a nuclear medicine technologist, enclose a stamped, self-addressed business size envelope with your request to: •"American Society of Radiologic Technologists, 15000 Central Ave., SE,. Albuquerque, NM 87123-3917. For a list of accredited programs in nuclear medicine technology, write to: •■Joint Review Committee on Educational Programs in Nuclear Medicine Technology, 1144 West 3300 South, Salt Lake City, UT 84119-3330. Information on certification is available from: •■Nuclear Medicine Technology Certification Board, 2970 Clairmont Rd., Suite 610, Atlanta, GA 30329. Radiologic Technologists (D.O.T. 078.361-034, .362-026, -046, -054, -058, .364-010) Nature of the Work Perhaps the most familiar use of the x ray is the diagnosis of broken bones. However, medical uses of radiation go far beyond that. Radiation is used not only to produce images of the interior of the body, but to treat cancer as well. At the same time, the use of imag ing techniques that do not involve x rays, such as ultrasound and magnetic resonance scans, is growing rapidly. The term "diagnostic imaging" embraces these procedures as well as the familiar x ray. Radiographers produce x-ray films (radiographs) of parts of the human body for use in diagnosing medical problems. They prepare patients for radiologic examinations by explaining the procedure, removing articles such as jewelry, through which x rays cannot pass, and positioning patients so that the correct parts of the body can be radiographed. To prevent unnecessary radiation exposure, technolo gists surround the exposed area with radiation protection devices, such as lead shields, or limit the size of the x-ray beam. Radiogra phers position radiographic equipment at the correct angle and height over the appropriate area of a patient's body. Using instruments similar to a measuring tape, technologists may measure the thickness of the section to be radiographed and set controls on the machine to produce radiographs of the appropriate density, detail, and contrast. They place the x-ray film under the part of the patient's body to be examined and make the exposure. They then remove the film and develop it. Experienced radiographers may perform more complex imaging tests. For fluoroscopies, radiographers prepare a solution of contrast medium for the patient to drink, allowing the radiologist, a physician who interprets x rays, to see soft tissues in the body. Some radiogra phers who operate computerized tomography scanners to produce cross sectional views of patients, are be called CT technologists. Others operate machines using giant magnets and radiowaves rather https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis than radiation to create an image and are be called magnetic reso nance imaging technologists. Radiation therapy technologists, also known as radiation thera pists, prepare cancer patients for treatment and administer prescribed doses of ionizing radiation to specific body parts. They operate many kinds of equipment, including high-energy linear accelerators with electron capabilities. They position patients under the equip ment with absolute accuracy in order to expose affected body parts to treatment while protecting the rest of the body from radiation. They also check the patient's reactions for radiation side effects such as nausea, hair loss, and skin irritation. They give instructions and explanations to patients who are likely to be very ill. Radiation therapists, in contrast to other radiologic technologists, are likely to see the same patient a number of times during the course of treatment. Sonographers, also known as ultrasound technologists, use non ionizing, high frequency sound waves into areas of the patient's body; the equipment then collects reflected echoes to form an image. The image is viewed on a screen and may be recorded on a printout strip or photographed for interpretation and diagnosis by physicians. Sonographers explain the procedure, record additional medical history, and then position the patient for testing. Viewing the screen as the scan takes place, sonographers look for subtle differences between healthy and pathological areas, and judge if the images are satisfactory for diagnostic purposes. Sonographers may specialize in neurosonography (the brain), vascular (blood flows), echocardiogra phy (the heart), abdominal (the liver, kidneys, spleen, and pancreas), obstetrics/gynecology (the female reproductive system), and oph thalmology (the eye). Radiologic technologists follow precisely physicians’ instructions and regulations concerning use of radiation to ensure that they, patients, and coworkers are protected from over exposure. In addition to preparing patients and operating equipment, radi ologic technologists keep patient records and adjust and maintain equipment. They may also prepare work schedules, evaluate equip ment purchases, or manage a radiology department. Working Conditions Most full-time radiologic technologists work about 40 hours a week; they may have evening, weekend, or on-call hours. Technologists are on their feet for long periods and may lift or turn disabled patients. They work at radiologic machines but may also do some procedures at patients' bedsides. Some radiologic technologists travel to patients in large vans equipped with sophisti cated diagnostic equipment. NSr-'*,* mHospitals will continue to employ the most radiologic technologists through 2005. Technicians and Related Support Occupations 213 Radiation therapists are prone to emotional "bum out" because they regularly treat extremely ill and dying patients on a daily basis. Although potential radiation hazards exist in this occupation, they have been minimized by the use of lead aprons, gloves, and other shielding devices, as well as by instruments that monitor radiation exposure. Technologists wear badges that measure radiation levels in the radiation area, and detailed records are kept on their cumula tive lifetime dose. Employment Radiologic technologists held about 167,000 jobs in 1994. Most technologists were radiographers. Some were sonographers and radiation therapists. About 1 radiologic technologist in 5 worked part time. About 3 out of 5 jobs are in hospitals. The rest are in physi cians' offices and clinics, including diagnostic imaging centers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Preparation for this profession is offered in hospitals, colleges and universities, vocational-technical institutes, and the Armed Forces. Hospitals, which employ most radiologic technologists, prefer to hire those with formal training. Formal training is offered in radiography, radiation therapy, and diagnostic medical sonography (ultrasound). Programs range in length from 1 to 4 years and lead to a certificate, associate's degree, or bachelor's degree. Two-year programs are most prevalent. Some 1-year certificate programs are for individuals from other health occupations such as medical technologists and registered nurses who want to change fields or experienced radiographers who want to specialize in radiation therapy technology or sonography. A bachelor's or master's degree in one of the radiologic technologies is desirable for supervisory, administrative, or teaching positions. The Joint Review Committee on Education in Radiologic Tech nology accredits most formal training programs for this field. They accredited 692 radiography programs, 125 radiation therapy pro grams. The Joint Review Committee on Education in Diagnostic Medical Sonography accredited 65 programs in sonography in 1995. Radiography programs require, at a minimum, a high school diploma or the equivalent. High school courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology are helpful. The programs provide both classroom and clinical instruction in anatomy and physiology, patient care procedures, radiation physics, radiation protection, principles of imaging, medical terminology, positioning of patients, medical ethics, radiobiology, and pathology. For training programs in radiation therapy and diagnostic medical sonography, applicants with a background in science, or experience in one of the health professions, generally are preferred. Some programs consider applicants with liberal arts backgrounds, however, as well as high school graduates with courses in math and science. Radiographers and radiation therapists are covered by provisions of the Consumer-Patient Radiation Health and Safety Act of 1981, which aims to protect the public from the hazards of unnecessary exposure to medical and dental radiation by ensuring operators of radiologic equipment are properly trained. The act requires the Federal Government to set standards that the States, in turn, may use for accrediting training programs and certifying individuals who engage in medical or dental radiography. By January 1995, 31 States required radiographers to be licensed, and 26 required radiation therapists to be licensed. (Puerto Rico requires a license for the practice of either specialty.) Voluntary registration is offered by the American Registry of Radiologic Technologists (ARRT) in both radiography and radiation therapy. The American Registry of Diagnostic Medical Sonogra phers (ARDMS) certifies the competence of sonographers. To become registered, technologists must be graduates of an accredited program or meet other prerequisites and have passed an examination. Many employers prefer to hire registered technologists. With experience and additional training, staff technologists may become specialists, performing CT scanning, ultrasound, angiogra https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis phy, and magnetic resonance imaging. Experienced technologists may also be promoted to supervisor, chief radiologic technologist, and—ultimately—department administrator or director. Depending on the institution, courses or a master's degree in business or health administration may be necessary for the director's position. Some technologists progress by becoming instructors or directors in radi ologic technology programs; others take jobs as sales representatives or instructors with equipment manufacturers. With additional education, available at major cancer centers, radiation therapy technologists can specialize as medical radiation dosimetrists. Dosimetrists work with health physicists and oncolo gists (physicians who specialize in the study and treatment of tumors) to develop treatment plans. Radiographers and radiation therapists are required to fulfill 24 hours of continuing education every other year and provide documen tation to prove that they are complying with these requirements. Job Outlook While a significant increase in radiologic technologist employment is anticipated, jobseekers are likely to face competition from many other qualified applicants for most openings. Reports of shortages of radiographers and radiation therapists that were common during the last decade no longer exist. As more people entered the field, the number of qualified applicants increased faster than the number of job openings. The imbalance that resulted caused competition for jobs to become intense. While reduced, the imbalance is expected to persist through the year 2005. Sonographers should experience somewhat better job opportunities than other radiologic technologist occupations as technology spawns many new ultrasound procedures. Employment of radiologic technologists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2005, as the health care industries grow, and because of the vast clinical potential of diagnostic imaging and therapeutic technology. Current as well as new uses of imaging equipment should increase the demand for radiologic technologists. Radiation therapy will continue to be used—alone or in combina tion with surgery or chemotherapy—to treat cancer. More treatment of cancer is anticipated due to the aging of the population, educa tional efforts aimed at early detection, and improved ability to detect malignancies through radiologic procedures such as mammography. Although physicians are enthusiastic about the clinical benefits of new technologies, the extent to which they are adopted depends largely on cost and reimbursement considerations. Some promising new technologies may not come into widespread use because they are too expensive and third-party payers may not be willing to pay for their use. But on the whole, it appears that radiologic procedures will be used more widely. Hospitals will remain the principal employer of radiologic tech nologists. However, employment is expected to grow most rapidly in offices and clinics of physicians, including diagnostic imaging cen ters. Health facilities such as these are expected to grow very rapidly through 2005 due to the strong shift toward outpatient care, encour aged by third-party payers and made possible by technological advances that permit more procedures to be performed outside the hospital. Some jobs will also come from the need to replace tech nologists who leave the occupation. Earnings In 1994, the median annual earnings for radiologic technologists who worked year round full time were $29,432. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,596 and $36,244 a week; 10 percent earned less than $20,696 a week; and 10 percent earned more than $49,036. According to a University of Texas Medical Branch survey of hospitals and medical centers, the median salary for radiologic technologists, based on a 40 hour week and excluding shift or area differentials, was $27,008 in October 1994. The average minimum salary was $23,265 and the average maximum was $34,687. For 214 Occuptional Outlook Handbook radiation therapy technologists the median was $35,877 and for ultrasound technologists, $33,522. Related Occupations Radiologic technologists operate sophisticated equipment to help physicians, dentists, and other health practitioners diagnose and treat patients. Workers in related occupations include radiation dosimetrists, nuclear medicine technologists, cardiovascular technolo gists and technicians, perfusionists, respiratory therapists, clinical laboratory technologists, and electroneurodiagnostic technologists. mm Sources of Additional Information For career information, enclose a stamped, self-addressed business size envelope with your request to: •■American Society of Radiologic Technologists, 15000 Central Ave. SE., Albuquerque, NM 87123-3917. •■Society of Diagnostic Medical Sonographers, 12770 Coit Rd„ Suite 508, Dallas, TX 75251. •■American Healthcare Radiology Administrators. 111 Boston Post Rd., Suite 215, P.O. Box 334, Sudbury, MA 01776. For the current list of accredited education programs in radiogra phy, radiation therapy technology, write to: •■Joint Review Committee on Education in Radiologic Technology, 20 N. Wacker St., Chicago, IL 60606-2901. For a current list of accredited education programs in diagnostic medical sonography, write to: •■The Joint Review Committee on Education in Diagnostic Medical Sonogra phy, 7108 S. Alton Way, Building C., Englewood, CO 80112. For information on certification in sonography, contact: ••American Registry of Diagnostic Medical Sonographers, 600 Jefferson Plaza, Rockville, MD 20852-1150. Surgical Technologists (D.O.T. 079.374-022) Nature of the Work Surgical technologists, also called surgical or operating room tech nicians, assist in operations under the supervision of surgeons, regis tered nurses, or other surgical personnel. Before an operation, sur gical technologists help set up the operating room with surgical instruments and equipment, sterile linens, and sterile solutions. They assemble, adjust, and check nonsterile equipment to ensure that it is working properly. Technologists also prepare patients for surgery by washing, shaving, and disinfecting incision sites. They transport patients to the operating room, help position them on the operating table, and cover them with sterile surgical "drapes." Technologists also observe patients' vital signs, check charts, and help the surgical team scrub and put on gloves, gowns, and masks. During surgery, technologists pass instruments and other sterile supplies to surgeons and surgeon assistants. They may hold retrac tors, cut sutures, and help count sponges, needles, supplies, and instruments. Surgical technologists help prepare, care for, and dis pose of specimens taken for laboratory analysis and may help apply dressings. They may operate sterilizers, lights, or suction machines, and help operate diagnostic equipment. Technologists may also maintain supplies of fluids, such as plasma and blood. After an operation, surgical technologists may help transfer patients to the recovery room and clean and restock the operating room. Working Conditions Surgical technologists work in clean, well-lighted, cool environ ments. They must stand for long periods of time and remain alert https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Surgical technologists must stand for long periods of time and remain alert during operations. during operations. At times they may be exposed to communicable diseases and unpleasant sights, odors, and materials. Most surgical technologists work a regular 40-hour week, al though they may be on call or work nights, weekends and holidays on a rotating basis. Employment Surgical technologists held about 46,000 jobs in 1994. Most surgical technologists are employed by hospitals, mainly in operating and delivery rooms. Others are employed in clinics and surgical centers, and in the offices of physicians and dentists who perform outpatient surgery. A few, known as private scrubs, are employed directly by surgeons who have special surgical teams like those for liver trans plants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Surgical technologists receive their training in formal programs offered by community and junior colleges, vocational schools, uni versities, hospitals, and the military. In 1995, the Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs (CAAHEP) recognized 147 accredited programs. High school graduation nor mally is required for admission. Programs last 9 to 24 months and lead to a certificate, diploma, or associate degree. Shorter programs are designed for students who are already licensed practical nurses or military personnel. Programs provide classroom education and supervised clinical experience. Students take courses in anatomy, physiology, microbi ology, pharmacology, professional ethics, and medical terminology. Other studies cover the care and safety of patients during surgery, aseptic techniques, and surgical procedures. Students also learn to sterilize instruments; prevent and control infection; and handle special drugs, solutions, supplies, and equipment. Technologists may obtain voluntary professional certification from the Liaison Council on Certification for the Surgical Tech nologist by graduating from a formal program and passing a national certification examination. They may then use the designation Certi fied Surgical Technologist, or CST. Continuing education or reex amination is required to maintain certification, which must be Technicians and Related Support Occupations 215 renewed every 6 years. Some employers prefer to hire certified technologists. Surgical technologists need manual dexterity to handle instru ments quickly. They also must be conscientious, orderly, and emo tionally stable to handle the demands of the operating room environment. Technologists must respond quickly and know proce dures well so that they may have instruments ready for surgeons without having to be told. They are expected to keep abreast of new developments in the field. Recommended high school courses include health, biology, chemistry, and mathematics. Technologists advance by specializing in a particular area of surgery, such as neurosurgery or open heart surgery. They may also work as circulating technologists. A circulating technologist is the "unsterile" member of the surgical team who prepares patients; helps with anesthesia; gets, opens, and holds packages for the "sterile" persons during the procedure; interviews the patient before surgery; keeps a written account of the surgical procedure; and answers the surgeon's questions about the patient during the surgery. With addi tional training, some technologists advance to first assistants, who help with retracting, sponging, suturing, cauterizing bleeders, and closing and treating wounds. Some surgical technologists manage central supply departments in hospitals, or take positions with insur ance companies, sterile supply services, and operating equipment firms. Job Outlook Employment of surgical technologists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005, as the volume of surgery increases and operating room staffing patterns change. The number of surgical procedures is expected to rise as the population grows and ages. Older people require more surgical procedures. Technological advances, such as fiber optics and laser technology, will also permit new surgical procedures. Some employ ers may seek to substitute surgical technologists for operating room nurses to reduce costs. Hospitals will continue to be the primary employer of surgical technologists. Nonetheless, the shift to outpatient or ambulatory surgery will create much faster than average growth for technologists in offices and clinics of physicians, including surgical centers. Earnings According to a University of Texas Medical Branch survey of hospi tals and medical centers, the median annual salary of surgical tech nologists, based on a 40 hour week and excluding shift or area differentials, was $22,285 in October 1994. The average minimum salary was $18,881 ahd the average maximum was $27,690. Related Occupations Other health occupations requiring approximately 1 year of training after high school include licensed practical nurses, respiratory ther apy technicians, medical laboratory assistants, medical assistants, dental assistants, optometric assistants, and physical therapy aides. Sources of Additional Information For additional information on a career as a surgical technologist and a list of CAAHEP-accredited programs, contact: «■Association of Surgical Technologists, 7108-C S. Alton Way, Englewood, CO 80112. For information on certification, contact: •■Liaison Council on Certification for the Surgical Technologist, 7108-C S. Alton Way, Englewood, CO 80112. Technicians, Except Health Aircraft Pilots (D.O.T. 196, except .163 and .167-014, and 621.261-018) Nature of the Work Pilots are highly trained professionals who fly airplanes and helicop ters to carry out a wide variety of tasks. Although most pilots trans port passengers and cargo, others are involved in more unusual tasks, such as dusting crops, spreading seed for reforestation, testing air craft, directing firefighting efforts, tracking criminals, monitoring traffic, and rescuing and evacuating injured persons. Except on small aircraft, two pilots usually make up the cockpit crew. Generally, the most experienced pilot, the captain, is in command and supervises all other crew members. The First officer assists in communicating with air traffic controllers, monitoring the instruments, and flying the aircraft. Some large aircraft still have a third pilot in the cockpit—the flight engineer—who assists the other pilots by monitoring and operating many of the instruments and systems, making minor inflight repairs, and watching for other aircraft. New technology can perform many flight tasks, however, and virtually all new aircraft now fly with only two pilots, who rely more heavily on computerized controls. Flight engineer jobs could be completely eliminated in the future. Before departure, pilots plan their flights carefully. They thor oughly check their aircraft to make sure that the engines, controls, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis instruments, and other systems are functioning properly. They also make sure that baggage or cargo has been loaded correctly. They confer with flight dispatchers and aviation weather forecasters to find out about weather conditions enroute and at their destination. Based on this information, they choose a route, altitude, and speed that should provide the fastest, safest, and smoothest flight. When flying under instrument flight rules—procedures governing the operation of the aircraft when there is poor visibility—the pilot in command, or the company dispatcher, normally files an instrument flight plan with air traffic control so that the flight can be coordinated with other air traffic. Takeoff and landing are the most difficult parts of the flight and require close coordination between the pilot and first officer. For example, as the plane accelerates for takeoff, the pilot concentrates on the runway while the first officer scans the instrument panel. To calculate the speed they must attain to become airborne, pilots con sider the altitude of the airport, outside temperature, weight of the plane, and the speed and direction of the wind. The moment the plane reaches takeoff speed, the first officer informs the pilot, who then pulls back on the controls to raise the nose of the plane. Unless the weather is bad, the actual flight is relatively easy. Airplane pilots with the assistance of autopilot and the flight man agement computer, steer the plane along their planned route and are monitored by the air traffic control stations they pass along the way. They regularly scan the instrument panel to check their fuel supply, the condition of their engines, and the air-conditioning, hydraulic, and other systems. Pilots may request a change in altitude or route if 216 Occuptional Outlook Handbook circumstances dictate. For example, if the ride is rougher than expected, they may ask air traffic control if pilots flying at other altitudes have reported better conditions. If so, they may request a change. This procedure also may be used to find a stronger tailwind or a weaker headwind to save fuel and increase speed. In contrast, helicopters are used for short trips at relatively low altitude, so pilots must be constantly on the lookout for trees, bridges, power lines, transmission towers, and other dangerous obstacles. Regardless of the type of aircraft, all pilots must monitor warning devices designed to help detect sudden shifts in wind conditions that can cause crashes. If visibility is poor, pilots must rely completely on their instru ments. Using the altimeter readings, they know how high above ground they are and whether or not they can fly safely over moun tains and other obstacles. Special navigation radios give pilots precise information which, with the help of special maps, tell them their exact position. Other very sophisticated equipment provides directions to a point just above the end of a runway and enables pilots to land completely "blind." Once on the ground, pilots must complete records on their flight for their organization and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). The number of nonflying duties that pilots have depends on the employment setting. Airline pilots have the services of large support staffs, and consequently, perform few nonflying duties. Pilots em ployed by other organizations such as charter operators or businesses have many other duties. They may load the aircraft, handle all passenger luggage to ensure a balanced load, and supervise refueling; other nonflying responsibilities include keeping records, scheduling flights, arranging for major maintenance, and performing minor aircraft maintenance and repair work. Some pilots are instructors. They teach their students the princi ples of flight in ground-school classes and demonstrate how to operate aircraft in dual-controlled planes and helicopters. A few specially trained pilots are "examiners" or "check pilots." They periodically fly with other pilots or pilot’s license applicants to make sure that they are proficient. Working Conditions By law, airline pilots cannot fly more than 100 hours a month or more than 1,000 hours a year. Most airline pilots fly an average of 75 hours a month and work an additional 75 hours a month perform ing nonflying duties. Fifty percent of all pilots work more than 40 hours a week. The majority of flights involve overnight layovers. When pilots are away from home, the airlines provide hotel accom modations, transportation between the hotel and airport, and an allowance for expenses. Airlines operate flights at all hours of the day and night, so work schedules often are irregular. Flight assign ments are based on seniority. Those pilots not employed by the airlines often have irregular schedules as well; they may fly 30 hours one month and 90 hours the next. Because these pilots frequently have many nonflying respon sibilities, they have much less free time than airline pilots. Except for business pilots, most do not remain away from home overnight. They may work odd hours . In addition, pilots working as instructors often give lessons at night or on weekends. Airline pilots, especially those on international routes, often suffer jet lag—fatigue caused by many hours of flying through different time zones. The work of test pilots, who check the flight perform ance of new and experimental planes, may be dangerous. Pilots who are crop dusters may be exposed to toxic chemicals and seldom have the benefit of a regular landing strip. Helicopter pilots involved in police work may be subject to personal injury. Although flying does not involve much physical effort, the mental stress of being responsible for a safe flight, no matter what the weather, can be tiring. Particularly during takeoff and landing, pilots must be alert and quick to react if something goes wrong. Employment Civilian pilots held about 90,000 jobs in 1994. Three-fifths worked for airlines. Many others worked as flight instructors at local airports or for large businesses that fly company cargo and executives in their own airplanes or helicopters. Some pilots flew small planes for air taxi companies, usually to or from lightly traveled airports not served by the airlines. Others worked for a variety of businesses performing tasks such as crop dusting, inspecting pipelines, or conducting sight seeing trips. Federal, State, and local governments also employed pilots. Several thousand pilots were self-employed. The employment of airplane pilots is not distributed like the population. Pilots are more concentrated in the States of California, Texas, Georgia, Washington, Nevada, Hawaii, and Alaska which have a higher amount of flying activity relative to their population. Before takeoff, pilots check equipment and controls. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All pilots who are paid to transport passengers or cargo must have a commercial pilot's license with an instrument rating issued by the FAA. Helicopter pilots must hold a commercial pilot’s certificate with a helicopter rating. To qualify for these licenses, applicants must be at least 18 years old and have at least 250 hours of flight experience. The time can be reduced through participation in certain flight school curricula approved by the FAA. They also must pass a strict physical examination to make sure that they are in good health and have 20/20 vision with or without glasses, good hearing, and no physical handicaps that could impair their performance. Applicants must pass a written test that includes questions on the principles of Technicians and Related Support Occupations 217 safe flight, navigation techniques, and FAA regulations. They also must demonstrate their flying ability to FAA or designated examiners. To fly in periods of low visibility, pilots must be rated by the FAA to fly by instruments. Pilots may qualify for this rating by having a total of 105 hours of flight experience, including 40 hours of experience in flying by instruments; they also must pass a written examination on procedures and FAA regulations covering instrument flying and demonstrate to an examiner their ability to fly by instruments. Airline pilots must fulfill additional requirements. They must pass FAA written and flight examinations to earn a flight engineer's license. Captains and first officers also must have an airline transport pilot's license. Applicants for this license must be at least 23 years old and have a minimum of 1,500 hours of flying experience, includ ing night and instrument flying. Because pilots must be able to make quick decisions and accurate judgments under pressure, many airline companies reject applicants who do not pass required psychological and aptitude tests. All licenses are valid as long as a pilot can pass the periodic physical examinations and tests of flying skills required by Govern ment and company regulations. The Armed Forces have always been an important source of trained pilots for civilian jobs. Military pilots gain valuable experi ence on jet aircraft and helicopters, and persons with this experience are generally preferred for civilian pilot jobs. This primarily reflects the extensive flying time military pilots receive. Persons without armed forces training also become pilots by attending flight schools. The FAA has certified about 600 civilian flying schools, including some colleges and universities that offer degree credit for pilot training. Over the projected period, Federal budget reductions are expected to reduce military pilot training. As a result, FAA certified schools will train a larger share of pilots than in the past. Although some small airlines will hire high school graduates, most airlines require at least 2 years of college and prefer to hire college graduates; almost ninety percent of all pilots have completed some college.. In fact, most entrants to this occupation have a col lege degree. If the number of college educated applicants continues to increases, employers may make a college degree an educational requirement. Depending on the type of aircraft in use, new airline pilots start as first officers or flight engineers. Although some airlines favor applicants who already have a flight engineer's license, they may provide flight engineer training for those who have only the com mercial license. All new pilots receive several weeks of intensive training in simulators and classrooms before being assigned to a flight. Organizations other than airlines generally require less flying experience. However, a commercial pilot's license is a minimum requirement, and employers prefer applicants who have experience in the type of craft they will be flying. New employees usually start as first officers, or fly less sophisticated equipment. Test pilots often are required to have an engineering degree. Advancement for all pilots generally is limited to other flying jobs. Many pilots start as flight instructors, building up their flying hours while they earn money teaching. As they become more expe rienced, these pilots occasionally fly charter planes or perhaps get jobs with small air transportation firms, such as air taxi companies. Some advance to business flying jobs. A small number get flight engineer jobs with the airlines. In the airlines, advancement usually depends on seniority provisions of union contracts. After 1 to 5 years, flight engineers advance according to seniority to first officer and, after 5 to 15 years, to captain. Seniority also determines which pilots get the more desirable routes. In a nonairline job, a first officer may advance to pilot and, in large companies, to chief pilot or director of aviation in charge of aircraft scheduling, maintenance, and flight procedures. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Pilots are expected to face considerable competition for jobs through the year 2005 because the number of applicants for new positions is expected to exceed the number of job openings. Competition will be especially keen early in the projection period due to a temporary increase in the pool of qualified pilots seeking jobs. Mergers and bankruptcies during the recent restructuring of the industry caused a large number of airline pilots to lose their jobs. Also, Federal budget reductions resulted in many pilots leaving the Armed Forces. These and other qualified pilots seek jobs in this occupation because it offers very high earnings, glamour, prestige, and free or low cost travel benefits. As time passes, some pilots will fail to maintain their qualifications and the number of applicants competing for each opening should decline. Factors affecting demand, however, are not expected to ease that competition. Relatively few jobs will be created from rising demand for pilots as employment is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The expected growth in airline passenger and cargo traffic will create a need for more airlin ers, pilots, and flight instructors. However, computerized flight management systems on new aircraft will eliminate the need for flight engineers on those planes thus restricting pilot employment growth. In addition, the trend toward using larger planes in the airline industry will increase pilot productivity. Employment of business pilots is expected to grow more slowly than in the past as more businesses opt to fly with regional and smaller airlines serving their area rather than buy and operate their own aircraft. On the other hand, helicopter pilots are expected to grow more rapidly as the demand for the type of services they can offer expands. Opportunities resulting from the need to replace pilots who leave the occupation also are expected to be limited. Aircraft pilots under standably have an extremely strong attachment to their occupation because it requires a substantial investment in specialized training that is not transferable to other fields and it generally offers very high earnings. Nevertheless, pilots who reach the mandatory retirement age will generate several thousand job openings each year. Pilots who have logged the greatest number of flying hours in the more sophisticated equipment generally have the best prospects. This is the reason military pilots usually have an advantage over other applicants. Job seekers with the most FAA licenses will also have a competitive advantage. Opportunities for pilots in the re gional commuter airlines and international service are expected to be more favorable as these segments are expected to grow faster than other segments of the industry. Employment of pilots is sensitive to cyclical swings in the econ omy. During recessions, when a decline in the demand for air travel forces airlines to curtail the number of flights, airlines may tempo rarily furlough some pilots. Commercial and corporate flying, flight instruction, and testing of new aircraft also decline during recessions, adversely affecting pilots employed in those areas. Earnings Earnings of airline pilots are among the highest in the Nation. Ac cording to the Future Aviation Professionals of America (FAPA), the 1995 average starting salary for airline pilots ranged from about $13,000 at the smaller turboprop airlines to $27,900 at the larger major airlines. Average earnings for experienced pilots with six years of experience ranged from $37,500 at the turboprop airlines to almost $81,000 at the largest airlines. Some senior captains on the largest aircraft earned as much as $200,000 a year. Earnings depend on factors such as the type, size, and maximum speed of the plane, and the number of hours and miles flown. Extra pay may be given for night and international flights. Generally, pilots working outside the airlines earn lower salaries. It was estimated that the median salary for chief pilots was $63,000 a year in 1994, for captains/pilots, $58,900 and for first officers, $42,800. Usually, pilots who fly jet aircraft earn higher salaries than nonjet pilots. 218 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Data from the Future Aviation Professionals of America show that helicopter pilots averaged $29,200 a year. Average pay for helicopter pilots with five years of experience was about $45,600. Some helicopter pilots earn $65,000 to $75,00 a year. Airline pilots generally are eligible for life and health insurance plans financed by the airlines. They also receive retirement benefits and if they fail the FAA physical examination at some point in their careers, they get disability payments. Some airlines provide allow ances to pilots for purchasing and cleaning their uniforms. As an additional benefit, pilots and their immediate families usually are entitled to free or reduced fare transportation on their own and other airlines. Most airline pilots are members of unions. Most airline pilots are members of the Airline Pilots Association, International, but those employed by one major airline are members of the Allied Pilots Association. Some flight engineers are members of the Flight Engi neers' International Association. Related Occupations Although they are not in the cockpit, air traffic controllers and dis patchers also play an important role in making sure flights are safe and on schedule, and participate in many of the decisions pilots must make. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities in a particular airline and the qualifications required may be obtained by writing to the personnel manager of the airline. For addresses of airline companies and information about job opportunities and salaries, contact: •■FAPA, 4959 Massachusetts Blvd., Atlanta, GA 30032. (This organization may be called toll free at 1-800-JET-JOBS, extension 190.) For information on airline pilots, contact: “•■Airline Pilots Association, 1625 Massachusetts Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20036. •■Air Transport Association of America, 1301 Pennsylvania Ave. NW„ Suite 1110, Washington, DC 20006. For information on helicopter pilots, contact: •"Helicopter Association International, 1619 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314. For a copy of List of Certificated Pilot Schools, write to: •"Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washing ton, DC 20402. For information about job opportunities in companies other than airlines, consult the classified section of aviation trade magazines and apply to companies that operate aircraft at local airports. Air Traffic Controllers (D.O.T. 193.162 except -022, .167-010) Nature of the Work The air traffic control system is a vast network of people and equip ment that ensures the safe operation of commercial and private aircraft. Air traffic controllers coordinate the movement of air traffic to make certain that planes stay a safe distance apart. Their immedi ate concern is safety, but controllers also must direct planes effi ciently to minimize delays. Some regulate airport traffic; others regulate flights between airports. Although airport tower or terminal controllers watch over all planes traveling through the airport's airspace, their main responsi bility is to organize the flow of aircraft in and out of the airport. Relying on radar and visual observation, they closely monitor each plane to ensure a safe distance between all aircraft and to guide pilots between the hangar or ramp and the end of the airport's airspace. In addition, controllers keep pilots informed about changes in weather https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis conditions such as wind shear—a sudden change in the velocity or direction of the wind that can cause the pilot to lose control of the aircraft. During arrival or departure, several controllers handle each plane. As a plane approaches an airport, the pilot radios ahead to inform the terminal of its presence. The controller in the radar room just be neath the control tower has a copy of the plane's flight plan and already has observed the plane on radar. If the way is clear, the controller directs the pilot to a runway; if the airport is busy, the plane is fitted into a traffic pattern with other aircraft waiting to land. As the plane nears the runway, the pilot is asked to contact the tower. There, another controller, who also is watching the plane on radar, monitors the aircraft the last mile or so to the runway, delaying any departures that would interfere with the plane's landing. Once the plane has landed, a ground controller in the tower directs it along the taxiways to its assigned gate. The ground controller usually works entirely by sight, but may use radar if visibility is very poor. The procedure is reversed for departures. The ground controller directs the plane to the proper runway. The local controller then informs the pilot about conditions at the airport, such as the weather, speed and direction of wind, and visibility. The local controller also issues runway clearance for the pilot to take off. Once in the air, the plane is guided out of the airport's airspace by the departure controller. After each plane departs, airport tower controllers notify enroute controllers who will next take charge. There are 22 enroute control centers located around the country, each employing 300 to 700 controllers, with more than 150 on duty during peak hours at the busier facilities. Airplanes generally fly along designated routes; each center is assigned a certain airspace containing many different routes. Enroute controllers work in teams of up to three members, depending on how heavy traffic is; each team is responsible for a section of the center's airspace. A team, for example, might be responsible for all planes that are between 30 to 100 miles north of an airport and flying at an altitude between 6,000 and 18,000 feet. To prepare for planes about to enter the team's airspace, the radar associate controller organizes flight plans coming off a printer. If two planes are scheduled to enter the team's airspace at nearly the same time, location, and altitude, this controller may arrange with the preceding control unit for one plane to change its flight path. The previous unit may have been another team at the same or an adjacent center, or a departure controller at a neighboring terminal. As a plane approaches a team's airspace, the radar controller accepts responsibility for the plane from the previous controlling unit. The controller also delegates responsibility for the plane to the next controlling unit when the plane leaves the team's airspace. The radar controller, who is the senior team member, observes the planes in the team's airspace on radar and communicates with the pilots when necessary. Radar controllers warn pilots about nearby planes, bad weather conditions, and other potential hazards. Two planes on a collision course will be directed around each other. If a pilot wants to change altitude in search of better flying conditions, the controller will check to determine that no other planes will be along the proposed path. As the flight progresses, the team respon sible for the aircraft notifies the next team in charge. Through team coordination, the plane arrives safely at its destination. Both airport tower and enroute controllers usually control several planes at a time and often have to make quick decisions about com pletely different activities. For example, a controller might direct a plane on its landing approach and at the same time provide pilots entering the airport's airspace with information about conditions at the airport. While instructing these pilots, the controller also would observe other planes in the vicinity, such as those in a holding pattern waiting for permission to land, to ensure that they remain well sepa rated. Currently, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is in the midst of developing and implementing a new automated air traffic control system. As a result, more powerful computers will help controllers deal with the demands of increased air traffic. Some Technicians and Related Support Occupations 219 Air traffic controllers carefully monitor each plane. traditional air traffic controller tasks—like determining how far apart planes should be kept—will be done by computer. Improved com munication between computers on airplanes and those on the ground also is making the controller’s job a little easier. At present controllers sit at consoles with green-glowing screens that display radar images generated by a computer. In the future, controllers will work at a modem workstation computer that depicts air routes in full-color on a 20 by 20 inch screen. The controllers will select radio channels simply by touching on-screen buttons instead of turning dials or switching switches. In addition to airport towers and enroute centers, air traffic con trollers also work in flight service stations operated at over 100 locations. These flight service specialists provide pilots with infor mation on the station's particular area, including terrain, preflight and inflight weather information, suggested routes, and other information important to the safety of a flight. Flight service station specialists help pilots in emergency situations and participate in searches for missing or overdue aircraft. However, they are not involved in actively managing air traffic. Working Conditions Controllers work a basic 40-hour week; however, they may work additional hours for which they receive overtime pay or equal time off. Because most control towers and centers operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, controllers rotate night and weekend shifts. During busy times, controllers must work rapidly and efficiently. This requires total concentration to keep track of several planes at the same time and make certain all pilots receive correct instructions. The mental stress of being responsible for the safety of several aircraft and their passengers can be exhausting for some persons. Employment Air traffic controllers held about 23,000 jobs in 1994. They were employed by the Federal Government at airports—in towers and flight service stations—and in enroute traffic control centers. The overwhelming majority worked for the FAA. About 17,500 control lers were actively working controlling air traffic; 3,600 worked at flight service stations and another 750 worked in administrative staff positions. Some professional controllers conduct research at the FAA's national experimental center in Atlantic City, New Jersey. Others serve as instructors at the FAA Academy in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. A small number of civilian controllers worked for the Department of Defense. In addition to controllers employed by the Federal Government, some worked for private air traffic control companies providing service to non-FAA towers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Air traffic controller trainees are selected through the competitive Federal Civil Service system. Applicants must pass a written test that measures their ability to learn the controller's duties. Applicants with experience as a pilot, navigator, or military controller can improve their rating by scoring well on the occupational knowledge portion of the examination. Abstract reasoning and three dimensional spatial visualization are among the aptitudes the exam measures. In addition, applicants generally must have 3 years of general work experience or 4 years of college, or a combination of both. Applicants also must survive a 1 week screening at the FAA Academy in Oklahoma City which includes aptitude tests using computer simulator and physical and psychological examinations. Successful applicants receive drug screening tests. For airport tower and enroute center positions, applicants must be less than 31 years old. Those 31 years old and over are eligible for positions at flight service stations. Controllers must be articulate, because directions to pilots must be given quickly and clearly. Intelligence and a good memory also are important because controllers constantly receive information that they must immediately grasp, interpret, and remember. Decisiveness is also required because controllers often have to make quick deci sions. The ability to concentrate is crucial because controllers must make these decisions in the midst of noise and other distractions. Trainees learn their craft through a combination of formal and onthe-job training. They receive 7 months of intensive training at the FAA academy, where they learn the fundamentals of the airway system, FAA regulations, controller equipment, aircraft performance characteristics, as well as more specialized tasks. To receive a job offer, trainees must successfully complete the training and pass a series of examinations, including a controller skills test that measures speed and accuracy in recognizing and correctly solving air traffic control problems. Based on aptitude and test scores, trainees are selected to work at either an enroute center or a tower. After graduation, it takes several years of progressively more responsible work experience, interspersed with considerable class room instruction and independent study, to become a fully qualified controller. This training includes instruction in the operation of the new, more automated air traffic control system—including the auto mated Microwave Landing System that enables pilots to receive instructions over automated data links—that is being installed in control sites across the country. Controllers who fail to complete either the academy or the on-thejob portion of the training are usually dismissed. Controllers must pass a physical examination each year and a job performance exami nation twice each year. Failure to become certified in any position at a facility within a specified time may also result in dismissal. Con trollers also are subject to drug screening as a condition of continuing employment. At airports, new controllers begin by supplying pilots with basic flight data and airport information. They then advance to ground controller, then local controller, departure controller, and finally, arrival controller. At an enroute traffic control center, new control lers first deliver printed flight plans to teams, gradually advancing to radar associate controller and then radar controller. Controllers can transfer to jobs at different locations or advance to supervisory positions, including management or staff jobs in air traffic control and top administrative jobs in the FAA. However, there are only limited opportunities for a controller to switch from a position in an enroute center to a tower. Job Outlook Competition for air traffic controller jobs is expected to remain extremely keen because the occupation attracts many more qualified applicants than the small number of job openings stemming from growth of the occupation and replacement needs. Turnover is very low; because of the relatively high pay and liberal retirement bene 220 Occuptional Outlook Handbook fits, controllers have a very strong attachment to the occupation. Most of the current work force was hired as a result of the control ler's strike during the 1980's, so the average age of current control lers is fairly young. Most controllers will not be eligible to retire until 2005 or later. Employment of air traffic controllers is expected to show little or no change through the year 2005. Employment growth is not ex pected to keep pace with growth in the number of aircraft flying because of the implementation of a new air traffic control system over the next 10 years. This computerized system will assist the controller by automatically making many of the routine decisions. Automation will allow controllers to handle more traffic, thus in creasing their productivity. Air traffic controllers who continue to meet the proficiency and medical requirements enjoy more job security than most workers. The demand for air travel and the workloads of air traffic controllers decline during recessions, but controllers seldom are laid off. Earnings Air traffic controllers who started with the FAA in 1995 earned about $22,700 a year. Controllers at higher Federal pay grade levels earned 5 percent more than other Federal workers in an equivalent grade. A controller's pay is determined by both the worker's job responsibili ties and the complexity of the particular facility. Earnings are higher at facilities where traffic patterns are more complex. In 1995, con trollers averaged about $59,800 a year. Depending on length of service, they receive 13 to 26 days of paid vacation and 13 days of paid sick leave each year, life insurance, and health benefits. In addition, controllers can retire at an earlier age and with fewer years of service than other Federal employees. Air traffic controllers are eligible to retire at age 50 with 20 years of service as an active air traffic controller or after 25 years of active service at any age. There is a mandatory retirement age of 56 for controllers who manage air traffic. Related Occupations Other occupations that involve the direction and control of traffic in air transportation are airline-radio operator and airplane dispatcher. Sources of Additional Information A pamphlet providing general information about controllers and instructions for submitting an application is available from any U.S. Office of Personnel Management Job Information Center. Look under U.S. Government, Office of Personnel Management, in your telephone book to obtain a local Job Information Center telephone number, and call for a copy of the Air Traffic Controller Announce ment. If there is no listing in your telephone book, dial the toll-free number 1-800-555-1212 and request the number of the Office of Personnel Management Job Information Center for your location. the material. Technicians may switch from one camera or studio to another, from film to live programming, or from network to local programs. By means of hand signals and, in television, telephone headsets, they give technical directions to studio personnel. Broadcast technicians in small stations perform a variety of duties. In large stations and at the networks, technicians are more specialized, although job assignments may change from day to day. The terms "operator," "engineer," and "technician" often are used interchangeably to describe these jobs. Transmitter operators moni tor and log outgoing signals and operate transmitters. Maintenance technicians set up, adjust, service, and repair electronic broadcasting equipment. Audio control engineers regulate sound pickup, trans mission, and switching of television pictures while video control engineers regulate their quality, brightness, and contrast. Recording engineers operate and maintain video and sound recording equip ment. They may operate equipment designed to produce special effects, such as the illusions of a bolt of lightning or a police siren. Field technicians set up and operate broadcasting portable field transmission equipment outside the studio. Television news coverage requires so much electronic equipment, and the technology is changing so fast, that many stations assign technicians exclusively to news. Chief engineers, transmission engi neers, and broadcast field supervisors supervise the technicians who operate and maintain broadcasting equipment. Technicians in the motion picture industry are called sound mixers or rerecording mixers. Mixers produce the sound track of a movie using a process called dubbing. They sit at sound consoles fac ing the screen and fade in and fade out each sound and regulate its volume. Each technician is responsible for certain sounds. Techni cians follow a script that tells at precisely what moment, as the film runs through the projector, each of the sounds must be faded in and out. All the sounds for each shot are thus blended on a master sound track. Working Conditions Broadcast technicians generally work indoors in pleasant surround ings. However, those who broadcast from disaster areas or crime scenes may work under less favorable conditions. Technicians doing maintenance may climb poles or antenna towers, while those setting up equipment do heavy lifting. Technicians in large stations and the networks usually work a 40hour week, but may occasionally work overtime under great pressure to meet broadcast deadlines. Technicians in small stations routinely work more than 40 hours a week. Evening, weekend, and holiday work is usual because most stations are on the air 18 to 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Broadcast Technicians (D.O.T. 193.167-014, .262-018, and -038; 194.062, .122, .262-010, -014, -018, -022, .282, .362, and .382-014, -018, 962.167-010, and .382-010) Nature of the Work Broadcast technicians install, test, repair, set up, and operate the electronic equipment used to record and transmit radio and television programs. They work with television cameras, microphones, tape recorders, light and sound effects, transmitters, antennas, and other equipment. Some broadcast technicians develop movie sound tracks in motion picture production studios. In the control room of a radio or television broadcasting studio, these technicians operate equipment that regulates the signal strength, clarity, and range of sounds and colors of recording or broadcasts. They also operate control panels to select the source of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ■..V.V.V : Broadcast technicians generally work indoors in pleasant surroundings. Technicians and Related Support Occupations 221 Those who work on motion pictures may be on a tight schedule to finish according to contract agreements. Employment Broadcast technicians held about 42,000 jobs in 1994. About 7 out of 10 broadcast technicians were in radio and television broadcasting. Almost 2 in 10 worked in the motion picture industry. About 8 percent worked for cable and other pay television services. Some were self employed. Television stations employ, on average, many more technicians than radio stations. Some are employed in other industries, producing employee communications, sales, and training programs. Technician jobs in television are located in virtually all cities, while jobs in radio are also found in most smaller towns. The highest paying and most specialized jobs are concentrated in New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Washington, D.C.—the originating centers for most of network programs. Motion picture production jobs are concentrated in Los Angeles and New York City. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The best way to prepare for a broadcast technician job in radio and television—particularly for those who hope to advance to supervi sory positions or to jobs in large stations and at the networks—is to obtain technical school, community college, or college training in broadcast technology or in engineering or electronics. On the other hand, there is no formal training for jobs in the motion picture indus try. People are hired as apprentice editorial assistants and work their way up to more skilled jobs. Reputation, determination, and luck are important in getting jobs. Federal law requires a restricted radiotelephone operator permit for persons who operate and maintain broadcast transmitters in radio and television stations. No examination is required to obtain one. The Federal Communications Commission no longer requires persons working with microwave to have a general radiotelephone operator license; however, some States may require a license. Beginners learn skills on the job from experienced technicians and supervisors. They generally begin their careers in small stations and, if qualified, move on to larger ones. Large stations generally only hire technicians with experience. Many employers pay tuition and expenses for courses or seminars to help technicians keep abreast of developments in the field. Certification by the Society of Broadcast Engineers is a mark of competence and experience. The certificate is issued to experienced technicians who pass an examination. Prospective technicians should take high school courses in math, physics, and electronics. Building electronic equipment from hobby kits and operating a "ham" or amateur radio are good experience, as is work in college radio and television stations. Broadcast technicians must have an aptitude for working with electrical and mechanical systems and equipment and manual dexterity. Experienced technicians may become supervisory technicians or chief engineers. A college degree in engineering is generally needed to become chief engineer at a large TV station. casting is expected to decline because of laborsaving technical advances such as computer-controlled programming and remote control of transmitters. This has shifted the emphasis from opera tions to maintenance work, which frequently is performed by com mercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers employed by broadcasting equipment manufacturers. (See the statement on this occupation elsewhere in the Handbook.) Employment in the motion picture industry will grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. Job prospects are expected to remain competitive, however, because of the large number of people attracted to this relatively small field. Virtually all job openings will result from the need to replace experienced technicians who leave the occupation. Turnover is relatively high for broadcast technicians. Many leave the occupation for electronic jobs in other areas such as computer technology or commercial and industrial repair because the number of jobs is limited in large cities where pay is high. Earnings Television stations usually pay higher salaries than radio stations; commercial broadcasting usually pays more than educational broad casting; and stations in large markets pay more than those in small ones. According to a survey conducted by the National Association of Broadcasters and the Broadcast Cable Financial Management Asso ciation, the average earnings for technicians at radio stations were $23,569 a year in 1994. For chief engineer, average earnings were $43,500 and the range was $34,256 to $57,937. In television, the average earnings for operator technician were $24,260 a year, and salaries ranged from $16,422 in the smallest markets to $45,158 in the largest markets; for technical director, the average earnings were $25,962 and the range was $18,444 to $44,531; for maintenance technician, the average was $32,533 and the range was $24,210 to $50,235; and for chief engineer, the average was $53,655 and the salaries ranged from $38,178 in the smallest markets to $91,051 in the largest markets. Earnings in the motion picture industry depend on skill and reputation, and, based on limited information, range from $20,000 to $100,000 a year. Related Occupations Broadcast technicians need the electronics training and hand coordi nation necessary to operate technical equipment, and they generally complete specialized postsecondary programs. Others with similar jobs and training include drafters, engineering and science techni cians, surveyors, air traffic controllers, radiologic technologists, respiratory therapy workers, cardiovascular technologists and tech nicians, electroneurodiagnostic technicians, and clinical laboratory technologists and technicians. Sources of Additional Information For information about licensing, write to: •■Federal Communications Commission, Consumer Assistance Office, 1270 Fairfield Rd., Gettysburg, PA 17325-7245 or call 1 800 322-1117. Job Outlook People seeking beginning jobs as radio and television broadcast technicians are expected to face strong competition in major metro politan areas, where the number of qualified jobseekers greatly exceeds the number of openings. There, stations seek highly experi enced personnel. Prospects for entry level positions generally are better in small cities and towns for people with appropriate training. Employment of broadcast technicians is expected to decline through the year 2005. Employment in radio and television broad https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis For information on careers for broadcast technicians, write to: •■National Association of Broadcasters Employment Clearinghouse, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. For a list of schools that offer programs or courses in broadcast ing, contact; •■Broadcast Education Association, National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. For information on certification, contact; ••Society of Broadcast Engineers, 8445 Keystone Crossing, Suite 140, Indianapolis, IN 46240. 222 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Computer Programmers (DOT. 030.162-010, -018, -022, and .167-010) I Nature of the Work Computer programmers write, and maintain the detailed instruc tions—called "programs" or "software"—that list in a logical order the steps that computers must execute to perform their functions. In many large organizations, programmers follow descriptions prepared by systems analysts who have carefully studied the task that the computer system is going to perform. These descriptions list the input required, the steps the computer must follow to process data, and the desired arrangement of the output. (A more detailed descrip tion of the work of systems analysts is presented in the statement on computer scientists and systems analysts elsewhere in the Hand book.) Some organizations, particularly smaller ones, do not employ systems analysts. Instead, workers called programmer-analysts are responsible for both systems analysis and programming. Regardless of setting, programmers write specific programs by breaking down each step into a logical series of instructions the computer can follow. They then code these instructions in a conven tional programming language, such as C and FORTRAN, or one of the more advanced artificial intelligence or object oriented lan guages, such as LISP, Prolog, C++, or Ada. The transition from a mainframe environment to primarily a PCbased environment has blurred the once rigid distinction between the programmer and the user. Increasingly adept users are taking over many of the tasks previously performed by programmers. For ex ample, the growing use of packaged software, like spreadsheet and data base management software packages, allows users to write simple programs to access data and perform calculations. Programmers in software development companies may work directly with experts from various fields to create software—either programs designed for specific clients or packaged software for general use—ranging from games and educational software to pro grams for desktop publishing, financial planning, and spreadsheets. Much of the programming being done today is the preparation of packaged software, one of the most rapidly, growing segments of the computer industry. Despite the prevalence of packaged software, many programmers are involved in updating, repairing, and modifying code for existing programs. When making changes to a section of code, called a "routine," programmers need to make other users aware of the task that the routine is to perform. They do this by inserting comments in the coded instructions so others can understand the program. Pro grammers using Computer-Aided Software Engineering (CASE) tools can concentrate on writing the unique parts of the program because the tools automate various pieces of the program being built. This also yields more reliable and consistent programs and increases programmers' productivity by eliminating some of the routine steps. When a program is ready to be tested, programmers run it to ensure that the instructions are correct and will produce the desired information. They prepare sample data that test every part of the program and, after trial runs, review the results to see if any errors were made. If errors do occur, the programmer must make the appropriate change and recheck the program until it produces the correct results. This is called "debugging" the program. Finally, programmers working in a mainframe environment prepare instructions for the computer operator who will run the program. (The work of computer operators is described in the state ment on computer and peripheral equipment operators elsewhere in the Handbook.) They may also contribute to a user's manual for the program. Programs vary depending upon the type of information to be accessed or generated. For example, the instructions involved in updating financial records are different from those required to https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis gbHMMNl i —s-*. V- Applications programmers may write software for a specific job or modify existing packaged software to meet an organization ’s needs. duplicate conditions onboard an aircraft for pilots training in a flight simulator. Although simple programs can be written in a few hours, programs that use complex mathematical formulas or many data files may require more than a year of work. In most cases, several pro grammers may work together as a team under a senior programmer's supervision. Programmers often are grouped into two broad types: Applica tions programmers and systems programmers. Applications pro grammers usually are oriented toward business, engineering, or science. They write software to handle specific jobs, such as a program used in an inventory control system or one to guide a mis sile after it has been fired. They also may work alone to revise existing packaged software. Systems programmers, on the other hand, maintain the software that controls the operation of an entire computer system. These workers make changes in the sets of in structions that determine how the central processing unit of the system handles the various jobs it has been given and communicates with peripheral equipment, such as terminals, printers, and disk drives. Because of their knowledge of the entire computer system, systems programmers often help applications programmers deter mine the source of problems that may occur with their programs. Working Conditions Programmers generally work in offices in comfortable surroundings. Although they usually work about 40 hours a week, their hours are not always from 9 to 5. Programmers may work longer hours or weekends in order to meet deadlines or fix critical problems that occur during off hours. Because programmers spend long periods of time in front of a computer monitor typing at a keyboard, they are susceptible to eyestrain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems. Employment Computer programmers held about 537,000 jobs in 1994. Program mers are employed in most industries, but the largest concentrations are in data processing service organizations, including firms that write and sell software; firms that provide engineering and manage ment services; manufacturers of computer and office equipment; financial institutions; insurance carriers; educational institutions; and government agencies. Applications programmers work for all types of firms, whereas systems programmers usually work for organiza tions with large computer centers or for firms that manufacture computers or develop software. A growing number of programmers are employed on a temporary or contract basis. Rather than hiring programmers as permanent employees and then laying them off after a job is completed, em Technicians and Related Support Occupations 223 ployers increasingly are contracting with temporary help agencies, consulting firms, or directly with programmers themselves. A mar keting firm, for example, may only require the services of several programmers to write and "debug" the software necessary to get a new database management system running. Such jobs may last from several months to a year or longer. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are no universal training requirements for programmers be cause employers' needs are so varied. Computer applications have become so widespread that computer programming is taught at most public and private vocational schools, community and junior col leges, and universities. However, the level of education and quality of training that employers seek have been rising due to the growth in the number of qualified applicants and the increasing complexity of some programming tasks. Although some programmers obtain 2 year degrees or certificates, bachelor's degrees are now commonly required. In the absence of a degree, substantial specialized experi ence or expertise may be needed. The majority of programmers hold a 4-year degree. Of these, some hold a B.A. or B.S. in computer science or information systems while others have taken special courses in computer programming to supplement their study in fields such as accounting, inventory con trol, or other business areas. College graduates who are interested in changing careers or developing an area of expertise may return to a junior college or technical school for more training. Employers using computers for scientific or engineering applica tions prefer college graduates who have degrees in computer or information science, mathematics, engineering, or the physical sciences. Graduate degrees are required for some jobs. Employers who use computers for business applications prefer to hire people who have had college courses in management information systems (MIS) and business, and who possess strong programming skills. Knowledge of FORTRAN, COBOL, C, Fourth Generation Lan guages (4GL), CASE tools, systems programming, C++, Smalltalk, and other object oriented programming languages is highly desirable. General business skills and experience related to the operations of the firm are preferred by employers as well. Most systems programmers hold a 4-year degree in computer science. Extensive knowledge of a variety of operating systems is essential. This includes being able to configure the operating system to work with different types of hardware, and adapting the operating system to best meet the needs of the particular organization. They also must be able to work with database systems such as DB2, Ora cle, or Sybase, for example. The Institute for Certification of Computing Professionals confers the designation Certified Computing Professional (CCP) to those who have at least 4 years of experience or 2 years of experience and a college degree. To qualify, individuals must pass a core examina tion plus exams in two specialty areas, or an exam in one specialty area and two computing languages. Those with little or no experi ence may be tested for certification as an Associate Computer Pro fessional (ACP). Certification is not mandatory, but it may give a job seeker a competitive advantage. When hiring programmers, employers look for people with the necessary programming skills who can think logically and pay close attention to detail. The job calls for patience, persistence, and the ability to work on exacting analytical work, especially under pres sure. Ingenuity and imagination are also particularly important when programmers design solutions and test their work for potential fail ures. Increasingly, interpersonal skills are important as programmers are expected to work in teams and interact directly with users. The ability to work with abstract concepts and do technical analysis is especially important for systems programmers because they work with the software that controls the computer's operation. Beginning programmers may spend their first weeks on the job attending training classes since each business has its own develop ment methodology, processes, and tools. After this initial instruc https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis tion, they may work alone on simple assignments, or on a team with more experienced programmers. Either way, they generally must spend at least several months working under close supervision. Because of rapidly changing technology, programmers must continu ously update their training by taking courses sponsored by their employer or software vendors. For skilled workers, the prospects for advancement are good. In large organizations, they may be promoted to lead programmer and be given supervisory responsibilities. Some applications program mers may move into systems programming after they gain experience and take courses in systems software. With general business experi ence, both applications programmers and systems programmers may become systems analysts or be promoted to a managerial position. Other programmers, with specialized knowledge and experience with a language or operating system, may work in research and develop ment areas such as multimedia or Internet technology. As employers increasingly contract out programming jobs, more opportunities should arise for experienced programmers with expertise in a specific area to work as consultants. Job Outlook Employment of programmers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Employment is not expected to grow as rapidly as in the past as improved software and programming techniques continue to simplify programming tasks. In addition, greater use of packaged software—such as word processing and spreadsheet packages—should continue to moderate the growth in demand for applications programmers. As the level of technological innovation and sophistication increases, users will be able to design, write, and implement more of their own programs to meet their changing needs. Although the proportion of programmers leaving the occupation each year is smaller than that of most occupations, most of the job openings for programmers will result from replacement needs. The majority of programmers who leave transfer to other occupations, such as manager or systems analyst. Jobs for both systems and applications programmers, however, should remain particularly plentiful in data processing service firms, software houses, and computer consulting businesses. These types of establishments remain part of one of the fastest growing industries—computer and data processing services. As companies look to control costs, those in need of programming services should look to this industry to meet these needs. As computer usage expands, however, the demand for skilled programmers will increase as organizations seek new applications for computers and improvements to the software already in use. Em ployers are increasingly interested in programmers who can combine areas of technical expertise or who are adaptable and able to learn and incorporate new skills. One area of progress will be data com munications. Networking computers so they can communicate with each other is necessary to achieve the greater efficiency that organi zations require to remain competitive. Object-oriented languages will increasingly be used in the years ahead, further enhancing the productivity of programmers. Programmers will be creating and maintaining expert systems and embedding these technologies in more and more products. The number and quality of applicants for programmer jobs have increased, so employers have become more selective. Graduates of 2-year programs in data processing, and people with less than a 2year degree or its equivalent in work experience, are facing espe cially strong competition for programming jobs. Competition for entry-level positions even affects applicants with a bachelor’s degree. Many observers expect opportunities for people without college degrees to diminish in coming years as programming tasks become more complex and more sophisticated skills and experience are demanded by employers. Prospects should be good for college graduates with knowledge of a variety of programming languages, 224 Occuptional Outlook Handbook particularly C++ and other object oriented languages, as well as newer languages that apply to computer networking, data base man agement, and artificial intelligence. In order to remain competitive, college graduates should keep up to date with the latest skills and technologies. Many employers prefer to hire applicants with previous experi ence in the field. Firms also desire programmers who develop a technical specialization in areas such as client/server programming, multimedia technology, graphic user interface, or 4th and 5th gen eration programming tools. Therefore, people who want to become programmers can enhance their chances by combining work experi ence with the appropriate formal training. Students should try to gain experience by participating in a college work-study program, or undertaking an internship. Students also can greatly improve their employment prospects by taking courses such as accounting, man agement, engineering, or science—allied fields in which applications programmers are in demand. With the expansion of client/server environments, employers will continue to look for programmers with strong technical skills, as well as good interpersonal and business skills. Earnings Median earnings of programmers who worked full time in 1994 were about $38,400 a year. The middle 50 percent earned between about $30,000 and $49,200 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $22,000, and the highest 10 percent, more than $60,600. According to Robert Half International Inc., starting salaries in large establishments for 1994 ranged from $29,500 to $36,500 for programmers; $36,000 to $47,000 for programmer analysts; and $44,000 to $54,000 for systems programmers. Starting salaries in small establishments ranged from $25,000 to $34,000 for program mers and from $30,000 to $40,000 for programmer analysts. Programmers working in the West and Northeast earned some what more than those working in the South and Midwest. On aver age, systems programmers earn more than applications programmers. In the Federal Government, the entrance salary for programmers with a college degree or qualifying experience was about $18,700 a year in 1995; for those with a superior academic record, $23,200. Related Occupations Programmers must pay great attention to detail as they write and "debug" programs. Other professional workers who must be detailoriented include statisticians, engineers, financial analysts, account ants, auditors, actuaries, and operations research analysts. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for computer programmers. Also check with your city’s chamber of commerce for information on the area’s largest employers. For information about certification as a computing professional, machinery and other manufactured products to structures such as office buildings or oil and gas pipelines. Their drawings show the technical details of the products and structures from all sides, includ ing exact dimensions, specific materials to be used, and procedures to be followed. Drafters fill in technical details, using drawings, rough sketches, specifications, codes, and calculations previously made by engineers, surveyors, architects, or scientists. For example, they use their knowledge of standardized building techniques to draw in the details of a structure. Some drafters employ a knowledge of engi neering and manufacturing theory and standards to draw the parts of a machine in order to determine the number and kind of fasteners needed to assemble it. They may use technical handbooks, tables, calculators, and computers. Traditionally, drafters sat at drawing boards and used compasses, dividers, protractors, triangles, and other drafting devices to prepare a Many drafters now use computer-aided drawing manually. drafting (CAD) systems to prepare drawings. These systems employ computer work stations to create a drawing on a video screen. They store it electronically so that revisions and/or duplica tions can be made easily. These systems also permit drafters to easily and quickly prepare variations of a design. A person who produces a technical drawing using CAD is still functioning as a drafter, and needs most of the knowledge of traditional drafters as well as CAD skills. Because the cost of CAD systems is dropping rapidly, by the year 2005 it is likely that almost all drafters will use CAD systems regu larly. However, manual drafting probably will still be used in certain applications, especially in specialty firms that produce many one-ofa-kind drawings with little repetition. Many drafters specialize. Architectural drafters draw architec tural and structural features of buildings and other structures. They may specialize by the type of structure, such as schools or office buildings, or by material used, such as reinforced concrete, masonry, steel, or timber. Aeronautical drafters prepare engineering drawings used for the manufacture of aircraft and missiles. Electrical drafters draw wiring and layout diagrams used by workers who erect, install, and repair electrical equipment and wiring in powerplants, electrical distribution systems, and buildings. Electronic drafters draw wiring diagrams, circuit board assembly diagrams, schematics, and layout drawings used in the manufacture, installation, and repair of electronic equipment. Civil drafters prepare drawings and topographical and relief maps used in civil engineering projects such as highways, bridges, pipe lines, flood control projects, and water and sewage systems. contact: ••Institute for the Certification of Computing Professionals, 2200 East Devon Ave., Suite 268, Des Plaines, IL 60018. Further information about computer careers is available from: •"The Association for Computing Machinery, 1515 Broadway, New York, NY 10036. Drafters (DOT 001.261; 002.261;003.131, .261 except-010, .281;005.281; 007 161-010, -014, and -018, .261, and .281; 010.281 except -022; 014.281; 017 except .261-010 and .684; 019.161-010, .261-014; and 726.364-014) Nature of the Work Drafters prepare technical drawings followed by production and construction workers to build everything from spacecraft or industrial https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment of drafters is expected to change little through the year 2005. Technicians and Related Support Occupations 225 Mechanical drafters draw detailed diagrams of machinery and mechanical devices, such as process piping systems, including di mensions, fastening methods, and other engineering information. Working Conditions Drafters usually work in offices with lighting appropriate to their tasks. They often sit at drawing boards or computer terminals for long periods of time doing detailed work, which may cause eyestrain and back discomfort. Employment Drafters held about 304,000 jobs in 1994. Over one-third of all drafters worked in engineering and architectural services, firms that design construction projects or do other engineering work on a contract basis for organizations in other parts of the economy; about one-third worked in durable goods manufacturing industries, such as machinery, electrical equipment, and fabricated metals; and the remainder were mostly employed in the construction, communica tions, utilities, and personnel supply services industries. About 10,000 drafters worked in government in 1994, primarily at the State and local level. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer applicants for drafting positions who have com pleted post-high school training in drafting, which is offered by technical institutes, junior and community colleges, and the extension divisions of colleges and universities. Employers are most interested in applicants who have well-developed drafting and mechanical drawing skills, a knowledge of standards and a solid background in computer-aided design techniques, and courses in mathematics, science, and engineering technology. In addition, communication and problem-solving skills are required. Many types of publicly and privately operated schools provide some form of drafting training. The kind and quality of programs can vary considerably. Therefore, prospective students should be careful in selecting a program. They should contact prospective employers regarding their preferences and ask schools to provide information about the kinds of jobs obtained by graduates, type and condition of instructional facilities and equipment, and faculty quali fications. Technical institutes offer intensive technical training but less theory and general education than junior and community colleges. Many offer 2-year associate degree programs, which are similar to or part of the programs offered by community colleges or State university systems. Other technical institutes are run by private, often for-profit, organizations, sometimes called proprietary schools; their programs vary considerably in both length and type of courses offered. Junior and community colleges offer curriculums similar to those in technical institutes but include more courses on theory and liberal arts. Often there is little or no difference between technical institute and community college programs. However, courses taken at junior or community colleges are more likely to be accepted for credit at 4year colleges than those at technical institutes. After completing a 2year program, many graduates obtain jobs as drafters while others continue their education in a related field at 4-year colleges. Four-year colleges usually do not offer drafting training, but college courses in engineering, architecture, and mathematics are useful for obtaining a job as a drafter. Area vocational-technical schools are postsecondary public institutions that serve local students and emphasize training needed by local employers. Most require a high school diploma or its equivalent for admission. Many offer introductory drafting instruc tion. Other training may be obtained in the Armed Forces in technical areas which can be applied in civilian drafting jobs. Some additional training may be needed, depending on the military specialty, but often this can be gained on the job. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Those planning careers in drafting should be able to draw free hand three-dimensional objects and do detailed work accurately and neatly. Artistic ability is helpful in some specialized fields, as is knowledge of manufacturing and construction methods. In addition, prospective drafters should have good communication skills because they work closely with engineers, surveyors, architects, and other professionals. Both the American Design Drafting Association (ADDA) and the American Institute of Building Design (AIBD) have established certification programs for drafters. Although drafters are not gener ally required to be certified by employers, certification demonstrates that nationally recognized standards have been met. Individuals who wish to become certified must pass the Drafter Certification Test, which is administered periodically at ADDA-authorized test sites. Applicants are tested on their knowledge and understanding of basic drafting concepts such as geometric construction, working drawings, and architectural terms and standards. Entry level or junior drafters usually do routine work under close supervision. After gaining experience, they do more difficult work with less supervision and may advance to senior drafter, designer, or supervisor. Many employers pay for ongoing education, and with appropriate college degrees, drafters may become engineers or architects. Job Outlook Employment of drafters is expected to change little through the year 2005. Industrial growth and increasingly complex design problems associated with new products and manufacturing increase the de mand for drafting services. However, greater use of CAD equipment by architects and engineers, as well as drafters, may offset this growth in demand. Although productivity gains from CAD have been relatively modest since its use became widespread, the technol ogy continues to advance. CAD is expected to become an increas ingly powerful tool, simplifying many traditional drafting tasks and enabling some engineers and architects to do some drafting tasks themselves. Individuals who have at least 2 years of training in a technically strong drafting program and who have experience with CAD systems will have the best opportunities. Although few, if any, jobs will be generated by employment growth, many job openings are expected to arise as drafters move to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Employment of drafters is highly concentrated in industries that are sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy, such as engineering and architectural services and durable goods manufacturing. During recessions, drafters may be laid off. Earnings Median annual earnings of drafters who worked year round, full time were about $28,500 in 1994; the middle 50 percent earned between $21,500 and $38,600 annually. The top 10 percent earned more than $50,200, while the bottom 10 percent earned less than $16,400. According to a survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas, the most experienced drafters had median earnings of about $38,600 a year in 1993, with the middle half earning between about $35,500 and $42,600 a year. Related Occupations Other workers who prepare or analyze detailed drawings and make precise calculations and measurements include architects, landscape architects, engineers, engineering technicians, science technicians, cartographers, and surveyors. Sources of Additional Information Information on schools offering programs in drafting and other areas is available from; •■Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201. 226 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Engineering Technicians (D.O.T. 002.261-014, .262-010; 003.161, .261-010, .362; 005.261; 006.261; 007.161-026 and -030, .167-010, .181 and .267-014; 008.261; 010.261-010 and -026; 011.261-010, -014, -018, and -022, .281, .361; 012.261-014, .267; 013 161- 017 261-010; 017.684; 019.161-014, .261-018, -022, -026, -030, and -034, .267, .281; 194.381, .382-010; 199.261-014; 726.261-010 and -014; 806.281-014; 761.281-014; 828.261-018; and 869.261-026) Nature of the Work Engineering technicians use the principles and theories of science, engineering, and mathematics to solve technical problems in research and development, manufacturing, sales, construction, and customer service. Their jobs are more limited in scope and more practically oriented than those of scientists and engineers. Many engineering technicians assist engineers and scientists, especially in research and development. Others work in production or inspection jobs. Engineering technicians who work in research and development build or set up equipment, prepare and conduct experiments, calcu late or record the results, and help engineers in other ways. Some make prototype versions of newly designed equipment. They also assist in routine design work, often using computer-aided design equipment. Engineering technicians who work in manufacturing follow the general directions of engineers. They may prepare specifications for materials, devise and run tests to ensure product quality, or study ways to improve manufacturing efficiency. They may also supervise production workers to make sure they follow prescribed procedures. Civil engineering technicians help civil engineers plan and build highways, buildings, bridges, dams, wastewater treatment systems, and other structures and perform related surveys and studies. Some inspect water and wastewater treatment systems to ensure that pollu tion control requirements are met. Others estimate construction costs and specify materials to be used. (See statement on cost estimators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Electronics engineering technicians use their knowledge of electronic circuits to help design, develop, and manufacture elec tronic equipment such as radios, radar, sonar, television, industrial and medical measuring or control devices, navigational equipment, and computers. They use measuring and diagnostic devices to test, adjust, and repair equipment. Workers who only repair electrical and electronic equipment are discussed in several other statements else where in the Handbook. Many of these repairers are often called electronics technicians. Job duties for some engineering technicians include testing, calibrating, and repairing electronic equipment. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Industrial engineering technicians study the efficient use of personnel, materials, and machines in factories, stores, repair shops, and offices. They prepare layouts of machinery and equipment, plan the flow of work, make statistical studies, and analyze production costs. Mechanical engineering technicians help engineers design, develop, test, and manufacture machinery, industrial robotics, and other equipment. They may assist in the testing of a guided missile, or in the planning and design of an electric power generation plant. They make sketches and rough layouts, record data, make computa tions, analyze results, and write reports. When planning production, mechanical engineering technicians prepare layouts and drawings of the assembly process and of parts to be manufactured. They estimate labor costs, equipment life, and plant space. Some test and inspect machines and equipment in manufacturing departments or work with engineers to eliminate production problems. Chemical engineering technicians are usually employed in indus tries producing pharmaceuticals, chemicals, and petroleum products, among others. They help design, install, and test or maintain process equipment or computer control instrumentation, monitor quality control in processing plants, and make needed adjustments. Working Conditions Most engineering technicians work regular hours in laboratories, offices, electronics and industrial plants, or construction sites. Some may be exposed to hazards from equipment, chemicals, or toxic materials. Employment Engineering technicians held about 685,000 jobs in 1994. About two-fifths worked in manufacturing, mainly in the electrical and electronic machinery and equipment, industrial machinery and equipment, instruments and related products, and transportation equipment industries. Nearly one-fourth worked in service indus tries, mostly in engineering or business services companies who do engineering work on contract for government, manufacturing, or other organizations. In 1994, the Federal Government employed about 55,000 engi neering technicians. The major employer was the Department of Defense, followed by the Departments of Transportation, Agricul ture, and the Interior, the Tennessee Valley Authority, and the Na tional Aeronautics and Space Administration. State governments employed about 36,000 and local governments about 27,000. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although it is possible to qualify for some engineering technician jobs with no formal training, most employers prefer to hire someone who will require less on-the-job training and supervision. Training is available at technical institutes, junior and community colleges, extension divisions of colleges and universities, public and private vocational-technical schools, and through some technical train ing programs in the Armed Forces. Persons with college courses in science, engineering, and mathematics may also qualify for some positions but may need additional specialized training and experience. Many types of publicly and privately operated schools provide technical training. The kind and quality of programs vary consid erably. Therefore, prospective students should be careful in selecting a program. They should contact prospective employers regarding their preferences and ask schools to provide information about the kinds of jobs obtained by graduates, instructional facilities and equipment, and faculty qualifications. Graduates of programs ac credited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) are generally recognized to have achieved a minimum level of competence in the mathematics, science, and technical courses required for this occupation. Technical institutes offer intensive technical training but less theory and general education than junior and community colleges. Technicians and Related Support Occupations 227 Many offer 2-year associate degree programs, and are similar to or are part of a community college or State university system. Other technical institutes are run by private, often for-profit, organizations, sometimes called proprietary schools; their programs vary consid erably in length and types of courses offered. Some are 2-year associate degree programs. Junior and community colleges offer curriculums similar to those in technical institutes but may include more theory and liberal arts. Often there may be little or no difference between technical institute and community college programs, as both offer associate degrees. After completing the 2-year program, some graduates get jobs as engineering technicians, while others continue their education at 4year colleges. However, there is a difference between an associate degree in pre-engineering and one in engineering technology. Stu dents who enroll in a 2-year pre-engineering program may find it very difficult to find work as an engineering technician should they decide not to enter a 4-year engineering program because pre engineering programs usually focus less on hands-on applications and more on academic preparatory work. Conversely, graduates of 2-year engineering technology programs may not receive credit for many of the courses they have taken if they choose to transfer to a 4year engineering program. Four-year colleges usually do not offer engineering technician training, but college courses in science, engineering, and mathemat ics are useful for obtaining a job as an engineering technician. Many 4-year colleges offer bachelor's degrees in engineering technology, but graduates of these programs are often hired to work as applied engineers, not technicians. Area vocational-technical schools include postsecondary public institutions that serve local students and emphasize training needed by local employers. Most require a high school diploma or its equivalent for admission. Other training in technical areas may be obtained in the Armed Forces. Many military technical training programs are highly re garded by employers. However, skills acquired in military programs often are narrowly focused, so they are not necessarily transferable to civilian industry, which often requires broader training. Therefore, some additional training may be needed, depending on the skills acquired and the kind of job. Prospective engineering technicians should take as many high school science and math courses as possible to prepare for postsec ondary programs in engineering technology. Most ABET-accredited 2-year associate programs require, at a minimum, college algebra and trigonometry, and one or two basic science courses. More math or science may be required depending on the area of specialty. The type of technical courses required varies depending on the area of specialty, as well. For example, prospective mechanical engineering technicians may take courses in fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, and mechanical design; electrical engineering technicians may take classes in electric circuits, microprocessors, and digital electronics; and those preparing to work in environmental engineering technol ogy need courses in environmental regulations and safe handling of hazardous materials. Because many engineering technicians may become involved in design work, creativity is desirable. Good communication skills and the ability to work well with others is also important since they are often part of a team of engineers and other technicians. Engineering technicians usually begin by performing routine duties under the close supervision of an experienced technician, engineer, or scientist. As they gain experience, they are given more difficult assignments with only general supervision. Some engineer ing technicians eventually become supervisors. Job Outlook Employment of engineering technicians is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The output of technical products will continue to grow, and competi tive pressures will force companies to improve and update manufac https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis turing facilities and product designs more rapidly than in the past. However, the growing availability and use of advanced technologies, such as computer-aided design and drafting and computer simulation, is expected to curtail employment growth of engineering technicians. Like engineers, employment of engineering technicians is influ enced by local and national economic conditions. The employment outlook also varies with the area of specialization and industry. Some types of engineering technicians, such as civil engineering and aeronautical engineering technicians, experience greater cyclical fluctuations than others. Technicians whose jobs are defense related may experience fewer opportunities because of defense cutbacks. In addition to growth, nearly as many job openings will be to replace technicians who retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. Earnings According to a survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas, engineering technicians at the most junior level had median earnings of about $16,590 in 1993, with the middle half earning between $14,560 and $19,500 a year. Engineering technicians with more experience and the ability to work with little supervision had median earnings of about $34,530, and those in supervisory or senior level positions earned about $51,060. . In the Federal Government, engineering technicians could start at about $14,900, $16,700, or $18,700 in 1995, depending on their education and experience. Beginning salaries were slightly higher in selected areas of the country where the prevailing local pay level was higher. In 1995, the average annual salary for engineering techni cians in supervisory, nonsupervisory, and management positions in the Federal Government was $38,850; for electronics technicians, $43,540; and for industrial engineering technicians, $41,080. Related Occupations Engineering technicians apply scientific and engineering principles usually acquired in postsecondary programs below the baccalau reate level. Similar occupations include science technicians, drafters, surveyors, broadcast technicians, and health technologists and technicians. Sources of Additional Information A number of engineering technology-related organizations provide information on engineering technician and technology careers. The Junior Engineering Technical Society (JETS), at 1420 King St., Suite 405, Alexandria, VA 22314-2715, serves as a central distribution point for information from most of these organizations. Enclose a self-addressed, business-size envelope with four first class stamps to obtain a sampling of materials available. Library Technicians (D.O.T. 100.367-018) Nature of the Work Library technicians help librarians acquire, prepare, and organize material, and assist users in finding materials and information. Technicians in small libraries handle a wide range of duties; those in large libraries usually specialize. Depending on the employer, library technicians may have other titles, such as library technical assistants. Library technicians assist in the use of public catalogues, direct library users to standard refer ences, organize and maintain periodicals, prepare volumes for bind ing, handle interlibrary loan requests, prepare invoices, perform routine cataloguing and coding of library materials, retrieve infor mation from computer databases, and supervise other support staff. 228 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Employment Library technicians held about 75,000 jobs in 1994. Most worked in school, academic, or public libraries. Some worked in hospitals and religious organizations. The Federal Government, primarily the Department of Defense and the Library of Congress, and State and local governments also employed library technicians. Library technicians use computerized information systems to help users locate reference materials. The widespread use of computerized information storage and retrieval systems has resulted in technicians handling more technical and user services, such as entering catalogue information into the library's computer, that were once performed by librarians. (See the statement on librarians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Technicians may assist with customizing databases. In addition, technicians may instruct patrons how to use computer systems to access data. The increased use of automation has cut down on the amount of clerical work performed by library technicians. Many libraries now offer self-service registration and circulation with computers, decreasing the time that library technicians spend manually recording and inputting records. Some library technicians operate and maintain audiovisual equip ment, such as projectors, tape recorders, and videocassette recorders, and assist library users with microfilm or microfiche readers. They may also design posters, bulletin boards, or displays. Those in school libraries teach students to use the library and media center and encourage them to do so. They also help teachers obtain instructional materials and assist students with special assign ments. Some work in special libraries maintained by government agencies, corporations, law firms, advertising agencies, museums, professional societies, medical centers, and research laboratories, where they conduct literature searches, compile bibliographies, and prepare abstracts, usually on subjects of particular interest to the organization. Working Conditions Technicians who work with users answer questions and provide assistance. Those who prepare library materials sit at desks or com puter terminals for long periods and may develop headaches or eyestrain from working with video display terminals. Some duties like calculating circulation statistics can be repetitive and boring. Others, such as performing computer searches using local and re gional library networks and cooperatives, can be interesting and challenging. Library technicians in school libraries work regular school hours. Those in public libraries and college and university (academic) libraries may work weekends, evenings and some holidays. Library technicians in special libraries usually work normal business hours, although they are often called upon to work overtime. Library technicians usually work under the supervision of a professional librarian, although they may work independently in certain situations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for library technicians vary widely, ranging from a high school diploma to specialized postsecondary training. Some libraries require that technicians have a bachelor's degree. Some employers hire individuals with work experience or other training; others train inexperienced workers on the job. Given the widespread use of automation in libraries, computer skills are needed for many jobs. Knowledge of databases, library automation systems, on-line library systems, on-line public access systems, and circula tion systems is valuable. Some 2-year colleges offer an associate of arts degree in library technology. Programs include both liberal arts and library-related study. Students learn about library and media organization and operation and how to order, process, catalogue, locate, and circulate library materials, and work with library automation. Libraries and associations offer continuing education courses to keep technicians abreast of new developments in the field. Library technicians usually advance by assuming added respon sibilities. For example, technicians may start at the circulation desk, checking books in and out. After gaining experience, they may be responsible for storing and verifying information. As they ad vance, they may become involved in budget and personnel matters in their department. Some library technicians advance to supervisory positions and are in charge of the day-to-day operation of their department. Job Outlook Employment of library technicians is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Addi tional job openings will result from the need to replace library tech nicians who transfer to other fields or leave the labor force. Willingness to relocate enhances an aspiring library technician's job prospects. The increasing use of library automation may spur job growth among library technicians. Computerized information systems have simplified certain tasks, such as descriptive cataloguing, which can now be handled by technicians instead of librarians. For instance, technicians can now easily retrieve information from a central database and store it in the library's own computer. Although budgetary constraints may dampen employment growth of library technicians in school, public, and college and university libraries, libraries may use technicians to perform some librarian duties in order to stretch shrinking budgets. Growth in the number of profes sional and other workers who use special libraries should result in relatively fast employment growth among library technicians in special libraries. Earnings Salaries for library technicians vary widely, depending on the type of library and geographic location. Salaries of library technicians in the Federal Government averaged $25,100 in 1995. Related Occupations Library technicians perform organizational and administrative duties. Workers in other occupations with similar duties include library clerks, information clerks, record clerks, medical record technicians, and title searchers. Library technicians also assist librarians. Other workers who assist professional workers include museum techni cians, teacher aides, legal assistants, and engineering and science technicians. Technicians and Related Support Occupations 229 Sources of Additional Information Information about a career as a library technician and a directory of schools offering training programs in this field can be obtained from: ••Council on Library/Media Technology, P.O. Box 951, Oxon Hill, MD 20750, For information on training programs for library/media technical assistants, write to: ••American Library Association, Office for Library Personnel Resources, 50 East Huron St., Chicago, IL 60611. Information on schools receiving Federal financial assistance for library training is available from: ••Office of Educational Research and Improvement, Library Programs, Library Development Staff, U.S. Department of Education, 555 New Jersey Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20208-5571. Those interested in a position as a library technician in the Fed eral service should write to: ••Office of Personnel Management, 1900 E St. NW., Washington, DC 20415. Information concerning requirements and application procedures for positions in the Library of Congress may be obtained directly from: •■Personnel Office, Library of Congress, Washington, DC 20540. State library agencies can furnish information on requirements for technicians, and general information about career prospects in the State. Several of these agencies maintain job hotlines which report openings for library technicians. State departments of education can furnish information on re quirements and job opportunities for school library technicians. Paralegals (D.O.T. 119.267-022 and -026) Nature of the Work Not all legal work requires a law degree. Lawyers are often assisted in their work by paralegals or legal assistants. Paralegals perform many of the same tasks as lawyers, except for those tasks considered to be the practice of law. Paralegals work under the direct supervision of lawyers. Al though the lawyers assume responsibility for the legal work, they often delegate many of the tasks they perform to paralegals. Parale gals are prohibited from setting legal fees, giving legal advice, and presenting cases in court. Paralegals generally do the background work for lawyers. To help prepare cases for trial, paralegals investigate the facts of cases ensuring all relevant information is uncovered. Paralegals may conduct legal research to identify the appropriate laws, judicial decisions, legal articles, and other materials that may be relevant to assigned cases. After organizing and analyzing all the information, paralegals may prepare written reports that attorneys use in determin ing how cases should be handled. Should attorneys decide to file lawsuits on behalf of clients, paralegals may help prepare the legal arguments, draft pleadings and motions to be filed with the court, obtain affidavits, and assist the attorneys during trials. Paralegals also keep files of all documents and correspondence important to cases. Besides litigation, paralegals may also work in areas such as bankruptcy, corporate law, criminal law, employee benefits, patent and copyright law, and real estate. They help draft documents such as contracts, mortgages, separation agreements, and trust instruments. They may help prepare tax returns and plan estates. Some paralegals coordinate the activities of the other law office employees and keep the financial records for the office. Paralegals who work for corporations help attorneys with such matters as employee contracts, shareholder agreements, stock option plans, and employee benefit plans. They may help prepare and file annual financial reports, maintain corporate minute books and reso https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis lutions, and help secure loans for the corporation. Paralegals may also review government regulations to ensure the corporation oper ates within the law. The duties of paralegals who work in government vary depending on the agency with whom they are employed. Generally, paralegals in government analyze legal material for internal use, maintain reference files, conduct research for attorneys, collect and analyze evidence for agency hearings, and prepare informative or explanatory material on the law, agency regulations, and agency policy for gen eral use by the agency and the public. Paralegals employed in community legal service projects help the poor, the aged, and others in need of legal assistance. They file forms, conduct research, and prepare documents. When authorized by law, they may represent clients at administrative hearings. Some paralegals, usually those in small and medium-sized law firms, perform a variety of duties. They may research judicial deci sions on improper police arrests or help prepare a mortgage contract. Paralegals must have a general knowledge of the law to perform these duties. Some paralegals employed by large law firms, government agen cies, and corporations, specialize in one aspect of the law, including real estate, estate planning, family law, labor law, litigation, and corporate law. Even within specialties, functions often are broken down further so paralegals may deal with a specific area of the specialty. For example, paralegals specializing in labor law may deal exclusively with employee benefits. A growing number of paralegals use computers in their work. Computer software packages and on-line legal research are increas ingly used to search legal literature stored in computer databases and on CD-ROM. In litigation that involves many supporting documents, paralegals may use computers to organize and index the material. They may also use computer software packages to perform tax computations and explore the consequences of possible tax strategies for clients. Working Conditions Paralegals do most of their work at desks in offices and law libraries. Occasionally, they travel to gather information and perform other duties. Paralegals investigate the facts of cases to make sure all relevant information is uncovered. 230 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Paralegals employed by corporations and government work a standard 40-hour week. Although most paralegals work year round, some are temporarily employed during busy times of the year, then released when the workload diminishes. Paralegals who work for law firms sometimes work very long hours and when they are under pressure to meet deadlines. Some law firms reward such loyalty with bonuses and additional time off. Paralegals handle many routine assignments, particularly when they are inexperienced. Some find that these assignments offer little challenge and become frustrated with their duties. However, parale gals usually assume more responsible and varied tasks as they gain experience. Furthermore, as new laws and judicial interpretations emerge, paralegals are exposed to many new legal problems that make their work more interesting and challenging. Employment Paralegals held about 111,000 jobs in 1994. Private law firms em ployed the vast majority; most of the remainder worked for the various levels of government. Paralegals are found in nearly every Federal Government agency; the Departments of Justice, Treasury, Interior, and Health and Human Services, and the General Services Administration are the largest employers. State and local govern ments and publicly funded legal service projects employ paralegals as well. Banks, real estate development companies, and insurance companies also employ small numbers of paralegals. Some parale gals own their own businesses; as freelance legal assistants they contract their services to attorneys or corporate legal departments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are several ways to enter the paralegal profession. Employers generally require formal paralegal training; several types of training programs are acceptable. Increasingly employers prefer to hire either graduates of 4-year paralegal programs, or persons with bachelor's degrees who have earned paralegal certificates through short-term programs after graduation. However, some employers prefer to train their paralegals on the job, promoting experienced legal secretaries or hiring college graduates with no legal experience. Other entrants have experience in a technical field that is useful to law firms, such as a background in tax preparation for tax and estate practice or nursing or health administration for personal injury practice. Over 800 formal paralegal training programs are offered by 4year colleges and universities, law schools, community and junior colleges, business schools, and proprietary schools. In 1995, about 200 programs had been approved by the American Bar Association (ABA). Although this approval is neither required nor sought by many programs, graduation from an ABA-approved program can enhance one's employment opportunities. The requirements for admission to formal training programs vary widely. Some require some college courses or a bachelor's degree. Others accept high school graduates or those with legal experience. A few schools require standardized tests and personal interviews. Some paralegal programs are completed in 2 years, while others take as long as 4 years and award a bachelor's degree upon comple tion. Certificate programs take only a few months to complete, but require a bachelor's degree for admission. Programs typically in clude general courses on the law and legal research techniques, in addition to courses covering specialized areas of the law, such as real estate, estate planning and probate, litigation, family law, contracts, and criminal law. Many employers prefer applicants with training in a specialized area of the law. Programs increasingly include courses introducing students to the legal applications of computers. Many paralegal training programs include an internship in which students gain practical experience by working for several months in a law office, corporate legal department, or government agency. Experi ence gained in internships is an asset when seeking a job after graduation. Depending on the program, graduates may receive a certificate, an associate degree, or a bachelor's degree. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The quality of paralegal training programs varies; the better programs generally emphasize job placement. Prospective students should examine the experiences of recent graduates of programs in which they are considering enrolling. Paralegals need not be certified, but the National Association of Legal Assistants has established standards for voluntary certification which require various combinations of education and experience. Paralegals who meet these standards are eligible to take a 2-day examination given each year at several regional testing centers by the Certifying Board of Legal Assistants of the National Association of Legal Assistants. Those who pass this examination may use the designation Certified Legal Assistant (CLA). This designation is a sign of competence in the field and may enhance employment and advancement opportunities. The Paralegal Advanced Competency Exam, administered through the National Federation of Paralegal Associations to qualified paralegals, offers a similar level of profes sional recognition. Paralegals must be able to handle legal problems logically and communicate, both orally and in writing, their findings and opinions to their supervising attorney. They must understand legal terminol ogy and have good research and investigative skills. Familiarity with the operation and applications of computers in legal research and litigation support is increasingly important. Paralegals must always stay abreast of new developments in the law that affect their area of practice. Because paralegals often deal with the public, they must be courteous and uphold the high ethical standards of the legal profes sion. A few States and the National Federation of Paralegal Asso ciations have established ethical guidelines which paralegals must follow. Experienced paralegals usually are given progressively more responsibilities and less supervision. In large law firms, corporate legal departments, and government agencies, experienced paralegals may supervise other paralegals and clerical staff and delegate work assigned by the attorneys. Advancement opportunities include promotion to managerial and other law-related positions within the firm or corporate legal department. However, some paralegals find it easier to move to another law firm when seeking increased respon sibility or advancement. Job Outlook Employment of paralegals is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Job opportunities are expected to expand as more employers become aware that para legals are able to do many legal tasks for lower salaries than lawyers. Both law firms and other employers with legal staffs should continue to emphasize hiring paralegals so that the cost, availability, and efficiency of legal services can be improved. New jobs created by rapid employment growth will create most of the job openings for paralegals in the future. Other job openings will arise as people leave the occupation. Although the number of job openings for paralegals is expected to increase significantly through the year 2005, so will the number of people pursuing this career. Thus, keen competition for jobs should continue as the growing number of graduates from paralegal education programs keeps pace with employment growth. Still, job prospects are expected to be favorable for persons with bachelor's degrees who graduate from well regarded paralegal training programs. Private law firms will continue to be the largest employers of paralegals as a growing population demands additional legal services. The growth of prepaid legal plans should also contribute to the demand for the services of law firms. A growing array of other organizations, such as corporate legal departments, insurance com panies, real estate and title insurance firms, and banks will also hire paralegals. Job opportunities for paralegals will expand even in the public sector. Community legal service programs—which provide assis tance to the poor, aged, minorities, and middle-income families— Technicians and Related Support Occupations 231 operate on limited budgets. They will seek to employ additional paralegals in order to minimize expenses and serve the most people. Federal, State, and local government agencies, consumer organiza tions, and the courts should continue to hire paralegals in increasing numbers. To a limited extent, paralegal jobs are affected by the business cycle. During recessions, demand declines for some discretionary legal services, such as planning estates, drafting wills, and handling real estate transactions. Corporations are less inclined to initiate litigation when falling sales and profits lead to fiscal belt tightening. As a result, full-time paralegals employed in offices adversely af fected by a recession may be laid off or have their work hours re duced. On the other hand, during recessions, corporations and individuals are more likely to face other legal problems, such as bankruptcies, foreclosures, and divorces, that require legal assistance. Furthermore, the continuous emergence of new laws and judicial interpretations of existing ones creates new business for lawyers and paralegals without regard to the business cycle. Earnings Earnings of paralegals vary greatly. Salaries depend on the educa tion, training, and experience the paralegal brings to the job, the type and size of employer, and the geographic location of the job. Gen erally, paralegals who work for large law firms or in large metropoli tan areas earn more than those who work for smaller firms or in less populated regions. Paralegals had an average annual salary of about $31,700 in 1993, according to a compensation survey by Kenneth Leventhal & Com pany for the National Federation of Paralegal Associations. Starting salaries of entry-level paralegals ranged from a low of $14,000 to a high of $32,000 an year, according to the same survey. In addition to a salary, many paralegals received an annual bonus, which averaged more than $1,600 in 1993. Employers of the majority of paralegals provided life and health insurance benefits and contributed to a retirement plan on their behalf. Paralegal Specialists hired by the Federal Government in 1994 started at about $20,000 or $25,200 a year, depending on their train ing and experience. The average annual salary of paralegals who worked for the Federal Government in 1995 was about $39,800. Related Occupations Several other occupations also call for a specialized understanding of the law and the legal system but do not require the extensive training of a lawyer. Some of these are abstractors, claim examiners, compli ance and enforcement inspectors, occupational safety and health workers, patent agents, police officers, and title examiners. Sources of Additional Information General information on a career as a paralegal and the Guide for Legal Assistant Education Programs by the American Bar Associa tion may be purchased for $7.50 from: •"Standing Committee on Legal Assistants, American Bar Association, 750 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60611. For information on certification of paralegals, schools that offer training programs in a specific State, and standards and guidelines for paralegals, contact: •"National Association of Legal Assistants, Inc., 1516 South Boston Si., Suite 200, Tulsa, OK 74119. Information on a career as a paralegal, schools that offer training programs, the Paralegal Advanced Competency Exam, and local paralegal associations can be obtained from: •■National Federation of Paralegal Associations, P.O. Box 33108, Kansas City, MO 64114; or on the internet http://www.paralegals.org. Information on paralegal training programs, including the pam phlet "How to Choose a Paralegal Education Program" may be https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis obtained from: •■American Association for Paralegal Education, P.O. Box 40244, Overland Park, KS 66204; (913) 381-4458. Science Technicians (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 478.) Nature of the Work Science technicians use the principles and theories of science and mathematics to solve problems in research and development and to help invent and improve products. Their jobs are more practically oriented than those of scientists. Technicians set up, operate, and maintain laboratory instruments, monitor experiments, make obser vations, calculate and record results, and often develop conclusions. Those who work in production test products for proper proportions of ingredients or for strength and durability. In recent years, as laboratory instrumentation and procedures have become more complex, the role of science technicians in research and development has expanded. In addition to performing routine tasks under the direction of scientists, many technicians also develop and adapt laboratory procedures to achieve the best results, interpret data, and devise solutions to problems. The increasing use of robot ics to perform many routine tasks formerly done by technicians has freed technicians to operate other, more sophisticated laboratory equipment. Science technicians make extensive use of computers, computer-interfaced equipment, robotics, and high-technology indus trial applications such as biological engineering. Agricultural technicians work with agricultural scientists in food and fiber research, production, and processing. Some conduct tests and experiments to improve the yield and quality of crops or to increase the resistance of plants and animals to disease, insects, or other hazards. Other agricultural technicians do animal breeding and nutrition work. Biological technicians work with biologists, studying living organisms. They may assist scientists who conduct medical research, helping to find a cure for cancer or AIDS, for example. Those who work in pharmaceutical companies help develop and manufacture medicinal and pharmaceutical preparations. Biological technicians also analyze organic substances such as blood, food, and drugs, and some examine evidence in criminal investigations. Biological tech nicians working in biotechnology labs use the knowledge and tech niques gained from basic research by scientists, including gene splicing and recombinant DNA, and apply these techniques in prod uct development. Chemical technicians work with chemists and chemical engi neers, developing and using chemicals and related products and equipment. Most do research and development, testing, or other laboratory work. For example, they might test packaging for design, materials, and environmental acceptability; assemble and operate new equipment to develop new products; monitor product quality; or develop new production techniques. Some chemical technicians collect and analyze samples of air and water to monitor pollution levels. Those who focus on basic research might produce com pounds through complex organic synthesis. Nuclear technicians operate nuclear test and research equipment, monitor radiation, and assist nuclear engineers and physicists in research. Some also operate remote control equipment to manipulate radioactive materials or materials to be exposed to radioactivity. Petroleum technicians measure and record physical and geologic conditions in oil or gas wells using instruments lowered into wells or by analysis of the mud from wells. In oil and gas exploration, they collect and examine geological data or test geological samples to determine petroleum and mineral content. Some petroleum techni- 232 Occuptional Outlook Handbook dans, called scouts, collect information about oil and gas well drill ing operations, geological and geophysical prospecting, and land or lease contracts. Other science technicians collect weather information or assist oceanographers. Working Conditions Science technicians work under a wide variety of conditions. Most work indoors, usually in laboratories, and have regular hours. Some occasionally work irregular hours to monitor experiments that can't be completed during regular working hours. Some, such as agricul tural and petroleum technicians, perform much of their work out doors, sometimes in remote locations, and some may be exposed to hazardous conditions. Chemical technicians sometimes work with toxic chemicals or radioactive isotopes; nuclear technicians may be exposed to radiation; and biological technicians sometimes work with disease-causing organisms or radioactive agents. However, there is little risk if proper safety procedures are followed. Employment Science technicians held about 231,000 jobs in 1994. Over one-third worked in manufacturing, mostly in the chemical industry, but also in the food processing industry. About 15 percent worked in education services and another 15 percent worked in research and testing services. In 1994, the Federal Government employed about 17,500 science technicians, mostly in the Departments of Defense, Agriculture, and Interior. A science technician prepares slides of diseased tissue for study. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are several ways to qualify for a job as a science technician. Most employers prefer applicants who have at least 2 years of spe cialized training. Many junior and community colleges offer associ ate degrees in a specific technology or a more general education in science and mathematics. A number of 2-year associate degree programs are designed to provide easy transfer to a 4-year college or university if desired. Technical institutes generally offer technician training but provide less theory and general education than junior or community colleges. The length of programs at technical institutes varies, although 2-year associate degree programs are common. Some of these schools offer cooperative-education programs, allow ing students the opportunity to work at a local company while attend ing classes in alternate terms. Many science technicians have a bachelor's degree in chemistry or biology, or have at least had several science and math courses in 4-year colleges. Two-year formal training programs that combine the teaching of scientific principles and theory with practical hands-on application in a laboratory setting with up-to-date equipment provide very good preparation for prospective science technicians. Graduates of 4-year bachelor's degree programs in science who have completed intern ships or held summer jobs in laboratories are also well-qualified for science technician positions. Persons interested in careers as science technicians should take as many high school science and math courses as possible. Science courses taken beyond high school, in an associate's or bachelor's program, should be laboratory oriented, with an emphasis on "bench" skills. Because computers and computer-interfaced equipment are often used in research and development laboratories, technicians should have strong computer skills. Communication skills are impor tant, since technicians are often asked to report their finding both verbally and in writing. Technicians should also be able to work well with others since they often are part of a team. Technicians usually begin work as trainees in routine positions under the direct supervision of a scientist or experienced technician. Job candidates whose training or educational background encom passes extensive hands-on experience with a variety of laboratory equipment, including computers and related equipment, usually require a much shorter period of on-the-job training. As they gain experience, they take on more responsibility and carry out assign ments under only general supervision. Some eventually become supervisors. Job Outlook Employment of science technicians is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Con tinued growth of scientific and medical research and development and the production of technical products should spur demand for all science technicians. The growing number of agricultural and me dicinal products developed using biotechnology techniques will increase the need for biological technicians in particular. Employ ment growth will also be fueled by the demand for science techni cians to work in environmental research and testing. Technicians will be needed to help regulate waste products, collect air and water samples to measure levels of pollutants, and clean up contaminated sites. However, growth of job openings will be moderated somewhat by an expected slowdown in overall employment growth in the chemical industry, where many chemical technicians are employed. Job opportunities are expected to be very good for graduates of science technician training programs who are well-trained on the equipment currently in use in industrial and government laboratories. As the instrumentation and techniques used in industrial research and development laboratories becomes more complex, employers are seeking well trained individuals with highly developed technical and communication skills. In addition to the projected growth, nearly as many job openings will arise from the need to replace technicians who retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. Technicians and Related Support Occupations 233 Earnings Median annual earnings of science technicians were about $26,900 in 1994; the middle 50 percent earned between $19,600 and $37,300. Ten percent earned less than $14,700, and 10 percent earned over $46,800. At all income levels, chemical technicians earned signifi cantly more than biological technicians. In the Federal Government in 1995, science technicians could start at $14,900, $16,700, or $18,700, depending on their education and experience. Beginning salaries were slightly higher in selected areas of the country where the prevailing local pay level was higher. The average annual salary for biological science technicians in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions employed by the Federal Government in 1995 was $23,790; for mathematical technicians, $26,640; for physical science technicians, $32,490; for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis geodetic technicians, $40,860; for hydrologic technicians, $28,850; and for meteorologic technicians, $36,750. Related Occupations Other technicians who apply scientific principles at a level usually taught in 2-year associate degree programs include engineering technicians, broadcast technicians, drafters, and health technologists and technicians. Some of the work of agricultural and biological technicians is related to that in agriculture and forestry occupations. Sources of Additional Information For information about a career as a chemical technician, contact: •■American Chemical Society, Education Division, Career Publications, 1155 16th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20036. Marketing and Sales Occupations Cashiers (D.O.T. 209.567-014; 211.362-010, .367, .462, .467, .482-010; 249.467; and 294.567) Nature of the Work Supermarkets, department stores, gasoline service stations, movie theaters, restaurants, and many other businesses employ cashiers to register the sale of their merchandise. Most cashiers total bills, receive money, make change, fill out charge forms, and give receipts. Bank tellers, who perform similar duties but work in financial insti tutions, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Although specific job duties vary by employer, cashiers are usually assigned to a register and given a drawer containing a "bank" of money at the beginning of their shifts. They must count their bank to ensure that it contains the correct amount of money and that there is an adequate supply of change. At the end of their shift, they once again count the drawers' contents and compare the totals with sales data. An occasional shortage of small amounts may be overlooked, but repeated shortages are grounds for dismissal in many establishments. In addition to counting the contents of their drawer at the end of their shift, cashiers usually separate charge forms, return slips, cou pons, and any other noncash items. Cashiers also handle returns and exchanges. They must ensure that the merchandise is in good condition and determine where and when it was purchased and the type of payment used. Cashiers traditionally have rung up customers' purchases using a cash register—manually entering the price of each product the con sumer was buying. However, most establishments are now using more sophisticated equipment, such as scanners and computers. In stores with scanners, the cashier passes the product's Universal Product Code over the scanning device, which transmits the code number to a computer. The computer identifies the item and its price. In other establishments, cashiers manually enter a code into a computer, and a description of the item and its price appear on the screen. After entering all items and subtracting the value of any coupons or special discounts, cashiers total the bill and take payment. De pending on the type of establishment, payment may be by cash, check, charge, or increasingly, debit cards. Cashiers must know the store's policies and procedures for accepting each type of payment. For checks and charges, they may have to request additional identifi cation from the customer or call in for an authorization. When the sale is complete, cashiers issue a receipt to the customer and return the appropriate change. They may also wrap or bag the purchase. Depending on the type of establishment, cashiers may have other duties as well. In many supermarkets, for example, they weigh pro duce and bulk food as well as return unwanted items to the shelves. In convenience stores, cashiers may be required to know how to use a variety of machines other than cash registers, and how to furnish money orders. Operating ticket-dispensing machines and answering questions are common duties for cashiers who work at movie theaters and ticket agencies. Counter and rental clerks, who perform many similar duties, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Working Conditions More than one-half of all cashiers are on part-time schedules. Hours 234 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis of work often vary depending on the needs of the employer. Gener ally, cashiers are expected to work weekends, evenings, and holidays to accommodate customers' needs. However, because of this, many employers offer flexible schedules. For example, full-time workers who work on weekends may receive time off during the week. Because the holiday season is the busiest time for most retailers, many employers restrict the use of vacation time from Thanksgiving through the beginning of January. Most cashiers work indoors, usually standing in booths or behind counters. In addition, they are often unable to leave their worksta tions without supervisory approval since they are responsible for large sums of money. The work of cashiers can be very repetitious but improvements in machine design are being made to combat problems caused by repetitive motion. Employment Cashiers held about 3,005,000 jobs in 1994. Although employed in nearly every industry, more than one-third of all jobs were in super markets and other food stores. Department stores, gasoline service stations, drug stores, and other retail establishments also employed large numbers of these workers. Because cashiers are needed in businesses and organizations of all types and sizes, job opportunities are found throughout the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Cashier jobs tend to be entry level positions requiring little or no previous work experience. Although there are no specific educa tional requirements, employers filling full-time jobs often prefer applicants with a high school diploma. Nearly all cashiers are trained on the job. In small firms, begin ners are often trained by an experienced worker. The first day is usually spent observing the operation and becoming familiar with the store's equipment, policies, and procedures. After this, trainees are assigned to a register—frequently under the supervision of a more experienced worker. In larger firms, before being placed at a cash register, trainees first spend several days in classes. Topics typically covered include a description of the industry and the company, instruction on the store's policies, procedures, and equipment opera tion, and security. cXsnm«-T Nearly 9 out of 10 cashiers work in retail trade. Marketing and Sales Occupations 235 Training for experienced workers is not common except when new equipment is introduced or when procedures change. In these cases, training is given on the job by the employer or a representative of the equipment manufacturer. Persons who want to become cashiers should be able to do repeti tious work accurately. They also need basic arithmetic skills, good manual dexterity and, because they deal constantly with the public, cashiers should be neat in appearance and be able to deal tactfully and pleasantly with customers. In addition, some firms seek persons who have operated specialized equipment or who have business experience, such as typing, selling, or handling money. Advancement opportunities for cashiers vary. For those working part time, promotion may be to a full-time position. Others advance to head cashier or cash office clerk. In addition, the job offers a good opportunity to learn an employer's business and serves as a steppingstone to a more responsible position. Job Outlook Employment of cashiers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 due to expanding demand for goods and services by a growing population. Although growth will account for numerous openings, most jobs will result from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Workers under the age of 25 traditionally have filled many of the openings in this occupation. Recently, however, more openings are being filled by nontraditional workers, such as elderly and disabled persons. As in the past, re placement needs will create a significant number of job openings, for the occupation is large and turnover is much higher than average. Opportunities for part-time work are expected to continue to be excellent. Earnings Cashiers have earnings ranging from the minimum wage to several times that amount. Wages tend to be higher in areas where there is intense competition for workers. In establishments covered by Fed eral law, those beginning at the minimum wage earned $4.25 an hour in 1994. In some States, the minimum wage in many establishments is governed by State law, and where State minimums are higher, the establishment must pay at least that amount. In 1994, median weekly earnings for full-time cashiers were $228. The middle 50 percent earned between $188 and $303; 10 per cent earned below $153; and 10 percent earned above $421. Benefits for full-time cashiers tend to be better than for those working part time. Cashiers often receive health and life insurance and paid vacations. In addition, those working in retail establish ments often receive discounts on purchases and those in restaurants may receive free or low-cost meals. Related Occupations Cashiers receive payment for the purchase of goods and services. Other workers with similar duties include food counter clerks, bank tellers, counter and rental clerks, postal service clerks, and sales clerks. Counter and Rental Clerks (D.O.T. 216.482-030; 249.362-010; .366-010; 295.357-010, -014 and -018; .367-010, -014, and -026; .467; 299.367-018; 369.367-010 and -014;. 467-010; .477; and .677-010) Nature of the Work Whether renting video tapes, dropping off clothes to be dry-cleaned, or getting appliances serviced, we rely on counter and rental clerks to handle these transactions efficiently. Although specific duties vary by establishment, counter and rental clerks are responsible for an swering questions involving product availability, cost, and rental provisions. They may give other types of advice as well. Counter and rental clerks also take orders, calculate fees, receive payments, and accept returns. (Cashiers and retail sales workers, occupations with similar duties, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Regardless of where they work, counter and rental clerks must be knowledgeable about the company's services, policies, and proce dures. Depending on the type of establishment, counter and rental clerks use their special knowledge to give advice on a wide variety of products and services, which may range from hydraulic tools to shoe repair. For example, in the car rental industry, they inform customers about the features of the different types of automobiles available and their daily and weekly rental costs, ensure that customers meet age or other requirements, and indicate when and in what condition the car must be returned. In dry-cleaning establishments, counter clerks inform customers when items will be ready. When taking orders counter and rental clerks use various types of equipment. In some establishments, they write out tickets and order forms. However, computers and bar code scanners are quickly becoming the norm. Most computer systems are user friendly and usually require very little data entry. Scanners "read" the product code and display a description of the item on a computer screen. Clerks must insure, however, that the data on the screen matches the actual product. Working Conditions Because firms employing counter and rental clerks generally operate at the convenience of their customers, these workers often work night and weekend hours. However, because of this many employers offer flexible schedules. Some counter and rental clerks work a 40-hour week but over one-half are on part-time schedules—usually during rush periods such as weekends, evenings, and holidays. ■.lOTL Sources of Additional Information For information about employment opportunities as a cashier, con tact: •"National Association of Convenience Stores, 1605 King St., Alexandria, VA 22314-2792. •"Service Station Dealers of America, 9420 Annapolis Rd., Suite 307, Lanham, MD 20706. •"United Food and Commercial Workers Union, 1775 K St. NW., Washing ton, DC 20006-1502. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Counter and rental clerks must be aware of the goods and services their company offers. 236 Occupational Outlook Handbook Working conditions are usually pleasant; most stores and service establishments are clean, well-lighted, and temperature controlled. However, clerks are on their feet much of the time and may be confined behind a small counter area. This job requires constant interaction with the public and can be taxing—especially during busy periods. Employment Counter and rental clerks held over 341,000 jobs in 1994. About 1 of every 4 clerks worked for a video tape rental establishment. Other large employers included laundries or dry cleaners, automobile or truck rental firms, equipment rental firms, and miscellaneous enter tainment and recreation establishments. Counter and rental clerks are employed throughout the country but are concentrated in metropolitan areas where personal services and renting and leasing services are in greater demand. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Counter and rental clerk jobs are primarily entry level and require little or no experience and little formal education. However, many employers prefer those with at least a high school diploma for these positions. In most companies, counter and rental clerks are trained on the job, sometimes through the use of video tapes, brochures, and pam phlets. Clerks usually learn how to operate the equipment and be come familiar with the establishment's policies and procedures under the observation of a more experienced worker. However, some employers have formal classroom training programs lasting from a few hours to a few weeks. Topics covered in this training usually include a description of the industry, the company and its policies and procedures, equipment operation, sales techniques, and customer service. Counter and rental clerks must also become familiar with the different products and services rented or provided by their com pany in order to give customers the best possible service. Persons who want to become counter and rental clerks should enjoy working with people and have the ability to deal tactfully with difficult customers. In addition, good oral and written communica tion skills are essential. Advancement opportunities depend on the size and type of com pany. However, jobs as counter and rental clerks offer good oppor tunities for workers to learn about their company’s products and business practices. These jobs can be steppingstones to more re sponsible positions, because it is common in many establishments to promote counter and rental clerks into assistant manager positions. In certain industries, such as equipment repair, counter and rental jobs may be an additional or alternate source of income for workers who are unemployed or entering semi-retirement. For example, a retired mechanic could prove invaluable at a tool rental center be cause of his or her relevant knowledge. Job Outlook Employment in this occupation is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 due to anticipated employment growth in the industries where they are concentrated— video tape rental, laundries and dry cleaners, automotive rentals, amusement and recreation services, and equipment rental and leas ing. Despite this growth, however, most job openings will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occu pations or leave the labor force. Part-time employment opportunities are expected to be plentiful. Earnings Counter and rental clerks typically start at the minimum wage, which, in establishments covered by Federal law, was $4.25 an hour in 1994. In areas where there is intense competition for workers, however, wages are often higher. In addition to their wages, some counter and rental clerks receive commissions based on the number of contracts they complete or services they sell. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Retail counter clerks earned a median weekly income of $266 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $195 and $391 a week. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $157; the top 10 percent earned more than $586. Full-time workers typically receive health and life insurance and paid vacation and sick leave. Benefits for counter and rental clerks who work part time tend to be significantly less than for those who work full time. Many companies offer discounts to both full- and part-time employees on the services they provide. Related Occupations Counter and rental clerks take orders and receive payment for serv ices rendered. Other workers with similar duties include cashiers, retail sales workers, food counter clerks, postal service clerks, and bank tellers. Sources of Additional Information For more information about employment opportunities in the equip ment rental industry contact: •"American Rental Association, 1900 19th St., Moline, IL 61625. Insurance Agents and Brokers (D.O.T. 169.167-050, 239.267-010, and 250.257-010) Nature of the Work Most people have their first contact with an insurance company through an insurance agent or broker. These professionals sell insurance policies to individuals and businesses to provide protection against loss. Insurance agents and brokers help individuals, families, and businesses select the policy that provides the best insurance protection for their lives and health, as well as for their automobiles, jewelry, personal valuables, furniture, household items, businesses, and other properties. Agents and brokers prepare reports, maintain records, and, in the event of a loss, help policyholders settle insur ance claims. Specialists in group policies may help an employer provide employees the opportunity to buy insurance through payroll deductions. Insurance agents may work for one insurance company or as "independent agents" selling for several companies. Insurance brokers do not sell for a particular company, but place insurance policies for their clients with the company that offers the best rate and coverage. Insurance agents sell one or more of several types of insurance: Life, property and casualty, health, disability, and long-term care. Life insurance agents specialize in selling policies that pay benefici aries when a policyholder dies. Depending on the policyholder's circumstances, a whole-life policy can be designed to provide retire ment income, funds for the education of children, or other benefits. Life insurance agents and brokers are sometimes referred to as life underwriters. (See the section on underwriters elsewhere in the Handbook.) Property and casualty insurance agents and brokers sell policies that protect individuals and businesses from financial loss as a result of automobile accidents, fire or theft, tornados and storms, and other events that can damage property. For businesses, property and cas ualty insurance can also cover injured workers' compensation, prod uct liability claims, or medical malpractice payments. Many life and property and casualty insurance agents also sell health insurance policies covering the costs of hospital and medical care, or loss of income due to illness or injury. An increasing number of insurance agents and brokers offer comprehensive financial planning services to their clients, such as retirement planning counseling. As a result, many insurance agents and brokers are also licensed to sell mutual funds, annuities, and Marketing and Sales Occupations 237 An increasing number of agents and brokers offer comprehensive financial planning services to their clients. other securities. (See the section on securities and financial services sales representatives elsewhere in the Handbook.) Since insurance sales agents obtain many new accounts through referrals, it is important that agents maintain regular contact with their clients to ensure their financial needs are being met as personal and business needs change. Developing a satisfied clientele who will recommend an agent's services to other potential customers is a key to success in this field. Working Conditions Most insurance agents and brokers work in small offices, contacting clients and providing insurance policy information. However, most of their time is spent outside their offices, traveling locally to meet with clients and close sales. They generally arrange their own hours of work, and often schedule evening and weekend appointments for the convenience of clients. Although the majority of agents and brokers work no more than 40 hours a week, some work as much as 60 hours a week or even longer. l Employment Insurance agents and brokers held about 418,000 jobs in 1994. About 30 percent of all agents and brokers were self-employed. While most insurance agents specialize in life insurance, a growing number of "multiline agents" offer life, property/casualty, and health and disability policies. The following tabulation shows the percent distribution of wage and salary jobs by industry. Total........................................................................................................... 100 Insurance agents, brokers, and service......................................................... 42 Life insurance carriers.................................................................................. 38 Fire, marine, and casualty insurance carriers............................................... 12 Medical service and health insurance carriers.............................................. 4 Pension funds and miscellaneous insurance carriers.................................... 1 Other industries............................................................................................ 3 Agents and brokers are employed in cities and towns throughout the country, but most work in or near large population centers. Some insurance agents and brokers are employed in the headquarters of insurance companies, but the majority work out of local company offices or independent agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For jobs selling insurance, most companies and independent agencies prefer to hire college graduates—particularly those who have ma jored in business or economics. Some hire high school graduates with potential or proven sales ability or who have been successful in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis other types of work. In fact, most entrants to agent and broker jobs transfer from other occupations. As a result, agents and brokers tend to be older than the entrants of many other occupations. College training may help agents or brokers grasp the technical aspects of insurance policies and the fundamentals and procedures of selling insurance. Many colleges and universities offer courses in insurance, and some schools offer a bachelor's degree in insurance. College courses in finance, mathematics, accounting, economics, business law, government, and business administration enable insur ance agents or brokers to understand how social, marketing, and economic conditions relate to the insurance industry. It is important for insurance agents and brokers to keep up to date with issues concerning clients. Changes in tax laws, government benefit pro grams, and other State and Federal regulations can affect the insur ance needs of clients and how agents conduct business. Courses in psychology, sociology, and public speaking can prove useful in improving sales techniques. In addition, some basic familiarity with computers and popular software packages is very important. The use of computers to provide instantaneous information on a wide variety of financial products has greatly improved agents' and brokers’ efficiency and enabled them to devote more time to clients. Insurance agents and brokers must obtain a license in the States where they plan to sell insurance. By law in most States, licenses are issued only to applicants who complete specified courses and then pass written examinations covering insurance fundamentals and the State insurance laws. Agents and brokers who plan to sell mutual funds and other securities must also obtain a separate securities license. New agents usually receive training in a classroom setting at pre-licensing schools conducted by state insurance agents associa tions or at the home offices of the insurance company. Often they attend company-sponsored classes to prepare for examinations. Others study on their own and accompany experienced agents when they call on prospective clients. As the diversity of financial products sold by insurance agents and brokers increases, employers are placing greater emphasis on continuing professional education. Agents and brokers can hone their practical selling skills and broaden their knowledge of insurance and other financial services and planning by taking courses at col leges and universities and attending institutes, conferences, and seminars sponsored by insurance organizations. In 1995, 43 States had mandatory continuing education requirements focusing on insurance laws, consumer protection, and the technical details of various insurance policies. A number of organizations offer professional designation pro grams which certify expertise in specialties such as life, health, or property and casualty insurance or financial consulting. Although voluntary, professional designation assures clients and employers that an agent has a thorough understanding of the relevant specialty. Many professional societies now require agents to commit to continu ing education in order to retain the designation. Insurance agents and brokers should be enthusiastic, outgoing, self-confident, disciplined, hard working, and able to communicate effectively. They should be able to inspire customer confidence. Some companies give personality tests to prospective employees because personality attributes are important in sales work. Because they usually work without supervision, agents and brokers must be able to plan their time well and have the initiative to locate new clients. An insurance agent who shows sales ability and leadership may become a sales manager in a local office. A few advance to agency superintendent or executive positions. However, many who have built up a good clientele prefer to remain in sales work. Some, particularly in the property/casualty field, establish their own inde pendent agencies or brokerage firms. Job Outlook Employment of insurance agents and brokers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 238 Occupational Outlook Handbook 2005. Most job openings are expected to result from the need to replace agents and brokers who leave the occupation. Many begin ners find it difficult to establish a sufficiently large clientele in this highly competitive business; consequently, many eventually leave for other jobs. Opportunities should be best for ambitious people who enjoy sales work and who develop expertise in a wide range of insurance and financial services. Future demand for agents and brokers depends on the volume of sales of insurance and other financial products. The growing number of working women should increase insurance sales. Rising incomes as well as a concern for financial security should stimulate sales of mutual funds, variable annuities, and other financial products and services. Growing demand for long-term health care and pension benefits for retirees—an increasing proportion of the population— should spur insurance sales. Sales of property and casualty insurance should rise as more people seek coverage not only for their homes, cars, and valuables, but also for expensive, advanced technology products such as home computers. As new businesses emerge and existing firms expand coverage, sales of commercial insurance should increase. In addition, complex types of commercial coverage such as product liability, workers' compensation, employee benefits, and pollution liability insurance are increasingly in demand. Employment of agents and brokers will not keep pace with the rising level of insurance sales. Using computers, agents can access an abundance of information on potential clients, allowing them to save time and money by carefully crafting individually tailored plans. Consequently, agents will be able to handle a greater volume of sales. Many companies and agencies are diversifying their marketing techniques to include some direct mail or telephone sales, as well as other methods. These methods reduce the time agents must spend developing sales leads, allowing them to concentrate on following up on leads. In some cases, clients can purchase policies without a visit from an agent. Also, customer service representatives are increas ingly assuming some sales functions, such as expanding accounts, and, occasionally, generating new accounts. Trends toward multiline agents, self-insurance, and group policies will also contribute to employment rising slower than the volume of insurance sales. In addition, large firms may increasingly hire risk managers to analyze their insurance needs and select the best policies. Most individuals and businesses consider insurance a necessity, regardless of economic conditions. Therefore, agents are not likely to face unemployment because of a recession. Earnings The median annual earnings of salaried insurance sales workers was $31,620 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $22,050 and $46,380 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned $15,500 or less, while the top 10 percent earned over $69,990. Most independent agents are paid on a commission only basis, whereas sales workers who are employees of an agency may be paid in one of three ways: Salary only, salary plus commission, or salary plus bonus. Commissions, however, are the most common form of compensation, especially for experienced agents. The amount of the commission depends on the type and amount of insurance sold, and whether the transaction is a new policy or a renewal. Bonuses are usually awarded when agents meet their sales goals or when an agency's profit goals are met. Some agents involved with finan cial planning receive an hourly fee for their services rather than a commission. Company-paid benefits to sales agents generally include continu ing education, paid licensing training, group insurance plans, and office space and support services. Some may pay for automobile and transportation expenses, attendence at conventions and meetings, promotion and marketing expenses, and retirement plans. Independ ent agents working for insurance agencies receive fewer benefits, but their commissions may be higher to help them pay for promotion and marketing expenses. They are typically responsible for their own travel and automobile expenses, life insurance, and retirement plans. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis In addition, all agents are legally responsible for any mistakes that they make, and independent agents must purchase their own insur ance to cover damages from their errors and omissions. Related Occupations Other workers who sell financial products or services include real estate agents and brokers, securities and financial services sales representatives, financial advisors, estate planning specialists, and manufacturers' sales workers. Sources of Additional Information General occupational information about insurance agents and brokers is available from the home office of many life and casualty insurance companies. Information on State licensing requirements may be obtained from the department of insurance at any State capital. Information about a career as a life insurance agent also is avail able from: ••National Association of Life Underwriters, 1922 F St. NW., Washington, DC 20006. For information about insurance sales careers in independent agencies and brokerages, contact: •"Independent Insurance Agents of America, 127 S. Peyton St., Alexandria, VA 22314. •■National Association of Professional Insurance Agents, 400 N. Washington St., Alexandria, VA 22314. For information about professional designation programs, contact: •-American Society of CLU and ChFC, 270 Bryn Mawr Ave., Bryn Mawr, PA 19010-2195. •■Society of Certified Insurance Counselors, 3630 North Hills Dr., Austin, TX 78731, or call 1-800-633-2165. •■Society of Chartered Property and Casualty Underwriters, 720 Providence Rd., Malvern, PA 19355. Manufacturers' and Wholesale Sales Representatives (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 478.) Nature of the Work Computers, compact discs, and clothing are among the thousands of products bought and sold each day. Manufacturers' and wholesale sales representatives are an important part of the sales process. They market their company's products to manufacturers, wholesale and retail establishments, government agencies, and other institutions. Regardless of the type of product they sell, their primary duties are to interest wholesale and retail buyers and purchasing agents in their merchandise and ensure that any questions or concerns of current clients are addressed. Sales representatives also provide advice to clients on how to increase sales. (Retail sales workers, who sell directly to consumers, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Depending on where they work, sales representatives have differ ent job titles. Many of those working directly for manufacturers are referred to as manufacturers' representatives and those employed by wholesalers generally are called sales representatives. Those selling technical products, for both manufacturers and wholesalers, are usually called industrial sales workers or sales engineers. In addi tion to those employed directly by firms, manufacturers' agents are self-employed sales workers who contract their services to all types of companies. Many of these titles, however, are used interchange ably. Manufacturers' and wholesale sales representatives spend much of their time traveling to and visiting with prospective buyers and current clients. During a sales call, they discuss the customers' needs and suggest how their merchandise or services can meet those needs. Marketing and Sales Occupations 239 They may show samples or catalogs that describe items their com pany stocks and inform customers about prices, availability, and how their products can save money and improve productivity. Because of the vast number of manufacturers and wholesalers selling similar products, they also try to emphasize the unique qualities of the products and services offered by their company. They also take orders and resolve any problems or complaints with the merchandise. Depending on the products they sell, sales representatives may have additional duties. For example, sales engineers, who are among the most highly trained sales workers, typically sell products whose installation and optimal use require a great deal of technical expertise and support—products such as material handling equipment, numeri cal-control machinery, and computer systems. In addition to provid ing information on their firm's products, these workers help prospective and current buyers with technical problems by recom mending improved materials and machinery for a firm's manufactur ing process, drawing up plans of proposed machinery layouts, and estimating cost savings from the use of their equipment. They pres ent this information and negotiate the sale, a process that may take several months. During their presentation, they may use a portable computer so they can have instant access to technical, sales, and other information. Increasingly, sales representatives who lack technical expertise work as a team with a technical expert. In this arrangement, the duties of a sales representative are to make the preliminary contact with customers, introduce the company's product, and close the sale. The technical expert will attend the sales presentation to explain and answer questions and concerns. In this way, the sales representative is able to spend more time maintaining and soliciting accounts and less time acquiring technical knowledge. After the sale, sales repre sentatives may make frequent follow-up visits to ensure that the equipment is functioning properly and may even help train custom ers' employees to operate and maintain new equipment. Those selling consumer goods often suggest how and where their merchandise should be displayed. Working with retailers, they may help arrange promotional programs, store displays, and advertising. Obtaining new accounts is an important part of the job. Sales representatives follow leads suggested by other clients, from adver tisements in trade journals, and from participation in trade shows and conferences. At times, they make unannounced visits to potential clients. In addition, they may spend a lot of time meeting with and entertaining prospective clients during evenings and weekends. Sales representatives also analyze sales statistics, prepare reports, and handle administrative duties, such as filing their expense account reports, scheduling appointments, and making travel plans. They Some manufacturers ’ and wholesale sales representatives travel frequently. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis study literature about new and existing products and monitor the sales, prices, and products of their competitors. In addition to all these duties, manufacturers' agents who operate a sales agency must also manage their business. This requires organ izational skills as well as knowledge of accounting, marketing, and administration. Working Conditions Some manufacturers' and wholesale sales representatives have large territories and do considerable traveling. Because a sales region may cover several States, they may be away from home for several days or weeks at a time. Others work near their "home base" and do most of their traveling by automobile. Due to the nature of the work and the amount of travel, sales representatives typically work more than 40 hours per week. Although the hours are long and often irregular, most sales repre sentatives have the freedom to determine their own schedule. As a result, they may be able to arrange their appointments so that they can have time off when they want it. Dealing with different types of people can be demanding but stimulating. In addition, sales representatives often face competition from representatives of other companies as well as from fellow workers. Companies may set goals or quotas that the representatives are expected to meet. Because their earnings depend upon commis sions, manufacturers' agents are also under the added pressure to maintain and expand their clientele. Employment Manufacturers' and wholesale sales representatives held about 1,503,000 jobs in 1994. Three of every 4 worked in wholesale trade—mostly for distributors of machinery and equipment, groceries and related products, and motor vehicles and parts. Others were employed in manufacturing and mining. Due to the diversity of products and services sold, employment opportunities are available in every part of the country. In addition to those working directly for a firm, many sales repre sentatives are self-employed manufacturers' agents who work for a straight commission based on the value of their sales. However, these workers generally gain experience and recognition with a manu facturer or wholesaler prior to going into business for themselves. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The background needed for sales jobs varies by product line and market. As the number of college graduates has increased and the job requirements have become more technical and analytical, most firms have placed a greater emphasis on a strong educational back ground. Nevertheless, many employers still hire individuals with previous sales experience who do not have a college degree. In fact, for some consumer products, sales ability, personality, and familiar ity with brands are as important as a degree. On the other hand, firms selling industrial products often require a degree in science or engineering in addition to some sales experience. In general, com panies are looking for the best and brightest individuals who display the personality and desire necessary to sell. Many companies have formal training programs for beginning sales representatives that last up to 2 years. However, most busi nesses are accelerating these programs to reduce costs and expedite the return from training. In some programs, trainees rotate among jobs in plants and offices to learn all phases of production, installa tion, and distribution of the product. In others, trainees take formal classroom instruction at the plant, followed by on-the-job training under the supervision of a field sales manager. In some firms, new workers are trained by accompanying more experienced workers on their sales calls. As these workers gain familiarity with the firm’s products and clients, they are given in 240 Occupational Outlook Handbook creasing responsibility until they are eventually assigned their own territory. As businesses experience greater competition, increased pressure is placed upon sales representatives to produce faster. These workers must stay abreast of new merchandise and the changing needs of their customers. They may attend trade shows where new products are displayed or conferences and conventions where they meet with other sales representatives and clients to dis cuss new product developments. In addition, many companies sponsor meetings of their entire sales force where presentations are made on sales performance, product development, and profitability. Manufacturers' and wholesale sales representatives should be goal oriented, persuasive, and able to work both as part of a team and independently. A pleasant personality and appearance, the ability to communicate well with people, and problem-solving skills are important as well. In addition, patience and perseverance are needed because completing a sale can take several months. Because these workers may be on their feet for long periods and may have to carry heavy sample cases, some physical stamina is necessary. Sales rep resentatives should also enjoy traveling because much of their time is spent visiting current and prospective clients. Frequently, promotion takes the form of an assignment to a larger account or territory where commissions are likely to be greater. Experienced sales representatives may move into jobs as sales train ers—workers who train new employees on selling techniques and company policies and procedures. Those who have good sales records and leadership ability may advance to sales supervisor or district manager. In addition to advancement opportunities within a firm, some go into business for themselves as manufacturers' agents. Others find opportunities in buying, purchasing, advertising, or marketing re search. Job Outlook Overall, employment of manufacturers' and wholesale sales represen tatives is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occu pations through the year 2005 due to continued growth in the amount of goods provided which need to be sold. Many job openings will also result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Job opportunities as manufacturers agents should be a little better than those for sales representatives as companies are expected to continue outsourcing their sales duties to these workers rather than using in-house or direct selling personnel because agents are more likely to work in a sales area or territory longer than representatives, creating a better working relationship and understanding how cus tomers operate their businesses. Also, by using agents who usually lend their services to more than one company, companies can share costs with the other companies involved with that agent. Unlike other occupations, technology is not expected to have a dramatic effect on the demand for these workers because sales work ers will still needed to go to the prospective customer in order to demonstrate or illustrate the particulars about the good or service. It is expected, however, to make them more effective and productive since they are allowed to provide accurate and current information to customers during sales presentations. Those interested in this occupation should keep in mind that direct selling opportunities in manufacturing are likely to be best for products with strong demand. Furthermore, jobs will be most plenti ful in small wholesale and manufacturing firms because a growing number of these companies will rely on wholesalers and manufactur ers’ agents to market their products as a way to control their costs and expand their customer base. Employment opportunities and earnings may fluctuate from year to year because safes are affected by changing economic conditions, legislative issues, and consumer preferences. Prospects will be best for those with the appropriate knowledge or technical expertise as well as the personal traits necessary for successful selling. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings Compensation methods vary significantly by the type of firm and product sold. However, most employers use a combination of salary and commission or salary plus bonus. Commissions are usually based on the amount of sales, whereas bonuses may depend on individual performance, on the performance of all sales workers in the group or district, or on the company's performance. Median annual earnings of full-time manufacturers' and wholesale sales representatives were about $32,600 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $22,600 and $48,100 per year. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $15,500; the top 10 percent earned more than $69,200 per year. Earnings vary by experience and the type of goods or services sold. In addition to their earnings, sales representatives are usually reimbursed for expenses such as transportation costs, meals, hotels, and entertaining customers. They often receive benefits such as health and life insurance, a pension plan, vacation and sick leave, personal use of a company car, and "frequent flyer" mileage. Some companies offer incentives such as free vacation trips or gifts for outstanding sales workers. Unlike those working directly for a manufacturer or wholesaler, manufacturers’ agents work strictly on commission. Depending on the type of product they are selling, their experience in the field, and the number of clients, their earnings can be significantly higher or lower than those working in direct sales. In addition, because manu facturers' agents are self-employed, they must pay their own travel and entertainment expenses as well as provide for their own benefits, which can be a significant cost. Related Occupations Manufacturers' and wholesale sales representatives must have sales ability and knowledge of the products they sell. Other occupations that require similar skills are retail, services, real estate, insurance, and securities sales workers, as well as wholesale and retail buyers. Sources of Additional Information Information on manufacturers' agents is available from; •■Manufacturers' Agents National Association, P.O. Box 3467, Laguna Hills, CA 92654-3467. Career and certification information is available from: •"Sales and Marketing Executives International, Suite 977, Statler Office Tower, 1127 Euclid Ave„ Cleveland OH, 44115. ••Manufacturers Representatives Educational Research Foundation, P.O. Box 247, Geneva, IL 60134. Real Estate Agents, Brokers, and Appraisers (D.O.T. 191.267-010 and 250.157-010, .357-010, -014, and -018) Nature of the Work The purchase or sale of a home, or an investment property, is not only one of the most important financial events in peoples' lives, but one of the most complex transactions as well. As a result, people generally seek the help of real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers when buying, selling, or establishing a price for real estate. Real estate agents and brokers have a thorough knowledge of the housing market in their community. They know which neighbor hoods will best fit their clients' needs and budgets. They are familiar with local zoning and tax laws, and know where to obtain financing. Agents and brokers also act as an intermediary in price negotiations between buyer and seller. Brokers are independent business people who, for a fee, sell real estate owned by others and rent and manage properties. In closing Marketing and Sales Occupations 241 sales, brokers often provide buyers with information on loans to finance their purchase. They also arrange for title searches and for meetings between buyers and sellers when details of the transactions are agreed upon and the new owners take possession. A broker's knowledge, resourcefulness, and creativity in arranging financing that is most favorable to the prospective buyer often mean the differ ence between success and failure in closing a sale. In some cases, agents assume the responsibilities in closing sales, but, in many areas, this is done by lawyers or lenders. Brokers also manage their own offices, advertise properties, and handle other business matters. Some combine other types of work, such as the sale of insurance or the practice of law, with their real estate business. Real estate agents generally are independent sales workers who provide their services to a licensed broker on a contract basis. In return, the broker pays the agent a portion of the commission earned from property sold through the firm by the agent. Today, relatively few agents receive salaries as employees of a brokerage or realty firm. Instead, most derive their income solely from commissions. Before showing properties to potential buyers, the broker or agent has an initial meeting with them to get a feeling for the type of home they would like and can afford. Often, an agent or broker uses a computer to generate lists of properties for sale, their location and description, and to identify available sources of financing. Then, they take the clients to see a number of homes that are likely to meet their needs and income. Because buying real estate is such an impor tant part of the average person's life, agents may have to meet several times with a prospective buyer to discuss available properties. In answering questions, agents emphasize those selling points that are likely to be most important to the buyer. To a young family looking at a house, for example, they may point out the convenient floor plan and the fact that quality schools and shopping centers are close by. To a potential investor seeking the tax advantages of owning a rental property, they may point out the proximity to the city and the ease of finding a renter. If bargaining over price becomes necessary, agents must carefully follow their client's instructions and may have to present counteroffers in order to get the best possible price. Once the contract has been signed by both parties, the real estate broker or agent must see to it that all special terms of the contract are met before the closing date. For example, if the seller has agreed to a home inspection or a termite and radon inspection, the agent must make sure that this is done. Also, if the seller has agreed to any repairs, the broker or agent must see to it that they have been made. Increasingly, brokers and agents must handle environmental prob lems or make sure the property they are selling meets environmental regulations. For example, they may be responsible for dealing with problems such as lead paint on the walls. While many details are handled by loan officers, attorneys, or other persons, the agent must check to make sure that they also are completed. There is more to an agent's and broker's job, however, than just making a sale. Because they must have properties to sell, they may spend a significant amount of time obtaining "listings" (owner agreements to place properties for sale with the firm). When listing property for sale, agents and brokers compare the listed property with similar properties that have been sold recently to determine its com petitive market price. Most real estate agents and brokers sell residential property. A few, usually in large firms or small specialized firms, sell commer cial, industrial, agricultural, or other types of real estate. Each spe cialty requires knowledge of that particular type of property and clientele. Selling or leasing business property, for example, requires an understanding of leasing practices, business trends, and location needs. Agents who sell or lease industrial properties must know about transportation, utilities, and labor supply. To sell residential properties, the agent or broker must know the location of schools, religious institutions, shopping facilities, and public transportation, and be familiar with tax rates and insurance coverage. Because real estate transactions involve substantial financial commitments, parties to the transactions may seek the advice of real https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis estate appraisers, who are objective experts who do not have a vested interest in the property. An appraisal is an unbiased estimate of the quality, value, and best use of a specific property. Appraisals may be used by prospective sellers to set a competitive price, by a lending institution to estimate the market value of a property as a condition for a mortgage loan, or by local governments to determine the as sessed value of a property for tax purposes. Many real estate ap praisers are independent fee appraisers or work for real estate appraisal firms while others are employees of banks, savings and loan associations, mortgage companies, government agencies, or multiservice real estate companies. During a property inspection, real estate appraisers investigate the quality of the construction, the overall condition of the property, and its functional design. They gather information on properties by tak ing measurements, interviewing persons familiar with the properties' history, and searching public records of sales, leases, assessments, and other transactions. Appraisers compare the subject property with similar properties for which recent sale prices or rental data are available to arrive at an estimate of value. They may also estimate the current cost of reproducing any structures on the properties and how much the value of existing structures may have depreciated over time. Appraisers must consider the influence of the location of the properties, potential income, current market conditions, and real estate trends or impending changes that could influence the present and future value of the property. Depending on the purpose of the appraisal, they may estimate the market value of the property, the insurable value, the investment value, or other kinds of value. Ap praisers must prepare formal written reports of their findings that meet the standards of The Appraisal Foundation. Real estate appraisers often specialize in certain types of proper ties. Most appraise only homes, but others specialize in appraising apartment or office buildings, shopping centers, or a variety of other types of commercial, industrial, or agricultural properties. Working Conditions Although real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers generally work in offices, much of their time is spent outside the office—showing properties to customers, analyzing properties for sale, meeting with prospective clients, researching the state of the market, inspecting properties for appraisal, and performing a wide range of other duties. Brokers provide office space, but agents generally furnish their own automobiles. Agents, brokers, and appraisers often work more than a standard 40-hour week; nearly 1 of every 4 worked 50 hours or more a week in 1994. They often work evenings and weekends to suit the conven ience of their clients. 29k Real estate appraisers determine the value of industrial plants. 242 Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers held about 374,000 jobs in 1994. Many worked part time, combining their real estate activities with other careers. Most were self-employed, working on a com mission basis. Most real estate and appraisal firms are relatively small; indeed, some are a one-person business. Some large real estate firms have several hundred real estate agents operating out of many branch offices. Many brokers have franchise agreements with national or regional real estate organizations. Under this type of arrangement, the broker pays a fee in exchange for the privilege of using the more widely known name of the parent organization. Although franchised brokers often receive help in training salespeople and in running their offices, they bear the ultimate responsibility for the success or failure of the firm. Real estate is sold and appraised in all areas, but employment is concentrated in large urban areas and in smaller but rapidly growing communities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Real estate agents and brokers must be licensed in every State and in the District of Columbia. All States require prospective agents to be a high school graduate, be at least 18 years old, and pass a written test. The examination—more comprehensive for brokers than for agents—includes questions on basic real estate transactions and on laws affecting the sale of property. Most States require candidates for the general sales license to complete between 30 and 90 hours of classroom instruction, whereas those seeking the broker's license are required to complete between 60 and 90 hours of formal training in addition to a specified amount of experience in selling real estate (generally 1 to 3 years). Some States waive the experience require ments for the broker's license for applicants who have a bachelor's degree in real estate. State licenses generally must be renewed every year or two, usually without reexamination. Many States, however, require continuing education for license renewal. Federal law requires appraisers of most types of real estate (all property being financed by a Federally regulated lender) to be State licensed or certified. In most States, appraisers who are not involved with Federally regulated institutions do not have to be certified. State certification requirements for appraisers must meet Federal standards, but States are free to set more stringent requirements. Formal courses, appraisal experience, and a satisfactory score on an examination are needed to be certified, but college education may be substituted for a portion of the experience requirement in some States. Requirements for licensure vary by State but are somewhat less stringent than for certification. Individuals enter real estate appraisal from a variety of back grounds. Traditionally, persons enter from real estate sales, man agement, and finance positions. However, a growing number of people are entering appraiser jobs directly from college. College courses in real estate, finance and business administration, statistics, computer science, economics, and English are helpful. Many junior and community colleges offer 2-year degrees in real estate or ap praisal. Trainee appraisers usually assist experienced appraisers until they become licensed. Persons who are real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers are older, on average, than those in most other occupations. Many homemakers and retired persons are attracted to real estate sales by the flexible and part-time work schedules characteristic of this field and may enter, leave, and later reenter the occupation, depending on the strength of the real estate market, family responsibilities, or other personal circumstances. In addition to those who are entering or reentering the labor force, some transfer into real estate jobs from a wide range of occupations, including clerical and other sales jobs. As real estate transactions have become more complex, involving complicated legal requirements, many firms have turned to college graduates to fill positions. A large number of agents, brokers, and appraisers have some college training, and the number of college https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis graduates selling real estate has risen substantially in recent years. However, personality traits are fully as important as academic back ground. Brokers look for applicants who possess a pleasant person ality, honesty, and a neat appearance. Maturity, tact, and enthusiasm for the job are required in order to motivate prospective customers in this keenly competitive field. Agents also should be well organized and detail oriented as well as have a good memory for names and faces and business details, such as taxes, zoning codes, and local land-use regulations. Appraisers should have good judgment, writ ing, and math skills. Persons interested in beginning jobs as real estate agents often apply in their own communities, where their knowledge of local neighborhoods is an advantage. The beginner usually learns the practical aspects of the job, including the use of computers to locate or list available properties or identify sources of financing, under the direction of an experienced agent. Many firms offer formal training programs for both beginners and experienced agents. Larger firms generally offer more extensive programs than smaller firms. Over 1,000 universities, colleges, and junior colleges offer courses in real estate. At some, a student can earn an associate or bachelor's degree with a major in real estate; several offer advanced degrees. Many local real estate associations that are members of the National Association of Realtors sponsor courses covering the fundamentals and legal aspects of the field. Advanced courses in appraisal, mortgage financing, property devel opment and management, and other subjects also are available through various affiliates of the National Association of Realtors. Many real estate appraisers voluntarily earn professional designa tions that represent formal recognition of their professional compe tence and achievements. A number of appraisal organizations have programs that, through a combination of experience, professional education, and examinations, lead to the award of such designations. These professional designations are desirable because requirements for them are more stringent than State standards. Advancement opportunities for agents often take the form of higher commission rates and more and bigger sales, both of which increase compensation. This occurs as agents gain knowledge and expertise and become more efficient in closing a greater number of transactions. Experienced agents can advance in many large firms to sales or general manager. Persons who have received their broker's license may open their own offices. Others with experience and training in estimating property value may become real estate apprais ers, and people familiar with operating and maintaining rental prop erties may become property or real estate managers. (See the statement on property and real estate managers elsewhere in the Handbook). Agents, brokers, and appraisers who gain general expe rience in real estate and a thorough knowledge of business conditions and property values in their localities may enter mortgage financing or real estate investment counseling. Job Outlook Employment of real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. However, a large number of job openings will arise due to replacement needs. Each year, tens of thousands of jobs will become available as workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Because turnover is high, real estate sales positions should continue to be relatively easy to obtain. Not everyone is successful in this highly competitive field; many beginners become discouraged by their inability to get listings and to close a sufficient number of sales. Lacking financial sustenance and motivation, they subsequently leave the occupation. Well-trained, ambitious people who enjoy selling should have the best chance for success. Employment growth in this field will stem primarily from in creased demand for home purchases and rental units. Shifts in the age distribution of the population over the next decade or so will result in a large number of persons in the prime working ages (25-54 years old) with careers and family responsibilities. This is the most Marketing and Sales Occupations 243 geographically mobile group in our society and the one that tradi tionally makes most of the home purchases. As their incomes rise, they also may be expected to invest in additional real estate. Increasing use of technology and electronic information may increase the productivity of agents, brokers, and appraisers as the use of computers, faxes, modems, and databases becomes more com monplace. Some real estate companies are using computer generated images to show houses to customers without even leaving the office. These devices enable one agent to serve a greater number of custom ers. Use of this technology may eliminate some of the more mar ginal agents such as those practicing real estate part time or between jobs. These workers will not be able to compete as easily with full time agents who have invested in this technology. Employment of real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers is sensitive to swings in the economy. During periods of declining economic activity and tight credit, the volume of sales and the result ing demand for sales workers may decline. During these periods, the earnings of agents, brokers, and appraisers decline, and many work fewer hours or leave the occupation. Earnings Commissions on sales are the main source of earnings of real estate agents and brokers—few receive a salary. The rate of commission varies according to the type of property and its value; the percentage paid on the sale of farm and commercial properties or unimproved land usually is higher than that paid for selling a home. Commissions may be divided among several agents and brokers. The broker and the agent in the firm who obtained the listing gener ally share their part of the commission when the property is sold; the broker and the agent in the firm who made the sale also generally share their part of the commission. Although an agent's share varies greatly from one firm to another, often it is about half of the total amount received by the firm. The agent who both lists and sells the property maximizes his or her commission. Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers who usually worked full time had median weekly earnings of $593 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $375 and $943. The top 10 percent earned more than $1,447 and the lowest 10 percent earned less than $198. Income usually increases as an agent gains experience, but indi vidual ability, economic conditions, and the type and location of the property also affect earnings. Sales workers who are active in com munity organizations and local real estate associations can broaden their contacts and increase their earnings. A beginner's earnings often are irregular because a few weeks or even months may go by without a sale. Although some brokers allow an agent a drawing account against future earnings, this practice is not usual with new employees. The beginner, therefore, should have enough money to live on for about 6 months or until commissions increase. Related Occupations Selling expensive items such as homes requires maturity, tact, and a sense of responsibility. Other sales workers who find these character traits important in their work include motor vehicle sales workers, securities and financial services sales workers, insurance agents and brokers, travel agents, and manufacturers' representatives. Other appraisers specialize in performing many types of appraisals besides real estate, including aircraft, antiques and fine arts, and business valuations. Sources of Additional Information Details on licensing requirements for real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers are available from most local real estate and appraiser organizations or from the State real estate commission or board. For more information about opportunities in real estate work, contact: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ••National Association of Realtors, 430 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 1L 60611. Information on careers and licensing and certification require ments in real estate appraising is available from: •"Appraisal Institute, 875 North Michigan Ave., Suite 2400, Chicago, IL 60611-1980. •■National Association of Real Estate Appraisers, 8383 East Evans Rd., Scottsdale, AZ 85260. •"American Society of Appraisers, P.O. Box 17265, Washington, DC 20041. (This organization may be called toll free at 1-800-ASA-VALU.) Retail Sales Worker Supervisors and Managers (D.O.T. 185.167-010, -014, -022, -030, -038, and -046; 291.157; 299.137-010 and -026) Nature of the Work In every one of the thousands of retail stores across the country, there is at least one retail sales worker supervisor or manager. Because the retail trade industry provides goods and services directly to custom ers, the retail supervisor or manager is responsible for ensuring that customers receive prompt service and quality goods. They also answer customers' complaints and inquiries. Retail supervisors and managers oversee the work of sales asso ciates, cashiers, customer service workers, stock and inventory clerks, and grocery clerks. (Some of these occupations are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Retail supervisors and managers also are responsible for interviewing, hiring, and training employees, as well as preparing work schedules and assigning workers to their specific duties. (Managers in eating and drinking places are dis cussed in the Handbook statement on restaurant and food service managers.) The responsibilities of retail sales worker supervisors and manag ers vary depending on the size and type of establishment as well as the level of management. As the size of the retail store and the types of goods and services increase, these workers increasingly specialize in one department or one aspect of merchandising. Larger organiza tions tend to have many layers of management. Similar to other industries, supervisory-level retail managers usually report to their mid-level counterparts who, in turn, report to top-level managers. Small stores and stores that carry specialized merchandise typically have fewer levels of management. Supervisory-level retail managers, often known as department managers, provide the day-to-day oversight of individual depart ments such as shoes, cosmetics, or housewares in large department stores, produce and meat in grocery stores, and service and sales in automotive dealerships. Department managers commonly are found in large retail stores. They establish and implement policies, goals, objectives, and procedures for their specific departments; coordinate activities with other department heads; and strive for smooth opera tions within their departments. They supervise employees who price and ticket goods and place them on display; clean and organize shelves, displays, and inventory in stockrooms; and inspect mer chandise to ensure that none is outdated. Department managers also may greet and assist customers and promote sales and good public relations. Department managers also review inventory and sales records, develop merchandising techniques, and coordinate sales promotions. In smaller or independent retail stores, retail sales worker supervi sors and managers not only directly supervise sales associates, but are also responsible for the operation of the entire store. In these instances, they may also be called a store manager. Some are also store owners. 244 Occupational Outlook Handbook ...,. .n Retail sales worker supervisors and managers often work nights and weekends. Working Conditions Most retail sales worker supervisors and managers have offices within the store itself. Although some of their time is spent in the office completing merchandise orders or arranging work schedules, a large portion of a their time is spent on the sales floor. Work hours vary greatly among retail establishments. The work schedule of retail supervisors and managers usually depends on consumers’ needs. Most work around 40 hours a week, but longer hours are common, especially during holidays, busy shopping hours and seasons, sales, and store inventory. They are expected to work evenings and weekends, but usually are compensated by getting a weekday off. Hours can change weekly, and managers sometimes may have to report to work on short notice, especially when many employees are absent. Independent owners can set their own sched ules, but hours must be convenient to their customers. Employment Retail sales worker supervisors and managers who work in retail trade held about 888,000 wage and salary jobs in 1994. In addition, there were thousands of self-employed retail sales managers, mainly store owners. Managers are found in every retail trade industry— grocery stores, department stores, clothing and shoe stores, automo tive dealers, and furniture stores are among the largest industries. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Knowledge of management principles and practices is the essential requirement for a management position in retail trade, and such knowledge usually is acquired through work experience. Many super visors and managers begin their careers on the sales floor as sales clerks, cashiers, or customer service workers. In these positions they learn merchandising, customer service, and the basic policies and procedures of the store. The educational background of retail sales worker supervisors and managers varies widely. Regardless of the education received, busi ness courses including accounting, administration, marketing, man agement, and sales, as well as courses in psychology, sociology, and communication, are helpful. Supervisors and managers also must be computer literate as cash registers and inventory control systems become more computerized. Most supervisors and managers who have postsecondary educa tion hold an associate or a bachelor's degree in liberal arts, social science, business, or management. To gain experience, many post secondary students participate in internship programs which usually are planned between individual schools and retail firms. Once on the job, the type and amount of training available for supervisors and managers varies from store to store. Many national https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis chains have formal training programs for management trainees, which include both classroom and in-store training. Training may last from 1 week to 1 year or more, as many retail organizations require their trainees to gain experience during all shopping seasons. Other retail organizations may not have formal training programs. Classroom training may include such topics as interviewing and customer service skills, and employee and inventory management and scheduling. Management trainees may be placed in one specific department while training on the job, or they may be rotated among several departments to gather a well-rounded knowledge of the store's operation. Training programs in franchises generally are extensive, covering all functions of the operation, including promo tion, marketing, management, finance, purchasing, product prepara tion, human resource management, and compensation. College graduates usually enter management training programs directly. Retail sales worker supervisors and managers must get along with all kinds of people. They need initiative, self-discipline, good judg ment, and decisiveness. Patience and a mild temperament are neces sary when dealing with demanding customers. They also must be able to motivate and organize and direct the work of subordinates and communicate clearly and persuasively with customers and other managers. Individuals who display leadership skills, self-confidence, moti vation, and decisiveness become candidates for promotion to assis tant store manager or store manager. Increasingly, a postsecondary degree is needed for advancement because it is viewed by employers as a sign of motivation and maturity—qualities deemed important for promotion to more responsible positions. In many retail establish ments, managers are promoted from within the company. In small retail establishments, where the number of positions is limited, advancement to a higher management position may come slowly. Larger establishments have more extensive career ladder programs and offer managers the opportunity to transfer to another store in the chain or to the central office if an opening occurs. Promotion may occur more quickly in larger establishments, but relocation every several years may be necessary for advancement. Positions within the central office to which sales supervisors and managers can move include marketing, advertising, and public relations managers, who coordinate marketing plans, monitor sales, and propose advertise ments and promotions, and purchasers and buyers, who purchase goods and supplies for their organization or for resale. (Both occu pations are covered in other Handbook statements.) Some supervisors and managers who have worked in the retail industry for a long time decide to open their own store. However, retail trade is highly competitive, and although many independent retail owners succeed, some fail to cover expenses and eventually go out of business. Retail owners need good business sense and strong customer service and public relations skills. Job Outlook Jobs in retail management vary greatly in earnings, weekly hours, number of employees supervised, and type of goods and services provided. Since most jobs for retail sales worker supervisors and managers do not require postsecondary education, competition is expected for jobs with the most attractive earnings and working conditions. Candidates who have retail experience will have the best opportunities. Overall employment of wage and salary retail sales worker su pervisors and managers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as grocery stores, department stores, automotive dealerships, and other retail estab lishments grow in number and size. Establishment size has been increasing as retailers seek to accommodate consumers' desires for a greater selection of merchandise and one-stop shopping. The spe cialization arising from creation of new departments within exist ing stores and the offering of additional product lines should spur the demand for store-level retail sales worker supervisors and man agers. Marketing and Sales Occupations 245 Projected employment growth of retail managers will mirror, in part, the patterns of employment growth in industries in which they are concentrated. For example, faster than average growth is ex pected in miscellaneous shopping goods stores and in appliance, radio, television, and music stores. Average growth is expected in drug stores and proprietary stores, shoe stores, gasoline service stations, and motor vehicle dealers. On the other hand, slower than average growth is expected in department stores. Unlike middle- and upper-level management positions, store-level retail supervisors and managers generally will not be affected by the restructuring and consolidating that is taking place at the corporate and headquarters level of many retail chain companies. Because retail supervisors and managers comprise a large occu pation, most job openings are expected to occur as experienced supervisors and managers move into higher levels of management, transfer to other occupations, or leave the labor force. Earnings Salaries of retail managers vary substantially, depending upon the level of responsibility, length of service, and type, size, and location of the firm. Supervisors or managers of sales workers in the retail trade industry who usually worked full time had median weekly earnings of $445 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $310 and $623. The top 10 percent earned more than $907 and the lowest 10 percent earned less than $240. According to a survey sponsored by the Association of Conven ience Stores, the average total compensation for assistant store managers in the U.S. and Canada ranged between $13,700 and $16,300 a year in 1994, depending on the size of the organization. Store managers received between $21,900 and $26,300 on average. Compensation systems vary by type of establishment and mer chandise sold. Many managers receive a commission or a combina tion of salary and commission. Under a commission system, retail managers receive a percentage of department or store sales. These systems offer managers the opportunity to significantly increase their earnings, but they may find that their earnings depend on their ability to sell their product and the condition of the economy. Those man agers who sell large amounts of merchandise often are rewarded with bonuses and awards, and receive recognition throughout the store or chain. Retail managers receive typical benefits and, in some cases, stock options. In addition, retail managers generally are able to buy their store's merchandise at a discount. Related Occupations Retail supervisors and managers serve customers, supervise work ers, and direct and coordinate the operations of an establishment. Others with similar responsibilities include managers in wholesale trade, hotels, banks, hospitals, law firms, and a wide range of other industries. Sources of Additional Information Information on employment opportunities for retail managers may be obtained from the employment offices of various retail establish ments, or State employment service offices. General information on management careers in retail establish ments is available from: •■National Retail Federation, 325 Seventh St. NW., Suite 1000, Washington, DC 20004-2802. Information on management careers in grocery stores, and schools offering related programs, is available from: •"Food Marketing Institute, 800 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006-2701. Information about management careers and training programs in the motor vehicle dealers industry is available from: •"National Automobile Dealers Association, 8400 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102-3591. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Information about management careers in convenience stores is available from: •"National Association of Convenience Stores, 1605 King St„ Alexandria, VA 22314. Information about management careers in service stations is available from: •"Service Station Dealers of America, 9420 Annapolis Rd., Suite 307, Lanham, MD 20706. Retail Sales Workers (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See page 478.) Nature of the Work Millions of dollars are spent each day on all types of merchandise— everything from sweaters and cosmetics to lumber and plumbing supplies. Sales workers are employed by many types of retailers to assist customers in the selection and purchase of these items. Whether selling shoes, computer equipment, or automobiles, a sales worker's primary job is to assist customers in finding what they are looking for and to interest them in the merchandise. This may be done by describing the product's features, demonstrating its use, or showing various models and colors. For some jobs, particularly those selling expensive and complex items, special knowledge or skills are needed. For example, workers who sell personal computers must be able to explain to customers the features of various brands and models, the meaning of manufacturers' specifications, and the types of software that are available. In addition to selling, most retail sales workers, especially those who work in department and apparel stores, make out sales checks; receive cash, check, and charge payments; bag or package purchases; and give change and receipts. Depending on the hours they work, they may have to open or close the cash register. This may include counting the money in the cash register; separating charge slips, coupons, and exchange vouchers; and making deposits at the cash office. Sales workers are often held responsible for the contents of their register, and repeated shortages are cause for dismissal in many organizations. (Cashiers, who have similar job duties, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Sales workers also handle returns and exchanges of merchandise, perform gift wrapping services, and keep their work areas neat. In addition, they may help stock shelves or racks, arrange for mailing or delivery of a purchase, mark price tags, take inventory, and prepare displays. Sales workers must be aware of not only the promotions their store is sponsoring, but also those that are being sponsored by com petitors. Also, they often must recognize possible security risks and know how to handle such situations. Consumers often form their impressions of a store by its sales force. The retail industry is very competitive and, increasingly, employers are stressing the importance of providing courteous and efficient service. When a customer wants an item that is not on the sales floor, for example, the sales worker may check the stockroom and, if there are none there, place a special order or call another store to locate the item. To provide better customer service, some firms employ personal shoppers. Some personal shoppers assist consumers in purchasing a particular item. For example, personal shoppers employed in de partment stores can assist customers in updating their wardrobes. Others actually choose the item for the client based on information provided. Those personal shoppers who work in food stores may buy groceries and arrange for their delivery for people confined to their homes. 246 Occupational Outlook Handbook Up*'' Retail sales workers help customers select merchandise. Although most sales workers have many duties and responsibili ties, in jobs selling standardized articles such as food, hardware, linens, and housewares, they often do little more than take payments and wrap purchases. Working Conditions Most sales workers in retail trade work in clean, comfortable, welllighted stores. They often stand for long periods and may need supervisory approval when they want to leave the sales floor. The Monday through Friday, 9 to 5 work week is the exception rather than the rule in retail trade. Most salespersons can expect to work some evening and weekend hours and longer than normal hours may be scheduled during Christmas and other peak periods. In addition, most retailers restrict the use of vacation time from Thanksgiving until early January. This job can be rewarding for those who enjoy working with people. Patience is required, however, when the work is repetitious and the customers demanding. Employment Retail sales workers held about 4,261,000 jobs in 1994. They worked in stores ranging from small specialty shops employing several workers to the giant department store with hundreds of salespersons. In addition, some were self-employed representatives of direct sales companies and mail-order houses. The largest em ployers of retail sales workers, however, are department stores, clothing and accessories stores, motor vehicle dealers, and grocery stores. This occupation offers many opportunities for part-time work and is especially appealing to students, retirees, and others looking to supplement their income. However, most of those selling "big ticket" items, such as cars, furniture, and electronic equipment, work full time and have substantial experience. Because retail stores are found in every city and town, employ ment is distributed geographically in much the same way as the population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There usually are no formal education requirements for this type of work, although a high school diploma or equivalent is increasingly preferred. Employers look for persons who enjoy working with people and have the tact and patience to deal with difficult custom ers. Among other desirable characteristics are an interest in sales work, a neat appearance, and the ability to communicate clearly and effectively. Before hiring, some employers may conduct a back ground check, especially for jobs in selling high-priced items. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis In most small stores, an experienced employee or the proprietor instructs newly hired sales personnel in making out sales checks and operating the cash register. In larger stores, training programs are more formal and usually are conducted over several days. Topics usually discussed are customer service, security, the store's policies and procedures, and how to work the cash register. Depending on the type of product they are selling, they may be given additional specialized training by manufacturers' representatives. For example, those working in cosmetics receive instruction on the types of prod ucts available and for whom they would be most beneficial. Like wise, sales workers employed by motor vehicle dealers may be required to participate in training programs designed to provide information on the technical details of standard and optional equip ment available on new models. As salespersons gain experience and seniority, they usually move to positions of greater responsibility and are given their choice of departments. This often means moving to areas with potentially higher earnings and commissions. The highest earnings potential is usually found in selling big-ticket items. This work often requires the most knowledge of the product and the greatest talent for persuasion. Traditionally, capable sales workers without a college degree could advance to management positions, but today, large retail businesses generally prefer to hire college graduates as management trainees, making a college education increasingly important. Despite this trend, capable employees without a college degree should still be able to advance to administrative or supervisory work in large stores. Opportunities for advancement vary in small stores. In some establishments, advancement opportunities are limited because one person, often the owner, does most of the managerial work. In others, however, some sales workers are promoted to assistant managers. Retail selling experience may be an asset when applying for sales positions with larger retailers or in other industries, such as financial services, wholesale trade, or manufacturing. Job Outlook Employment of retail sales workers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all workers through the year 2005 due to anticipated growth in retail sales. In addition, numerous job open ings will be created as sales workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. As in the past, replacement needs will generate an exceptionally large number of sales jobs because the occupation is large and turnover is much higher than average. There will continue to be many opportunities for part-time workers, and demand will be strong for temporary workers during peak selling periods such as the Christmas season. During economic downturns, sales volume and the resulting demand for sales workers generally decline. Purchases of costly items such as cars, appliances, and furniture tend to be postponed during difficult economic times. In areas of high unemployment, sales of all types of goods may decline. However, since turnover of sales workers is usually very high, employers often can control employment simply by not replacing all those who leave. In some geographic areas, employers face a shortage of qualified applicants. As a result, employers can be expected to improve efforts to attract and retain workers by offering higher wages, more generous benefits, and more flexible schedules. Earnings The starting wage for many part-time retail sales positions is the Federal minimum wage, $4.25 an hour. In some areas where em ployers are having difficulty attracting and retaining workers, wages are much higher than the established minimum. The following tabulation shows 1994 median weekly earnings by class of sales worker. Marketing and Sales Occupations 247 Motor vehicle and boats..............................................................................$534 Furniture and home furnishings....................................................... Radio, television, hi-fi, and appliances...................................................... 401 Parts............................................................................................................ 378 Hardware and building supplies................................................................. 333 Street and door-to-door sales workers........................................................ 323 Shoes........................................................................................................... 280 Apparel....................................................................................................... 265 Compensation systems vary by type of establishment and mer chandise sold. Most sales workers receive an hourly wage. Others receive a commission or a combination of wages and commissions. Under a commission system, salespersons receive a percentage of the sales that they make. These systems offer sales workers the oppor tunity to significantly increase their earnings, but they may find their earnings depend on their ability to sell their product and the ups and downs of the economy. Employers also use incentive programs such as awards, banquets, and profit sharing plans to promote teamwork among the sales staff. Benefits may be limited in smaller stores, but in large establish ments they are usually comparable to those offered by other employ ers. In addition, nearly all sales workers are able to buy their store's merchandise at a discount, with the savings depending upon on the type of merchandise. tives buy and sell securities. If a security is not traded on an ex 427change, the sales representative sends the order to the firm's trading department, where a security trader trades it directly with a dealer in an over-the-counter market, such as the NASDAQ computerized trading system. After the transaction has been completed, the sales representative notifies the customer of the final price. Securities sales representatives also provide many related services for their customers. Depending on a customer's knowledge of the market, they may explain the meaning of stock market terms and trading practices; offer financial counseling; devise an individual financial portfolio for the client including securities, life insurance, corporate and municipal bonds, mutual funds, certificates of deposit, annuities, and other investments; and offer advice on the purchase or sale of particular securities. Not all customers have the same investment goals. Some indi viduals may prefer long-term investments designed either for capital growth or to provide income over the years; others might want to invest in speculative securities that they hope will rise in price quickly. Securities sales representatives furnish information about the advantages and disadvantages of an investment based on each person's objectives. They also supply the latest price quotations on any security in which the investor is interested, as well as informa tion on the activities and financial positions of the corporations issuing these securities. Related Occupations Sales workers use sales techniques coupled with their knowledge of merchandise to assist customers and encourage purchases. These skills are used by people in a number of other occupations, including manufacturers' and wholesale trade sales representatives, service sales representatives, securities and financial services sales represen tatives, counter and rental clerks, real estate sales agents, purchasers and buyers, insurance agents and brokers, and cashiers. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in retail sales may be obtained from the personnel offices of local stores; from State merchants' associations; or from local unions of the United Food and Commercial Workers International Union. General information about retailing is available from: •■National Retail Federation, 325 Seventh St. NW„ Suite 1000, Washington, DC 20004-2802. Information about training for a career in automobile sales is available from: •"National Automobile Dealership Association, 8400 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102-3591. Securities and Financial Services Sales Representatives (D.O.T. 162.167-034 and -038; 250.257-014, -018, and -022.) Nature of the Work Most investors, whether they are individuals with a few hundred dollars to invest or large institutions with millions, use securities sales representatives when buying or selling stocks, bonds, shares in mutual funds, insurance annuities, or other financial products. Securities sales representatives often are called stock brokers, regis tered representatives, or account executives. When an investor wishes to buy or sell securities, sales represen tatives may relay the order through their firms' offices to the floor of a securities exchange, such as the New York Stock Exchange. There, securities sales representatives known as brokers' floor representa https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The growing need for investment advice is expected to create a favorable outlook for securities and financial services sales representatives. 248 Occupational Outlook Handbook Most securities sales representatives serve individual investors, but others specialize in institutional investors. In institutional invest ing, most sales representatives concentrate on a specific financial product such as stocks, bonds, options, annuities, or commodity futures. Some handle the sale of new issues, such as corporate securities issued to finance plant expansion. The most important part of a sales representative's job is finding clients and building a customer base. Thus, beginning securities sales representatives spend much of their time searching for custom ers—relying heavily on telephone solicitation. They may meet some clients through business and social contacts. Many sales representa tives find it useful to get additional exposure by teaching adult education investment courses or by giving lectures at libraries or social clubs. Brokerage firms may give sales representatives lists of people with whom the firm has done business with in the past. Sometimes sales representatives may inherit the clients of represen tatives who have retired. Financial services sales representatives sell banking and related services. They contact potential customers to explain their services and to ascertain the customer's banking and other financial needs. They may discuss services such as deposit accounts, lines of credit, sales or inventory financing, certificates of deposit, cash management, or investment services. They may solicit businesses to participate in consumer credit card programs. At most small and medium-size banks, branch managers and commercial loan officers are responsible for marketing the bank's financial services. As banks offer more and increasingly complex financial services—for example, securities brokerage and financial planning—the job of the financial services sales representative is assuming greater importance. Financial planners develop and implement financial plans for individuals and businesses using their knowledge of tax and invest ment strategies, securities, insurance, pension plans, and real estate. They interview clients to determine their assets, liabilities, cash flow, insurance coverage, tax status, and financial objectives. Then they analyze all this information and develop a financial plan tailored to the clients' needs. Working Conditions Securities sales representatives usually work in offices where there is much activity. They have access to "quote boards" or computer terminals that continually provide information on the prices of secu rities. When sales activity increases, due perhaps to unanticipated changes in the economy, the pace may become very hectic. Established securities sales representatives usually work the same hours as others in the business community. Beginners who are seeking customers may work much longer hours, however. Most securities sales representatives accommodate customers by meeting with them in the evenings or on weekends. Financial services sales representatives normally work in a com fortable, less stressful office environment. They generally work 40 hours a week. They may spend considerable time outside the office meeting with present and prospective clients, attending civic func tions, and participating in trade association meetings. Some financial services sales representatives work exclusively inside banks, provid ing service to "walk-in" customers. Employment Securities and financial services sales representatives held almost 246,000 jobs in 1994. In addition, a substantial number of people in other occupations sold securities. These include partners and branch office managers in securities firms as well as insurance agents and brokers offering securities to their customers. Securities sales representatives are employed by brokerage and investment firms in all parts of the country. Many of these firms are very small. Most sales representatives, however, work for a small number of large firms with main offices in large cities, especially New York. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Financial services sales representatives are employed by banks, savings and loan associations, and other credit institutions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because securities sales representatives must be well informed about economic conditions and trends, a college education is increas ingly important, especially in the larger securities firms. In fact, the overwhelming majority of workers in this occupation are college graduates. Although employers seldom require specialized academic training, courses in business administration, economics, and finance are helpful. Many employers consider personal qualities and skills more important than academic training. Employers seek applicants who have sales ability and good communication skills, are well groomed, and have a strong desire to succeed. Self-confidence and an ability to handle frequent rejections also are important ingredients for success. Because maturity and the ability to work independently also are important, many employers prefer to hire those who have achieved success in other jobs. Some firms prefer candidates with sales expe rience, particularly those who have worked on commission in areas such as real estate or insurance. Therefore, most entrants to this occupation transfer from other jobs. Some begin working as securi ties sales representatives following retirement from other fields. Securities sales representatives must meet State licensing re quirements, which generally include passing an examination and, in some cases, furnishing a personal bond. In addition, sales represen tatives must register as representatives of their firm according to regulations of the securities exchanges where they do business or the National Association of Securities Dealers, Inc. (NASD). Before beginners can qualify as registered representatives, they must pass the General Securities Registered Representative Examination, administered by the NASD, and be an employee of a registered firm for at least 4 months. Most States require a second examination—the Uniform Securities Agents State Law Examination. These tests measure the prospective representative's knowledge of the securities business, customer protection requirements, and recordkeeping procedures. Many take correspondence courses in preparation for the securities examinations. Most employers provide on-the-job training to help securities sales representatives meet the requirements for registration. In most firms, the training period generally takes about 4 months. Trainees in large firms may receive classroom instruction in securities analy sis, effective speaking, and the finer points of selling; take courses offered by business schools and associations; and undergo a period of on-the-job training lasting up to 2 years. Many firms like to rotate their trainees among various departments in the firm to give them a broader perspective of the securities business. In small firms, sales representatives generally receive training in outside institutions and on the job. Securities sales representatives must understand the basic charac teristics of a wide variety of financial products offered by brokerage firms. Representatives periodically take training, through their firms or outside institutions, to keep abreast of new financial products as they are introduced on the market and to improve their sales tech niques. Training in the use of computers is important, as the securi ties sales business is highly automated. The principal form of advancement for securities sales represen tatives is an increase in the number and size of the accounts they handle. Although beginners usually service the accounts of individ ual investors, eventually they may handle very large institutional accounts such as those of banks and pension funds. Some experi enced sales representatives become branch office managers and supervise other sales representatives while continuing to provide services for their own customers. A few representatives advance to top management positions or become partners in their firms. Banks and other credit institutions prefer to hire college graduates for financial services sales jobs. A business administration degree Marketing and Sales Occupations 249 with a specialization in finance or a liberal arts degree including courses in accounting, economics, and marketing serves as excellent preparation for this job. Financial services sales representatives learn through on-the-job training under the supervision of bank officers. Outstanding per formance can lead to promotion to managerial positions. Job Outlook Employment of securities and financial sales representatives is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as economic growth, rising personal incomes, and greater inherited wealth increase the funds available for invest ment. However, employment of financial services sales representa tives is expected to grow somewhat slower than securities sales representatives as more and more people are expected to do their banking from home via their personal computer. More individual investors are expected to purchase common stocks, mutual funds, and other financial products after seeking advice from securities sales representatives regarding the increasing array of investment alternatives. Deregulation has enabled brokerage firms to sell certificates of deposit, offer checking and deposit serv ices through cash management accounts, and sell insurance products such as annuities and life insurance. Growth in the number and size of institutional investors will be strong as more people enroll in pension plans, set up individual retirement accounts, establish trust funds, and contribute to the endowment funds of colleges and other nonprofit institutions. More representatives also will be needed to sell securities issued by new and expanding corporations, by State and local governments financing public improvements, and by for eign governments, whose securities have become attractive to U.S. investors as international trade expands. Investors increasingly rely on the growing number of financial planners to assist them in selecting the proper options among a wide variety of financial alternatives. In addition, demand should increase as banks and credit institutions expand the range of financial services they offer and issue more loans for personal and commercial use. Due to the highly competitive nature of securities sales work, many beginners leave the field because they are unable to establish a sufficient clientele. Once established, however, securities and fi nancial services sales representatives have a very strong attachment to their occupation because of high earnings and the considerable investment in training. The demand for securities sales representatives fluctuates as the economy expands and contracts. Thus, in an economic downturn, the number of persons seeking jobs usually exceeds the number of openings—sometimes by a great deal. Even during periods of rapid economic expansion, however, competition for securities sales training positions—particularly in larger firms—is keen because of potentially high earnings. Job opportunities should be best for mature individuals with successful work experience. Opportunities for inexperienced sales representatives should be best in smaller firms. Earnings In 1994, median annual earnings of securities and financial services sales representatives were $37,300; the middle 50 percent earned between $24,800 and $70,800. Ten percent earned less than $17,600 and 10 percent earned more than $120,700. On average, financial services sales representatives earn considerably less than securities sales representatives. Trainees usually are paid a salary until they meet licensing and registration requirements. After candidates are licensed and regis tered, their earnings depend on commissions from the sale or pur chase of stocks and bonds, life insurance, or other securities for customers. Commission earnings are likely to be high when there is much buying and selling and lower when there is a slump in market activity. Most firms provide sales representatives with a steady https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis income by paying a "draw against commission"—that is, a minimum salary based on the commissions which they can be expected to earn. Securities sales representatives who can provide their clients with the most complete financial services should enjoy the greatest income stability. Financial services sales representatives usually are paid a salary; some receive a bonus if they meet certain established goals. Related Occupations Similar sales jobs requiring specialized knowledge include insurance agents and real estate agents. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities as a securities sales representa tive may be obtained from the personnel departments of individual securities firms. For information about job opportunities for financial services sales representatives in various States, contact State bankers' asso ciations or write directly to a particular bank to inquire about job openings. Services Sales Representatives (D.O.T. 165.157; 236.252; 250.357-022; 251.157, .257, .357; 252.257, .357; 253; 254; 259 except .257-014; 269.357-018; 273.357-014; 279.357-042; and 293 except .137-010 and .357-018) Nature of the Work Services sales representatives sell a wide variety of services. For example, sales representatives for data processing services firms sell complex services such as inventory control, payroll processing, sales analysis, and financial reporting systems. Hotel sales representatives contact government, business, and social groups to solicit convention and conference business. Sales representatives for temporary help services firms locate and acquire clients who will hire the firm's employees. Telephone services sales representatives visit commer cial customers to review their telephone systems, analyze their communications needs, and recommend services, such as installation of additional equipment. Other representatives sell automotive leas ing, public utility, burial, shipping, protective, and management con sulting services. (Information on other sales workers, including insur ance agents and brokers, real estate agents and brokers, securities and financial services sales representatives, retail sales workers, manufac turers' and wholesale sales representatives, and travel agents, appears in other Handbook statements.) Services sales representatives act as industry experts, consultants, and problem solvers when selling their firm's services. The sales representative, in some cases, creates demand for his or her firm's services. A prospective client who is asked to consider buying a particular service may never have used, or even been aware of a need for, that service. For example, wholesalers might be persuaded to order a list of credit ratings for checking their customers' credit prior to making sales, and discover that the list could be used to solicit new business. There are several different categories of services sales jobs. Outside sales representatives call on clients and prospects at their homes or offices. They may have an appointment, or they may prac tice "cold calls," arriving without an appointment. Inside sales rep resentatives work on their employer's premises, assisting individuals interested in the company's services. Telemarketing sales represen tatives sell over the telephone. They make large numbers of calls to prospects, attempting to sell the company's service themselves, or to arrange an appointment between the prospect and an outside sales representative. Some sales representatives deal exclusively with one, or a few, major clients. 250 Occupational Outlook Handbook Despite the diversity of services being sold, the jobs of all serv ices sales representatives have much in common. All sales represen tatives must fully understand and be able to discuss the services their company offers. Also, the procedures they follow are similar. Many sales representatives develop lists of prospective clients through telephone and business directories, asking business associates and customers for leads, and calling on new businesses as they cover their assigned territory. Some services sales representatives acquire clients through inquiries about their company's services. Regardless of how they first meet the client, all services sales representatives must explain how the services being offered can meet the client's needs. This often involves demonstrations of their com pany's services. They answer questions about the nature and cost of the services and try to overcome objections in order to persuade potential customers to purchase the services. If they fail to make a sale on the first visit, they may follow up with more visits, letters, or phone calls. After closing a sale, services sales representatives gen erally follow up to see that the purchase meets the customer's needs, and to determine if additional services can be sold. Because services sales representatives obtain many of their new accounts through referrals, their success hinges on developing a satisfied clientele who will continue to use the services and will recommend them to other potential customers. Like other types of sales jobs, a services sales representative's reputation is crucial to his or her success. Services sales work varies with the kind of service sold. Selling highly technical services, such as communications systems or com puter consulting services, involves complex and lengthy sales nego tiations. In addition, sales of such complex services may require extensive after-sale support. In these situations, sales representatives may operate as part of a team of sales representatives and experts from other departments. Sales representatives receive valuable technical assistance from these experts. For example, those who sell data processing services might work with a systems engineer or computer scientist, and those who sell telephone services might receive technical assistance from a communications consultant. Teams enhance customer service and build strong long-term relation ships with customers, resulting in increased sales. Because of the length of time between the initial contact with a customer and the actual sale, representatives who sell complex technical services generally work with several customers simultane ously. Sales representatives must be well organized and efficient in scheduling their time. Selling less complex services, such as linen supply or exterminating services, generally involves simpler and shorter sales negotiations. A sales representative's job may also vary with the size of the employer. Those working for large companies generally are more Services sales representatives frequently seek new accounts. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis specialized and are assigned a specific territory, a specific line of services, and their own accounts. In smaller companies, sales repre sentatives may have broader responsibilities—administrative, mar keting, or public relations, for example—in addition to their sales duties. A sales representative often services a specific territory. A repre sentative for a company offering services widely used by the general public, such as pest control, generally has numerous clients in a relatively small territory. On the other hand, a sales representative for a more specialized organization, such as a standardized testing service, may need to service several States to acquire an adequate customer base. Working Conditions Working conditions for sales representatives vary. Outside sales representatives responsible for a large territory may spend a great deal of time traveling, sometimes for weeks at a time. Representa tives who cover a small territory may spend time in the office each day keeping records, preparing various documents, and setting up appointments with customers. Inside sales representatives and tele marketers spend all their time in their offices, which can range from bright and cheerful customer showrooms to cramped and noisy rooms. Many outside sales representatives have the flexibility to set their own schedules as long as they meet their company's goals. Selling is stressful work. Sales representatives face competition not only from other companies but also from their fellow sales work ers. Companies generally set sales quotas and have contests with prizes for those who make the most sales. There often is consider able pressure on the sales representative to meet monthly sales quotas. Employment Services sales representatives held over 612,000 wage and salary jobs in 1994. Over half were in firms providing business services, including computer and data processing, advertising, personnel supply, equipment rental and leasing, and mailing, reproduction, and stenographic services. Other sales representatives worked for firms that offer a wide range of other services, as the following tabulation shows. Total (percent)............................................................................................ 100 Business services........................................................................................... 57 Computer and data processing ................................................................. 9 Advertising............................................................................................... 7 Personnel supply....................................................................................... 9 Mailing, reproduction, and stenographic.................................................. 3 Miscellaneous equipment rental and leasing............................................ 3 Other business services............................................................................. 26 Engineering and management services......................................................... 11 Personal services.......................................................................................... 6 Amusement and recreation services............................................................. 5 Automotive repair services........................................................................... 4 Membership organizations............................................................................ 3 Hotels and other lodging places.................................................................... 2 Health services............................................................................................. 2 Education, public and private....................................................................... 2 Other services................................................................................................ 7 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many employers require that services sales representatives have a college degree, but requirements may vary depending on the industry a particular company represents. Employers who market advertising services seek individuals with a college degree in advertising or marketing or a master's degree in business administration; companies that market educational services prefer individuals with an advanced degree in marketing or a related field. Many hotels seek graduates from college hotel administration programs, and companies that sell computer services and telephone systems prefer sales representa Marketing and Sales Occupations 251 tives with a background in computer science or engineering. College courses in business, economics, communications, and marketing are helpful in obtaining other jobs as services sales representatives. Employers may hire sales representatives with a high school diploma if they have a proven sales record. This is particularly true for those who sell nontechnical services, such as linen supply, ex terminating, laundry, or funeral services. Many firms conduct intensive training programs for their sales representatives. A sound training program covers the history of the business, origin, development, and uses of the service, effective prospecting methods, presentation of the service, answering customer objections, creating customer demand, closing a sale, writing an order, company policies, and the use of technical support personnel. Sales representatives also may attend seminars on a wide range of subjects given by outside or in-house training institutions. These sessions acquaint them with new services and products and help them maintain and update their sales techniques, and may include motiva tional or sensitivity training to make sales representatives more effective in dealing with people. They generally receive training in the use of computers and communications technology in order to increase their productivity. Very large companies often prefer to hire sales representatives directly out of college, while smaller companies often prefer to hire individuals with a proven sales record. Smaller companies generally prefer not to incur the expense of providing formal training programs for their sales representatives. In order to be successful, sales representatives should have a pleasant, outgoing personality and good rapport with people. They must be highly motivated, well organized, and efficient. Good grooming and a neat appearance are essential, as are self-confidence, reliability, and the ability to communicate effectively. Sales repre sentatives should be self-starters who have the ability to work under pressure to meet sales goals. Sales representatives who have good sales records and leadership ability may advance to supervisory and managerial positions. Fre quent contact with business people in other firms provides sales workers with leads about job openings, enhancing advancement opportunities. Job Outlook Employment of services sales representatives, as a group, is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 in response to growth of the services industries that em ploy them. However, the projected growth of particular services industries varies. For example, the continued growth in factory and office automation should lead to much faster than average em ployment growth for computer and data processing services sales representatives. Growth will be tempered in some industries due to downsizing of the sales force, as well as the growing use of various technologies, such as voice mail, cellular telephones, and laptop computers, that increase sales workers' productivity. In addition to the jobs generated by this growth, openings will occur each year because of the need to replace sales workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Each year, many sales representatives discover that they are unable to earn enough money and leave the occupation. Turnover generally is higher among representatives who sell nontechnical services, since they have invested less time and effort in specialized training. Be cause of this turnover, job opportunities should be good, especially for those with a college degree and a proven sales record. Earnings In 1994, the median annual income for full-time advertising sales representatives was $28,800, while representatives selling other business services earned $32,900. Earnings of representatives who sold technical services generally were higher than earnings of those who sold nontechnical services. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings of experienced sales representatives depend on perform ance. Successful sales representatives who establish a strong cus tomer base can earn more than managers in their firm. According to Dartnell Corporation's 1994-95 Sales Compensation Survey, the average total cash compensation for entry level sales representatives was $27,800 in business services, $31,600 in educational services, and $24,600 in health services. Sales representatives are paid in a variety of ways. Some get a straight salary; others are paid solely on a commission basis—a percentage of the dollar value of their sales. Most firms use a com bination of salary and commissions. Some services sales representa tives receive a base salary plus incentive pay that can add 25 to 75 percent to the sales representative's base salary. In addition to the same benefits package received by other employees of the firm, outside sales representatives have expense accounts to cover meals and travel, and some drive a company car. Many employers offer bonuses, including vacation trips and prizes, for sales that exceed company quotas. Because sales are affected by changing economic conditions and consumer and business expectations, earnings may fluctuate widely from year to year. Related Occupations Services sales representatives must have sales ability and knowledge of the service they sell. Workers in other occupations that require these skills include real estate agents, insurance agents, securities and financial services sales representatives, retail sales workers, manufac turers' and wholesale sales representatives, and travel agents. Sources of Additional Information For details about employment opportunities for services sales repre sentatives, contact employers who sell services in your area. Travel Agents (D.O.T. 252.152-010) Nature of the Work Constantly changing air fares and schedules, a proliferation of vaca tion packages, and business/pleasure trip combinations can make travel planning frustrating and time consuming. Many people who travel, therefore, turn to travel agents, who assess their needs and make the best possible travel arrangements for them. Depending on the needs of the client, travel agents give advice on destinations, make arrangements for transportation, hotel accom modations, car rentals, tours, and recreation, or plan the right vaca tion package or business/pleasure trip combination. They may also advise on weather conditions, restaurants, and tourist attractions and recreation. For international travel, agents also provide information on customs regulations, required papers (passports, visas, and certifi cates of vaccination), and currency exchange rates. Travel agents consult a variety of published and computer-based sources for information on departure and arrival times, fares, and hotel ratings and accommodations. They may visit hotels, resorts, and restaurants to judge, firsthand, their comfort, cleanliness, and quality of food and service so they can base recommendations on their own travel experiences or those of colleagues or clients. Travel agents also promote their services. They make presenta tions to social and special interest groups, arrange advertising dis plays, and suggest company-sponsored trips to business managers. Depending on the size of the travel agency, an agent may special ize by type of travel, such as leisure or business, or destination, such as Europe or Africa. 252 Occupational Outlook Handbook f . * It is increasingly important for travel agents to have formal or specialized training. Working Conditions Travel agents spend most of their time behind a desk conferring with clients, completing paperwork, contacting airlines and hotels for travel arrangements, and promoting group tours. They may be under a great deal of pressure at times, such as during vacation seasons. Many agents, especially those who are self-employed, frequently work long hours. Employment Travel agents held about 122,000 jobs in 1994 and are found in every part of the country. More than 9 out of 10 salaried agents worked for travel agencies; some worked for membership organizations. About 1 out of 10 agents are self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum requirement for those interested in becoming a travel agent is a high school diploma or equivalent. With technology and computerization having a profound effect on the work of travel agents, however, formal or specialized training is becoming increas ingly important. Many vocational schools offer 6- to 12-week full time travel agent programs, as well as evening and Saturday pro grams. Travel courses are also offered in public adult education programs and in community and 4-year colleges. A few colleges offer bachelor's or master's degrees in travel and tourism. Although few college courses relate directly to the travel industry, a college education is sometimes desired by employers to establish a back ground in areas such as computer science, geography, communica tion, foreign languages, and world history. Courses in accounting and business management also are important, especially for those who expect to manage or start their own travel agencies. Other desirable qualifications include good typing and letter writing skills, and an ability to work with computers. The American Society of Travel Agents (ASTA) offers a corre spondence course that provides a basic understanding of the travel industry. Travel agencies also provide on-the-job training for their employees, a significant part of which consists of computer instruc tion. Computer skills are required by employers to operate airline and centralized reservation systems. Experienced travel agents can take advanced self or group study courses from the Institute of Certified Travel Agents (ICTA) that lead to the designation of Certified Travel Counselor (CTC). The ICTA also offers sales skills development programs and destination specialist programs, which provide a detailed knowledge of the geographic areas of North America, Western Europe, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Rim. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Travel experience is an asset since personal knowledge about a city or foreign country often helps to influence clients' travel plans, as is experience as an airline reservation agent. Selling skills, pa tience, and the ability to gain the confidence of clients also are useful qualities. Some employees start as reservation clerks or receptionists in travel agencies. With experience and some formal training, they can take on greater responsibilities and eventually assume travel agent duties. In agencies with many offices, travel agents may advance to office manager or to other managerial positions. Those who start their own agencies generally have experience in an established agency. They must generally gain formal supplier or corporation approval before they can receive commissions. Suppliers or corporations are organizations of airlines, ship lines, or rail lines. The Airlines Reporting Corporation and the International Airlines Travel Agency Network, for example, are the approving bodies for airlines. To gain approval, an agency must be in operation, be fi nancially sound, and employ at least one experienced manager/travel agent. There are no Federal licensing requirements for travel agents. However, nine States require some form of registration or certifica tion of retail sellers of travel services: California, Florida, Hawaii, Illinois, Iowa, Ohio, Oregon, Rhode Island, and Washington. More information may be obtained by contacting the Office of the Attorney General or Department of Commerce for each State. Job Outlook Employment of travel agents is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Many job open ings will arise as new agencies open and existing agencies expand, but most openings will occur as experienced agents transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Spending on travel is expected to increase significantly through the year 2005. As business activity expands, so will business-related travel. Employment of managerial, professional specialty, and sales representative occupations—those who do most business travel—is projected to grow at least as fast as the average. Also, with rising household incomes, smaller families, and an increasing number of older people who are more likely to travel, more people are expected to travel on vacation—and to do so more frequently—than in the past. In fact, many people take more than one vacation a year. Charter flights and larger, more efficient planes have brought air transportation within the budgets of more people. Also, the easing of Government regulation of air fares and routes has fostered greater competition among airlines, resulting in more affordable service. In addition, American travel agents organize tours for the growing number of foreign visitors. Although most travel agencies now have automated reservation systems, this has not weakened demand for travel agents. Some developments, however, may reduce opportunities for travel agents in the future. The development of on-line computer systems has allowed people with access to such systems to make their own travel arrangements. Suppliers of travel services are in creasingly able to make their services available through less conven tional means, such as electronic ticketing machines and remote ticket printers. Also, airline companies have put a cap on the amount of commissions they will pay to travel agencies. The full impact of these practices on travel agents, though, has yet to be determined. The travel industry generally is sensitive to economic downturns and political crises, when travel plans are likely to be deferred. Therefore, the number of job opportunities fluctuates. Earnings Median annual earnings of travel agents were $21,300 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $16,000 and $28,900 annually. Ten percent earned less than $13,000 and 10 percent earned more than $38,400 annually. Experience, sales ability, and the size and location of the agency determine the salary of a travel agent. Ac Marketing and Sales Occupations 253 cording to a Louis Harris survey, conducted for Travel Weekly Magazine, the 1994 median annual earnings of travel agents on straight salary with less than 1 year experience were $12,990; from 1 to 3 years, $16,481; from 3 to 5 years, $19,491; from 5 to 10 years, $22,122; and more than 10 years, $24,645. Salaried agents usually have standard benefits, such as medical insurance coverage and paid vacations, that self-employed agents must provide for themselves. Among agencies, those focusing on corporate sales pay higher sala ries and provide more extensive benefits, on average, than those who focus on leisure sales. Earnings of travel agents who own their agencies depend mainly on commissions from airlines and other carriers, cruise lines, tour operators, and lodging places. Commissions for domestic travel arrangements, cruises, hotels, sightseeing tours, and car rentals are about 7-10 percent of the total sale; and for international travel, about 11 percent. They may also charge clients a service fee for the time and expense involved in planning a trip. During the first year of business or while awaiting corporation approval, self-employed travel agents generally have low earnings. Their income usually is limited to commissions from hotels, cruises, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and tour operators and to nominal fees for making complicated arrangements. Even established agents have lower profits during economic downturns. When they travel, agents usually get reduced rates for transporta tion and accommodations. Related Occupations Travel agents organize and schedule business, educational, or recrea tional travel or activities. Other workers with similar responsibilities include tour guides, meeting planners, airline reservation agents, rental car agents, and travel counselors. Sources of Additional Information For further information on training opportunities, contact: •"American Society of Travel Agents, Education Department, 1101 King St.. Alexandria, VA 22314. For information on certification qualifications, contact: •"The Institute of Certified Travel Agents, 148 Linden St., P.O. Box 812059, Wellesley, MA 02181-0012, or phone toll free 1-800-542-4282. Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical Adjusters, Investigators, and Collectors (D.O.T. 168.267-014 and -038; 191.167-022; 195.267-010; 203.382-014; 205.367-018, -034 and -046; 209.382-014 and .687-018; 219.362-042, and -050, .367-014, and .482-014; 241.217, .267-014, -018, -030, and -034, .357, 362, .367-010, -014, -022, and -034, and .387; and 249.367-030) Nature of the Work Organizations must deal smoothly and efficiently with a variety of problems to maintain good relations with their customers. Handling complaints, interpreting and explaining policies or regulations, re solving billing disputes, collecting delinquent accounts, and deter mining eligibility for governmental assistance are just a few exam ples. Organizations like insurance companies, department stores, banks, and government social services agencies employ adjusters, investigators, and collectors to act as intermediaries with the public in these situations. The following is a discussion of occupations that make up this group of workers. Claim Representatives. Claim representatives at insurance compa nies investigate claims, negotiate settlements, and authorize pay ments to claimants. When a policyholder files a claim for damage or a loss, the claim adjuster, claim examiner, or claim investigator must initially determine whether the customer's insurance policy covers it and the amount of the loss. Minor claims filed by automobile or homeowner policyholders are usually handled by "inside adjusters" or "telephone adjusters." These workers contact claimants by telephone or by mail to get information on repair costs, medical expenses, or other details the company needs. Many companies centralize this operation in a drive-in claims center, where the cost of repair is determined and a check is issued immediately. More complex cases are referred to an "independent adjuster" or "outside adjuster." Claim adjusters plan and schedule the work required to process a claim. They investigate claims by interviewing the claimant and witnesses, consulting police and hospital records, and inspecting property damage to determine the extent of the com pany's liability. They keep photographs, written or taped statements, or computer files of information obtained from witnesses and prepare reports of their findings. When the policy holder's claim is legiti mate, the claim adjuster negotiates with the claimant and settles the claim. When claims are contested, adjusters may testify in court. Some adjusters work with multiple lines of insurance. Others specialize in claims associated with fire damage, marine loss, auto motive damage, product liability, or workers' compensation. Mate rial damage adjusters inspect automobile damage and use the latest computerized estimating equipment to prepare estimates of the damage. In life and health insurance companies, the counterpart of the claim adjuster is the claim examiner. In property and casualty insur ance companies, the claim examiner may supervise claim adjusters. In both cases, they investigate questionable claims or authorize payment for those exceeding a designated amount. Larger claims are referred to senior examiners. Examiners may check claim applica tions for completeness and accuracy, interview medical specialists, consult policy files to verify information on a claim, or calculate 254 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis benefit payments. They also maintain records of settled claims and prepare reports to be submitted to their company's data processing department. Claim representatives are making greater use of computers to keep records of clients and actions taken in various claims. Most have computer terminals on their desks, and a growing number use portable lap-top computers to enter or access information when they are on assignment outside the office. Insurance Processing Clerks. Policy processing clerks process new insurance policies, modifications to existing policies, and claims. They begin the new policy process by reviewing the insurance appli cation to ensure that all the questions have been answered. After an application has been reviewed by underwriters and the company determines that it will issue a policy, a policy processing clerk pre pares the necessary forms and informs the insurance sales agent of an application's processing status. Policy processing clerks also update existing policies—such as a change in beneficiary, amount of cover age, or type of insurance—and recalculate premiums. They mail correspondence notices regarding changes to the sales agent and to the policyholder. Policy processing clerks maintain files for each _ policyholder, including policies that are to be reinstated or canceled. Claim clerks, also called claim interviewers, obtain information from policyholders regarding claims. Claims may concern a number of things, such as fire damage, personal injury, or an automobile accident. They prepare reports and review insurance claim forms and related documents for completeness. They call or write the insured or other party involved for missing information and update claim files. They may transmit routine claims for payment or advise the claim supervisor if further investigation is needed. Like claim representatives, insurance processing clerks use computers extensively in their work. Most spend a large part of their time creating and updating records at a personal computer or terminal. Adjustment Clerks. Adjustment clerks investigate and resolve customers' complaints about merchandise, service, billing, or credit rating. They may work for banks, department stores, utility compa nies, and other large organizations selling products and services to the public. Sometimes they are called customer service representa tives, customer complaint clerks, or adjustment correspondents. Adjustment clerks examine all pertinent information to determine the validity of a customer's complaint. In a department store, this may mean checking sales slips or warranties, as well as the mer chandise in question. In a bank, it could mean reviewing records and videotapes of automated teller machine transactions. In a utility company, they review meter books, microfilm, computer printouts, and machine accounting records. Regardless of the setting, these clerks get information—in person, by telephone, or through written correspondence—from all parties involved. After an investigation and evaluation of the facts, adjustment clerks report their findings, adjustments, and recommendations. These may include exchanging merchandise, refunding money, crediting customers' accounts, or adjusting customers' bills. Adjust ment clerks also ensure that the appropriate changes are set in motion and follow up on the recommendations to ensure customer satisfac tion. To prevent similar complaints in the future, they may recom Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical 255 mend to management improvements in product, packaging, shipping methods, service, or billing methods and procedures. Adjustment clerks keep records of all relevant matters, using them to prepare reports for their supervisors. Adjustment clerks also respond to inquiries from customers. Clerks frequently can answer these inquiries with a form letter, but other times they must compose a letter themselves. Upon request, adjustment clerks issue duplicate or additional credit cards for banks and department stores. Bill and Account Collectors. Bill and account collectors, some times called collection correspondents, are responsible for ensuring customers pay their overdue accounts. Some are employed by third party collection agencies, while others, known as "inside collectors," work directly for the original creditors, like department stores, hospi tals, or banks. Many companies automatically notify customers by mail if their account is overdue. When customers do not respond, collectors are called on to locate and notify them of the delinquent account, usually over the telephone, sometimes by letter. When customers move without leaving a forwarding address, collectors may check with the post office, telephone companies, credit bureaus, or former neighbors to obtain their new address. This is called "skip-tracing." Once collectors find the debtor, they inform them of the overdue account and solicit payment. If necessary, they review the terms of the sale, service, or credit contract with the customer. Collectors may attempt to learn the cause of the delay in payment. Where feasible, they offer the customer advice and counsel on how to pay off the debts, such as by taking out a bill consolidation loan. How ever, the collector's objective is always to ensure that the customer first pays the debt in question. If customers agree to pay, collectors note that for the record and check later to verify that the payment was indeed made. Collectors may have authority to grant an extension of time if customers ask for one. If customers fail to respond at all, collectors prepare a statement to that effect for the credit department of the establishment. In more extreme cases, collectors may initiate repossession proceedings or service disconnections, or hand the account over to an attorney for legal action. Most collectors handle other administrative functions for the accounts assigned to them. This may include recording changes of addresses, and purging the records of the deceased. Bill and account collectors keep records of the amounts collected and the status of the accounts. Some fill out daily reports to keep their supervisors ap prised of their progress. In some organizations, inside collectors receive payments and post the amounts to the customers' account. In most operations, however, the posting and receiving are done by other clerical workers. Collectors employed by collection agencies do not receive payments; rather, their primary responsibility is to get customers to pay their obligation. Increasingly, collectors use computers and a variety of automated systems to keep track of overdue accounts. Typically, collectors work at video display terminals that are linked to computers. In sophisticated predicted dialer systems, the computer dials the tele phone automatically and the collector speaks only when a connection has been made. Such systems eliminate time spent calling busy or nonanswering numbers. Many collectors use regular telephones; some wear headsets like those used by telephone operators. Occa sionally, supervisors may listen in on collectors' conversations with customers to evaluate their job performance. Welfare Eligibility Workers and Interviewers. Welfare eligibility workers and interviewers—sometimes referred to as intake workers, eligibility determination workers, eligibility specialists, or income maintenance specialists—determine who can receive welfare and other types of social assistance. They do so by interviewing and investigating applicants and recipients to see who is eligible. Based on the personal and financial information they obtain and the rules https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and regulations of each program, they initiate procedures to grant, modify, deny, or terminate individuals' eligibility for various aid programs. This information is recorded and evaluated to determine the amounts of the grants. Welfare eligibility workers and interviewers work with various public assistance programs. The best-known are Aid to Families with Dependent Children, Medicaid, Food Stamps, and the Work Incentive Program. Depending on local circumstances, there may be other programs, such as those for public housing, refugee assistance, and fuel assistance. Most welfare eligibility workers and interviewers specialize in a specific area, such as housing, but some are responsible for several areas. They may assist social workers by informing them of perti nent information they have gathered during their interviews with applicants. In some areas, particularly rural ones, eligibility workers may also perform other welfare duties. These workers often provide information to applicants and current recipients. For example, they may explain and interpret eligibility rules and regulations or identify other resources available in the community for financial or social welfare assistance. More experi enced workers may help train new workers. In addition, they may be assigned to special units whose responsibility is to detect fraud. An increasing number of jurisdictions are using computers to increase worker productivity and to reduce the incidence of welfare fraud. In these settings, welfare eligibility workers and interviewers sit in front of computer terminals when they interview applicants and recipients. Welfare eligibility workers then enter the information provided. In the most advanced systems, the computer terminal prompts them with questions. Although these workers usually interview applicants and recipi ents who visit their offices, they may make occasional home visits, especially if the applicant or recipient is elderly or disabled. They may also check with employers or other references to verify answers and get further information. The authority of welfare eligibility workers and interviewers varies from one jurisdiction to another. In some places, these work ers are authorized to decide on an applicant's eligibility, subject to review by their supervisor. In other places, however, they can only make recommendations to their supervisors, who in turn make the ultimate decision. Working Conditions Most claim examiners have desk jobs that require no unusual physi cal activity. They typically work a standard 5-day, 40-hour week. Claim examiners may work longer hours during peak periods or when quarterly and annual statements are prepared. Sometimes they Welfare eligibility workers interview clients before they receive benefits. 256 Occupational Outlook Handbook travel from time to time to obtain information by personal interview. Many claim adjusters work outside the office, visiting and in specting damaged buildings, for example. Occasionally, experienced adjusters are away from home for days when they travel to the scene of a disaster-—such as a tornado, hurricane, or flood—to work with local adjusters and government officials. Some adjusters are on "emergency call" in the case of such incidents. Material damage adjusters work at local claim centers where policy holders take their cars for estimates of damage. Adjusters generally have the flexibility to arrange their work schedule to accommodate evening and weekend appointments with clients. Some report to the office every morning to get their assignments while others simply call from home and spend their days traveling to claim sites. This enables some adjusters to work independently. Most insurance processing clerks work 40 hours a week in an office. Much of the work is routine and requires remaining at work stations for extended periods of time. Because most insurance in formation is stored on computers, many of these workers sit at video display terminals and enter or access information while the customer is on the phone. Because most companies provide 24-hour claim service to their policyholders, some claim clerks work evenings and weekends. Many claim clerks work part time. Adjustment clerks, bill and account collectors, and welfare eli gibility workers and interviewers work in offices, usually during regular business hours. Some work part time. A few bill and ac count collectors work as temporaries. From their offices, they deal with customers, clients, or applicants, either by telephone or in person. Dealing with upset or angry clients is often part of the daily routine in these jobs, making the work stressful at times. Some welfare eligibility workers and interviewers may be hired on a seasonal basis to help administer a specific program. For ex ample, some States hire these workers for the winter to help run emergency fuel assistance programs. Adjusters, investigators, and collectors who spend a lot of time working at video display terminals may experience musculoskeletal strain and eyestrain. Employment Adjusters, investigators, and collectors held about 1,286,000 jobs in 1994. The following tabulation shows the percent distribution of employment by detailed occupation: Total........................................................................................................ 100 Adjustment clerks........................................................................................ 29 Bill and account collectors.......................................................................... 20 Insurance policy processing clerks.............................................................. 14 Insurance adjusters, examiners, and investigators....................................... 13 Insurance claims clerks............................................................................... 9 Welfare eligibility workers and interviewers............................................... 8 Claims examiners, property and casualty insurance.................................... 4 All other adjusters and investigators........................................................... 3 Insurance companies employ the vast majority of claim adjusters, examiners, investigators, property and casualty insurance claim examiners, policy processing clerks, and claim clerks. The remain der are employed by real estate firms and government agencies. About one-fifth of all adjustment clerks are employed by depart ment stores, grocery stores, or catalog and mail order houses. Manu facturing firms, banks and other financial institutions, and telephone companies are other major employers of these workers. One in 6 bill and account collectors works for a credit reporting and collection agency. Many others work in banks, department stores, and other institutions that extend credit. Nine of every 10 welfare eligibility workers and interviewers work for State or local government agencies. In 37 States, these workers are employed exclusively by the State government. In the remainder, they are employed by the county or municipal govern ment. Most of those not employed by government work for private social service agencies. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training and entry requirements vary widely for adjuster, investiga tor, and collector jobs. A high school education is sufficient to qual ify for most insurance processing clerk, adjustment clerk, and bill and account collector positions, while a bachelor's degree is preferred for most claim representative positions. While some college educa tion is preferred for positions as adjuster or welfare eligibility worker or interviewer, many people qualify for these positions on the strength of related prior work experience. Because a significant and growing proportion of adjusters, investigators, and collectors use computers, courses in typing or word processing are recommended. Employers increasingly view experience with computers as an asset. Claim Representatives. Most companies prefer to hire college graduates for claim representative positions. Entry-level workers may be hired without college coursework if they have specialized experience. For example, people with knowledge of automobile mechanics or body repair may qualify as material damage adjusters and those with extensive clerical experience might be hired as inside adjusters. Both adjusters and examiners should be observant and enjoy working with details. No specific college major is recommended as the best preparation for these occupations. Although courses in insurance, economics, or other business subjects are helpful, a degree in almost any field is adequate. An adjuster who has a business or an accounting back ground might specialize in claims of financial loss due to strikes, breakdowns in equipment, or damage to merchandise. College training in engineering is helpful in adjusting industrial claims, such as damage from fires and other accidents. A legal background is most helpful to those handling workers’ compensation and product liability cases. Knowledge of computer applications is increasingly important, and in most instances essential. Most States require adjusters to be licensed. Applicants usually must comply with one or more of the following: Pass a written examination covering the fundamentals of adjusting; complete an approved course in insurance or loss adjusting; furnish character references; be at least 20 or 21 years of age and a resident of the State; and file a surety bond. Because they often work closely with claimants, witnesses, and other insurance professionals, claim representatives must be able to communicate effectively with others. Some companies require applicants to pass a battery of written aptitude tests designed to measure communication, analytical, and general mathematical skills. Examiners must understand Federal and State insurance laws and regulations. Some large insurance companies provide on-the-job training and home-study courses for entry-level claim adjusters and examiners. For example, material damage adjusters would learn about automo bile body construction, analysis of collision data, and repair cost estimation, including computerized estimating equipment. They also learn how to deal with customers. Workers may receive their training through courses offered by the Insurance Institute of America, a nonprofit organization offering educational programs and professional certification to persons in the property-liability insurance industry. The Insurance Institute of America offers an Associate in Claims designation upon successful completion of four essay examinations. Adjusters can prepare for the examination by independent home study or through company or public classes. The International Claim Association offers a program on life and health insurance claim administration. Completion of the sixexamination program leads to the professional designation, Associ ate, Life and Health Claims. The Life Office Management Association offers a comprehensive 10-course life and health insurance educational program that leads to the professional designation, Fellow, Life Management Institute (FLMI). LOMA also offers the Master Fellow Program that is designed specifically to meet the continuing education needs of life Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical 257 and health insurance professionals. Students can prepare for FLMI exams through independent home study or through insurance com pany or FLMI Society classes. Beginning adjusters and examiners work on small claims under the supervision of an experienced worker. As they learn more about claim investigation and settlement, they are assigned larger, more complex claims. Trainees are promoted as they demonstrate compe tence in handling assignments and as they progress in their course work. Because of the complexity of insurance regulations and claim procedures, workers who lack formal academic training tend to advance slower than those with additional education. Employees who demonstrate competence in claim work or administrative skills may be promoted to department supervisor in a field office or to a managerial position in the home office. Insurance Processing Clerks. High school graduation is considered adequate preparation for most insurance processing clerk positions. Courses in typing and word processing, and business arithmetic are desirable. Employers view favorably previous office experience and familiarity with computers. Most new workers begin as file clerks and move into insurance processing positions as they demonstrate their ability. However, people with considerable clerical experience may begin processing insurance policies immediately. Some experienced insurance processing clerks may be promoted to a clerical supervisor position. Advancement to a claim represen tative or an underwriting technician position is possible for clerks who demonstrate potential, have college coursework, or have taken specialized courses in insurance. Many companies offer home-study courses for their employees so they can acquire the knowledge necessary to advance. Adjustment Clerks. Many employers do not require any formal education for adjustment clerk positions. Instead, they look for people who can read and write and who possess good communi cations and interpersonal skills. Typing ability is also viewed favorably. Adjustment clerk is an entry level position in some, but not all, organizations. Depending on their assignment, new adjustment clerks may receive training on the job from a supervisor or an experi enced coworker, or they may enter a formal training course offered by the organization. Training covers such topics as how to use computers, what standard forms to use, whom to contact in other departments of the organization, and how to deal with customers. Some employers provide more advanced training for experienced adjustment clerks. This training may be offered in-house or from trade associations or local colleges. Bill and Account Collectors. While high school graduation some times is required by employers when they hire bill and account collectors, formal education beyond high school is not stressed. Previous work experience as a collector is particularly valuable. Experience in the field of telemarketing or as a telephone operator also is helpful, as is knowledge of the billing process. Employers seek individuals who speak well and who are persistent and detailoriented. Employers normally provide training to new bill and account collectors. This training, which may last up to a couple of months, is usually conducted in a classroom or on the job. It may use lectures, videotapes, computer programs, role-playing, and hands-on experi ence. In addition to learning about skip-tracing and the firm's billing procedure, new collectors learn communications and negotiating skills. Learning to use the firm's computer and telephone systems is an integral part of their training. Successful bill and account collectors may become supervisors. Some even start their own collection agencies. Welfare Eligibility Workers and Interviewers. Hiring require ments for welfare eligibility workers and interviewers vary .widely. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Depending on the jurisdiction, applicants may need a high school diploma, some post-secondary training, or a bachelor's degree. Previous work experience may be substituted for education in some places, particularly if it is in a closely related field like employment interviewing, social work, or insurance claims. Fluency in a foreign language may be an advantage in parts of the country with a high concentration of non-English speaking people. Because they deal with people who are in difficult economic circumstances, welfare eligibility workers and interviewers should be compassionate and empathetic. Attention to detail is important because there are many procedures, and regulations that must be observed. After they are hired, eligibility workers are given training, some times in a formal classroom setting, other times in a more informal manner. They are taught the policies, procedures, and program regulations that they are expected to use to determine eligibility. If a formal training program is selected, it generally is followed by onthe-job training provided by the supervisor. Advancement to the job of social worker is possible, although additional formal education such as a bachelor’s or master's degree usually is needed. Job Outlook Overall employment of adjusters, investigators, and collectors is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Most job openings will result from the need to re place workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Growth rates will vary considerably by occupation. Employment of insurance claim examiners is expected to grow about as fast as the average as the increasing volume of insurance results in more insur ance claims. Shifts in the age distribution of the population will result in a large increase in the number of people who assume career and family responsibilities. People in this group have the greatest need for life and health insurance, as well as protection for homes, automobiles, and other possessions. A growing demand for insur ance coverage for working women is also expected. New or expand ing businesses will need protection for new plants and equipment and for insurance covering their employees' health and safety. Oppor tunities should be particularly good for claim representatives who specialize in complex business insurance such as marine cargo, workers' compensation, and product and pollution liability. Employment of insurance processing clerks is expected to grow more slowly than the average as computerization automates some functions performed by these workers, although the increasing number of policyholders will require more workers to provide cus tomer service. Within this group, employment of adjusters and claim clerks will increase about as fast as the average because their work requires much interpersonal contact, which cannot be automated. However, employment of policy processing clerks will decline because their jobs can be automated. The number of job openings for workers in the insurance industry should not fluctuate greatly from year to year. This industry, particularly the health insurance component, is less sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy than most industries. Employment of adjustment clerks is expected to grow much faster than the average as business establishments place an increased em phasis on maintaining good customer relations. An important aspect of good customer service is resolving customers' complaints in a friendly and timely fashion. Because much of their work involves direct communication with customers, demand for adjustment clerks is expected to keep pace with the growth in the number of customers. Bill and account collector jobs also are expected to grow much faster than average as the level of consumer debt rises. As the econ omy expands, firms will strive to increase the efficiency of their debt collection to keep losses at a minimum. Contrary to the pattern in most occupations, employment of bill and account collectors tends to rise during recessions. This is due primarily to the difficulty that 258 Occupational Outlook Handbook many individuals have in meeting their financial obligations. Employment of welfare eligibility workers and interviewers is expected to grow more slowly than average as State and local gov ernments attempt to curb the growth in their expenditures for public assistance. Earnings Earnings of adjusters, investigators, and collectors vary significantly. For adjusters and investigators, the median weekly earnings in 1994 were $418. The middle 50 percent earned between about $327 and $564 a week. Adjusters are also furnished a company car or are reimbursed for use of their own vehicle for business purposes. Specific information on earnings of insurance processing clerks and is not available. However, median weekly earnings for records clerks, a category that includes policy processing clerks, were $398 in 1994. Interviewers, whose work is similar to that of claim clerks, also had median weekly earnings of $361. Median weekly earnings of full-time bill and account collectors were $378 in 1994; the middle 50 percent earned between $304 and $466 a week. Ten percent earned less than $231 and 10 percent more than $605. Some bill and account collectors receive a base salary and work on commission beyond that. Median weekly earnings of full-time welfare eligibility workers and interviewers were about $452 in 1994; the middle 50 percent earned between $342 and $548 a week. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $268 and the top 10 percent earned more than $651. Welfare eligibility workers and interviewers are twice as likely to belong to unions than workers in all occupations. In 1994, about one-third of all welfare eligibility workers and interviewers were union members compared to less than one-sixth for all occupations. The two principal unions representing these workers are the Ameri can Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees and the Service Employees International Union. Related Occupations Insurance adjusters and examiners investigate, analyze, and deter mine the validity of their firm's liability concerning personal, casu alty, or property loss or damages and effect settlement with claimants. Workers in other occupations that require similar skills include cost estimators, budget analysts, and private investigators. The work of insurance processing clerks and adjustment clerks is similar to that of other workers who compile, review, or maintain records, including coding, contract, auditing, and reservation clerks and title searchers. The work of bill and account collectors is related to that of cus tomer service representatives, telemarketers, telephone interviewers, and other workers who deal with the public over the telephone. The work of welfare eligibility workers is similar to that of human services workers, financial aid counselors, loan counselors, credit counselors, probation officers, and other workers who interview customers or clients. Sources of Additional Information General information about a career as a claim representative or an insurance processing clerk is available from the home offices of many life and property and liability insurance companies. Information about career opportunities in these occupations may be obtained from: •"Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, NY 10038. Information about licensing requirements for claim adjusters may be obtained from the department of insurance in each State. For more information on claim representatives, contact: •"Alliance of American Insurers, 1501 Woodfield Rd., Suite 400 West, Schaumburg, IL 60173-4980. For information about the voluntary designation Associate in Claims, contact: •"Insurance Institute of America, 720 Providence Rd., P.O. Box 3016, Mal vern, PA 19355-0716. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis •"National Association of Independent Insurance Adjusters, 300 West Wash ington St., Suite 805, Chicago, IL 60606. Information on the Associate, Life and Health Claims and the Fellow, Life Management Institute designations can be obtained from: •"Life Office Management Association, 5770 Powers Ferry Rd„ Atlanta, GA 30327-4308. Career information on bill and account collectors is available from: •"American Collectors Association, Inc., P.O. Box 39106, Minneapolis, MN 55439-0106. Employment information on welfare eligibility workers and interviewers is available at social service offices of municipal, county, and State governments. Bank Tellers (D.O.T. 211.362 except -010; 211.382-010; 219.462-010) Nature of the Work Bank tellers interact with the majority of bank customers. Tellers generally handle a wide range of banking transactions, such as cash ing checks, accepting deposits and loan payments, and processing withdrawals. They sell savings bonds; accept payment for customers’ utility bills; receive deposits for special accounts; keep records and perform the necessary paperwork for customer loans; process the proliferating variety of certificates of deposit and money market accounts; and sell travelers' checks. Some tellers specialize in han dling foreign currencies or commercial or business accounts. Before cashing a check, the teller must verify the date, bank name, and identity of the person to receive payment, and see that the document is legal tender, that written and numerical amounts agree, and that the account has sufficient funds to cover the check. The teller must carefully count out the cash to avoid errors. Sometimes a customer withdraws money in the form of a cashier's check, which the teller prepares and verifies. When accepting a deposit, the teller checks the accuracy of the deposit slip and processes the transaction. Tellers may use machines to calculate and record transactions and to prepare documents, such as receipts and drafts. In some banks, they type or write deposit receipts and passbook entries by hand, but this is uncommon. In most banks, tellers use computer terminals to record deposits and withdrawals. Some banks use very sophisticated computer systems that give tellers quick access to detailed informa tion on customer accounts. Tellers may use this information to tailor their services to fit the customer’s needs, or recommend an appropri ate bank product or service. The duties of tellers begin before the bank opens and end after the bank closes. They begin the day by receiving and counting an amount of working cash for their drawer; this amount is verified by a supervisor, usually the head teller. Tellers use this cash for payments during the day and are responsible for its safe and accurate handling. After banking hours, tellers count cash on hand, list the currencyreceived tickets on a balance sheet, and balance the day's accounts. They sort checks and deposit slips. Tellers also spend time learning about the bank's products and services and changes in the bank's procedures. They also spend time training to refresh and upgrade their skills. Tellers process numerous mail transactions. Some tellers replen ish cash drawers and corroborate deposits and payments to automated teller machines (ATMs). Head tellers supervise the work of other tellers and ensure that ATMs function properly. Because banks offer more and increasingly complex financial services, most bank tellers are now being trained to act as customer Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical 259 Employment of bank tellers is projected to decline. service representatives in addition to their other duties. These tellers can briefly explain to customers the various types of accounts and financial services offered by their bank, and refer customers to more experienced customer service representatives or bank managers. (New accounts clerks, who also may act as customer service repre sentatives, are discussed in the Handbook statement on interviewing and new accounts clerks. Bank managers are covered in the Hand book statement on financial managers.) Working Conditions Tellers generally work during the day, Monday through Friday; some evening and weekend work may be required. The job offers ample opportunity to work part time with flexible hours; in some banks, 90 percent of tellers work part time. Banks often hire part-time, or "peak-time," tellers for busy banking periods such as lunch hours and weekend mornings. Increasiug numbers of tellers work outside the traditional bank setting—in shopping malls, grocery stores, or other large retail establishments. Continual communication with custom ers, repetitive tasks, long periods within a fairly small area, and a high level of attention to security also characterize the job. Employment Bank tellers held about 559,000 jobs in 1994; over one-fourth worked part time. The overwhelming majority, about 97 percent, worked in commercial banks, savings institutions, or credit unions. The rest worked in personal, business, or Federal credit institutions; mortgage banks; security and commodity brokerages; and holding and other investment offices. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement When hiring tellers, banks seek applicants who enjoy public contact and have good numerical, clerical, and communication skills.. Tellers must feel comfortable handling large amounts of cash and working with computers and video terminals, since their work is highly automated. In some metropolitan areas, employers seek multi lingual tellers. Although tellers work independently, their recordkeeping is closely supervised. Accuracy and attention to detail are vital. Tell ers should be courteous, attentive, and patient in dealing with the public, because customers often judge a bank by the way they are treated at the teller window. Maturity, tact, and the ability to quickly explain bank procedures and services are important in helping cus tomers complete transactions or make financial decisions. Many entrants transfer from other occupations; virtually all have at least a high school education. In general, banks prefer applicants who have had high school courses in mathematics, accounting, bookkeeping, economics, and public speaking. New tellers at larger https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis banks receive at least 1 week of formal classroom training. Formal training is followed by several weeks of on-the-job training where tellers observe experienced workers before doing the work them selves. Smaller banks rely primarily upon on-the-job training. In addition to instruction in basic duties, many banks now include extensive training in the bank's products and services—so that tellers can refer customers to appropriate products—communication and sales skills, and instruction on equipment such as ATMs and on-line video terminals. In large banks, beginners usually start as limited-transaction tellers, cashing checks and processing simple transactions for a few days, before becoming full-service tellers. Often banks simultane ously train tellers for other clerical duties. Advancement opportunities are good for well-trained, motivated employees. Experienced tellers may advance to head teller, customer service representative, or new accounts clerk. Outstanding tellers who have had some college or specialized training offered by the banking industry may be promoted to a managerial position. Banks encourage this upward mobility by providing access to education and other sources of additional training. Tellers can prepare for better jobs by taking courses offered or accredited by the American Institute of Banking, an educational affiliate of the American Bankers Association, or the Institute of Financial Education. These organizations have several hundred chapters in cities across the country and numerous study groups in small communities, and they offer correspondence courses. They also work closely with local colleges and universities in preparing courses of study. Most banks use the facilities of these organizations, which assist local banks in conducting cooperative training programs or developing independent training programs. In addition, many banks refund college tuition fees to their employees upon successful completion of their courses. Although most courses are meant for employed tellers, some community colleges offer preemployment training programs. These programs can help prepare applicants for a job in banking, and can give them an advantage over other jobseek ers. Job Outlook Opportunites for employment as a bank teller should be good for qualified applicants. While employment of bank tellers is expected to decline through the year 2005 and growth will not contribute to opportunities, many job openings should arise from the need to replace tellers who transfer to other occupations or stop working. Replacement needs will create many opportunities because the job turnover rate is high—characteristic of occupations that generally require little formal education and offer relatively low pay—and the occupation is large. Banks should continue to have difficulty finding prospective tellers with the desired skills, particularly as the duties of these workers become more complex. The number of bank tellers is projected to decrease for a variety of reasons. One reflects changes in the banking industry. Banks are expected to decline in number and increase in size as interstate banking grows. As banks become larger, the operations, duties and responsibilities, and staffing of branch offices will change, and some branches will close. These changes are reducing the demand for tellers. New banking technology is also decreasing the demand for tell ers. The adoption of new technology in banking has been slow historically, but banks are increasingly using the available technol ogy to gain a competitive edge. Some banks have introduced branches that consist entirely of ATMs and Kiosks. Kiosks use ATM technology and video screens and cameras to allow customers at several remote locations to conduct transactions with tellers at a central location. There are also banks which allow banking by computer and by telephone from one's home or office. Banks are also opening branches inside supermarkets and department stores; instead of tellers, they have ATMs and more highly trained customer service representatives, who can perform the standard duties of 260 Occupational Outlook Handbook tellers, but who can also open new accounts and arrange for custom ers to receive other services or products sold by the bank. Earnings In 1994, median annual earnings of full-time tellers were $15,300. The lowest 10 percent earned about $9,900 while the top 10 percent earned around $24,200. Some banks offer incentives whereby tellers eam supplemental rewards for inducing customers to use other financial products and services offered by the bank. In general, a greater range of responsibilities results in a higher salary. Experi ence, length of service, and, especially, the location and size of the bank also are important. < Some part-time tellers may not be eligible for certain benefits such as life and health insurance, although they may have higher hourly earnings in lieu of benefits. Related Occupations Tellers combine customer service and a knowledge of bank proce dures with quickness and accuracy to process money, checks, and other financial items for customers. Other workers with similar duties include new accounts clerks, cashiers, toll collectors, post office clerks, auction clerks, and ticket sellers. Sources of Additional Information General information about banking occupations, training opportuni ties, and the banking industry is available from: •■American Bankers Association, Center for Banking Information, 1120 Connecticut Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20036. For information on continuing education, preemployment train ing, and banking jobs, contact: •"Institute of Financial Education, 111 E. Wacker Dr., Suite 900, Chicago, IL 60601-4389. •"American Institute of Banking, 1120 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036. State bankers' associations can furnish specific information about job opportunities in their State. Or contact individual banks to inquire about job openings, and for more details about the activities, responsibilities, and preferred qualifications of tellers. For the names and addresses of banks and savings and related institutions, as well as the names of their principal officers, consult one of the following directories. •■The American Financial Directory, (Norcross, Ga., McFadden Business Publications). ••Polk's World Bank Directory, (Nashville, R.L. Polk & Co.). •■Rand McNally Bankers Directory, (Chicago, Rand McNally & Co.). •■The U.S. Savings and Loan Directory, (Chicago, Rand McNally & Co.). •■Rand McNally Credit Union Directory, (Chicago, Rand McNally & Co.). also request new equipment or supplies for their department when necessary. Planning and supervising the work of their staff is another key function of this job. To do this effectively, the supervisor must know the strengths and weaknesses of each member of the staff as well as the required level of quality and time allotted to each job. They must make allowances for unexpected absences and other disruptions and adjust assignments or perform the work themselves if the situation requires it. After allocating work assignments and issuing deadlines, clerical supervisors oversee the work to ensure that it is proceeding on schedule and meets established quality standards. This may involve reviewing each person's work on a computer, as in the case of ac counting clerks, or, in the case of cashiers, listening to how they deal with customers. When supervising long-term projects, the supervisor may establish regular meetings with staff members to discuss their progress. Clerical supervisors also evaluate each worker's performance. If a worker has done a good job, the supervisor records it in the em ployee's personnel file and may recommend a promotion or other award. Alternatively, if a worker is performing poorly, the supervi sor discusses the problem with the employee to determine the cause and helps the worker improve his or her performance. This might entail sending the employee to a training course or arranging per sonal counseling. If the situation does not improve, the supervisor may recommend a transfer, demotion, or dismissal. Clerical supervisors and managers generally interview and evalu ate prospective clerical employees. When new workers arrive on the job, supervisors greet them and provide orientation to acquaint them with the organization and its operating routines. Some may be actively involved in recruiting new workers by performing functions like making presentations at high schools and business colleges. They may also serve as the primary liaisons between their offices and the general public through direct contact and helping to prepare promotional information. Supervisors also help train new employees in organization and office procedures. They may teach them to use the telephone system and to operate office equipment. Because much clerical work is computerized, they must also teach new employees to use the organi zation's computer system. When new office equipment or updated computer software is introduced, supervisors retrain experienced employees to use it efficiently. If this is not possible, they may arrange for special outside training for their employees. Clerical supervisors often act as liaisons between the clerical staff and the professional, technical, and managerial staff. This may Clerical Supervisors and Managers (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See page 478.) Nature of the Work All organizations need timely and effective clerical and administra tive support to operate efficiently. Coordinating this support is the responsibility of clerical supervisors and managers. They can be found in nearly every sector of the economy, working in positions as varied as office manager, customer services supervisor, or chief telephone operator. Although some functions may vary considerably, many duties are common to all. Supervisors perform administrative tasks to ensure that their staffs can work efficiently. For example, equipment and machinery used in their departments must be in good working order. If the computer system goes down or a photocopier malfunctions, they must try to correct the problem or alert repair personnel. They https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The ability to communicate effectively is vital for clerical supervisors. Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical 261 involve implementing new company policies or restructuring the workflow in their departments. They must also keep their superiors informed of their progress and abreast of any potential problems. Often this communication takes the form of research projects and progress reports. Because they have access to information like their department's performance records, they may compile and present these data for use in planning or designing new policies. Clerical supervisors may be called upon to resolve interpersonal conflicts among the staff. In organizations covered by union con tracts, supervisors must know the provisions of labor-management agreements and run their departments accordingly. They may meet with union representatives to discuss work problems or grievances. Working Conditions Clerical supervisors and managers are employed in a wide variety of work settings, but most work in offices that are clean, well-lit, and generally comfortable. Most work a standard 40-hour week. Because some organizations operate around the clock, however, clerical supervisors may have to work nights, weekends, and holidays. In some cases, supervisors rotate among the three shifts. In others, shifts are assigned on the basis of seniority. Employment Clerical supervisors and managers held over 1.3 million jobs in 1994. Although jobs for clerical supervisors are found in practically every industry, the largest number are found in organizations with a large clerical work force, such as government agencies, retail establish ments, wholesalers, business service firms, banks, and insurance companies. Due to the need in most organizations for continuity of supervision, few clerical supervisors and managers work on a tempo rary or part-time basis. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most people entering this occupation transfer from other occupations within the organization, very often from the ranks of those they subsequently supervise. To be promoted to a supervisory position, clerical or administrative support workers must prove that they are capable of handling additional responsibilities. When evaluating candidates, superiors look for strong teamwork skills, determination, loyalty, poise, and confidence. They also look for more specific supervisory attributes, such as the ability to organize and coordinate work efficiently, set priorities, and motivate others. Increasingly, supervisors need a broad base of office skills coupled with personal flexibility to adapt to changes in organizational structure and move among departments when necessary. In addition, supervisors must pay close attention to detail in order to identify and correct errors made by subordinates. Good working knowledge of the organization's computer system is also an advan tage. Many employers require some postsecondary training. An associate degree is sufficient in many cases, but some organizations prefer candidates to hold bachelor's degrees. A clerk with potential supervisory abilities may be given occa sional supervisory assignments. To prepare for full-time supervisory duties, he or she may attend in-house training or take courses in time management or personal relations, for example, at a local community college or vocational school. Some clerical supervisors are hired from outside the organization for positions with more managerial duties. These positions may serve as entry-level training for potential higher-level managers. New college graduates may rotate through departments of an organi zation at this level to learn the work of the entire organization. Job Outlook Employment of clerical supervisors and managers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Although growth in the demand for clerical supervisors will generate many job openings, most openings will result from the need https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis to replace experienced supervisors who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Because the occupation is large, replace ment needs will create many job openings. Employment of clerical supervisors is affected by the demand for clerical workers, which is determined by the volume of clerical work and the development of office automation. As the amount of clerical work continues to increase, more managers will be needed to coordi nate it. With the help of office automation, however, this work may now be accomplished with fewer clerical workers. As office auto mation causes employment in some clerical occupations to slow or even decline, supervisors may have smaller staffs and perform more professional tasks. In other areas, fewer supervisors will be needed. In most cases, though, the relatively higher skills and longer tenure of clerical supervisors and managers will make them among the clerical workers most likely to be retained by an organization. Earnings Median annual earnings of full-time clerical supervisors were about $28,000 in 1994; the middle 50 percent earned between $21,000 and $37,600 a year. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $16,300, while the highest paid 10 percent earned more than $47,200. Em ployers in major metropolitan areas tend to pay higher salaries than those in rural areas. Depending on their employer, clerical supervisors may receive a variety of benefits. These may include health and life insurance, paid vacations, tuition assistance, and a pension plan. Some clerical supervisors in the private sector may receive additional compensation in the form of bonuses and stock options. Related Occupations Clerical supervisors and managers must understand and sometimes perform the work of people whom they oversee, including account ing clerks, cashiers, bank tellers, and telephone operators. Their supervisory and administrative duties are similar to those of other managers. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about earnings, hours, and employment opportunities in this and other clerical jobs. Computer and Peripheral Equipment Operators (D.O.T. 213.362, .382, and .582) Nature of the Work Computer and peripheral equipment operators oversee the operation of computer hardware systems, ensuring that these machines are used as efficiently as possible. This means that operators must anticipate problems before they occur and take preventive action as well as solve problems that do occur. The duties of computer and peripheral equipment operators vary with the size of the installation, the type of equipment used, and the policies of the employer. Working from operating instructions pre pared by programmers, users, or operations managers, computer operators set controls on the computer and on peripheral devices required to run a particular job. Computer operators or, in some large installations peripheral equipment operators, load the equip ment with tapes, disks, and paper as needed. While the computer is running—which may be 24 hours a day for large computers— computer operators monitor the computer console and respond to operating and computer messages. Messages indicate the individual specifications of each job being run. If an error message occurs, 262 Occupational Outlook Handbook operators must locate and solve the problem or terminate the program. Traditionally, peripheral equipment operators have to prepare printouts and other output for distribution to computer users. Opera tors also maintain log books listing each job that is run and events such as machine malfunctions that occurred during their shift. In addition, computer operators may supervise and train peripheral equipment operators and computer operator trainees. They also may help programmers and systems analysts test and debug new pro grams. (Detailed descriptions of these occupations are presented elsewhere in the Handbook.) As the trend toward networking computers accelerates, a growing number of these workers are operating personal computers (PCs) and minicomputers. More and more establishments are realizing the need to connect all their computers in order to enhance productivity. In many offices, factories, and other work settings, PCs and minicom puters serve as the center of such networks, often referred to as local area networks or multi-user systems. While some of these computers are operated by users in the area, many require the services of full time operators. The tasks performed are very similar to those per formed on the larger computers. As organizations continue to use computers in more areas of operation, they are also realizing opportunities to increase the pro ductivity of computer operations. Automation, which traditionally has been the application of computer technology to other functional areas of an organization, is now reaching the computer room. So phisticated software coupled with robotics now exist, enabling the computer to perform many routine tasks formerly done by computer and peripheral equipment operators. Scheduling, loading and down loading programs, mounting tapes, rerouting messages, and running periodic reports can be done without the intervention of an operator. These improvements will change what computer operators do in the future. However, in the computer centers that lack this level of automation, some computer operators still may be responsible for tasks traditionally done by peripheral equipment operators. As technology advances, many computer operators will essentially monitor an automated system. As the role of operators changes due to new technology, their responsibilities may shift to system security, troubleshooting, desk help, network problems, and maintaining large databases. Working Conditions Computer operating personnel generally work in well-lighted, wellventilated, comfortable rooms. Because many organizations use their computers 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, computer and peripheral equipment operators may be required to work evening or night shifts and weekends. Shift assignments generally are made on the basis of seniority. Automated operations will lessen the need for shift work because many companies let the computer take over all operations during less desirable working hours. Because computer operators spend a lot of time in front of a computer monitor, as well as per forming repetitive tasks such as loading and unloading printers, they may be susceptible to eyestrain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems. Employment In 1994, computer operators and peripheral equipment operators held about 259,000 and 30,000 jobs, respectively. Although jobs for computer and peripheral equipment operators are found in almost every industry, most are in wholesale trade establishments; manufac turing companies; data processing service firms; financial institu tions; and government agencies. These organizations have data processing needs that require large computer installations. A grow ing number are employed by firms in the computer and data process ing services industry, as more companies contract out the operation of their data processing centers. More than 1 out of 10 computer and peripheral equipment opera tors works part time. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ■:< . • Computer operators set controls on the computer and load tapes, disks, and paper as needed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Previous work experience is the key to landing an operator job in many large establishments. Employers look for specific, hands-on experience in the type of equipment and related operating systems that they use. Additionally, computer-related formal training, per haps through a junior college or technical school, is recommended. As computer technology changes and data processing centers become more automated, more employers will require candidates for the remaining operator jobs to have formal training as well as experience. Workers usually receive on-the-job training in order to become acquainted with their employer's equipment and routines. The length of training varies with the job and the experience of the worker. Training is also offered by the Armed Forces and by some computer manufacturers. Because computer technology changes so rapidly, operators must be adaptable and willing to learn. Greater analytical and technical expertise are also needed to deal with the unique or higher level problems that the computer is not programmed to handle, particularly by operators who work in automated data centers. Computer and peripheral equipment operators must be able to communicate well in order to work effectively with programmers or users, as well as with other operators. Computer operators also must be able to work independently because they may have little or no supervision. Peripheral equipment operators may advance to computer opera tor jobs. A few computer operators may advance to supervisory jobs. Through on-the-job experience and additional formal education, some computer and peripheral equipment operators may advance to jobs as programmers or analysts, although the move into these jobs is becoming more difficult as employers increasingly require candidates for more skilled computer professional jobs posses at least a bache lor's degree. Others may become specialists in areas such as network operations or support. Job Outlook Employment of computer and peripheral equipment operators is Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical 263 expected to decline sharply through the year 2005. Many experi enced operators are expected to compete for the small number of openings that will arise each year to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Advances in technology have reduced both the size and the cost of computer equipment while increasing the capacity for data storage and processing. These improvements in technology have fueled an expansion in the use of computers in such areas as factory and office automation, telecommunications, medicine, and education. The expanding use of software that automates computer opera tions gives companies the option of making systems user-friendly, greatly reducing the need for operators. Even if firms continue to employ operators in some capacity—which, for many, is extremely likely in the near future—these new technologies will require opera tors to monitor a greater number of operations at the same time and be capable of solving a broader range of problems that may arise. The result is that fewer and fewer operators will be needed to per form more highly skilled work. Computer operators or peripheral equipment operators who are displaced by automation may be reassigned to support staffs that maintain personal computer networks or assist other members of the organization. Operators who keep up with changing technology, by updating their skills and enhancing their training, should have the best prospects of moving into other areas such as network administration. Others may be retrained to perform different job duties, such as supervising an entire operations center, maintaining automation packages, or analyzing computer operations to recommend ways to increase productivity. In the future, operators who wish to continue in the computer field will need to know more about programming, automation software, graphics interface, and open systems in order to take advantage of changing op portunities. Earnings In 1994, full-time computer operators had median earnings of $21,300 a year. The middle 50 percent earned between $16,200 and $29,900. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12,800 and the top 10 percent earned more than $39,500. According to Robert Half International Inc., the average starting salaries for computer operator ranged from $20,000 to $31,500 in 1994. Salaries generally are higher in large organizations than in small ones. In the Federal Government, computer operators with a high school diploma started at about $14,900 a year in 1995. Those with 1 year of college started at $16,700. Applicants with operations experience started at higher salaries. The average annual salary for all computer operators employed by the Federal Government in non supervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was about $28,800 in 1994. Credit Clerks and Authorizers (D.O.T. 205.367-022; 209.362-018; 219.362-038, .367-046; 237.367-014 241.367-018, -026, -030; 249.362-014, -018, -022, .367-022) Nature of the Work Credit clerks or authorizers review credit history and obtain the information needed to determine the creditworthiness of loan and credit card applicants. Credit clerks contact applicants, credit bu reaus, and other sources for information, and verify the completeness of loan documents. Credit authorizers refer to credit records and reports to decide whether to approve a customer's credit card purchase. Clerks in credit bureaus secure, update, and verify information for credit reports. These workers are often called credit investigators or reporters. Clerks in banks and other financial institutions process loan and credit applications. Some clerks verify employment and financial information of credit card applicants. Loan processing clerks prepare loan applications for underwriters. They review loan applications, contact credit bureaus and reporting agencies for appli cant records, and contact employers, banks, and references to verify personal and financial information. Clerks order appraisals from appraisal companies and secure tax forms, bank statements, and any required government forms from applicants. They calculate debt-toincome ratios to see that applicants meet the minimum guidelines for a loan. If any information in the loan package is inaccurate or in complete, clerks contact the proper source for further information. Closing clerks obtain and prepare documents needed for real estate settlements. The closing clerks check to see that all documents are complete, accurate and correctly signed including deeds of trust, hazard insurance papers, and title commitments—and that all loan conditions required for settlement have been met. Credit authorizers approve charges against customers' existing accounts. Most charges are approved automatically by computer. However, when accounts are past due, overextended, invalid, or show a change of address, sales persons refer transactions to credit it i Related Occupations Other occupations involving work with computers include computer scientists and systems analysts, programmers, and computer service technicians. Other occupations in which workers operate electronic office equipment include data entry keyers, secretaries, typists and word processors, and typesetters and compositors. Sources of Additional Information For information about work opportunities in computer operations, contact firms that use computers such as banks, manufacturing and insurance firms, colleges and universities, and data processing service organizations. The local office of the State employment service can supply information about employment and training opportunities. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Credit clerks and authorizers use computers to enter and retrieve data. 264 Occupational Outlook Handbook authorizes located in a central office. Authorizes evaluate the customers' computerized credit records and payment histories and quickly decide whether or not to approve new charges. Authorizes may enter address changes and credit extensions into computer credit files. Working Conditions Credit clerks and authorizes usually work a 35- to 40-hour week. However, during particularly busy periods, they may work overtime. For credit clerks handling residential real estate, the busy periods are spring and summer and at the end of the month. For credit authoriz es, busy periods are during the holiday shopping seasons and on store sale days. In fact, temporary workers are often hired as credit authorizes during peak workloads. In retail establishments, author izes may work nights and weekends during store hours. Credit authorizes and some credit clerks sit for long periods in front of video display terminals, which may cause eyestrain and headaches. Employment Credit clerks and authorizes held about 258,000 jobs in 1994. About 8 out of 10 were employed by commercial banks and other deposi tory institutions, and mortgage banks and other nondepository insti tutions. Other credit clerks and authorizes were employed by insurance and real estate firms, credit reporting and collection agen cies, and wholesale and retail trade establishments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement No specific training is needed for entry-level positions in credit clerking and authorizing, with the exception of loan closing and loan interviewing. Closers and interviewers are often required to have previous work experience, preferably in financial institutions, and some knowledge of underwriting. New employees are generally trained on the job, working under the close supervision of more experienced workers, although some firms offer formal training. Some credit workers also take courses in credit offered by banking and credit associations, public and private vocational schools, and colleges and universities. As workers dem onstrate competence, they can advance to team leader of a small group of clerks, loan or credit department supervisor, underwriter, loan officer, or management. For management positions, employers prefer applicants with a bachelor's degree in business or a related field, or at least some college-level business or management courses. Because positions in these fields involve much telephone contact, good communication skills are a necessity. Good organizational skills and the ability to pay attention to detail are also important. Many credit checkers use computers to enter and retrieve data, so some computer skills and good typing speed are required. Job Outlook Little change is expected in the employment of credit clerks and authorizers over the 1994-2005 period. The year 1994 was character ized by significant growth over previous years in the number of real estate, retail sales, and other transactions requiring credit. Projected employment reflects a slowdown in loan activity. The interpersonal nature of loan clerking and the judgment required of authorizers ensure that computers will not significantly affect employment. In addition to jobs created by growth, many jobs will become available as credit clerks and authorizers leave the occupation for various reasons. Job outlook in this occupation is affected by changes in the econ omy. During periods when credit or loans are restricted, the number of job openings for credit clerks and authorizers may be limited. Earnings According to a 1994 survey of mortgage banking companies con ducted by Carl D. Jacobs & Associates, the average salary for loan processors was $22,500, and the average salary for loan closers was $23,500. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Full-time workers generally receive health insurance, vacation and sick leave, and other standard benefits; part-timers may not. In addition, workers in retail establishments usually receive a discount on store purchases. Related Occupations Occupations with duties similar to those of credit clerks and author izers include claim examiners and adjusters, customer-complaint clerks, procurement clerks, probate clerks, and collection clerks. Sources of Additional Information Information about local job opportunities for credit clerks and authorizers may be obtained from banking institutions, retail stores, and credit reporting agencies. General Office Clerks (D.O.T. 209.362-030, .562-010; 219.362-010, -022, -026; 243.362-014; 245.362-014, .367-010, -014, -018; 249.367-010, -014; 375.362-010) Nature of the Work The duties of general office clerks are too varied and diverse for them to be classified in any specific administrative support occupa tion. Rather than performing a single specialized task, the duties of a general office clerk change with the needs of their employer. They may spend some days filing or typing; others entering data at a computer terminal. They also may operate photocopiers, fax ma chines, or other office equipment; prepare mailings; proofread copy; and answer telephones and deliver messages. Duties vary significantly depending upon the office in which a clerk works. A general office clerk in a doctor's office may not perform the same tasks as a clerk in a large financial institution or in the office of an auto parts wholesaler. Although they all may sort checks, keep payroll records, take inventory, or access information, they also may perform duties unique to their employer, such as organizing medications, making transparencies for a presentation, or filling orders received by fax machine. f. Duties of general office clerks are diverse, ranging from entering data at a computer terminal to maintaining records. Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical 265 Duties also vary by level of experience. Inexperienced employees may transcribe data, operate calculators, or record inquiries while more experienced workers may handle greater responsibilities. They might maintain financial or other records, verify statistical reports for accuracy and completeness, handle and adjust customer complaints, take inventory of equipment and supplies, answer questions on departmental services and functions, and help prepare budgetary requests. In addition to performing more complex duties, senior general office clerks may be expected to oversee and direct the work of lower level clerks. Working Conditions For the most part, working conditions for general office clerks are the same as those for other office employees within the same company. Those on a full-time schedule usually work a standard 40-hour week. Some may work shifts or overtime during busy periods and about 1 in 3 works part time. In addition, many general office clerks work as temporaries. Employment General office clerks held about 2,946,000 jobs in 1994. They work in every sector of the economy. Most general office clerks are employed in relatively small businesses, with over 50 percent work ing in the services or wholesale and retail trade industries. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most general office clerk jobs are entry level administrative support positions, although they may require previous office or business experience. Employers usually require a high school diploma, and some require typing, basic computer skills, and other general office skills. Familiarity with computer word processing software and applications is becoming increasingly important. Training for this occupation is available through business educa tion programs offered in high schools, community and junior col leges, and postsecondary vocational schools. Courses in word processing, microcomputer applications, and office practices are particularly helpful. Because general office clerks usually work with other office staff they should be cooperative and able to work as part of a team. They should be able to communicate with a wide range of people and have good organizational skills and attention to detail. They also must be willing to change to meet the unexpected requirements of the job or take on additional responsibilities. General office clerks who exhibit strong communication, inter personal, and analytical skills may be promoted to supervisory positions. Others move into different clerical jobs, such as reception ist, secretary, or administrative assistant. Advancement to profes sional occupations within an establishment usually requires more formal education including a college degree. Job Outlook Employment of general office clerks is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Nonetheless, good job opportunities should continue to exist. The large size of this occupation and the high turnover associated with it will continue to produce a large number of job openings. After gaining some work experience or specialized skills, many workers transfer to jobs with higher pay or greater advancement potential. Increasing use of computers and expanding office automation mean a wider variety of duties can be performed by fewer office workers. As more small businesses consolidate their clerical staffs and job responsibilities become more diverse, it may become more common to find a single general office clerk in charge of all clerical work. However, as duties expand, employers will seek workers with greater computer skills and a broader range of office skills or experience. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job seekers who have computer word-processing and other secretarial skills, and knowledge of the operation of basic office machinery, such as fax machines and copiers, should have the best opportunities. Because they must be so versatile, general office clerks find work in virtually every kind of industry. In addition, they should find many opportunities for part-time or temporary work, especially during peak business periods in industries where these jobs are concentrated. Earnings Median annual earnings of full-time general office clerks were about $19,300 in 1994; the middle 50 percent earned between $14,900 and $25,000 annually. Ten percent earned less than $11,300, and 10 percent more than $32,200. According to a survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas, beginning general office clerks had median annual earnings of $13,000 in 1993, with the middle half earning about $11,600 to $15,000 a year. The most experienced general office clerks had median annual earnings of about $24,000, with the middle half earning between about $21,500 and $27,200 a year. General office clerks' salaries varied by industry. They tended to be higher in transportation and public utilities and lower in construction and finance, insurance, and real estate. In 1995, the Federal Government paid general office clerks a starting salary of between $13,650 and $16,721 a year, depending on education and experience. In 1995, general office clerks in the Fed eral Government earned an average annual salary of about $23,730. Related Occupations General office clerk usually is an entry-level office job. The duties of general office clerks may include a combination of bookkeeping, typing, office machine operation, and filing; a variety of other admin istrative support workers perform similar duties. Entry-level jobs in other settings include cashier, medical assistant, teacher aide, and food and beverage service worker. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices and agencies that specialize in placing administrative support personnel can provide information about job openings for general office clerks. Information Clerks Nature of the Work Information clerks gather information from and provide information to the public. Since they are found in a variety of organizations, they have a variety of different job titles and duties. Hotel and motel desk clerks are a guest's first contact for check-in, check-out, and other services. Interviewing and new account clerks, often found in medi cal facilities and financial institutions, assist the public in completing forms, applications or questionnaires. Receptionists are often a visitor's or caller's first contact within an organization, providing information and routing calls. Reservation and transportation ticket agents, as well as travel clerks, assist the public in making travel plans, reservations, and purchasing tickets for a variety of transporta tion services. Although their day-to-day duties vary widely, most information clerks greet customers, guests, or other visitors, and after determining their needs, either assist them or refer them to someone else who can be of help. Others answer telephones or elicit information from the public. Most information clerks use office equipment such as multi line telephones, fax machines, and personal computers in their work. More information on four information clerk occupations follows this section. 266 Occupational Outlook Handbook Working Conditions Information clerks who greet customers and visitors usually work in areas that are highly visible and designed and furnished to make a good impression. Most work stations are clean, well lighted, and relatively quiet, and overall working conditions usually are pleasant. Reservation agents and interviewing clerks, who do much of their work over the telephone, generally work away from the public; a number of agents or clerks may share the same work space, which may be crowded and noisy. Occasionally, interviewing clerks may conduct surveys on the street or in shopping malls, or go door to door. Although most information clerks work a standard 40-hour week, about 3 out of 10 work part time. Some high school and college students work part time as information clerks after school or during vacations. Some jobs—such as those in the transportation industry, hospitals, and hotels, in particular—may require working evenings, late night shifts, weekends, and holidays. In many cases, employees with the least seniority may be assigned the least desirable shifts. Interviewing clerks conducting surveys or other research may mainly work evenings or weekends. The work performed by information clerks may be tiring, repeti tious, and stressful. Many receptionists spend all day answering continuously ringing telephones. Many reservation agents and travel clerks must work under stringent guidelines for the use of their time. Management may electronically monitor their use of the computer systems, monitor or tape record their telephone calls, limit the time that they can spend on each call, and have quotas on the number of reservations made. Such practices may make stress-related com plaints more common. In addition, prolonged exposure to a video display terminal may lead to eye strain. The work of hotel and motel desk clerks and transportation ticket agents also can be stressful when trying to serve the needs of difficult or angry customers. During holidays and other busy travel periods, these clerks may find the work extremely hectic. When flights are canceled, reservations mishandled, or guests are dissatisfied, these clerks must act as a buffer between the establishment and its customers. Both hotel desk clerks and ticket agents may be on their feet most of the time, and ticket agents may have to lift heavy baggage. Employment Information clerks held over 1.4 million jobs in 1994. The following tabulation shows 1994 employment for the individual occupations. Receptionists............................ 1,019,000 Interviewing and new account clerks............................................... 183,000 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks......... 139,000 Hotel and motel desk clerks............................................................. 136,000 Though information clerks are employed throughout the econ omy, they are concentrated in hotels and motels, the health services industry, banks and savings institutions, the transportation industry, and firms providing business or real estate services. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although hiring requirements for information clerk jobs vary from industry to industry, a high school diploma or its equivalent is the most common educational requirement. However, good interper sonal skills and familiarity or experience with computers often are more important to employers. For airline reservation and ticket agent jobs, some college education may be preferred. With the exception of airline reservation and transportation ticket agents, orientation and training for information clerks generally takes place on the job. For example, orientation for hotel and motel desk clerks usually includes an explanation of the job duties and informa tion about the establishment, such as room locations and available services. New employees learn job tasks through on-the-job training under the guidance of a supervisor or an experienced clerk. They https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis often need additional training in how to use the computerized reser vation, room assignment, and billing systems and equipment. Receptionists generally receive on-the-job training. However, employers often look for applicants who already possess certain skills, such as prior computer and word processing experience. Some employers also may prefer some formal office education or training. On the job, they learn how to operate the telephone system, comput ers, and the proper procedures for greeting visitors, and distributing mail, fax, and parcel deliveries. Most airline reservation agents learn their skills through formal company training programs. They spend some time in a classroom setting, learning company and industry policies, computer systems, and ticketing procedures. They learn to use a computer to obtain information on schedules, seat availability, and fares; to reserve space for passengers; and to plan passenger itineraries. They must learn airport and airline code designations, and may be tested on this knowledge. After completing classroom instruction, new agents work on the job with supervisors or experienced agents for a period of time. During this period, monitoring of telephone conversations may serve as a training device to improve the quality of customer service. Agents are expected to provide good service while limiting the time spent on each call without being discourteous to customers. In contrast, automobile clubs, bus lines, and railroads tend to train their ticket agents or travel clerks on the job, through short in-house classes that can last several days. Most information clerks continue to receive instruction on new procedures and company policies after their initial training ends. Because many information clerks deal directly with the public, a good appearance and a pleasant personality are imperative, as are good problem-solving and interpersonal skills. A clear speaking voice and fluency in the English language are essential because these employees frequently use the telephone or public address system. Coursework useful to persons wanting to enter these occupations include basic math, English, geography, U.S. history, psychology, communications, and public speaking. Good spelling, typing ability, and computer literacy often are needed, particularly since most work involves considerable computer use. Some employers may require applicants to take a typing and spelling test to gauge their skills, often requiring a minimum typing speed of 35 to 50 words per min ute. It also is increasingly helpful for those wishing to enter the hotel and motel industry to speak a foreign language fluently. Advancement for information clerks generally comes about either by transfer to a different, more responsible occupation or by promo tion to a supervisory position. The more skills, experience, and additional training an employee possesses, the better their advance ment opportunities in most establishments. Receptionists, interview ers, and new accounts clerks with typing or other clerical skills may advance to a better paying job as a secretary or administrative assis tant. In the airline industry, a ticket agent may advance to lead worker on the shift. Additional training is helpful in preparing information clerks for promotion. In the lodging industry, clerks can improve their chances for advancement by taking home or group study courses in lodging management, such as those sponsored by the Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Motel Association. In some industries—such as lodging, banking, or the airline indus try—workers commonly are promoted through the ranks. Positions such as airline reservation agent or hotel and motel desk clerk offer good opportunities for qualified workers to get started in the busi ness. In many industries, a college degree may be required for advancement to management ranks. Job Outlook Overall employment of information clerks is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. In addition to the many openings that will occur as businesses and organizations expand, numerous job openings for information clerks will result from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Replacement needs Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical 267 will reflect the relatively high turnover among these jobs. Many young people work as information clerks for a few years before switching to other, better paying jobs. This work is well suited to flexible work schedules, and many opportunities for part-time work will continue to be available, particularly as organizations look to cut labor costs by hiring more part-time or temporary workers. Economic growth and general business expansion are expected to stimulate faster than average growth in the large number of recep tionist jobs. Other information clerk jobs, however, are expected to increase more slowly or decline, reflecting the impact of new tech nology and trends in the industries where their employment is con centrated. Earnings In 1994, median weekly earnings of full-time information clerks were about $322. The middle 50 percent earned between $263 and $417. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $209, while the top 10 percent earned more than $562. Earnings vary widely by occupation and experience. Weekly earnings ranged from less than $193 for the lowest paid hotel clerks to over $732 for the highest paid reservation agents. Salaries of reservation and ticket agents tend to be signifi cantly higher than for other information clerks, while hotel and motel desk clerks tend to earn quite a bit less, as the following tabulation of median weekly earnings shows. Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks...................$407 Interviewing and new account clerks......................................................... 361 Receptionists............................................................................................... 308 Hotel and motel desk clerks....................................................................... 286 In 1995, the Federal Government commonly paid beginning receptionists with a high school diploma or 6 months of experience salaries ranging from $12,100 to $14,900 a year. The average annual salary for all receptionists employed by the Federal Government was about $19,530 in 1995. Earnings of hotel and motel desk clerks depend on the location, size, and type of establishment in which they work. Large luxury hotels and those located in metropolitan and resort areas generally pay clerks more than less exclusive or "budget" establishments and those located in less populated areas. In general, hotels pay higher salaries than motels or other types of lodging establishments. In addition to their hourly wage, full-time information clerks who work evenings, nights, weekends, or holidays may receive shift differential pay. Some employers offer educational assistance to their employees. Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks receive free or reduced rate travel on their company's carriers for themselves and their immediate family and, in some companies, free uniforms. Relatively few information clerks belong to unions. However, unions representing these workers include the Transportation Communications International Union, the Amalga mated Transit Union, and the Hotel Employees and Restaurant Employees International Union. Related Occupations A number of other workers deal with the public, receive and provide information, or direct people to others who can assist them. Among these are dispatchers, security guards, bank tellers, guides, telephone operators, record clerks, counter and rental clerks, survey workers, and ushers and lobby attendants. Hotel and Motel Desk Clerks (D.O.T. 238.367-038) Nature of the Work Hotel and motel desk clerks perform a variety of services for guests of hotels, motels, and other lodging establishments. They register arriving guests and assign them rooms, and check guests out at the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Hotel desk clerks answer questions about services, the local community, and other matters of interest to guests. end of their stay. In assigning rooms, clerks consider their guests' preferences while trying to maximize the establishment's revenues. They keep records of room assignments and other registration infor mation on computers, and when guests check out, they prepare and explain the bill of charges, as well as process payments. Desk clerks are always in the public eye and, through their atti tude and behavior, greatly influence the public's impressions of the establishment. They answer questions about services, checkout times, the local community, and other matters of public interest. Should guests report problems with their rooms, clerks contact members of the housekeeping or maintenance staff to correct them. In some smaller hotels and motels, clerks have a variety of addi tional responsibilities that in most larger establishments are usually performed by specialized employees. Clerks also may perform the work of a bookkeeper, advance reservation agent, cashier, laundry attendant, and telephone switchboard operator. Employment Hotel and motel desk clerks held about 136,000 jobs in 1994. This occupation is well suited to flexible work schedules, with over 1 in 4 desk clerks working part time. Since hotels and motels are found in all parts of the country, so are these jobs. Job Outlook Job opportunities for hotel and motel desk clerks should remain relatively good because turnover is very high. Each year thousands of workers transfer to other occupations offering better pay and advancement opportunities, or simply leave the workforce altogether. Opportunities for part-time work should continue to be plentiful since the front desk must be staffed 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Employment of hotel and motel desk clerks is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as more hotels, motels, and other lodging establishments are built and as occupancy rates rise. Employment of hotel and motel desk clerks should be favorably affected by an increase in business and leisure travel. Shifts in travel preference away from long vacations and toward long weekends and other, more frequent, short trips also should increase demand. However, changes within the hotel and motel industry are ex pected to somewhat slow the growth of desk clerk employment. Expansion of smaller budget hotels and less construction of larger, luxury establishments with big staffs should result in slower em ployment growth in the occupation than in the past. Also, new technology that automates guest check-in and check-out—an effort to cut labor costs while moving towards more efficient service—will require fewer desk clerks to be on duty at peak arrival and departure times. 268 Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment of desk clerks is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, vacation and business travel declines and hotels and motels need fewer clerks. Sources of Additional Information Information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings appears in the Information clerks introduction to this sec tion. Information on careers in the lodging industry, as well as infor mation about professional development and training programs, may be obtained from: •"The Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Motel Association, P.O. Box 1240, East Lansing, MI 48826-1240. Interviewing and New Accounts Clerks address, age, medical history, present medications, previous hospi talizations, religion, persons to notify in case of emergency, attending physician, and the party responsible for payment. They may assign patients to rooms and summon escorts to conduct patients to the rooms; sometimes they may escort patients themselves. Using a computer, they prepare admitting and discharge records and route them to the appropriate departments. They also may bill patients, receive payments, and answer the telephone. In an outpatient setting, they schedule appointments, keep track of cancellations, and provide general information about care. Interviewing clerks also conduct market research surveys and polls for research firms. They ask individuals questions on such topics as their occupation and earnings, political preferences, buying habits, or customer satisfaction. Market research is not limited to the consumer market, but also includes executive, medical, and industrial research. No selling is involved. Often reading from a prepared script, interviewers ask a carefully worded series of questions, record the responses, and forward the results to management. (D.O.T. 205.362-018, -026, -030, .367-014, -026, -042, -054, and -058) Nature of the Work Interviewing and new accounts clerks obtain information from people by mail, by telephone, or in person that organizations need to enable individuals to open bank accounts, gain admission to medical facilities, participate in consumer surveys, and complete various other forms. They solicit and verify information, create files, and perform various processing tasks. The specific duties and job titles of these workers depend upon the type of employer. New accounts clerks also are known as customer service repre sentatives. They work for financial institutions such as commercial banks, credit unions, and savings and loan associations. They inter view people who want to open a checking or savings account and record the data directly into a computer. They must be familiar with the products and services of the bank for which they work since it is their job to explain the increasing array of financial services that are available. They help people fill out enrollment forms for special services, such as automated teller machine (ATM) cards. They also may answer telephone inquiries about bank services or procedures for opening or closing accounts. (Bank tellers, who also may per form customer service representative duties, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Many interviewing clerks work in hospitals, doctors' offices, and other health care facilities, where they are also known as admitting interviewers. They interview patients to obtain all preliminary information required for admission, such as the patient's name, Employment Interviewing and new accounts clerks held about 183,000 jobs in 1994. More than 6 out of 10 were employed by commercial banks and other depository institutions. Most of the rest worked in hospi tals and other health-care facilities, while a small number of clerks worked for market research firms in the business services industry. About 1 of every 4 interviewing clerks worked part time. Job Outlook Overall employment of interviewing and new accounts clerks is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005, but growth rates will vary by industry. Op portunities will be best for applicants with a broad range of job skills. Employment of interviewing clerks in the health services industry is expected to grow as fast as the average. As hospitals consolidate their staffs, however, the duties of admitting interviewers should expand. Additionally, much faster than average employment growth of interviewing clerks will occur in personnel supply services, as more organizations contract out for the services of these types of clerks rather than support a full-time staff. On the other hand, almost no employment growth is expected for new accounts clerks, reflect ing the general lack of employment growth among commercial banks and savings and loan institutions as consolidation, electronic bank ing, and ATM technology decrease the role of branch offices. Sources of Additional Information Information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings appears in the Information clerks introduction to this section. State employment service offices can provide information about employment opportunities. A brochure on careers in banking, including information on new accounts clerks, referred to as customer service representatives in the brochure, is available from: •“American Bankers Association Education Foundation, 1120 Connecticut Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20036. Receptionists (D.O.T. 203.362-014; 205.367-038; 237.267, .367-010, -018, -022, -026, -038, -042, -046, and -050; 238.367-022 and -034; 249.262 and .367-082) Interviewing clerks often readfrom a prepared script on a computer screen when asking individuals questions about topics such as cus tomer satisfaction. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work All organizations want to make a good first impression, and this is the job of the receptionist, who is often the first representative of the organization that a visitor encounters. In addition to traditional Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical 269 occupations, seeking better pay or career advancement, or who leave the labor force altogether. Opportunities should be best for persons with a wide range of clerical skills and experience. Many receptionists also perform secretarial duties and often employers look to hire receptionists with good word processing and computer skills, coupled with strong interpersonal and communications skills. The demand for receptionists may be tempered somewhat by the increasing use of voice mail and other telephone automation. Where several receptionists may have been required to answer the com pany's telephones in the past, voice mail now makes it possible for one person to do the job of many. Since establishments need someone to perform their duties even during economic downturns, receptionists are less subject to layoffs during recessions than other clerical workers. Many receptionists are expected to perform secretarial duties when they are not busy with callers. duties such as answering telephones, routing calls to the appropriate individuals, and greeting visitors, a receptionist may serve a security function—monitoring the access of visitors and determining who belongs and who does not. Receptionists generally are expected to answer questions from the public and provide information about the organization. Their day-to day duties, however, can vary depending upon where they work. Receptionists in hospitals and doctors' offices may obtain personal and financial information and direct patients to the proper waiting rooms. At beauty or hair salons, they arrange appointments, direct customers to the hairstylist, and also may serve as cashier—taking payments for services and products. In factories, large corporations, and government offices, they may provide identification cards and arrange for escorts to take visitors to the proper office. Those work ing for bus and train companies respond to inquiries about depar tures, arrivals, stops, and related matters. Increasingly, receptionists use multiline telephone systems, personal computers, and facsimile (fax) machines. Many reception ists take messages and may inform other employees of a yisitors' arrival or cancellation of an appointment. When they are not busy with callers, they may be expected to perform a variety of secretarial duties including opening and sorting mail, collecting and distributing parcels, making fax transmittals and deliveries, updating appointment calendars, preparing travel vouchers, and doing simple bookkeeping, typing, and filing. Employment Receptionists held about 1,019,000 jobs in 1994, accounting for over two-thirds of all information clerk jobs. More than two-thirds of all receptionists worked in services industries, and almost half of these were located in the health services industry—doctors' and dentists' offices, hospitals, nursing homes, urgent care centers, surgical cen ters, and clinics. Manufacturing, wholesale and retail trade, govern ment, and real estate industries also employed large numbers of receptionists. About 3 of every 10 receptionists worked part time. Job Outlook Job opportunities for receptionists should be plentiful due to strong employment growth and high turnover. Employment of receptionists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 because so many receptionists work for firms in services industries—industries that include physician's offices, law firms, temporary help agencies, and consulting firms and that are expected to continue to show strong growth. In addition to openings from growth, several hundred thousand openings are expected each year from the need to replace receptionists who transfer to other https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information Information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings appears in the Information clerks introduction to this sec tion. State employment offices can provide information on job open ings for receptionists. Reservation and Transportation Ticket Agents and Travel Clerks (D.O.T. 214.362-030; 238.167, .362, .367-010, -014, -018, -026, -030; and 248.382) Nature of the Work Each year, millions of Americans travel by plane, train, ship, bus, and automobile. When they make reservations for travel or accom modations, purchase tickets, or check their luggage, they deal with reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks. Most reservation agents work for large hotel chains or airlines helping people plan trips and make reservations. They usually work in large central offices answering telephone inquiries and offering suggestions on travel arrangements such as routes, time schedules, rates, and types of accommodation. They quote fares and room rates, make and confirm transportation and hotel reservations, and sell tickets. Agents use computer terminals to quickly obtain information needed to make, change, or cancel reservations for customers. After a ticket has been purchased, they arrange for it to be sent to or picked up by the traveler. Transportation ticket agents sometimes are known as passenger service agents, passenger-booking clerks, reservation clerks, ticket clerks, or ticket sellers. They work in airports, train, and bus stations selling tickets, assigning seats to passengers, and checking baggage. In addition, they may answer inquiries and give directions, examine passports and visas, or check in animals. Other ticket agents, more commonly known as gate or station agents, work in airport terminals assisting passengers when boarding airplanes. They direct passen gers to the correct boarding area, check tickets and seat assignments, make boarding announcements, and provide special assistance to young, elderly, or disabled passengers when they board or disem bark. Passenger rate clerks work for bus companies. They sell tickets for regular bus routes and arrange nonscheduled or chartered trips. They plan travel routes, compute rates, and keep customers informed of appropriate details. They also may arrange travel accommoda tions. Most travel clerks are employed by automobile clubs. These workers, sometimes called member services counselors or travel counselors, plan trips, calculate mileage, and offer travel suggestions for club members. They highlight the best route from the point of 270 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information Information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings appears in the Information clerks introduction to this sec tion. For information about job opportunities as reservation and trans portation ticket agents and travel clerks, write the personnel manager of individual transportation companies. Addresses of airlines are available from: •"Air Transport Association of America, 1301 Pennsylvania Ave. NW„ Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20004-1707. A brochure describing airline jobs is available from: •"Air Line Employees Association, Job Opportunity Program, 6520 South Cicero Ave., Chicago, IL 60638. Mail Clerks and Messengers In addition to selling tickets, transportation ticket agents assign seats, check baggage, and answer inquiries. (D.O.T. 209.587-018 and .687-026; 215.563; 222.367-022, .387-038, .567-018, and .587-030 and -032; 230.647-010 and .663-010; 239.567, .677, and .687; 243.367-010; 248.367-030; and 249.687-010) origin to the destination, as well as the return. They also may pre pare an itinerary which indicates points of interest, restaurants, overnight accommodations, and availability of emergency services during the trip. In some cases, they may make rental car, hotel, or restaurant reservations for club members. Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks must be knowledgeable about their companies' policies and about industry procedures. They must be able to use computers to ascertain the availability of special promotions or services, reservation infor mation, and find answers to any questions customers may have. Nature of the Work Mail clerks and messengers help businesses, institutions, and gov ernment agencies run efficiently by moving and distributing infor mation, documents, and small packages. Most large organizations employ mail clerks to handle their internal mail. Internal mail goes back and forth among people, offices, or departments within a firm or institution. It ranges from memos to key personnel to bulletins on job issues to all employees. Mail clerks sort internal mail and deliver it to their fellow employees, often using carts to carry the mail between offices. Mail clerks also handle external mail, serving as the link between the U.S. Postal Service and individual offices and workers. They sort incoming mail and deliver mail within large office buildings. They also prepare outgoing mail—which may range from advertising flyers, to customers' orders, to legal documents—for delivery to the post office. To facilitate delivery of outgoing mail, mail clerks often determine if the mail is to be sent registered, certified, special deliv ery, or .first, second, third, or fourth class, and may group mailings by ZIP code. When necessary, they contact delivery services to send important letters or parcels. In larger organizations, or organizations with a large volume of outgoing mail, mail clerks often operate machines which collate, fold, and insert material to be mailed into envelopes. They also operate machines which affix postage. In addition, mail clerks increasingly use computers to keep records of incoming and outgoing items. Messengers pick up and deliver letters, important business docu ments, or packages which need to be sent or received in a hurry from within a local area. By sending an item by messenger, the sender ensures that it reaches its destination the same day or even within the hour. Messengers, also called couriers, also deliver items which the sender is unwilling to entrust to other means of delivery, such as important legal or financial documents. Some messengers pick up and deliver important packages, such as medical samples to be tested. Messengers receive their instructions either by reporting to their office in person, by telephone, or by two-way radio. They then pick up the item and carry it to its destination. After a delivery, they check with their office and receive instructions about the next deliv ery. Consequently, most messengers spend most of their time out doors or in their vehicle. Messengers usually maintain records of deliveries and often obtain signatures from the persons receiving the items. Most messengers deliver items within a limited geographic area, such as a city or metropolitan area. Items which need to go longer distances usually are sent by mail or by an overnight delivery service. Some messengers carry items only for their employer, Employment Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks held about 139,000 jobs in 1994. More than 2 of every 3 workers are employed by the airlines. Others work for membership organizations like automobile clubs, hotels and other lodging places, railroad companies, bus lines, and other companies that provide transporta tion services. Although agents and clerks are found throughout the country, most work at large metropolitan airports, downtown ticket and reservation offices, large reservation centers, as well as train and bus stations. The remainder work in smaller communities served only by intercity bus or railroad lines. Job Outlook Applicants for reservation and transportation ticket agent jobs are likely to encounter considerable competition because the supply of qualified applicants exceeds the expected number of job openings. Entry requirements for these jobs are minimal and many people seeking to get into the airline industry or travel business often start out in these types of positions. Also, these jobs provide excellent travel benefits and many people view airline jobs as glamorous. Employment of reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks is expected to decline slightly through the year 2005. The work of these occupations is being affected significantly by technology. Automated reservations and ticketing, as well as "ticketless" travel, reduces the need for some of these positions. Nevertheless, job openings will become available as workers transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force altogether. Employment of reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, discretionary passenger travel declines and transportation service companies are less likely to hire new workers and even may resort to layoffs. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical 271 OLLpA’: H§S» j Messengers often use bicycles in congested urban areas. which typically might be a law firm, bank, or financial institution. Other messengers may act as part of an organization’s internal mail system and mainly carry items between an organization's buildings or entirely within one building. Many messengers work for messenger or courier services; for a fee they pick up items from anyone and deliver them to specified destinations within a local area. Messengers reach their destination by several methods. Many drive vans or cars or ride motorcycles. A few travel by foot, espe cially in urban areas or when making deliveries nearby. In congested urban areas, messengers often use bicycles, since this is the fastest way to travel in heavy traffic. Bicycle messengers usually are em ployed by messenger or courier services. Although fax machines and computerized electronic mail (e-mail) can deliver information faster than messengers, for many types of business transactions an elec tronic copy cannot substitute for the original document. Working Conditions Working conditions for mail clerks are much different from the working conditions for most messengers. Most mail clerks work regular hours, spending much of their time in mailrooms, which are usually located in office buildings. Most of the rest of their time is spent making mail deliveries throughout an office building. Al though mailrooms are usually clean and well lighted, there may be noise from mail-handling machines. While sorting and delivering mail and operating machinery, mail clerks spend most of their time on their feet, which can be tiring and physically demanding. They are sometimes required to lift heavy objects or operate a motor vehicle to make deliveries and pick-ups. Messengers work in a less structured environment than mail clerks because they spend most of their time alone making deliveries and usually are not closely supervised. Although many messengers work full time during regular business hours, some messengers work nights and weekends. Messengers who deliver by bicycle must be physically fit and are exposed to all weather conditions as well as the many hazards con nected with heavy traffic. The pressure to make as many deliveries as possible to increase earnings can be stressful and may lead to unsafe driving or bicycling practices. Employment Messengers and mail clerks together held about 260,000 jobs in 1994; about 127,000 were mail clerks and 133,000 were messengers. About 12 percent of the messengers were employed by trucking and warehousing companies, another 15 percent worked for law firms, and 16 percent worked for hospitals and medical and dental labora tories. Financial institutions, such as commercial banks, saving https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis institutions, and credit unions, employed 7 percent. The rest were employed in a wide variety of other industries. In 1994, about 19 percent of all mail clerks worked in Federal, State, and local governments. Others were employed in a wide range of industries. Technically, many messengers are self-employed inde pendent contractors because they provide their vehicles and set their own schedules to a certain extent, but in many respects they are like employees since they usually work for one company. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are no formal qualifications or training required to be a mail clerk or messenger, although some employers prefer high school graduates. This is a first job for many. Mail clerks must be careful and dependable workers. They must be able to do routine work and work well with their hands. They are usually trained on the job. If they operate computers and mail handling machinery to help prepare mailings, training may be pro vided by another employee or by a representative of the machinery manufacturer. Mail clerks are sometimes required to have a driver's license if they make deliveries to other buildings. Messengers who work as independent contractors for a messenger or delivery service may be required to have a valid drivers license, a registered and inspected vehicle, a good driving record, and insur ance coverage. Many messengers who are employees, not independ ent contractors, are also required to provide and maintain their own vehicle. A good knowledge of the geographic area in which they travel as well as a good sense of direction are also important. Some mail clerks, depending on the size of the operation, advance to positions as clerical staff supervisors or office managers. Other mail clerks transfer to related jobs with the U.S. Postal Service, if they pass the competitive entrance examination. (Information on postal clerk and mail carrier careers appears elsewhere in the Hand book.) Messengers, especially those who work for messenger or courier services, have limited advancement opportunities. Job Outlook Employment of mail clerks and messengers is expected to decline through the year 2005 despite an increasing volume of internal mail, parcels, business documents, promotional materials, and other writ ten information that must be handled and delivered as the economy expands. Nevertheless, job openings are expected to be plentiful for mail clerks and messengers through the year 2005 and will stem from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Mail clerk and messenger jobs are attractive to many persons seeking their first job or a short-term source of income because the limited formal education and training requirements allow easy entry. This is espe cially true for messengers, many of whom work in this occupation a relatively short time. Businesses' growing reliance on directly mailing advertising and promotional materials to prospective customers will result in increas ing amounts of mail to be handled. However, increasing automation of mail-handling will enable mail clerks to handle a growing volume of mail. In addition, employment of mail clerks will be limited by more widespread use of robot mail carts to distribute mail in large office buildings. Employment of messengers will grow slowly as new electronic information-handling technology comes into more widespread use. Fax machines, for example, allow copies of documents to be imme diately sent across town or across the country and have become standard office equipment. The transmission of information through telephone lines between computers (e-mail) will also reduce the demand for messengers as more computers are connected to net works. However, messengers will still be needed to transoort mate rials which cannot be sent electronically, such as legal documents, blueprints and other over-sized materials, large multipage docu ments, and securities. Also, messengers will still be required by medical and dental laboratories to pick up and deliver medical sam ples, specimens, and other materials. 272 Occupational Outlook Handbook Earnings Median weekly earnings of full-time mail clerks were about $322 in 1994; the middle 50 percent earned between $254 and $437 a week. Median weekly earnings of full-time messengers were about $338. The middle 50 percent of messengers earned between $269 and $515 a week. Messengers occasionally receive tips from clients, but this is not a significant part of their earnings. Some messengers are paid by commission rather than earning a regular wage. The commission usually is based on the number of deliveries made, the distance traveled, and the fee charged to the customer. They must provide their own transportation and must pay fuel and maintenance costs. The more deliveries they make and the faster they travel, the more they earn. Unlike other messengers, they are independent contractors and therefore seldom receive paid vaca tions, sick leave, health insurance, or other benefits from the messen ger or delivery company. Messengers working for employers other than messenger and courier services usually are paid by the hour and receive the benefits offered to all employees. Mail clerks are usually paid by the hour and benefits often include health and life insurance, sick leave, vacation pay, and pension plan. Related Occupations Messengers and mail clerks sort and deliver letters, parcels, and other items. They also keep accurate records of their work. Others who do similar work are postal clerks and mail carriers, route drivers, traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks, and parcel post clerks. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. Per sons interested in mail clerk and messenger jobs may also contact messenger and courier services, mail order firms, banks, printing and publishing firms, utility companies, retail stores, or other large firms. For information on training and certification programs in mail systems management, contact: ••Mail Systems Management Association, J.A.F. Building, P.O. Box 2155, New York, NY 10116-2155. Material Recording, Scheduling, Dispatching, and Distributing Occupations (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 478.) Nature of the Work Workers in this group are responsible for a variety of communica tions and recordkeeping operations in business and government. In general, they coordinate, expedite, and keep track of orders for personnel, equipment, and materials. Dispatchers receive requests for service and initiate action to provide that service. Duties vary, depending on the needs of the employer. Police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers, also called public safety dispatchers, handle calls from people reporting crimes, fires, and medical emergencies; truck, bus, and train dispatchers schedule and coordinate the movement of these vehicles to ensure that they arrive on schedule; taxicab dispatchers relay requests for cabs to individual drivers; tow truck dispatchers take calls for emergency road service; and utility company dispatchers handle calls related to utility and telephone service. Stock clerks receive, unpack, store, issue, and maintain an inven tory. The inventory may be merchandise in wholesale and retail establishments, and equipment, supplies, or materials in other kinds of organizations. In small firms, they may perform all of the above tasks, as well as those usually handled by shipping and receiving clerks. In large establishments, they may be responsible for only one task. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks keep track of all incoming and outgoing shipments of goods transferred between businesses, suppliers, and customers. Traffic clerks keep a record of destination, weight, and charges of all incoming and outgoing shipments. Ship ping clerks assemble, address, stamp, and ship merchandise or mate rials. Receiving clerks unpack, verify, and record incoming mer chandise. In a small company, one clerk may perform all of these tasks. More detail on these occupations is available in the statements that follow. Other administrative support occupations in this group include production, planning, and expediting clerks—who coordinate and expedite the flow of work and material according to production schedules; procurement clerks—who draw up purchase orders to obtain merchandise or material; weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers—who weigh, measure, and check materials; and utility meter readers—who read electric, gas, water, or steam meters and record the quantity used by their customers. Working Conditions Working conditions vary considerably by occupation and employ ment setting. Meter readers spend a good portion of their workday traveling around communities and neighborhoods taking readings, either directly or with remote reading equipment. The work of dispatchers can be very hectic when a large number of calls come in at the same time. The job of public safety dispatcher is particularly stressful because slow or improper response to a call can result in further destruction of property, serious injury, or death. Also, callers who are anxious or afraid may become hysterical and be unable to provide the needed information; some may even become abusive. Despite provocations, the dispatcher must remain calm, objective, and in control of the situation. Dispatchers work in surroundings that are typical of office jobs. They sit for long periods, often using telephones, computers, and two-way radios. If much time is spent at a video display terminal, as is increasingly common, they can experience eyestrain and back discomfort. Dispatchers generally work a standard 40-hour week. However, evening, weekend, and holiday work is common because many service providers operate around the clock. Some employers rotate dispatchers among three shifts to divide daytime, weekend, and holiday work equally. Traffic, shipping, receiving, and stock clerks work in a wide variety of businesses, institutions, and industries. Some work in warehouses, stock rooms, or in shipping and receiving rooms that may not be temperature controlled. Others may spend time in cold storage rooms or outside on loading platforms, where they are ex posed to the weather. Most jobs involve frequent standing, bending, walking, stretching, lifting, and carrying. Although many use me chanical material-handling equipment to move heavy items, the work still can be strenuous. The typical workweek is 40 hours, Monday through Friday, although evening and weekend hours are standard for some jobs and may be required in others when large shipments are involved or when inventory is taken. Employment In 1994, material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing workers held about 3,556,000 million jobs. Employment was dis tributed among the occupations in this group as follows: Total.............................................................................................. 3,556,000 Stock clerks...................................................................................... 1,759,000 Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks............................................. 798,000 Production, planning, and expediting clerks.................................... 239,000 Dispatchers....................................................................................... 224,000 Order fillers, wholesale and retail sales............................................ 215,000 Procurement clerks............................................................................ 57,000 Meter readers, utilities....................................................................... 57,000 Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers.................................. 45,000 Allother........................................................................................... 161,000 Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical 273 Nearly 3 out of 4 material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing jobs were in manufacturing and wholesale and retail trade. Although these workers are found throughout the country, most work near population centers where stores, warehouses, facto ries, and large communications centers are concentrated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer to hire high school graduates, especially those who have taken business courses. Preference also may be given to candi dates who have previous business, dispatching, or specific job-related experience. Good reading and writing skills, as well as a basic know ledge of business arithmetic are necessary. Typing, filing, record keeping, and other clerical skills are also important. Some employers give applicants typing tests. Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks and stock clerks who handle jewelry, liquor, or drugs may have to be bonded. Police, fire, and ambulance dispatching jobs generally are governed by State or local government civil service regulations. Candidates for these jobs may have to pass written, oral, and performance tests. A familiarity with personal computers or computer systems is an asset, because computers are increasingly used for inventory control and for dis patching. Trainees usually develop the necessary skills on the job. This informal training lasts from several days to a few months, depending on the complexity of the job. Dispatchers usually require the most extensive training. Working under an experienced dispatcher, they monitor calls and learn how to operate telephones, radio transmitters and receivers, radio consoles, teletypewriters, and data communica tions terminals. As trainees gain confidence, they begin to handle calls themselves. Many public safety dispatchers also participate in structured training programs provided by their employer. Some employers offer a course designed by the Associated Public Safety Communications Officers (APCO). This course covers topics such as interpersonal communications; overview of the police, fire, and rescue functions; modem public safety telecommunications systems; basic radio broadcasting; local, State, and national crime information computer systems; and telephone complaint/report processing proce dures. Other employers develop in-house programs based on their own needs. Emergency medical dispatchers often get special training or have special skills. Some agencies bring in trained paramedics or nurses to work as dispatchers, but because this is so costly, many agencies expand the training of their dispatchers to include instruc tion on how to help callers begin appropriate lifesaving procedures while trained professionals are on their way. Although there are no mandatory licensing or certification re quirements, some States require that public safety dispatchers possess a certificate to work on a State network such as the Police Informa tion Network. Voluntary certification programs are offered by both APCO and the International Municipal Signal Association. Many dispatchers participate in these programs in order to improve their prospects for career advancement. Stock clerks and traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks usually learn the job by doing simple tasks under close supervision. They learn how to count and mark stock and then start keeping records and taking inventory. Stock clerks whose sole responsibility is to bring merchandise to the sales floor and stock shelves and racks need little or no training. Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks start out by checking items to be shipped and then attaching labels and making sure the addresses are correct. Training in the use of automated equipment is usually done informally on the job. Communications skills and the ability to work under pressure are important personal qualities for dispatchers. Residency in the city or county of employment is frequently required for public safety dis patchers. Dispatchers in transportation industries must be able to deal with sudden influxes of shipments and disruptions of shipping schedules caused by bad weather, road construction, or accidents. Strength, stamina, good eyesight, and an ability to work at repetitive tasks, sometimes under pressure, are important characteristics for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis stock clerks and traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks. Advancement opportunities vary with the place of employment. Dispatchers who work for private firms, which are usually small, will find few opportunities for advancement. Public safety dispatchers, on the other hand, may become a shift or divisional supervisor or chief of communications, or move to higher paying administrative jobs. Some go on to become police officers or firefighters. In large firms, stock clerks can advance to invoice clerk, stock control clerk, or procurement clerk. Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks are promoted to head clerk, and those with a broad understanding of shipping and receiving may enter a related field such as industrial traffic management. With additional training, some stock clerks and traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks advance to jobs as warehouse manager or purchasing agent. Job Outlook Overall employment of material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing workers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Employment growth among the occupations in this group is expected to vary, however. Employment of stock clerks is expected to grow more slowly than the average. The volume of business transactions will increase as the economy grows, but automation will enable clerks to handle more stock, holding down employment growth somewhat. The effect of automation will be greatest in warehouses and stock rooms. Employment of traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks is also expected to grow more slowly than the average as automation and other productivity improvements will enable these clerks to handle materials more efficiently, reducing potential employment opportu nities. Employment of dispatchers is expected to grow about as fast as the average as the population increases and with it the need to protect property and to coordinate the transportation and shipment of a larger amount of goods. Because employment in material recording, scheduling, dispatch ing, and distributing occupations is substantial, workers who leave the labor force or transfer to other occupations are expected to create many job openings each year. Earnings Median weekly earnings of workers in all material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations were $402 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $297 and $555. The lowest 10 percent earned $231 or less; the top 10 percent earned over $713. Earnings vary somewhat by occupation and industry. Dispatchers earn slightly more than the average for these occupations, and stock clerks and traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks generally earn less. Median weekly earnings of dispatchers were $405 in 1994, whereas the median weekly earnings of traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks and stock clerks were $383 and $394, respectively, in 1994. Workers in material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations usually receive the same benefits as most other workers. If uniforms are required, employers usually either provide the uniforms or an allowance to purchase them. Dispatchers (D.O.T. 184.167-010, -262; 215.167, .367-018; 221.362-014, .367-070, -082; 239.167- 014; .367-014, -022, -030; 248.367-026; 249.167-014, .367-070; 372.167- 010; 379.162; .362-010, and -018; 579.137-030; 910.167-014, .367-018; 911.167; 913.167-010; .367; 914.167-014; 919.162; 932.167; 939.362-010; 952.167-010; 953.167; 954.367; 955.167; and 959.167) Nature of the Work The work of dispatchers varies greatly depending on the industry in which they work. 274 Occupational Outlook Handbook Police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers, also called public safety dispatchers, are usually the first people the public talks to when they call for emergency assistance. Dispatchers receive these calls in a variety of settings; they may work in a police station, a fire station, a hospital, or a centralized city communications center. In many cities, the police department serves as the communications center. In these situations, all 911 emergency calls go to the police department where a dispatcher handles the police calls and screens the others before transferring them to the appropriate service. When handling a call, dispatchers carefully question the caller to determine the type, seriousness, and location of the emergency. They then quickly decide on the kind and number of units needed, locate the closest and most suitable ones available, and send them to the scene of the emergency. They keep in touch with the units until the emergency has been handled, in case further instructions are needed. When appropriate, they stay in close contact with other service providers—for example, a police dispatcher would monitor the response of the fire department when there is a major fire. In a medical emergency, dispatchers not only keep in close touch with the dispatched units but also with the caller. They may give extensive pre-arrival first aid instructions while the caller is waiting for the ambulance. They continuously give updates on the patient's condi tion to the ambulance personnel and often serve as a link between the medical staff in a hospital and the emergency medical technicians in the ambulance. (The work of emergency medical technicians is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) Truck dispatchers who work for local and long distance trucking companies coordinate the movement of trucks and freight between cities. They direct the pickup and delivery activities of drivers. They receive customers' requests for pickup and delivery of freight, con solidate freight into truckloads for specific destinations, assign drivers and trucks, make up routes and pickup and delivery sched ules, and provide other information. Bus dispatchers make sure that local and long distance buses stay on schedule. They handle all problems that may disrupt service and dispatch other buses or ar range for repairs to restore service and schedules. Train dispatchers are responsible for the timely movement of trains according to train orders and schedules. They must be aware of track switch positions * .. j-ifr Most police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers work for State or local governments. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and the location of other trains running on the track. Taxicab dis patchers, or starters, dispatch taxis in response to requests for service and keep logs on all road service calls. Tow truck dispatchers take calls for emergency road service. They relay the problem to a nearby service station or a tow truck service and see to it that the emergency road service is completed. Gas and water service dispatchers moni tor gas lines and water mains and send out service trucks and crews to take care of emergencies. Other dispatchers coordinate deliveries, service calls, and related activities for a variety of firms. Regardless of where they work, all dispatchers keep records, logs, and schedules of the calls they receive and the actions they take. They may type and file cards on each call and then prepare detailed reports on all activities occurring during their shift. Those who work with a computer-aided dispatch system make the appropriate entries and corrections into the computer as they occur, and then print a log or report at the end of their shift. Many police, ambulance, taxicab, and tow truck dispatchers work as part of a two-person team. One person usually receives incoming calls while the other dispatches and follows up on them. This is commonplace in large communications centers or companies. Employment Dispatchers held over 224,000 jobs in 1994. About one-third were police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers, almost all of whom worked for State and local governments—primarily for local police and fire departments. Most of the remaining dispatchers worked for local and long distance trucking companies and bus lines; telephone, electric, and gas utility companies; wholesale and retail establishments; railroads; and companies providing business services. Although dispatching jobs are found throughout the country, most dispatchers work in urban areas where large communications centers and businesses are located. Job Outlook Overall employment of dispatchers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 due to the growing need for the various services that dispatchers provide. Most job openings will result from the need to replace those who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment of police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers is ex pected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations. Increasingly intense competition among government functions for available resources should limit the ability of many growing com munities to keep pace with rapidly growing emergency services needs. Although population growth and economic expansion are ex pected to increase overall employment of other dispatchers not involved in public safety, not all specialties will be affected in the same way. Employment of taxicab, train, and truck dispatchers is sensitive to economic conditions. When economic activity falls, demand for transportation services declines. They may experience layoffs or a shortened workweek, and jobseekers may have some difficulty finding entry-level jobs. Employment of tow truck dis patchers, on the other hand, is seldom affected by general economic conditions because of the emergency nature of their business. Computerization is making inroads into all areas of dispatching, increasing productivity and dampening employment growth some what. However, computer-aided dispatch systems are very expen sive, making them affordable only to relatively large establishments. Related Occupations Other occupations that involve directing and controlling the move ment of vehicles, freight, and personnel, as well as information and message distribution, are airline-radio operators, airline dispatchers, air traffic controllers, radio and television transmitter operators, telephone operators, customer service representatives, and transpor tation agents. Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical 275 Sources of Additional Information For further information on training for police, fire, and emergency dispatchers contact: •■Associated Public Safety Communications Officers, 2040 S. Ridgewood, South Daytona, FL 32119-8437. •"International Municipal Signal Association, 165 East Union St., P.O. Box 539, Newark, NY 14513-1526. For general information on dispatchers contact: •"Service Employees International Union, AFL-CIO; CLC, 1313 L St. NW., Washington, DC 20005-4100. •"American Train Dispatchers Association, 1370 Ontario St., Cleveland, OH 44113. Information on job opportunities for police, fire, and emergency dispatchers is available from the personnel offices of State and local governments or police departments. Information about work oppor tunities for other types of dispatchers is available from local employ ers and State employment service offices. (Information on training and earnings is in the introduction to material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations.) Stock Clerks (D.O.T. 219.367-018, .387-026 and -030; 221.587-018 and -022; 222.167, .367-014, -026, -038, -042, -050, and -062, .387-018, -026, -030, -034, -042, -058, and -062, .487, .587-022 and -054, .684, .687-038 and -046; 229.367, .587-014; 249.367-058; 299.367-014, .677-014; 339.687; 381.687-010; and 969.367) Nature of the Work Stock clerks receive, unpack, check, store, and keep track of mer chandise or materials. They keep records of items entering or leav ing the stock room and report damaged or spoiled goods. They organize and, when necessary, mark items with identifying codes or prices so that inventories can be located quickly and easily. In many firms, stock clerks use hand-held scanners, which they can connect to computers to keep inventories up to date. In stores, stock clerks bring merchandise to the sales floor and stock shelves and racks. In stockrooms and warehouses, they store materials in bins, on the floor, or on shelves. In large establishments where they may be responsible for only one specific task, they may be known as inventory clerk, stock control clerk, merchandise distributor, order filler, property custodian, or storekeeper. In small firms they may also be responsi ble for tasks usually handled by shipping and receiving clerks. Employment Stock clerks held about 1,759,000 jobs in 1994 with almost 80 per cent working in wholesale or retail trade. The greatest numbers were employed by department and grocery stores. Jobs for stock clerks are found in all parts of the country, but most work in urban areas where stores, warehouses, and factories are concentrated. Job Outlook Job prospects for stock clerks should be favorable even though employment is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. This occupation is very large, and many job openings will occur each year to replace those who transfer to other jobs or leave the labor force. Many jobs are entry level, and therefore vacancies are also created by normal career progression. , Growing use of computers for inventory control and new auto mated equipment are expected to slow growth in demand for stock clerks. This is especially true in manufacturing and in wholesale trade, the industries whose operations are most easily automated. In addition to computerized inventory control systems, firms in these industries are expected to rely more and more on sophisticated conveyor belts, automatic high stackers to store and retrieve goods, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Computerized inventory control systems are expected to slow the growth of stock clerks. and automatic guided vehicles, which are battery powered and driverless. Employment of stock clerks who work in grocery, general mer chandise, department, apparel, and accessories stores is expected to be somewhat less affected by automation since much of their work is done manually on the sales floor and is difficult to automate. Related Occupations Other workers who also handle, move, organize, and store materials include shipping and receiving clerks, distributing clerks, routing clerks, stock supervisors, and cargo checkers. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for stock clerks. Also, see clerical and sales occupations elsewhere in the Handbook for sources of additional information. General information about stock clerks can be obtained by con tacting: •"National Retail Federation, 701 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20004-2608. (Information on training and earnings is in the introduction to material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations.) 276 Occupational Outlook Handbook Traffic, Shipping, and Receiving Clerks (D.O.T. 209.367-042; 214.587-014; 219.367-022 and -030; 221.367-022; 222.367-066, .387-014, -022, -050, and -054, .485, .567-010 and -014, .587-018, -034, and -058, .687-022 and -030; 248.362-010, .367-014 and -022; 919.687-010; and 976.687-018) Nature of the Work Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks keep records of all goods shipped and received. Their duties depend on the size of the estab lishment. In a small company, one clerk may be responsible for accepting deliveries, preparing shipments, and maintaining records. In a large company, the responsibilities are usually divided among several clerks who have specialized duties. Traffic clerks maintain records on the destination, weight, and charges on all incoming and outgoing freight. They sometimes enter this information into a computer to be used by the accounting and other departments within the firm. They make sure that the rate charges are accurate by comparing the classification of materials with rate charts. They also keep a file of claims for overcharges and for damage to goods in transit. Shipping clerks are record keepers responsible for all outgoing shipments. They prepare shipping documents and mailing labels, and make sure orders have been filled correctly. They also record items taken from inventory and note when orders were filled. Sometimes they fill the order themselves; obtaining merchandise from the stock room and wrapping it or packing it in shipping containers. They also address and label packages, look up and compute freight or postal rates, and record the weight and cost of each shipment. Sometimes they prepare invoices and furnish information about shipments to another part of the company, such as the accounting department. Once a shipment is checked and ready to go, shipping clerks may move the goods from the plant—sometimes by forklift truck—to the shipping dock and direct its loading. When shipments arrive, receiving clerks perform tasks similar to those of shipping clerks. They determine whether their employer's orders have been correctly filled by verifying incoming shipments against the original order and the accompanying bill of lading or invoice. They record the shipment and the condition of its contents. In many firms, receiving clerks record the information by using hand-held scanners to read the bar codes on incoming products. They then connect the scanner or reader to a personal computer and transfer the data to the appropriate department. Depending on the computer system used, this information is then compared with the information transferred from a similar type of scanner used by the truck driver. The shipment is checked for any discrepancies in quantity, price, and discounts. Receiving clerks may route or move shipments to the proper department, warehouse section, or stock room. They also arrange for adjustments with shippers whenever merchandise is lost or damaged. Shipping and receiving clerks in small businesses may also perform some stock clerk duties. Employment Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks held about 798,000 jobs in 1994. Nearly 3 out of every 4 were employed by wholesale or retail establishments, or manufacturing firms. Although jobs for traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks are found throughout the country, most clerks work in urban areas, where factories and wholesale establish ments generally are located. Many traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks work for the U.S. Postal Service. For information on these workers, see the statement on postal clerks and mail carriers, else where in the Handbook. Job Outlook Employment of traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Employment growth will continue to be affected by automation, as all but the smallest firms move to hold down labor costs by using computers to store and retrieve shipping and receiving records. Methods of materials handling have changed significantly in recent years. Large warehouses are increasingly automated, using equipment such as computerized conveyor systems, robots, com puter-directed trucks, and automatic storage and retrieval systems. Automation, coupled with the growing use of hand-held scanners and personal computers in receiving departments has increased the productivity of these workers. Despite automation, job openings will arise due to increasing economic activity and because certain functions cannot be auto mated. For example, someone needs to check shipments before they go out and when they arrive to ensure that everything is in order. However, most job openings will occur because of the need to re place traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks who leave the occupa tion. Because this is an entry level occupation, vacancies are also created by normal career progression. Related Occupations Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks record, check, and often store the materials that a company receives. They also process and pack goods for shipment. Other workers who perform similar duties are stock clerks, material clerks, distributing clerks, routing clerks, express clerks, expediters, and order fillers. , Sources of Additional Information General information about traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks can be obtained by contacting: ••National Retail Federation, 701 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20004-2608. Shipping clerks prepare shipping documents and mailing labels and make sure orders have been filled correctly. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis (Information on training and earnings is in the introduction to material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupa tions.) Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical 277 Postal Clerks and Mail Carriers (D.O.T. 209.687-014; 230.363-010, .367-010; 239.367-018; and 243.367-014) Nature of the Work Each day, the U.S. Postal Service receives, sorts, and delivers mil lions of letters, bills, advertisements, and packages. To do this, it employs about 818,000 workers. Almost 6 out of 10 of these work ers are either postal clerks, who sort mail and serve customers in post offices, or mail carriers, who deliver the mail. Clerks and carriers are distinguished by the type of work they do. Clerks are usually classified by the mail processing function they perform, whereas carriers are classified by their type of route—city or rural. About 350 mail processing centers throughout the country service post offices in surrounding areas and are staffed primarily by postal clerks. Some clerks, more commonly referred to as mail handlers, unload the sacks of incoming mail; separate letters, parcel post, magazines, and newspapers; and transport these to the proper sorting and processing area. In addition, they may load mail into automated letter sorting machines, perform postage canceling operations, and rewrap packages damaged in processing. After letters have been put through stamp-canceling machines, they are taken to other workrooms to be sorted according to destina tion. Clerks operating older electronic letter-sorting machines push keys corresponding to the ZIP code of the local post office to which each letter will be delivered; the machine then drops the letters into the proper slots. This older, less automated method of letter sorting is being slowly phased out. Other clerks sort odd-sized letters, magazines, and newspapers by hand. Finally, the mail is sent to local post offices for sorting according to delivery route and delivered. A growing proportion of clerks operate optical character readers (OCR's) and bar code sorters. Optical character readers "read” the zip code and spray a bar code onto the mail. Bar code sorters then scan the code and sort the mail. Because this is significantly faster than older sorting methods, it is becoming the standard sorting tech nology in mail processing centers. Postal clerks at local post offices sort local mail for delivery to individual customers; sell stamps, money orders, postal stationary, and mailing envelopes and boxes; weigh packages to determine postage; and check that packages are in satisfactory condition for mailing. Increasingly, mail is being sorted in delivery route sequence by machines. Clerks also register, certify, and insure mail and an swer questions about postage rates, post office boxes, mailing re strictions, and other postal matters. They also may help customers file claims for damaged packages. Once the mail has been processed and sorted, it is ready to be delivered by mail carriers. Duties of city and rural carriers are very similar. Most travel established routes delivering and collecting mail. Mail carriers start work at the post office early in the morning, where they spend a few hours arranging their mail in delivery se quence and taking care of other details. Recently, automated equip ment has begun to be used to sort most of the mail for city and rural carriers, allowing them to spend less time sorting and more time delivering mail. This sorting equipment should be used in most post offices by 1998. Carriers cover their routes on foot, by vehicle, or a combination of both. On foot, they carry a heavy load of mail in a satchel or push it in a cart. In some urban and most rural areas, they use a car or small truck. Although the Postal Service provides vehicles to city carriers, most rural carriers use their own automobiles. Deliveries are made house-to-house, to roadside mailboxes, and to large build ings, such as offices or apartments, which generally have all the mailboxes on the first floor. Besides delivering and collecting mail, carriers collect money for postage-due and c.o.d. (cash on delivery) fees and obtain signed https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis receipts for registered, certified, and insured mail. If a customer is not home, the carrier leaves a notice that tells where special mail is being held. After completing their routes, carriers return to the post office with mail gathered from street collection boxes, homes, and busi nesses. They turn in the mail receipts and money collected during the day and may separate letters and parcels for further processing by clerks. The duties of some city carriers may be very specialized; some deliver only parcel post while others collect mail from street boxes and receiving boxes in office buildings. In contrast, rural carriers provide a wide range of postal services. In addition to delivering and picking up mail, they sell stamps and money orders and accept parcels, letters, and items to be registered, certified, or insured. All carriers answer customers' questions about postal regulations and services and provide change-of-address cards and other postal forms when requested. In addition to their regularly scheduled duties, carriers often participate in neighborhood service programs in which they check on elderly or shut-in patrons or notify the police of any suspicious activities along their route. Postal clerks and mail carriers are classified as casual, part-time flexible, part-time regular, or full time. Casual workers, hired for 90 days at a time, help process and deliver mail during peak mailing or vacation periods. Part-time flexible workers do not have a regular work schedule or weekly guarantee of hours; they replace absent |s;g _ 'SISKW*1 Automated mail sorting machines will reduce the amount of hand sorting to be done by mail carriers. 278 Occupational Outlook Handbook workers and help with extra work as the need arises. Part-time regulars have a set work schedule of fewer than 40 hours per week. Full-time postal employees work a 40-hour week over a 5-day period. Working Conditions Postal clerks usually work in clean, well-ventilated, and well-lit buildings. However, other conditions vary according to work as signments and the type of machinery in operation. In small post offices, mail handlers use handtrucks to move heavy mail sacks from one part of the building to another and clerks may sort mail by hand. In large post offices and mail processing centers, chutes and convey ors move the mail, and much of the sorting is done by machines. Despite the use of automated equipment, the work of mail handlers and postal clerks can be physically demanding. These workers are usually on their feet, reaching for sacks and trays of mail or placing packages and bundles into sacks and trays. Mail handlers and distribution clerks may become bored with the routine of moving and sorting mail. Many work at night or on week ends because most large post offices process mail around the clock, and the largest volume of mail is sorted during the evening and night shifts. Workers may experience stress as they process and deliver ever larger quantities of mail under tight production deadlines and quotas. Window clerks, on the other hand, have a greater variety of duties, frequent contact with the public, and rarely have to work at night. However, they may have to deal with upset customers, and they are held accountable for the assigned stock of stamps and for postal funds. Most carriers begin work early in the morning, in some cases as early as 4 a.m. if they have routes in the business district. A carrier's schedule has its advantages, however. Carriers who begin work early in the morning are through by early afternoon, and they spend most of the day on their own, relatively free from direct supervision. Overtime hours may be required during peak delivery times, such as the holidays. Carriers spend most of their time outdoors, and deliver mail in all kinds of weather. Even those who drive often must walk when making deliveries and must lift heavy sacks of parcel post items when loading their vehicles. In addition, carriers always must be cautious of potential hazards on their routes. Wet roads and side walks can be treacherous, and each year numerous carriers are bitten by dogs. Employment The U.S. Postal Service employed 154,000 postal clerks and 320,000 mail carriers in 1994. About 90 percent of them worked full time. Most postal clerks provided window service and sorted mail at local post offices, although some worked at mail processing centers. Although most mail carriers worked in cities and suburban commu nities, 46,000 were rural carriers. In addition to the postal clerks mentioned above, there were about 91,000 traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks employed in the U.S. Postal Service in 1994. (Many of the duties of these clerks are described in the Nature of the Work section of this statement. For more information about these workers, see the statement on traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Postal clerks and mail carriers must be U.S. citizens or have been granted permanent resident-alien status in the United States. They must be at least 18 years old (or 16, if they have a high school di ploma). Qualification is based on a written examination that meas ures speed and accuracy at checking names and numbers and ability to memorize mail distribution procedures. Applicants must pass a physical examination as well, and may be asked to show that they can lift and handle mail sacks weighing up to 70 pounds. Applicants https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis for jobs as postal clerks operating electronic sorting machines must pass a special examination that includes a machine aptitude test. Applicants for mail carrier positions must have a driver's license, a good driving record, and a passing grade on a road test. Applicants should apply at the post office or mail processing center where they wish to work in order to determine when an exam will be given. Applicants' names are listed in order of their exami nation scores. Five points are added to the score of an honorably discharged veteran, and 10 points to the score of a veteran wounded in combat or disabled. When a vacancy occurs, the appointing officer chooses one of the top three applicants; the rest of the names remain on the list to be considered for future openings until their eligibility expires, usually 2 years from the examination date. Relatively few people under the age of 25 are hired as career postal clerks or mail carriers, a result of keen competition for these jobs and the customary waiting period of 1-2 years or more after passing the examination. It is not surprising, therefore, that most entrants transfer from other occupations. New postal clerks and mail carriers are trained on the job by experienced workers. Many post offices offer classroom instruction. Workers receive additional instruction when new equipment or procedures are introduced. They usually are trained by another postal employee or, sometimes, a training specialist hired under contract by the Postal Service. A good memory, good coordination, and the ability to read rap idly and accurately are important. In addition, mail handlers should be in good physical condition. Mail handlers and distribution clerks work closely with other clerks, frequently under the tension and strain of meeting dispatch transportation deadlines. Window clerks and mail carriers must be courteous and tactful when dealing with the public, especially when answering questions or receiving com plaints. Postal clerks and mail carriers often begin on a part-time flexible basis and become regular or full time in order of seniority as vacan cies occur. Full-time clerks may bid for preferred assignments such as the day shift, a window job, or a higher level nonsupervisory position as expediter or window service technician. Carriers can look forward to obtaining preferred routes as their seniority increases, or to higher level jobs such as carrier technician. Both clerks and carriers can advance to supervisory positions. Job Outlook Those seeking a job in the Postal Service can expect to encounter keen competition—the number of applicants for postal clerk and mail carrier positions is expected to continue to far exceed the number of openings. Job opportunities will vary by occupation and duties performed. Overall employment of postal clerks is expected to increase more slowly than the average through the year 2005. Increasingly, mail will be moved using automated materials-handling equipment and sorted using optical character readers, bar code sorters, and other automated sorting equipment. In spite of increased use of this pro ductivity-increasing machinery, the expected increase in the volume of mail will require additional clerks. However, demand for window clerks will be moderated by the increased sales of stamps and other postal products by grocery and department stores and other retail outlets. Conflicting factors also are expected to influence demand for mail carriers. Despite competition from alternative delivery systems and new forms of electronic communication, the volume of mail handled by the Postal Service is expected to continue to grow. Population growth and the formation of new households will stimulate demand for mail delivery. However, increased use of the "ZIP + 4" system, which is used to sort mail to the carrier route, and other automated sorting equipment should decrease the amount of time carriers spend sorting their mail, allowing them more time to handle longer routes. In addition, the Postal Service is moving toward more centralized Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical 279 mail delivery, such as the use of more cluster boxes, to cut down on the number of door-to-door deliveries. These trends are expected to increase carrier productivity. Employment of mail carriers is ex pected to change little through the year 2005. Jobs will become available because of the need to replace postal clerks and mail carriers who retire or stop working for other reasons. However, the factors that make entry to these occupations highly competitive—attractive salaries, a good pension plan, job security, and modest educational requirements—contribute to a high degree of job attachment. Accordingly, replacement needs produce relatively fewer job openings than in other occupations of this size. In contrast to the typical pattern, postal workers generally remain in their jobs until they retire; relatively few transfer to other occupations. Although the volume of mail to be processed and delivered rises and falls with the level of business activity, as well as with the season of the year, full-time postal clerks and mail carriers have never been laid off. When mail volume is high, full-time clerks and carriers work overtime, part-time clerks and carriers work additional hours, and casual clerks and carriers may be hired. When mail volume is low, overtime is curtailed, part-timers work fewer hours, and casual workers are discharged. Earnings In 1995, base pay for beginning full-time carriers and postal clerks was $25,240 a year, rising to a maximum of $35,604 after 12 1/2 years of service. For those working between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m, a supplement is paid. Experienced, full-time, city delivery mail carri ers earn an average salary of $34,566 a year. Postal clerks and carriers working part-time flexible schedules begin at $12.59 an hour and, based on the number of years of service, increase to a maximum of $17.76 an hour. Rural delivery carriers had average base salaries of $33,980 in 1995. Their earnings are determined through an evaluation of the amount of work required to service their routes. Carriers with heav ier workloads generally earn more than those with lighter workloads. Rural carriers also receive an equipment maintenance allowance when required to use their own vehicles. In 1995, this was approxi mately 35 cents per mile. Postal workers enjoy a variety of employer-provided benefits. These include health and life insurance, vacation and sick leave, and a pension plan. In addition to their hourly wage and benefits package, some postal workers receive a uniform allowance. This group includes those workers who are in the public view for 4 or more hours each day and various maintenance workers. The amount of the allowance depends on the job performed—some workers are only required to wear a partial uniform, and their allowance is lower. In 1995, for example, the allowance for a letter carrier was $252 per year, compared to $108 for a window clerk and $50 for a mailhandler. Most of these workers belong to one of four unions: American Postal Workers Union, National Association of Letter Carriers, National Postal Mail Handlers Union, and National Rural Letter Carriers Association. Related Occupations Other workers whose duties are related to those of postal clerks include mail clerks, file clerks, routing clerks, sorters, material moving equipment operators, clerk typists, cashiers, data entry operators, and ticket sellers. Others with duties related to those of mail carriers include messengers, merchandise deliverers, and deliv ery-route truckdrivers. Sources of Additional Information Local post offices and State employment service offices can supply details about entrance examinations and specific employment oppor tunities for postal clerks and mail carriers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Record Clerks Nature of the Work Organizations of all kinds—businesses, government agencies, un ions, health care facilities, and colleges and universities—must keep accurate records. Maintaining and updating records, ranging from payrolls to information on the shipment of goods to bank statements, is the job of record clerks. (Additional information about specific record clerk occupations is provided in the separate statements in this section.) Record clerks perform a wide variety of recordkeeping duties. Billing clerks and billing machine operators prepare bills and in voices. Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks maintain financial data in computer and paper files. Brokerage clerks prepare and maintain the records generated when stocks, bonds, and other types of investments are traded. Statement clerks prepare monthly statements for bank customers. File clerks store and retrieve various kinds of office information for use by staff members. Library assis tants and bookmobile drivers assist library patrons. Order clerks process incoming orders for goods and services. Payroll and time keeping clerks compute wages for payroll records. Personnel clerks maintain employee records. Record clerks' duties may vary with the size of the firm. In a small business, one bookkeeping clerk may handle all financial records and transactions as well as payroll and personnel duties, while a large firm may employ specialized accounting clerks to work on each aspect of the balance sheet, as well as specialized payroll and personnel clerks. Increased computerization has changed the duties of most record clerks. In the past, clerks made calculations with adding machines and entered figures into ledgers and paper files. Now, many workers use financial software to enter and manipulate data. In many cases, these computer programs can automatically perform calculations on data that previously had to be calculated manually. Computers enable clerks to access data within files more quickly than by leafing through stacks of paper. Despite increased automation, however, workers still keep backup paper records for research, auditing, and reference purposes. Interaction with the public and with coworkers is a basic part of the job of many record clerks. Payroll clerks, for example, may answer employees' questions concerning benefits; bookmobile driv ers help patients in nursing homes and hospitals select books; and order clerks call customers to verify special mailing instructions. Other administrative support occupations in this group include advertising clerks—who receive orders for classified advertising from customers for newpapers or magazines; prepare copy according to customer specifications; and verify conformance of published ads to specifications for purposes of billing, and correspondence clerks— who reply to customers regarding damage claims, delinquent ac counts, incorrect billing, complaints of unsatisfactory service, and requests for merchandise exchanges or returns. Working Conditions With the exception of library clerks and bookmobile drivers, record clerks typically work in an office environment. Most work alongside the organization's other clerical workers, but some work in central ized units away from the organization's front office. Clerks who review detailed data may have to sit for extended periods. Although they do not do heavy lifting, file clerks and library assistants fre quently stoop, bend, reach, and spend a lot of time on their feet. Bookmobile drivers must maneuver large vehicles in all kinds of traffic and weather conditions. In addition, some are responsible for the maintenance of the bookmobile. An increasing number of record clerks use computers as part of their daily routine. Workers who spend a lot of time at computers 280 Occupational Outlook Handbook may experience eye and muscle strain, backaches, headaches, and repetitive motion injuries. Most of these workers work regular business hours. Some, such as library assistants, may work evenings and weekends. Library assistants employed in school libraries generally work only during the school year. Accounting clerks may work longer hours to meet deadlines at the end of the fiscal year, during tax time, or when monthly and yearly accounting audits are performed. Billing, book keeping, and accounting clerks in hotels, restaurants, and stores may work overtime during peak holiday and vacation seasons. Brokerage clerks may have to work overtime if there is a high volume of activ ity in the stock or bond markets. Order clerks in retail establishments often work overtime when sales volume is high, especially around Christmas. Employment Record clerks held more than 3.7 million jobs in 1994. The follow ing tabulation shows employment in individual occupations. Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks.............................. Billing clerks and billing machine operators................................. Order clerks................................................................................... File clerks...................................................................................... Payroll and timekeeping clerks...................................................... Personnel clerks, except payroll and timekeeping......................... Library assistants and bookmobile drivers..................................... Brokerage and statement clerks..................................................... Correspondence clerks.................................................................. Advertising clerks.......................................................................... 2,181,000 419,000 310,000 278,000 157,000 123,000 121,000 98,000 29,000 17,000 These workers are employed in virtually every industry. The largest number work for firms providing health, business, and other types of services. Large numbers also work in trade; finance, insur ance, and real estate; manufacturing; and government. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most record clerk jobs are entry-level positions. Most employers require applicants to have at least a high school diploma or its equivalent. A higher level of education will usually be favored over a high school diploma, but it is not generally required. However, in some cases, more extensive education is mandatory. For example, order clerks in high-technology firms often need to understand scientific and mechanical processes, which may require some college education. Regardless of the type of work being done, most employ ers prefer those who are computer literate. Knowledge of word processing and spreadsheet software is especially valuable, as is experience working in an office and good interpersonal skills. High schools, business schools, and community colleges teach office skills. Business education programs typically include courses in typing (keyboarding), word processing, shorthand, business com munications, records management, and office systems and proce dures. Technical training needed for some specialized order clerk positions can be obtained in technical institutes and in 2- and 4-year colleges. Some entrants are college graduates with degrees in business, finance, or the liberal arts. Although a degree is rarely required, many graduates take entry-level clerical positions to get into a com pany or into the finance and accounting field, with the hope of being promoted to professional or managerial jobs. Some companies, such as brokerage and accounting firms, have a set plan of advancement that tracks college graduates from entry-level clerk jobs into man agement positions. These workers may start at higher salaries and advance more rapidly than those without a degree. Once hired, record clerks generally receive on-the-job training. Under the guidance of a supervisor or senior worker, new employees learn company procedures. Some formal classroom training may be necessary, such as training in operating specific computer software. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Record clerks must be careful, orderly, and detail oriented in order to avoid making errors and to be able to recognize errors made by others. These workers must also be honest, discreet, and trustwor thy because they frequently come in contact with confidential mate rial. Payroll clerks, billing clerks, and bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks should have a strong aptitude for numbers. Because statement clerks have access to individuals' financial information, they must be bonded. Many bookmobile drivers are now required to have a commercial driver's license. Workers usually advance by taking on more duties in the same occupation with higher pay. Others advance to closely related occu pations. For example, some order clerks use their experience to move into sales positions. Others move into other clerical jobs, such as secretary, or advance to a supervisory position. With appropriate experience and education, some clerks may become accountants, personnel specialists, brokers, or librarians. Job Outlook Turnover in this very large occupation places it among those occupa tions providing the most job openings. Opportunities will be plenti ful for full-time, part-time, and seasonal employment as record clerks transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment of record clerks is expected to decline through the year 2005. Despite continued growth in the volume of business transactions, fewer record clerks will be needed because of rising productivity. The main factor affecting productivity in these occu pations is the spread of office automation. Many of these jobs are "back office" clerical positions, which have already been heavily automated in many organizations. Productivity has increased signifi cantly as workers use word processors and personal computers instead of more time-consuming equipment such as typewriters, adding machines, and calculators. The growing use of equipment such as bar code readers, point-of-sale terminals, and optical scanners by other employees also reduces much of the data entry handled by record clerks. Managers and professionals now do much of their own clerical work, using computers to access, create, and store data directly in the computer system. The growing use of local area networks is also facilitating electronic data interchange—the sending of data from computer to computer, without the need for clerks to reenter the data. To further eliminate duplicate functions, more large companies may consolidate all their clerical operations in a central office where accounting, billing, personnel, and payroll functions are performed for all satellite offices in the organization. Earnings Salaries of record clerks vary considerably. Region of the country, size of city, and type and size of establishment all influence salary levels. The level of industry or technical expertise required and the complexity and uniqueness of a clerk's responsibilities may also affect earnings. Median earnings of full-time record clerks in 1994 are shown in the following tabulation. Personnel clerks.................................................................................... $25,100 Order clerks........................................................................................... 24,300 Payroll and timekeeping clerks............................................................. 21,300 Bookkeeping, accounting, andauditing clerks...................................... 19,500 Billing clerks......................................................................................... 19,500 Library clerks........................................................................................ 18,800 Billing machine operators..................................................................... 17,800 File clerks.............................................................................................. 16,200 In the Federal Government in 1995, record clerks with a high school diploma or clerical experience typically started at $16,700 a year. Beginning salaries were slightly higher in selected areas where the prevailing local pay level was higher. In 1995, the average salary for all personnel clerks was $25,600. Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical 281 In addition to salary, record clerks receive the same package of benefits as other employees in the organization. Sick and annual leave, life and health insurance, and retirement plans are common. Related Occupations Most record clerks today enter data into a computer system and perform basic analysis of the data. Other clerical workers who enter and manipulate data are bank tellers, statistical clerks, receiving clerks, medical record clerks, hotel and motel clerks, credit clerks, and reservation and transportation ticket agents. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for record clerks. Public libraries and libraries in academic institutions can provide information about job openings for library assistants and bookmobile drivers. Specific information on bookmobile drivers is available from: •“The State Library of Ohio, Field Operations Department, 65 South Front St., Columbus, OH 43215. Information on careers in records and information management can be obtained from: •"Association of Record Managers and Administrators (ARMA), 4200 Somerset Dr., Suite 215, Prairie Village, KS 66208. Phone: 1-800-422-2762. Billing Clerks and Billing Machine Operators (D.O.T. 184.387-010; 210.382-022, -026, -066; 211.482-014, -018; 214.267-010, .362-010, -014, -022, -026, -038, -042, .382-014, -018, -030, .387-010, -014, -018, .462-010, .467-010, -014; 214.482-010, -014, -018, -022, .587-010; 216.382-022, -034, -050, -054; 217.382-010; 241.267-026; and 249.367-034) Nature of the Work Billing clerks keep the records, calculate the charges, and maintain the files of payments made for goods or services. Billing machine operators run the machines that generate the bills, statements, and invoices. Billing clerks review purchase orders, bills of lading, sales tickets, hospital records, or charge slips to calculate the total amount due from a customer. In accounting, law, consulting, and similar firms, billing clerks calculate client fees based on the actual time required to perform the task. They keep track of the accumulated hours and dollar amounts to charge to each job, the type of job performed for a customer, and the percentage of work completed. In hospitals, calculating the charges for an individual's hospital stay may require a letter to an insurance company, whereas a clerk computing trucking rates for machine parts may consult a rate book. After billing clerks review all necessary information, they compute the charges using calculators or computers. They then prepare the itemized statements, bills, or invoices—depending on the organization's needs—used for billing and recordkeeping purposes. In one organization, the clerk might prepare a simple bill that only contains the amount due and the date and type of service; in another, the clerk would produce a de tailed invoice that includes the codes for all goods and services provided. This latter form might list the items sold, credit terms, date of shipment or dates services were provided, a salesperson's or doctor's identification, if necessary, and the sales total. Once all the information has been entered, billing machine opera tors then run off the bill that will be sent to the customer. In a growing number of firms, billing machines are being replaced by computers and specialized billing software that allow clerks to https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Billing clerks check statements, bills, and invoices for accuracy. calculate charges and prepare bills in one step. Computer packages prompt clerks to enter data from hand-written forms and manipulate the necessary entries of quantities, labor, and rates to be charged. Billing clerks verify the entry of information and check for errors before the bill is printed by the computer. After the bills are printed, billing clerks check them again for accuracy. Employment In 1994, billing clerks held about 323,000 jobs, and billing machine operators held about 96,000. About 4 of every 10 billing clerks and billing machine operators were employed by banks and other finan cial institutions, insurance companies, and other organizations pro viding business and health services. About 1 of every 5 employees was found in wholesale and retail establishments, and a significant number worked in manufacturing, transportation, communications, and utilities. Approximately 1 in 6 billing clerks and billing machine operators works part time. Job Outlook Job openings for persons seeking work as billing clerks or billing machine operators are expected to be numerous through the year 2005. Despite the lack of employment growth, many job openings will occur as these workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Turnover in this occupation is relatively high, character istic of an entry-level occupation requiring only a high school di ploma. Little change is expected in the employment of billing clerks through the year 2005. A growing economy and a greater demand for billing services will result in more business transactions, but productivity increases will keep employment from rising. Billing clerks will be affected as computers are increasingly used to manage account information. Less routine, more complex billing applica tions will increasingly require workers with greater technical expertise. Employment of billing machine operators is expected to decline through the year 2005 as billing machines are replaced by more advanced machines and computers which enable billing clerks to perform the jobs formerly done by billing machine operators. In smaller firms, accounting clerks are taking over the responsibilities of billing clerks and billing machine operators due to productivity gains from billing software. (See introductory part of this section for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings, as well as sources of additional information.) 282 Occupational Outlook Handbook Bookkeeping, Accounting, and Auditing Clerks (D.O.T. 209.687-010; 210.362-010, .367-010, -014, .382-010, -014, -030, -038, -042, -046, -050, -054, -062; 216.362-014, -022, -026, -034, -038, -042, .382-022, -026, -058, .482-010, -026, .587-010; 219.362-066, .367-042, .387-018, .487-010, and .587-010) Nature of the Work Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks are an organization's financial recordkeepers. They compute, classify, record, and verify numerical data in order to develop and maintain financial records. In smaller establishments, bookkeeping clerks handle all aspects of financial transactions. They record debits and credits, compare current and past balance sheets, summarize details of separate ledg ers, and prepare reports for supervisors and managers. They may also prepare bank deposits by compiling data from cashiers, verifying and balancing receipts, and sending the cash, checks, or other forms of payment to the bank. In larger offices and accounting departments, accounting clerks are more specialized. Their title may reflect the type of accounting they do, such as accounts payable clerk or accounts receivable clerk. Entry-level accounting clerks post details of transactions, total ac counts, and compute interest charges. They may also monitor loans and accounts payable and receivable to ensure that payments are up to date. More advanced clerks may total, balance, and reconcile billing vouchers; ensure completeness and accuracy of data on ac counts; and code documents according to company procedures. They post transactions in journals and on computer files, and update these files when needed. They also review computer printouts against manually maintained journals, and make necessary corrections. Senior workers review invoices and statements to make sure all information is accurate and complete, and may reconcile computer reports with operating reports. Auditing clerks verify records of transactions posted by other workers. They check figures, postings, and documents for correct entry, mathematical accuracy, and proper codes. They also correct or note errors for accountants or other workers to adjust. As organizations computerize their financial records, more book keeping, accounting, and auditing clerks are using specialized ac counting software on personal computers. They increasingly post charges to accounts on computer spreadsheets and data bases; manual posting to general ledgers is becoming a thing of the past. Informa tion is entered into the computer from receipts or bills and then is stored either electronically or as computer printouts, or both. cm h / 0/ f, -V Job openings for bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks should be plentiful. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks held nearly 2.2 million jobs in 1994. About 1 of every 4 was in wholesale and retail trade. About one-third were in organizations providing business, health, educational, and social services. Approximately 1 in 4 bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks works part time. Job Outlook Virtually all job openings for bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks through the year 2005 will stem from replacement needs. Each year, several hundred thousand jobs will become available as these clerks transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Turnover is lower than among other record clerks, but the large size of the occupation ensures a large number of openings and plentiful job opportunities for jobseekers. Many opportunities for temporary and part-time work should be available. Employment of bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks is expected to decline through 2005. A growing economy should result in more financial transactions and other activities and, therefore, more demand for accounting services. However, automation of office functions is expected to continue, with resulting productivity increases. Virtually all new jobs will be created in small, rapidly growing organizations. Large organizations are likely to continue the consolidation of departments to eliminate duplicate functions and reduce the demand for these clerks. (See introductory part of this section for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings, as well as sources of additional information.) Brokerage Clerks and Statement Clerks (D.O.T. 214.362-046; 216.362-046, .382-046, .482-034; 219.362-018, -054, .482-010) Nature of the Work Brokerage clerks and statement clerks work behind the scenes to produce records associated with financial transactions. Brokerage clerks, who work in the operations areas of securities firms, perform many duties to facilitate the sale and purchase of stocks, bonds, commodities, and other kinds of investments. These clerks produce the necessary records of all transactions that occur in their area of the business. Job titles depend upon the type of work performed. Purchaseand-sale clerks match orders to buy with orders to sell. They balance and verify stock trades by comparing the records of the selling firm to those of the buying firm. Dividend clerks ensure timely payments of stock or cash dividends to clients of a particular brokerage firm. Transfer clerks execute customer requests for changes to security registration and examine stock certificates for adherence to banking regulations. Receive-and-deliver clerks facilitate the receipt and delivery of securities among firms and institutions. Margin clerks post accounts and monitor activity in customers' accounts. Their job is to ensure that customers make their payments and stay within legal boundaries concerning stock purchases. A significant and growing number of brokerage clerks use custom designed software programs to process transactions, allowing trans actions to be processed quicker than if they were done manually. Curmetly, only a few customized accounts are handled manually. Statement clerks assemble, verify, and send individual and com mercial bank statements every month. In most banks, statement clerks, sometimes called statement operators, run sophisticated, high-speed machines. These machines fold the computer-printed statement, collate it if it is more than one page, insert the statement and cancelled checks into an envelope, seal it, and weigh it for postage. Statement clerks load the machine with the statements, cancelled checks, and envelopes. They then monitor Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical 283 (See introductory part of this section for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings, as well as sources of additional information.) File Clerks (D.O.T. 206.362-010, .367-014, -018; .387-010, -014, -022, -034) With appropriate experience and education, brokerage clerks may become securities sales representatives. the equipment and correct minor problems. For serious problems, they call repair personnel. In banks that do not have such machines, statement clerks per form all operations manually. They may also be responsible for verifying signatures and checking for missing information on checks, placing cancelled checks into trays, and retrieving them to send with the statements. In a growing number of banks, only the statement is printed and sent to the account holder. The cancelled checks are not returned; this is known as check truncation. Statement clerks are employed primarily by large banks. In smaller banks, their function is usually handled by a teller or a book keeping clerk who performs other duties during the rest of the month. Some small banks send their statement information to larger banks for processing, printing, and mailing. Employment Brokerage clerks held about 73,000 jobs in 1994, and statement clerks held about 25,000 jobs. Brokerage clerks worked in firms involved in the sales of securities and commodities. Almost all statement clerks were employed by banking institutions. Job Outlook No change is expected in the employment of brokerage clerks through the year 2005. Employment of statement clerks is projected to decline. Nevertheless, some jobs will become available each year to replace brokerage and statement clerks who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Similar to other record clerks, employment will be adversely affected by automation and changes in business practices. For ex ample, computers now calculate the dividends due on stocks, some thing done for decades by brokerage clerks with adding machines and calculators. However, brokerage clerks are still needed to enter data into the computer and to process information. In the past, the record of security ownership was a piece of paper—a stock certifi cate. Today, most securities are stored in computer form and traded using electronic data interchange. Although less paper changes hands, clerks continue to enter and verify all transactions. Auto mated statement processing will grow as the increased volume of transactions justifies the cost of the necessary equipment, and this will dampen demand for statement clerks. In addition, the further spread of check truncation is expected to hold down employment of statement clerks. The use of ATM card systems and other electronic money transfers should increase as well, resulting in significantly fewer checks being written and processed. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work File clerks classify, store, retrieve, and update information generated by their employers. They are employed by all kinds of organizations, including businesses, nonprofit organizations, and government agencies. File clerks, also called records and information clerks or record center clerks, examine incoming material and code it numerically, alphabetically, or by subject matter. They then store forms, letters, receipts, or reports in paper form or enter necessary information into other storage devices. Some clerks operate mechanized files that rotate to bring the needed records to them. Others film documents that are then stored on microforms (microfilm or microfiche). A small but growing number of file clerks use imaging systems that scan paper files or film and store the material on optical disks. Records must be current to be useful. File clerks ensure that new information is added to the files in a timely manner and may destroy outdated file materials or transfer them to inactive storage. They also check files at regular intervals to make sure that all items are cor rectly sequenced and placed. Whenever records cannot be located, the file clerk searches for the missing material. As an organization's needs for information change, file clerks implement changes to the filing system established by supervisory personnel. When records are requested, file clerks locate them and give them to the borrower. The document may be a sheet of paper stored in a drawer in a file cabinet or an image on microform. In the first ex ample, the clerk manually retrieves the document and hands or forwards it to the borrower. In the latter example, the clerk retrieves the microform and displays it on a microform reader. If necessary, file clerks make copies of records and distribute them. They keep track of materials removed from the files and ensure that those given out are returned. A growing number of file clerks are using computerized filing and retrieval systems. There are a variety of computerized storage systems—an organization may store data on a mainframe, magnetic - *V File clerks shouldfind many opportunities for temporary and part time work. 284 Occupational Outlook Handbook (D.O.T. 209.387-026; 222.587-014; 249.363-010, .365-010, .367-046, .687-014) storage areas. They locate materials to be loaned, either to a patron or to another library. Many card catalogues are computerized, so library assistants must be familiar with the computer system for their particular library. If any of the materials have been damaged, these workers repair them, if possible. For example, they use tape or paste to repair tom pages or book covers and other specialized processes to repair more valuable materials. Some library assistants specialize in helping patrons with vision problems. Sometimes referred to as talking-books library clerks or braille-and-talking-books clerks, they review the borrower's list of desired reading material. They select those materials or closely related substitutes from the library collection of large type or braille volumes, tape cassettes, and open-reel talking books. They complete the necessary paperwork and give or mail them to the borrower. To extend library services to as wide an audience as possible, many libraries operate bookmobiles. Bookmobile drivers drive trucks stocked with books or drive light trucks that pull book trailers to designated sites on a regular schedule. Bookmobiles serve com munity organizations such as shopping centers, apartment complexes, schools, and nursing homes. Depending on local conditions, they may drive alone or may be accompanied by a library technician. When working alone, the drivers perform many of the same functions as a library assistant in a main or branch library. They answer patrons' questions, receive and check out books, collect fines, maintain the book collection, and shelve materials. Bookmobile drivers participate and may assist in planning programs sponsored by the library such as reader advisory programs, used book sales, or outreach programs. They must keep track of their mileage, the materials lent out, and the amount of fines collected. In some areas they are responsible for the maintenance of the vehicle and any photocopiers or other equipment in it. They record statistics on circulation and the number of people visiting the bookmobile. Drivers may also record requests for special items from the main library and arrange for the materials to be mailed or delivered to a patron during the next scheduled visit. Increasingly, bookmobiles are equipped with personal computers and CD-ROM systems linked to the main library system; this allows bookmobile drivers to reserve or locate books immediately. Because bookmobile drivers may be the only link some people have to the library, much of their work is helping the public. They may assist handicapped or elderly patrons to the bookmobile or shovel snow to assure their safety. They may enter hospitals or nursing homes to deliver books directly to patrons who are bedrid den. Bookmobile drivers also should be familiar with audiovisual equipment for showing slides or films. Nature of the Work Library assistants and bookmobile drivers keep library resources in order and make them readily available to a variety of users. They work under the direction of librarians. Library assistants—sometimes referred to as library media assis tants, library aides, or circulation assistants—register patrons so they can borrow materials from the library. They record the borrower’s name and address from an application and then issue a library card. Many library assistants now enter and update patrons' records using computers. At the circulation desk, assistants lend and collect books, periodi cals, video tapes, and other materials. When an item is borrowed, assistants stamp the due date on the material and record the patron's identification from his or her library card. They inspect returned materials for damage, check the due dates, and compute any fines that may be owed. They review records to compile a list of overdue materials and send out notices. They also answer patrons' questions in person and on the telephone and refer those they cannot answer to a librarian. Throughout the library, assistants sort returned books, periodicals, and other items and return them to their designated shelves, files, or Library assistants should enjoy interacting with people. tape, CD-ROM, or even floppy disk, depending on their needs. To retrieve a document, the clerk enters the document's identification code, obtains the location, and pulls the document. Even when files are stored electronically, backup paper or electronic copies generally are also kept. Accessing files in a computer data base is much quicker than locating and physically retrieving paper files. In small offices, file clerks often have expanded responsibilities. These may include data entry, word processing, sorting mail, and operating copying machines. Employment File clerks held about 278,000 jobs in 1994. Many other clerical workers also perform filing in connection with their work. While file clerk jobs are found in nearly every sector of the economy, more than 4 out of every 5 file clerks are employed in services, government, finance, insurance, and real estate. More than 1 out of every 10 is employed in temporary services, and about 1 out of 3 works part time. Job Outlook Employment of file clerks is expected to decline through the year 2005 because of productivity gains stemming from office automation and the restructuring of work as use of personal computers by pro fessionals and managers increases. Despite the projected decline in employment, job opportunities for file clerks should be plentiful because a large number of workers will be needed to replace workers who leave the occupation each year. Turnover is the highest among all record clerk occupations. This reflects the lack of formal training requirements, limited advancement potential, and relatively low pay. Jobseekers who have typing (keyboarding) and other secretarial skills and are familiar with a wide range of office machines, espe cially personal computers, should have better opportunities than less experienced applicants. File clerks should find many opportunities for temporary or part-time work, especially during peak business periods. Demand for file clerk services will be strongest in the rapidly growing health sector. (See introductory part of this section for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings, as well as sources of additional information.) Library Assistants and Bookmobile Drivers https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical 285 The schedules of bookmobile drivers depend on the size of the area being served. Some of these workers go out on their routes every working day, while others do so only certain days of the week. On the other days, they perform library assistant duties at the library. Some now work evenings and weekends to give patrons as much access to the library as possible. Job Outlook Opportunities should be good for persons interested in jobs as library assistants or bookmobile drivers through the year 2005. Turnover of these workers is quite high, reflecting the relatively weak attachment to the occupation. This work is attractive to retirees and others who want a part-time schedule, and there is a lot of movement into and out of the occupation. Many openings will become available each year to replace workers who transfer to another occupation or leave the labor force. Some positions become available as library assis tants move within the organization. Library assistants can be pro moted to supervisory positions in public service or technical service areas. Advancement opportunities are greater in larger libraries and may be more limited in smaller ones. Employment is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The vast majority of library assistants and bookmobile drivers work in public or school libraries of some kind. Slow employment growth is expected due to budgetary constraints in local governments and academic institutions of all types. Because so many are employed by public institutions, library assistants and bookmobile drivers are not directly affected by the ups and downs of the business cycle. Some of these workers may lose their jobs, however, if there are cuts in government budgets. (See introductory part of this section for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings, as well as sources of additional information.) Today, most order clerks sit at computers and receive orders directly by telephone, entering the required information as the cus tomer places the order. Some orders are received through the com puter system; they are sent directly from the customer's terminal to the order clerk's terminal. The computer provides the order clerk with ready access to information such as stock numbers, prices, and inventory. Orders frequently depend on which products are in stock and which products are most appropriate for the customer's needs. Some order clerks, especially those in industrial settings, must be able to give price estimates for entire jobs, not just single parts. Others must be able to take special orders or give expected arrival dates. Although the large majority of orders are now placed by phone, some order clerks also receive orders by mail and increasingly by fax machine. These clerks review the hand-written or typed orders for completeness and clarity. They extract the checks or money orders, sort them, and send them for processing. The clerk may complete missing information or contact the customer for the information. Similarly, if customers need additional information, such as prices, shipping dates, or anticipated delays, the order clerk contacts them. These orders may be processed by order clerks in small establish ments or, in large organizations, entered into the computer system by data-entry clerks. After an order has been verified and entered, the customer's final cost is calculated. The clerk then routes the order to the proper department—such as the warehouse—that actually sends out or delivers the item in question. In organizations with computer systems, inventory records are adjusted automatically as sales are made. In less automated organi zations, order clerks adjust inventory records. For example, after processing an order for bolts, the clerk verifies that the bolts were sent and subtracts the order from the inventory control form. Clerks may also notify other departments when inventories are low or when orders would deplete supplies. Some order clerks must establish priorities in filling orders. For example, an order clerk in a blood bank may receive a request from a hospital for a certain type of blood. The clerk must first find out if the request is routine or an emergency, and then take appropriate action. Order Clerks Employment Order clerks held about 310,000 jobs in 1994. Most worked for wholesale and retail establishments and manufacturing firms. Employment Library assistants and bookmobile drivers held about 121,000 jobs in 1994. Over one-half of these workers were employed school librar ies; most of the remainder worked in public libraries. Opportunities for flexible schedules are abundant; over one-half of these workers were on part-time schedules. (D.O.T. 209.387-018; 245.367-026; 249.367-042, -054; 295.367-018; and 659.462-010) Nature of the Work Order clerks receive and process incoming orders for such items as spare parts for machines, consumer appliances, gas and electric power connections, film rentals, and articles of clothing. They are sometimes called order-entry clerks, customer service representa tives, order processors, or order takers. Orders for materials, merchandise, or services can come from within an organization or from outside of it. In large companies with many work sites, such as automobile manufacturers, parts and equipment need to be ordered from the company's warehouses. Inside order clerks receive orders from other workers employed by the same company or from salespersons in the field. Many other order clerks, however, receive orders from other companies or from individuals. Order clerks in wholesale businesses, for instance, receive orders for merchandise from retail establishments that the retailer in turn sells to the public. An increasing number of order clerks work in catalog sales, receiving orders from individual cus tomers either by phone, by fax, or by mail. Order clerks dealing primarily with the public sometimes are referred to as outside order clerks. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis m if f~r fe ~ - Order clerks in retail establishments often work overtime when sales volume is high. 286 Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Outlook Job openings for order clerks should be plentiful through the year 2005 due to sizeable replacement needs. Numerous jobs will become available each year to replace order clerks who transfer to other occupations or who leave the labor force. Many of these openings will be for seasonal work, especially in catalogue companies that cater to holiday gift buyers. Employment of order clerks is expected to grow more slowly than average through the year 2005 as office automation continues to increase the productivity of these workers. As the economy grows, more orders for goods and services will be placed. How this growing business activity relates to employment of order clerks depends in large measure on the setting. Demand for outside order clerks who deal mainly with the public should remain fairly strong. The greater use of toll-free numbers that makes "home shopping" easier and more convenient will stimulate demand for these workers. However, productivity gains from the increasing use of automation will absorb some of the growth in the volume of orders. Demand for inside order clerks will be much weaker, however. The spread of electronic data interchange, a system that enables computers to communicate directly with each other, allows orders between establishments to be placed with little human intervention. Although currently limited to large organizations, it is expected that orders will increase between computers of different companies and from home computers. Other types of automation should also depress the demand for order clerks. Sophisticated inventory control and automatic billing systems allow companies to track their inventory and accounts with much less help from order clerks. A large and increasing number of companies are using fax machines to receive orders. Increasingly, data-entry keyers enter the information from faxed or mailed orders. Some companies use automated menus that can be accessed with a touch tone phone to receive orders, and others use answering ma chines. Interactive voice recognition equipment is expected to be available by the year 2005, further reducing the demand for order clerks. (See introductory part of this section for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings, as well as sources of additional information.) Payroll and Timekeeping Clerks (D.O.T. 215.362-018, .367-022, .382-014, .482-010) Nature of the Work Payroll and timekeeping clerks perform a vital function—ensuring that employees are paid on time and that their paychecks are correct. They adjust monetary errors or incorrect amounts of vacation time, research these records, and perform other clerical tasks. Timekeeping clerks distribute and collect timecards each pay period. These workers review employee workcharts, timesheets, and timecards to ensure that information is properly recorded, and that the records have the signatures of authorizing officials. For example, they may recalculate total hours on a timesheet that has many com plex entries. In companies that bill for the time spent by staff, such as law or accounting firms, timekeeping clerks make sure the hours recorded are charged to the correct job so the client can be properly billed. They review computer reports listing timecards that cannot be processed because of errors and contact the employee or the em ployee's supervisor to resolve the problem. Timekeeping clerks also keep informed of new payroll policies and inform managers and other employees of procedural changes. In the payroll department, payroll clerks, also called payroll technicians, screen the timecards for calculating, coding, or other errors. Then they compute pay by subtracting allotments like retire ment, Federal and State taxes, insurance, or savings from gross https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Timekeeping clerks ensure that employees' timecards are accurate. earnings. Increasingly, computers perform these calculations and alert payroll clerks to problems or errors in the data. For small organizations or for new employees whose records are not yet en tered into a computer system, clerks may perform all the necessary calculations. In some small offices, payroll is processed by clerks or other employees in the accounting department. Payroll clerks also maintain paper backup files for research and reference. They record changes in employee addresses; close out files when workers retire, resign, or transfer; and advise employees on income tax withholding and other mandatory deductions. They also issue and record adjustments to pay because of previous errors or retroactive increases. Payroll clerks must follow changes in tax and deduction laws, so they have to be aware of the most current revisions. They prepare and mail earnings and tax withholding statements in early January for employees' use in preparing their income tax returns. In small offices, payroll and timekeeping duties are more likely to be included in the duties of a general office clerk or secretary. Larger organizations employ specialized payroll and timekeeping clerks to perform these functions. Employment Payroll and timekeeping clerks held about 157,000 jobs in 1994. About 1 of every 3 worked in business, health, education, and social services. One in 4 worked in manufacturing, and more than 2 of every 10 were in wholesale and retail trade or in government. About 1 in 10 payroll and timekeeping clerks works part time. Job Outlook Numerous job openings for persons seeking work as payroll and timekeeping clerks should be available through the year 2005. Many jobs will open up each year as these workers transfer to other occu pations—many payroll clerks use this position as a steppingstone to higher level accounting jobs—or leave the labor force. Employment of payroll and timekeeping clerks is expected to decline through the year 2005 as continuing automation of the pay roll and timekeeping function makes these workers more productive. The technology having the greatest effect on employment is the expanding use of automated timeclocks to calculate employees' hours and balances. These automated timeclocks allow large organizations to centralize their timekeeping duties in one location. At individual sites, employee hours are increasingly tracked by computer and verified by managers. Then, this information is compiled and sent to a central office to be processed by payroll clerks. This eliminates the need to have payroll clerks at every site. Also, timekeeping duties are more commonly being distributed to secretaries and general Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical 287 office clerks or being contracted out to organizations that specialize in these services. (See introductory part of this section for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings, as well as sources of additional information.) I Personnel Clerks (D.O.T. 205.362-010, -014, -022, .367-062, .567-010; 209.362-026; 241.267-010; 249.367-090) Nature of the Work Personnel clerks maintain the personnel records of the organization's employees. These records include information such as name, ad dress, job title, earnings, benefits such as health and life insurance, and tax withholding. On a daily basis, they record and answer ques tions about employees' absences and supervisory reports on job performance. When an employee receives a promotion or switches health insurance plans, the personnel clerk updates the appropriate form. Personnel clerks may also prepare reports for managers else where in the organization. For example, they might compile a list of employees eligible for an award. In smaller organizations, some personnel clerks perform a variety of other clerical duties. They answer telephone or letter inquiries from the public, send out announcements of job openings or job examinations, and issue application forms. When credit bureaus and finance companies request confirmation of a person's employment, the personnel clerk provides authorized information from the em ployee's personnel records. Payroll departments and insurance companies may also be contacted to verify changes to records. Some personnel clerks are also involved in hiring. As part of their job, they screen job applicants to obtain information such as education and work experience; administer aptitude, personality, and interest tests; explain the organization's employment policies and refer qualified applicants to the employing official; and request references from present or past employers. Personnel clerks inform job applicants, by telephone or letter, of their acceptance or rejection for employment. Other personnel clerks are known as assignment clerks. Their role is to notify a firm's existing employees of position vacancies and to identify and assign qualified applicants. They keep track of va cancies throughout the organization and complete and distribute vacancy advertisement forms. The clerks review applications in response to the advertisement and verify the information using personnel records. After the selection is made, they notify all the applicants of their acceptance or rejection. In some job settings, personnel clerks have more specific job titles. Identification clerks are responsible for security matters at defense installations. They compile and record personal data about vendors, contractors, and civilian and military personnel and their dependents. Their job duties include interviewing applicants, corre sponding with law enforcement authorities, and preparing badges, passes, and identification cards. Employment Personnel clerks held about 123,000 jobs in 1994. Although these workers are found in most industries, more than 1 in every 4 works for a government agency. Colleges and universities, hospitals, department stores, and banks also employ large numbers of personnel clerks. Job Outlook Replacement needs will account for most job openings for personnel clerks through the year 2005. Jobs will open up as clerks advance within the personnel department, take a job unrelated to personnel administration, or leave the labor force. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Personnel clerks are employed throughout private industry and government. Employment of personnel clerks is expected to decline through the year 2005. Contributing to the declining number of personnel clerks is the increased use of computers. The growing use of com puters and electronic data interchange in personnel or human re source departments means that a lot of data entry work done by personnel clerks can be eliminated as employees themselves enter the data and send it to the personnel office. This is most feasible in large organizations with multiple personnel offices. In addition, as pro fessionals in personnel offices increasingly use computers and other automated office equipment, there could be less work for personnel clerks. (See introductory part of this section for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings, as well as sources of additional information.) Secretaries (D.O.T. 201 and 219.362-074) Nature of the Work Secretarial work continues to evolve along with new office automa tion and organizational restructuring. In many cases, secretaries have 288 Occupational Outlook Handbook assumed new responsibilities and learned to operate different office equipment. In the midst of these changes, though, their central responsibilities remain much as they were. Most organizations still employ secretaries to perform and coordinate office activities and to ensure that information gets disseminated to staff and clients. Man agers, professionals, and other support staff still rely on them to keep administrative operations under control. Secretaries are responsible for a variety of administrative and clerical duties that are necessary to run and maintain organizations efficiently. They schedule appointments, give information to callers, organize and maintain fdes, complete forms, and take dictation. They may also type letters, make travel arrangements, or contact clients. In addition, secretaries operate office equipment like facsimile machines, photocopiers, and telephones with voice mail capabilities. Secretaries increasingly use personal computers to run spread sheet, word processing, data base management, desktop publishing, and graphics programs—tasks previously handled by managers and professionals. Because they are often relieved from dictation and typing, they can support several members of the professional staff. Secretaries sometimes work in clusters of three or four so that they can work more flexibly and share their expertise. Executive secretaries or administrative assistants perform fewer clerical tasks than lower level secretaries. In addition to receiving visitors, arranging conference calls, and answering letters, they may handle more complex responsibilities like conducting research, preparing statistical reports, training employees, and supervising other clerical staff. Some secretaries do highly specialized work that requires a knowledge of technical terminology and procedures. Further spe cialization in various types of law is common among legal secretar ies, for example. They prepare correspondence and legal papers such as summonses, complaints, motions, and subpoenas under the super vision of an attorney. They also may review legal journals and assist in other ways with legal research. Medical secretaries comprise another type of specialized secretary. These workers transcribe dictation, prepare correspondence, and assist physicians or medical scientists with reports, speeches, articles, and conference proceed ings. They also record simple medical histories, arrange for patients to be hospitalized, and order supplies. Most medical secretaries need to be familiar with insurance rules, billing practices, and hospital or laboratory procedures. Other technical secretaries assist engineers or scientists. They may prepare correspondence, maintain the technical library, and gather and edit materials for scientific papers. Secretaries must be able to juggle many tasks simultaneously. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Conditions Secretaries usually work in offices with other professionals or in schools, hospitals, or doctors' offices. Their jobs often involve sitting for long periods. If they spend a lot of time typing, particularly at a video display terminal, they may encounter problems of eyestrain, stress, and repetitive motion problems such as carpal tunnel syn drome. Office work lends itself to alternative or flexible working ar rangements, like telecommuting, and 1 secretary in 6 works part time. In addition, a significant number of secretaries work as tempo raries. A few participate in job sharing arrangements in which two people divide responsibility for a single job. The majority of secre taries, however, are full-time employees who work a standard 40hour week. Employment Secretaries held over 3.3 million jobs in 1994, making this one of the largest occupations in the U.S. economy. The following tabulation shows the distribution of employment by secretarial specialty. Secretaries, total................................................................................ 3,349,000 Legal secretaries........................................................................... 281,000 Medical secretaries........................................................................ 226,000 Secretaries, except legal and medical............................................ 2,842,000 Secretaries are employed in organizations of every description. About one-half of all secretaries are employed in firms providing services, ranging from education and health to legal and business services. Others work for firms that engage in manufacturing, con struction, wholesale and retail trade, transportation, and communica tions. Banks, insurance companies, investment firms, and real estate firms are important employers, as are Federal, State, and local gov ernment agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement High school graduates may qualify for secretarial positions provided they have basic office skills. Secretaries should be proficient in keyboarding and good at spelling, punctuation, grammar, and oral communication. Shorthand is necessary for some positions. Knowl edge of word processing, spreadsheet, and database management programs is becoming increasingly important to most employers. Because secretaries must be tactful in their dealings with many different people, employers also look for good interpersonal skills. Discretion, judgment, organizational ability, and initiative are espe cially important for higher level secretarial positions. As office automation continues to evolve, retraining and continu ing education will remain an integral part of many jobs. Continuing changes in the office environment have increased the demand for secretaries who are adaptable and versatile. Secretaries may have to attend classes to learn to operate new office equipment such as word processing equipment, information storage systems, personal com puters, or new updated software packages. The skills needed for a secretarial job can be acquired in various ways. Secretarial training ranges from high school vocational edu cation programs that teach office practices, shorthand, and keyboard ing skills to 1- to 2-year programs in secretarial science offered by business schools, vocational-technical institutes, and community colleges. Many temporary help agencies provide formal training in computer and keyboarding skills. These skills are most often ac quired, however, through instruction offered at the workplace by other employees or by equipment and software vendors. Specialized training programs are available for students planning to become medical or legal secretaries or office automation specialists. Testing and certification for entry-level office skills is available through the Office Proficiency Assessment and Certification (OPAC) program offered by Professional Secretaries International (PSI). As secretaries gain experience, they can earn the designation Certified Professional Secretary (CPS) by passing a series of examinations Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical 289 given by the Institute for Certifying Secretaries, a department of PSI. This designation is recognized by many employers as the mark of excellence for senior level office professionals. Similarly, those without experience who want to be certified as a legal support pro fessional may be certified as an Accredited Legal Secretary (ALS) by the Certifying Board of the National Association of Legal Secretar ies. They also administer an examination to certify a legal secretary with 3 years of experience as a Professional Legal Secretary (PLS). Advancement for secretaries generally comes about by promotion to a secretarial position with more responsibilities. Qualified secre taries who broaden their knowledge of the company’s operations and enhance their skills may be promoted to other positions such as senior or executive secretary, clerical supervisor, or office manager. Secretaries with word processing experience can advance to jobs as word processing trainers, supervisors, or managers within their own firms or in a secretarial or word processing service bureau. Their experience as a secretary can lead to jobs such as instructor or sales representative with manufacturers of word processing or com puter equipment. With additional training, many legal secretaries become legal assistants and paralegals. Job Outlook Projected employment growth for secretaries varies by occupational specialty. Growth in the legal services and health services industries will drive faster than average employment growth for legal and medical secretaries through the year 2005. Employment of the 85 percent of secretaries who are not legal or medical secretaries, how ever, is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occu pations. Nevertheless, employment opportunities should be quite plentiful, especially for well qualified and experienced secretaries, who, according to many employers, are in short supply. The very large size of the occupation, coupled with a moderate turnover rate, will generate several hundred thousand secretarial positions each year as experienced workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The major factor limiting employment growth for most secretaries is the widespread application of new office automation. Secretaries have become more productive with the help of word processing machines, personal computers, electronic mail, scanners, facsimile machines, and voice message systems. These technologies will continue to be purchased by firms, ensuring that employment growth for secretaries will lag behind the rapidly growing amount of office work. The use of automated equipment is also changing the workflow in many offices. Administrative duties are being reassigned and the functions of entire departments are being restructured. In some cases, such traditional secretarial duties as typing or keyboarding, filing, copying, and accounting are being assigned to workers in other units or departments. In some law offices and physicians' offices, for example, paralegals and medical assistants are assuming some tasks formerly done by secretaries. Professionals and managers increasingly do their own word processing rather than submit the work to secretaries and other support staff. In addition, there is a trend in many offices for groups of professionals and managers to "share" secretaries. The traditional arrangement of one secretary per manager is becoming less prevalent; instead, secretaries increasingly support systems or units. This approach often means that secretaries assume added responsibilities and are seen as valuable members of a team, but it also contributes to slower rates of employment growth. Developments in office technology are certain to continue, and they will bring about further changes in the secretary's work envi ronment. However, many secretarial job duties are of a personal, interactive nature and, therefore, not easily automated. Duties such as planning conferences, receiving clients, and transmitting staff instructions require tact and communication skills. Because auto mated equipment cannot substitute for these personal skills, secretar ies will continue to play a key role in the office activities of most organizations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings Based on a survey of metropolitan areas, the average annual salary for all secretaries was $26,700 in 1993. Salaries vary a great deal, however, reflecting differences in skill, experience, and level of responsibility, ranging from $19,100 to $38,400. Salaries in different parts of the country also vary; earnings generally are lowest in southern cities, and highest in northern and western cities. In addition, salaries vary by industry; salaries of secretaries tend to be highest in transportation, legal services, and public utilities, and lowest in retail trade and finance, insurance, and real estate. The starting salary for inexperienced secretaries in the Federal Government was $16,700 a year in 1995. Beginning salaries were slightly higher in selected areas where the prevailing local pay level was higher. All secretaries employed by the Federal Government averaged about $25,800 in 1995. Related Occupations A number of other workers type, record information, and process paperwork. Among these are bookkeepers, receptionists, stenogra phers, personnel clerks, typists and word processors, legal assistants, medical assistants, and medical record technicians. A growing number of secretaries share in managerial and human resource re sponsibilities. Occupations requiring these skills include clerical supervisor, systems manager, office manager, and human resource officer. Sources of Additional Information For career information, contact: ••Professional Secretaries International, P.O. Box 20404, Kansas City, MO 64195-0404. (Phone: 1-816-891-6600.) Persons interested in careers as legal secretaries can request information from: ••National Association of Legal Secretaries (International), 2250 East 73rd St., Suite 550, Tulsa, OK 74136. State employment offices can provide information about job openings for secretaries. Stenographers, Court Reporters, and Medical Transcriptionists (D.O.T. 202.362, .382-010, and 203.582-058) Nature of the Work When written accounts of spoken words are necessary for correspon dence, records, or legal proof, verbatim reports of speeches, conver sations, legal proceedings, meetings, or other events are taken by stenographers, court reporters and medical transcriptionists. Stenographers and stenotype operators take dictation and then transcribe their notes on a word processor or onto a computer disk ette. They may take dictation using either shorthand or a stenotype machine, which prints shorthand symbols. General stenographers, including most beginners, take routine dictation and perform other office tasks such as typing, filing, answering telephones, and operat ing office machines. Experienced and highly skilled stenographers take more difficult dictation. For example, they sit in on staff meet ings and provide word-for-word records or summary reports of the proceedings to the participants. They also supervise other stenogra phers, typists, and clerical workers. Some experienced stenographers take dictation in foreign languages; others work as public stenogra phers serving traveling business people and others. Technical ste nographers must know the medical, legal, engineering, or scientific terminology used in a particular profession. Court reporters record all statements made in an official proceeding, usually using a stenotype machine. They take down all 290 Occupational Outlook Handbook medical terminology, and grammar. Often medical professionals use abbreviations or technical jargon, which trancriptionists must be able to expand upon to ensure the accuracy of patient and health care facility records; transcriptionists must be medical language special ists and familiar with patient assessment, therapeutic procedures, diagnoses, and prognoses. In addition to transcribing letters, reports, and the like, they may have other clerical duties. (Medical secretar ies and assistants may also transcribe as part of their jobs. These occupations are covered elsewhere in the Handbook.) 4 l v£ **$»; a Many court reporters do freelance work, recording out-of-court depositions for attorneys. statements and present their record as the official transcript. Because there is only one person creating an official transcript, accuracy is vitally important. Some reporters still dictate notes on magnetic tapes that a typist can transcribe later. Others transcribe their own notes, or give them to note readers, persons skilled in reading back shorthand notes. Many reporters do freelance work recording out-of-court deposi tions for attorneys, proceedings of meetings and conventions, and other private activities. Still others record the proceedings in the U.S. Congress, in State and local governing bodies, and in govern ment agencies at all levels. Most court reporters use stenotype machines that print shorthand symbols on paper and record them on computer disks. The disks are then loaded into a computer that translates and displays the symbols in English. This is called computer-aided transcription. Stenotype machines that link directly to the computer are used for real-time captioning. That is, as the reporter types the symbols, they are instantly transcribed by the computer. This is used for closed cap tioning for the deaf or hearing-impaired on television, in courts, or in meetings. Court reporters who specialize in captioning television news stories are called stenocaptioners. Medical transcriptionists listen to audio recordings from physi cians and other health care professionals that note diagnoses of patients' ailments and courses of treatment. They transcribe the notes into the requested printed or computer-based format to become part of patients' medical records and edit the notes for format, propter https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Conditions Stenographers usually work in clean, well-lighted offices. Court reporters sometimes record depositions in the offices of attorneys, but they more often work in non-office settings, such as court rooms, legislatures, and conventions. Most medical transcriptionists work in hospitals, doctors’ offices, or outpatient medical care facilities. An increasing number of freelance court reporters and transcriptionists are working from home-based offices as subcontractors for law firms, hospitals, and transcription services. Although the work of stenographers, court reporters, and medical transcriptionists is not physically demanding, sitting in the same position for long periods can be tiring. The pressure to be accurate and fast can be stressful, and like other administrative support positions workers risk repetitive motion injuries, such as carpel tunnel syndrome. Many stenographers, court reporters, and medical transcriptionists work a standard 40-hour week, although about one-fourth work part time. Some court reporters and medical transcriptionists, however, are self-employed and freelance their services, which may result in irregular working hours. Employment Stenographers, court reporters, and medical transcriptionists held 105,000 jobs in 1994. Nearly one-fifth were self-employed freelance court reporters or medical transcriptionists. Of those who worked for a wage or salary, about one-third worked for State and local govern ments, a reflection of the large number of court reporters working in courts, legislatures, and various agencies. Over one-fourth worked for hospitals, and physicians' offices as medical transcriptionists. Other stenographers and court reporters worked for colleges and universities, secretarial and court reporting services, temporary help supply services, and law firms. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Stenographic skills are taught in high schools, vocational schools, community colleges, and proprietary business schools. For stenogra pher jobs, employers prefer to hire high school graduates and seldom have a preference among the many different shorthand methods. Although requirements vary in private firms, applicants with the best speed and accuracy usually receive first consideration in hiring. To qualify for jobs in the Federal Government, stenographers must be able to take dictation at a minimum of 80 words per minute and type at least 40 words per minute. Workers must achieve higher rates to advance to more responsible positions. For court reporter jobs, however, most employers require knowl edge of stenotype, not only because reporters can write faster using stenotype, but also because they can feed stenotype notes to a com puter for high-speed transcription. Speed and accuracy are the most important factors in hiring. Court reporters in the Federal Govern ment generally must take at least 175 words a minute, and many court reporting jobs require at least 225 words of dictation per min ute. There are 350 post secondary schools and colleges that offer 2or 4-year training programs in court reporting. About 110 programs have been approved by the National Court Reporters Association, and all of them teach computer-aided transcription. Some States require court reporters who stenotype depositions to be notary publics, and 18 States require each court reporter to be a Certified Court Reporter (CCR). A certification test is administered by a board of examiners in each State that has CCR laws. The Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical 291 National Court Reporters Association confers the designation Regis tered Professional Reporter (RPR) upon those who pass a two-part examination and participate in continuing education programs. Although voluntary, the RPR designation is recognized as a mark of distinction in the profession. For medical transcriptionist jobs, understanding medical termi nology is essential. Good English grammar and punctuation skills are required, as well as familiarity with personal computers and word processing software. Many employers prefer to hire transcriptionists who have completed some college coursework. Many vocational schools and community colleges offer programs and associate de grees in medical transcription. Courses in the various programs often include computer applications, business communication, English composition, grammar, keyboarding, medical terminology, and medical transcription. The American Association for Medical Tran scription awards the voluntary designation Certified Medical Tran scriptionist to those who earn passing scores on written and practical examinations. Stenographers can advance to more responsible secretarial posi tions, especially if they develop their interpersonal skills, such as the ability to communicate well. Stenographers who get the necessary education can become court reporters. Court reporters, on the other hand, have little advancement opportunities, although some reporters choose to specialize in captioning television programs. Job Outlook Overall employment of stenographers, court reporters, and medical transcriptionists is expected to decline slightly. Decreases in stenog rapher and court reporter jobs should more than offset growth in transcriptionist jobs. The widespread use of dictation machines has greatly reduced the need for office stenographers. The traditional "steno pool" is practi cally a thing of the past. Audio recording equipment and the use of personal computers by managers and other professionals should continue to greatly decrease the demand for these workers. The demand for skilled court reporters should decline as video recordings are increasingly recognized as legal records of proceed ings. Also, budget constraints should limit the ability of Federal, State, and local courts to expand, even in the face of rising numbers of criminal court cases and civil lawsuits. Demand should grow for court reporters willing to take depositions for court reporting service bureaus or those willing to freelance. Competition for entry level jobs is increasing as more workers are attracted to the occupation. Opportunities should be best for those who earn certification by the National Court Reporters Association. Demand for medical transcriptionists is expected to increase rapidly with growth in the need for health care and the industries that provide it. Growing numbers of medical transcriptionists will be needed to amend patients' records, edit for grammar, and watch out for medical discrepancies. Contributing to the demand for court reporters and transcription ists is the growing number of conventions, conferences, depositions, seminars, and similar meetings whose proceedings are recorded. Although many of these events are being videotaped, a written transcript must still be created for legal purposes or if the proceed ings are to be published. Also, the trend to provide instantaneous written captions for the deaf and hearing impaired should strengthen demand for stenocaptioners. Earnings Stenographers, court reporters, and medical transcriptionists had median earnings of $399 a week in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $306 and $629 a week. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $232, while the highest paid 10 percent earned over $790 a week. Court reporters generally earn higher salaries than stenographers or medical transcriptionists. Regardless of specialty, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis earnings depend on speed, education, experience, and geographic location. Related Occupations A number of other workers type, record information, and process paperwork. Among these are bookkeepers, receptionists, secretaries, personnel clerks, administrative assistants, and medical assistants. Sources of Additional Information For information about job openings for stenographers, contact State employment service offices. For information about shorthand court reporting, contact: •■National Court Reporters Association, 8224 Old Courthouse Rd., Vienna, VA 22182. Telephone 1-800-272-6272. Information on medical transcription is available from: ••American Association for Medical Transcription, P.O. Box 576187, Mode sto, CA 95357. Telephone 1-800-982-2182. Teacher Aides (D.O.T. 099.327; 219.467; 249.367-074, -086) Nature of the Work Teacher aides, also called paraprofessionals or paraeducators, pro vide instructional and clerical support for classroom teachers, allow ing teachers more time for lesson planning and teaching. Aides assist and supervise students in the classroom, cafeteria, schoolyard, or on field trips. They record grades, set up equipment, or help prepare materials for instruction. They also tutor and assist children in learning class material using the teacher's lesson plans. Aides' responsibilities vary greatly. Some teacher aides handle routine nonteaching and clerical tasks. They grade tests and papers, check homework, keep health and attendance records, type, file, and duplicate materials. They also may stock supplies, operate audiovis ual equipment, and keep classroom equipment in order. Other aides instruct children, under the direction and guidance of teachers. They work with students individually or in small groups—listening while students read, reviewing or reinforcing class work, or helping them find information for reports. Instructional teacher aides usually specialize in a certain subject, such as English or math. Teacher aides also assist students working with computers and educational software. Some teacher aides work in computer laboratories. \ m : f Teacher aides provide valuable assistance to students in the classroom. 292 Occupational Outlook Handbook Teacher aides also may provide personal attention to students whose families live in poverty, or to students who speak English as a second language, for example. In addition, schools are becoming more inclusive, integrating special education students into general education classrooms. As a result, teacher aides increasingly assist students with disabilities. Aides may attend to a student's physical needs, including feeding, teaching good grooming habits, or using physical restraint. Aides help assess a student's progress by observ ing a student's performance and recording relevant data. Many aides have a combination of instructional and clerical duties, designed to most effectively assist classroom teachers. Sometimes aides take charge of special projects and prepare equip ment or exhibits, such as for a science demonstration. Working Conditions Over half of all teacher aides worked part time during the school year in 1994. Most aides who provide educational instruction work the traditional 9- to 10-month school year, usually in a classroom setting. Aides also may work outdoors supervising recess when weather allows, and spend much of their time standing, walking, or kneeling. Seeing students develop and gain appreciation of the joy of learning can be very rewarding. However, working closely with students can be both physically and emotionally tiring. Aides who perform clerical work may feel overwhelmed by tedious administra tive duties, such as making copies or assembling handouts containing information for students. The relatively low pay may deter some from entering this occupation. Employment Teacher aides held about 932,000 jobs in 1994. About 9 out of 10 worked in elementary and secondary schools, mostly in the lower grades. A significant number assisted special education teachers in working with children who have disabilities. Most of the others worked in child daycare centers and religious organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Educational requirements for teacher aides range from a high school diploma to some college training. Aides with teaching responsibili ties usually require more training than those who don't perform teaching tasks. Increasingly, employers prefer aides who have some college training. Some teacher aides are aspiring teachers who are working towards their degree while gaining experience. Many schools require previous experience in working with children. Schools may also require a valid driver's license and perform a background check on applicants. A number of 2-year and community colleges offer associate degree programs that prepare graduates to work as teacher aides. However, most teacher aides receive on-the-job training. Aides who tutor and review lessons with students must have a thorough under standing of class materials and instructional methods, and must be familiar with the organization and operation of a school. Aides also must know how to operate audiovisual equipment, keep records, and prepare instructional materials, as well as have adequate computer skills. Teacher aides should enjoy working with children from a wide range of cultural backgrounds, and be able to handle classroom situations with fairness and patience. Aides also must demonstrate initiative and a willingness to follow a teacher’s directions. They must have good oral and writing skills and be able to communicate effectively with students and teachers. Teacher aides who speak a second language are in great demand to communicate with growing numbers of students and parents whose primary language is not English. Some States have established certification and training require ments for general teacher aides. To qualify, an individual may need a high school diploma or general equivalency degree (G.E.D.), or even some college training. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Advancement for teacher aides, usually in the form of higher earnings or increased responsibility, comes primarily with experience or additional education. Some school districts provide time away from the job so that aides may take college courses. Aides who earn bachelor's degrees may become licensed teachers. Job Outlook Employment of teacher aides is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Including special education students in general education classrooms, restruc turing of schools, emphasis on early education, and the rising number of students who speak English as a second language will spur rapid growth among teacher aides. Numerous job openings also will arise as workers transfer to other occupations, leave the labor force for family responsibilities, return to school, or leave for other reasons— characteristic of occupations that require limited formal education and offer relatively low pay. Projected rapid employment growth in special education will also spur strong demand for teacher aides. The number of special educa tion programs is rising in response to Federal legislation which mandates appropriate education for all children with disabilities, and emphasizes placing disabled children into regular school settings. Children with special needs require much personal attention, and special education teachers, as well as general education teachers with special education students, rely heavily on teacher aides. In addition, school reforms which call for more individual in struction should further enhance employment opportunities for teacher aides. More paraprofessionals are being employed to provide students with the personal instruction and remedial education they need. Most students greatly benefit from additional attention, indi vidual instruction, and positive feedback. Teacher aide employment is sensitive to changes in State and local expenditures for education. Pressures on education budgets are greater in some States and localities than in others. A number of teacher aide positions, such as Head Start assistant teachers, are financed through Federal programs, which also may be affected by budget constraints. Earnings According to a survey of salaries in public schools, conducted by the Educational Research Service, aides involved in teaching activities averaged $8.77 an hour in 1994-95; those performing only nonteach ing activities averaged $8.29 an hour. Earnings varied by region, work experience, and academic qualifications. Many aides are covered by collective bargaining agreements and have benefits similar to those of the teachers in their schools. Related Occupations Teacher aides who instruct children have duties similar to those of preschool, elementary, and secondary school teachers and librarians. However, teacher aides do not have the same level of responsibility or training. The support activities of teacher aides and their educa tional backgrounds are similar to those of child-care workers, family daycare providers, library technicians, and library assistants. Sources of Additional Information For information on teacher aides, including training and unionization, and on a wide range of education-related subjects, contact: ••American Federation of Teachers, Organizing Department, 555 New Jersey Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20001. For information on a career as a teacher aide, contact: •National Resource Center for Paraprofessionals in Education and Related Services, 25 West 43rd St., Room 620, New York, NY 10036. School superintendents and State departments of education can provide details about employment requirements. Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical 293 Telephone Operators (D.O.T. 235.222-010, .462-010, .562-014, .662-014, -018, -022, and -026) Nature of the Work Although most telephone numbers are dialed directly, some still require the assistance of a telephone operator. Telephone company central office operators help customers with person-to-person or collect calls or with special billing requests, such as charging a call to a third number or giving customers credit or a refund for a wrong number or a bad connection. Operators also are called upon to han dle emergency calls and assist children or people with physical limi tations. Technological innovations have changed the responsibilities of central office operators. Electronic switching systems have elimi nated the need for manual switching, and new systems automatically record information about the length and cost of calls into a computer that processes the billing statements. It is also now possible in most places to call other countries, person-to-person, or collect without the help of an operator. The task of responding to "intercept" calls (vacant, changed, or disconnected numbers) also is automated, and a computerized recording explains the reason for the interception and gives the new number. The monitoring and computing of charges on calls from pay telephones also have an automated function formerly performed by operators. Directory assistance operators answer inquiries by accessing computerized alphabetical and geographical directories. They gen erally no longer read numbers; this is done by a computerized record ing. Many organizations like hotels and medical centers employ operators to run private branch exchange (PBX) switchboards. These switchboard, or PBX operators, connect interoffice or house calls, answer and relay outside calls, connect outgoing calls, supply infor mation to callers, and record charges. Many also act as receptionists or information clerks, relaying messages or announcing visitors. (Receptionists are described elsewhere in this section of the Hand book.) Operators also work in other settings. Telephone-answering-ser vice operators manage switchboards to provide answering service for clients. Communication-center operators handle airport authority communication systems. For example, they use the public address system to page passengers or visitors. They also monitor electronic equipment alarms. Telephone company operators work at video display terminals in pleasant, well-lighted, air-conditioned surroundings. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Private-branch-exchange service advisors, sometimes called customer instructors or telephone usage counselors, train switchboard operators. Service advisors monitor conversations between operators and customers to observe the operator's behavior, technical accuracy, and adherence to company policies. Working Conditions The hours of PBX or switchboard operators generally are the same as those of other clerical workers in the firm. In some organizations, they work 40 hours a week during regular business hours. Operators in hotels, hospitals, and other places where telephone service is needed on a 24-hour basis, work shifts, even on holidays and week ends. Telephone company operators generally work 32 1/2 to 37 1/2 hours a week. They also may work day, evening, or night shifts, which include weekends and holidays. Some operators work split shifts, that is, they are on duty during the peak calling periods in the late morning and early evening and have time off in between. Telephone companies normally assign shifts by seniority, allowing the most experienced workers to choose when they will work. These operators, like all telephone company employees, may be subject to 24-hour call. In general, though, they work overtime only during emergencies. Telephone company operators work at video display terminals in pleasant, well-lighted, air-conditioned surroundings. But if the work site is not well designed, these operators may experience eyestrain and back discomfort. The job of a telephone operator requires little physical exertion; during peak calling periods, however, the pace at the switchboard may be hectic. Telephone companies continually strive to increase operator efficiency, and this can create a tense work environment. An operator's work generally is quite repetitive and, in telephone companies, is closely supervised. Computerized pacing and monitor ing by supervisors, combined with the rapid pace, may cause stress. Operators must sit for long periods and usually need supervisory approval to leave their work stations. Employment Telephone operators held about 310,000 jobs in 1994. About 3 out of 4 worked as PBX operators in hotels, hospitals, department stores, or other organizations. The remainder worked in telephone compa nies. Roughly one-fifth of all operators worked part time, although relatively few of those employed by telephone companies were parttimers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Telephone operators should be pleasant, courteous, and patient. A clear, pleasing voice and good hearing are important. In addition to being a good listener, prospective operators should have good read ing, spelling, and arithmetic skills. Good eye-hand coordination and manual dexterity are useful, as is an ability to work well under pressure. Many employers require operators to pass a physical examination. Some employers require a high school diploma. High school courses in speech, office practices, and business math provide a helpful background. Fluency in a foreign language is also looked upon favorably. New operators are taught how to use the equipment. In telephone companies, classroom instruction lasts up to 3 weeks and is followed by on-the-job training. Classroom instruction covers time zones and geography so that central office operators understand rates and know where major cities are located. Tapes are used to familiarize trainees with the dial tone, busy signal, and other telephone sounds and to improve diction and courtesy by giving them an opportunity to hear their own voices. Close supervision continues after training is completed. PBX operators who handle routine calls usually have a somewhat shorter training period than telephone company operators. These workers usually are trained informally by experienced personnel, 294 Occupational Outlook Handbook although, in some organizations, it may be done by a telephone company instructor. After 1 or 2 years of experience, telephone company operators may be promoted to service assistant, aiding the supervisor by monitoring telephone conversations. Direct promotion to supervisor may also be possible in some companies. Some operators advance to other clerical jobs or to telephone craft jobs such as installer or repairer. Large firms may promote PBX operators to more respon sible clerical positions; however, many small businesses have limited advancement opportunities. Job Outlook Job opportunities for telephone operators are expected to be ex tremely limited over the next decade. Overall employment is ex pected to decline but variations in growth will occur among different groups of operators. Employment of operators in telephone compa nies is expected to decline sharply through the year 2005 as automa tion continues to increase these workers' productivity and dereg ulations increase competition for phone services from other indus tries. Many telephone companies do not plan to replace operators who leave and many are laying off operators. In contrast, the number of switchboard or PBX operators is expected to grow, but more slowly than the average for all workers. As older switchboards that require operators to make connections are replaced by ones that route calls automatically, fewer operators will be needed. In addition, voice message systems have proliferated as computers became smaller, cheaper, and more powerful. These systems record, store, play, and forward telephone messages—work currently performed by PBX operators. When callers need to speak to an operator, they may be helped by receptionists who have been trained to make telephone connections. However, many firms may still keep switchboard operators for the "personal touch," which would somewhat limit the effects of new technology. Voice recognition technology, which gives computers the capac ity to understand speech and to talk back, is now here and has replaced many directory assistance operators and central office operators. Earnings Telephone operators who worked full time earned a median weekly salary of $398 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $285 and $513. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $227; the top 10 percent earned more than $604 a week. According to a survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas, switchboard operators had median weekly eamings of $320 in 1993. The middle half earned between $273 and $372 a week. Telephone company operators generally earn more than switch board operators. Most telephone company operators are members of the Communications Workers of America or the International Broth erhood of Electrical Workers. The average hourly eamings for operators represented by these unions were $12.52 in 1994, with an average low of $9.09 and an average high of $18.56. For these operators, union contracts govern wage rates, wage increases, and the time required to advance from one step to the next (it normally takes 4 years to rise from the lowest paying, nonsupervisory operator position to the highest). Contracts also call for extra pay for work beyond the normal 6 1/2 to 7 1/2 hours a day or 5 days a week, for Sunday and holiday work, and for a pay differential for nightwork and split shifts. Many contracts provide for a 1-week vacation with 6 months of service; 2 weeks for 1 to 6 years; 3 weeks for 7 to 14 years; 4 weeks for 15 to 24 years; and 5 weeks for 25 years and over. Holidays range from 9 to 11 days a year. Related Occupations Other workers who provide information to the general public include customer service representatives, dispatchers, hotel clerks, informa tion clerks, police aides, receptionists, reservation agents, and travel clerks. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information For more details about employment opportunities, contact a tele phone company. For general information on the telephone industry and career opportunities contact: ••United States Telephone Association, 1401 H St. NW., Suite 600, Washing ton, DC 20005-2136. •"Communications Workers of America, Research Department, 501 3rd St. NW., Washington, DC 20001. ••International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, Telecommunications Department, 1125 15th. St. NW., Room 807, Washington, DC 20005. Typists, Word Processors, and Data Entry Keyers (D.O.T. 203.362-010, -022, .382-018, -026, .582-014, -038, -042, -046, -054, -062, -066, -078; 208.382-010; and 209.382-010) Nature of the Work The information that many of today's organizations need to process is growing at a dizzying pace. Typists, word processors, and data entry keyers help to insure that this work is handled smoothly and effi ciently. Typists and word processors usually set up and enter reports, letters, mailing labels, and other text material. Typists make neat, typed copies of materials written by other clerical, professional, or managerial workers. They may begin as entry-level workers by typing headings on form letters, addressing envelopes, or preparing standard forms on electric or electronic typewriters. As they gain experience, they may begin to do work that requires a higher degree of accuracy and independent judgment. Senior typists may work with highly technical material, plan and type complicated statistical tables, combine and rearrange materials from different sources, or prepare master copies to be reproduced on photocopiers. Although it is becoming less common, some centralized word processing teams handle the transcription and typing for several departments. Regardless of how work is organized, though, most keyboarding is now done on word processing equipment. Word processors use this equipment to record, edit, store, and revise letters, memos, reports, statistical tables, forms, and other printed materials. Word processing equipment—usually a personal computer or part of a larger computer system—normally includes a keyboard, a video display terminal, and a printer, and may have "add-on” capabilities such as optical character recognition readers. Typists and word processors often perform other office tasks as well. They answer telephones, file, and operate copiers, calculators, and other office machines. Job titles of typists vary by duties per formed and by work setting. For example, clerk typists combine typing with filing, sorting mail, answering telephones, and other general office work. Notereaders transcribe stenotyped notes of court proceedings into standard formats. Data entry keyers usually fill forms that appear on a computer screen or enter lists of items or numbers. They also may manipulate existing data, edit current information, or proofread new entries to a database. Some examples of data sources include customers' per sonal information, medical records, and membership lists. Usually this information is used internally by a company and may be refor matted before use by other departments or by customers. Keyers can enter data on a variety of typewriter-like equipment. Many keyers use a machine that converts the information they type to magnetic impulses on tapes or disks for entry into a computer system. Others prepare materials for printing or publication by using data entry composing machines. Some keyers operate on-line termi nals or personal computers. Data entry keyers increasingly work with non-keyboard forms of data entry like scanners and electroni cally transmitted files. When working with these new optical character Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical 295 m'"' For many people, a job as a typist, word processor, or data entry keyer is their first job after graduating from high school or after a period of full-time family responsibilities. This work frequently serves as a steppingstone to higher paying jobs with more responsi bilities. Large companies and government agencies generally have training programs to help clerical employees upgrade their skills and advance to other positions. It is common for typists, word proces sors, and data entry keyers to transfer to other clerical jobs, such as secretary, statistical clerk, or court reporter, or to be promoted to a supervisory job in a word processing or data entry center. \ ■tT t l 'l- Experienced typists may work with highly technical materials. recognition systems, data entry keyers often enter only those data which cannot be recognized by machines. In some offices, keyers also operate computer peripheral equipment such as printers and tape readers, act as tape librarians, and perform other clerical duties. Working Conditions Typists, word processors, and data entry keyers usually work in clean offices. They sit for long periods and sometimes must contend with high noise levels caused by various office machines such as printers. These workers are susceptible to repetitive strain injuries like carpal tunnel syndrome and neck, back, and eye strain. To help prevent these from occurring, some offices have scheduled exercise breaks and installed ergonomically designed keyboards and workstations that allow workers to stand or sit as they wish. They generally work a standard 40-hour week. Employment Typists, word processors, and data entry keyers held nearly 1.1 million jobs in 1994, and were employed in every sector of the economy. Office work lends itself to alternative or flexible working arrangements, so many of these workers hold temporary jobs and 1 in 5 works part time. Some workers "telecommute" by working from their homes via personal computers linked by telephone lines to those in the main office. This enables them to type material at home and almost instantly produce printed copy in their offices. Twenty-four percent of all typists, word processors, and data entry keyers held jobs in firms that provide business services, includ ing temporary help agencies and word processing service bureaus. Eighteen percent worked in government agencies at various levels, while 9 percent were employed in educational institutions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers generally hire high school graduates who can meet their requirements for keyboarding speed. Keyboarding skills can be learned in different ways—in high schools, community colleges, business schools, or on one's own—using self-teaching aids such as books, records, and personal computers. Spelling, punctuation, and grammar skills are also important, as is familiarity with standard office equipment and procedures. Increasingly, employers also expect applicants to have word processing or data entry training or experience. Many community colleges, business schools, and temporary help agencies teach stu dents to use word processing, spreadsheet, and database management computer software packages. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of typists, word processors, and data entry keyers is expected to decline through the year 2005 despite rapid growth in the production of information and volume of business transactions. This decline is largely the result of productivity gains and organizational restructuring brought about by new technologies. Most important among these is the proliferation of personal computers, which has enabled other workers to perform work formerly done by typists, word processors, and data entry keyers. Most professionals and managers now use desktop personal computers or work stations to enter data and do their own word processing. Further automation of tasks is expected and should continue to reduce the demand for typists, word processors, and data entry keyers. For example, bar code scanners, which are now used in many retail establishments, should continue to spread to smaller establishments. More sophisticated optical character recognition readers, which scan documents and enter their text and data into a computer, are being used in more workplaces. This technology is being improved and should be more widely used in coming years. Researchers are also developing voice recognition technolo gies that enable people to enter text and data by simply speaking to a computer. In addition to these technologies designed to make traditional data entry more productive, others are being implemented which aim to make it unnecessary. Data are being captured at the point of origin and entered into the system without human intervention. An exam ple of this in the banking industry is automatic teller machines. As telecommunications technology improves, many organizations will take advantage of computer networks that allow more data to be transmitted electronically, thereby avoiding the reentry of data. Employment in this occupation will also be influenced by inter national and service sector outsourcing. Some large data entry and processing firms employ workers in nations with low wages to enter data. As international trade barriers continue to fall and telecommu nications technology improves, this transfer will continue to have a negative impact on employment of data entry keyers in the United States. Employment is also shifting between industries within the U.S. As organizations have demanded more flexibility from work ers, they have reduced in-house staff and have opted to use a staffing service firm. This trend has led to a redistribution of employment to temporary and staffing services firms. In spite of declining employment, a couple of hundred thou sand openings will still occur each year as workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Job prospects will be bright est for those typists, word processors, and data entry keyers with the best technical skills. Applicants for these positions, however, will need to be flexible and willing to continuously develop their skills. In particular, the more expertise these workers have in computer equipment and software packages, the better their job opportunities will be. Earnings Based on a survey of metropolitan areas, word processors averaged $22,900 a year in 1993; data entry keyers averaged $17,600. 296 Occupational Outlook Handbook highest in transportation and public utilities, and lowest in retail trade and finance, insurance, and real estate. Similarly, their salaries tend to vary by region, with salaries in the West being the highest. Re gardless of industry or region, typists generally receive higher sala ries if they have word processing experience. In the Federal Government, clerk-typists and data entry keyers without work experience started at about $14,900 a year in 1995. Beginning salaries were slightly higher in selected areas where the prevailing local pay level was higher. The average annual salary for all clerk-typists in the Federal Government was about $19,400 in 1995. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations Typists, word processors, and data entry keyers must transcribe information quickly. Other workers who deliver information in a timely manner are stenographers, court reporters, dispatchers, and telephone operators. They must also be comfortable working with office automation, and in this regard they are similar to secretaries and computer and peripheral equipment operators. Sources of Additional Information For information about job opportunities in data entry, contact the nearest office of the State employment service. Service Occupations Protective Service Occupations Correctional Officers (D.O.T. 372.367-014, .567-014, .667-018, and .677; and 375.367-010) Nature of the Work Correctional officers are charged with overseeing individuals who have been arrested, are awaiting trial or other hearing, or who have been convicted of a crime and sentenced to serve time in a jail, reformatory, or penitentiary. They maintain security and observe inmate conduct and behavior to prevent disturbances and escapes. Many correctional officers work in small county and municipal jails or precinct station houses as deputy sheriffs or police officers with wide ranging responsibilities. (See the statement on Police, Detec tives, and Special Agents elsewhere in the Handbook.) Others are assigned to large State and Federal prisons where job duties are more specialized. A relatively small number supervise aliens being held by the Immigration and Naturalization Service before being released or deported. Regardless of the setting, correctional officers maintain order within the institution, enforce rules and regulations, and may supplement whatever counseling inmates receive from psychologists, social workers, or other mental health professionals. To make sure inmates are orderly and obey rules, correctional officers monitor inmates' activities, including working, exercising, eating, and bathing. They assign and supervise inmates' work as signments. Sometimes it is necessary to search inmates and their living quarters for weapons or drugs, to settle disputes between inmates, and to enforce discipline. Correctional officers cannot show favoritism and must report any inmate who violates the rules. A few officers hold staff security positions in towers, where they are equipped with high-powered rifles. Other, unarmed officers are re sponsible for direct supervision of inmates. They are locked in a cell-block alone, or with another officer, among the 50 to 100 in mates who reside there. The officers enforce regulations primarily through their communications skills and moral authority. Other correctional officers periodically inspect the facilities. They may, for example, check cells and other areas of the institution for unsanitary conditions, weapons, drugs, fire hazards, and any evidence of infractions of rules. In addition, they routinely inspect locks, window bars, grille doors, and gates for signs of tampering. Correctional officers report orally and in writing on inmate con duct and on the quality and quantity of work done by inmates. Officers also report disturbances, violations of rules, and any unusual occurrences. They usually keep a daily record of their activities. In the most modern facilities, correctional officers can monitor the activities of prisoners from a centralized control center with the aid of closed circuit television cameras and a computer tracking system. In such an environment, the inmates may not see anyone but officers for days or weeks at a time. Depending on the offender's classification within the institution, correctional officers may escort inmates to and from cells and other areas and admit and accompany authorized visitors to see inmates. Officers may also escort prisoners between the institution and court rooms, medical facilities, and other destinations. They inspect mail and visitors for contraband (prohibited items). Should the situation arise, they assist law enforcement authorities by investigating crimes https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Correctional officers are responsible for the safety and well being of individuals in their keeping. committed within their institution and by helping search for escaped inmates. Correctional officers may arrange a change in a daily schedule so that an inmate can visit the library, help inmates get news of their families, or help inmates in other ways. In a few institutions, officers receive specialized training, have a more formal counseling role, and may lead or participate in group counseling sessions. Correctional sergeants directly supervise correctional officers. They usually are responsible for maintaining security and directing the activities of a group of inmates during an assigned watch or in an assigned area. Working Conditions Correctional officers may work indoors or outdoors, depending on their specific duties. Some indoor areas of correctional institutions are well lighted, heated, and ventilated, but others are overcrowded, hot, and noisy. Outdoors, weather conditions may be disagreeable, for example when standing watch on a guard tower in cold weather. Working in a correctional institution can be stressful and hazardous; correctional officers occasionally have been injured or killed by inmates. Correctional officers usually work an 8-hour day, 5 days a week, on rotating shifts. Prison security must be provided around the clock, which often means that junior officers work weekends, holidays, and nights. In addition, officers may be required to work overtime. Employment Correctional officers held about 310,000 jobs in 1994. Six of every 10 worked at State correctional institutions such as prisons, prison camps, and reformatories. Most of the remainder worked at city and county jails or other institutions run by local governments. About 9,000 correctional officers worked at Federal correctional institu tions, and about 4,000 worked in privately owned and managed prisons. 297 298 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Most correctional officers work in relatively large institutions located in rural areas, although a significant number work in jails and other smaller facilities located in law enforcement agencies through out the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most institutions require that correctional officers be at least 18 or 21 years of age, have a high school education or its equivalent, have no felony convictions, and be a United States citizen. In addition, correctional institutions increasingly seek correctional officers with postsecondary education, particularly in psychology, criminal justice, police science, criminology, and related fields. Correctional officers must be in good health. The Federal System and many States require candidates to meet formal standards of physical fitness, eyesight, and hearing. Strength, good judgment, and the ability to think and act quickly are indispensable. Other common requirements include a driver's license, and work experience that demonstrates reliability. The Federal System and some States screen applicants for drug abuse and require candidates to pass a written or oral examination, along with a background check. Federal, State, and local departments of corrections provide training for correctional officers based on guidelines established by the American Correctional Association, the American Jail Associa tion, and other professional organizations. Some States have special training academies. All States and local departments of correction provide informal on-the-job training at the conclusion of formal instruction. On-the-job trainees receive several weeks or months of training in an actual job setting under an experienced officer. Academy trainees generally receive instruction on institutional policies, regulations, and operations; constitutional law and cultural awareness; crisis intervention, inmate behavior, and contraband control; custody and security procedures; fire and safety; inmate rules and legal rights; administrative responsibilities; written and oral communication, including preparation of reports; self-defense, including the use of firearms and physical force; first aid includ ing cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR); and physical fitness train ing. New Federal correctional officers must undergo 200 hours of formal training within the first year of employment. They must complete 120 hours of specialized correctional instruction at the Federal Bureau of Prisons residential training center at Glynco, Georgia, within the first 60 days after appointment. Experienced officers receive inservice training to keep abreast of new ideas and procedures. Entry requirements and on-the-job training vary widely from agency to agency. For instance, correctional officers in North Da kota need 2 years of college with emphasis on criminal justice or behavioral science, or 3 years as a correctional, military police, or licensed peace officer. The department then provides 80 hours of training at the start, and follows up with 40 hours of training annu ally. On the other hand, Connecticut requires only that candidates be 18 years of age, have a high school diploma or GED Certificate, and pass a medical/physical examination, including drug screening. It then provides 520 hours of initial training, and follows up with 40 hours annually. Correctional officers have the opportunity to join prison tactical response teams, which are trained to respond to riots, hostage situa tions, forced cell moves, and other potentially dangerous confronta tions. Team members often receive monthly training and practice with weapons, chemical agents, forced entry methods, and other tactics. With education, experience, and training, qualified officers may advance to correctional sergeant or other supervisory or administra tive positions. Many correctional institutions require experience as a correctional officer for other corrections positions. Ambitious cor rectional officers can be promoted up to assistant warden. Officers sometimes transfer to related areas, such as probation and parole officer. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Job opportunities for correctional officers are expected to be plentiful through the year 2005. The need to replace correctional officers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force, coupled with rising employment demand, will generate many thousands of job openings each year. Some local and a few State correctional agen cies have traditionally experienced difficulty in attracting qualified applicants, largely due to relatively low salaries and unattractive rural locations. This situation is expected to continue, ensuring highly favorable job prospects. Employment of correctional officers is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as additional officers are hired to supervise and control a growing inmate population. Expansion and new construction of correctional facilities also are expected to create many new jobs for correctional officers, although State and local government budgetary constraints could affect the rate at which new facilities are built. Increasing public concern about the spread of crime and illegal drugs—resulting in more convictions—and the adoption of mandatory sentencing guidelines calling for longer sentences and reduced parole for in mates also will spur demand for correctional officers. Layoffs of correctional officers are rare because security must be maintained in correctional institutions at all times. Earnings According to a 1994 survey in Corrections Compendium, a national journal for corrections professionals, starting salaries of State correc tional officers averaged about $19,100 a year, ranging from $13,700 in Kentucky to $29,700 in New Jersey. Professional correctional officers’ salaries, overall, averaged about $22,900 and ranged from $17,000 in Wyoming to $34,100 in New York. At the Federal level, the starting salary was about $18,700 to $20,800 a year in 1995; supervisory correctional officers started at about $28,300 a year. Starting salaries were slightly higher in se lected areas where prevailing local pay levels were higher. The 1995 average salary for all Federal nonsupervisory correctional officers was about $31,460; for supervisors, about $57,100. Correctional officers usually are provided uniforms or a clothing allowance to purchase their own uniforms. Most are provided or can participate in hospitalization or major medical insurance plans; many officers can get disability and life insurance at group rates. They also receive vacation and sick leave and pension benefits. Officers em ployed by the Federal Government and most State governments are covered by civil service systems or merit boards. Their retirement coverage entitles them to retire at age 50 after 20 years of service or at any age with 25 years of service. In the Federal system and some States, correctional officers are represented by labor unions. Related Occupations A number of related careers are open to high school graduates who are interested in protective services and the field of security. Bailiffs supervise offenders and maintain order in local and State courtrooms during legal proceedings. Bodyguards escort people and protect them from injury or invasion of privacy. House or store detectives patrol business establishments to protect against theft and vandalism and to enforce standards of good behavior. Security guards protect government, commercial, and industrial property against theft, vandalism, illegal entry, and fire. Police officers and deputy sheriffs maintain law and order, prevent crime, and arrest offenders. Other corrections careers are open to persons interested in work ing with offenders. Probation and parole officers monitor and coun sel offenders, process their release from correctional institutions, and evaluate their progress in becoming productive members of society. Recreation leaders organize and instruct offenders in sports, games, arts, and crafts. Some of these related occupations are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Service Occupations 299 Sources of Additional Information Information about entrance requirements, training, and career oppor tunities for correctional officers on the State level may be obtained from State civil service commissions, State departments of correc tions, or nearby correctional institutions and facilities. Additional information on careers in corrections on the local level is available from: •“The American Jail Association, 2053 Day Road, Hagerstown, MD 21740 9795. Information on entrance requirements, training, and career oppor tunities for correctional officers on the Federal level may be obtained from: •“Federal Bureau of Prisons, National Recruitment Office, 320 First St. NW., Room 460, Washington, DC 20534. •"International Association of Correctional Officers, 1333 S. Wabash-Box 53, Chicago, IL 60605. Firefighting Occupations (D.O.T. 373 except .117; 379.687-010; 452.134, .167, .364-014, .367-010, -014, .687-014) Nature of the Work Firefighters respond to a variety of emergency situations where life, property, or the environment are at risk. They frequently are the first emergency response team at the scene of an accident, fire, flood, earthquake, or act of terrorism. Every year, fires and other emer gency conditions take thousands of lives and destroy property worth billions of dollars. Firefighters help protect the public against these dangers. This statement provides information only about career firefighters; it does not cover volunteer firefighters, who perform the same duties, and who may comprise the majority of firefighters in your area. Most calls that firefighters respond to involve medical emergen cies, and many fire departments provide ambulance service for victims. Firefighters receive training in emergency medical proce dures, and many fire departments require them to be certified as emergency medical technicians. (For more information on this occupation, see the Handbook statement on emergency medical technicians.) During duty hours, firefighters must be prepared to respond immediately to a fire or other emergency situation that arises. Each situation a firefighter encounters is unique. Because firefighting is dangerous and complex, it requires organization and teamwork. At every emergency scene, firefighters perform specific duties assigned by a superior officer. They may connect hose lines to hydrants, operate a pump, or position ladders. They may rescue victims and administer emergency medical aid, ventilate smoke-filled areas, operate equipment, and salvage the contents of buildings. Their duties may change several times while the company is in action. Sometimes they remain at the site of a disaster for several days or more, rescuing survivors and assisting with medical emergencies. The job of firefighter has become more complicated in recent years due to the use of increasingly sophisticated equipment. In addition, many firefighters have assumed a wider range of respon sibilities—for example, working with ambulance services that pro vide emergency medical treatment, assisting in the recovery from natural disasters such as earthquakes and tornadoes, and becoming involved with the control and cleanup of oil spills and other hazard ous materials incidents. Firefighters are primarily involved with protecting structures, but they also work at airports on crash and rescue crews, at chemical plants, by waterfronts, and in forests and wildland areas. In forests, air patrols locate fires and report their findings to headquarters by telephone or radio. Fire rangers patrol areas of the forest to locate https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and report fires and hazardous conditions and to ensure that travelers and campers are complying with fire regulations. When fires break out, firefighters use hand tools and water hoses to battle the blaze. Some specialized firefighters parachute from airplanes when neces sary to reach inaccessible areas. Most fire departments have a fire prevention division which is usually headed by a fire marshall. Fire inspectors are specially trained to conduct inspections of structures to prevent fires and to ensure fire code compliance. These firefighters may also check and approve plans for new buildings, working with developers and plan ners in that process. Fire prevention personnel often speak on these subjects before public assemblies and civic organizations. Some firefighters become fire investigators, who determine the origin and cause of fires. They collect evidence, interview witnesses, and prepare reports on fires where there may be arson or criminal negli gence. Some investigators have police powers and may arrest sus pects. They may also be called upon to testify in court. Between alarms, firefighters have classroom training, clean and maintain equipment, conduct practice drills and fire inspections, and participate in physical fitness activities. They prepare written reports on fire incidents and review fire science literature to keep abreast of technological developments and administrative practices and policies. Working Conditions Firefighters spend much of their time at fire stations, which usually have facilities for dining and sleeping. When an alarm comes in, firefighters must respond rapidly, regardless of the weather or hour. They may spend long periods on their feet, sometimes in adverse weather, tending to fires, medical emergencies, hazardous materials incidents, and other emergencies. Firefighting is a very hazardous occupation. It involves risk of death or injury from sudden cave-ins of floors or toppling walls and from exposure to flames and smoke. Strong winds and falling trees and branches can make fighting forest fires particularly dangerous. Firefighters also may come in contact with poisonous, flammable, and explosive gases and chemicals, and radiation or other hazardous materials, that may have immediate or long-term effects on their health. For these reasons, they must wear all kinds of protective gear, which can be very heavy. Work hours of firefighters are longer and vary more widely than hours of most other workers. Many work more than 50 hours a week; during some weeks, they may work significantly longer hours. In some cities, they are on duty for 24 hours, then off for 48 hours, and receive an extra day off at intervals. In other cities, they work a day shift of 10 hours for 3 or 4 days, a night shift of 14 hours for 3 or 4 nights, have 3 or 4 days off, and then repeat the cycle. In addition, * Wsm? 3® «** f ■ -*! ■> Firefighting is one of the most hazardous occupations. 300 Occuptional Outlook Handbook firefighters often work extra hours at fires and other emergencies and are regularly assigned to work on holidays. Fire lieutenants and fire captains often work the same hours as the firefighters they supervise. Duty hours include time when firefighters study, train, and perform fire prevention duties. Employment Firefighters held about 284,000 jobs in 1994. Nine of every 10 worked in municipal or county fire departments. Some very large cities have several thousand firefighters, while many small towns have only a few. Most of the remainder worked in fire departments on Federal and State installations, including airports. Private fire fighting companies employ a small number. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Applicants for municipal firefighting jobs may have to pass a written test; tests of strength, physical stamina, coordination, and agility; and a medical examination—including drug screening. Workers also may be monitored on a random basis for drug use after accepting employment. Examinations are open to persons who are at least 18 years of age and have a high school education or the equivalent. Those who receive the highest scores have the best chances for appointment. The completion of community college courses in fire science may improve an applicant's chances for appointment. In fact, in recent years, an increasing proportion of entrants to this occupa tion have some postsecondary education. As a rule, beginners in large fire departments are trained for several weeks at the department's training center. Through classroom instruction and practical training, the recruits study firefighting techniques, fire prevention, hazardous materials, local building codes, and emergency medical procedures, including first aid and cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Also, they learn how to use axes, saws, chemical extinguishers, ladders, and other firefighting and rescue equipment. After successfully completing this training, they are assigned to a fire company, where they undergo a period of probation. A number of fire departments have accredited apprenticeship programs lasting 3 to 4 years. These programs combine formal, technical instruction with on-the-job training under the supervision of experienced firefighters. Technical instruction covers subjects such as firefighting techniques and equipment, chemical hazards associ ated with various combustible building materials, emergency medical procedures, and fire prevention and safety. Most experienced firefighters continue studying to improve their job performance and prepare for promotion examinations. Today, firefighters need more training to operate increasingly sophisticated equipment and to deal safely with the greater hazards associated with fighting fires in larger, more elaborate structures. To progress to higher level positions, they must acquire expertise in the most ad vanced firefighting equipment and techniques and in building con struction, emergency medical procedures, writing, public speaking, management and budgeting procedures, and labor relations. Fire departments frequently conduct training programs, and some fire fighters attend training sessions sponsored by the National Fire Academy. These training sessions cover various topics, including executive development, anti-arson techniques, and public fire safety and education. Some States also have extensive firefighter training programs. Many colleges and universities offer courses leading to 2- or 4year degrees in fire engineering or fire science. Many fire depart ments offer firefighters incentives such as tuition reimbursement or higher pay for completing advanced training. Among the personal qualities firefighters need are mental alert ness, courage, mechanical aptitude, endurance, strength, and a sense of public service. Initiative and good judgment are extremely impor tant because firefighters often must make quick decisions in emer gencies. Because members of a crew eat, sleep, and work closely together under conditions of stress and danger, they should be de https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis pendable and able to get along well with others in a group. Leader ship qualities are necessary for officers, who must establish and maintain discipline and efficiency as well as direct the activities of firefighters in their companies. Opportunities for promotion are good in most fire departments. As firefighters gain experience, they may advance to a higher rank. The line of promotion usually is to engineer, lieutenant, captain, battalion chief, assistant chief, deputy chief, and finally to chief. Advancement generally depends upon scores on a written examina tion, job performance, and seniority. Increasingly, fire departments are using assessment centers—which simulate a variety of actual job performance tasks—to screen for the best candidates for promotion. Many fire departments now require a bachelor's degree, preferably in public administration or a related field, for promotion to positions higher than battalion chief. Some departments now require a mas ter's degree for the chief and for executive fire officer certification from the National Fire Academy, or for a State chief officer certifi cation. Job Outlook Firefighters are expected to face considerable competition for avail able job openings. Firefighting attracts many people because a high school education usually is sufficient, earnings are relatively high, and a pension is guaranteed upon retirement. In addition, the work is frequently exciting and challenging and affords an opportunity to perform a valuable public service. Consequently, the number of qualified applicants in most areas generally exceeds the number of job openings, even though the written examination and physical requirements eliminate many applicants. This situation is expected to persist through the year 2005. Employment of firefighters is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as a result of the increase in the Nation's population and fire protection needs. In addition, the number of paid firefighter positions is expected to increase as a percentage of all firefighter jobs. The increased level of specialized training required in this occupation makes it more diffi cult for volunteer firefighters to remain qualified for duty. Much of the expected job growth will occur in smaller communities with expanding populations that augment volunteers with career firefight ers to better meet growing, increasingly complex fire protection needs. However, little growth is expected in large, urban fire de partments. A small number of local governments are expected to contract for firefighting services with private companies. In response to the expanding role of firefighters, some munici palities have combined fire prevention, public fire education, safety, and emergency medical services into a single organization commonly referred to as a public safety organization. Some local and regional fire departments are being consolidated into county-wide establish ments in order to cut overhead, take advantage of economies of scale, reduce administrative staffs, and establish consistent training stan dards and work procedures. Turnover of firefighter jobs is unusually low, particularly for an occupation that requires a relatively limited investment in formal education. Nevertheless, most job openings are expected to result from the need to replace those who retire or stop working for other reasons, or who transfer to other occupations. Layoffs of firefighters are not common. Fire protection is an essential service, and citizens are likely to exert considerable pres sure on city officials to expand or at least preserve the level of fireprotection coverage. Even when budget cuts do occur, local fire departments usually cut expenses by postponing equipment pur chases or not hiring new firefighters, rather than by laying off staff. Earnings Median weekly earnings for firefighting occupations were around $630 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $490 and $775 weekly. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $380, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $975. The average annual Service Occupations 301 salary for all firefighters in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was about $27,100 in 1995. Fire lieutenants and fire captains may earn considerably more. The law requires that overtime be paid to those firefighters who average 53 or more hours a week during their work period—which ranges from 7 to 28 days. Firefighters often earn overtime for work ing extra shifts to maintain minimum staffing levels or for special emergencies. Firefighters receive benefits that usually include medical and liability insurance, vacation and sick leave, and some paid holidays. Practically all fire departments provide protective clothing (helmets, boots, and coats) and breathing apparatus, and many also provide dress uniforms. Firefighters generally are covered by pension plans that often provide retirement at half pay at age 50 after 25 years of service or at any age if disabled in the line of duty. Many career firefighters are unionized, and belong to the Interna tional Association of Firefighters. Many company officers and chief officers belong to the International Association of Fire Chiefs. Related Occupations A related fire protection occupation is the fire-protection engineer, who identifies fire hazards in homes and workplaces and designs prevention programs and automatic fire detection and extinguishing systems. Other occupations in which workers respond to emergen cies include police officers and emergency medical technicians. Sources of Additional Information Information about a career as a firefighter may be obtained from local fire departments and: •■International Association of Fire Chiefs, 4025 Fair Ridge Dr., Fairfax, VA 22033-2868. •“International Association of Firefighters, 1750 New York Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20006. •"Fire Administration, 16825 South Seaton Ave., Emittsburg, MD 21727. Information about firefighter professional qualifications and a list of colleges and universities that offer 2- or 4-year degree programs in fire science or fire prevention may be obtained from: •"National Fire Protection Association, Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02269. Guards (D.O.T. 372.563, .567-010, .667-010, -014, -030 through -038; 376.667-010; 379.667-010) Nature of the Work Guards, also called security officers, patrol and inspect property to protect against fire, theft, vandalism, and illegal entry. Their duties vary with the size, type, and location of their employer. Correction officers—guards who work in prisons and other correctional institu tions—and police, detectives, and special agents are discussed sepa rately in this section of the Handbook. In office buildings, banks, hospitals, and department stores, guards protect records, merchandise, money, and equipment. In department stores, they often work with undercover detectives to watch for theft by customers or store employees. Some guards patrol the outside of these buildings. At ports, airports, and railroads, guards protect merchandise being shipped as well as property and equipment. They screen passengers and visitors for weapons, explosives, and other contraband. They ensure that nothing is stolen while being loaded or unloaded, and watch for fires, prowlers, and trouble among work crews. Sometimes they direct traffic. Guards who work in public buildings, such as museums or ait galleries, protect paintings and exhibits by inspecting people and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis packages entering the building. They also answer routine questions from visitors and sometimes guide tours. In factories, laboratories, government buildings, data processing centers, and military bases where valuable property or information— such as information on new products, computer codes, or defense secrets—must be protected, guards check the credentials of persons and vehicles entering and leaving the premises. University, park, or recreation guards perform similar duties and also may issue parking permits and direct traffic. Golf course patrollers prevent unauthor ized persons from using the facility and help keep play running smoothly. At social affairs, sports events, conventions, and other public gatherings, guards provide information, assist in crowd control, and watch for persons who may cause trouble. Some guards patrol places of entertainment such as nightclubs to preserve order among custom ers and to protect property. Armored car guards protect money and valuables during transit. Bodyguards protect individuals from bodily injury, kidnapping, or invasion of privacy. In a large organization, a security officer often is in charge of the guard force; in a small organization, a single worker may be respon sible for all security measures. Patrolling usually is done on foot, but if the property is large, guards may make their rounds by car or motor scooter. As more businesses purchase advanced electronic security systems to protect their property, more guards are being assigned to stations where they monitor perimeter security, environ mental functions, communications, and other systems. In many cases, these guards maintain radio contact with other guards patrol ling on foot or in motor vehicles. Some guards use computers to store information on matters relevant to security—for example, visitors or suspicious occurrences—during their hours on duty. As they make their rounds, guards check all doors and windows, see that no unauthorized persons remain after working hours, and ensure that fire extinguishers, alarms, sprinkler systems, furnaces, and various electrical and plumbing systems are working properly. They sometimes set thermostats or turn on lights for janitorial work ers. Although some guards carry weapons, the trend is toward less use of armed guards. Guards may carry a flashlight, whistle, two-way radio, and a watch clock—a device that indicates the time at which they reach various checkpoints. Working Conditions Most guards spend considerable time on their feet patrolling build ings, industrial plants, and grounds. Indoors, they may be stationed at a guard desk to monitor electronic security and surveillance de- Safi* The need for security will spur rapid employment growth among guards. 302 Occuptional Outlook Handbook vices or to check the credentials of persons entering or leaving the premises. They also may be stationed at gate shelters or may patrol grounds in all weather. Because guards often work alone, there may be no one nearby to help if an accident or injury occurs. Some large firms use a reporting service that enables guards to be in constant contact with a central station outside the plant. If they fail to transmit an expected signal, the central station investigates. Guard work is usually routine, but guards must be constantly alert for threats to themselves and to the property that they are protecting. Guards who work during the day may have a great deal of contact with other employees and members of the public. Many guards work alone at night; the usual shift lasts 8 hours. Some employers have three shifts, and guards rotate to divide day time, weekend, and holiday work equally. Guards usually eat on the job instead of taking a regular break away from the site. Employment Guards held about 867,000 jobs in 1994. Industrial security firms and guard agencies employed 55 percent of all guards. These or ganizations provide security services on contract, assigning their guards to buildings and other sites as needed. The remainder were in-house guards, employed in many settings including banks, build ing management companies, hotels, hospitals, retail stores, restau rants and bars, schools, and government. Although guard jobs are found throughout the country, most are located in metropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most States require that guards be licensed. To be licensed as a guard, individuals generally must be 18 years old, have no convic tions for perjury or acts of violence, pass a background examination, and complete classroom training in such subjects as property rights, emergency procedures, and seizure of suspected criminals. Most employers prefer guards who are high school graduates. Some jobs require a driver's license. Employers also seek people who have had experience in the military police or in State and local police departments. Most persons entering guard jobs have prior work experience, although it is usually unrelated. Because of limited formal training requirements and flexible hours, this occupation attracts some persons seeking a second job. For some entrants—for example, those retired from military careers or other protective services—guard employment is a second career. Applicants are expected to have good character references, no police record, good health—especially in hearing and vision—and good personal habits such as neatness and dependability. They should be mentally alert, emotionally stable, and physically fit in order to cope with emergencies. Guards who have frequent contact with the public should be friendly and personable. Some employers require applicants to take a polygraph examination or a written test of honesty, attitudes, and other personal qualities. Many employers require applicants and experienced workers to submit to drug screening tests as a condition of employment. Candidates for guard jobs in the Federal Government must have some experience as a guard and pass a written examination. Armed Forces experience also is an asset. For most Federal guard positions, applicants must qualify in the use of firearms. The amount of training guards receive varies. Training require ments generally are increasing as modem, highly sophisticated security systems become more commonplace. Many employers give newly hired guards instruction before they start the job and also provide several weeks of on-the-job training. More and more States are making ongoing training a legal requirement. For example, New York State now requires guards to complete 40 hours of training after starting work. Illinois requires 20 hours for unarmed guards, plus an additional 20 hours for armed guards. Guards receive training in protection, public relations, report writing, crisis deterrence, first aid, drug control, and specialized training relevant to their particular https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis assignment. Guards employed at establishments that place a heavy emphasis on security usually receive extensive formal training. For example, guards at nuclear power plants may undergo several months of training before being placed on duty under close supervision. Guards may be taught to use firearms, administer first aid, operate alarm systems and electronic security equipment, and spot and deal with security problems. Guards who are authorized to carry firearms may be periodically tested in their use according to State or local laws. Some guards are periodically tested for strength and endur ance. Although guards in small companies receive periodic salary increases, advancement is likely to be limited. However, most large organizations use a military type of ranking that offers advancement in position and salary. Higher level guard experience may enable persons to transfer to police jobs that offer higher pay and greater opportunities for advancement. Guards with some college education may advance to jobs that involve administrative and management duties. A few guards with management skills open their own con tract security guard agencies. Job Outlook Job openings for persons seeking work as guards are expected to be plentiful through the year 2005. High turnover and this occupation's large size ranks it among those providing the greatest number of job openings in the entire economy. Many opportunities are expected for persons seeking full-time employment, as well as for those seeking part-time or second jobs at night or on weekends. However, some competition is expected for the higher paying in-house guard posi tions. Compared to contract security guards, in-house guards enjoy higher earnings and benefits, greater job security, and more ad vancement potential, and are usually given more training and re sponsibility. Employment of guards is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Increased concern about crime, vandalism, and terrorism will heighten the need for security in and around plants, stores, offices, and recreation areas. The level of business investment in increasingly expensive plant and equipment, including sophisticated computer systems, is expected to rise, resulting in growth in the number of guard jobs. Demand for guards will also grow as private security firms increasingly perform duties—such as monitoring crowds at airports and providing security in courts—formerly handled by government police officers and marshals. Because engaging the services of a security guard firm is easier and less costly than assuming direct responsibility for hiring, training, and managing a security guard force, job growth is expected to be concentrated among contract security guard agencies. Guards employed by industrial security and guard agencies occasionally are laid off when the firm at which they work does not renew its contract with their agency. Most are able to find employ ment with other agencies, however. Guards employed directly by the firm at which they work are seldom laid off because a plant or fac tory must still be protected even when economic conditions force it to close temporarily. Earnings According to a survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas, guards with the least responsibilty and training had median hourly earnings of $6.00 in 1993. The middle half earned between $5.00 and $7.35 an hour. Guards with more specialized training and expe rience had median hourly earnings of $11.20. Unionized in-house guards tend to earn more than the average. Many guards are represented by the United Plant Guard Workers Of America. Other guards belong to the International Guards Union of America or the International Union Of Security Officers. Depending on their experience, newly hired guards in the Federal Government earned $14,900 or $16,700 a year in 1995. Beginning salaries were slightly higher in selected areas where the prevailing local pay level was higher. Guards employed by the Federal Gov- Service Occupations 303 eminent averaged about $23,300 a year in 1995. These workers usually receive overtime pay as well as a wage differential for the second and third shifts. Related Occupations Guards protect property, maintain security, and enforce regulations for entry and conduct in the establishments at which they work. Related security and protective service occupations include bailiffs, border guards, correction officers, deputy sheriffs, fish and game wardens, house or store detectives, police officers, and private inves tigators. Sources of Additional Information Further information about work opportunities for guards is available from local detective and guard firms and the nearest State employ ment service office. Information about licensing requirements for guards may be obtained from the State licensing commission or the State police department. In States where local jurisdictions establish licensing requirements, contact a local government authority such as the sheriff, county executive, or city manager. Police, Detectives, and Special Agents (D.O.T. 168.167-010; 372.167-018, .267, .363 and .367-010; 375.133, .137 except -022 and -038, .163, .167 except -018, -026, and -054, .263, .264, .267, .363 through .384, and .587-010; 376.167 and .667-018; 377; and 379.167 and .263-014) Nature of the Work Police officers, detectives, and special agents are responsible for enforcing statutes, laws, and regulations designed to protect life and property. Many law enforcement officers spend much of their time interviewing witnesses and suspects, apprehending fugitives and criminals, collecting evidence, and providing testimony in court. After being incarcerated, many individuals are held under the care of correctional officers. (See the statement on correctional officers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Others spend most of their time patrol ling a designated area to preserve the peace and to prevent crime. They resolve problems within the community and enforce laws governing motor vehicle operations. All law enforcement officers are required to file reports of their activities, often involving long hours of paperwork. In most jurisdictions, whether on or off duty, these officers are expected to exercise their authority whenever necessary. In recent years, American voters have expressed their desire for government to place increasing emphasis on law enforcement efforts to reduce serious crime. As one response to serious crime, law enforcement officers are becoming more involved in community policing—building partnerships with the citizens of high-crime, urban neighborhoods, thus increasing public confidence in the police and mobilizing the public to help the police fight crime. Through the use of government, volunteer, and commercial resources, police encourage people in the community to help identify and solve recur ring problems. This involves making the police officer a permanent, highly visible figure in the neighborhood rather than merely an officer reacting to a crime. Police officers and detectives who work in small communities and rural areas have general law enforcement duties. In the course of a day's Work, they may direct traffic at the scene of a fire, investigate a burglary, or give first aid to an accident victim. In large police departments and Federal agencies, officers and special agents usually are assigned to a specific detail for a fixed length of time. Some may become experts in chemical and microscopic analysis, firearms https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis identification, handwriting and fingerprint identification, or serve on mounted and motorcycle patrol, harbor patrol, canine corps, special weapons and tactics or emergency response teams, or task forces formed to combat specific types of crime. Sheriffs and deputy sheriffs generally enforce the law in rural areas or places where there is no local police department. They may serve legal processes of courts. Sheriffs’ duties resemble those of local or county police departments, but generally on a smaller scale. Most sheriffs' departments employ fewer than 25 sworn officers, and many employ fewer than 10. Detectives and special agents work as plainclothes investigators, gathering facts and collecting evidence for criminal cases. They conduct interviews, examine records, observe the activities of sus pects, and participate in raids or arrests. Special agents employed by the U.S. Department of Justice work for the Drug Enforcement Administration, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the U.S. Border Patrol, and the U.S. Marshals Service. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) special agents specialize in enforcement of drug laws and regulations. Agents may conduct complex criminal investigations, carry out surveillance of criminals, and infiltrate illicit drug organizations using undercover techniques. They may work closely with confidential sources of information to collect evidence leading to the seizure of assets gained from the sale of illegal drugs. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) special agents are the Government's principal investigators, responsible for investigating violations of more than 260 statutes. Agents may be required to do surveillance, monitor court-authorized wiretaps, ex amine business records to investigate white-collar crime, track the interstate movement of stolen property, collect evidence of espionage activities, or be assigned to sensitive undercover assignments de signed to apprehend terrorists. Some special agents investigate violations of Federal laws in connection with bank robberies, theft of Government property, organized crime, espionage, sabotage, kid napping, and terrorism. Agents with specialized training usually work on cases related to their background. For example, agents with an accounting background may investigate bank embezzlements or fraudulent bankruptcies. U.S. marshals and deputy marshals provide security for Federal courts, including judges, witnesses, and prison ers. They apprehend fugitives and operate the Special Operations Group (SOG)—a tactical unit which responds to high-threat and emergency situations. Some deputies provide security to the De partment of Defense and the U.S. Air Force during movements of missiles between military facilities. U.S. Border Patrol special agents are responsible for protecting more than 8,000 miles of inter national land and water boundaries. Their primary mission is to detect and prevent the smuggling and unlawful entry of undocu mented aliens into the United States and to apprehend those persons found in violation of the immigration laws. The Border Patrol is the primary interdicting agency along the land borders between the ports of entry for illicit drugs and various contraband. They accomplish their mission through activities such as: tracking, traffic checks on roads and highways leading away from the border, and participating in various task force operations with other law enforcement agencies. Special agents employed by the U.S. Department of the Treasury work for The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms, the U.S. Customs Service, Internal Revenue Service, and U.S. Secret Service. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (BATF) special agents investigate violations of Federal explosives laws, including bombings and arson-for-profit schemes affecting interstate commerce. They may investigate suspected illegal sales, possession, or use of fire arms. Other BATF agents investigate violations related to the illegal sale of liquor and interstate smuggling of untaxed cigarettes. These investigations involve surveillance, participation in raids, interview ing suspects, and searching for physical evidence. Customs agents enforce laws to prevent smuggling of goods across U.S. borders. Internal Revenue Service special agents collect evidence against individuals and companies that are evading the payment of Federal taxes. U.S. Secret Service special agents are charged with two main 304 Occuptional Outlook Handbook missions—protection and investigation. During the course of their careers, they may be assigned to protect the President, Vice Presi dent, and their immediate families, Presidential candidates, ex Presidents, and foreign dignitaries visiting the United States. Secret Service agents also investigate counterfeiting, the forgery of Gov ernment checks or bonds, and the fraudulent use of credit cards. Special agents employed by the U.S. Department of State work for the Diplomatic Security Service. Diplomatic Security Service special agents advise ambassadors on security matters and manage a complex range of security programs overseas. In the United States, they investigate passport and visa fraud, conduct personnel security investigations, issue security clearances, and protect the Secretary of State and certain foreign dignitaries. They train foreign civilian police who then return to their own countries better able to fight terrorism. Various other Federal agencies employ special agents with sworn police powers and the authority to carry firearms and make arrests. These agencies generally evolved from the need for security for the agency's property and personnel. The largest such agency is the Federal Protective Service, which has personnel nationwide. Other examples include the U.S. Mint police, the Government Printing Service police, and the Central Intelligence Agency's Special Protec tive Service. State police officers (sometimes called State troopers or highway patrol officers) patrol highways and enforce motor vehicle laws and regulations. They issue traffic citations to motorists who violate the law. At the scene of an accident, they may direct traffic, give first aid, and call for emergency equipment. They also write reports that may be used to determine the cause of the accident. In addition. State police officers may provide services to motorists on the high ways, such as calling for road service for drivers with mechanical trouble. State police also enforce criminal laws. They are frequently called upon to render assistance to officers of other law enforcement agencies. In rural areas that do not have a police force or a local representative from the sheriffs department, the State police are the primary law enforcement agency, investigating any crimes that occur, such as burglary or assault. Most new police recruits begin their careers in an urban setting. They generally start on patrol duty, riding in a police vehicle. In smaller agencies, they may work alone; in larger agencies, they ride with experienced officers. Patrols generally cover an area such as old and congested business districts or outlying residential neighbor hoods. Officers attempt to become thoroughly familiar with condi tions throughout their patrol area and, while on patrol, remain alert for anything unusual. They note suspicious circumstances, such as open windows or lights in vacant buildings, as well as hazards to public safety. Officers on patrol enforce traffic regulations and also watch for stolen vehicles and wanted individuals. At regular inter vals, officers report to police headquarters by radio, or by telephone when they are imparting information that is confidential, since scan ners which pick up police radio communications are in popular usage. Regardless of where they work, police, detectives, and special agents spend considerable time writing reports and maintaining records. They are called to testify in court when their arrests result in legal action. Some senior officers, such as chief inspectors, com manders, division and bureau chiefs, and agents-in-charge, are re sponsible for operation of geographic divisions of an agency, certain kinds of criminal investigations, and various agency functions. Such managers have administrative and supervisory duties. Working Conditions Police, detectives, and special agents usually work a 40-hour week, but paid overtime work is common. Shift work is necessary because police protection must be provided around the clock. More junior officers frequently must work weekends, holidays, and nights. Police officers, detectives, and special agents are subject to call at any time https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Educational requirements for law enforcement professionals have increased in recent years. their services are needed and may work long hours during criminal investigations. The jobs of some special agents such as U.S. Secret Service and DEA special agents require extensive travel, often on very short notice. Some police, detectives, and special agents with agencies such as the U.S. Border Patrol have to work outdoors for long periods in all kinds of weather. While police work is inherently dangerous, good training, team work, and equipment such as bullet-resistant vests minimize the number of injuries and fatalities. The risks associated with pursuing speeding motorists, apprehending criminals, and dealing with public disorders can be very stressful for the officer as well as for his or her family. Employment Police, detectives, and special agents held about 682,000 jobs in 1994. About 81 percent were employed by local governments, primarily in cities with more than 25,000 inhabitants. Some cities have very large police forces, while hundreds of small communities employ fewer than 25 officers each. State police agencies employed about 13 percent of all police, detectives, and special agents; various Federal agencies employed an additional 6 percent. There are about 17,000 Federal, State, special (such as park police, transit police, and county police) and local police agencies in the Nation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Civil service regulations govern the appointment of police and de tectives in practically all State and large city agencies and in many smaller ones. Candidates must be U.S. citizens, usually at least 20 years of age, and must meet rigorous physical and personal qualifi cations. Eligibility for appointment generally depends on perform ance in competitive written examinations as well as on education and experience. Physical examinations often include tests of vision, hear ing, strength, and agility. Because personal characteristics such as honesty, judgment, inte grity, and a sense of responsibility are especially important in law enforcement work, candidates are interviewed by senior officers, and their character traits and background are investigated. In some agencies, candidates are interviewed by a psychiatrist or a psycholo gist, or given a personality test. Most applicants are subjected to lie detector examinations and drug testing. Some agencies subject sworn personnel to random drug testing as a condition of continuing employment. Although police, detectives, and special agents work independently, they must perform their duties in accordance with the law and departmental rules. They should enjoy working with people and meeting the public. Service Occupations 305 In larger police departments, where the majority of law enforce ment jobs are found, applicants usually must have at least a high school education. A small but growing proportion of local, special, and State departments require some college training. Some agencies hire police science or criminal justice students as police interns or cadets; some police departments and virtually all Federal agencies require a college degree. A few police departments accept applicants as recruits who have less than a high school education, but the num ber is declining. The Federal agency with the largest number of special agents is the FBI. To be considered for appointment as an FBI special agent, an applicant either must be a graduate of an accredited law school; be a college graduate with a major in accounting; or be a college gradu ate with either fluency in a foreign language or 3 years of full-time work experience. Applicants must be U.S. citizens, possess a valid driver's license, be between 23 and 37 years of age at the time of appointment, and be willing to accept an assignment anywhere in the United States. They also must be in excellent physical condition with at least 20/200 vision corrected to 20/40 in one eye and 20/20 in the other eye. All new agents undergo 16 weeks of training at the FBI academy on the U.S. Marine Corps base in Quantico, Virginia. Applicants for special agent jobs with the U.S. Department of Treasury's Secret Service and BATF must have a bachelor's degree, or a minimum of 3 years' work experience which demonstrates the ability to deal effectively with individuals or groups, collect and assemble pertinent facts, and prepare clear and concise reports. Candidates must be in excellent physical condition and be less than 37 years of age at the time they enter the agency unless they have previous qualifying Federal law enforcement experience. Prospec tive special agents undergo 8 weeks of training at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center in Glynco, Georgia, and another 8-11 weeks of specialized training with their particular agencies. Applicants for special agent jobs with the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration must be U.S. citizens, have a college degree in any field and either 1 year of experience conducting criminal investiga tions, 1 year of graduate school, or have achieved at least a 2.95 grade point average while in college. The minimum age for entry is 21 and the maximum age is 37 unless they have previous qualifying Federal law enforcement experience. DEA special agents undergo 14 weeks of specialized training at the FBI Academy in Quantico, Virginia. More and more, police departments are encouraging applicants to take postsecondary school training in law enforcement. Many entry level applicants to police jobs have completed some formal postsecondary education and a significant number are college graduates. Many junior colleges, colleges, and universities offer programs in law enforcement or administration of justice. Other courses helpful in preparing for a career in law enforcement include accounting, finance, electrical engineering or computer science, and foreign languages. Physical education and sports are helpful in developing the competitiveness, stamina, and agility needed for law enforcement work. Knowledge of a foreign language is an asset in many agencies. Some large cities hire high school graduates who are still in their teens as police cadets or trainees. They do clerical work and attend classes, and can be appointed to the regular force at the conclusion of their training, usually in 1 to 2 years, upon reaching the minimum age requirement. Before their first assignments, officers usually go through a period of training. In small agencies, recruits often get on the job training with more experienced officers, rather than formal training. In State and large local departments, they get training at a police academy for 12 to 14 weeks, as mandated by the State. This training includes classroom instruction in constitutional law and civil rights, State laws and local ordinances, and accident investigation. Recruits also receive training and supervised experience in patrol, traffic con trol, use of firearms, self-defense, first aid, and handling emergencies. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Police officers usually become eligible for promotion after a probationary period ranging from 6 months to 3 years. In a large department, promotion may enable an officer to become a detective or specialize in one type of police work such as laboratory analysis of evidence, traffic control, communications, or working with juveniles. Promotions to sergeant, lieutenant, and captain usually are made according to a candidate's position on a promotion list, as determined by scores on a written examination and on-the-job performance, and are very competitive. Continuing training helps police officers, detectives, and special agents improve their job performance. Through police department academies, regional centers for public safety employees established by the States, and Federal agency training centers, instructors provide annual training in defensive tactics, firearms, use-of-force policies, sensitivity and communications skills, crowd-control techniques, legal developments that affect their work, and advances in law enforcement equipment. Many agencies pay all or part of the tuition for officers to work toward degrees in law enforcement, police science, administration of justice, or public administration, and pay higher salaries to those who earn such a degree. Job Outlook The opportunity for public service through law enforcement work is attractive to many. The job is challenging and involves much per sonal responsibility. Furthermore, in many agencies, law enforce ment officers may retire with a pension after 20 or 25 years of service, allowing them to pursue a second career while still in their 40s. Because of relatively attractive salaries and benefits, the num ber of qualified candidates exceeds the number of job openings in Federal law enforcement agencies and in most State, local, and special police departments—resulting in increased hiring standards and selectivity by employers. Competition is expected to remain keen for the higher paying jobs with State and Federal agencies and police departments in more affluent areas. Persons having college training in police science, military experience, or both should have the best opportunities. Opportunities will be best in those urban communities whose departments offer relatively low salaries and where the crime rate is relatively high. Such departments are having difficulty attracting an adequate supply of high quality police officer candidates. Competition is extremely keen for special agent posi tions with the Justice and Treasury Departments and other Federal law enforcement agencies. Positions with these prestigious agencies tend to attract a far greater number of applicants than the number of job openings. Consequently, only the most highly qualified candi dates obtain jobs. Employment of police officers, detectives, and special agents is expected to increase faster than average for all occupations through the year 2005. A more security-conscious society and grow ing concern about drug-related crimes should contribute to the in creasing demand for police services. At the local and State levels, growth is likely to continue as long as crime remains a serious con cern. However, employment growth at the Federal level will be tempered by continuing budgetary constraints faced by law enforce ment agencies. Turnover in police, detective, and special agent positions is among the lowest of all occupations; nevertheless, the need to replace workers who retire, transfer to other occupations, or stop working for other reasons will be the source of most job openings. The level of government spending determines the level of em ployment for police officers, detectives, and special agents. The number of job opportunities, therefore, can vary from year to year and from place to place. Layoffs, on the other hand, are rare because retirements enable most staffing cuts to be handled through attrition. Trained law enforcement officers who lose their jobs because of budget cuts usually have little difficulty finding jobs with other agencies. 306 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Earnings In 1994, the median salary of nonsupervisory police officers and detectives was about $34,000 a year. The middle 50 percent earned between about $25,500 and $43,900; the lowest 10 percent were paid less than $17,900, while the highest 10 percent earned over $56,100 a year. Generally, salaries tend to be higher in urban, more affluent jurisdictions, which usually have best funded police departments. Police officers and detectives in supervisory positions had a median salary of about $42,800 a year, also in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between about $30,100 and $52,500; the lowest 10 percent were paid less than $19,800, while the highest 10 percent earned over $62,100 annually. Sheriffs and other law enforcement officers had a median annual salary of about $26,800 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between about $20,800 and $37,200; the lowest 10 percent were paid less than $16,500, while the highest 10 percent earned over $48,600. Federal law provides special salary rates to Federal employees who serve in law enforcement. Additionally, many Federal special agents receive administratively uncontrolled overtime (AUO)—equal to 25 percent of the agent's grade and step—awarded because of the large amount of overtime that these agents are expected to work. For example, in 1995 FBI agents started at a base salary of $31,200 a year, therefore earning $39,000 a year with AUO. Other Justice and Treasury Department special agents started at about $23,200 or $28,300 a year, therefore earning $29,000 or 35,400 per year includ ing AUO, depending on their qualifications. Salaries of Justice and Treasury Department special agents progress to $66,800 including AUO, while supervisory agents started at $61,100 including AUO. Salaries were slightly higher in selected areas where the prevailing local pay level was higher. Since Federal agents may be eligible for a special law enforcement benefits package, applicants should ask their recruiter for more information. Total earnings for local, State, and special police detectives frequently exceed the stated salary due to payments for overtime, which can be significant. In addition to the common benefits—paid vacation, sick leave, and medical and life insurance—most police and sheriffs' departments provide officers with special allowances for uniforms and furnish weapons, handcuffs, and other required equip ment. In addition, because police officers generally are covered by liberal pension plans, many retire at half-pay after 20 or 25 years of service. Related Occupations Police, detectives, and special agents maintain law and order. Work ers in related occupations include correctional officers, guards, fire marshals, and inspectors. Sources of Additional Information Information about entrance requirements may be obtained from Federal, State, and local law enforcement agencies. Further information about qualifications for employment as an FBI Special Agent is available from the nearest State FBI office; the address and phone number are listed in the local telephone directory. Information about career opportunities, qualifications, and train ing to become a deputy marshal is available from: •"United States Marshals Service, Employment and Compensation Division, Field Staffing Branch, 600 Army Navy Dr., Arlington, VA 22202. Information on careers as a DEA Special Agent may be obtained from: •"Drug Enforcement Administration, Special Agent Staffing Unit, Washing ton, DC 20537. An overview of career opportunities, qualifications, and training for U.S. Secret Service Special Agents is available from: '•"Secret Service, Personnel, 1800 G St. NW., Washington, DC 20223. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Private Detectives and Investigators (D.O.T. 189.167-054; 343.367-014; 376.137, .267; 367; and .667-014) Nature of the Work Private detectives and investigators assist attorneys, government agencies, businesses, and the public with a variety of problems, such as gathering facts, tracing debtors, or conducting background investi gations. The main job of private investigators and some private detectives is to obtain information and locate assets or individuals. Some private detectives protect stores and hotels from theft, vandal ism, and disorder. Private detectives working as general investigators have duties ranging from locating missing persons to exposing fraudulent work ers' compensation claims. Some investigators specialize in one field, such as finance, where they might use accounting skills to investigate the financial standing of a company or locate funds stolen by an embezzler. About half of all private investigators are self-employed or work for detective agencies. They specialize in missing persons, infidelity, and background investigations, including financial profiles and asset searches; physical surveillance; on-line computer database searches; and insurance investigations. They may obtain information, inter view witnesses, and assemble evidence for litigation or criminal trials. They get cases from clients or are assigned to cases by the owner or manager of the firm. Many investigators spend considerable time conducting surveil lance, seeking to observe inconsistencies in a subject's behavior. For example, a person who has recently filed a workers' compensation claim that an injury has made walking difficult should not be able to jog or mow the lawn. If such behavior is observed, the investigator takes video or still photographs to document the activity and reports back to the supervisor or client. "Stakeouts" are a common form of surveillance. On a stakeout, an investigator regularly observes a site, such as the home of a sub ject, until the desired evidence is obtained. The investigator sits in a car or other inconspicuous location. They are equipped with cam eras—including still and video cameras—binoculars, and a citizen's band radio or a car phone. Some investigations involve verification of facts, such as an individual's place of employment or income. This might involve a phone call or a visit to the workplace. In other investigations, espe cially in missing persons cases, the investigator interviews people to learn as much as possible about someone's previous movements. These interviews can be formal or informal and sometimes tum into confrontations if the person is uncooperative. Legal investigators specialize in cases involving the courts and lawyers. To assist in preparing criminal defenses, investigators locate witnesses, interview police, gather and review evidence, take photographs, and testify in court. To assist attorneys in the prepara tion of litigation for injured parties, they interview prospective witnesses, collect information on the parties to the litigation, and search out testimonial, documentary, or physical evidence. Corporate investigators work for companies other than investiga tive firms—often large corporations. In contrast to most private investigators, they report to a corporate chain of command. They conduct internal or external investigations. External investigations consist of preventing criminal schemes, thefts of company assets, and fraudulent deliveries of products by suppliers. In internal investiga tions, they insure that expense accounts are not abused and catch employees who are stealing. Investigators who specialize in finance may be hired to investi gate the financial standing of companies or individuals. These investigators often work with investment bankers and lawyers. They generally develop confidential financial profiles of individuals or Service Occupations 307 companies who may be parties to large financial transactions. An asset search is a common type of such an investigation. Private detectives and investigators who work for large retail stores or malls are responsible for loss control and asset protection. Store detectives safeguard the assets of retail stores by apprehending persons attempting to steal merchandise or destroy store property. They detect theft by shoplifters, vendor representatives, delivery personnel, and even store employees. Store detectives also conduct periodic inspections of stock areas, dressing rooms, and rest rooms, and sometimes assist in the opening and closing of the store. They may prepare loss prevention and security reports for management and testify in court against persons they apprehend. Computers have changed the nature of this profession and have become an integral part of investigative work. They allow investiga tors to obtain massive amounts of information in a short period of time from the dozens of on-line data bases containing probate rec ords, motor-vehicle registrations, credit reports, association member ship lists, and other information. Working Conditions Private investigators often work irregular hours. Early morning, evening, weekend, and holiday work is common. The irregular hours result from the need to conduct surveillance and contact people who may not be available during normal working hours. Investigators who work solely for insurance companies and corporate investigators have more normal work hours. Many investigators spend much time away from their offices conducting interviews or doing surveillance, but some work in their office most of the day conducting computer searches and making phone calls. Corporate investigators often split their time between the office and the field; work done in the office generally consists of computer research. When away from the office, the environment might range from plush boardrooms to seedy bars. Store and hotel detectives work mostly in the businesses that they protect. Investigators generally work alone, but sometimes work with others during surveillance or stake-outs. Much of the work that detectives and investigators do can be confrontational because the person being observed may not want to be observed. As a result, the job can be quite stressful and some times dangerous. Some investigators carry handguns, but most do not since it is difficult to obtain a permit to carry a concealed weapon in many jurisdictions. Owners of investigations firms have the added stress of having to deal with demanding and sometimes distraught clients. Employment Private detectives and investigators held about 55,000 jobs in 1994. Most jurisdictions require that private detectives be licensed. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis About 20 percent were self employed. About 34 percent of wage and salary workers worked for detective agencies and about 40 percent were employed as store detectives in department or clothing and accessories stores. Others worked for hotels and other lodging places, legal services firms, and many other industries. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are no formal education requirements for most private detec tive and investigator jobs, although most employers prefer high school graduates and many private detectives have college degrees. Some private detectives and investigators get their entry-level train ing on the job while working for insurance or collections companies or in the security industry. Many investigators enter from the mili tary or law enforcement jobs and apply their experience as law enforcement officers, military police, or government agents. Other investigators enter from such diverse fields as finance, accounting, investigative reporting, insurance, and law. These individuals often can apply their prior work experience in a related investigation specialty. The vast majority of States and the District of Colombia require that private investigators be licensed. Licensing requirements vary widely among the States, but, in most, the State police is the licens ing authority. Some States have very liberal requirements, while others have stringent regulations. For example, the California De partment of Consumer Affairs Bureau of Security and Investigative Services requires 6,000 hours of investigative experience, a back ground check, a qualifying score on a written examination, payment of a $50 application fee and a $32 fingerprint fee, and payment of an annual $175 license fee upon approval. In contrast, other States may have little or no licensing requirements. A growing number of States are enacting mandatory training programs for private investigators. In States that require licensing, a felony conviction generally dis qualifies a candidate from being granted a license. In most investigations firms, the screening process for potential employees includes a background check, consisting of confirmation of education, work experience, and criminal history, and interviews with references and others known to the applicant. Corporate and industrial security positions may require a criminal history check, a personal interview, an ethics interview, a practical test, verification of education claims, and license review as well as personal and employment references checks. For private detective and investigator jobs, most employers look for individuals with ingenuity who are aggressive, persistent, and assertive. A candidate must not be afraid of being confrontational, should communicate well, and should be able to think on his or her feet. The courts are often the ultimate judge of a properly conducted investigation, so the investigator must be able to present the facts in a manner a jury will believe. Training in subjects such as criminal justice are helpful to the aspiring private detective. Most corporate investigators must have a bachelor's degree, preferably in a business-related field. Some corporate investigators have Masters of Business Administration or law degrees, while others are Certified Public Accountants. Corporate investigators hired by larger companies may receive formal training from their employers on business practices, manage ment structure, and various finance related topics. Interview and interrogation training is frequently included. Most investigations firms are small, with little room for advance ment. Usually there are no defined ranks or steps, so advancement is in terms of salary and assignment status. Many investigators work for an investigations firm in the beginning of their investigative careers and after a few years try to start their own investigations firms. Corporate and legal investigators may rise to supervisor or manager of the security or investigations department. Job Outlook Employment of private detectives and investigators is expected to grow much faster than average for all occupations through the year 308 Occuptional Outlook Handbook 2005. In addition, job turnover should create many additional job openings, particularly among wage and salary workers. Neverthe less, competition is expected for the available openings because private detective and investigator careers are attractive to many. Demand for private detectives and investigators is expected to be generated by increases in the size of the population, increased eco nomic activity, and global and domestic competition. These forces are expected to produce increases in crime, litigation, and the need for confidential information of all kinds. As crime continues to increase, more firms will hire or contract for the service of private detectives. Drug abuse continues to be a problem in our society, contributing to the high crime rate, and some companies will hire private investigators to determine the extent of their internal drug problems. Additional private detectives and investigators will be needed to meet the needs for information associated with criminal defenses and litigation among companies and individuals. Greater financial activity also will increase the demand for investigators. In addition, as competition becomes more intense, growing numbers of companies will hire investigators to control internal and external financial losses, as well as to find out what their competitors are doing and to prevent industrial spying. In spite of the rapid growth in employment of private detectives and investigators, competition should continue to be very intense for full-time, salaried job openings due to a large supply of workers qualified for these jobs. Many individuals leave law enforcement, military, and intelligence jobs in the public sector, often at a rela tively young age, and decide to become private investigators. Oppor tunities should be best for entry-level jobs as store detectives or with detective agencies on a part-time basis. Persons seeking store detec tive jobs may find the best opportunities with private guard and security firms since some retail businesses are replacing their own workers with outside contract workers. Earnings Earnings of private detectives and investigators vary greatly depend ing on their employer, specialty, and geographic area in which they work. According to a study by Abbott, Langer & Associates, private investigators averaged about $36,700 a year in 1993, and store detectives about $ 16,100. According to other limited information, legal investigators earned an estimated $15,000 to $18,000 a year to start, and experienced legal investigators earned $20,000 to $35,000. Entry level corporate investigators earned an estimated $40,000 to $45,000 annually, and experienced corporate investigators, $50,000 to $55,000. Most private investigator bill their clients between $50 and $150 per hour to conduct investigations. Most private investigators, except for those working for large corporations, do not receive paid vacation or sick days, health or life insurance, retirement packages, or other benefits. Investigators are usually reimbursed for expenses and gen erally given a car allowance. Most corporate investigators received health insurance, pension plans, profit-sharing plans, and paid vacation. Related Occupations Private detectives and investigators often collect information and protect property and assets of companies. Others with related con cerns include security guards, insurance claims examiners, inspec tors, collectors, and law enforcement officers. Corporate investi gators and investigators who specialize in conducting financial profiles and asset searches do work closely related to that of account ants and financial analysts. Sources of Additional Information Most States have associations for private detectives and investigators that provide career information. For information on local licensing requirements, contact your local State police headquarters. Food and Beverage Preparation and Service Occupations Chefs, Cooks, and Other Kitchen Workers (D.O.T. 311.674-014; 313 except .131; 315.361, .371, and .381; 316.661 and .684-014; 317; 318.687; and 319.484) Nature of the Work A reputation for serving good food is essential to any restaurant, whether it prides itself on hamburgers and french fries or exotic foreign cuisine. Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers are largely responsible for the reputation a restaurant acquires. Some restaurants offer a varied menu featuring meals that are time consuming and difficult to prepare, requiring a highly skilled cook or chef. Other restaurants emphasize fast service, offering hamburgers and sand wiches that can be prepared in advance or in a few minutes by a fastfood or short-order cook with only limited cooking skills. Chefs and cooks are responsible for preparing meals that are pleasing to the palate and the eye. Chefs are the most highly skilled, trained, and experienced of all kitchen workers. Although the terms chef and cook are still used interchangeably, cooks are less skilled. Many chefs have earned fame for both themselves and the establish ments where they work due to their skillful preparation of traditional dishes and refreshing twists in creating new ones. (For information https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis on executive chefs, see the Handbook statement on restaurant and food service managers.) Institutional chefs and cooks work in the kitchens of schools, industrial cafeterias, hospitals, and other institutions. For each meal, they prepare a small selection, but large quantity of entrees, vegeta bles, and desserts. Restaurant chefs and cooks generally prepare a wider selection of dishes for each meal, cooking most orders indi vidually. Whether in institutions or restaurants, chefs and cooks measure, mix, and cook ingredients according to recipes. In the course of their work they use a variety of pots, pans, cutlery, and equipment, including ovens, broilers, grills, slicers, grinders, and blenders. They are often responsible for directing the work of other kitchen workers, estimating food requirements, and ordering food supplies. Some chefs and cooks also assist in planning meals and developing menus. Bread and pastry bakers, called pastry chefs in some kitchens, produce baked goods for restaurants, institutions, and retail bakery shops. Unlike bakers who work in large, automated industrial baker ies, bread and pastry bakers need only to supply the customers who visit their establishment. They bake smaller quantities of breads, rolls, pastries, pies, and cakes, doing most of the work by hand. They measure and mix ingredients, shape and bake the dough, and apply fillings and decorations. Short-order cooks prepare foods to order in restaurants and coffee shops that emphasize fast service. They grill and garnish hamburg Service Occupations 309 ers, prepare sandwiches, fry eggs, and cook french fried potatoes, often working on several orders at the same time. Prior to busy periods, they may slice meats and cheeses or prepare coleslaw or potato salad. During slow periods, they may clean the grill, food preparation surfaces, counters, and floors. Specialty fast-food cooks prepare a limited selection of menu items in fast-food restaurants. They cook and package batches of food such as hamburgers and fried chicken, which are prepared to order or kept warm until sold. Other kitchen workers, under the direction of chefs and cooks, perform tasks requiring less skill. They weigh and measure ingredi ents, fetch pots and pans, and stir and strain soups and sauces. They clean, peel, and slice potatoes, other vegetables, and fruits and make salads. They may cut and grind meats, poultry, and seafood in preparation for cooking. Their responsibilities also include cleaning work areas, equipment and utensils, and dishes and silverware. The number and types of workers employed in kitchens depends on the type of establishment. For example, fast-food outlets offer only a few items, which are prepared by fast-food cooks. Smaller, full-service restaurants offering a casual dining atmosphere often feature a limited number of easy-to-prepare items, supplemented by short-order specialties and ready-made desserts. Typically, one cook prepares all of the food with the help of a short-order cook and one or two kitchen workers. Large eating places tend to have varied menus and prepare more of the food they serve from start to finish. Kitchen staffs often include several chefs and cooks, sometimes called assistant or ap prentice chefs or cooks, a bread and pastry baker, and many less skilled kitchen workers. Each chef or cook usually has a special assignment and often a special job title—vegetable, fry, or sauce cook, for example. Executive chefs coordinate the work of the kitchen staff and often direct the preparation of certain foods. They decide the size of servings, sometimes plan menus, and buy food supplies. Working Conditions Many restaurant and institutional kitchens have modem equipment, convenient work areas, and air-conditioning; but in older and smaller eating places, the kitchens often are not as well equipped. Working conditions depend on the type and quantity of food being prepared and the local laws governing food service operations. Workers generally must withstand the pressure and strain of working in close quarters, standing for hours at a time, lifting heavy pots and kettles, and working near hot ovens and grills. Job hazards include slips and falls, cuts, and bums, but injuries are seldom serious. Work hours in restaurants may include late evenings, holidays, and weekends, while hours in factory, and school cafeterias may be more regular. Half of all short-order and fast-food cooks and other kitchen workers worked part time; a third of all bakers and restaurant and institutional cooks worked part time. Kitchen workers employed by public and private schools may work during the school year only, usually for 9 or 10 months. Similarly, establishments at vacation resorts generally only offer seasonal employment. Employment Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers held more than 3.2 million jobs in 1994. Short-order and fast-food cooks held 760,000 of the jobs; restaurant cooks, 704,000; institutional cooks, 412,000; bread and pastry bakers, 170,000; and other kitchen workers, 1,190,000. About three-fifths of all chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers were employed in restaurants and other retail eating and drinking places. One-fifth worked in institutions such as schools, universities, hospitals, and nursing homes. The remainder were employed by grocery stores, hotels, and many other organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most kitchen workers start as fast-food or short-order cooks, or in one of the other less skilled kitchen positions. These positions https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis r <. a Wmnmtlti Wmam tltt!****** Chefs are often responsible for planning meals, estimating food requirements, and ordering supplies. require little education or training and most skills are learned on the job. After acquiring some basic food handling, preparation, and cooking skills, they may be able to advance to an assistant cook or short-order cook position. To achieve the level of skill required of an executive chef or cook in a fine restaurant, many years of training and experience are necessary. Even though a high school diploma is not required for beginning jobs, it is recommended for those planning a career as a cook or chef. High school or vocational school courses in business arithmetic and business administration are particularly helpful. Many school districts, in cooperation with State departments of education, provide on-the-job training and sometimes summer work shops for cafeteria kitchen workers with aspirations of becoming cooks. Employees who have participated in these training programs are often selected for jobs as cooks. An increasing .number of chefs and cooks obtain their training through high school, post-high school vocational programs, and 2- or 4-year colleges. Chefs and cooks also may be trained in apprentice ship programs offered by professional culinary institutes, industry associations, and trade unions. An example is the 3-year apprentice ship program administered by local chapters of the American Culi nary Federation in cooperation with local employers and junior colleges or vocational education institutions. In addition, some large hotels and restaurants operate their own training programs for cooks and chefs. 310 Occuptional Outlook Handbook People who have had courses in commercial food preparation may be able to start in a cook or chef job without having to spend time in a lower skilled kitchen job. Their education may give them an advantage when looking for jobs in better restaurants and hotels, where hiring standards often are high. Some vocational programs in high schools offer this kind of training, but usually these courses are given by trade schools, vocational centers, colleges, professional associations, and trade unions. Post secondary courses range from a few months to 2 years or more and are open in some cases only to high school graduates. The Armed Forces are also a good source of training and experience. Although curricula may vary, students usually spend most of their time learning to prepare food through actual practice. They learn to bake, broil, and otherwise prepare food, and to use and care for kitchen equipment. Training programs often include courses in menu planning, determination of portion size, food cost control, purchasing food supplies in quantity, selection and storage of food, and use of leftover food to minimize waste. Students also learn hotel and restaurant sanitation and public health rules for handling food. Training in supervisory and management skills sometimes is empha sized in courses offered by private vocational schools, professional associations, and university programs. Culinary courses are given by 550 schools across the Nation. The American Culinary Federation accredited 70 of these programs in 1993. Accreditation is an indication that a culinary program meets recognized standards regarding course content, facilities, and quality of instruction. The American Culinary Federation has only been accrediting culinary programs for a relatively short time, and many programs have yet to seek accreditation. Certification provides valuable formal recognition of the skills of a chef or cook. The American Culinary Federation certifies chefs and cooks at the levels of cook, working chef, executive chef, and master chef. It also certifies pastry professionals and culinary educa tors. Certification standards are based primarily on experience and formal training. Important qualifications for chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers include the ability to work as part of a team, possessing a keen sense of taste and smell, and personal cleanliness. Most States require health certificates indicating workers are free from communi cable diseases. Advancement opportunities for chefs and cooks are better than for most other food and beverage preparation and service occupations. Many acquire higher paying positions and new cooking skills by moving from one job to another. Besides culinary skills, advance ment also depends on ability to supervise lesser skilled workers and limit food costs by minimizing waste and accurately anticipating the amount of perishable supplies needed. Some cooks and chefs gradually advance to executive chef positions or supervisory or management positions, particularly in hotels, clubs, or larger, more elegant restaurants. Some eventually go into business as caterers or restaurant owners, while others become instructors in vocational programs in high schools, community colleges, and other academic institutions. Job Outlook Job openings for chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers are ex pected to be plentiful through the year 2005. Growth in demand for these workers will create many new positions, but most openings will arise from the need to replace the high proportion of workers who leave this occupation every year. There is substantial turnover in many of these jobs because of the minimal educational and training requirements. The occupation also offers many part-time positions, attractive to people seeking a short-term source of income rather than a career. Many of the workers who leave these jobs transfer to other occupations, while others stop working to assume household respon sibilities or to attend school full time. Workers under the age of 25 have traditionally filled a significant proportion of the lesser skilled jobs in this occupation. The pool of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis young workers is expected to continue to shrink through the 1990's, but begin to expand after the year 2000. Many employers will be forced to offer higher wages, better benefits, and more training to attract and retain workers. Employment of chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers is ex pected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Since a significant proportion of food and beverage sales by eating and drinking establishments is associated with the overall level of economic activity, sales and employment will increase with the growth of the economy. Other factors con tributing to employment growth will be population growth, rising household incomes, and an increase in leisure time that will allow people to dine out and take vacations more often. As two income households are becoming more common, families may increasingly find dining out a convenience. Employment in restaurants is expected to grow. As the average age of the population increases, demand will grow for restaurants that offer table service and more varied menus—which will require higher skilled cooks and chefs. The popularity of fresh baked breads and pastries in fine dining establishments should ensure continued rapid growth in the employment of bakers. However, employment of short-order and specialty fast-food cooks is expected to increase more slowly than other occupations in this group because most work in fast-food restaurants, which are expected to grow at a slower rate than in the past. Employment of institutional and cafeteria chefs and cooks will grow more slowly than the average. Their employment is concen trated in the educational and health services sectors. Although employment in both sectors is expected to increase rapidly, growth of institutional and cafeteria cooks will not keep pace. Many high schools and hospitals are trying to make "institutional food" more attractive to students, staff, visitors, and patients. While some are employing more highly trained chefs and cooks to prepare more appealing meals, others are contracting out their food services. Many of the contracted companies emphasize fast-food and employ shortorder and fast-food cooks instead of institutional and cafeteria cooks. Earnings Wages of chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers depend greatly on the part of the country and the type of establishment in which they are employed. Wages generally are highest in elegant restaurants and hotels, with many executive chefs earning over $40,000 annu ally. According to a survey conducted by the National Restaurant Association, median hourly earnings of cooks in 1994 were $6.85, with most earning between $6.00 and $8.00. Assistant cooks had median hourly earnings of $6.25, with most earning between $5.50 and $7.00. The same survey indicated that short-order cooks had median hourly earnings of $6.50 in 1994; most earned between $5.50 and $7.25. Median hourly earnings of bread and pastry bakers were $6.50; most earned within the range of $6.00 to $7.68. Salad prepa ration workers generally earned less, with median hourly earnings of $5.50; most earned between $5.25 and $6.50. Some employers provide employees with uniforms and free meals, but Federal law permits employers to deduct from their em ployees’ wages the cost or fair value of any meals or lodging pro vided, and some employers do so. Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers who work full time often receive paid vacation and sick leave and health insurance, but part-time workers generally do not. In some large hotels and restaurants, kitchen workers belong to unions. The principal unions are the Hotel Employees and Restau rant Employees International Union and the Service Employees International Union. Related Occupations Workers who perform tasks similar to those of chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers include butchers and meat cutters, cannery workers, and industrial bakers. Service Occupations 311 Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. Career information about chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers, as well as a directory of 2- and 4-year colleges that offer courses or programs that prepare persons for food service careers, is available from: •"The Educational Foundation of the National Restaurant Association, 250 South Wacker Dr., Suite 1400, Chicago, IL 60606. For information on the American Culinary Federation's appren ticeship and certification programs for cooks, as well as a list of accredited culinary programs, write to: •"American Culinary Federation, P.O. Box 3466, St. Augustine, FL 32085. For general information on hospitality careers, write to: •"Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, 1200 17th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20036-3097. For general career information and a directory of accredited private career and technical schools offering programs in the culinary arts, write to: •"Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201. Food and Beverage Service Workers (D.O.T. 310.137-010 and .357; 311.472, .477, .674-010, and -018, and .677; 312; 319.474, .677-014, and .687; 350.677-010, -026, -030; and 352.677-018) Nature of the Work Whether they work in small, informal diners or large, elegant restau rants, all food and beverage service workers deal with customers. The quality of service they deliver determines in part whether or not the patron will return. Waiters and waitresses take customers' orders, serve food and beverages, prepare itemized checks, and sometimes accept payments. The manner in which they perform their tasks varies considerably, depending on the establishment where they work. In coffee shops, they are expected to provide fast and efficient, yet courteous, service. In fine restaurants, where gourmet meals are accompanied by atten tive formal service, waiters and waitresses serve the meal at a more leisurely pace and offer more personal service to patrons. For ex ample, they may recommend a certain kind of wine as a complement to a particular entree, explain how various items on the menu are prepared, or prepare some salads and other special dishes at table side. Depending on the type of restaurant, waiters and waitresses may perform additional duties generally associated with other food and beverage service occupations. These tasks may include escorting guests to tables, serving customers seated at counters, setting up and clearing tables, or cashiering. However, larger or more formal restaurants frequently hire staff to perform these duties, allowing their waiters and waitresses to concentrate on customer service. Bartenders fill the drink orders that waiters and waitresses take from customers seated in the restaurant or lounge, as well as orders from customers seated at the bar. They prepare standard mixed drinks and, occasionally, are asked to mix drinks to suit a customer's taste. Most bartenders know dozens of drink recipes and are able to mix drinks accurately, quickly, and without waste, even during the busiest periods. Besides mixing and serving drinks, bartenders collect payment, operate the cash register, clean up after customers have left, and on occasion serve food items to customers seated at the bar. Bartenders who work at service bars have little contact with customers. They work at small bars in restaurants, hotels, and clubs where drinks are served only by waiters and waitresses. However, the majority who work in eating and drinking establishments directly serve and socialize with patrons. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Food and beverage service workers are on theirfeet a lot and often carry heavy trays offood, dishes, and glassware. Some establishments, especially larger ones, use automatic equipment to mix drinks of varying complexity at the push of a button. However, bartenders still must be efficient and knowledge able in case the equipment malfunctions or a customer requests a drink not handled by the equipment. Most customers frequent drinking establishments for the friendly atmosphere and would rather have their drinks prepared by a bartender than a lifeless machine. Bartenders usually are responsible for ordering and maintaining an inventory of liquor, mixes, and other bar supplies. They form attractive displays out of the bottles and glassware, and wash the glassware and utensils after each use. Hosts and hostesses try to evoke a good impression of the restau rant by warmly welcoming guests. They courteously direct patrons to where they may leave coats and other personal items, and indicate where they may wait until their table is ready. Hosts and hostesses assign guests to tables suitable for the size of their group, escort them to their seats, and provide menus. Hosts and hostesses are restaurants' personal representatives to patrons. They try to insure that the service is prompt and courteous and that the meal meets expectations. Hosts and hostesses schedule dining reservations, arrange parties, and organize any special services that are required. In some restaurants, they also act as cashiers. Dining room attendants and bartender helpers assist waiters, waitresses, and bartenders by keeping the serving area stocked with supplies, cleaning tables, and removing dirty dishes to the kitchen. They replenish the supply of clean linens, dishes, silverware, and glasses in the restaurant dining room, and keep the bar stocked with glasses, liquor, ice, and drink garnishes. Bartender helpers also keep the bar equipment clean and wash glasses. Dining room attendants set tables with clean tablecloths, napkins, silverware, glasses, and dishes and serve ice water, rolls, and butter to patrons. At the conclusion of the meal, they remove dirty dishes and soiled linens from the tables. Cafeteria attendants stock serving tables with food, trays, dishes, and silverware and may carry trays to dining tables for patrons. Counter attendants take orders and serve food at counters. In cafeterias, they serve food displayed on counters and steam tables as requested by patrons, carve meat, dish out vegetables, ladle sauces and soups, and fill beverages. In lunchrooms and coffee shops, counter attendants take orders from customers seated at the counter, transmit the orders to the kitchen, and pick up and serve the food when it is ready. They also fill cups with coffee, soda, and other beverages and prepare fountain specialties such as milkshakes and ice cream sundaes. They prepare some short-order items, such as sandwiches and salads, and wrap or place orders in containers for 312 Occuptional Outlook Handbook carry out. Counter attendants also clean counters, write up itemized checks, and accept payment. Fast-food workers take orders from customers standing at count ers or drive-through windows at fast-food restaurants. They get the ordered beverage and food items, serve them to the customer, and accept payment. Many fast-food workers also cook and package french fries, make coffee, and fill beverage cups using a drink dispensing machine. Working Conditions Food and beverage service workers are on their feet most of the time and often carry heavy trays of food, dishes, and glassware. During busy dining periods, they are under pressure to serve customers quickly and efficiently. The work is relatively safe, but care must be taken to avoid slips, falls, and bums. Although some food and beverage service workers work 40 hours or more a week, the majority are employed part time—a larger proportion than in almost any other occupation. The majority of those working part-time schedules do so on a voluntary basis. The wide range in dining hours creates work opportunities attractive to homemakers, students, and other individuals seeking supplemental income. Many food and beverage service workers are expected to work evenings, weekends, and holidays. Some work split shifts— that is, they work for several hours during the middle of the day, take a few hours off in the afternoon, and then return to their jobs for the evening hours. Employment Food and beverage service workers held more than 4.5 million jobs in 1994. Waiters and waitresses held over 1.8 million of these jobs; counter attendants and fast-food workers, more than 1.6 million; dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers, 416,000; bartenders, 373,000; and hosts and hostesses, 248,000. Restaurants, coffee shops, bars, and other retail eating and drink ing places employed two-thirds of all food and beverage service workers. Of the remainder, nearly half worked in hotels and other lodging places, and others in bowling alleys, casinos, and country clubs and other membership organizations. Jobs are located throughout the country but are typically plentiful in large cities and tourist areas. Vacation resorts offer seasonal employment, and some workers alternate between summer and winter resorts instead of remaining in one area the entire year. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are no specific educational requirements for food and beverage service jobs. Although many employers prefer to hire high school graduates for waiter and waitress, bartender, and host and hostess positions, completion of high school is generally not required for fast-food workers, counter attendants, and dining room attendants and bartender helpers. For many people, a job as a food and bever age service worker serves as a source of immediate income rather than a career. Many entrants to these jobs are in their late teens or early twenties and have a high school education or less. Usually, they have little or no work experience. Many are full-time students or homemakers. Food and beverage service jobs are a major source of part-time employment for high school students. Most employers place an emphasis on personal qualities. Food and beverage service workers are in close contact with the public, so they should be well spoken and have a neat and clean appearance. They should enjoy dealing with all kinds of people, possess a pleas ant disposition and a healthy sense of humor. State laws often re quire that food and beverage service workers obtain health certificates showing that they are free of communicable diseases. Waiters and waitresses need a good memory to avoid confusing customers' orders and to recall the faces, names, and preferences of frequent patrons. They should be good at arithmetic so they can total bills without the assistance of a calculator or cash register. In restau rants specializing in foreign foods, knowledge of a foreign language https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis is helpful. Prior experience waiting on tables is preferred by restau rants and hotels which have rigid table service standards. Jobs at these establishments often have higher earnings, but may also have higher educational requirements than less formal establishments. Generally, bartenders must be at least 21 years of age, and em ployers prefer to hire people who are 25 or older. They should be familiar with State and local laws concerning the sale of alcoholic beverages. Most food and beverage service workers pick up their skills on the job by observing and working with more experienced workers. Some employers, particularly some fast-food restaurants, use self instruction programs to teach new employees food preparation and service skills through audiovisual presentations and instructional booklets. Some public and private vocational schools, restaurant associations, and large restaurant chains also provide classroom training in a generalized food service curriculum. Some bartenders acquire their skills by attending a bartending or vocational and technical school. These programs often include instruction on State and local laws and regulations, cocktail recipes, attire and conduct, and stocking a bar. Some of these schools help their graduates find jobs. Due to the relatively small size of most food-serving establish ments, opportunities for promotion are limited. After gaining some experience, some dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers are able to advance to waiter, waitress, or bartender jobs. For waiters, waitresses, and bartenders, advancement usually is limited to finding a job in a larger restaurant or bar where prospects for tip earnings are better. Some bartenders open their own businesses. Some hosts and hostesses and waiters and waitresses advance to supervisory jobs, such as maitre d’hotel, dining room supervisor, or restaurant manager. In larger restaurant chains, food and beverage service workers who excel at their work are often invited to enter the company's formal management training program. (For more infor mation, see the Handbook statement on restaurant and food service managers.) Job Outlook Job openings for food and beverage service workers are expected to be abundant through the year 2005. Most openings will arise from the need to replace the high proportion of workers who leave this very large occupation each year. There is substantial movement into and out of the occupation because the education and training re quirements are minimal, and the predominance of part-time jobs is attractive to people seeking a short-term source of income rather than a career. Many of these workers simply move to other occupations, while others stop working to assume household responsibilities or to attend school. Employment of food and beverage service occupations is ex pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Since a significant proportion of food and beverage sales by eating and drinking places is associated with the overall level of economic activity, sales and employment will in crease with the growth of the economy. Growth in demand also will stem from population growth, rising personal incomes, and increased leisure time. Since it is common for both husband and wife to be in the work force, families may increasingly find dining out a conven ience. Growth of the various types of food and beverage service jobs is expected to vary greatly. As the composition of the Nation's popula tion becomes older, diners are expected to patronize full-service restaurants increasingly, spurring growth in demand for waiters and waitresses and hosts and hostesses. However, little change in the employment of dining room attendants is expected as waiters and waitresses increasingly assume their duties. The employment of bartenders is expected to decline as drinking of alcoholic beverages outside the home—particularly cocktails—continues to drop. Workers under the age of 25 have traditionally filled a significant proportion of food and beverage service jobs, particularly in fast- Service Occupations 313 food restaurants. The pool of these young workers in the labor force is expected to shrink through the 1990's, but begin to grow after the year 2000. To attract and retain workers, many employers will be forced to offer higher wages, better benefits, more training, and increased opportunities for advancement and full-time employment. Because potential earnings are greatest in popular restaurants and fine dining establishments, keen competition is expected for the limited number of jobs in these restaurants. Earnings Food and beverage service workers derive their earnings from a combination of hourly wages and customer tips. Their wages and the amount of tips they receive varies greatly, depending on the type of job and establishment. For example, fast-food workers and hosts and hostesses generally do not receive tips, so their wage rates may be higher than those of waiters and waitresses, who may eam more from tips than from wages. In some restaurants, waiters and waitresses contribute a portion of their tips to a tip pool, which is distributed among many of the establishment's other food and beverage service workers and kitchen staff. Tip pools allow workers who normally do not receive tips, such as dining room attendants, to share in the rewards for a well served meal. In 1994, median weekly earnings (including tips) of full-time waiters and waitresses were about $256. The middle 50 percent earned between $188 and $338; the top 10 percent earned at least $430 a week. For most waiters and waitresses, higher earnings are primarily the result of receiving more in tips rather than higher hourly wages. Tips generally average between 10 and 20 percent of guests' checks, so waiters and waitresses working in busy, expensive restaurants eam the most. Full-time bartenders had median weekly earnings (including tips) of about $299 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned from $226 and $395; the top 10 percent earned at least $514 a week. Like waiters and waitresses, bartenders employed in public bars may receive more than half of their earnings as tips. Service bartenders are often paid higher hourly wages to offset their lower tip earnings. Median weekly earnings (including tips) of full-time dining room attendants and bartender helpers were about $228 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $182 and $304; the top 10 percent earned over $446 a week. Most received over half of their earnings as wages; the rest was their share of the proceeds from tip pools. Full-time counter attendants and fast-food workers had median weekly earnings (including any tips) of about $204 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $160 and $266, while the highest 10 percent earned over $324 a week. Although some counter atten dants receive part of their earnings as tips, fast-food workers gener ally do not. In establishments covered by Federal law, workers beginning at the minimum wage eam $4.25 an hour. Federal law permits employ ers to credit an employee’s tip earnings toward the minimum hourly wage, up to an amount equaling 45 percent of the minimum, and some employers exercise this right. Employers are also permitted to deduct from wages the cost, or fair value, of any meals or lodging provided. However, many employers provide free meals and furnish uniforms. Food and beverage service workers who work full time often receive paid vacation and sick leave and health insurance, while part-time workers generally do not. In some large restaurants and hotels, food and beverage service workers belong to unions. The principal unions are the Hotel Em ployees and Restaurant Employees International Union and the Service Employees International Union. Related Occupations Other workers whose jobs involve serving customers and helping them feel at ease and enjoy themselves include flight attendants, butlers, and tour busdrivers. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. A guide to careers in restaurants, a list of 2- and 4-year colleges that have food service programs, and information on scholarships to those programs is available from: •■The Educational Foundation of the National Restaurant Association, 250 South Wacker Dr., Suite 1400, Chicago, IL 60606. For general information on hospitality careers, write to: •Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, 1200 17th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20036-3097. For general career information and a directory of private career colleges and schools that offer training for bartender and other food and beverage service jobs, write to: •Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201. Health Service Occupations Dental Assistants (D.O.T. 079.361-018) Nature of the Work Dental assistants perform a variety of patient care, office, and labora tory duties. They work at chairside as dentists examine and treat patients. They make patients as comfortable as possible in the dental chair, prepare them for treatment, and obtain dental records. Assis tants hand instruments and materials to dentists and keep patients’ mouths dry and clear by using suction or other devices. Assistants also sterilize and disinfect instruments and equipment; prepare tray setups for dental procedures; provide postoperative instruction; and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis instruct patients in oral health care. Some dental assistants prepare materials for making impressions and restorations, expose radio graphs, and process dental x-ray film as directed by a dentist. They may also remove sutures, apply anesthetics and cavity preventive agents to teeth and gums, remove excess cement used in the filling process, and place rubber dams on the teeth to isolate them for individual treatment. Those with laboratory duties make casts of the teeth and mouth from impressions taken by dentists, clean and polish removable appliances, and make temporary crowns. Dental assistants with office duties schedule and confirm appointments, receive patients, keep treatment records, send bills, receive payments, and order dental supplies and materials. Dental assistants should not be confused with dental hygienists, who are licensed to perform a wider variety of clinical tasks. (See the statement on dental hygienists elsewhere in the Handbook.) 314 Occuptional Outlook Handbook accredited training program or by having 2 years of full-time experi ence as a dental assistant. In addition, applicants must have taken a course in cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Without further education, advancement opportunities are limited. Some dental assistants working the front office become office man agers. Others, working chairside, go back to school to become dental hygienists. About 1 in 3 dental assistants works part time. Working Conditions Dental assistants work in a well-lighted, clean environment. Their work area is usually near the dental chair, so that they can arrange instruments, materials, and medication, and hand them to the dentist when needed. Handling radiographic equipment poses dangers, but they can be minimized with safety procedures. Likewise, dental assistants wear gloves and masks to protect themselves from infec tious diseases like hepatitis. Most dental assistants have a 32- to 40-hour workweek which may include work on Saturday or evenings. Employment Dental assistants held about 190,000 jobs in 1994. Almost 1 out of 3 worked part time, sometimes in more than one dentist's office. Almost all dental assistants work in private dental offices. Some work in dental schools, private and government hospitals, State and local public health departments, or in clinics. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most assistants learn their skills on the job, though many are trained in dental assisting programs offered by community and junior col leges, trade schools, and technical institutes. Some assistants are trained in Armed Forces schools. Assistants must be a dentist's "third hand"; therefore, dentists look for people who are reliable, can work well with others, and have manual dexterity. High school students interested in careers as dental assistants should take courses in biol ogy, chemistry, health, and office practices. The American Dental Association’s Commission on Dental Ac creditation approved 235 training programs in 1995. Programs in clude classroom, laboratory, and preclinical instruction in dental assisting skills and related theory. In addition, students gain practical experience in dental schools, clinics, or dental offices. Most pro grams take 1 year or less to complete and lead to a certificate or diploma. Two-year programs offered in community and junior colleges lead to an associate degree. All programs require a high school diploma or its equivalent, and some require typing or a sci ence course for admission. Some private vocational schools offer 4to 6-month courses in dental assisting, but these are not accredited by the Commission on Dental Accreditation. Certification is available through the Dental Assisting National Board. Certification is an acknowledgment of an assistant's qualifi cations and professional competence, but usually is not required for employment. In several States that have adopted standards for dental assistants who perform radiologic procedures, completion of the certification examination meets those standards. Candidates may qualify to take the certification examination by graduating from an https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Job prospects for dental assistants should be good. Employment is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Also, the proportion of workers leaving and who must be replaced is above average. Many opportunities are for entry-level positions that offer on-the-job training. Population growth and greater retention of natural teeth by mid dle-aged and older people will fuel demand for dental services. Also, dentists are likely to employ more assistants, for several reasons. Older dentists, who are less likely to employ assistants, will leave and be replaced by recent graduates, who are more likely to use one, or even two. In addition, as dentists' workloads increase, they are expected to hire more assistants to perform routine tasks, so they may use their own time more profitably. Most job openings for dental assistants will arise from the need to replace assistants who leave the occupation. For many, this entrylevel occupation provides basic training and experience and serves as a stepping-stone to more highly skilled and higher paying jobs. Other assistants leave the job to take on family responsibilities, return to school, or for other reasons. Earnings In 1993, median weekly earnings for dental assistants working full time were about $329. The middle 50 percent earned between $255 and $391 a week. According to the American Dental Association, dental assistants who worked 32 hours a week or more averaged $370 a week in 1993; the average hourly earnings for all dental assistants were $10.20. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations supporting health practitioners include medical assistants, physical therapy assistants, occupational therapy assistants, pharmacy assistants, and veterinary technicians. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities, scholarships, accredited dental assistant programs, and requirements for certification is avail able from: •"American Dental Assistants Association, 203 N. Lasalle, Suite 1320, Chicago, IL 60601-1225. •"Commission on Dental Accreditation, American Dental Association, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Suite 1814, Chicago, IL 60611. •"Dental Assisting National Board, Inc., 216 E. Ontario St., Chicago, IL 60611. Medical Assistants (D.O.T. 078.361-038 and .364-014, 079.362-010, .364-010, and -014, and .374-018, 355.667-010) Nature of the Work Medical assistants perform routine clinical and clerical tasks to keep the offices of physicians, podiatrists, chiropractors, and optometrists running smoothly. Medical assistants should not be confused with physician assistants who examine, diagnose and treat patients, under the direct supervision of a physician. (Physician assistants are dis cussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Service Occupations 315 The duties of medical assistants vary from office to office, de pending on office location, size, and specialty. In small practices, medical assistants are usually "generalists," handling both clerical and clinical duties and reporting directly to an office manager, phy sician, or other health practitioner. Those in large practices tend to specialize in a particular area under the supervision of department administrators. Medical assistants perform many clerical duties. They answer telephones, greet patients, update and file patient medical records, fill out insurance forms, handle correspondence, schedule appointments, arrange for hospital admission and laboratory services, and handle billing and bookkeeping. Clinical duties vary according to State law and include taking medical histories and recording vital signs, explaining treatment procedures to patients, preparing patients for examination, and assisting during the examination. Medical assistants collect and prepare laboratory specimens or perform basic laboratory tests on the premises, dispose of contaminated supplies, and sterilize medical instruments. They instruct patients about medication and special diets, prepare and administer medications as directed by a physician, authorize drug refills as directed, telephone prescriptions to a phar macy, draw blood, prepare patients for x rays, take electrocardio grams, remove sutures, and change dressings. Medical assistants may also arrange examining room instruments and equipment, purchase and maintain supplies and equipment, and keep waiting and examining rooms neat and clean. Assistants who specialize have additional duties. Podiatric medical assistants make castings of feet, expose and develop x rays, and assist podiatrists in surgery. Ophthalmic medical assistants help ophthalmologists provide medical eye care. They administer diag nostic tests, measure and record vision, and test the functioning of eyes and eye muscles. They also show patients how to use eye dressings, protective shields, and safety glasses, and how to insert, remove, and care for contact lenses. Under the direction of the physician, they may administer medications, including eye drops. They also maintain optical and surgical instruments and assist the ophthalmologist in surgery. Working Conditions Medical assistants work in well-lighted, clean environments. They constantly interact with other people, and may have to handle several responsibilities at once. Most full-time medical assistants work a regular 40-hour week. Some work part-time, evenings or weekends. 2l_. Medical assistants may perform many clerical duties. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment Medical assistants held about 206,000 jobs in 1994. Seven in 10 jobs were in physicians' offices, and over 1 in 10 were in offices of other health practitioners such as chiropractors, optometrists, and podia trists. The rest were in hospitals, nursing homes, and other health care facilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Medical assisting is one of the few health occupations open to indi viduals with no formal training. Although formal training in medical assisting is available, such training-while generally preferred-is not always required. Some medical assistants are trained on the job. Applicants usually need a high school diploma or the equivalent. Recommended high school courses include mathematics, health, biology, typing, bookkeeping, computers, and office skills. Volun teer experience in the health care field is also helpful. Formal programs in medical assisting are offered in vocationaltechnical high schools, postsecondary vocational schools, community and junior colleges, and in colleges and universities. College-level programs usually last either 1 year, resulting in a certificate or di ploma, or 2 years, resulting in an associate degree. Vocational programs can take up to 1 year and lead to a diploma or certificate. Courses cover anatomy, physiology, and medical terminology as well as typing, transcription, recordkeeping, accounting, and insurance processing. Students learn laboratory techniques, clinical and diag nostic procedures, pharmaceutical principles and medication ad ministration, and first aid. They study office practices, patient relations, and medical law and ethics. Some accredited programs include an internship that provides practical experience in physicians' offices, hospitals, or other health care facilities. Two agencies recognized by the U.S. Department of Education accredit programs in medical assisting: the Commission on Accredi tation of Allied Health Education Programs (CAAHEP) and the Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools (ABHES). In 1995, there were 221 medical assisting programs accredited by CAAHEP and 162 accredited by ABHES. The Joint Review Committee for Ophthalmic Medical Personnel has approved 16 programs in oph thalmic medical assisting. Although there is no licensing for medical assistants, some States require them to take a test or a short course before they can take x rays, draw blood, or give injections. Employers prefer to hire experi enced workers or certified applicants who have passed a national examination, indicating that the medical assistant meets certain standards of competence. The American Association of Medical Assistants awards the Certified Medical Assistant credential; the American Medical Technologists awards the Registered Medical Assistant credential; the American Society of Podiatric Medical Assistants awards the Podiatric Medical Assistant Certified creden tial; and the Joint Commission on Allied Health Personnel in Oph thalmology awards the Ophthalmic Medical Assistant credential at three levels: Certified Ophthalmic Assistant, Certified Ophthalmic Technician, and Certified Ophthalmic Medical Technologist. Because medical assistants deal with the public, they must be neat and well-groomed and have a courteous, pleasant manner. Medical assistants must be able to put patients at ease and explain physicians' instructions. They must respect the confidential nature of medical information. Clinical duties require a reasonable level of manual dexterity and visual acuity. Medical assistants may be able to advance to office manager. They may qualify for a wide variety of administrative support occu pations, or may teach medical assisting. Some, with additional education, enter other health occupations such as nursing and medi cal technology. Job Outlook Employment of medical assistants is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as the 316 Occuptional Outlook Handbook health services industry expands due to technological advances in medicine, and a growing and aging population. Employment growth will be driven by growth in the number of group practices, clinics, and other health care facilities that need a high proportion of support personnel, particularly the flexible medi cal assistant who can handle both clinical and clerical duties. Medi cal assistants primarily work in outpatient settings, where faster than average growth is expected. In view of the preference of many physicians for trained person nel, job prospects should be excellent for medical assistants with formal training or experience, particularly those with certification. Earnings The earnings of medical assistants vary widely, depending on experi ence, skill level, and location. According to a 1995 survey by the Health Care Group, average hourly wages for medical assistants with less than 2 years of experience ranged from $7.51 to $10.20. Aver age hourly wages for medical assistants with more than 5 years of experience ranged from $9.60 to $13.12. Wages were higher in the Northeast and West and lower in the Midwest and South. Related Occupations Workers in other medical support occupations include medical secretaries, hospital admitting clerks, pharmacy helpers, medical record clerks, dental assistants, occupational therapy aides, and physical therapy aides. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities, CAAHEP-accredited educa tional programs in medical assisting, and the Certified Medical Assistant exam is available from: •"The American Association of Medical Assistants, 20 North Wacker Dr., Suite 1575, Chicago, IL 60606-2903. Information about career opportunities and the Registered Medi cal Assistant certification exam is available from: •■Registered Medical Assistants of American Medical Technologists, 710 Higgins Rd., Park Ridge, IL 60068-5765. For a list of ABHES-accredited educational programs in medical assisting, write: •"Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools, 2700 South Quincy St., Suite 210, Arlington, VA 22206. Information about career opportunities, training programs, and the Certified Ophthalmic Assistant exam is available from: •■Joint Commission on Allied Health Personnel in Ophthalmology, 2025 Woodlane Dr., St. Paul, MN 55125-2995. care to patients, take temperatures, pulse, respiration, and blood pressure, and help patients get in and out of bed and walk. They may also escort patients to operating and examining rooms, keep patients’ rooms neat, set up equipment, or store and move supplies. Aides observe patients' physical, mental, and emotional conditions and report any change to the nursing or medical staff. Nursing aides employed in nursing homes are often the principal caregivers, having far more contact with residents than other mem bers of the staff do. Since some residents may stay in a nursing home for months or even years, aides develop ongoing relationships with them and respond to them in a positive, caring way. Psychiatric aides are also known as mental health assistants and psychiatric nursing assistants. They care for mentally impaired or emotionally disturbed individuals. They work under a team that may include psychiatrists, psychologists, psychiatric nurses, social work ers, and therapists. In addition to helping patients dress, bathe, groom, and eat, psychiatric aides socialize with them and lead them in educational and recreational activities. Psychiatric aides may play games such as cards with the patients, watch television with them, or participate in group activities such as sports or field trips. They observe patients and report any signs which might be important for the professional staff to know. They accompany patients to and from wards for examination and treatment. Because they have the closest contact with patients, psychiatric aides have a great deal of influence on patients' outlook and treatment. Working Conditions Most full-time aides work about 40 hours a week, but because pa tients need care 24 hours a day, some aides work evenings, nights, weekends, and holidays. Many work part-time. Aides spend many hours standing and walking. Since they may have to move partially paralyzed patients in and out of bed or help them stand or walk, aides must guard against back injury. Nursing aides often have unpleasant duties; they empty bed pans and change soiled bed linens. They also care for disoriented and irritable patients. Psychiatric aides must be prepared to care for patients whose disease may cause violent behavior. While their work can be emotionally demanding, many aides gain satisfaction from assisting those in need. Employment Nursing aides held about 1,265,000 jobs in 1994, and psychiatric aides held about 105,000 jobs. About one-half of all nursing aides worked in nursing homes, and about one-fourth worked in hospitals. Information about careers for podiatric assistants is available from: •"American Society of Podiatric Medical Assistants, 2124 S. Austin Blvd., Cicero, IL 60650. Nursing Aides and Psychiatric Aides (D.O.T. 354.374-010, .377-010, and .677-010; 355.377-014 and -018, .674-014 and -018, and .677-014) Nature of the Work Nursing aides and psychiatric aides help care for physically or men tally ill, injured, disabled, or infirm individuals confined to hospitals, nursing or residential care facilities, and mental health settings. (Homemaker-home health aides, whose duties are similar but who work in clients' homes, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Nursing aides, also known as nursing assistants or hospital atten dants, work under the supervision of nursing and medical staff. They answer patients’ call bells, deliver messages, serve meals, make beds, and help patients eat, dress, and bathe. Aides may also provide skin https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis In many cases, neither a high school diploma nor previous work experience is necessary for a job as a nursing aide or a psychiatric aide. Service Occupations 317 Some worked in residential care facilities, such as halfway houses and homes for the aged or disabled, or in private households. Most psychiatric aides worked in State and county mental institutions, psychiatric units of general hospitals, private psychiatric facilities and community mental health centers. Earnings Median weekly earnings of full-time salaried nursing aides and psychiatric aides were $275 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $214 and $356. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $175; the top 10 percent, more than $482. According to a University of Texas Medical Branch survey of hospitals and medical centers, the median annual salary of nursing aides, based on a 40-hour week and excluding shift or area differen tials, was $14,612 in October 1994. According to the Buck Survey conducted by the American Health Care Association, nursing aides in chain nursing homes had median annual earnings of about $12,800 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $11,600 and $14,400. Aides in hospitals generally receive at least 1 week's paid vaca tion after 1 year of service. Paid holidays and sick leave, hospital and medical benefits, extra pay for late-shift work, and pension plans also are available to many hospital and some nursing home employees. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In many cases, neither a high school diploma nor previous work experience is necessary for a job as a nursing or psychiatric aide. A few employers, however, require some training or experience. Hospitals may require experience as a nursing aide or home health aide. Nursing homes often hire inexperienced workers who must complete a minimum of 75 hours of mandatory training and pass a competency evaluation program within 4 months of employment. Aides who complete the program are placed on the State registry of nursing aides. Some States require psychiatric aides to complete a formal training program. These occupations can offer individuals an entry into the world of work. The flexibility of night and weekend hours also provides high school and college students a chance to work during the school year. Nursing aide training is offered in high schools, vocational-tech nical centers, some nursing homes, and community colleges. Courses cover body mechanics, nutrition, anatomy and physiology, infection control, communication skills, and resident rights. Personal care skills such as how to help patients bathe, eat, and groom are also taught. Some facilities, other than nursing homes, provide classroom instruction for newly hired aides, while others rely exclusively on informal on-the-job instruction from a licensed nurse or an experi enced aide. Such training may last several days to a few months. From time to time, aides may also attend lectures, workshops, and in service training. Applicants should be healthy, tactful, patient, understanding, emotionally stable, dependable, and have a desire to help people. They should also be able to work as part of a team, and be willing to perform repetitive, routine tasks. Opportunities for advancement within these occupations are limited. To enter other health occupations, aides generally need additional formal training. Some employers and unions provide opportunities by simplifying the educational paths to advancement. Experience as an aide can also help individuals decide whether to pursue a career in the health care field. (D.O.T. 076.364-010, 355.377-010) Job Outlook Job prospects for nursing aides should be good through the year 2005. Employment of nursing aides is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations in response to an emphasis on reha bilitation and the long-term care needs of a rapidly growing popula tion of those 75 years old and older. Employment will increase as a result of the expansion of nursing homes and other long-term care facilities for people with chronic illnesses and disabling conditions, many of whom are elderly. Also increasing employment of nursing aides will be modem medical technology which, while saving more lives, increases the need for the extended care provided by aides. As a result, nursing and personal care facilities are expected to grow very rapidly and to provide most of the new jobs for nursing aides. Employment of psychiatric aides is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. Employment will rise in response to the sharp increase in the number of older persons—many of whom will require mental health services. Employment of aides in private psychiatric facilities and community mental health centers is likely to grow because of increasing public acceptance of formal treatment for drug abuse and alcoholism, and a lessening of the stigma attached to those receiving mental health care. While employment in private psychiatric facilities may grow, employment in public mental hospi tals is likely to be stagnant due to constraints on public spending. Replacement needs will constitute the major source of openings for aides. Turnover is high, a reflection of modest entry require ments, low pay, and lack of advancement opportunities. Nature of the Work Occupational therapy assistants and aides work under the direction of occupational therapists to provide rehabilitative services to patients suffering from mental, physical, emotional, or developmental im pairments. The ultimate goal is to improve patients' quality of life by assisting them in overcoming limitations. For example, they help injured workers re-enter the labor force by improving their motor skills or help persons with learning disabilities increase their inde pendence by teaching them to prepare meals or use public transpor tation. Occupational therapy assistants help patients with the rehabilita tive activities and exercises that are outlined in the treatment plan devised by the occupational therapist. The activities range from teaching the patient the proper method of moving from a bed into a wheelchair, to the best way to stretch and limber the muscles of the hand. Assistants monitor the individual to ensure the patient is performing the activities correctly and to provide encouragement. They also record their observations with regard to the patient's prog ress for use by the occupational therapist. If the treatment is not having the intended effect or the client is not improving as expected, the treatment program may be altered to obtain better results. They also document billing of the patient's health insurance provider. Occupational therapy aides typically prepare materials and assemble equipment used during treatment and are responsible for a range of clerical tasks. Their duties may include scheduling ap pointments, answering the telephone, restocking or ordering depleted https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations Nursing aides and psychiatric aides help people who need routine care or treatment. So do homemaker-home health aides, childcare attendants, companions, occupational therapy aides, and physical therapy aides. Sources of Additional Information For information on nursing careers in long-term care, write: •■American Health Care Association, 1201 L St. NW„ Washington, DC 20005. Information about employment also may be obtained from local hospitals, nursing homes, psychiatric facilities, and State boards of nursing. Occupational Therapy Assistants and Aides 318 Occuptional Outlook Handbook ■ ♦ Occupational therapy assistants and aides may need to help lift or move patients. supplies, and filling out insurance forms or other paperwork. Aides are not licensed, so by law they are not allowed to perform as wide a range of tasks as occupational therapy assistants. Working Conditions Occupational therapy assistants and aides usually work during the day, but may occasionally work evenings or weekends in order to accommodate the patient's schedule. They should be in good physi cal shape because they are on their feet for long periods of time and may be asked to help lift and move patients or equipment. Assistants and aides must be responsible, patient, willing to take directions, and work as part of a team. Furthermore, they should be caring and want to help people who are not able to help themselves. The job can be rewarding and assistants and aides often feel a sense of accomplishment when patients show improvement or recover. Employment Occupational therapy assistants and aides held 16,000 jobs in 1994. Over one-third worked in hospitals and about 1 in 4 worked in nurs ing and personal care facilities. The rest primarily worked in offices of occupational therapists and other offices operated by health prac titioners. A small, but increasing number of assistants and aides work in the home health services industry and provide care in pa tients' homes. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Occupational therapy assistants need an associate's degree from an accredited community college or technical school. There were 77 accredited occupational therapy assistant programs in the United States in 1993. The first year of study typically involves an intro duction to healthcare, and basic medical terminology, anatomy, and physiology. In the second year, courses are more rigorous and usually include occupational theory courses in areas like mental health, gerontology and pediatrics. Students also must complete supervised fieldwork in a clinic. Applicants to occupational therapy assistant programs can improve their chances of admission by taking high school courses in biology and health, and by performing volun teer work in nursing homes, occupational or physical therapist's offices, or elsewhere in the healthcare field. After students receive their associate's degrees, they may have to take a State licensure exam to prove their competence. Thirty-seven States, Puerto Rico, and the District of Columbia required occupa tional therapy assistants to be licensed in 1994. Occupational therapy aides usually receive most of their training on the job. Qualified applicants must have a high school diploma, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis strong interpersonal skills, and a desire to help people in need. Applicants may increase their chances of getting a job by volunteer ing their services, thus displaying initiative and their aptitude to the employer. Job Outlook Opportunities for jobseekers should be favorable. Employment of occupational therapy assistants and aides is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2005. Although the occupation is expected to be one of the fastest growing in the economy, the number of job openings will be low because the occu pation is small. Growth will result from an aging population, especially the "baby boom" cohort, that will need more occupational therapy services. Demand will also result from advances in medicine that allow more people with critical problems to survive, but then need rehabilitative therapy. Furthermore, employers seeking to reduce health care costs are expected to hire more occupational therapy assistants and aides for tasks currently being performed by more highly paid occupational therapists. Earnings According to a membership survey of the American Occupational Therapy Association, the median annual income for occupational therapy assistants was about $25,300 in 1993. Based on limited information, occupational therapy aides usually start between $6.00 and $7.00 an hour. Starting salaries for both occupations tend to be lower in hospitals and higher in privately owned practices and nurs ing homes. Related Occupations Occupational therapy assistants and aides work under the direction of occupational therapists. Other occupations in the healthcare field that work closely with and are supervised by professionals include dental assistants, medical assistants, optometric assistants, pharmacy assistants, and physical therapy assistants and aides. Sources of Additional Information Information on a career as an occupational therapy assistant or aide, and a list of accredited programs can be obtained from: •■The American Occupational Therapy Association, 4720 Montgomery Lane., P.O. Box 31220, Bethesda, MD 20824-1220. Physical Therapy Assistants and Aides (D.O.T. 076.224-010, 355.354-010) Nature of the Work Physical therapy assistants and aides prepare patients both physically and psychologically for therapy under the watchful eye of a licensed physical therapist. The objective of physical therapy is two-fold: first prevent permanent disability from injury or illness, and second to have patients resume their regular activities as soon as they are physically capable. Physical therapy assistants and aides work towards these objectives by administering rehabilitation plans that are developed by a licensed physical therapist. Physical therapy assistants instruct patients in a wide variety of treatments that may encompass manual exercises on a treadmill, stationary bike, or weight lifting equipment. For patients whose therapy requires non-weight bearing exercise, their treatment often includes exercises in a swimming pool. Other forms of treatment administered by the physical therapy assistant involve massages, electrical stimulation, paraffin baths, hot/cold packs and traction. Service Occupations 319 Assistants may also measure a patient's size, flexibility, and range of motion. They may also use ultrasound equipment to evaluate dis comfort patients are experiencing with a knee or elbow. Physical therapists may use this data to fit the patient with an orthopedic brace, prostheses, or other support device. Assistants monitor the patient’s progress during treatment and report all abnormalities and achievements to the physical therapist for periodic evaluation. Physical therapy aides help make therapy sessions productive. They are usually responsible for keeping the treatment area clean and organized, and preparing for each patient's therapy. When patients needs assistance to or from the treatment area, aides may push them in a wheelchair, or provide them with a shoulder to lean on. Aides encourage patients during therapy sessions, and watch to see that exercises are performed correctly so as to attain the maximum benefit and to guard against further injury. Aides consult with the therapist or assistant if patients are experiencing difficulty with the treatment. Because they are not licensed, aides perform a smaller range of tasks than physical therapy assistants. The duties of assistants and aides include some clerical tasks such as ordering depleted supplies, maintaining patient records, answering the phones, and filling out insurance forms and other paperwork. Records kept by the assistant or aide keep the therapist abreast of progress and any problems that may develop during treatment. The extent to which an aide, or even an assistant, performs clerical tasks depends on the size and location of the facility. Working Conditions The hours and days that physical therapy assistants and aides work vary depending on the facility and whether they are full-time or part time employees. In 1994, approximately 4 out 5 assistants worked in a full-time, salaried capacity. Many private physical therapy offices have evening and weekend office hours to help coincide with pa tients' personal schedules. Physical therapy assistants and aides need to have a moderate degree of strength due to the physical exertion required in assisting patients with their treatment. For example, constant kneeling, stooping and standing for long periods of time are all part of the job. In some cases assistants may need to help lift patients, therefore physical therapy programs strongly recommend against anyone prone to back problems becoming a physical therapy assistant. Employment Physical therapy assistants and aides held 78,000 jobs in 1994. They work alongside physical therapists in a variety of settings. Over half of all assistants and aides work in hospitals or private physical ther- Earnings ofphysical therapy assistants and aides tend to be higher in private practice. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis apy offices. Others work in clinics, nursing homes, schools and even inside patients' homes. In sports medicine, they may work part of the time on the sidelines of sporting events, or in swimming pools per forming aqua therapy. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Physical therapy assistants typically have earned an associate's degree from an accredited physical therapist assistant program. As of January 1996, 41 States and Puerto Rico required assistants to be certified or licensed. Other requirements include certification in CPR and First Aid, and a minimum number of hours of clinical experience. According to the American Physical Therapy Association (APTA), there were 173 accredited physical therapist assistant pro grams in the United States, with another 54 in development as of June 1995. Accredited physical therapy assistant programs are designed to last 2 years, or four semesters, and culminate in an associate's degree. Admission into physical therapist assistant pro grams is competitive and it is not unusual for colleges to have long waiting lists of prospective candidates. The programs are divided into academic study and "hands on" clinical experience. Academic coursework initially includes algebra, anatomy and physiology, biology, chemistry, and psychology. Before students embark on their clinical field experience in a hospital or private clinic, many pro grams require that students complete a semester of anatomy and physiology and have certifications in CPR and First Aid. Both educators and prospective employers view clinical experience as an integral part of ensuring that students understand the responsibilities of a physical therapy assistant. Employers typically require physical therapy aides to have a high school diploma, strong interpersonal skills, and a desire to assist people in need. Most employers provide aides clinical training on the job. Job Outlook Physical therapy assistants and aides is expected to be one of the fastest growing occupations through the year 2005. Opportunities should be especially favorable for assistants unless the number of new graduates increases significantly. Reports consistently indicate employers currently are having difficulty finding qualified candidates for job openings. Demand for physical therapy assistants and aides will continue to rise as the median age of Americans increases. The elderly consume a disproportionate share of physical therapy services. As the "baby boom" generation ages, demand for services associated with geriatric medicine will grow significantly. Older patients often need more assistance in their treatment, making the roles of assistants and aides vital. Shortages of physical therapists in many areas makes hiring licensed assistants an attractive alternative. After a patient is evalu ated and a treatment plan is designed by the physical therapist, the patient can be turned over to an assistant. The licensed assistant can administer many aspects of the treatment prescribed by the therapist. By increasing the role of physical therapy assistants relative to physical therapists, more patients receive care and labor costs are substantially lower. While the number of accredited programs has increased, enroll ment in each has not thus limiting the growth in newly trained assis tants. The size of many programs has been limited because of the difficulties in recruiting qualified instructors—educational institu tions are often outbid for their services by other employers. Earnings According to the limited information available, starting salaries for physical therapy assistants average about $22,500 a year. Starting salaries of assistants working in hospitals tended to be lower than those in private practice. As an inducement, many hospitals offer assistants a structured path of advancement and a chance to work 320 Occuptional Outlook Handbook with a varied patient population. In private practice, experienced physical therapy assistants earn, on average, about $24,000 a year. occupational therapy, optometric, recreational therapy, and pharmacy assistants. Sources of Additional Information Related Occupations Physical therapy assistants and aides work under the supervision of physical therapists. Other occupations in the healthcare field that work under the supervision of professionals include dental, medical, Information on a career as a physical therapy assistant or aide, and a list of schools offering accredited programs can be obtained from: •"The American Physical Therapy Association, 1111 North Fairfax Street, Alexandria, VA 22314-1488. Personal and Building Service Occupations Barbers and Cosmetologists (D.O.T. 330; 331; 332; 333; 339.361. .371) Nature of the Work Looking your best has never been easy. It requires the perfect hair style, exquisite nails, a neatly trimmed beard, or the proper make-up to accent your coloring. More and more, it also requires the services of barbers and cosmetologists. As people increasingly demand styles that are better suited to their individual characteristics and have available to them a vast array of cosmetic products, they rely on these workers to help them make sense of the different options. Although tastes and fashions change from year to year, the basic job of barbers and cosmetologists remains the same—to help people look their best. Barbers cut, trim, shampoo, and style hair. Many people still go to a barber for just a haircut, but an increasing number seek more personalized hairstyling services. Barbers trained in these areas work in barber shops and styling salons that serve both men and women. Today, it is common for a barber to color or perm a customer s hair. In addition, barbers may fit hairpieces, provide hair and scalp treat ments, shave male customers, or give facial massages. In most States, barbers are licensed to perform all the duties of cosmetolo gists except skin care and nail treatment. " Cosmetologists primarily shampoo, cut, and style hair, but they also provide a number of other services. These workers, who are often called hairstylists, may advise patrons on how to care for their hair, straighten or permanent wave a customer's hair, or lighten or darken hair color. In addition, most cosmetologists are trained to give manicures, pedicures, and scalp and facial treatments; provide makeup analysis for women; and clean and style wigs and hairpieces. Other workers include electrologists—who remove hair from skin by electrolysis—and estheticians—who cleanse and beautify the skin. Cosmetologists generally are licensed to provide all of the services that barbers do except shaving men. In addition to their work with customers, barbers and cosmetolo gists are expected to keep their work area clean and their hairdressing implements sanitized. They may make appointments and keep records of hair color and permanent wave formulas used by their regular patrons. A growing number also actively sell hair products and other cosmetic supplies. Barbers and cosmetologists who oper ate their own salons have managerial duties that include hiring, supervising, and firing workers, as well as keeping records and ordering supplies. Working Conditions Barbers and cosmetologists generally work in clean, pleasant sur roundings with good lighting and ventilation. Good health and stamina are important because these workers usually have to be on https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Barbers and cosmetologists must closely follow changes in hair styles. their feet for most of their shift. Prolonged exposure to some hair and nail chemicals may be hazardous and cause irritation, so special care must be taken when working with these chemicals. Most full-time barbers and cosmetologists work 40 hours a week, but long hours are common in this occupation, especially among selfemployed workers. This often includes evenings and weekends, when beauty and barber shops and salons are busiest. Although weekends and lunch periods are generally very busy, barbers and cosmetologists may have some time off during slack periods. One of every 3 barbers and cosmetologists works part time. The abundance of part-time jobs attracts many persons who want to combine a job with family, school, or other responsibilities. Employment Barbers and cosmetologists held about 709,000 jobs in 1994; 9 of every 10 were cosmetologists. Most worked in beauty salons, barber shops, or department stores, and a few were employed by hospitals, hotels, and prisons. Approximately 4 of every 5 barbers and half of all cosmetologists are self-employed. Nearly every town has a barber shop or beauty salon, but em ployment in this occupation is concentrated in the most populous cities and States. Hairstylists usually work in cities and suburbs, where the greatest demand for their services exists. Stylists who set fashion trends with their hairstyles usually work in New York City, Los Angeles, and other centers of fashion and the performing arts. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although all States require barbers and cosmetologists to be licensed, the qualifications necessary to obtain a license vary. Generally, a Service Occupations 321 person must have graduated from a State-licensed barber or cosme tology school, pass a physical examination, and be at least 16 years old. Some States require graduation from high school while others require as little as an eighth grade education. In a few States, com pletion of an apprenticeship can substitute for graduation from a school, but very few barbers or cosmetologists learn their skills in this way. Applicants for a license usually are required to pass a written test and demonstrate an ability to perform basic barbering or cosmetology services. Some States have reciprocity agreements that allow licensed barbers and cosmetologists to practice in a different State without additional formal training. Other States do not recognize training or licenses obtained in another State; consequently, persons who wish to become a barber or a cosmetologist should review the laws of the State in which they want to work before entering a training program. Public and private vocational schools offer daytime or evening classes in barbering and cosmetology. These programs usually last 6 to 12 months. An apprenticeship program can last from 1 to 2 years. Formal training programs include classroom study, demonstrations, and practical work. Students study the basic services—haircutting, shaving, facial massaging, and hair and scalp treatments—and, under supervision, practice on customers in school "clinics." Most schools also teach unisex hairstyling and chemical styling. Students attend lectures on barber services, the use and care of instruments, sanita tion and hygiene, and recognition of certain skin ailments. Instruc tion also is given in selling and general business practices. There are also advanced courses for experienced barbers in hairstyling, color ing, and the sale and service of hairpieces. Most schools teach hairstyling of men's as well as women's hair. After graduating from a training program, students can take the State licensing examination. The examination consists of a written test and, in some cases, a practical test of cosmetology skills. A few States include an oral examination in which the applicant is asked to explain the procedures he or she is following while taking the practi cal test. In many States, cosmetology training may be credited towards a barbering license, and vice versa. A few States have even combined the two licenses into one hair styling license. In most States, a separate examination is given for people who want only a manicurist, massage, or facial care license. Persons who want to become barbers or cosmetologists must have finger dexterity and a sense of form and artistry. They should enjoy dealing with the public and be willing and able to follow patrons' instructions. Some cosmetology schools consider people skills to be so integral to the job that they require coursework in this area. Because hairstyles are constantly changing, barbers and cosmetolo gists must keep abreast of the latest fashions and beauty techniques. Business skills are important for those who plan to operate their own salons, and the ability to be an effective salesperson is becoming vital for nearly all barbers and cosmetologists. Many schools help their graduates find jobs. During their first months on the job, new workers are given relatively simple tasks, such as giving shampoos, or are assigned the simpler hairstyling patterns. Once they have demonstrated their skills, they are gradu ally permitted to perform the more complicated tasks such as giving shaves, coloring hair, or applying a permanent. Advancement usually is in the form of higher earnings as barbers and cosmetologists gain experience and build a steady clientele. Some barbers and cosmetologists manage large salons or open their own after several years of experience. Some teach in barber or cosmetology schools. Others become sales representatives for cos metics firms, open businesses as beauty or fashion consultants, or work as examiners for State licensing boards. Job Outlook Overall employment of barbers and cosmetologists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Population growth, rising incomes, and a growing demand for the services that they provide will stimulate the demand for these https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis workers. Within this occupation, however, different employment trends are expected. Cosmetologists will account for virtually all of the employment growth, reflecting the continuing shifts in consumer preferences to more personalized services in unisex establishments. Demand for manicurists and for cosmetologists who are trained in nail care will be particularly strong. Employment of barbers is expected to decline slightly, but in spite of this decline, a couple of thousand job openings will arise annually for new barber licensees as older barbers retire. Many job openings will become available in the cosmetology field due to the large size of the occupation and the expected em ployment growth. This is especially true for entry-level workers who are licensed to provide a broad range of cosmetology services. The level of competition for employment and customers may be greater at the higher-paying, prestigious salons, though, as applicants vie with a large pool of licensed and experienced cosmetologists. The number of part-time and self-employed, booth-renting cosmetologists should continue to grow, creating many opportunities for ambitious people to enter the field. Earnings Barbers and cosmetologists receive income either from commissions or wages and tips. Their median annual income in 1994 was $14,800. A number of factors determine the total income for barbers and cosmetologists, including the size and location of the shop, the number of hours worked, customers' tipping habits, and the competi tion from other barber shops and salons. A cosmetologist's or bar bers initiative and ability to attract and hold regular customers are also key factors, so these workers may play an important role in determining their earnings. In fact, 1 out of 10 barbers and cosme tologists earned over $26,800 in 1994. Earnings for entry-level workers are generally lower, ranging from the minimum wage to considerably more in prestigious or exceptionally busy salons. A growing number of barbers and cosmetologists rent chairs or booths from salons on a daily or hourly basis. These workers are essentially self-employed, and their earnings are a function of their "book," or clientele list. Related Occupations Other workers whose main activity consists of improving a patron's personal appearance include beauty consultants, make-up and wig specialists, and salon and health club managers. Other related work ers are employed in the cosmetology industry as instructors and beauty supply distributors. Sources of Additional Information A list of licensed training schools and licensing requirements for cosmetologists can be obtained from: •"National Accrediting Commission of Cosmetology Arts and Sciences, 901 North Stuart St., Suite 900, Arlington, VA 22203-1816. Information about barber and cosmetology schools also is avail able from: »" American Association of Cosmetology Schools, 901 North Washington St., Suite 206, Alexandria, VA 22314. •"Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201. For details on State licensing requirements and approved barber or cosmetology schools, contact the State board of barber examiners or the State board of cosmetology in your State capital. Preschool Teachers and Child-Care Workers (D.O.T. 092.227-018; 355.674-010; 359.677-010, -018, -026) Nature of the Work Nurturing and teaching preschool children, those who are 5 years old or younger, is the job of preschool teachers and child-care workers. 322 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Found in daycare centers, nursery schools, preschools, and family daycare homes, these workers play an important role in a child's development by caring for the child when the parents are at work or away for other reasons. Some parents enroll their children in nursery schools or child-care centers primarily to provide them with the opportunity to interact with other children. In addition to attending to children's basic needs, these workers organize activities that stimulate the children's physical, emotional, intellectual, and social growth. They help children explore their interests, develop their talents and independence, build self-esteem, and learn how to behave with others. Preschool teachers and child-care workers must work in two different worlds—the child's and the parent's. At the same time that they create a safe, comfortable environment in which children can grow and learn, they must also keep records of each child’s progress and discuss the children's progress and needs with the parents. They must try to involve the parents as much as possible in the child's learning process, encouraging parents to increase their child's learn ing and development at home. Some preschools and daycare centers actively recruit parent volunteers to work with the children and participate in administrative decisions and program planning. Most preschool teachers and child-care workers perform a combi nation of basic care and teaching duties. Through many basic care activities, preschool teachers and child-care workers provide oppor tunities for children to learn. For example, a worker who shows a child how to tie a shoe teaches the child and also provides for that child's basic care needs. Through their experiences in preschool and child-care programs, children learn about trust and gain a sense of security. Young children cannot be taught in the same manner as older students because they are less physically, emotionally, and mentally developed. Children at this age learn mainly through play. What results is a less structured approach to teaching preschool children, including small group lessons, one-on-one instruction, and learning through creative activities, such as art, dance, and music. Interaction with their peers is an important part of early childhood development. Preschool children are given an opportunity to engage in conversa tion and discussions, and leam to play and work cooperatively with their classmates. Preschool teachers and child-care workers play a vital role in preparing children to build the skills they will need in elementary school. Preschool teachers and child-care workers greet children as they arrive, help them remove outer garments, and teach them how to dress and undress. When caring for infants, they feed and change them. In order to ensure a well-balanced program, preschool teach ers and child-care workers prepare daily and long-term schedules of activities. Each day's activities must balance individual and group play with quiet and active time. Children must be given some free dom to participate in activities in which they are interested. Recog nizing the importance of play, preschool teachers and child-care workers build their program around it. They capitalize on children's play to further language development (storytelling and acting games), improve social skills {working together to build a neighbor hood in a sandbox), and introduce scientific and mathematical con cepts (balancing and counting blocks when building a bridge or mixing colors when painting). (A statement on teacher aides—who assist classroom teachers—appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) Helping to keep children healthy is an important part of the job. Preschool teachers and child-care workers serve nutritious meals and snacks and teach good eating habits and personal hygiene. They see to it that children have proper rest periods. They spot children who may not feel well or show signs of emotional or developmental problems and discuss these matters with their supervisor and the child's parents. In some cases, preschool teachers and child-care workers help parents identify programs that will provide basic health services. Early identification of children with special needs, such as those with behavioral, emotional, physical, or learning disabilities, is https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis I- ijr < Preschool teachers and child-care workers help children leam daily skills and gain independence. important to improve their future learning ability. Special education teachers often work with these preschool children to provide the individual attention they need. (Special education teachers are covered in a separate statement in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Preschool care facilities may be in private homes, schools, religious institutions, workplaces where employers provide care for employ ees’ children, or private buildings. Individuals who provide care in their own homes are generally called family daycare providers. (Child-care workers who work in the child's home are covered in the statement on private household workers found elsewhere in the Handbook.) Watching children grow, enjoy learning, and gain new skills can be very rewarding. Working with children, preschool teachers and child-care workers often improve their communication, learning, and other personal skills. Also, the work is never routine; each day is marked by new activities and challenges. However, child care can be physically and emotionally taxing, as workers constantly stand, walk, bend, stoop, and lift to attend to each child's interests and problems. Preschool teachers and child-care workers must be enthusiastic and constantly alert, anticipate and prevent problems, deal with disruptive children, and provide fair but firm discipline. They must be able to communicate effectively with the children and their parents, as well as other teachers and child-care workers. To ensure that children receive proper supervision, State regula tions require certain ratios of workers to children. The ratio varies with the age of the children. Child development experts generally recommend that a single caregiver be responsible for no more than 3 or 4 infants (less than 1 year old), 5 or 6 toddlers (1 to 2 years old), or 10 preschool-age children (between 2 and 5 years old). The working hours of preschool teachers and child-care workers vary widely. Daycare centers are generally open year round with long hours so that parents can drop off and pick up their children before and after work. Daycare centers employ full-time and part time staff with staggered shifts to cover the entire day. Some work ers are unable to take regular breaks during the day due to limited staffing. Public and many private preschool programs operate during the typical 9- or 10-month school year, employing both full-time and part-time workers. Many preschool teachers may work extra unpaid hours each week on curriculum planning, parent meetings, and occasional fundraising activities. Family daycare providers have flexible hours and daily routines, but may work long or unusual hours to fit parents' work schedules. Some preschool employees suffer burnout due to long hours, stressful conditions, and low pay and benefits. Turnover in the occupation is high. Service Occupations 323 Employment Preschool teachers and child-care workers held over 1 million jobs in 1994. Many worked part time. About 4 out of 10 preschool teachers and child-care workers are self-employed, most of whom are family daycare providers. Over 60 percent of all salaried preschool teachers and child-care workers are found in child daycare centers and preschools, and about 15 percent work for a religious institution. The rest work in other service organizations and in government. Some employers run forprofit operations; many are affiliated with a local or national chain. Other employers, such as religious institutions, community agencies, school systems, and State and local governments, are nonprofit. A growing number of business firms operate daycare centers for the children of their employees. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The training and qualifications required of preschool teachers and child-care workers vary widely. Each State has licensing require ments that regulate caregiver training, ranging from a high school diploma, to community college courses, to a college degree in child development or early childhood education. Some States require continuing education for workers in this field. For instance, Virginia requires that all workers in daycare centers receive 8 hours of courses related to child care each year. Formal education requirements in some private preschools and daycare centers are often lower than in public programs since they are not bound by State requirements. Often, child-care workers can obtain employment with a high school diploma and minimal experience. Many States prefer preschool teachers and child-care workers to have a Child Development Associate (CDA) credential, which is offered by the Council for Early Childhood Professional Recognition. The CDA credential is recognized as a qualification for teachers and directors in 46 States and the District of Columbia. There are two ways to become a CDA—through direct assessment or by completing the Council's 1-year training program. Direct assessment is appro priate for people who already have some background and experience in early childhood education, while the training program is designed for people with little or no child development education or experi ence. To receive the credential, the applicant must demonstrate knowledge and skills acquired through formal training or experience, that meet certain nationally recognized standards for working with young children, to a team of child-care professionals from the Council for Early Childhood Professional Recognition. Some employers may not require a CDA credential, but may require secondary or postsecondary courses in child development and early childhood education, and possibly work experience in a child care setting. Other schools require their own specialized training. For example, Montessori preschool teachers must complete an addi tional year of training after receiving their bachelor's degree in early childhood education or a related field. Public schools typically require a bachelor's degree and State teacher certification. Teacher training programs include a variety of liberal arts courses, courses in child development, student teaching, and prescribed professional courses, including instruction in teaching gifted, disadvantaged, and other children with special needs. Preschool teachers and child-care workers should be mature, patient, understanding, and articulate, and have energy and physical stamina. Skills in music, art, drama, and storytelling are also impor tant. Those who work for themselves must have business sense and management abilities. As preschool teachers and child-care workers gain experience, they may advance to supervisory or administrative positions in large child-care centers or preschools. Often, however, these positions require additional training, such as a bachelor's or master's degree. Other workers move on to work in resource and referral agencies, consulting with parents on available child services. Some workers become involved in policy or advocacy work related to child care and early childhood education. With a bachelor's degree, preschool https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis teachers may become certified to teach in public schools at the kindergarten, elementary, and secondary school levels. Some work ers set up their own child-care businesses. Job Outlook Employment of preschool teachers and child-care workers is pro jected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Job openings should be plentiful as many preschool teachers and child-care workers leave the occupation each year for other—often better paying—jobs, family responsibilities, or other reasons. High turnover, combined with an increased demand for preschool teachers and child-care workers, is expected to create many openings. Qualified persons who are interested in this work should have little trouble finding and keeping a job. Although the number of children under 5 years of age is expected to decline slightly through the year 2005, the proportion of young sters in daycare and preschool will increase, reflecting a shift in the type of child-care arrangements parents choose. Many parents turn to formal child-care arrangements for a variety of reasons—they may need two incomes; they may find it too difficult to set up a satisfac tory arrangement with a relative, babysitter, or live-in worker; or they may prefer the formal arrangements for personal reasons, such as a more structured learning and social environment. Continuing high labor force participation among women of childbearing age will also contribute to employment growth among preschool teachers and child-care workers. Mothers of very young children have been joining the labor force in growing numbers, and this pattern is not expected to change. Moreover, women are return ing to work sooner after childbirth. Many employers are increasing child-care benefits to their employees in the form of direct child-care assistance—such as vouchers and subsidies for community child-care centers—more flexible work schedules, and on-site daycare facilities. Earnings Pay depends on the employer and educational attainment of the worker. Although the pay is generally very low, more education means higher earnings in some cases. In 1994, median weekly earnings of full-time, salaried child-care workers were $260. The middle 50 percent of child-care workers earned between $190 and $330. The top 10 percent of child-care workers earned at least $430; the bottom 10 percent earned less than $130. Preschool teachers in public schools who have State teacher certification generally have salaries and benefits comparable to kindergarten and elementary school teachers. According to the National Education Association, public elementary school teachers earned an estimated average salary of $36,400 in 1995. (A statement on kindergarten, elementary, and secondary school teachers is found elsewhere in the Handbook.) Preschool teachers in privately funded child-care centers generally earn much lower salaries than other comparably educated workers. Earnings of self-employed child-care workers vary depending on the hours worked, number and ages of the children, and the location. Benefits for preschool teachers and child-care workers also vary. Many employers offer free or discounted child care to employees. Some offer a full benefits package, including health insurance and paid vacations, but others offer no benefits at all. Some employers offer seminars and workshops to help workers improve upon or learn new skills. A few are willing to cover the cost of courses taken at community colleges or technical schools. Related Occupations Child-care work requires patience; creativity; an ability to nurture, motivate, teach, and influence children; and leadership, organiza tional, and administrative abilities. Others who work with children and need these aptitudes include teacher aides, children's tutors, kindergarten and elementary school teachers, early childhood pro gram directors, and child psychologists. 324 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in educating children and issues affecting preschool teachers and child-care workers, contact: •"National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1509 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. •"Association for Childhood Education International, 11501 Georgia Ave., Suite 315, Wheaton, MD 20902-1924. For information on the Federally sponsored Head Start program, contact: •"Head Start Bureau, P.O. Box 1182, Washington, DC 20013. For eligibility requirements and a description of the Child Devel opment Associate credential, write to: •"Council for Early Childhood Professional Recognition, 1341 G St. NW., Suite 400, Washington, DC 20005. For information on salaries and efforts to improve compensation in child care, contact: •"National Center for the Early Childhood Work Force, 733 15th St. NW., Suite 1037, Washington, DC 20005. State Departments of Human Services or Social Services can supply State regulations and training requirements for child-care workers. Flight attendants ensure that the ground crew delivers adequate supplies offood and beverage. time, many attendants have 11 or more days off each month. Atten dants may be away from their home base at least one-third of the time. During this period, the airlines provide hotel accommodations and an allowance for meal expenses. The combination of free time and discount air fares provides flight attendants the opportunity to travel and see new places. How ever, the work can be strenuous and trying. Short flights require speedy service if meals are served. A rough flight can make serving drinks and meals difficult. Attendants stand during much of the flight and must remain pleasant and efficient regardless of how tired they are or how demanding passengers may be. Flight attendants are susceptible to injury because of the job demands in a moving aircraft. Flight Attendants (D.O.T. 352.367-010) Nature of the Work It is the job of the flight attendants to see that all their passengers have a safe, comfortable, and enjoyable airplane flight. At least 1 hour before each flight, attendants are briefed by the captain, the pilot in command, on such things as expected weather conditions and special passenger problems. The attendants check that the passenger cabin is in order, that supplies of food, beverages, blankets, and reading material are adequate, and that first aid kits and other emergency equipment are aboard and in working order. As passengers board the plane, attendants greet them, check their tickets, and assist them if necessary in storing coats and carry-on luggage. Before the plane takes off, attendants instruct passengers in the use of emergency equipment and check to see that all passengers have their seat belts fastened and seat backs forward. In the air, they answer questions about the flight; distribute reading material, pil lows, and blankets; and help small children, elderly or disabled persons, and any others needing assistance. They may administer first aid to passengers who become ill. Attendants also serve cock tails and other refreshments and, on many flights, heat and distribute precooked meals. After the plane has landed, flight attendants assist passengers as they leave the plane. They then prepare reports on medications given to passengers, lost and found articles, and cabin equipment conditions. Some flight attendants straighten up the plane's cabin. Helping passengers in the event of an emergency is the most important responsibility of the flight attendant. This may range from reassuring passengers during occasional encounters with strong turbulence to directing passengers in evacuating a plane following an emergency landing. Lead or first flight attendants aboard planes oversee the work of the other attendants while performing most of the same duties. Working Conditions Since airlines operate around the clock year round, attendants may work at night and on holidays and weekends. They usually fly 75 to 85 hours a month. In addition, they generally spend about 75 to 85 hours a month on the ground preparing planes for flights, writing reports following completed flights, and waiting for planes that arrive late. Because of variations in scheduling and limitations on flying https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment Flight attendants held about 105,000 jobs in 1994. Commercial airlines employed the vast majority of all flight attendants, most of whom were stationed in major cities at the airlines' home bases. A small number of flight attendants worked for large companies that operate their own aircraft for business purposes. . Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The airlines prefer to hire poised, tactful, and resourceful people who can deal comfortably with strangers. Applicants usually must be at least 19 to 21 years old. Flight attendants must have excellent health, good vision, and the ability to speak clearly. Applicants must be high school graduates. Those having several years of college or experience in dealing with the public are pre ferred. More and more attendants being hired are college graduates. Flight attendants for international airlines generally must speak an appropriate foreign language fluently. Some of the major airlines prefer candidates who can speak two major foreign languages for their international flights. Most large airlines require that newly hired flight attendants complete 4 to 6 weeks of intensive training in their own flight train ing centers. The airlines that do not operate training centers gener ally send new employees to the center of another airline. Transpor tation to the training centers and an allowance for board, room, and school supplies may be provided. Trainees learn emergency proce dures such as evacuating an airplane, operating an oxygen system, and giving first aid. Attendants also are taught flight regulations and duties, and company operations and policies. Trainees receive instruction on personal grooming and weight control. Trainees for the international routes get additional instruction in passport and customs regulations and dealing with terrorism. Towards the end of their training, students go on practice flights. Attendants must re Service Occupations 325 ceive 12 to 14 hours of training in emergency procedures and pas senger relations annually. After completing initial training, flight attendants are assigned to one of their airline's bases. New attendants are placed in "reserve status" and are called on either to staff extra flights or fill in for attendants who are sick or on vacation. Reserve attendants on duty must be available on short notice. Attendants usually remain on reserve for at least 1 year; at some cities, it may take 5 years or longer to advance from reserve status. Advancement takes longer today than in the past because experienced attendants are remaining in this career for more years than they used to. Attendants who no longer are on reserve bid for regular assignments. Because these assignments are based on seniority, usually only the most experi enced attendants get their choice of base and flights. Some attendants transfer within the company to flight service instructor, customer service director, recruiting representative, or various other administrative positions. (D.O.T. 309.354-010 and 354.377-014) Job Outlook Opportunities should be favorable for persons seeking flight atten dant jobs as the number of applicants is expected to be roughly in balance with the number of job openings. Those with at least 2 years of college and experience in dealing with the public should have the best chance of being hired. As more career minded people have entered this occupation, turnover—which traditionally has been very high—has declined somewhat. Still, most job openings through the year 2005 should flow from replacement needs. Many flight attendants are attracted to the occupation by the glamour of the airline industry and the oppor tunity to travel, but many eventually leave in search of jobs that offer higher earnings and require fewer nights be spent away from their families. Thousands of job openings will arise each year to replace flight attendants who transfer to another occupation or who leave the labor force. Employment of flight attendants is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Growth in population and income is expected to increase the number of airline passengers. Airlines enlarge their capacity by increasing the number and size of planes in operation. Since Federal Aviation Administra tion safety rules require one attendant for every 50 seats, more flight attendants will be needed. Employment of flight attendants is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, when the demand for air travel declines, many flight attendants are put on part-time status or laid off. Until demand increases, few new attendants are hired. Nature of the Work Homemaker-home health aides help elderly, disabled, and ill persons live in their own homes instead of in a health facility. Most work with elderly or disabled clients who need more extensive care than family or friends can provide. Some homemaker-home health aides work with families in which a parent is incapacitated and small children need care. Others help discharged hospital patients who have relatively short-term needs. These workers are sometimes called home care aides and personal care attendants. Homemaker-home health aides provide housekeeping services, personal care, and emotional support for their clients. They clean clients' houses, do laundry, and change bed linens. Aides may also plan meals (including special diets), shop for food, and cook. Home health aides provide personal care services, also known as "hands on" care because they physically touch the patient. These aides help clients move from bed, bathe, dress, and groom. They also check pulse, temperature, and respiration; help with simple prescribed exercises; and assist with medication routines. Occa sionally, they change nonsterile dressings, use special equipment such as a hydraulic lift, give massages and alcohol rubs, or assist with braces and artificial limbs. Some accompany clients outside the home, serving as guide, companion, and aide. Homemaker-home health aides also provide instruction and psychological support. For example, they assist in toilet training a severely mentally handicapped child or just listen to clients talk about their problems. Aides keep records of services performed and of the client's condition and progress. Earnings Beginning flight attendants had median earnings of about $12,700 a year in 1994, according to data from the Association of Flight Atten dants. Flight attendants with 6 years of flying experience had median annual earnings of about $18,700, while some senior flight attendants earned as much as $40,000 a year. Flight attendants receive extra compensation for overtime and for night and international flights. In addition, flight attendants and their immediate families are entitled to reduced fares on their own and most other airlines. Many flight attendants belong to the Association of Flight Atten dants. Others are members of the Transport Workers Union of America, The International Brotherhood of Teamsters, or other unions. Flight attendants are required to buy uniforms and wear them while on duty. Uniform replacement items are usually paid for by the company. The airlines generally provide a small allowance to cover cleaning and upkeep of the uniforms. Related Occupations Other jobs that involve helping people as a safety professional and require the ability to be pleasant even under trying circumstances https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis include emergency medical technician, firefighter, maritime crew and camp counselor. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities in a particular airline and the qualifications required may be obtained by writing to the personnel manager of the company. For addresses of airline companies and information about job opportunities and salaries, contact: «"FAPA, 4959 Massachusetts Blvd., Atlanta, GA 30337. (This organization may be called toll free at 1-800-Jet-Jobs, extension 190.) Homemaker-Home Health Aides .PSt# " Wm The number ofjobs for homemaker-home health aides will more than double by 2005. 326 Occuptional Outlook Handbook In home care agencies, homemaker-home health aides are super vised by a registered nurse, a physical therapist, or a social worker, who assigns them specific duties. Aides report changes in the client's condition to the supervisor or case manager. Homemaker-home health aides also participate in case reviews, consulting with the team caring for the client—registered nurses, therapists, and other health professionals. Working Conditions The homemaker-home health aide's daily routine may vary. Aides may go to the same home every day for months or even years. However, most aides work with a number of different clients, each job lasting a few hours, days, or weeks. Aides often go to four or five clients on the same day. Surroundings differ from case to case. Some homes are neat and pleasant, while others are untidy or depressing. Some clients are angry, abusive, depressed, or otherwise difficult; others are pleasant and cooperative. Homemaker-home health aides generally work on their own with periodic visits by their supervisor. They get detailed instructions explaining when to visit clients and what services to perform. Many aides work part time, and weekend hours are common. Most aides generally travel by public transportation, but some need a car. In any event, they are responsible for getting to the client’s home. Aides may spend a good portion of the working day traveling from one client to another. Employment Homemaker-home health aides held about 598,000 jobs in 1994. Most aides are employed by homemaker-home health agencies, home health agencies, visiting nurse associations, residential care facilities with home health departments, hospitals, public health and welfare departments, community volunteer agencies, and temporary help firms. Self-employed aides have no agency affiliation or supervision, and accept clients, set fees, and arrange work schedules on their own. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In some States, this occupation is open to individuals with no formal training. On-the-job training is generally provided. Other States may require formal training, depending on Federal or State law. The Federal Goverment has enacted guidelines for home health aides whose employers receive reimbursement from Medicare. Federal law requires home health aides to pass a competency test covering 12 areas: Communication skills; observation, reporting, and documentation of patient status and the care or services fur nished; reading and recording vital signs; basic infection control procedures; basic elements of body function and changes; mainte nance of a clean, safe, and healthy environment; recognition of and procedures for emergencies; the physical, emotional, and develop mental characteristics of the patients served; personal hygiene and grooming; safe transfer techniques; normal range of motion and positioning; and basic nutrition. A home health aide may also take training before taking the competency test. Federal law suggests at least 75 hours of classroom and practical training supervised by a registered nurse. Training and testing programs may be offered by the employing agency, but they must meet the standards of the Health Care Financing Administra tion. Training programs vary depending upon State regulations. Thirteen States have specific laws on personal care services. The Foundation for Hospice and Home Care offers a National Homemaker-Home Health Aide certification. The certification is a voluntary demonstration that the individual has met industry stan dards. Successful homemaker-home health aides like to help people and do not mind hard work. They should be responsible, compassionate, emotionally stable, and cheerful. Aides should also be tactful, hon est, and discreet since they work in private homes. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Homemaker-home health aides must be in good health. A physi cal examination including State regulated tests like those for tubercu losis may be required. Advancement is limited. In some agencies, workers start out performing homemaker duties, such as cleaning. With experience and training, they may take on personal care duties. The most expe rienced aides assist with medical equipment such as ventilators, which help patients breathe. Job Outlook A large number of job openings is expected for homemaker-home health aides, due to very rapid growth and very high turnover. Homemaker-home health aides is expected to be one of the fastest growing occupations through the year 2005—more than doubling in employment size. The number of people in their seventies and beyond is projected to rise substantially. This age group is characterized by mounting health problems that require some assistance. Also, there will be an increasing reliance on home care for patients of all ages. This trend reflects several developments; Efforts to contain costs by moving patients out of hospitals and nursing facilities as quickly as possible; the realization that treatment can be more effective in familiar sur roundings rather than clinical surroundings; and the development of portable medical equipment for in-home treatment. In addition to jobs created by the increase in demand for these workers, replacement needs are expected to produce numerous openings. Turnover is high, a reflection of the relatively low skill requirements, low pay, and high emotional demands of the work. For these same reasons, many people are unwilling to do this kind of work. Therefore, persons who are interested in this work and suited for it should have excellent job opportunities, particularly those with experience or training as homemaker-home health aides or nursing aides. Earnings Earnings for homemaker-home health aides vary considerably. According to a National Association for Home Care survey of home care aides who work in Medicare-certified agencies, beginning aides' average starting hourly wage ranged from $4.90 to $6.86 in May 1994. More experienced aides' average starting hourly wage ranged from $5.69 to $8.11. Wages were somewhat higher in the Northeast and West and somewhat lower in the Midwest and South. Some aides are paid on a salary or per-visit basis. Most employers give slight pay increases with experience and added responsibility. Aides usually are paid only for the time worked in the home. They normally are not paid for travel time between jobs. Most employers hire only "on-call" hourly workers and provide no benefits. Related Occupations Homemaker-home health aide is a service occupation that combines duties of health workers and social service workers. Workers in related occupations that involve personal contact to help or instruct others include attendants in children’s institutions, childcare atten dants in schools, child monitors, companions, nursing aides, nursery school attendants, occupational therapy aides, nursing aides, physical therapy aides, playroom attendants, and psychiatric aides. Sources of Additional Information General information about training and referrals to State and local agencies about opportunities for homemaker-home health aides, a list of relevant publications, and information on national certification are available from: ••Foundation for Hospice and Homecare/National Certification Program, 519 C St. NE„ Washington, DC 20002. Service Occupations 327 Janitors and Cleaners and Cleaning Supervisors (D.O.T. 321.137-010, -014; 323.137-010, .687; 350.137-026; 358.687-010; 381.137-010, .687 except-010; 382.664-010:389.667-010, .683-010, .687-014; 739.687-198; 891.687-010 and -018; and 952.687-010) Nature of the Work Janitors and cleaners—also called building custodians, executive housekeepers, or maids—keep office buildings, hospitals, stores, apartment houses, hotels, and other types of buildings clean and in good condition. Some only do cleaning; others have a wide range of duties. They may fix leaky faucets, empty trash cans, do painting and carpentry, replenish bathroom supplies, mow lawns, and see that heating and air-conditioning equipment works properly. On a typical day, janitors may wet- or dry-mop floors, clean bathrooms, vacuum carpets, dust furniture, make minor repairs, and exterminate insects and rodents. In hospitals, where they are mostly known as maids or housekeepers, they may also wash bed frames, brush mattresses, make beds, and disinfect and sterilize equipment and supplies using germicides and sterilizing equipment. In hotels, aside from cleaning and maintaining the premises, they may deliver ironing boards, cribs, and rollaway beds to guests' rooms. Janitors and cleaners use various equipment, tools, and cleaning materials. For one job, they may need a mop and bucket; for another, an electric polishing machine and a special cleaning solution. Im proved building materials, chemical cleaners, and power equipment have made many tasks easier and less time consuming, but janitors must learn proper use of equipment and cleaners to avoid harming floors, fixtures, and themselves. Cleaning supervisors coordinate, schedule, and supervise the acti vities of janitors and cleaners. They assign tasks and inspect building areas to see that work has been done properly; issue supplies and equipment; inventory stocks to ensure adequate supplies; screen and hire job applicants; and recommend promotions, transfers or dis missals. They also train new and experienced employees. Supervi sors may prepare reports concerning room occupancy, hours worked, and department expenses. Some also perform cleaning duties. Working Conditions Because most office buildings are cleaned while they are empty, many cleaners work evening hours. Some, however, such as school and hospital custodians, work in the daytime. When there is a need full-time janitors and cleaners and supervisors worked about 40 hours Janitors often bend, stoop, or stretch. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis for 24-hour maintenance, janitors may be assigned to shifts. Most a week. Part-time cleaners usually work in the evenings and on week ends. Janitors and cleaners usually work inside heated, well-lighted buildings. However, sometimes they work outdoors sweeping walk ways, mowing lawns, or shoveling snow. Working with machines can be noisy, and some tasks, such as cleaning bathrooms and trash rooms, can be dirty and unpleasant. Janitors may suffer cuts, bruises, and bums from machines, handtools, and chemicals. They spend most of their time on their feet, sometimes lifting or pushing heavy furniture or equipment. Many tasks, such as dusting or sweeping, require constant bending, stooping, and stretching. As a result, janitors may also suffer back injuries and sprains. Employment Janitors and cleaners, including cleaning supervisors, held 3,168,000 jobs in 1994. More than one-third worked part time (less than 35 hours a week). Janitors and cleaners held about 19 jobs out of 20. They worked in every type of establishment. One in 5 worked for a firm supplying building maintenance services on a contract basis. About 1 in 6 worked in a school, including colleges and universities. One in 8 worked in a hotel. Others were employed by hospitals, restaurants, operators of apartment buildings, office buildings, and other types of real estate, churches and other religious organizations, manufacturing firms, and government agencies. Supervisors held about 1 job in 20. About 30 percent each were in hotels and hospitals. Others were employed by firms supplying building maintenance services on a contract basis, nursing care facilities, and educational facilities. Although cleaning jobs can be found in all cities and towns, most are located in highly populated areas where there are many office buildings, schools, apartment houses, and hospitals. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement No special education is required for most cleaning jobs, but begin ners should know simple arithmetic and be able to follow instruc tions. High school shop courses are helpful for jobs that involve repair work. Most janitors and cleaners learn their skills on the job. Usually, beginners work with an experienced cleaner, doing routine cleaning. They are given more complicated work as they gain experience. In some cities, programs run by unions, government agencies, or employers teach janitorial skills. Students learn how to clean build ings thoroughly and efficiently, how to select and safely use various cleansing agents, and how to operate and maintain machines, such as wet and dry vacuums, buffers, and polishers. Students learn to plan their work, to follow safety and health regulations, to interact posi tively with people in the buildings they clean, and to work without supervision. Instruction in minor electrical, plumbing, and other repairs may also be given. Those who come in contact with the public should have good communication skills. Employers usually look for dependable, hard-working individuals who are in good health, follow directions well, and get along with other people. Janitors and cleaners usually find work by answering newspaper advertisements, applying directly to organizations where they would like to work, contacting local labor unions, or contacting State em ployment service offices. Advancement opportunities for janitorial workers usually are limited in organizations where they are the only maintenance worker. Where there is a large maintenance staff, however, janitors can be promoted to supervisor and to area supervisor or manager. A high school diploma improves the chances for advancement. Some jani tors set up their own maintenance business. Supervisors usually move up through the ranks. In many estab lishments, they are required to take some in-service training to perfect housekeeping techniques and procedures, and to enhance supervisory skills. 328 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Job Outlook The occupation of janitors and cleaners is easy to enter because there are few requirements for formal education and training, turnover is high, and part-time and temporary jobs are plentiful. The need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force will create most job openings. Employment of building janitors and cleaners and cleaning su pervisors is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as the number of office buildings, apartment houses, schools, factories, hospitals, and other buildings increases. Businesses providing janitorial and cleaning services on a contract basis are expected to be one of the fastest growing employ ers of janitors and cleaners and cleaning supervisors as firms try to reduce costs by hiring independent contractors. New technology is expected to have little effect on employment of janitors and cleaners. Robots now under development are limited to performing a single cleaning task and may not be usable in many places, particularly cluttered areas such as hotel and hospital rooms. Earnings Janitors and cleaners who usually worked full time averaged about $293 a week in 1994; the middle 50 percent earned between $219 and $401. Ten percent earned less than $178; 10 percent earned more than $527. Maids and housekeepers who usually worked full time averaged about $246 a week in 1994, with the middle 50 per cent earning between $198 and $312. Ten percent earned less than $162 and 10 percent earned more than $407. Cleaning supervisors who usually worked full time averaged about $361 a week in 1994; the middle 50 percent earned between $281 and $501. Ten percent earned less than $210 and 10 percent earned more than $686. According to a survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas, janitors had median earnings of $270 for a 40-hour week in 1993. The middle half earned between $206 and $374 a week. Most building service workers receive paid holidays and vaca tions and health insurance. Related Occupations Private household workers have job duties similar to janitors and cleaners. Workers who specialize in one of the many job functions of janitors and cleaners include refuse collectors, floor waxers, street sweepers, window cleaners, gardeners, boiler tenders, pest control lers, and general maintenance repairers. Sources of Additional Information Information about janitorial jobs may be obtained from a local State employment service office. For information about education and training or starting a janitor ial company, contact: ••Building Service Contractors Association International, 10201 Lee Hwy., Suite 225, Fairfax, VA 22030. employed in a household where both parents work. Many workers are employed in households having one parent. A number of house hold workers work part time for two or more employers. Most household workers are general houseworkers and usually the only worker employed in the home. They dust and polish furni ture; sweep, mop, and wax floors; vacuum; and clean ovens, refrig erators, and bathrooms. They may also wash dishes, polish silver, and change and make beds. Some wash, fold, and iron clothes; a few wash windows. Other duties may include looking after a child or an elderly person, cooking, feeding pets, answering the telephone and doorbell, and calling and waiting for repair workers. General houseworkers may also take clothes and laundry to the cleaners, buy groceries, and do other errands. Household workers whose primary responsibility is taking care of children are called child-care workers. Those employed on an hourly basis are usually called baby-sitters. Child-care workers bathe, dress, and feed children; supervise their play, wash their clothes, and clean their rooms. They may also put them to sleep and waken them, read to them, involve them in educational games, take them for doctors' visits, and discipline them. Those who are in charge of infants, sometimes called infant nurses, also prepare bottles and change diapers. Nannies generally take care of children from birth,to age 10 or 12, tending to the child’s early education, nutrition, health, and other needs. They may also perform the duties of a general housekeeper, including general cleaning and laundry duties. Governesses look after children in addition to other household duties. They may help them with schoolwork, teach them a foreign language, and guide them in their general upbringing. (Child-care workers who work outside the child's home are covered in the statement on child-care workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Those who assist elderly, handicapped, or convalescent people are called companions or personal attendants. Depending on the em ployer's needs, a companion or attendant might help with bathing and dressing, preparing and serving meals, and keeping the house tidy. They also may read to their employers, write letters for them, play cards or games, and go with them on walks and outings. Compan ions may also accompany their employers to medical appointments and handle their social and business affairs. Households with a large staff may include a housekeeper or a butler, a cook, a caretaker, and a launderer. Housekeepers and butlers hire, supervise, and coordinate the household staff to keep the household running smoothly. Butlers also receive and announce guests, answer telephones, deliver messages, serve food and drinks, chauffeur, or act as a personal attendant. Cooks plan and prepare meals, clean the kitchen, order groceries and supplies, and may also serve meals. Caretakers do heavy housework and general home maintenance. They wash windows, wax floors, and hang draperies. They maintain heating and other equipment and do light carpentry, painting, and odd jobs. They may also mow the lawn and do some gardening if the household does not have a gardener. For information about careers in executive housekeeping, contact: ••National Executive Housekeepers Association, Inc., 1001 Eastwind Dr., Suite 301, Westerville, OH 43081-3361. Private Household Workers (D.O.T. 301 except .687-018; 302; 305; 309 except .354-010 and .677-014) Nature of the Work Private household workers clean homes, care for children, plan and cook meals, do laundry, administer the household, and perform numerous other duties. They are employed by many types of house holds of various income levels. Although wealthy families may employ a large staff, it is much more common for one worker to be https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Conditions Private household workers usually work in pleasant and comfortable homes or apartments. Most are dayworkers who live in their own homes and travel to work. Some live in the home of their employer, generally with their own room and bath. Live-ins usually work longer hours. However, if they work evenings or weekends, they may get other time off. Living in may isolate them from family and friends. On the other hand, they often become part of their em ployer's family and may derive satisfaction from caring for them. Being a general houseworker can also be isolating, since work is usually done alone. Housekeeping is hard work. Both dayworkers and live-ins are on their feet most of the day and do much walking, lifting, bending, stooping, and reaching. In addition, some employers may be very demanding. Service Occupations 329 i|! E. Job opportunities for private household workers are excellent. Employment Private household workers held about 808,000 jobs in 1994. Over 60 percent were general houseworkers, mostly dayworkers; 35 percent were child-care workers, including baby-sitters; less than 5 percent were housekeepers, butlers, cooks, and launderers. Most jobs are in big cities and their affluent suburbs. Some are on large estates or in resorts away from cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Private household workers generally do not need any special training. Individuals who cannot find other work because of limited language or other skills often turn to this work. Most jobs require the ability to clean well, cook, or take care of children. These skills are generally learned by young people while helping with housework at home. Some training takes place on the job. Employers show the household workers what they want done and how. For child-care workers and companions, general education, background, and ability to get along with the person they will care for are most important. Home economics courses in high schools and vocational and adult education schools offer training in cooking and child care. Courses in child development, first aid, and nursing in postsecondary schools are also useful. Special schools for butlers, nannies, and governesses teach household administration, early childhood education, nutrition, child care, and bookkeeping. Private household workers must be able to work well with others and be honest, discreet, dependable, courteous, and neat. They also need physical stamina. There are very few opportunities for advancement within this occupation. Few large households exist with big staffs where general houseworkers can advance to cook, executive housekeeper, butler, or governess, and these jobs may require specialized training. Ad vancement usually consists of better pay and working conditions. Workers may move to similar jobs in hotels, hospitals, and restau rants, where the pay and fringe benefits are usually better. Others transfer into better paying unrelated jobs. Job Outlook Job opportunities for people wishing to become private household workers are expected to be excellent through 2005, as the demand for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis these services continues to far outpace the supply of workers willing to provide them. For many years, demand for household help has outstripped the supply of workers willing to take domestic jobs. The imbalance is expected to persist—and possibly worsen—through the year 2005. Demand is expected to grow as more women join the labor force and need help running their households. Demand for companions and personal attendants is also expected to rise due to projected rapid growth in the elderly population. The supply situation is not likely to improve. Unattractiveness of the work, low status, low pay, lack of fringe benefits, and limited advancement potential deter many prospective household workers. Due to the limited supply of household workers, many employers have turned to domestic cleaning firms, child-care centers, and temporary help firms to meet their needs for household help. This trend is expected to continue. (See the statements on janitors and cleaners, preschool teachers and child-care workers, and homemakerhome health aides elsewhere in the Handbook.) Although employment of private household workers is expected to decline through 2005, many jobs will be available because of the need to replace the large number of workers who leave these occu pations every year. Persons who are interested in and suited for this work should have no trouble finding and keeping jobs. Earnings Earnings of private household workers depend on the type of work, the number of hours, household and staff size, geographic location, training, and experience. Most private household workers are employed part time, or less than 35 hours a week. Some work only 2 or 3 days a week, while others may work half a day 4 or 5 days a week. Earnings vary from about $10 an hour or more in a big city to less than the Federal minimum wage—$4.25 an hour—in some rural areas (some domestic workers are not covered by minimum wage laws). In addition, dayworkers often get carfare and a free meal. Live-in domestics usually earn more than dayworkers and also get free room and board. However, they often work longer hours. Baby-sitters usually have the lowest earnings. In 1994, median earnings for full-time private household workers were about $180 a week. Some full-time live-in housekeepers, cooks, butlers, nannies, and governesses earn considerably more. Based on limited information, experienced workers employed by wealthy families in major metropolitan areas may earn $800 to $1,000 a week. Private household workers who live with their employers may be given room and board, medical benefits, a car, vacation days, and education benefits. However, most private household workers receive very limited or no benefits. Related Occupations Other workers with similar duties are building custodians, hotel and restaurant cleaners, child-care workers in daycare centers, homehealth aides, cooks, kitchen workers, waiters and waitresses, and bartenders. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities for private household workers is available from local private employment agencies and State em ployment service offices. Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, and Related Occupations Animal Caretakers, Except Farm (D O.T. 410.674-010, -022; 412.674-010, -014; 418.381-010, .674-010, 677-010; and 449.674-010) Nature of the Work Most people like animals. But, as pet owners can attest, it is hard work taking care of them. Animal caretakers, sometimes called animal attendants or animal keepers, feed, water, groom, bathe, and exercise animals and clean and repair their cages. They also play with the animals, provide companionship, and observe behavioral changes that could indicate illness or injury. Kennels, animal shelters, animal hospitals, pet stores, stables, veterinary facilities, laboratories, and zoological parks all house animals and employ caretakers. Job titles and duties vary by em ployment setting. Kennel staff usually care for small companion animals like dogs and cats. Beginning attendants perform basic tasks, such as cleaning cages and dog runs. Experienced attendants may give basic treat ment and first aid, bathe and groom animals, and clean their ears and teeth. "Dog groomers" specialize in maintaining the animals appear ance. Some groomers work in kennels and others operate their own grooming business. Caretakers also sell pet food and supplies, teach obedience classes, help with breeding, or prepare animals for ship ping. In addition to providing the basic needs of the animals, caretakers in animal shelters screen applicants for animal adoption, vaccinate newly admitted animals, and euthanize (put to death) seriously ill, severely injured, or unwanted animals. Pet store caretakers provide basic care, sell pet supplies, and give advice to customers. Workers in stables saddle and unsaddle horses, give them rubdowns, and walk them through a cool-off after a ride. They also feed and groom the horses, muck out stalls, polish saddles, clean and organize the tack room, and store supplies and feed. Experienced staff may help train horses. Animal caretakers in animal hospitals are like primary care nurses in human hospitals—they spend more time with the patients than anyone else. Busy veterinarians rely on caretakers to keep a constant eye on the condition of animals under their charge. Caretakers watch as animals recover from surgery, check whether dressings are still on correctly, observe the animals' overall attitude and notify a doctor if anything seems out of the ordinary. While among the animals, caretakers clean constantly to maintain sanitary conditions in the hospital. In zoos, caretakers called keepers prepare the diets, clean the enclosures, monitor the behavior of exotic animals, and sometimes assist in research studies on their wards. Keepers also may answer questions from visitors about the natural habitat or eating habits of exhibited animals. Keepers are generally assigned to work with a broad group of animals such as mammals, birds, or reptiles. In large zoological parks, keepers may work with a limited collection of animals such as primates, large cats, or dolphins. Working Conditions People who love animals get satisfaction from working with and helping animals. However, some of the work may be physically demanding and unpleasant. Caretakers have to clean animal cages and lift heavy animals, or supplies like bales of hay. Also, the work setting is often noisy. Some duties like euthanizing a hopelessly injured or aged animal may be emotionally stressful. Animal caretakers can be exposed to bites, kicks, and disease from the animals they attend. Caretakers may work outdoors in all kinds of weather. Hours are irregular. Animals have to be fed every day, so caretakers rotate weekend shifts. In some animal hospitals and animal shelters an attendant is on duty 24 hours a day, which means night shifts. Most full-time caretakers work about 40 hours a week; some work 50 hours a week or more. Caretakers of show and sports animals travel to competitions. Employment Animal caretakers held about 125,000 jobs in 1994. Most were employed in veterinary facilities and boarding kennels. Other em ployers were animal shelters, stables, pet stores, grooming shops, zoological parks, and local, State, and Federal agencies. One out of every 6 caretakers is self-employed. More than a third work part time. Employment of animal caretakers is expected to grow faster than average. 330 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most animal caretakers working in kennels, pet stores, animal shel ters, and stables are trained on the job. There are few formal training programs, but the American Boarding Kennel Association offers a home-study program for kennel technicians. Some States require certification of caretakers who euthanize animals. Training may be through a veterinarian or a State Humane Society. Otherwise, there are no formal training requirements in these settings; nonetheless, many employers look for people with some experience with animals. Caretakers start by cleaning cages and advance to giving medication Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, and Related Occupations 331 and grooming. Most dog groomers team their trade through on-thejob training, but a few grooming schools do exist. Dog groomers may receive professional registration or certifica tion from the National Dog Groomers Association of America. The American Boarding Kennels Association accredits kennels and offers a Certified Kennel Operator program, both of which show profes sional competency. There are no formal education requirements for animal caretakers in veterinary facilities. They are trained on the job. Large zoological parks may require their caretakers to have a bachelor's degree in biology, animal science, or a related field. They also require experience with animals, preferably as a volunteer in a zoo or as a paid keeper in a smaller zoo. Advancement varies with employment setting. Kennel caretakers may be promoted to kennel supervisor, assistant manager,! and man ager. Caretakers with enough capital may open up their own ken nels. Pet store caretakers may become store managers. Caretakers in animal shelters may become a humane agent, animal control officer, assistant shelter manager, or shelter director. The Humane Society of the United States offers seminars for animal shelter and control personnel. Zoo keepers may advance to senior keeper, assistant/head keeper, head keeper, and assistant curator but few openings occur, especially for the higher level positions. Job Outlook Employment opportunities for animal caretakers generally are ex pected to be good. Employment is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as the population and economy expand and pet ownership grows. The number of dogs and cats has increased significantly over the last 10 years, and is expected to continue to increase in the future. More animals will require more caretakers to provide services. Despite growth in demand for animal caretakers, the overwhelm ing majority of jobs will result from the need to replace workers leaving the field. Many animal caretaker jobs that require little or no training have work schedules which tend to be flexible; therefore, it is an ideal first job for people entering the labor force as well as for students and others looking for temporary or part-time work. Be cause turnover is quite high due to the hard physical labor and low pay, the overall availability of jobs should be very good. Much of the work of these animal caretakers is seasonal, particularly during vacation periods. The outlook for caretakers in zoos, however, is not favorable. Jobseekers will face keen competition because of expected slow growth in zoo capacity, low turnover, and the fact that the occupation attracts many candidates. Earnings Animal caretakers who worked full time earned a median weekly salary of $275 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $211 and $368. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $182; the top 10 percent earned more than $536 a week. Generally, veterinary tech nicians, laboratory animal technologists, and zookeepers earn more than other animal caretakers. Related Occupation Other occupations working with animals include agricultural and biological scientists, veterinarians, retail sales workers in pet stores, gamekeepers, game-farm helpers, poultry breeders, ranchers, and artificial-breeding technician. Sources of Additional Information For more information on animal caretaking and the animal shelter and control personnel training program, write to: ••Animal Caretakers Information, The Humane Society of the United States, 2100 L St„ NW, Washington, DC 20037. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis To obtain a listing of grooming schools or the name of the nearest certified dog groomer in your area, send a stamped self-addressed envelope to: •■National Dog Groomers Association of America, Box 101, Clark, PA 16113. For information on training and certification of kennel staff and owners, contact: ••American Boarding Kennel Association, 4575 Galley Rd„ Suite 400-A, Colorado Springs, CO 80915. Farm Operators and Managers (D.O.T. 180.117, .161, and .167-018, -026 through -046, -058, and -066; 401.161; 402.161; 403.161; 404.161; 405.161; 407.161; 410.161; 411.161; 412.161; 413.161; 421.161; and 446.161) Nature of the Work American farm operators and managers direct the activities of one of the world's largest and most productive agricultural sectors. They produce enough food and fiber to meet the needs of our Nation and to export huge quantities to countries around the world. Farm operators may be farmer-owners or tenant farmers, who rent the use of land. Their specific tasks are determined by the type of farm they operate. On crop farms—farms growing grain, cotton and other fibers, fruit, and vegetables—farm operators are responsi ble for planning, tilling, planting, fertilizing, cultivating, spraying, and harvesting. After the harvest, they make sure that the crops are properly stored or packaged, loaded, and promptly marketed. On livestock, dairy, and poultry farms, farm operators must plan, feed, and care for the animals and keep bams, pens, coops, and other farm buildings clean and in repair. They also oversee breeding, some slaughtering, and marketing activities. On horticultural specialty farms, farm operators oversee the production of ornamental plants, nursery products—such as flowers, bulbs, shrubbery, and sod—and fruits and vegetables grown in greenhouses. Farm operators are required to make many managerial decisions. Their farm output is strongly influenced by the weather, disease, fluctuations in prices of domestic and foreign farm products, and Federal farm programs. Farm operators must determine the best time to seed, fertilize, cultivate, harvest, and market. They carefully plan the combination of crops they grow so if the price of one crop drops, they will have sufficient income from another to make up for the loss. Crop and livestock prices change frequently from one month to another. Farm operators who plan ahead may be able to store their crops or keep their livestock to take advantage of better prices later in the year. Farm operators may have to secure loans from credit agencies to finance the purchase of machinery, fertilizer, livestock, and feed. Increasingly, farm operators are using computers to keep their extensive financial and inventory records of their farming operations. Farm operators perform tasks ranging from caring for livestock, to operating machinery, and erecting fences. The size of the farm often determines which of these tasks operators will handle them selves. Operators of large farms have employees who do much of the physical work that small-farm operators do themselves. Operators are responsible for training workers in the use of equipment and supervising them in the performance of their work. Although em ployment on most farms is limited to the farm operator and one or two family workers or hired employees, some large farms have 100 or more full-time and seasonal workers. Some of these workers are in nonfarm occupations, such as truckdriver, sales representative, bookkeeper, and computer specialist. Farm managers have duties and responsibilities that vary widely. 332 Occuptional Outlook Handbook P— i ...a Western States—livestock and feed grain production flourish. The work of farm operators and managers is often strenuous, their work hours are frequently long, and their days off are sometimes infrequent. Of those who worked full time, half worked 60 or more hours a week. Nevertheless, to those who enter farming, these disadvantages are outweighed by the opportunities for living in a more rural area, working outdoors, being self employed, and making a living working the land. Many types of farming are seasonal. Although farm operators and managers on crop farms usually work from sunrise to sunset during the planting and harvesting seasons, they often work on the farm only 6 to 7 months a year. During the rest of the year they plan next season's crops, market their output, and repair machinery; some may earn additional income by working a second job off the farm. On livestock producing farms, work goes on throughout the year. Animals must be fed and watered, and cows must be milked twice a day. Farm operators rarely get the chance to get away unless they hire an assistant or arrange for a temporary substitute. Farm work can be hazardous. Farmers may be injured by plant ing and harvesting machinery or large livestock. In addition, they are subject to illnesses and diseases from improper handling and breath ing of dangerous pesticides and chemicals. On very large farms, farm operators spend substantial time meet ing with farm managers or farm supervisors in charge of various activities. Professional farm managers overseeing several farms may divide their time between traveling to meet farm operators and planning the farm operations in their offices. Employment Farm operators and managers held about 1,327,000 jobs in 1994. About 90 percent were self employed farm operators. Most managed crop production activities while others managed livestock and dairy production. A relatively small number were involved in agricultural services such as contract harvesting and farm labor contracting. Small farm operators and managers perform much of the physical work themselves. For example, the owner of a very large livestock farm may employ a farm manager to oversee a single activity such as feeding livestock. When managing a small crop farm for an absentee owner, on the other hand, a farm manager may assume responsibility for all func tions, from planning the crop to participating in planting and harvest ing activities. Farm management firms and corporations involved in agriculture employ highly trained professional farm managers who may manage farm operations or oversee tenant operators of several farms. In these cases, farm managers may establish output goals, determine financial constraints, and monitor production and market ing. Working Conditions The soil, topography of the land, and the climate of an area generally determine the type of farming that is done. For example, wheat, com, and other grains are most efficiently grown on large farms on level land where large, complex machinery can be used. Thus, these crops are prevalent on the prairies and plains of Iowa, Illinois, Indi ana, Nebraska, Ohio, Kansas, and southern Minnesota and Wiscon sin. Crops that require longer growing seasons, such as cotton, tobacco, and peanuts, are grown chiefly in the South. Most of the country's fruits and vegetables come from California, Texas, and Florida. Many dairy herds are found in the areas with good pasture land, such as Wisconsin, New York, and Minnesota. In areas with large tracts of land—such as Texas, Nebraska, Iowa, and some https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Growing up on a family farm and participating in agricultural pro grams for young people sponsored by the National Future Farmers of America Organization or the 4-H youth educational programs are important sources of training for those interested in pursuing agricul ture as a career. However, modem farming requires increasingly complex scientific, business, and financial decisions. Therefore, even people who were raised on farms must acquire a strong educa tional background. High school training should include courses in mathematics and the sciences. Completion of a 2-year and prefera bly a 4-year program in a college of agriculture is becoming increas ingly important. Not all future farm managers grow up on farms. For these people, a bachelor's degree in agriculture is essential. In order to qualify for a farm manager position, they will need several years’ work experi ence in the different aspects of farm operations. Students should select the college most appropriate to their spe cific interests and location. In the United States, most State univer sity systems have a college of agriculture. Common programs of study offered include agronomy, dairy science, agricultural econom ics and business, horticulture, crop and fruit science, pathobiology, and animal science. Also, colleges of agriculture usually offer special programs of study covering products important to the area in which they are located, such as animal science programs at colleges in the Western and Plains States. Whatever one's interest, the college curriculum should include courses in farm production, finance, and economics. Professional status can be enhanced through voluntary certifica tion as an Accredited Farm Manager (AFM) by the American Society of Farm Managers and Rural Appraisers. Certification requires several years' farm experience and the appropriate academic back ground—a bachelor's degree or preferably a master's degree in a field of agricultural science—and passing courses and examinations Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, and Related Occupations 333 relating to business, financial, and legal aspects of farm management. Farm operators and managers need to keep abreast of continuing advances in farming methods both in the United States and abroad. They should be willing to try new processes and adapt to constantly changing technologies to produce their crops or raise their livestock more efficiently. Keeping abreast of changing foreign agricultural policies and international exchange rates is important to operators of farms producing internationally traded crops and livestock. Opera tors also must have enough technical knowledge of crops, growing conditions, and plant and animal diseases to make decisions ensuring the successful operation of their farms. Knowledge of the relation ship between farm operations—for example, the use of pesticides— and environmental conditions is essential. Mechanical aptitude and the ability to work with tools of all kinds also are valuable skills for the operator of a small farm, who often maintains and repairs ma chinery or farm structures. Farm operators and managers must have the managerial skills necessary to organize and operate a business. A basic knowledge of accounting and bookkeeping can be helpful in keeping financial records, and a knowledge of credit sources is essential. They also must keep abreast of complex safety regulations, requirements of government agricultural support programs, and paperwork faced by other small businesses. Familiarity with computers is important, especially on large farms, where computers are often used for record keeping and business analysis. For example, some farmers use personal computers to get the latest information on prices of farm products and other agricultural news. Job Outlook Employment of farm operators and managers is expected to continue to decline through the year 2005. The expanding world population is increasing the demand for food and fiber. However, increasing productivity in the highly efficient U.S. agricultural sector is ex pected to easily meet domestic and export requirements with fewer There are fewer farms, but their size is increasing. Number of farms (millions) 2.45 ------------------------- Farms Average size (acres) -----------------;2 480 but larger farms. Although requirements for machinery and equip ment will remain stable or increase slightly, land and labor require ments in the agricultural sector will decrease, but at a slower rate than in the past. The overwhelming majority of job openings will result from the need to replace farmers who retire or leave the occu pation for economic or other reasons. The trend toward fewer and larger farms, primarily through mergers, is expected to continue to reduce the number of jobs for farm operators and managers. A farm can be acquired by inheri tance; however, purchasing a farm is expensive and requires sub stantial capital. In addition, sufficient funds are required to withstand the adverse effects of climate and price fluctuations upon farm output and income and to cover operating costs—livestock, feed, seed, and fuel. Also, the complexity of modem farming and keen competition among farmers leave little room for the marginally successful farmer. Small and medium-size farms, many of which do not generate suffi cient income to support the desired standard of living, are expected to decrease in number. However, the small but increasing number of horticultural farms may provide some employment opportunities. Earnings Farmers' incomes vary greatly from year to year, because prices of farm products fluctuate depending upon weather conditions and other factors that influence the amount and quality of farm output and the demand for those products. A farm that shows a large profit in one year may show a loss in the following year. Many farmers— primarily operators of small farms—have income from off-farm business activities often several times larger than their farm income. Farm income also varies greatly depending upon the type and size of farm. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, average cash income net of expenses in 1993 was over $100,000 for operators of vegetable and fruit, cotton, and poultry and egg farms. On the other hand, cattle and tobacco farms generated less than $15,000 in cash income, on the average. Generally, large farms generate more income than small farms. Exceptions include some low volume specialty farms producing high-value horticultural and fruit products. Farm operators and managers who were paid a wage or salary, and who worked full time had median earnings of $314 a week in 1994. The middle half earned between $237 and $445 a week. The highest paid managers earned over $594 a week in 1994, while the lowest paid made less than $173 a week. Farmers and self-employed farm managers make their own pro visions for benefits. As members of farm organizations, they may derive benefits such as group discounts on health and life insurance premiums. Salaried farm managers may receive housing and the usual benefits such as paid vacations and health insurance. Related Occupations Farmers and farm managers strive to improve the quality of agricul tural products and the efficiency of farms. Workers with similar functions include agricultural engineers, animal breeders, animal scientists, county agricultural agents, dairy scientists, extension service specialists, feed and farm management advisors, horticultur ists, plant breeders, and poultry scientists. 2.05 2.00 Sources of Additional Information For general information about farming and agricultural occupations, contact: ••American Farm Bureau Federation, 225 Touhy Ave., Park Ridge, IL 60068. - For information about certification as an accredited farm man ager, contact: •■American Society of Farm Managers and Rural Appraisers, 950 South Cherry St., Suite 106, Denver, CO 80222. Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis For general information about farm occupations, opportunities, and 4-H activities, contact your local county extension service office. 334 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Fishers, Hunters, and Trappers (D.O.T. 197.133-010, -018; 441; 442; 443; 447; 449.664, .667; 461) Nature of the Work Fishers, hunters, and trappers gather aquatic and animal species for human consumption, animal feed, bait, and other uses, and manage animals for research and control purposes. The range of occupational functions reflects the wide variety of aquatic and animal life and their environments. Gathering fish hundreds of miles from shore with commercial fishing vessels—large boats capable of hauling a catch of tens of thousands of pounds of fish—requires a crew that includes a captain, or skipper, a first mate and sometimes a second mate, boatswain, and deckhands. The captain plans and oversees the fishing operation—the fish to be sought, the location of the best fishing grounds, the method of capture, the duration of the trip, and the sale of the catch. The cap tain ensures that the fishing vessel is in suitable condition; oversees the purchase of supplies, gear, and equipment such as fuel, netting, and cables; and hires qualified crew members and assigns their duties. The vessel's course is plotted with navigation aids such as compasses, sextants, and charts; it uses electronic equipment such as autopilots, a loran system, and satellites to navigate. The ships also use radar to avoid obstacles and depth sounders to indicate the water depth and the existence of marine life between the vessel and sea bottom. The captain directs the fishing operation through the offi cers, and records daily activities in the ship's log. Upon returning to port, the captain arranges for the sale of the catch directly to buyers or through a fish auction and ensures that each crew member receives the prearranged portion of the adjusted net proceeds from the sale of the catch. The first mate—the captain's assistant, who must be familiar with navigation requirements and the operation of all electronic equip ment—assumes control of the vessel when the captain is off duty. These duty shifts, called "watches," usually last 6 hours. The mate's regular duty, with the help of the boatswain and under the captain's oversight, is to direct the fishing operations and sailing responsibili ties of the deckhands. These include the operation, maintenance, and repair of the vessel and the gathering, preservation, stowing, and unloading of the catch. The boatswain, a highly experienced deckhand with supervisory responsibilities, directs the deckhands as they carry out the sailing and fishing operations. Prior to departure, the boatswain directs the deckhands to load equipment and supplies, either manually or with hoisting equipment, and untie lines from other boats and the dock. When necessary, boatswains repair fishing gear, equipment, nets, and accessories. They operate the fishing gear, letting out and pulling in nets and lines. They extract the catch, such as pollock, flounder, menhaden, and tuna, from the nets or lines' hooks. Deckhands use dip nets to prevent the escape of small fish and gaffs to facilitate the landing of large fish. The catch is then washed, salted, iced, and stowed away. Deckhands also must ensure that decks are clear and clean at all times and that the vessel's engines and equipment are kept in good working order. Upon return to port, they secure the vessel's lines to and from the docks and other vessels. Unless "lumpers," or laborers, are hired, the deckhands unload the catch. Large fishing vessels that operate in deep water generally have more technologically advanced equipment, and some may have facilities on board where the fish are processed and prepared for sale. They are equipped for longer stays at sea and can perform the work of several smaller boats. (For information about merchant marine occupations, see the section on water transportation occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some full-time and many part-time fishers work on small boats in relatively shallow waters and often in sight of land. Navigation and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis communication needs are modest, and there is little need for much electronic equipment or provisions for long stays at sea. Crews are small—usually only one or two people collaborate on all aspects of the fishing operation. This may include placing gill nets across the mouths of rivers or inlets, entrapment nets in bays and lakes, or pots and traps for shellfish such as lobsters and crabs. Dredges and scrapes are sometimes used to gather shellfish such as oysters and scallops. A very small proportion of commercial fishing is con ducted as diving operations. Depending upon the water's depth, divers—wearing regulation diving suits with an umbilical (air line) or a scuba outfit and equipment—use spears to catch fish and nets and other equipment to gather shellfish, coral, sea urchins, abalone, and sponges. In very shallow waters, fish are caught from small boats having an outboard motor, or from rowboats, or by wading. Fishers use a wide variety of hand-operated equipment—for example, nets, tongs, rakes, hoes, hooks, and shovels—to gather fish and shellfish, catch amphibians and reptiles such as frogs and turtles, and harvest marine vegetation such as Irish moss and kelp. Although most fishers are involved with commercial fishing, some captains and deckhands are primarily employed in sport or recreational fishing. Typically a group of people charter a fishing vessel—for periods ranging from several hours to a number of days—for sport fishing, socializing, and relaxation, and employ a captain and possibly several deckhands. Hunters track, stalk, and sometimes kill their quarry, either for a government agency or as a guide for other people. They may hunt alone or with others and may use dogs to locate the quarry. They use guns or poisons to kill predatory animals such as coyotes. Alligator hunters may shoot their quarry after snaring it with baited hooks. All legal hunting activities are approved and monitored by the appropri ate Federal, State, or local government agencies. Exceptions are made for Native Americans on their own reservations and Alaska Natives. Trappers catch animals or birds using baited, scented, or camou flaged traps, snares, cages, or nets. Many hunters and trappers skin animals and prepare and sell the pelts and skins. Trappers also may be involved with animal damage control, wildlife management, disease control, and research activities. Animal damage control involves the disposition or relocation of animals that are a nuisance or pose a potential danger to humans or populated areas. Wildlife management involves the relocation of animals—for example, musk rats and beavers—to deal with environmental disruption or animal population imbalance. Disease control involves the capture and destruction of rabid animals that threaten public or animal health. Research activities include blood sampling for health determination and the banding of wildfowl to ascertain migratory movements. iSS® I Netting, hauling, and processing fish are strenuous activities. Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, and Related Occupations 335 Working Conditions Fishing, hunting, and trapping operations are conducted under vari ous environmental conditions, depending on the region of the coun try and the kind of species being sought. Fishing vessels may be hampered or imperiled by storms, fog, or wind. Divers are affected by murky water and unexpected shifts in underwater currents. Hunt ers and trappers are hampered or disrupted by storms and rough terrain. Fishers, hunters, and trappers work under hazardous conditions, and often help is not readily available. Malfunctioning navigation or communication equipment may lead to collisions or even shipwrecks. Malfunctioning fishing gear poses the danger of injury to the crew, who also must guard against entanglement in fishing nets and gear, slippery decks resulting from fish processing operations, ice forma tion in the winter, or being swept overboard—a fearsome situation. Treatment for serious injuries may have to await transfer to a hospi tal. Divers must guard against entanglement of air lines, malfunction of scuba equipment, decompression problems, or attacks by preda tory fish. Hunters and trappers face numerous hazards such as assault by predators, falling branches and trees, slippery ground, danger of drowning by falling through ice on ponds, accidental self-inflicted gunshot and knife wounds, and snake and insect bites. Danger from incapacitating injuries is especially high, because these individuals often work alone in isolated areas. A disabled individual may die of injuries that could be routinely treated in an urban area. This occupation entails strenuous outdoor work and long hours. Commercial fishing trips may require a stay of several weeks, or even months, hundreds of miles away from home port. The pace of work varies—intense while netting and hauling the catch aboard and relatively relaxed while traveling between home port and the fishing grounds. However, lookout watches—usually 6 hours long—are a regular responsibility and crew members must be prepared to stand watch at prearranged times of the day or night. Although fishing gear has improved and operations have become more mechanized, netting and processing fish are strenuous activities. Even though newer vessels have improved living quarters and amenities such as television and shower stalls, crews still experience the aggravations of confined conditions, continuous close personal contact, and the absence of family. Hunters and trappers generally must travel many miles by car or truck and then carry equipment and supplies on foot through swamps or forests, over rugged terrain. Long hours—dawn to dusk—often are the rule, and many spend lonely nights camped out in sparsely populated, forested, or mountainous areas. Employment Fishers, hunters, and trappers held an estimated 49,000 jobs in 1994. Over half were self-employed. About 1 in 6 of them worked part time, particularly in the summer, when demand for these workers peaks. Captains, mates, and deckhands on fishing vessels accounted for the majority of these jobs. Trappers, and to a lesser extent hunters, accounted for the remaining jobs. Outside of the fishing, hunting, and trapping industry, some people employed in this occupation are involved in sport fishing activities, while small numbers are employed by museums. Others work for government or buy and sell fur. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Fishers generally acquire their occupational skills on the job, many as members of families involved in fishing activities. No formal academic requirements exist. Under a Coast Guard legislative pro posal, operators of federally documented commercial fishing vessels will be required to complete a Coast Guard-approved training course. Young people can expedite their entrance into these occupations by https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis enrolling in 2-year vocational-technical programs offered by secon dary schools, primarily in coastal areas. In addition, the University of Rhode Island offers a bachelor's degree program in fishery tech nology that includes courses in seamanship, vessel operations, ma rine safety, navigation, vessel repair and maintenance, health emergencies, and fishing gear technology, and is accompanied by hands-on experience. Experienced fishers may find short-term workshops offered through various postsecondary institutions especially useful. These programs provide a good working knowledge of electronic equip ment used in navigation and communication and the latest improve ments in fishing gear. Captains and mates on larger fishing vessels of at least 200 gross tons must be licensed. Captains of sport fishing boats used for charter, regardless of size, also must be licensed. Crew members on certain fish processing vessels may need a merchant mariner's docu ment. These documents and licenses are issued by the U.S. Coast Guard to individuals who meet the stipulated health, physical, and academic requirements. Fishers must be in good health and possess physical strength. Coordination and mechanical aptitude are necessary to operate, maintain, and repair equipment and fishing gear. They need perse verance to work long hours on the sea, often under difficult condi tions. On larger vessels, they must be able to work as members of a team. They must be patient, yet always alert, to overcome the boredom of long watches when not engaged in fishing operations. The ability to assume any deckhand’s functions, on short notice, is important. Mates must have supervisory ability and be able to as sume any deckhand's and the captain's duties, when necessary. The captain must be highly experienced, mature, decisive, and possess the necessary business skills. Captains with initiative and the required capital often become boat owners. On fishing vessels, most fishers begin as deckhands. Deckhands whose experience and interests are in ship engineering—maintenance and repair of ship engines and equipment—can eventually become licensed chief engineers on large commercial vessels after meeting the U.S. Coast Guard's experience, physical, and academic require ments. Divers in fishing operations can enter commercial diving activity—for example, ship repair and pier and marina mainte nance—usually after completion of a certified training program sponsored by an educational institution or industry association. Experienced, reliable deckhands who display supervisory qualities may become boatswains. Boatswains may, in turn, become second mates, first mates, and finally captains. Almost all captains become self-employed, and the overwhelming majority eventually own or have an interest in one or more fishing ships. Some may choose to run a sport or recreational fishing operation. When their seagoing days are over, experienced individuals may work in or, with the necessary capital, own stores selling fishing and marine equipment and supplies. Some captains may assume advisory or administrative positions in industry trade associations or government offices such as harbor development commissions, or teaching positions in industrysponsored workshops or in educational institutions. Hunters and trappers generally acquire their knowledge of wild life and hunting and trapping equipment and supplies gradually, through experience. Some are members of rural families for whom hunting and trapping have been a way of life for generations. Formal training for hunters consists of a federally mandated and State spon sored hunter safety class, covering safety and ethics, which must be passed prior to being issued a hunting license in almost every State. Inexperienced individuals may join an established sports association to observe professional demonstrations and gain knowledge of hunt ing weapons and related equipment and tracking and survival tech niques. After acquiring the mandatory State hunting license, they should hunt with an experienced hunter as an apprentice. Govern ment hunters who hunt rabid or nuisance animals may be trained in the use of airplanes or helicopters. 336 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Trappers may undergo various forms of training. For those interested in the sale of animals and their skins, pelts, or furs, experi ence is fundamental. Inexperienced trappers may serve an internship under the supervision of a professional trapper and take trapper education programs. Trapper education programs are offered by State wildlife departments or State trappers associations; in some States, these programs are mandatory. A trapper's license permits the trap ping of animals forbidden to unlicensed trappers. Trappers interested in research associated with control and management of wildlife populations and disease may take courses, or even complete a degree program, in wildlife biology, wildlife management, or related fields. Hunters and trappers must be in good health, possess physical strength and stamina, and have the desire, patience, and ability to work outdoors, sometimes for long periods, under difficult condi tions. Maturity and judgment are important to deal with hazards. Good physical coordination and mechanical aptitude are necessary to safely and skillfully use hunting weapons and trapping equipment and to maintain camping and other gear. Some hunters are employed by the Federal or State governments to work in such areas as predator control. Other hunters who have extensive experience may work as guides for hunting parties. Those with initiative, business skills, and the required capital may become self-employed outfitters, some of whom own sites in the wilds. Outfitters organize hunting parties, select hunting areas, and assume responsibility for the hunting expedition—providing equipment and supplies, instructing the party members in hunting techniques and safety measures, and overseeing leisure activities during the expedi tion. Most States require a license to work as a hunting guide. Experienced trappers with the appropriate academic background may enter other occupations, such as wildlife technician, or wildlife refuge manager. Professional trappers with business skills and initiative may become self-employed fur traders. Job Outlook Employment of fishers, hunters, and trappers is expected to decline through the year 2005. Hunting, fishing, and trapping occupations depend on the natural ability of stock to replenish itself through growth and reproduction. Many operations are currently at or be yond maximum sustainable yield, and the number of workers who can earn an adequate income from fishing, hunting, and trapping is expected to decline. Most job openings will arise from the need to replace workers who retire or leave the occupation. Some fishers, hunters, and trappers leave the occupation because of the strenuous and hazardous nature of the job, and the lack of steady, year-round income. Different factors will affect employment among these occupa tions. In many areas, particularly the North Atlantic, over fishing and pollution have adversely affected the stock of fish and, conse quently, the demand for fishers. In some areas, States have greatly reduced permits to fishers to allow stocks of fish and shellfish to replenish themselves, idling many fishers. However, this also has helped spur the growth of a closely related field, aquaculture—the raising and harvesting of fish and other aquatic life in ponds or artificial bodies of water for commercial purposes. Aquaculture should be most prominent in the South, where the climate is best suited for the growth of most freshwater fish, except perhaps salmon and trout, which are farmed elsewhere. Employment growth of fishers also may be somewhat restrained by the growing number of large fishing vessels; the use of sophisti cated electronic equipment for navigation, communication, and fish location; and improvements in fishing gear, which have greatly increased the efficiency of fishing operations and have limited the expansion in crew size. Likewise, the use of highly automated "floating processors," where the catch is processed aboard the vessel, may limit employment opportunities. Sport fishing boats will con tinue to provide some job opportunities. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment of hunters and trappers is also expected to decline. The U.S. Forest Service and State fish and wildlife agencies may provide some jobs. Some qualified hunters should be able to obtain positions as hunting guides or outfitters, although the work generally is seasonal. Trapping activities increasingly are becoming ancillary duties of wildlife scientists and technicians and related workers. Opportunities should be best for trappers in pest control activities. Earnings Fishers, hunters, and trappers who worked full time in 1994 had median earnings of $508 a week. The middle 50 percent earned between $240 and $852 a week. The highest paid 10 percent earned over $1,891 a week, but the lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $198 a week. Earnings of fishers, hunters, and trappers generally are highest in the summer and fall—when demand for their services peaks and environmental conditions are favorable—and lowest during the winter. Many full-time and most part-time workers supplement their income by working in other activities during the off-season. For example, fishers may work in seafood processing plants, establish ments selling fishing and marine equipment, or in construction. Hunters may work as self-employed guides, for an outfitter, or in stores selling guns or hunting and related equipment. Trappers may work in stores selling trapping and related equipment. Earnings of fishers vary widely depending upon the specific occupational function, the size of the ship, and the amount and value of the catch. The costs of the fishing operation—operating the ship, repair and maintenance of gear and equipment, and the crew's sup plies—are deducted from the sale of the catch. The net proceeds are distributed among the crew members in accordance with a prear ranged percentage. Generally, the ship's owner—usually its cap tain—receives half of the net proceeds, which covers any profit as well as the depreciation, maintenance, and replacement costs of the ship. Related Occupations Numerous occupations involve outdoor activities similar to those of fishers, hunters, and trappers. Among these are zoo keepers, loggers, animal control officers, forest rangers, fishing guides, fish hatchery and aquaculture workers, game wardens, harbor pilots, merchant marine officers and seamen, and wildlife management specialists. Sources of Additional Information For general information about fishing occupations, contact: ••National Fisheries Institute, 1525 Wilson Blvd., Suite 500, Arlington, VA 22209. Information about sport or recreational fishing occupations is available from: •Sport Fishing Institute, 1010 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001. Names of postsecondary schools offering fishing and related marine educational programs are available from: •Marine Technology Society, 1828 L St. NW., Suite 906, Washington, DC 20036-5104. Information on licensing of captains and mates and requirements for merchant mariner documentation is available from the U.S. Coast Guard Marine Inspection Office or Marine Safety Office in your State, or: •Licensing and Evaluation Branch (G-MPV-2), U.S. Coast Guard, 2100 Second St. SW„ Washington, DC 20593. For information about certified training programs for diving (umbilical) careers, contact: •College of Oceaneering, 272 S. Fries Ave., Wilmington, CA 90744-6399. Information on licensing of hunting guides is available from the department of fish and game in your State. Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, and Related Occupations 337 Forestry and Logging Occupations (D.O.T. 408.664, .667; 451.687; 452.364-010, .687-010, -018; 453; 454 except .134; 455 except .134; 459.387, .687; 669.485, .687-022; 921.364, .664-014, .667-014, .687-014 -022, -030; 922.687-082; and 929.663-010) Nature of the Work The Nation's forests are a rich natural resource, providing beauty and tranquillity, varied recreational areas, and wood for commercial use. Managing forests and woodlands requires many different kinds of workers. Forestry and conservation workers help develop, maintain, and protect these forests by growing and planting new tree seedlings, fighting insects and diseases that attack trees, and helping to control soil erosion. Timber cutting and logging workers harvest thousands of acres of forests each year for the timber that provides the raw material for countless consumer and industrial products. Generally working under the direction of a professional forester, forestry technicians compile data on the characteristics of forest land tracts such as size, content, and condition. These workers travel through sections of forest to gather basic information such as species and population of trees, disease and insect damage, tree seedling mortality, and conditions that may cause fire danger. They also train and lead conservation workers in seasonal activities such as planting tree seedlings, putting out forest fires, and maintaining recreational facilities. Forest workers are less skilled workers who perform a variety of different tasks to reforest and conserve timberlands and maintain forest facilities such as roads and campsites. Some forest workers, called tree planters, plant tree seedlings to reforest timberland areas, using digging and planting tools called dibble bars and hoedads. They also remove diseased or undesirable trees with a powersaw or handsaw and spray trees with insecticides or herbicides to kill insects and to protect against disease. Forest workers in private industry usually work for professional foresters, and paint boundary lines, assist with prescribed burning, and aid in tree marking and measuring by keeping a tally of the trees examined and counted. Those who work for Federal and State government also clear away brush and debris from camp trails, roadsides, and camping areas. Some clean kitchens and rest rooms at recreational facilities and camp grounds. Other forest and conservation workers work in forest nurseries sorting out tree seedlings, discarding those that do not meet pre scribed standards of root formation, stem development, and foliage condition. Some forest workers work on tree farms, where they plant, culti vate, and harvest many different kinds of trees. Their duties vary depending on the type of tree farm. For example, those who work on specialty farms, such as Christmas tree farms or farms that grow ornamental trees for nurseries, are responsible for shearing the tops and limbs to control growth, increase limb density, and improve the shape, in addition to planting, spraying to control surrounding weed growth and insects, and harvesting. Other forest workers gather products from the woodlands such as decorative greens, tree cones and barks, moss, or other wild plant life from the forest by hand or using handtools, and others tap trees for sap to make syrup or to produce chemicals. The timber cutting and logging process is carried out by a variety of workers. Fallers cut down trees with chain saws or mechanical felling equipment. Buckers trim off the tops and branches and buck (cut) the resulting logs into specified lengths. These workers usually use gas-powered chain saws. Choke setters fasten chokers (steel cables or chains) around logs to be skidded (dragged) by tractors or forwarded by the cable yarding system to the landing or deck area where the logs are separated by species and loaded onto trucks. Riggers set up and dismantle the cables and guy wires of the cable yarding system. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis % si > Most forestry and logging workers learn their skills on the job. Logging tractor operators drive crawler or wheeled tractors called skidders, which drag logs from the felling site to the landing; grapple loaders, which load the logs into trucks; and tree harvesters, which cut and trim the trees, then cut the logs. Log handling equipment operators operate tracked or wheeled equipment to load logs and pulpwood off trucks or gondola railroad cars, usually in a sawmill or planing mill yard. Log graders and scalers inspect logs for defects, measure logs to determine their volume, and estimate the marketable content or value of logs or pulpwood. Other timber cutting and logging workers have a variety of re sponsibilities. Some workers hike through forests to assess logging conditions. Laborers clear areas of brush and other growth to prepare for logging activities and to promote growth of desirable species of trees. The timber cutting and logging industry is characterized by a large number of small crews of four to eight workers. A typical crew might consist of one or two fallers or one feller machine operator, one bucker, two logging tractor operators to drag cut trees to the loading deck, and one equipment operator to load the logs onto trucks. Most of these crews work for self-employed logging contrac tors who possess substantial logging experience, the capital to pur chase equipment, and the skills needed to run a small business successfully. Most contractors work alongside their crews as work ing supervisors and often operate one of the logging tractors, such as the grapple loader or the tree harvester. Many manage more than one crew and function as owner-supervisors. Although timber cutting and logging equipment has greatly improved and operations are becoming increasingly mechanized, many logging jobs are still labor intensive. These jobs require vari ous levels of skill, ranging from manually moving logs, branches, and equipment to skillfully using chain saws, peavies (hooked poles), and log jacks to cut and position logs for further processing or load ing. Skillful operation of vehicles and equipment is necessary to avoid accidents and to minimize damage to the equipment and environment. The ability to maintain and repair equipment is in creasingly necessary to reduce costs and increase productivity. A skillful, experienced logger is expected to handle a variety of logging operations. Working Conditions Forestry and logging occupations are physically demanding. Most forestry and logging workers often work outdoors in all kinds of weather, sometimes in isolated areas. A few lumber camps in Alaska house workers in bunkhouses or company towns. Workers in sparsely populated Western States commute long distances between 338 Occuptional Outlook Handbook their homes and logging sites. In the densely populated Eastern States, commuting distances are much shorter. Most logging occupations involve lifting, climbing, and other strenuous activities. Loggers work under unusually hazardous con ditions. Falling trees and branches are a constant menace, as are the dangers associated with log handling operations and use of sawing equipment, especially delimbing devices. Strong winds require special care and can even halt operations. Slippery or muddy ground and hidden roots or vines not only reduce efficiency but present a constant danger, especially in the presence of moving vehicles and machinery. Poisonous plants, brambles, insects, and heat and hu midity are minor annoyances. Over long periods of time, if safety precautions are not taken, hearing may be impaired by the high noise level of sawing and skidding operations. Experience, exercise of caution, and use of proper safety measures and equipment—such as hardhats, eye and hearing protection, and safety clothing and boots— are extremely important to avoid injury. The jobs of forest and conservation workers are generally much less hazardous although it may be necessary for some forestry aides or forest workers to walk long distances through densely wooded areas to carry out their work. Employment Forestry and logging workers held about 124,000 jobs in 1994, distributed among the following occupations: Forest and conservation workers.............................................................. 42,000 Falters and buckers...................................................................................29,000 Logging tractor operators......................................................................... 20,000 Log handling equipment operators............................................................16,000 All other timber cutting and related logging occupations.........................17,000 Most salaried logging workers are employed in the logging camps and logging contractors industry. Others work in sawmills and planing mills, or for services specializing in the care and mainte nance of ornamental trees. Although logging operations are found in most States, Oregon and Washington account for about 1 out of every 5 logging workers. Self-employed logging workers account for 1 of every 4 logging workers—a much higher proportion of self-employment than for most occupations. Most forest and conservation workers work for government at some level. Of these workers, about 8,000 are employed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Forest Service, 8,500 work for State governments, and 5,800 work for local governments Most of the remainder work for companies that operate timber tracts, tree farms, or forest nurseries, or for establishments that supply forestry services. Although forestry workers and conservation workers are located in every State, employment is concentrated in the Western and South eastern States where many national and private forests and parks are located. Although seasonal demand for forestry and logging workers will vary slightly by region, employment generally is highest in the summer and lowest in the winter. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most forestry and logging workers develop their skills through onthe-job training. Instruction comes primarily from experienced workers. Logging workers must familiarize themselves with the character and potential dangers of the forest environment and the operation of logging machinery and equipment. However, larger logging companies and trade associations such as the Northeastern Loggers Association and the American Pulpwood Association may offer special programs, particularly for workers training to operate large, expensive machinery and equipment. Often, a representative of the manufacturer or company may spend several days in the field explaining and overseeing the operation of newly purchased https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis machinery. Safety training is a vital part of instruction for all log ging workers. In recent years, several States have established certification training programs for logging. To be certified, individuals must meet certain training requirements and pass an on-site field inspection that tests their skills. Experience in other occupations can expedite entry into various logging occupations. For example, equipment operators such as truckdrivers and bulldozer and crane operators can assume skidding and yarding functions. Some loggers have worked in sawmills or on family farms with extensive wooded areas. Some logging contrac tors were formerly crew members of family-owned businesses oper ated over several generations. Generally, little formal education is required for most forestry and logging occupations. The minimum requirement for a forestry technician or aide is a high school education. Many secondary schools, including vocational and technical schools, and a few com munity colleges offer courses, or even a 2-year degree in general forestry, wildlife, conservation, and forest harvesting which could be helpful in obtaining a job. A curriculum that includes field trips to observe or participate in forestry or logging activities provides a particularly good background. There are no educational require ments for forest worker jobs. Many of these workers may be high school or college students who are hired on a part-time or seasonal basis. Forestry and logging workers must be in good health and be able to work outdoors every day and to work as part of a team. Many logging occupations require physical strength and stamina. Maturity and good judgment are important in making quick, intelligent deci sions in dealing with hazards as they arise. Mechanical aptitude and coordination are necessary qualities for operators of machinery and equipment, who often are responsible for repair and maintenance as well. Initiative and managerial and business skills are necessary for success as a self-employed logging contractor. Experience working at a nursery or as a laborer can be useful in obtaining a job as a forest worker. Logging workers generally ad vance from occupations involving primarily manual labor to those involving the operation of expensive, sometimes complicated ma chinery and equipment. Inexperienced entrants generally begin as laborers, carrying tools and equipment, clearing brush, and loading and unloading logs and brush. For some, familiarization with log ging operations may lead to jobs such as log handling equipment operator. Further experience may lead to jobs involving the opera tion of more complicated machinery and yarding towers to transport, load, and unload logs. Those who have the motor skills required for the efficient use of power saws and other equipment may become fallers and buckers. Some logging workers who can readily assess the marketable volume of timber or identify defects in logs may become graders. Job Outlook Overall employment of forestry and logging workers is expected to decline through the year 2005. Most job openings will result from replacement needs. Many logging workers transfer to other jobs that are less physically demanding and dangerous. In addition, many forestry workers are younger workers who are not committed to the occupation on a long term basis. Some take jobs to earn money for school, others only take these jobs until they find a better paying job. Employment of timber cutting and logging occupations is ex pected to decline. Despite steady demand for lumber and wood products, increased mechanization of logging operations and im provements in logging equipment will depress the demand for work ers. In addition, forest conservation efforts may restrict the volume of public timber available for harvesting, further dampening demand for timber cutting and logging workers. Employment of forest and conservation workers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations. Environ mental concerns may spur the demand for workers who maintain and Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, and Related Occupations 339 conserve our woodlands; however, budget cutting in the Federal Government will suppress faster growth. Increasing mechanization will have differing effects on timber cutting and logging workers. Employment of fallers, buckers, choke setters, and other workers whose jobs are labor intensive should decline as safer, laborsaving machinery and equipment are increas ingly used. Employment of machinery and equipment operators, such as logging tractor and log handling equipment operators, should be less adversely affected. Weather can force curtailment of logging operations during the muddy spring season and cold winter months. Changes in the level of construction, particularly residential construction, also affect logging activities. In addition, logging operations must be relocated when timber harvesting in a particular area has been completed. During prolonged periods of inactivity, some workers may stay on the job to maintain or repair logging machinery and equipment; others are forced to find jobs in other occupations or be without work. Earnings Median weekly earnings for all full-time forestry and logging work ers, including supervisors, who were not self-employed were $358 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $229 and $513 weekly. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $158, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $789. Generally, earnings of more skilled workers, such as yarder operators, are substantially higher than those of less skilled workers, such as laborers and choke setters. Earnings of logging workers vary widely by size of establishment and by geographic area. Earnings of workers in the largest estab lishments are much higher than those in the smallest establishments. Workers in Alaska and the Northwest earn substantially more than those in the South. In 1995, forestry technicians and aides who worked for the Fed eral Government averaged about $23,090. Forest and conservation workers who work for Federal, State, and local governments and large private firms, generally enjoy more generous benefits—for example, pension and retirement plans, health and life insurance, and paid vacations—than smaller firms. Small logging contractors generally offer timber cutting and logging work ers few benefits. However, some employers offer full-time workers basic benefits such as medical coverage and provide safety apparel and equipment. Related Occupations Other occupations concerned with the care of trees and their envi ronment include arborist, gardener, groundskeeper, landscaper, nursery worker, and soil conservation technician. Sources of Additional Information For information about forestry jobs with the Federal Government contact: •“Chief, U.S, Forest Service, U.S Department of Agriculture, 14th St. and Independence Ave. SW., Washington, DC 20013. For information about timber cutting and logging careers and secondary and postsecondary programs offering training for logging occupations, contact: ••Northeastern Loggers Association, P.O. Box 69, Old Forge, NY 13420. •Timber Producers Association of Michigan and Wisconsin, P.O. Box 39, Tomahawk, WI 54487. •American Pulpwood Association, Inc., 600 Jefferson Plaza, Suite 350, Rockville, MD 20852. •American Forest and Paper Association, 1111 19th St., NW, Washington, DC 20036. The school of forestry at your State land-grant college or univer sity should also be able to provide useful information. A list of State forestry associations and other forestry-related State associations is available at most public libraries. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Gardeners and Groundskeepers (D.O.T. 182.167-014; 406.381-010, .683-010, .684-010, -014, -018, .687-010; 408.161-010, .662-010, .684-010, -014, -018, and .687-014) Nature of the Work Attractively designed, healthy, and well-maintained lawns, gardens, trees, and shrubbery create a positive first impression, establish a peaceful mood, and increase property values. A growing number of individuals and organizations rely on the services of gardeners and groundskeepers to care for their landscaping. Some landscape gardeners work on large properties, such as office buildings and shopping malls. Following plans drawn up by a landscape architect, gardeners plant trees, hedges, flowering plants, and turf areas and apply mulch for protection. For residential cus tomers, these workers install lawns, terrace hillsides, build retaining walls, and install patios, as well as plant flowers, trees and shrubs. Gardeners working for homeowners, estates, and public gardens feed, water, and prune the flowering plants and trees, and mow and water the lawn. Some landscape gardeners, called lawn service workers, specialize in maintaining lawns and shrubs for a fee. A growing number of residential and commercial clients, such as managers of office buildings, shopping malls, multiunit residential buildings, and hotels and motels favor this full-service landscape maintenance. These workers perform a full range of duties, includ ing mowing, edging, trimming, fertilizing, dethatching, and mulch ing. Those working for chemical lawn service firms are more • specialized. They inspect lawns for problems and apply fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides, and other chemicals, as well as practice inte grated pest management techniques. Groundskeepers, often classified as either grounds managers or grounds maintenance personnel, maintain a variety of facilities including athletic fields, golf courses, cemeteries, university cam puses, and parks. Grounds managers usually participate in many of the same tasks as maintenance personnel but typically have more extensive knowledge in horticulture, landscape design and construction, pest management, irrigation, and erosion control. In addition, managers usually have supervisory responsi bilities. Groundskeepers who care for athletic fields keep natural and artificial turf fields in top condition and mark out boundaries and paint turf with team logos and names before events. Groundskeepers must make sure the underlying soil on natural turf fields has the proper composition to allow proper drainage and support the appro priate grasses used on the field. They regularly mow, water, fertilize, and aerate the fields. In addition, groundskeepers apply chemicals and fungicides to control weeds, kill pests, and prevent diseases. Groundskeepers also vacuum and disinfect synthetic turf after use in order to prevent growth of harmful bacteria. They periodically remove the turf and replace the cushioning pad. Workers who maintain golf courses are called greenskeepers. They do many of the same things other groundskeepers do. In addi tion, greenskeepers periodically relocate the holes on putting greens to eliminate uneven wear of the turf and add interest and challenge to the game. Greenskeepers also keep canopies, benches, ball washers, and tee markers repaired and freshly painted. Cemetery workers prepare graves and maintain cemetery grounds. They dig graves to specified depth, generally using a back-hoe. They may place concrete slabs on the bottom and around the sides of the grave to line it for greater support. When readying a site for the burial ceremony, they position the casket-lowering device over the grave, cover the immediate area with an artificial grass carpet, erect a canopy, and arrange folding chairs to accommodate mourners. They regularly mow grass, apply fertilizers and other chemicals, prune shrubs and trees, plant flowers, and remove debris from graves. 340 Occuptional Outlook Handbook a contract basis. One of every 3 worked part time, most likely stu dents working their way through school. Others working part time were older workers who might have been cutting back their hours as they approached retirement. tSPT - ■ ■: . 'i ' - - - Groundskeeping duties are increasingly contracted out to grounds management firms. They also must periodically build the ground up around new gravesites to compensate for settling. Groundskeepers in parks and recreation facilities care for lawns, trees, and shrubs, maintain athletic fields and playgrounds, clean buildings, and keep parking lots, picnic areas, and other public spaces free of litter. They may also remove snow and ice from roads and walkways, erect and dismantle snow fences, and maintain, swimming pools. These workers inspect buildings and equipment, make needed repairs, and keep everything freshly painted. Gardeners and groundskeepers use handtools such as shovels, rakes, pruning saws, saws, hedge and brush trimmers, and axes, as well as power lawnmowers, chain saws, snow blowers, and electric clippers. Some use equipment such as tractors and twin-axle vehi cles. Park, school, cemetery, and golf course groundskeepers may use sod cutters to harvest sod that will be replanted elsewhere. Athletic turf groundskeepers use vacuums and other devices to remove water from athletic fields. In addition, some workers in large operations use spraying and dusting equipment. In winter months, especially in the North, gardeners and ground skeepers may work removing snow from driveways, roadways, and parking lots. Working Conditions Many of the jobs for gardeners and groundskeepers are seasonal, mainly in the spring and summer, when cleanup, planting, and mowing and trimming take place. Gardeners and groundskeepers work outdoors in all kinds of weather. They frequently are under pressure to get the job completed, especially when they are preparing for scheduled events, such as athletic competitions or burials. They work with pesticides, fertilizers, and other chemicals, and must exercise safety precautions to prevent exposure. They also work with dangerous equipment and tools such as power lawnmow ers, chain saws, and power clippers. Employment Gardeners and groundskeepers held about 707,000 jobs in 1994. About 40 percent worked for lawn and garden service companies. More than 10 percent each worked for firms operating and building real estate and amusement and recreation facilities such as golf courses and race tracks. Others were employed by government, including parks departments, schools, hospitals, cemeteries, hotels, retail nurseries, and garden stores. Almost 1 of every 4 gardeners and groundskeepers was selfemployed, providing landscape maintenance directly to customers on https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There usually are no minimum educational requirements for entry level jobs as gardeners and groundskeepers. Four in 10 workers do not have a high school diploma, although a high school diploma is necessary for some jobs. Experience can be obtained through home gardening or working in a nursery, a lawn care business, or a tree service. High school students may gain experience in the Future Farmers of America and other associations. There are no national standards for gardeners and groundskeepers, but most States require certification for workers who apply pesti cides. Certification requirements vary, but usually include passing a test on the safe use and disposal of insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides. Employers prefer applicants with a good driving record and some experience driving a truck. Workers who deal directly with custom ers must get along well with people. Employers also look for re sponsible, self-motivated individuals, since many gardeners and groundskeepers work with little supervision. Courses in agronomy, horticulture, and botany are helpful for advancement. There are many 2- and 4-year programs in landscape management, turfgrass management, interiorscape, and ornamental horticulture. Courses include equipment use and care, landscape design, plant biology, and irrigation. There are cooperative educa tion programs in which students work alternate semesters or quarters for a lawn care or landscape contractor. Generally, a gardener or groundskeeper can advance to supervisor after several years of progressively responsible experience, including the demonstrated ability to deal effectively with both coworkers and customers. Supervisors can advance to grounds manager or superin tendent for a golf course or other athletic facility, a cemetery, a campus, a school system, or manager of a lawn maintenance firm. Many gardeners and groundskeepers become landscape contractors. The Professional Grounds Management Society offers certifica tion to those managers who have a combination of 8 years of experi ence and formal education beyond high school. Job Outlook Those wishing to become gardeners and groundskeepers should find excellent job opportunities in the future. Because of high turnover in this occupation, a large number of job openings are expected to result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. This occupation attracts many people who are trying to make money but who are not committed to the occupation. Some take gardening or groundskeeping jobs to earn money for school, others only take these jobs until a better paying job is found. Because wages for beginners are low and the work is physically demanding, many employers have difficulty attracting enough work ers to fill all openings. Employment of gardeners and groundskeepers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 in response to increasing demand for gardening and landscap ing services. Expected growth in the construction of commercial and industrial buildings, shopping malls, homes, highways, and parks and recreational facilities should stimulate demand for these workers. Developers are increasingly using landscaping services, both interior and exterior, to attract prospective buyers and tenants. In addition, owners of many existing buildings and facilities are upgrading their landscaping. Also, a growing number of homeowners are using lawn maintenance and landscaping services to enhance the beauty and value of their property and to conserve their leisure time. Growth in the number of parks, athletic fields, golf courses, cemeteries, and Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, and Related Occupations 341 similar facilities also can be expected to add to the demand for these workers. Employment opportunities in landscaping are tied to local eco nomic conditions. During economic downturns, many individuals turn to landscaping as a second source of income or a new career. At the same time, demand for landscaping services often slows as corporations, governments, and homeowners reduce spending on all nonessential expenditures, increasing the level of competition for available jobs. Earnings Median weekly earnings of gardeners and groundskeepers were about $287 in 1994; the middle 50 percent earned between $222 and $379. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $184, and the top 10 percent earned more than $508 a week. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations Gardeners and groundskeepers perform most of their work outdoors. Others whose jobs may be performed outdoors or are otherwise related are botanist, construction workers, landscape architects, nursery workers, farmers, horticultural workers, tree surgeon helpers, and forest conservation workers. Sources of Additional Information For career information, contact: •■Associated Landscape Contractors of America, Inc., 12200 Sunrise Valley Dr., Suite 150, Reston, VA 22091. •"Professional Lawn Care Association of America, 1000 Johnson Ferry Rd. NE., C-135, Marietta, GA 30068. For career and certification information, contact: •■Professional Grounds Management Society, 120 Cockeysville Rd., Suite 104, Hunt Valley, MD 21031. Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers Aircraft Mechanics, Including Engine Specialists (D.O.T. 621.261-022, 621.281 except -030, .684-014; 806.384-038; 807.261, .381-014, and .684-018) Nature of the Work To keep aircraft in peak operating condition, aircraft mechanics and engine specialists perform scheduled maintenance, make repairs, and complete inspections required by the Federal Aviation Administra tion (FAA). Many aircraft mechanics specialize in preventive maintenance. Following a schedule that is based on the number of hours the air craft has flown, calendar days, cycles of operation, or a combination of these factors, mechanics inspect the engines, landing gear, instru ments, pressurized sections, accessories—brakes, valves, pumps, and air-conditioning systems, for example—and other parts of the aircraft and do the necessary maintenance. They may examine an engine through specially designed openings while working from ladders or scaffolds, or use hoists or lifts to remove the entire engine from the craft. After taking the engine apart, mechanics may use precision instruments to measure parts for wear, and use x-ray and magnetic inspection equipment to check for invisible cracks. Worn or defec tive parts are repaired or replaced. They also may repair sheet-metal or composite surfaces, measure the tension of control cables, or check for corrosion, distortion, and cracks in the fuselage, wings, and tail. After completing all repairs, mechanics must test the equipment to ensure that it works properly. Mechanics specializing in repair work rely on the pilot's descrip tion of a problem to find and fix faulty equipment. For example, during a preflight check, a pilot may discover that the aircraft's fuel gauge does not work. To solve the problem, mechanics may check the electrical connections, replace the gauge, or use electrical test equipment to make sure no wires are broken or shorted out. They work as fast as safety permits so that the aircraft can be put back into service quickly. ' M Aircraft mechanics inspect and service aircraft on a regularly scheduled basis. 342 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Mechanics may work on one or many different types of aircraft, such as jets, propeller-driven airplanes, and helicopters; or, for efficiency, they may specialize in one section of a particular type of aircraft, such as the engine, hydraulic, or electrical system. As a result of technological advances, mechanics spend an increasing amount of time repairing electronic systems such as computerized controls. They also may be required to analyze and develop solu tions to complex electronic problems. In small, independent repair shops, mechanics usually inspect and repair many different types of aircraft. Working Conditions Mechanics usually work in hangars or in other indoor areas, although they may work outdoors—sometimes in unpleasant weather—when the hangars are full or when repairs must be made quickly. This occurs most often to airline mechanics who work at airports because, to save time, minor repairs and preflight checks often are made at the terminal. Mechanics often work under time pressure to maintain flight schedules or, in general aviation, to keep from inconveniencing customers. At the same time, mechanics have a tremendous respon sibility to maintain safety standards and this can cause the job to be stressful. Frequently, mechanics must lift or pull objects weighing as much as 70 pounds. They often stand, lie, or kneel in awkward positions and occasionally must work in precarious positions on scaffolds or ladders. Noise and vibration are common when testing engines. Aircraft mechanics generally work 40 hours a week on 8-hour shifts around the clock. Overtime work is frequent. Employment Aircraft mechanics held about 119,000 jobs in 1994. Over threefifths of all salaried mechanics worked for airlines, nearly one-fifth for aircraft assembly firms, and nearly one-sixth for the Federal Government. Most of the rest were general aviation mechanics, the majority of whom worked for independent repair shops or companies that operate their own planes to transport executives and cargo. Very few mechanics were self-employed. Most airline mechanics work at major airports near large cities. Civilian mechanics employed by the Armed Forces work at military installations. A large proportion of mechanics who work for aircraft assembly firms are located in California or Washington. Others work for the FAA, many at its facility in Oklahoma City. Mechanics for independent repair shops work at airports in every part of the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The majority of mechanics who work on civilian aircraft are certifi cated by the FAA as "airframe mechanic," "powerplant mechanic," or "repairer." Airframe mechanics are authorized to work on any part of the aircraft except the instruments, powerplants, and propellers. Powerplant mechanics are authorized to work on engines and to do limited work on propellers. Technicians called repairers—who are employed by FAA-certificated repair stations and air carriers—work on instruments and on propellers. Combination airframe-andpowerplant mechanics—called A & P mechanics—can work on any part of the plane, and those with an inspector's authorization can certify inspection work completed by other mechanics. Uncertifi cated mechanics are supervised by those with certificates. The FAA requires at least 18 months of work experience for an airframe, powerplant, or repairer's certificate. For a combined A & P Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers 343 certificate, at least 30 months of experience working with both engines and airframes are required. To obtain an inspector's authori zation, a mechanic must have held an A & P certificate for at least 3 years. Applicants for all certificates also must pass written and oral tests and demonstrate that they can do the work authorized by the certificate. Most airlines require that mechanics have a high school diploma and an A & P certificate. Although a few people become mechanics through on-the-job training, most learn their job in one of about 192 trade schools certi fied by the FAA. Student enrollment in these schools varies greatly; some have as few as 50 students while at least one school has about 800 students. FAA standards established by law require that certifi cated mechanic schools offer students a minimum of 1,900 actual class hours. Courses in these trade schools generally last from 2 years to 30 months and provide training with the tools and equipment used on the job. For an FAA certificate, attendance at such schools may substitute for work experience. Flowever, these schools do not guarantee jobs or FAA certificates. Aircraft trade schools are placing more emphasis on newer technologies such as turbine engines, aviation electronics, and composite materials—including graphite, fiberglass, and boron—all of which are increasingly being used in the construction of new aircraft. Less emphasis is being placed on older technologies such as woodworking and welding. Employers prefer mechanics who can perform a wide variety of tasks. Mechanics learn many different skills in their training that can be applied to other jobs. Some aircraft mechanics in the Armed Forces acquire enough general experience to satisfy the work experience requirements for the FAA certificate. With additional study, they may pass the certi fying exam. Generally, however, jobs in the military services are too specialized to provide the broad experience required by the FAA. Most mechanics have to complete the entire training program at a trade school, although a few receive some credit for the material they learned in the service. In any case, military experience is a great advantage when seeking employment; employers consider trade school graduates who have this experience to be the most desirable applicants. Courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, electronics, com puter science, and mechanical drawing are helpful because many of their principles are involved in the operation of an aircraft and knowledge of the principles often is necessary to make repairs. Courses that develop writing skills are also important because me chanics are often required to submit reports. As new and more complex aircraft are designed, more employers are requiring mechanics to take on-going training to update their skills. Recent technological advances in aircraft maintenance ne cessitate a strong background in electronics—both for acquiring and retaining jobs in this field. New FAA certification standards will make ongoing training mandatory. Every 24 months, mechanics will be required to take at least 16 hours of training to keep their certifi cate. Many mechanics take courses offered by manufacturers or employers, usually through outside contractors. Aircraft mechanics must do careful and thorough work that requires a high degree of mechanical aptitude. Employers seek applicants who are self-motivated, hard-working, enthusiastic, and able to diagnose and solve complex mechanical problems. Agility is important for the reaching and climbing necessary for the job. Because they may work on the top of wings and fuselages on large jet planes, aircraft mechanics must not be afraid of heights. As aircraft mechanics gain experience, they have the opportunity for advancement. Opportunities are best for those who have an aircraft inspector's authorization. A mechanic may advance to lead mechanic (or crew chief), inspector, lead inspector, and shop super visor. In the airlines, where promotion is often determined by ex amination, supervisors may advance to executive positions. Those with broad experience in maintenance and overhaul have become inspectors with the FAA. With additional business and management training, some open their own aircraft maintenance facilities. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Job prospects for aircraft mechanics are expected to vary among types of employers. Opportunities are likely to be the best at the smaller commuter and regional airlines, FAA repair stations, and in general aviation. Because wages in these companies tend to be relatively low, there are fewer applicants for these jobs than for jobs with the major airlines. Also, some jobs will become available as experienced mechanics leave for higher paying jobs with airlines or transfer to another occupation. Mechanics will face more competi tion for airline jobs because the high wages and travel benefits attract more qualified applicants than there are openings. Prospects will be best for applicants with significant experience. Mechanics who keep abreast of technological advances in electronics, composite materials, and other areas will be in greatest demand. The number of job openings for aircraft mechanics in the Federal Government should decline as the size of the Armed Forces is reduced. Employment of •urcraft mechanics is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 and provide some jobs. A growing population and rising incomes are expected to stimulate the demand for airline transportation, and the number of aircraft is expected to grow. However, employment growth will be restricted somewhat by increases in productivity resulting from greater use of automated inventory control and modu lar systems that speed repairs and parts replacement. Most job openings for aircraft mechanics through the year 2005 will stem from replacement needs. Each year, as mechanics transfer to other occupations or retire, several thousand job openings will arise. Aircraft mechanics have a comparatively strong attachment to the occupation, reflecting their significant investment in training. However, because aircraft mechanics' skills are transferable to other occupations, some mechanics leave for work in a related field. Declines in air travel during recessions force airlines to curtail the number of flights, which results in less aircraft maintenance and, consequently, layoffs for aircraft mechanics. Earnings In 1994, the median annual salary of aircraft mechanics was about $36,858. The middle 50 percent earned between $27,976 and $47,112. The top 10 percent of all aircraft mechanics earned over $53,872 a year and the bottom 10 percent earned less than $20,072. Mechanics who worked on jets generally earned more than those working on other aircraft. Airline mechanics and their immediate families receive reduced fare transportation on their own and most other airlines. Earnings of airline mechanics generally are higher than mechan ics working for other employers. Average hourly pay for beginning aircraft mechanics ranged from $8.70 at the smaller turbo-prop airlines to $13.56 at the major airlines in 1994, according to the Future Aviation Professionals of America. Earnings of experienced mechanics ranged from $14.48 to $21.12 an hour. Almost one-half of all aircraft mechanics, including those em ployed by some major airlines, are covered by union agreements. The principal unions are the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers and the Transport Workers Union of Amer ica. Some mechanics are represented by the International Brother hood of Teamsters. Related Occupations Workers in some other occupations that involve similar mechanical and electrical work are electricians, elevator repairers, and telephone maintenance mechanics. Sources of Additional Information Information about jobs in a particular airline may be obtained by writing to the personnel manager of the company. For addresses of airline companies and information about job opportunities and sala ries, contact: 344 Occuptional Outlook Handbook •"FAPA, 4959 Massachusetts Blvd., Atlanta, GA 30337. (This organization may be called toll free at 1-800-JET-JOBS, extension 190.) For general information about aircraft mechanics, write to: •'Professional Aviation Maintenance Association, 500 Northwest Plaza, Suite 1016, St. Ann, MO 63074-2209. ' Hr For information on jobs in a particular area, contact employers at local airports or local offices of the State employment service. Automotive Body Repairers (D.O.T. 620.364, .684-034; 807.267; .281; .361-010; .381-010, -018, -022, and -030; .484; .684-010; and 865.684-010) Nature of the Work Thousands of motor vehicles are damaged in traffic accidents every day. Although some are sold for salvage or scrapped, most can be repaired to look and drive like new. Automotive body repairers straighten bent bodies, remove dents, and replace crumpled parts that are beyond repair. Usually, they can repair all types of vehicles, but most body repairers work on cars and small trucks. A few work on large trucks, buses, or tractor-trailers. When a damaged vehicle is brought into the shop, body repairers generally receive instructions from their supervisors, who have determined which parts are to be restored or replaced and how much time the job should take. Automotive body repairers use special machines to restore dam aged metal frames and body sections to their original shape and location. They chain or clamp the frames and sections to alignment machines that usually use hydraulic pressure to align the damaged metal. "Unibody" designs, which are built without frames, must be returned to precise alignment, so repairers use bench systems to guide them and measure how much each section is out of alignment. Body repairers remove badly damaged sections of body panels with a pneumatic metal-cutting gun or acetylene torch and weld in new sections to replace them. Repairers pull out less serious dents with a hydraulic jack or hand prying bar, or knock them out with handtools or pneumatic hammers. They smooth out small dents and creases in the metal by holding a small anvil against one side of the damaged area while hammering the opposite side. They remove very small pits and dimples with pick hammers and punches. Body repairers also repair or replace the plastic body parts used increasingly on newer model vehicles. They remove the damaged panels and determine the type of plastic from which they are made. With most types, they can apply heat from a hot-air welding gun or by immersion in hot water, and press the softened panel back into its original shape by hand. They replace plastic parts which are badly damaged or more difficult to repair. Body repairers use plastic or solder to fill small dents which cannot be worked out of the plastic or metal panel. On metal panels, they then file or grind the hardened filler to the original shape and sand it before painting. In many shops, automotive painters do the painting. (These workers are discussed in the Handbook statement on painting and coating machine operators.) In smaller shops, work ers often do both body repairing and painting. A few body repairers specialize in repairing fiberglass car bodies. In large shops, body repairers may specialize in one type of repair, such as frame straightening or door and fender repairing. Some body repairers also specialize in installing glass in automobiles and other vehicles. Glass installers remove broken, cracked, or pitted windshields and window glass. Curved windows sometimes must be cut from a sheet of safety glass. Glass installers apply a moisture proofing compound along the edges of the glass, place it in the vehicle, and install rubber strips around the sides of the windshield or window to make it secure and weatherproof. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Automotive body repairers straighten bent bodies and remove dents. Body repair work has variety and challenge—each damaged vehicle presents a different problem. Repairers must develop appro priate methods for each job, using their broad knowledge of automo tive construction and repair techniques. Body repairers usually work alone with only general directions from supervisors. In some shops, they may be assisted by helpers or apprentices. Working Conditions The majority of automotive body repairers work a standard 40 hour week, but those who are self employed may work 60 or more hours a week. They work indoors in body shops which are noisy because of the banging of hammers against metal and the whir of power tools. Most shops are well ventilated to partially disperse dust and paint fumes. Body repairers often work in awkward or cramped positions, and much of their work is strenuous and dirty. Hazards include cuts from sharp metal edges, bums from torches and heated metal, inju ries from power tools, and fumes from paint. Employment Automotive body repairers held about 209,000 jobs in 1994. Most worked for shops that specialized in body repairs and painting, and for automobile and truck dealers. Others worked for organizations that maintain their own motor vehicles, such as trucking companies and automobile rental companies. A few worked for motor vehicle manufacturers. About 1 automotive body repairer out of 5 was selfemployed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer to hire persons who have completed formal training programs in automotive body repair, but these programs are able to supply only a portion of employers' needs. Formal training is highly desirable because advances in technology in recent years have greatly changed the structure, the components, and even the materials used in automobiles. As a result, many new repair techniques have been created and many new skills are required. For example, the bodies of newer automobiles are increasingly made of a combination of materials—the traditional steel, plus aluminum and a growing variety of metal alloys and plastics—each requiring the use of some what different techniques to reshape and smooth out dents and small pits. Automotive body repair training programs are offered by high schools, vocational schools, private trade schools, and community colleges. Formal training in automotive body repair can enhance chances for employment and speed promotion to a journeyman position. Employers also hire many persons without formal automotive body repair training. They learn the trade as helpers, picking up Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers 345 skills on the job from experienced body repairers. For helper jobs most employers prefer to hire high school graduates who know how to use handtools. Good reading and basic mathematics and computer skills are essential to becoming a fully skilled automotive body repairer. Restoring unibody automobiles to their original form requires such precision that body repairers often must follow instruc tions and diagrams in technical manuals and make very precise measurements of the position of one body section relative to another. Helpers begin by assisting body repairers in tasks such as remov ing damaged parts and installing repaired parts. They learn to remove small dents and to make other minor repairs. They then progress to more difficult tasks such as straightening body parts and returning them to their correct alignment. Generally, to become skilled in all aspects of body repair requires 3 to 4 years of on-the-job training. Certification by the National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE), which is voluntary, is recognized as a standard of achievement for automotive body repairers. To be certified, a body repairer must pass a written examination and must have at least 2 years of experience in the trade. Completion of a high school, voca tional school, trade school, or community college program in auto motive body repair may be substituted for 1 year of work experience. Automotive body repairers must retake the examination at least every 5 years to retain certification. Automotive body repairers must buy their own handtools, but employers usually furnish power tools. Trainees generally accumu late tools as they gain experience, and many workers have thousands of dollars invested in tools. Continuing education throughout a career in automotive body repair is becoming increasingly important. Automotive parts, body materials, and electronics continue to change and become more complex and technologically advanced. Gaining new skills, reading technical manuals, and attending seminars and classes is important for keeping up with these technological advances. An experienced automotive body repairer with supervisory ability may advance to shop supervisor. Some workers open their own body repair shops. Others become automobile damage appraisers for insurance companies. Job Outlook Employment of automotive body repairers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Opportunities should be best for persons with formal training in automotive body repair and mechanics. Requirements for body repairers will increase because, as the number of motor vehicles in operation grows with the Nation's population, the number damaged in accidents will increase as well. New automobile designs increasingly have body parts made of steel alloys, aluminum, and plastics—materials that are more difficult to work with than the traditional steel body parts. Also, new, lighter weight automotive designs are prone to greater collision damage than older, heavier designs and, consequently, are more time consuming to repair. Nevertheless, the need to replace experienced repairers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or stop working for other reasons will still account for the majority of job openings. The automotive repair business is not very sensitive to changes in economic conditions, and experienced body repairers are rarely laid off. However, most employers hire fewer new workers during an economic slowdown. Although major body damage must be repaired if a vehicle is to be restored to safe operating condition, repair of minor dents and crumpled fenders can often be deferred. Earnings Body repairers earned median weekly earnings of $456 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $321 and $624 a week. The lowest-paid 10 percent earned less than $249 a week, while the highest-paid 10 percent earned over $790 a week. Helpers and trainees usually earn from 30 to 60 percent of the earnings of skilled workers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The majority of body repairers employed by automotive dealers and repair shops are paid on an incentive basis. Under this method, body repairers are paid a predetermined amount for various tasks, and earnings depend on the amount of work assigned to the repairer and how fast it is completed. Employers frequently guarantee work ers a minimum weekly salary. Helpers and trainees usually receive an hourly rate until they are skilled enough to be paid on an incentive basis. Body repairers who work for trucking companies, buslines, and other organizations that maintain their own vehicles usually receive an hourly wage. Many automotive body repairers are members of unions, includ ing the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Sheet Metal Workers' International Association; and the International Brother hood of Teamsters. Most body repairers who are union members work for large automobile dealers, trucking companies, and buslines. Related Occupations Repairing damaged motor vehicles often involves working on their mechanical components as well as their bodies. Automotive body repairers often work closely with several related occupations includ ing automotive and diesel mechanics, automotive repair service estimators, painters, and body customizers. Sources of Additional Information More details about work opportunities may be obtained from auto motive body repair shops and motor vehicle dealers; locals of the unions previously mentioned; or local offices of the State employ ment service. The State employment service also is a source of information about training programs. For general information about automotive body repairer careers, write to: •"Automotive Service Association, Inc., 1901 Airport Freeway, Bedford, TX 76021-5732. •"Automotive Service Industry Association, 25 Northwest Point, Elk Grove Village. IL 60007-1035. For information on how to become a certified automotive body repairer, write to: •"ASE, 13505 Dulles Technology Dr., Herndon, VA 22071-3415, For a directory of certified automotive body repairer programs, contact: •"National Automotive Technician Education Foundation, 13505 Dulles Technology Dr., Herndon, VA 22071. For a directory of accredited private trade and technical schools that offer training programs in automotive body repair, write to: •"Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201. For a list of public automotive mechanic training programs, contact: •"Vocational Industrial Clubs of America, P.O. Box 3000, 1401 James Monroe Highway, Leesburg, VA 22075. Automotive Mechanics (D.O.T. 620.261-010, -012, -030, and -034; .281-010, -026, -034, -038, -062, -066, and -070; .381-010 and -022; .682: .684-018 and -022; 706.381-046; 721.281-010: 806.361-026 and .684-038; 807.664 and .684-022; 825.381-014) Nature of the Work Automotive mechanics, often called automotive service technicians, repair and service automobiles and occasionally light trucks, such as vans and pickups, with gasoline engines. (Mechanics who work on diesel-powered trucks, buses, and equipment are discussed in the Handbook statement on diesel mechanics. Motorcycle mechanics— 346 Occuptional Outlook Handbook who repair and service motorcycles, motorscooters, mopeds, and occasionally small all-terrain vehicles—are discussed in the Hand book statement on motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics.) Anyone whose car or light truck has broken down knows the importance of the mechanic's job. The ability to diagnose the source of the problem quickly and accurately, one of the mechanic's most valuable skills, requires good reasoning ability and a thorough knowledge of automobiles. In fact, many mechanics consider diag nosing "hard to find" troubles one of their most challenging and satisfying duties. When mechanical or electrical troubles occur, mechanics first get a description of the symptoms from the owner or, if they work in a dealership or large shop, the repair service estimator who wrote the repair order. The mechanic may have to test drive the vehicle or use a variety of testing equipment, such as engine analyzers, spark plug testers, or compression gauges to locate the problem. Once the cause of the problem is found, mechanics make adjustments or repairs. If a part is damaged or worn beyond repair, or cannot be fixed at a rea sonable cost, it is replaced, usually after consultation with the vehicle owner. During routine service, mechanics inspect, lubricate, and adjust engines and other components, repairing or replacing parts before they cause breakdowns. They usually follow a checklist to be sure they examine all important parts, such as belts, hoses, steering sys tems, spark plugs, brake and fuel systems, wheel bearings, and other potentially troublesome items. Mechanics use a variety of tools in their work. They use power tools such as pneumatic wrenches to remove bolts quickly; machine tools such as lathes and grinding machines to rebuild brakes and other parts; welding and flame-cutting equipment to remove and repair exhaust systems and other parts; jacks and hoists to lift cars and engines; and a growing variety of electronic service equipment, such as infrared engine analyzers and computerized diagnostic devices. They also use many common handtools such as screwdriv ers, pliers, and wrenches to work on small parts and get at hard-toreach places. Automotive mechanics in larger shops have increasingly become specialized. For example, automatic transmission mechanics work on gear trains, couplings, hydraulic pumps, and other parts of auto matic transmissions. Because these are complex mechanisms and include electronic parts, their repair requires considerable experience and training, including a knowledge of hydraulics. Tune-up mechan ics adjust the ignition timing and valves, and adjust or replace spark plugs and other parts to ensure efficient engine performance. They The majority of automotive mechanics work for retail and wholesale automotive dealers, independent automotive repair shops, and gasoline service stations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis often use electronic test equipment to help them adjust and locate malfunctions in fuel, ignition, and emissions control systems. Automotive air-conditioning mechanics install and repair airconditioners and service components such as compressors and con densers. Front-end mechanics align and balance wheels and repair steering mechanisms and suspension systems. They frequently use special alignment equipment and wheel-balancing machines. Brake repairers adjust brakes, replace brake linings and pads, repair hy draulic cylinders, turn discs and drums, and make other repairs on brake systems. Some mechanics specialize in both brake and frontend work. Automotive-radiator mechanics clean radiators with caustic solutions, locate and solder leaks, and install new radiator cores or complete replacement radiators. They also may repair heaters and air-conditioners, and solder leaks in gasoline tanks. Working Conditions Most automotive mechanics work a standard 40-hour week, but some self-employed mechanics work longer hours. Generally, mechanics work indoors. Most repair shops are well ventilated and lighted, but some are drafty and noisy. Mechanics frequently work with dirty and greasy parts, and in awkward positions. They often must lift heavy parts and tools. Minor cuts, bums, and bruises are common, but serious accidents are avoided when the shop is kept clean and orderly and safety practices are observed. Employment Automotive mechanics held about 736,000 jobs in 1994. The major ity worked for retail and wholesale automotive dealers, independent automotive repair shops, and gasoline service stations. Others were employed at automotive service facilities at department, automotive, and home supply stores, or maintained the automobile fleets of taxicab and automobile leasing companies, Federal, State, and local governments, and other organizations. Motor vehicle manufacturers employed some mechanics to test, adjust, and repair cars at the end of assembly lines. Over 20 percent of automotive mechanics were self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Automotive technology is rapidly increasing in sophistication, and most training authorities strongly recommend that persons seeking trainee automotive mechanic jobs complete a formal training pro gram after graduating from high school. However, some automotive mechanics still learn the trade solely by assisting and working with experienced mechanics. Automotive mechanic training programs are offered in high schools, community colleges, and public and private vocational and technical schools, but postsecondary programs generally provide more thorough career preparation than high school programs. High school programs, while an asset, vary greatly in quality. Some offer only an introduction to automotive technology and service for the future consumer or hobbyist, while others aim to equip graduates with enough skills to get a job as a mechanic's helper or trainee mechanic after graduation. Postsecondary automotive mechanic training programs vary greatly in format, but generally provide intensive career preparation through a combination of classroom instruction and hands-on prac tice. Some trade and technical school programs provide concentrated training for 6 months to a year, depending on how many hours the student must attend each week. Community college programs nor mally spread the training out over 2 years, supplement the automo tive training with instruction in English, basic mathematics, computers, and other subjects, and award an associate degree. The various automobile manufacturers and their participating dealers sponsor 2-year associate degree programs at more than 100 community colleges across the Nation. The manufacturers provide service equipment and late model cars on which students practice Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers 347 new skills, and insure that the programs teach the latest automotive technology. Curriculums are updated frequently to reflect changing technology and equipment. Students in these programs typically spend alternate 6- to 12-week periods attending classes full time and working full time in the service departments of sponsoring dealers. Because students spend time gaining valuable work experience, these programs may take as long as 4 years to complete, instead of the normal 2 years required to earn an associate degree in automotive service technology. However, they offer students the opportunity to earn money while going to school and promise a job upon gradua tion. Also, some sponsoring dealers provide students with financial assistance for tuition or the purchase of tools. The National Automotive Technicians Education Foundation (NATEF), an affiliate of the National Institute for Automotive Serv ice Excellence (ASE), certifies automobile mechanic training pro grams offered by high schools and postsecondary trade schools, technical institutes, and community colleges. While NATEF certifi cation is voluntary, and many institutions have not sought it, certifi cation does signify that the program meets uniform standards for instructional facilities, equipment, staff credentials, and curriculum. In early 1995, over 850 high school and postsecondary automotive mechanic training programs had been certified by NATEF. Knowledge of electronics is increasingly desirable for automotive mechanics because electronics is being used in a growing variety of automotive components. Engine controls and dashboard instruments were among the first components to use electronics, but now elec tronics are being used in brakes, transmissions, steering systems, and a variety of other components. In the past, problems involving electrical systems or electronics were usually handled by a specialist, but electronics are becoming so commonplace that most automotive mechanics must be familiar with at least the basic prin ciples of electronics in order to recognize when an electronic mal function may be responsible for a problem. In addition, automotive mechanics frequently must be able to test and replace electronic components. For trainee mechanic jobs, employers look for people with good reading and basic mathematics and computer skills who can study technical manuals to keep abreast of new technology. People who have a desire to learn new service and repair procedures and specifi cations are excellent candidates for trainee mechanic jobs. Trainees also must possess mechanical aptitude and knowledge of how auto mobiles work. Most employers regard the successful completion of a vocational training program in automotive mechanics at a postsecon dary institution as the best preparation for trainee positions. Experi ence working on motor vehicles in the Armed Forces or as a hobby is also valuable. Completion of high school is required by a growing number of employers. Courses in automotive repair, electronics, physics, chemistry, English, computers, and mathematics can provide a good basic educational background for a career as an automotive mechanic. Beginners usually start as trainee mechanics, helpers, lubrication workers, or gasoline service station attendants and gradually acquire and practice their skills by working with experienced mechanics. Although a beginner can perform many routine service tasks and make simple repairs after a few months' experience, it usually takes 1 to 2 years of experience to acquire adequate proficiency to become a journey service mechanic and quickly perform the more difficult types of routine service and repairs. However, graduates of the better postsecondary mechanic training programs are often able to earn promotion to the journey level after only a few months on the job. An additional 1 to 2 years are usually required to become thoroughly experienced and familiar with all types of repairs. Difficult special ties, such as transmission repair, require another year or two of training and experience. In contrast, automotive radiator mechanics and brake specialists, who do not need an all-round knowledge of automotive repair, may learn their jobs in considerably less time. In the past, many persons have become automotive mechanics through 3- or 4-year formal apprenticeship programs. However, as https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis formal automotive training programs have increased in popularity, the number of employers willing to make such a long-term appren ticeship commitment has greatly declined. Mechanics usually buy their handtools, and beginners are ex pected to accumulate tools as they gain experience. Many experi enced mechanics have thousands of dollars invested in tools. Employers furnish power tools, engine analyzers, and other test equipment. Employers increasingly send experienced automotive mechanics to manufacturer training centers to leam to repair new models or to receive special training in the repair of components such as electronic fuel injection or air-conditioners. Motor vehicle dealers may also send promising beginners to manufacturer sponsored mechanic training programs. Factory representatives come to many shops to conduct short training sessions. Voluntary certification by ASE is widely recognized as a standard of achievement for automotive mechanics. Mechanics are certified in one or more of eight different service areas, such as electrical systems, engine repair, brake systems, suspension and steering, and heating and air conditioning. Master automotive mechanics are certified in all eight areas. For certification in each area, mechanics must have at least 2 years of experience and pass a written examina tion; completion of an automotive mechanic program in high school, vocational or trade school, or community or junior college may be substituted for 1 year of experience. Certified mechanics must retake the examination at least every 5 years. Experienced mechanics who have leadership ability may advance to shop supervisor or service manager. Mechanics who work well with customers may become automotive repair service estimators. Some with sufficient funds open independent repair shops. Job Outlook Job opportunities in this occupation are expected to be good for persons who complete automotive training programs in high school, vocational and technical schools, or community colleges. Persons whose training includes basic electronics skills should have the best opportunities. Persons without formal mechanic training are likely to face competition for entry level jobs. Mechanic careers are attractive to many because extensive training is not required and they afford the opportunity for good pay and the satisfaction of skilled work with one's hands. Employment of automotive mechanics is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Growth in mechanic employment in automobile dealerships, independent automotive repair shops, specialty car care chains, and other establishments will be offset somewhat by declining employ ment in gasoline service stations, because fewer stations offer repair services. Nevertheless, the number of mechanics is expected to increase because expansion of the driving age population will increase the number of motor vehicles on the road. The growing complexity of automotive technology, such as the use of electronic and emissions control equipment, increasingly necessitates that cars be serviced by skilled workers, contributing to growth in demand for highly trained mechanics. In addition, if the average age of automobiles in opera tion continues to be high, a significant proportion of consumers' vehicle operating expenditures will be spent on service and repairs, and less on purchasing vehicles. However, improvements in the reliability of automobiles, together with less frequent requirements for routine service, are expected to result in continued declines in the service and repair needs of cars. More job openings are expected for automotive mechanics than for most other occupations because replacement needs, the main source of job openings, will be substantial, due in large part to the size of the occupation. Replacements will be needed as experienced workers transfer to other occupations or retire or stop working for other reasons. 348 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Most persons who enter the occupation may expect steady work because changes in economic conditions have little effect on the automotive repair business. During a downturn, however, some employers may be more reluctant to hire inexperienced workers. Earnings Median weekly earnings of automotive mechanics who were wage and salary workers were $439 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $308 and $624 a week. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $228 a week, and the top 10 percent earned more than $792 a week. Many experienced mechanics employed by automotive dealers and independent repair shops receive a commission related to the labor cost charged to the customer. Under this method, weekly earnings depend on the amount of work completed by the mechanic. Employers frequently guarantee commissioned mechanics a mini mum weekly salary. Some mechanics are members of labor unions. The unions in clude the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Sheet Metal Workers' International Association; and the International Brother hood of Teamsters. Related Occupations Other workers who repair and service motor vehicles include diesel truck and bus mechanics, motorcycle mechanics, and automo tive body repairers, painters, customizers, and repair service estimators. Sources of Additional Information For more details about work opportunities, contact local automotive dealers and repair shops, or the local office of the State employment service. The State employment service also may have information about training programs. A list of certified automotive mechanic training programs may be obtained from; •"National Automotive Technicians Education Foundation, 13505 Dulles Technology Dr., Herndon, VA 22071-3415. Information on automobile manufacturer sponsored 2-year asso ciate degree programs in automotive service technology may be obtained from: •"ASSET Program, Training Department, Ford Parts and Service Division, Ford Motor Company, Room 109, 3000 Schaefer Rd., Dearborn, MI 48121. •"Chrysler Dealer Apprenticeship Program, National C.A.P. Coordinator, CIMS 423-21-06, 26001 Lawrence Ave., Center Line, MI 48015, or by calling 1-800-626-1523. •"General Motors Automotive Service Educational Program, National Col lege Coordinator, General Motors Service Technology Group, 30501 Van Dyke Ave., Warren, MI 48090, or by calling 1-800-828-6860. Diesel Mechanics (D.O.T. 620.281-046, -050, and -058; 625.281-010, -014, -022, and .361) Nature of the Work Diesel engines are more durable and heavier than gasoline engines. In addition, they are more fuel efficient than gasoline engines, in part because the higher compression ratios found in diesel engines help convert a higher percentage of the fuel into power. Because of their greater durability and efficiency, diesel engines are used to power most of the Nation's heavy vehicles and equipment. Diesel mechanics repair and maintain diesel engines that power transportation equipment, such as heavy trucks, buses, and locomo tives; construction equipment such as bulldozers, cranes, and road graders; and farm equipment such as tractors and combines. A small number work on diesel-powered automobiles. Diesel mechanics also service a variety of other diesel-powered equipment, such as electric generators and compressors and pumps used in oil well drilling and irrigation systems. Most diesel mechanics work on heavy trucks used in industries such as mining and construction to carry ore and building materials, and by private and commercial trucking lines for general freight hauling. Most light trucks are gasoline powered, and although some diesel mechanics may occasionally service gasoline engines, most work primarily on diesel engines. (For information on mechanics who work primarily on gasoline engines, see the Handbook statement on automotive mechanics.) Mechanics who work for organizations that maintain their own vehicles may spend much time doing preventive maintenance to assure safe operation, prevent wear and damage to parts, and reduce costly breakdowns. During a maintenance check on a truck, for example, they usually follow a regular checklist that includes the inspection of brake systems, steering mechanisms, wheel bearings, and other important parts. They usually repair or adjust a part that is not working properly. Parts that cannot be fixed are replaced. In many shops, mechanics do all kinds of repairs, working on a vehicle's electrical system one day and doing major engine repairs the next. In some large shops, mechanics specialize in one or two types of work. For example, one mechanic may specialize in major engine repair, another in transmission work, another in electrical systems, and yet another in suspension or brake systems. Diesel mechanics use a variety of tools in their work, including power tools such as pneumatic wrenches to remove bolts quickly; machine tools such as lathes and grinding machines to rebuild brakes Information on how to become a certified automotive mechanic is available from: •"ASE, 13505 Dulles Technology Dr., Herndon, VA 22071-3415. For general information about the work of automotive mechanics, write to: •"Automotive Service Association, Inc., 1901 Airport Freeway, Bedford, TX 76021-5732. •"Automotive Service Industry Association, 25 Northwest Point, Elk Grove Village, IL 60007-1035. For a directory of accredited private trade and technical schools that offer programs in automotive technician training, write to: • Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201. For a list of public automotive mechanic training programs, contact: •"Vocational Industrial Clubs of America, P.O. Box 3000, 1401 James Monroe Highway, Leesburg, VA 22075. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Diesel mechanics usually work indoors, but occasionally make repairs on the road. Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers 349 and other parts; welding and flame-cutting equipment to remove and repair exhaust systems and other parts; common handtools such as screwdrivers, pliers, and wrenches to work on small parts and get at hard-to-reach places; and jacks and hoists to lift and move large parts. Diesel mechanics also use a variety of testing equipment, including ohmmeters, ammeters, and voltmeters when working on electrical systems and electronic components; and tachometers, dynamometers, and engine analyzers to locate engine malfunctions. For heavy work, such as removing engines and transmissions, two mechanics may work as a team, or a mechanic may be assisted by an apprentice or helper. Mechanics generally get their assignments from shop supervisors or service managers, who may check the mechanics' work or assist in diagnosing problems. Working Conditions Diesel mechanics usually work indoors, although they may occa sionally make repairs on the road. They are subject to the usual shop hazards such as cuts and bruises. Mechanics handle greasy and dirty parts and may stand or lie in awkward or cramped positions to repair vehicles and equipment. Work areas usually are well lighted, heated, and ventilated, and many employers provide locker rooms and shower facilities. Employment Diesel mechanics held about 250,000 jobs in 1994. Nearly onequarter serviced trucks and other diesel-powered equipment for customers of vehicle and equipment dealers, leasing companies, and independent automotive repair shops. Over one-fifth worked for local and long-distance trucking companies, and nearly one-seventh maintained the buses and trucks of buslines, public transit companies, school systems, and Federal, State, and local government. The remainder maintained the fleets of trucks and other equipment of manufacturing, construction, and other companies. A relatively small number were self-employed. Diesel mechanics are employed in every section of the country, but most work in towns and cities where trucking companies, bus lines, and other fleet owners have large repair shops. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although many persons are able to qualify for diesel mechanic jobs through years of on-the-job training in related, lesser skilled posi tions, training authorities recommend that persons seeking diesel mechanic jobs complete a formal diesel mechanic training program. Diesel technology is becoming more sophisticated and diesel engines increasingly use electronic components to control a growing variety of functions. Knowledge of basic electronics is becoming essential for diesel mechanics to diagnose whether a malfunction is caused by an electronic component or whether it can be traced to another source. Most employers prefer to hire graduates of formal training programs in diesel mechanics, and completion of such a program can speed advancement to the journey mechanic level. These 1- to 2year programs, given by vocational and technical schools and com munity and junior colleges, lead to a certificate of completion or an associate degree. They provide a foundation in the basics of the latest diesel technology and electronics, and enable trainees to more quickly master the service and repair of the actual vehicles and equipment encountered on the job. A formal 4-year apprenticeship is another good way to learn diesel mechanics. However, apprenticeships are becoming less common because employers are reluctant to make such a long-term investment in training, especially when graduates of postsecondary diesel mechanic programs are increasing in number. Competition for the limited number of apprenticeship slots is often extremely keen. Typical apprenticeship programs for diesel truck and bus mechanics consist of approximately 8,000 hours of practical experience working on transmissions, engines, and other components and at least 576 hours of formal instruction to learn blueprint reading, mathematics, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis engine theory, and safety. Frequently, these programs include train ing in both diesel and gasoline engine repair. Even though most employers prefer to hire graduates of formal post secondary training programs in diesel mechanics, the number of persons who complete such programs are too few to meet their needs. As a result, many diesel mechanics still learn their skills on the job. Unskilled beginners usually do tasks such as cleaning parts, fueling, lubricating, and driving vehicles in and out of the shop. As beginners gain experience and as vacancies become available, they usually are promoted to mechanics' helpers. In some shops, beginners— especially those having automobile service experience—start as mechanics' helpers. Most helpers can perform routine service tasks and make minor repairs after a few months' experience. They advance to increasingly difficult jobs as they prove their ability. After they master the repair and service of diesel engines, they learn to work on related compo nents such as brakes, transmissions, or electrical systems. Generally, at least 3 to 4 years of on-the-job experience is necessary to qualify as an all-round diesel truck or bus mechanic. Additional training on other components, such as hydraulic systems, may be necessary for mechanics who wish to specialize in other types of diesel equipment. For unskilled entry level jobs, employers generally look for applicants who have mechanical aptitude and are at least 18 years of age and in good physical condition. Completion of high school is required by a growing number of employers. Courses in automotive repair, electronics, English, mathematics, and physics provide a good basic educational background for a career as a diesel mechanic. Good reading and basic mathematics skills are needed to study technical manuals to keep abreast of new technology and learn new service and repair procedures and specifications. A State commercial driver's license is needed for test driving trucks or buses on public roads. Practical experience in automobile repair in a gasoline service station, in the Armed Forces, or as a hobby also is valuable. Employers sometimes send experienced mechanics to special training classes conducted by truck, bus, diesel engine, parts, and equipment manufacturers where they learn the latest technology or receive special training in subjects such as diagnosing engine mal functions. Mechanics also must read service and repair manuals to keep abreast of engineering changes. Voluntary certification by the National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE) is recognized as a standard of achievement for diesel mechanics. Mechanics may be certified as Master HeavyDuty Truck Technician or may be certified in one or more of six different areas of heavy-duty truck repair: brakes, gasoline engines, diesel engines, drive trains, electrical systems, and suspension and steering. For certification in each area, mechanics must pass a written examination and have at least 2 years of experience. High school, vocational or trade school, or community or junior college training in gasoline or diesel engine repair may substitute for up to 1 year of experience. To retain certification, mechanics must retake the tests at least every 5 years. Most mechanics must buy their own handtools. Experienced mechanics often have thousands of dollars invested in tools. Experienced mechanics who have leadership ability may advance to shop supervisors or service managers. Mechanics who have sales ability sometimes become sales representatives. A few mechanics open their own repair shops. Job Outlook Employment of diesel mechanics is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Because this is a large occupation, more job openings are expected for diesel mechanics than for most other occupations. Although employment growth will create many new jobs, most job openings will arise from the need to replace diesel mechanics who transfer to other fields of work or retire or stop working for other reasons. Employment of diesel mechanics is expected to grow as freight transportation by truck increases. More trucks will be needed for 350 Occuptional Outlook Handbook both local and intercity hauling due to the increased production of goods. Additional diesel mechanics will be needed to repair and maintain growing numbers of buses and heavy construction graders, cranes, earthmovers, and other equipment. Due to the greater dura bility and economy of the diesel relative to the gasoline engine, buses and trucks of all sizes are expected to be increasingly powered by diesels, also creating new jobs for diesel mechanics. Careers in diesel mechanics are attractive to many because wages are relatively high and skilled repair work is challenging and varied. Opportunities should be good for persons who complete formal training in diesel mechanics at community and junior colleges and vocational and technical schools, but others may face competition for entry level jobs. Earnings According to a survey of workplaces in over 160 metropolitan areas, diesel mechanics earned median earnings of $14.61 an hour in 1993. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.00 and $17.49 an hour. However, earnings may vary by industry and by geographic location. Beginning apprentices usually earn from 50 to 75 percent of the rate of skilled workers and receive increases about every 6 months until they complete their apprenticeship and reach the rate of skilled mechanics. The majority of mechanics work a standard 40 hour week, al though many work as many as 70 hours per week, particularly if they are self employed. Those employed by truck and bus firms which provide service around the clock may work evenings, nights, and weekends. They usually receive a higher rate of pay for this work. Many diesel mechanics are members of labor unions, including the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Amalgamated Transit Union; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Transport Workers Union of America; the Sheet Metal Workers' International Association; and the International Brother hood of Teamsters. Related Occupations Diesel mechanics repair trucks, buses, and other diesel-powered equipment and keep them in good working order. Related mechanic occupations include aircraft mechanics, automotive mechanics, boat engine mechanics, farm equipment mechanics, mobile heavy equip ment mechanics, and motorcycle mechanics and small-engine specialists. Sources of Additional Information More details about work opportunities for diesel mechanics may be obtained from local employers such as trucking companies, truck dealers, or bus lines; locals of the unions previously mentioned; or the local office of the State employment service. Local State em ployment service offices also may have information about appren ticeships and other training programs. For general information about careers as truck, bus, and diesel mechanics, write to: •■Automotive Service Industry Association, 25 Northwest Point, Elk Grove Village, IL 60007-1035. •"American Trucking Associations, Inc., Maintenance Council, 2200 Mill Rd., Alexandria, VA 22314-4677. For a directory of accredited private trade and technical schools with training programs for diesel mechanics, contact: •"Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201. •"National Automotive Technicians Education Foundation, 13505 Dulles Technology Dr., Herndon, VA 22071-3415. For a directory of public training programs for diesel mechanics, contact: •■Vocational Industry Clubs of America, P. O. Box 3000, 1401 James Mon roe Highway, Leesburg, VA 22075. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Information on how to become a certified heavy-duty diesel mechanic is available from: •"ASE, 13505 Dulles Technology Dr., Herndon, VA 22071-3415. Electronic Equipment Repairers Nature of the Work Electronic equipment repairers, also called service technicians or field service representatives, install, maintain, and repair electronic equipment used in offices, factories, homes, hospitals, aircraft, and other places. Equipment includes televisions, radar, industrial equipment controls, computers, telephone systems, and medical diagnosing equipment. Repairers have numerous job titles, which often refer to the kind of equipment they work with. (Electronics technicians, who use the principles and theories of science, engineer ing, and mathematics in their work, but may also do some repairs, are discussed in the statement on engineering technicians elsewhere in the Handbook. For information on workers who operate and main tain electronic equipment used to record and transmit radio and television programs, see the statement on broadcast technicians. Additional information about electronic equipment repairers is given in the separate statements in this section.) Electronic repairers install, test, repair, and calibrate equipment to ensure that it functions properly. They keep detailed records on each piece of equipment to provide a history of tests, performance prob lems, and repairs. When equipment breaks down, repairers first examine work orders, which indicate problems, or talk to equipment operators. Then they check for common causes of trouble such as loose con nections or obviously defective components. If routine checks do not locate the trouble, repairers may refer to schematics and manufactur ers' specifications that show connections and provide instruction on how to locate problems. They use voltmeters, ohmmeters, signal generators, ammeters, and oscilloscopes and run diagnostic programs to pinpoint malfunctions. It may take several hours to locate a problem but only a few minutes to fix it. However, more equipment now has self-diagnosing features, which greatly simplifies the work. To fix equipment, repairers may replace defective components, circuit boards, or wiring, or adjust and calibrate equipment, using test equipment, small handtools such as pliers, screwdrivers, and solder ing irons. Field repairers visit worksites in their assigned area on a regular basis to do preventive maintenance according to manufacturers' recommended schedules, and whenever emergencies arise. During these calls, repairers may also advise customers on how to use equipment more efficiently and how to spot problems in their early stages. They also listen to customers' complaints and answer ques tions, promoting customer satisfaction and good will. Some field repairers work full time at installations of clients with a lot of equip ment. Bench repairers work at repair facilities, in stores, factories, or service centers. They repair portable equipment—such as televisions and personal computers brought in by customers—or defective components and machines requiring extensive repairs that have been sent in by field repairers. They determine the source of a problem in the equipment, and may estimate whether it is wiser to buy a new part or machine or to fix the broken one. Working Conditions Some electronic equipment repairers work shifts, including weekends and holidays, to service equipment in computer centers, manufactur ing plants, hospitals, and telephone companies which operate round the clock. Shifts are generally assigned on the basis of seniority. Repairers may also be on call at any time to handle equipment failure. Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers 351 Repairers generally work in clean, well-lighted, air-conditioned surroundings—an electronic repair shop or service center, hospital, military installation, or a telephone company's central office. How ever, some, such as commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers, may be exposed to heat, grease, and noise on factory floors. Some may have to work in cramped spaces. Telephone installers and repairers may work on rooftops, ladders, and telephone poles. The work of most repairers involves lifting, reaching, stooping, crouching, and crawling. Adherence to safety precautions is essential to guard against work hazards such as minor bums and electrical shock. Employment Electronic equipment repairers held about 389,000 jobs in 1994. Many worked for telephone companies. Others worked for elec tronic and transportation equipment manufacturers, machinery and equipment wholesalers, hospitals, electronic repair shops, and firms that provide maintenance under contract (called third-party mainte nance firms). The distribution of employment in each occupation is presented in the following tabulation: Computer and office machine repairers.............................................. 134,000 Communications equipment mechanics.............................................. 118,000 Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers................. 66,000 Telephone installers and repairers....................................................... 37,000 Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers........................... 34,000 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer applicants with formal training in electronics. Electronic training is offered by public post secondary vocationaltechnical schools, private vocational schools and technical institutes, junior and community colleges, and some high schools and corre spondence schools. Programs take 1 to 2 years. The military serv ices also offer formal training and work experience. Training includes general courses in mathematics, physics, elec tricity, electronics, schematic reading, and troubleshooting. Students also choose courses which prepare them for a specialty, such as computers, commercial and industrial equipment, or home enter tainment equipment. A few repairers complete formal apprenticeship programs sponsored jointly by employers and locals of the Interna tional Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Applicants for entry-level jobs may have to pass tests that meas ure mechanical aptitude, knowledge of electricity or electronics, manual dexterity, and general intelligence. Newly hired repairers, even those with formal training, usually receive some training from their employer. They may study electronics and circuit theory and math. They also get hands-on experience with equipment, doing basic maintenance, and using diagnostic programs to locate malfunc tions. Training may be in a classroom or it may be self-instruction, consisting of videotapes, programmed computer software, or work books that allow trainees to learn at their own pace. Experienced technicians attend training sessions and read manuals to keep up with design changes and revised service procedures. Many technicians also take advanced training in a particular system or type of repair. Good eyesight and color vision are needed to inspect and work on small, delicate parts and good hearing to detect malfunctions re vealed by sound. Because field repairers usually handle jobs alone, they must be able to work without close supervision. For those who have frequent contact with customers, a pleasant personality, neat appearance, and good communications skills are important. Repair ers must also be trustworthy because they may be exposed to money and other valuables in places like banks and securities offices, and some employers require that they be bonded. A security clearance may be required for technicians who repair equipment or service machines in areas where people are engaged in activities related to national security. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The International Society of Certified Electronics Technicians and the Electronics Technicians Association each administer a volun tary certification program. In both, an electronics repairer with 4 years of experience may become a Certified Electronics Technician. Certification, which is by examination, is offered in computer, radio TV, industrial and commercial equipment, audio, avionics, wireless communications, video distribution, satellite, and radar systems repair. An Associate Level Test, covering basic electronics, is offered for students or repairers with less than 4 years of experience. Those who test and repair radio transmitting equipment, other than business and land mobile radios, need a General Operators License from the Federal Communications Commission. Experienced repairers with advanced training may become spe cialists or troubleshooters who help other repairers diagnose difficult problems, or work with engineers in designing equipment and devel oping maintenance procedures. Because of their familiarity with equipment, repairers are particu larly well qualified to become manufacturers' sales workers. Work ers with leadership ability also may become maintenance supervisors or service managers. Some experienced workers open their own repair services or shops, or become wholesalers or retailers of elec tronic equipment. Job Outlook Overall, employment of electronic equipment repairers is expected to decline through the year 2005. Although the amount of electronic equipment in use will grow very rapidly, improvements in product reliability and ease of service and lower equipment prices will cause a decline in the need for repairers. The following tabulation presents the expected job change in percent for the various electronic equip ment repairer occupations: Computer and office machine repairers...................................................... Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers........................ Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers.................................. Communications equipment mechanics...................................................... Telephone installers and repairers............................................................... 24 2 -10 -35 -70 Employment of computer equipment repairers will grow much faster the than average for all occupations through the year 2005 as the number of computers in service increases rapidly. Employment of industrial equipment repairers outside the Federal Government will increase faster than the average as the amount of equipment grows. Mainly because of cuts in the defense budget, employment of repairers in the Federal Government will decline. Employment of those who repair electronic home entertainment equipment will decline modestly as equipment becomes more reliable and easier to service. Employment of repairers who handle telephone industry equipment—telephone installers and repairers and communication equipment mechanics—is expected to decline sharply because of improvements in equipment reliability, ease of maintenance, and low equipment replacement cost. Earnings In 1994, median weekly earnings of full-time electronic equipment repairers were $592. The middle 50 percent earned between $434 and $765. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $317, while the top 10 percent earned more than $947. Earnings vary widely by occupation and the type of equipment repaired, as shown in the following tabulation: Telephone installers and repairers............................................................ $679 Data processing equipment repairers.......................................................... 589 Electronic repairers, communications and industrial equipment.............. 542 Office machine repairers............................................................. Central office installers, central office technicians, PBX installers, and telephone installers and repairers employed by AT&T and the 45 352 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Bell Operating Companies and represented by the Communications Workers of America and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers earned between $469 and $1,063 a week in 1994. According to a survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas, beginning maintenance electronics technicians had median earnings of $10.75 an hour in 1993, with the middle half earning between $9.63 and $12.56 an hour. The most experienced repairers had median earnings of $18.40 an hour, with the middle half earning between $16.67 and $20.12 an hour. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who repair and maintain the circuits and mechanical parts of electronic equipment include appliance and powertool repairers, automotive electricians, broadcast technicians, electronic organ technicians, and vending machine repairers. Elec tronics engineering technicians may also repair electronic equipment as part of their duties. Sources of Additional Information For career, certification, and FCC licensing information, contact: «~The International Society of Certified Electronics Technicians, 2708 West ■MHHIi When making repairs, commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers may refer to blueprints and manufacturers’ specifications. Berry St., Fort Worth, TX 76109. For certification, career, placement, and FCC licensing informa tion, contact: •“Electronics Technicians Association, 604 North Jackson, Greencastle, IN 46135. For a list of FCC licensing administrators, write to: •“Federal Communications Commission, Consumer Assistance Office, 1270 Fairfield Rd., Gettysburg, Pa 17325-7245 or call 1-800-322-1117. For information on the telephone industry and career opportuni ties contact: •“United States Telephone Association, 1401 H St. NW., suite 600, Washing ton, DC 20005-2136. For information on electronic equipment repairers in the tele phone industry, write to: •“Communications Workers of America, 501 3rd St. NW., Washington, DC 20001. Commercial and Industrial Electronic Equipment Repairers tals, electronic repair shops, and firms that provide maintenance under contract (called third-party maintenance firms). Job Outlook Overall employment of commercial and industrial electronic equip ment repairers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Job prospects in private industry, however, should differ significantly from those within the Federal Government. Opportunities for employment outside of the Federal Government are expected to be good. Employment in non government industries is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations, as business and industrial firms install more elec tronic equipment to boost productivity and improve product quality. In addition, more electronic equipment will be used in energy con servation and pollution control. Because of cuts in the defense budget, however, employment in the Federal Government is expected to decline significantly. (See introductory part of this section for information on working conditions, training requirements, earnings, and sources of additional information.) (D.O.T. 726.361-022, .381-014, .684-090; 828.251-010, .261-014, -022, -026, and .281-022) Communications Equipment Mechanics Nature of the Work Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers, also called industrial electronics technicians, install and repair industrial con trols, radar and missile control systems, medical diagnostic equip ment, and communications equipment. Those who work for the Defense Department install radar, missile control, and communication systems on aircraft, ships, and tanks, and in buildings and other structures. Some set up and service electronic equipment which controls machines and production processes in factories. They often coordinate their efforts with workers installing mechanical or electromechanical components. (See the statements on industrial machinery repairers and millwrights elsewhere in the Handbook). Employment Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers held about 66,000 jobs in 1994. About 1 out of 3 repairers was employed by the Federal Government, almost all in the Department of Defense at military installations around the country. Repairers also were em ployed by electronic and transportation equipment manufacturers, machinery and equipment wholesalers, telephone companies, hospi- https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis (D.O.T. 722.281; 726.381-014; 822.261-010, .281-010, -014, -022, -026, -030 and -034, .361-014, .381-010, -018, -022, and .684-010; 823.261-010, -018, -022, and -030, .281-014, and -022; 825.261-010; and 829.281-022) Nature of the Work Installing, repairing, and maintaining complex and sophisticated telephone communications equipment are the responsibilities of communications equipment mechanics. Most communications equipment mechanics—sometimes referred to as telecommunication technicians—work either in telephone company central offices or on customers' premises installing and repairing telephone switching and transmission systems. Central office equipment installers, or equipment installation technicians, set up, rearrange, and remove the switching and dialing equipment used in central offices. They install equipment in new central offices, add equipment in expanding offices, or replace outdated equipment. Central office repairers, often referred to as central office technicians or switching equipment technicians, test, repair, and maintain all types of local and toll switching equipment that automatically connects lines when customers dial numbers. Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers 353 When customers report trouble with their telephones, trouble loca tors working at special switchboards—sometimes called testboards— find the source of the problem. Trouble locators who work for cable television companies ensure that subscribers' television sets receive the proper signal. They may work with cable installers to track down the cause of the interference and make repairs. Telephone companies have replaced trouble locators with mainte nance administrators. Their jobs are largely automated; instead of using testboards and associated equipment to perform complex circuit tests, they enter instructions into a computer terminal and analyze the output. Maintenance administrators also update and maintain computerized files of trouble status reports. PBX installers, also called systems technicians, install complex telephone equipment, often creating customized switching systems. PBX repairers, with the assistance of maintenance administrators, locate the malfunction in customers' PBX or other telephone systems and make the necessary repairs. They also maintain associated equipment such as batteries, relays, and power supplies. Some PBX repairers maintain and repair equipment for mobile radiophones, microwave transmission equipment, switching equipment, and data processing equipment. An increasing number of communications equipment repairers in the telephone industry are being trained to perform multiple tasks, ranging from splicing fiber optic cable, to programming switches, to installing telephones. As a result, the specific titles used above are becoming less common. Radio repairers and mechanics install and repair stationary and mobile radio transmitting and receiving equipment. Some repair microwave and fiber optics installations. Office electricians handle submarine cable repeater and terminal circuits and related equipment. When trouble arises, they may rearrange cable connections to ensure that service is not interrupted. Submarine cable equipment techni cians repair, adjust, and maintain the machines and equipment used in submarine cable offices or stations to control cable traffic. Other communications equipment mechanics include instrument repairers, sometimes referred to as shop repairers or shop techni cians, who repair, test, and modify a variety of communications equipment. Data communications technicians install and repair data communications lines and equipment for computer systems. They connect microcomputers or terminals to data communication lines. Employment Communications equipment mechanics held about 118,000 jobs in 1994. Most worked for telephone companies. Others worked for tW »•. «M« * jWHFf passwM irmmmmt fut lTP1! ■ electrical repair shops, cable television firms, railroads, air transpor tation, and the Federal Government. Job Outlook Employment of communications equipment mechanics is expected to decline sharply through the year 2005. The telephone industry has almost completed a dramatic transformation from an electromechani cal system to a completely electronic one. Digital systems, the most recent version of electronic switching, use computers and software to switch calls. Fewer workers are needed for maintenance and repair because the new systems are more reliable and compact and per mit more efficient, centralized maintenance. In addition, the systems have self-diagnosing features which detect the source of problems and direct repairers to the defective part, which usually can simply be replaced. Once the transformation of the system has been completed, some time before 2005, the need for installers will drop sharply. Decreased labor requirements due to improved technology have already caused some layoffs of communications equipment mechan ics. Efficiencies resulting from consolidations and mergers of cable and telephone companies and pressure to reduce costs in the com petitive environment following additional deregulation of the indus try could cause further decreases in employment. Competition for available openings should intensify, making it much more difficult for other telephone workers to move into these positions without experience or formal training and virtually impossible for "outsiders" without the necessary skills to compete for jobs. (See introductory part of this section for information on working conditions, training requirements, earnings, and sources of additional information.) Computer and Office Machine Repairers (D.O.T. 633.261-014, .281; 706.381-010 and -030) Nature of the Work Computer and office machine repairers install equipment, do preven tive maintenance, and correct problems. Computer repairers work on computers (mainframes, minis, and micros), peripheral equipment, and word processing systems, while office machine repairers work on photocopiers, cash registers, mail processing equipment, and typewriters. Some repairers service both computer and office equipment. They make cable and wiring connections when installing equipment, and work closely with electricians, who install the wiring. (A description of the work of electricians can be found elsewhere in the Handbook) Even with preventive maintenance, computers and other machines do break down. Repairers run diagnostic programs to locate mal functions. Although some of the most modem and sophisticated computers have a self-diagnosing capacity that identifies problems, computer repairers must know enough about systems software to determine if the malfunction is in the hardware or in the software. Employment PBX installers, also called systems technicians, install complex telephone equipment, often creating customized switchboard systems. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Computer and office machine repairers held about 134,000 jobs in 1994. Approximately 75,000 worked mainly on computer equip ment, and the other 59,000 repaired mainly office machines. Three of every 5 were employed by wholesalers of computers and other office equipment, including the wholesaling divisions of equipment manufacturers, and by firms that provide maintenance services for a fee. Others worked for retail establishments and some with organi zations that serviced their own equipment. Repairers work throughout the country, even in relatively small 354 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Computer and office machine repairers work throughout the country, even in relatively small communities. Employment of electronic home entertainment equipment repairers will decline modestly as equipment becomes more reliable and easier to service. communities. Most repairers, however, work in large cities, where computer and office equipment is concentrated. Employment Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers held about 34,000 jobs in 1994. Nearly one-third were self-employed, a larger proportion than in most other repairer occupations. Most repairers work in electronic repair shops and service centers or in stores that sell and service electronic home entertainment products. Employ ment is distributed in much the same way as the population. Job Outlook Employment of computer and office machine repairers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. However, employment of repairers will grow less rapidly than the anticipated increase in the amount of equipment because of the improved reliability of computer and office machines and ease of repair. Applicants for computer repairer positions will have the most favorable job prospects. Employment of those who repair computers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations. Demand for com puter repairers will increase as the amount of computer equipment increases—organizations throughout the economy should continue to automate in search of greater productivity and improved service. The development of new computer applications and lower computer prices, will also spur demand. More repairers will be needed to install, maintain, and repair these machines. Employment of those who repair office machines is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations. Slow growth in the amount of non-computer-based office equipment will dampen the demand for these repairers. (See introductory part of this section for information on working conditions, training requirements, earnings, and sources of additional information.) Electronic Home Entertainment Equipment Repairers (D.O.T. 720.281, 729.281-010, 730.281-018, 823.361-010, and 828.261-010) Nature of the Work Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers, also called service technicians, repair radios, televisions, stereos, recorders, public address systems, slide and motion picture projectors, video cameras, video games, home security systems, microwave ovens, and electronic organs. Some repairers specialize in one kind of equip ment; others repair many types. They replace faulty parts or make adjustments, such as focusing and converging the picture or correcting the color balance of a tele vision set. They may also make recordings and listen to playbacks to detect problems. Some install and repair automobile radios. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of electronic home entertainment equipment repairers is expected to decline through the year 2005. Improvements in reli ability and ease of servicing should reduce service requirements even though the amount of equipment in use is expected to increase. Job opportunities should be good, nevertheless, due to the need to replace the many electronic home entertainment equipment repairers who transfer to higher paying occupations requiring a knowledge of electronics, such as computer and office machine repairer. (See introductory part of this section for information on working condi tions, training requirements, earnings, and sources of additional information.) Telephone Installers and Repairers (D.O.T. 822.261-022 and .281-018) Nature of the Work Telephone installers and repairers install, service, and repair tele phones and other communications equipment on customers' property. When customers move or request new types of service, installers relocate telephones or make changes to existing equipment. In buildings under construction, they install wiring and telephone jacks. Telephone installers, sometimes called station installers or service technicians, assemble equipment and install wiring and switches on the customers' premises. They connect telephones to outside service wires and sometimes climb poles or ladders to make these connec tions. In apartment and office buildings, they connect wires and cables to terminals and test equipment to make sure it works prop erly. Some experienced installers and repairers have multiple skills. They are considered especially valuable by many small companies. Installers and repairers may handle special cases such as complaints to public service commissions, illegal or unauthorized use of equip ment, and electric or acoustic shocks. Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers 355 ..r. mjr Telephone installers and repairers may work on roofs, ladders, and telephone poles. Employment Telephone installers and repairers held about 37,000 jobs in 1994. More than 9 out of 10 worked full time for telecommunications companies. Job Outlook Employment of telephone installers and repairers is expected to decline sharply through the year 2005. Employment will continue to fall due to technological improvements. For example, prewired buildings that enable customers to buy telephones and plug them into prewired jacks have effectively eliminated the functions of the installer. The modular assembly of telephones, where components plug in and out, also will reduce the time and skills needed for repair. Also, fewer phones will be worth repairing as prices continue to decline. In addition, the use of portable terminals which hook into a central testing system makes repairers more efficient. Increased competition for customers due to consolidations and mergers of cable and telephone companies will further contribute to the decline of telephone installers and repairers. With employment projected to decline, job openings will result exclusively from the need to replace persons who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Traditionally, most openings for telephone installers and repairers have been filled by workers in other telephone company jobs. As technology continues to displace installers and repairers, it will remain difficult for telephone workers without additional training and virtually impossible for "outsiders" without the necessary skills to get these jobs. (See introductory part of this section for information on working conditions, training requirements, earnings, and sources of additional information.) Elevator Installers and Repairers (D.O.T. 825.261-014, .281-030, -034, and .361-010) Nature of the Work Elevator installers and repairers—also called elevator constructors or elevator mechanics—assemble, install, and replace elevators, escala https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis tors, dumbwaiters, moving walkways, and similar equipment in new and old buildings. Once the equipment is in service, they maintain and repair it. They are also responsible for modernizing older equipment. In order to install, repair, and maintain modern elevators, which are almost all electronically controlled, elevator installers and repair ers must have a thorough knowledge of electronics, electricity, and hydraulics. Many elevators today are installed with microprocessors, which are programmed to constantly analyze traffic conditions in order to dispatch elevators in the most efficient manner. With these computer controls, it is now possible to get the greatest amount of service with the least number of cars. When installing a new elevator, elevator installers and repairers begin by studying blueprints in order to determine the equipment layout of the framework to install rails, machines, car enclosures, motors, pumps, cylinders, and plunger foundations. Once the layout analysis is completed, they begin equipment installation. Working on scaffolding or platforms, installers bolt or weld steel rails to the walls of the shaft to guide the elevator up and down. Elevator installers put in electrical wires and controls by running tubing, called "conduit," along the shaft's walls from floor to floor. Once in place, mechanics pull plastic-covered electrical wires through the conduit. They then install electrical components and related devices required at each floor and at the main control panel in the machine room. Installers bolt or weld together the steel frame of the elevator car at the bottom of the shaft, install the car's platform, walls, and doors, and attach guide shoes and rollers to minimize the lateral motion of the car as it travels through the shaft. They also install the outer doors and door frames at the elevator entrances on each floor. For cabled elevators, these workers install geared or gearless machines with a traction drive sheave which moves heavy steel cables connected to the elevator car and counterweight. The coun terweight moves in the opposite direction from the car and aids in its swift and smooth movement. Elevator installers also install elevators in which a car sits on a hydraulic plunger that is driven by a pump. The plunger pushes the elevator car up from underneath, similar to a lift in an auto service station. They also install escalators. They put in place the steel framework, the electrically powered stairs, and the tracks, and install associated motors and electrical wiring. In addition to elevators and escalators, elevator installers also may install devices such as dumb waiters and material lifts, which are similar to elevators in design, moving walkways, stair lifts, and wheelchair lifts. The most highly skilled elevator installers and repairers, called "adjusters," specialize in fine-tuning all of the equipment after instal lation. Adjusters must make sure that the elevator is working accord ing to specifications, such as stopping correctly at each floor within a specified time period. Once an elevator is operating properly, it must be maintained and serviced regularly to keep it in safe, working condition. Elevator maintenance mechanics generally do preventive maintenance—such as oiling and greasing moving parts, replacing worn parts, testing equipment with meters and gauges, and adjusting equipment for optimal performance. They also troubleshoot and may be called in to do emergency repairs. A service crew usually handles major repairs—for example, replacing cables, elevator doors, or machine bearings. This may require cutting torches or rigging equipment—tools a maintenance mechanic would not normally carry. Service crews also do major modernization and alteration work, such as moving and replacing electrical motors, hydraulic pumps, and control panels. Elevator installers and repairers usually specialize in installation, maintenance, or repair work. Maintenance and repair workers gen erally need more knowledge of electricity and electronics than in stallers because a large part of maintenance and repair work is troubleshooting. Similarly, construction adjusters need a thorough knowledge of electricity, electronics, and computers to ensure that newly installed elevators operate properly. 356 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Most elevator installers and repairers begin as trainees or helpers, assisting experienced elevator mechanics on-the-job. Working Conditions Most elevator installers and repairers work a 40-hour week. How ever, maintenance and service mechanics often work overtime when repairing essential elevator equipment. They are sometimes on 24hour call. Maintenance mechanics, unlike most elevator installers, are on their own most of the day and typically service the same elevators periodically. Elevator installers lift and carry heavy equipment and parts and may work in cramped spaces or awkward positions. Hazards include falls, electrical shock, muscle strains, and other injuries related to handling heavy equipment. Because most of their work is performed indoors in buildings under construction or in existing buildings, elevator installers and repairers lose less work time due to inclement weather than other building trades workers. Employment Elevator installers and repairers held about 24,000 jobs in 1994. Most were employed by special trade contractors. Others were employed by field offices of elevator manufacturers; wholesale distributors; small, local elevator maintenance and repair contractors; or by government agencies or businesses that do their own elevator maintenance and repair. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most elevator installers and repairers apply for their jobs through a local of the International Union of Elevator Constructors. Applicants https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis for trainee positions must be at least 18 years old, have a high school diploma or equivalent, and pass an aptitude test. Good physical condition and mechanical aptitude also are important. Elevator installers and repairers learn their trade in a program administered by local joint educational committees representing the employers and the union. These programs, through which the trainee learns everything from installation to repair, combine on-the-job training with classroom instruction in electrical and electronic theory, mathematics, applications of physics, and safety. Elevator installers and repairers in nonunion shops may complete training programs sponsored by independent contractors. Generally, trainees or helpers must complete a 6-month proba tionary period. After successful completion, they work toward becoming fully qualified mechanics within 4 to 5 years. In order to be classified a fully qualified mechanic, union trainees must pass a standard mechanics examination administered by the National Eleva tor Industry Educational Program. Most States and cities also require elevator constructors to pass a licensing examination. Most trainees or helpers assist experienced elevator installers and repairers. Beginners carry materials and tools, bolt rails to walls, and assemble elevator cars. Eventually, they learn to do more difficult tasks, such as wiring, which requires a knowledge of local and na tional electrical codes. High school courses in electricity, mathematics, and physics provide a useful background. As elevators become increasingly sophisticated, workers may find it necessary to acquire more ad vanced formal education—for example, in postsecondary technical school or junior college—with an emphasis on electronics. Workers with more formal education generally advance more quickly than their counterparts. Many elevator installers and repairers also receive training from their employers or through manufacturers to become familiar with the company's particular equipment. Retraining is very important to keep abreast of technological developments in elevator repair. In fact, union elevator constructors typically receive continual training throughout their careers, either through correspondence courses, seminars, or formal classes. Although voluntary, this training greatly improves one's chances for promotion. Some installers may receive further training in specialized areas and advance to mechanic-in-charge, adjuster, supervisor, or elevator inspector. Adjusters, for example, may actually be picked for the position because they possess particular skills or are seen to be more electronically inclined. Others workers may move into management, sales, or product design. . Job Outlook Employment of elevator installers and repairers is expected to in crease about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005, but relatively few new job opportunities will be generated because the occupation is small. Replacement needs, another source of jobs, also will be relatively low, in part, because a substantial amount of time is invested in specialized training that yields high earnings and workers tend to remain in this field. The job outlook for new workers is largely dependent on activity in the construction industry and opportunities may vary from year to year as conditions within the industry change. Job prospects should be best for those with postsecondary training in electronics or more advanced formal education. Demand for elevator installers and repairers will increase as the stock of equipment needing repairs and the construction of new buildings with elevators and escalators increases. Growth also should be driven by the need to continually update and modernize older equipment, including improvements in appearance and the installa tion of more sophisticated equipment and computerized controls. Since equipment must always be kept in working condition, eco nomic downturns will have less of an effect on employment of elevator maintenance and repair mechanics. The need for people to Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers 357 service elevators and escalators should increase as equipment be comes more intricate and complex. Earnings Average weekly earnings for union elevator installers and repairers were about $820 in 1994, according to data from the International Union of Elevator Constructors. Rates vary with geographic loca tion. Probationary helpers started at about 50 percent of the rate for experienced elevator mechanics, or about $410 a week. Non-probationary helpers earned about 70 percent of this rate, or an average of about $574 a week. Mechanics-in-charge averaged $923 a week. In addition to free continuing education, elevator installers and repairers receive basic benefits enjoyed by most other workers. The proportion of elevator installers and repairers who are union members is higher than nearly any other occupation. Over 90 per cent of elevator installers and repairers are members of the Interna tional Union of Elevator Constructors. Related Occupations Elevator installers and repairers combine electrical and mechanical skills with construction skills such as welding, rigging, measuring, and blueprint reading. Other occupations that require many of these skills are boilermaker, electrician, industrial machinery repairer, millwright, sheet-metal worker, and structural ironworker. Sources of Additional Information For further details about opportunities as an elevator installer and repairer , contact elevator manufacturers, elevator repair and mainte nance contractors, a local of the International Union of Elevator Constructors, or the nearest local public employment service office. Farm Equipment Mechanics (D.O.T. 624.281-010 and -014, .361-014, .381, and .684; and 629.281-018) Nature of the Work Today's farm is typically much larger than in the past, so few if any types of farming can be done economically without specialized machines. Farm equipment has grown in size, complexity, and variety. Many farms have several tractors equipped with from 40- to 400-horsepower diesel engines. Self-propelled combines, hay balers, swathers, crop dryers, planters, tillage equipment, grain augers, manure spreaders, and elevators are common, as well as spray and irrigation equipment. As farm machinery has grown larger with more electronic and hydraulic controls, farmers have increasingly turned to farm equip ment dealers for service and repair of the machines they sell. These dealers employ farm equipment mechanics, often called service technicians, to do this work and also to maintain and repair the smaller lawn and garden tractors many dealers sell to suburban homeowners. Mechanics spend much of their time repairing and adjusting malfunctioning equipment that has been brought to the shop. But during planting and harvesting seasons, they may travel to farms to make emergency repairs on equipment so that important farming operations are not unduly delayed. Mechanics also perform preventive maintenance. Periodically, they test, adjust, and clean parts and tune engines. In large shops, mechanics generally specialize in certain types of work, such as diesel engine overhaul, hydraulics, or clutch and transmission repair. Others specialize in repairing the air-conditioning units often in cluded in the cabs of combines and large tractors, or in repairing certain types of equipment such as hay balers. Some mechanics also repair milking, irrigation, and other equipment on farms. In addition, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Farm equipment mechanics use many basic handtools such as wrenches, pliers, hammers, and screwdrivers. some mechanics who work for dealers and equipment wholesalers assemble new implements and machinery and sometimes do body work, repairing dented or tom sheet metal on tractors or other machinery. Mechanics use many basic handtools, including wrenches, pliers, hammers, and screwdrivers. They also use precision equipment, such as micrometers and torque wrenches; engine testing equipment, such as dynamometers to measure engine performance; and engine analysis units and compression testers, to find worn piston rings or leaking cylinder valves. They use welding equipment or power tools to repair broken parts. Working Conditions Generally, farm equipment mechanics work indoors. Modem farm equipment repair shops are well ventilated, lighted, and heated, but older shops may not offer these advantages. Farm equipment me chanics come in contact with grease, fuel and oil, hydraulic fluid, antifreeze, rust, and dirt, and there is danger of injury when they repair heavy parts supported on jacks or by hoists. Care must also be used to avoid bums from hot engine parts, cuts from sharp edges of machinery, and hazards associated with farm chemicals. As with most agricultural occupations, the hours of work of farm equipment mechanics vary according to the season of the year. During the busy planting and harvesting seasons, mechanics often work 6 or 7 days a week, 10 to 12 hours daily. In winter months, however, mechanics may work fewer than 40 hours a week, and some may be laid off. Employment Farm equipment mechanics held about 41,000 jobs in 1994. Most worked in service departments of farm equipment dealers. Others worked in independent repair shops, and in shops on large farms. Most farm equipment mechanics worked in small repair shops. Nearly 1 out of 10 farm equipment mechanics was self-employed. Because some type of farming is done in nearly every area of the United States, farm equipment mechanics are employed throughout the country. Employment is concentrated in small cities and towns, making this an attractive career choice for people who do not wish to live in a large city. However, many mechanics work in the rural fringes of metropolitan areas, so farm equipment mechanics who prefer the conveniences of city life need not live in rural areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Farm equipment mechanics must have an aptitude for mechanical work. With the development of more complex farm implements, technical training has become more important. A growing number of 358 Occuptional Outlook Handbook employers prefer to hire trainee farm equipment mechanics who have completed a 1- or 2-year training program in agricultural or diesel mechanics at a vocational or technical school or community or junior college. In general, employers seek persons with training or previous experience in diesel and gasoline engines, the maintenance and repair of hydraulics, and welding, all of which may be learned in many high schools and vocational schools. Mechanics also need a basic knowl edge of electronics and must be able to read circuit diagrams and blueprints in order to make complex repairs to electrical and other systems. Most farm equipment mechanics enter the occupation as trainees and become proficient in their trade by assisting experienced me chanics. The length of training varies with the helper's aptitude and prior experience. At least 2 years of on-the-job training usually are necessary before a mechanic can efficiently do the more routine types of repair work, and additional training and experience are required for highly specialized repair and overhaul jobs. Many farm equipment mechanics enter this occupation from a related occupation. For example, they may have experience working as diesel mechanics, mobile heavy equipment mechanics, or automo tive mechanics. A farm background is an advantage since working on a farm usually provides experience in basic farm equipment repairs. Persons who enter from related occupations also may start as trainees or helpers, but they may not require as long a period of onthe-job training. A few farm equipment mechanics learn the trade by completing an apprenticeship program, which lasts from 3 to 4 years and in cludes on-the-job as well as classroom training in all phases of farm equipment repair and maintenance. Applicants for these programs usually are chosen from shop helpers. Keeping abreast of changing farm equipment technology requires a great deal of careful study of service manuals and analysis of complex diagrams. Many farm equipment mechanics and trainees receive refresher training in short-term programs conducted by farm equipment manufacturers. These programs usually last several days. A company service representative explains the design and function of equipment and teaches maintenance and repair on new models of farm equipment. In addition, some dealers may send employees to local vocational schools that hold special week-long classes in sub jects such as air-conditioning repair or hydraulics. Persons considering a career in this field should have the manual dexterity needed to handle tools and equipment. Occasionally, strength is required to lift, move, or hold heavy parts in place. Diffi cult repair jobs require problem-solving abilities to diagnose the source of the machine's malfunction. Experienced mechanics should be able to work independently with minimum supervision. Farm equipment mechanics usually must buy their own handtools, although employers furnish power tools and test equipment. Trainee mechanics are expected to accumulate their own tools as they gain experience. Experienced mechanics have thousands of dollars in vested in tools. Farm equipment mechanics may advance to shop supervisor, service manager, or manager of a farm equipment dealership. Some mechanics open their own repair shops. A few farm equipment mechanics advance to service representatives for farm equipment manufacturers. Job Outlook Opportunities should be good for persons who have completed formal training in farm equipment repair or diesel mechanics; per sons without such training are expected to encounter increasing difficulty entering mechanic jobs. Employment of farm equipment mechanics is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The continued consolidation of farmland into fewer and larger farms and the use of new farming practices will cause farmers to invest in new, more efficient and specialized equipment, and the increasing complexity of equipment will force more farmers to rely on mechanics for service and repairs. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most job openings will arise from the need to replace experienced mechanics who retire. The increasing sophistication of newer farm equipment is making it more difficult for farmers to do their own repairs, forcing them to rely more on skilled mechanics in the future. For example, many newer tractors have much larger, electronically controlled engines and air-conditioned cabs and feature advanced transmissions with many speeds. New planting equipment uses electronics to spread seeds more uniformly, and electronic controls help harvesters reduce waste. Although farm machinery is expensive and generally de signed and manufactured to withstand many years of rugged use, it nevertheless requires periodic service and repairs. Increasingly this work will require a farm equipment mechanic. Sales of smaller lawn and garden equipment constitute a growing share of the business of most farm equipment dealers. Most of the large manufacturers of farm equipment now offer a line of these smaller tractors and sell them through their established dealerships. Although relatively few mechanics are required to service this equipment, more will be needed as household demand for lawn and garden equipment increases as the Nation's population grows. The agricultural equipment industry experiences periodic de clines—mostly in sales. Layoffs of mechanics, however, are un common because farmers often elect to repair old equipment rather than purchase new equipment. Earnings Farm equipment mechanics had median weekly earnings of about $382 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $294 and $528 a week. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $248 a week, and the top 10 percent earned over $696 a week. Most farm equip ment mechanics also have the opportunity to work overtime during the planting and harvesting seasons, for which they generally are paid time and one-half. Very few farm equipment mechanics belong to labor unions, but those who do are members of the International Association of Ma chinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Related Occupations Other workers who repair large mobile machinery include aircraft mechanics, automotive mechanics, diesel mechanics, and mobile heavy equipment mechanics. Sources of Additional Information Details about work opportunities may be obtained from local farm equipment dealers and local offices of the State employment service. For general information about the occupation, write to: •“North American Equipment Dealers Association, 10877 Watson Rd., St. Louis, MO 63127. •“Deere and Co., John Deere Rd., Moline, IL 61265. General Maintenance Mechanics (D.O.T. 899.261-014 and .381-010) Nature of the Work Most craft workers specialize in one kind of work such as plumbing or carpentry. General maintenance mechanics have skills in many different crafts. They repair and maintain machines, mechanical equipment, and buildings, and work on plumbing, electrical, and air conditioning and heating systems. They build partitions, make plaster or drywall repairs, and fix or paint roofs, windows, doors, floors, woodwork, and other parts of building structures. They also Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers 359 „ .... A general maintenance mechanic repairs a stove in an apartment. maintain and repair specialized equipment and machinery found in cafeterias, laundries, hospitals, stores, offices, and factories. Typical duties include troubleshooting and fixing faulty electrical switches, repairing air-conditioning motors, and unclogging drains. Those in small establishments, where they are often the only maintenance worker, do all repairs except for very large or difficult jobs. In larger establishments, their duties may be limited to the general maintenance of everything in a workshop or a particular area. General maintenance mechanics inspect and diagnose problems and determine the best way to correct them, often checking blue prints, repair manuals, and parts catalogs. They obtain supplies and repair parts from distributors or storerooms. They use common hand and power tools such as screwdrivers, saws, drills, wrenches, and hammers as well as specialized equipment and electronic test de vices. They replace or fix worn or broken parts, where necessary, or make adjustments. These mechanics also do routine preventive maintenance and ensure that machines continue to run smoothly, building systems operate efficiently, and that the physical condition of buildings does not deteriorate. Following a check list, they may inspect drives, motors, and belts, check fluid levels, replace filters, and so forth. Maintenance mechanics keep records of maintenance and repair work. Working Conditions General maintenance mechanics often do a variety of tasks in a single day, generally at a number of different locations in a building, or in several buildings. They may have to stand for long periods, lift heavy objects, and work in uncomfortably hot or cold environments and in awkward and cramped positions or on ladders. They are sub ject to electrical shock, bums, falls, and cuts and bruises. Most gen eral maintenance workers work a 40-hour week. Some work even ing. night, or weekend shifts, or are on call for emergency repairs. Those employed in small establishments, where they may be the only maintenance worker, often operate with only limited supervi sion. Those working in larger establishments often work under the direct supervision of an experienced craft worker. Employment General maintenance mechanics held about 1,273,000 jobs in 1994. They worked in almost every industry. More than one-third worked in service industries; most of these worked for elementary and sec ondary schools, colleges and universities, hotels, and hospitals and nursing homes. About 16 percent worked in manufacturing indus tries. Others worked for real estate firms that operate office and apartment buildings, wholesale and retail firms, or government agencies. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most general maintenance mechanics learn their skills informally on the job. They start as helpers, watching and learning from skilled maintenance workers. Helpers begin by doing simple jobs such as fixing leaky faucets and replacing light bulbs and progress to more difficult tasks such as overhauling machinery or building walls. Others learn their skills by working as helpers to other repair or construction workers such as carpenters, electricians, or machinery repairers. Necessary skills can also be learned in high school shop classes and postsecondary trade or vocational schools. It generally takes from 1 to 4 years of on-the-job training or school, or a combi nation of both, to become fully qualified, depending on the skill level required. Graduation from high school is preferred for entry into this occu pation. High school courses in mechanical drawing, electricity, woodworking, blueprint reading, science, and mathematics are useful. Mechanical aptitude, ability to use shop math, and manual dexterity are important. Good health is necessary because the job involves much walking, standing, reaching, and heavy lifting. Diffi cult jobs require problem-solving ability, and many positions require the ability to work without direct supervision. A growing proportion of new buildings rely on computers to control building systems, so familiarity with computers is helpful. Many general maintenance mechanics in large organizations advance to maintenance supervisor or to one of the crafts such as electrician, heating/air-conditioning mechanic, or plumber. In small organizations, promotion opportunities are limited. Job Outlook Job opportunities for people who want to be general maintenance mechanics should be plentiful through the year 2005. Employment is related to the number of buildings and amount of equipment needing maintenance and repair. Employment growth—expected to be about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005—will occur as the number of office and apartment buildings, stores, schools, hospitals, hotels, and factories increases. Although the pace of construction of these facilities is expected to be slower than in the past, many opportunities arise because this is a large occupation with significant turnover, and many replacements are needed for those who leave the occupation. General maintenance mechanics who work in manufacturing industries may be laid off during recessions. Earnings Earnings vary widely by industry, geographic area, and skill level. According to a survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas, general maintenance mechanics had median eamings of about $9.40 an hour in 1993, with the middle half earning between $7.90 and $11.05 an hour. Median eamings were about $9.40 an hour in serv ice businesses and about $10.20 an hour in manufacturing businesses. On average, workers in the Midwest and Northeast earned more than those in the West and South. Mechanics earn overtime pay for work in excess of 40 hours per week. Some general maintenance mechanics are members of unions, including the American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees and the United Automobile Workers. Related Occupations Some of the work of general maintenance mechanics is similar to that of carpenters, plumbers, industrial machinery mechanics, elec tricians, and air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating mechanics. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the Job Service. 360 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Heating, Air-Conditioning, and Refrigeration Technicians v ' • ;- (D.O.T. 637.261-014, -026, -030, and -034, and .381; 827.361-014; 862.281-018, .361-010; and 869.281-010) Nature of the Work What would those living in Chicago do without heating, those in Miami do without air-conditioning, or blood banks in all parts of the country do without refrigeration? Heating and air-conditioning sys tems control the temperature, humidity, and the total air quality in residential, commercial, industrial, and other buildings. Refrigera tion systems make it possible to store and transport food, medicine, and other perishable items. Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigera tion technicians install, maintain, and repair such systems. Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration systems consist of many mechanical, electrical, and electronic components, including motors, compressors, pumps, fans, ducts, pipes, thermostats, and switches. In central heating systems, for example, a furnace heats air that is distributed throughout the building via a system of metal or fiberglass ducts. Technicians must be able to maintain, diagnose, and correct problems throughout the entire system. To do this, they may adjust system controls to recommended settings and test the perform ance of the entire system using special tools and test equipment. Although they are trained to do both, technicians generally spe cialize in either installation or maintenance and repair. Some further specialize in one type of equipment—for example, oil burners, solar panels, or commercial refrigerators. Technicians may work for large or small contracting companies or directly for a manufacturer or wholesaler. Those working for smaller operations tend to do both installation and servicing, and work with heating, cooling, and refrig eration equipment. Furnace installers, also called heating equipment technicians, follow blueprints or other specifications to install oil, gas, electric, solid-fuel, and multiple-fuel heating systems. After putting the equipment in place, they install fuel and water supply lines, air ducts and vents, pumps, and other components. They may connect electri cal wiring and controls and check the unit for proper operation. To ensure the proper functioning of the system, furnace installers often use combustion test equipment such as carbon dioxide and oxygen testers. After a furnace has been installed, technicians often perform routine maintenance and repair work in order to keep the system operating efficiently. During the fall and winter, for example, when the system is used most, they service and adjust burners and blowers. If the system is not operating properly, they check the thermostat, burn er nozzles, controls, or other parts in order to diagnose and then cor rect the problem. During the summer, when the heating system is not being used, technicians do maintenance work, such as replacing fil ters and vacuum-cleaning vents, ducts, and other parts of the system that may accumulate dust and impurities during the operating season. Air-conditioning and refrigeration technicians install and service central air-conditioning systems and a variety of refrigeration equip ment. Technicians follow blueprints, design specifications, and manufacturers' instructions to install motors, compressors, condens ing units, evaporators, piping, and other components. They connect this equipment to the duct work, refrigerant lines, and electrical power source. After making the connections, they charge the system with refrigerant, check it for proper operation, and program control systems. When air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment breaks down, technicians diagnose the problem and make repairs. To do this, they may test parts such as compressors, relays, and thermostats. During the winter, air-conditioning technicians inspect the systems and do required maintenance, such as overhauling compressors. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A;i;r ' \ ft ' \f Technicians use a wide variety of tools to install and repair heating and air-conditioning systems. When servicing equipment, heating, air-conditioning, and refrig eration technicians must use care to conserve, recover, and recycle chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) and hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) refrigerants used in air-conditioning and refrigeration systems. The release of CFC's and HCFC’s contributes to the depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer, which protects plant and animal life from ultraviolet radiation. Technicians conserve the refrigerant by making sure that there are no leaks in the system; they recover it by venting the refrigerant into proper cylinders; and they recycle it for reuse with special filter-dryers. Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration technicians use a variety of tools, including hammers, wrenches, metal snips, electric drills, pipe cutters and benders, measurement gauges, and acetylene torches, to work with refrigerant lines and air ducts. They use volt meters, thermometers, pressure gauges, manometers, and other testing devices to check air flow, refrigerant pressure, electrical circuits, burners, and other components. Cooling and heating systems sometimes are installed or repaired by other craft workers. For example, on a large air-conditioning installation job, especially where workers are covered by union contracts, duct work might be done by sheet-metal workers; electrical work by electricians; and installation of piping, condensers, and other components by plumbers and pipefitters. Room air-conditioners and household refrigerators usually are serviced by home appliance repairers. (Additional information about each of these occupations appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration technicians work in homes, supermarkets, hospitals, office buildings, factories—any where there is climate control equipment. They may be assigned to specific job sites at the beginning of each day, or if they are making service calls, they may be dispatched to jobs by radio or telephone. Technicians may work outside in cold or hot weather or in build ings that are uncomfortable because the air-conditioning or heating equipment is broken. In addition, technicians often work in awkward or cramped positions and sometimes are required to work in high places. Hazards include electrical shock, bums, muscle strains, and other injuries from handling heavy equipment. Appropriate safety equipment is necessary when handling refrigerants since contact can cause skin damage, frostbite, or blindness. Inhalation of refrigerants when working in confined spaces is also a possible hazard, and may cause asphyxiation. Technicians usually work a 40-hour week, but during peak sea sons they often work overtime or irregular hours. Maintenance workers, including those who provide maintenance services under Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers 361 contract, often work evening or weekend shifts, and are on call. Most employers try to provide a full workweek the year round by doing both installation and maintenance work and many manufactur ers and contractors now provide or even require service contracts. In most shops that service both heating and air-conditioning equipment, employment is very stable throughout the year. Employment Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration technicians held about 233,000 jobs in 1994. More than one-half of these worked for cool ing and heating contractors. The remainder were employed in a wide variety of industries throughout the country, reflecting a widespread dependence on climate control systems. Some worked for fuel oil dealers, refrigeration and air-conditioning service and repair shops, and schools. Others were employed by the Federal Government, hospitals, office buildings, and other organizations that operate large air-conditioning, refrigeration, or heating systems. Approximately 1 of every 8 technicians was self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because of the increasing sophistication of heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration systems, employers prefer to hire those with techni cal school or apprenticeship training. A sizable number of techni cians, however, still learn the trade informally on the job. Many secondary and postsecondary technical and trade schools, junior and community colleges, and the Armed Forces offer 6 monthto 2-year programs in heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration. Students study theory, design, and equipment construction, as well as electronics. They also learn the basics of installation, maintenance, and repair. Apprenticeship programs are frequently run by joint committees representing local chapters of the Air-Conditioning Contractors of America, the Mechanical Contractors Association of America, the National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors, and locals of the Sheet Metal Workers' International Association or the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry of the United States and Canada. Other apprenticeship programs are sponsored by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors and the National Association of Home Builders. Formal apprenticeship programs generally last 3 or 4 years and combine on-the-job training with classroom instruction. Classes include subjects such as the use and care of tools, safety practices, blueprint reading, and air-conditioning theory. Applicants for these programs must have a high school diploma or equivalent. Those who acquire their skills on the job usually begin by assist ing experienced technicians. They may begin performing simple tasks such as carrying materials, insulating refrigerant lines, or cleaning furnaces. In time, they move on to more difficult tasks, such as cutting and soldering pipes and sheet metal and checking electrical and electronic circuits. Courses in shop math, mechanical drawing, applied physics and chemistry, electronics, blueprint reading, and computer applications provide a good background for those interested in entering this occupation. Some knowledge of plumbing or electrical work is also helpful. A basic understanding of microelectronics is becoming more important because of the increasing use of this technology in solid-state equipment controls. Because technicians frequently deal directly with the public, they should be courteous and tactful, espe cially when dealing with an aggravated customer. They also should be in good physical condition because they sometimes have to lift and move heavy equipment. All technicians who purchase or work with refrigerants must be certified so that they know how to handle them properly. To become certified to purchase and handle refrigerants, a technician must pass a written examination specific to the type of work in which they spe cialize. The three possible areas of certification are: Type I— servicing small appliances. Type II—high pressure refrigerants, and Type III—low pressure refrigerants. Exams are administered by https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis organizations approved by the Environmental Protection Agency, such as trade schools, unions, contractor associations, or building groups. Though no formal training is required for certification, training programs designed to prepare workers for the certification examination, as well as for general skills improvement training, are provided by heating and air-conditioning equipment manufacturers; the Refrigeration Service Engineers Society (RSES); the Air Condi tioning Contractors of America (ACCA); the Mechanical Service Contractors of America; local chapters of the National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors; and the United Association of Plumbers and Pipefitters. RSES, along with some other organiza tions, also offer basic self-study courses for individuals with limited experience. In addition to understanding how systems work, techni cians must be knowledgeable about refrigerant products, and legisla tion and regulation that govern their use. Advancement usually takes the form of higher wages. Some technicians, however, may advance to positions as supervisor or service manager. Others may move into areas such as sales and marketing. Those with sufficient money and managerial skill can open their own contracting business. Job Outlook Job prospects for highly skilled air-conditioning, heating, and refrig eration technicians are expected to be very good, particularly those with technical school or formal apprenticeship training to install, remodel, and service new and existing systems. In addition to job openings created by rapid employment growth, thousands of open ings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment of heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration tech nicians is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupa tions through the year 2005. As the population and economy grow, so does the demand for new residential, commercial, and industrial climate control systems. Technicians who specialize in installation work may experience periods of unemployment when the level of new construction activity declines, but maintenance and repair work usually remains relatively stable. People and businesses depend on their climate control systems and must keep them in good working order, regardless of economic conditions. Concern for the environment and energy conservation should continue to prompt the development of new energy-saving heating and air-conditioning systems. An emphasis on better energy man agement should lead to the replacement of older systems and the installation of newer, more efficient systems in existing homes and buildings. Also, demand for maintenance and service work should increase as businesses and home owners strive to keep systems operating at peak efficiency. Regulations prohibiting the discharge of CFC and HCFC refrigerants and banning CFC production by the year 2000 also should result in demand for technicians to replace many existing systems, or modify them to use new environmentally safe refrigerants. In addition, the continuing focus on improving indoor air quality should contribute to the growth of jobs for heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration technicians. Earnings Median weekly earnings of air-conditioning, heating, and refrigera tion technicians who worked full time were $494 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $363 and $670. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $287 a week, and the top 10 percent earned more than $817 a week. Apprentices usually begin at about 50 percent of the wage rate paid to experienced workers. As they gain experience and improve their skills, they receive periodic increases until they reach the wage rate of experienced workers. Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration technicians enjoy a variety of employer-sponsored benefits. In addition to typical bene fits like health insurance and pension plans, some employers pay for work-related training and provide uniforms, company vans, and tools. 362 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Nearly 1 out of every 5 heating, air-conditioning, and refrigera tion technicians is a member of a union. The unions to which the greatest numbers of technicians belong are the Sheet Metal Workers' International Association and the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry of the United States and Canada. Related Occupations Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration technicians work with sheet metal and piping, and repair machinery, such as electrical motors, compressors, and burners. Other workers who have similar skills are boilermakers, electrical appliance servicers, electricians, plumbers and pipefitters, sheet-metal workers, and duct installers. Sources of Additional Information For more information about employment and training opportunities in this trade, contact local vocational and technical schools; local heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration contractors; a local of the unions previously mentioned; a local joint union-management ap prenticeship committee; a local chapter of the Associated Builders and Contractors; or the nearest office of the State employment serv ice or State apprenticeship agency. For information on career opportunities and training, write to: •"Associated Builders and Contractors, 1300 North 17th St., Rosslyn, VA 22209. •■Refrigeration Service Engineers Society, 1666 Rand Rd., Des Plaines, IL 60016-3552. •"Home Builders Institute, National Association of Home Builders, 1201 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. •■National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors, 180 S. Washington St., P.O. Box 6808, Falls Church, VA 22046. •"New England Fuel Institute, P.O. Box 9137, Watertown, MA 02272. ••Mechanical Service Contractors of America, 1385 Piccard Dr., Rockville, MD 20850-4329. •■Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute, 4301 North Fairfax Dr„ Suite 425, Arlington, VA 22203. ••Air Conditioning Contractors of America, 1712 New Hampshire Ave., NW., Washington, DC 20009. Home Appliance and Power Tool Repairers (D.O.T. 637.261-010 and -018; 723.381 and .584; 729.281-022; and 827.261, and .661) Nature of the Work Appliance and power tool repairers, often called service technicians, repair home appliances such as ovens, washers, dryers, refrigerators, window air-conditioners, and vacuum cleaners, as well as power tools such as saws and drills. Some repairers only service small appliances such as microwaves and vacuum cleaners; others special ize in major appliances such as refrigerators, dishwashers, washers, and dryers; and others only handle power tools or gas appliances. To determine why an appliance or power tool fails to operate properly, repairers visually inspect it and run it to check for unusual noises, excessive vibration, fluid leaks, or loose parts. They may have to consult service manuals and troubleshooting guides to diag nose particularly difficult problems. They may disassemble the appliance or tool to examine its internal parts for signs of wear or corrosion. To check electrical systems for shorts and faulty connec tions, repairers follow wiring diagrams and use testing devices, such as ammeters, voltmeters, and wattmeters. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis P”? '. A power tool repairer uses needle-nosed pliers to repair a miter saw. After identifying problems, they replace or repair defective belts, motors, heating elements, switches, gears, or other items. They tighten, align, clean, and lubricate parts as necessary. Repairers use common handtools, including screwdrivers, wrenches, files, and pliers, as well as soldering guns and special tools designed for par ticular appliances. When servicing appliances with electronic parts, they may replace circuit boards or other electronic components. When servicing refrigerators, repairers must use care to conserve, recover, and recycle chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) and hydrochloro fluorocarbon (HCFC) refrigerants used in their cooling systems. The release of CFC’s and HCFC's contributes to the depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer, which protects plant and animal life from ultraviolet radiation. Repairers conserve the refrigerant by making sure that there are no leaks in the system; they recover it by venting the refrigerant into proper cylinders; and they recycle it for reuse with special filter-dryers. Repairers servicing gas appliances may check the heating unit and replace pipes, thermocouples, thermostats, valves, and indicator spindles. They also answer emergency calls for gas leaks. To install gas appliances, they may have to install pipes in customers’ homes to connect the appliances to the gas line. They measure, lay out, cut, and thread pipe and connect it to a feeder line and to the appliance. They may have to saw holes in walls or floors and hang steel sup ports from beams or joists to hold gas pipes in place. Once the gas line is in place, they turn on the gas and check for leaks. Repairers also answer customers' questions about the care and use of appliances. For example, they demonstrate how to load automatic washing machines, arrange dishes in dishwashers, or sharpen chain saws. Repairers write up estimates of the cost of repairs for customers, keep records of parts used and hours worked, prepare bills, and collect payment. Working Conditions Home appliance and power tool repairers who handle portable appli ances usually work in repair shops which generally are quiet, well lighted, and adequately ventilated. Those who repair major appli ances usually make service calls to customers' homes. They carry their tools and a number of commonly used parts with them in a truck or van and may spend several hours a day driving. They may work in clean comfortable rooms such as kitchens, but sometimes the appliance is in an area of the home that is damp, dirty, or dusty. Repairers sometimes work in cramped and uncomfortable positions when replacing parts in hard-to-reach areas of appliances. Repairer jobs generally are not hazardous, but they must exercise care and follow safety precautions to avoid electrical shocks and Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers 363 injuries when lifting and moving large appliances. When servicing gas appliances and microwave ovens, they must be aware of the dangers of gas and radiation leaks. Many home appliance and power tool repairers work a standard 40-hour week. Some work early mornings, evenings, and Saturdays. During hot weather, repairers of air-conditioners and refrigerators are in high demand by consumers and many work overtime. Repairers of power tools such as saws and drills may also have to work over time during spring and summer months when use of such tools increases and breakdowns are more frequent. Home appliance and power tool repairers usually work with little or no direct supervision, a feature of the job that appeals to many people. Employment Home appliance and power tool repairers held about 70,000 jobs in 1994. More than 1 out of 10 was self-employed. Almost 2 out of 3 salaried repairers worked in retail establishments such as department stores, household appliance stores, and fuel dealers. Others worked for gas and electric utility companies, electrical repair shops, and wholesalers. Appliance and power tool repairers are employed in almost every community, but jobs are concentrated in the more highly populated areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers generally require a high school diploma for home appli ance and power tool repairer jobs. Many repairers learn the trade primarily on the job. Mechanical aptitude is desirable, and those who work in customers' homes must be courteous and tactful. Employers prefer to hire people with formal training in appliance repair and electronics, and many repairers complete 1-or 2-year formal training programs in appliance repair and related subjects in high schools, private vocational schools, and community colleges. Courses in basic electricity and electronics are becoming increasingly necessary as more manufacturers are installing circuit boards and other electronic control systems in home appliances. Regardless of whether their basic skills are developed through formal training or on the job, trainees usually get additional training from their employer. In shops that fix portable appliances, they work on a single type of appliance, such as vacuum cleaners, until they master its repair. Then they move on to others, until they can repair all those handled by the shop. In companies that repair major appli ances, beginners assist experienced repairers on service visits. They may also study on their own. They learn to read schematic drawings, analyze problems, determine whether to repair or replace parts, and follow proper safety procedures. Up to 3 years of on-the-job training may be needed to become skilled in all aspects of repair of the more complex appliances. Some appliance and power tool manufacturers and department store chains have formal training programs which include home study and shop classes, where trainees work with demonstration appliances and other training equipment. Many repairers receive supplemental instruction through 2- or 3- week seminars conducted by appliance and power tool manufacturers. Experienced repairers also often attend training classes and study service manuals. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has mandated that all repairers who purchase or work with refrigerants must be certified in its proper handling. To become certified to purchase and handle refrigerants, repairers must pass a written examination. Exams are administered by organizations approved by the Environmental Pro tection Agency, such as trade schools, unions, and employer associa tions. Though no formal training is required for certification, many of these organizations offer training programs designed to prepare workers for the certification examination. To protect consumers, some States and areas require repairers to https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis be licensed or registered. Applicants for licensure must meet stan dards of education, training, and experience; they also may have to pass an examination, which can include a written examination, a hands-on practical test, or a combination of both. Repairers in large shops or service centers may be promoted to supervisor, assistant service manager, or service manager. A few advance to managerial positions such as regional service manager or parts manager for appliance or tool manufacturers. Preference is given to those who demonstrate technical competence and show an ability to get along with coworkers and customers. Experienced repairers who have sufficient funds and knowledge of small business management may open their own repair shop. Job Outlook Employment of home appliance and power tool repairers is expected to decline slightly through the year 2005. Although the number of home appliances and power tools in use is expected to increase as the number of households and businesses grows and new and improved appliances and tools are introduced, increasing use of electronic parts such as solid-state circuitry, microprocessors, and sensing devices in appliances reduce the frequency of repairs. Nevertheless, prospects should continue to be good for well-trained repairers, particularly those with a strong background in electronics. Most people with the electronics training needed to repair appliances go into other repairer occupations. Employment is relatively steady because the demand for appliance repair services continues even during economic down turns. Earnings Home appliance and power tool repairers who usually worked full time had median earnings of about $427 a week in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $308 and $674 a week. The lowest paid 10 percent earned $249 a week or less, while the highest paid 10 percent earned $838 a week or more. Earnings of home appliance and power tool repairers vary widely according to skill level, geo graphic location, and the type of equipment serviced. Trainees usually earn less and senior technicians more. Earnings tend to be highest in large firms and for those servicing gas appliances. Repair ers are compensated when working overtime, weekends, or holi days. Many receive commission in addition to their hourly wage salary. Many larger dealers and service stores offer benefits such as health insurance coverage, sick leave, and retirement and pension programs. Some home appliance and power tool repairers belong to the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Related Occupations Other workers who service electrical and electronic equipment include heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics; pinsetter mechanics; office machine and cash register servicers; electronic home entertainment equipment repairers; and vending machine servicers and repairers. Sources of Additional Information For information about jobs in the home appliance and power tool repair field, contact local appliance repair shops, appliance dealers, and utility companies, or the local office of the State employment service. For general information about the work of home appliance repair ers contact: ••Appliance Service News, P.O. Box 789, Lombard, IL 60148. ••National Association of Service Dealers, 10 East 22nd St., Suite 310, Lombard, IL 60148. ••Service Dealers Newsletter, 1400 Easton Rd„ Roslyn, PA 19001. ••Professional Service Association, 71 Columbia St., Cohoes, NY 12047. 364 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Industrial Machinery Repairers (D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 478.) Nature of the Work Industrial machinery repairers maintain and repair machinery found in a plant or factory. This must be done accurately and quickly because an idle machine will delay production. In addition, a ma chine that is not properly repaired and maintained may damage the final product and injure the operator. All these factors cost compa nies money. Industrial machinery repairers—often called maintenance me chanics—spend much of their time doing preventive maintenance. This includes keeping machines and their parts well oiled, greased, and cleaned. Repairers regularly inspect machinery and check performance. For example, they adjust and calibrate automated manufacturing equipment such as industrial robots and rebuild components of other industrial machinery. By keeping complete and up-to-date records, mechanics try to anticipate trouble and service equipment before factory production is interrupted. Maintenance mechanics must be able to spot minor problems and correct them before they become major ones. For example, after hearing a vibration from a machine, the mechanic must decide whether it is due to worn belts, weak motor bearings, or some other problem. Computerized maintenance-management, vibration analy sis techniques, and self-diagnostic systems are making this task easier. Self-diagnostic features on new industrial machinery can determine the cause of a malfunction and, in some cases, can alert the mechanic to potential trouble spots before symptoms develop. After diagnosing the problem, the mechanic disassembles the equipment and repairs or replaces the necessary parts. The final step is to test the machine to ensure that it is running smoothly. When repairing electronically controlled machinery, maintenance mechan ics may work closely with electronic repairers or electricians who maintain the machine's electronic parts. However, industrial machin ery repairers increasingly need electronic skills to repair sophisti cated equipment on their own. (Additional information about commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers as well as electricians appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) A wide range of tools may be used when doing preventive main tenance or making repairs. For example, repairers may use a screw driver and wrench to adjust an engine, or a hoist to lift a printing press off the ground. When replacements for broken or defective parts are not readily available, or when a machine must be quickly returned to production, repairers may sketch a part that can be fabri cated by the plant’s machine shop. Repairers use catalogs to order replacement parts and often follow blueprints and engineering speci fications to maintain and fix equipment. Some of the industrial machinery repairer's duties may be per formed by millwrights. (See the statement on millwrights elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Working conditions for repairers who work in manufacturing are similar to those of production workers. However, they often work underneath or above large machinery in cramped conditions or on the top of a ladder. These workers are subject to common shop injuries such as cuts and bruises and use protective equipment such as hard hats, protective glasses, and safety belts. Because factories and other organizations cannot afford break downs in industrial machinery, industrial machinery repairers may be called to the plant at night or on weekends for emergency repairs. Overtime is common among industrial machinery repairers—half work more than 40 hours a week. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Industrial machinery mechanics often make repairs in places that are difficult to reach. Employment Industrial machinery repairers held about 464,000 jobs in 1994. About 7 of every 10 worked in manufacturing industries, primarily food processing, textile mill products, chemicals, fabricated metal products, and primary metals. Others worked for government agen cies, public utilities, mining companies, and any other business that relies on machinery. Because industrial machinery repairers work in a wide variety of plants, they are employed in every part of the country. Employment is concentrated, however, in heavily industrialized areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many workers learn their trade through a 4-year apprenticeship program that combines classroom instruction with on-the-jobtraining. These programs are usually sponsored by a local trade union. Other workers start as helpers and pick up the skills of the trade informally and by taking courses offered by machinery manu facturers and community colleges. Repairers learn from experienced repairers how to operate, disas semble, repair, and assemble machinery. Classroom instruction focuses on subjects such as shop mathematics, blueprint reading, and welding. In addition, electronics and computer training are an in creasingly important part of the apprenticeship program. Most employers prefer to hire those who have completed high school. However, opportunities do exist for those without a high school diploma. High school courses in mechanical drawing, mathe matics, blueprint reading, physics, and electronics are useful. Mechanical aptitude and manual dexterity are important charac teristics for workers in this trade. Good physical condition and agility are also necessary because repairers sometimes have to lift heavy objects or climb to reach equipment located high above the floor. Opportunities for advancement are limited. Industrial machinery repairers advance either by working with more complicated equip ment or by becoming a supervisor. Some of the most highly skilled repairers can be promoted to master mechanic or can become a machinist or a tool and die maker. Job Outlook Employment of industrial machinery repairers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. As more firms introduce automated production equipment, industrial machinery mechanics will be needed to insure that these machines are well-maintained and consistently in operation. This growth will be moderated, however, by the self-diagnostic capabili ties and growing reliability of many new machines that help to reduce the need for repairs. Most job openings will result from the Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers 365 need to replace repairers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Qualified applicants should find ample employment opportunities as older workers retire. Unlike many other manufacturing occupations, industrial machin ery repairers are not usually affected by seasonal changes in produc tion. During slack periods, when some plant workers are laid off, repairers often are retained to do major overhaul jobs. Although these workers may face layoff or a reduced workweek when eco nomic conditions are particularly severe, they generally are less affected than other workers because machines have to be maintained regardless of the level of production. Earnings Median weekly earnings of full-time industrial machinery repairers were about $530 in 1994; the middle 50 percent earned between $410 and $720 weekly. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $310, while the top 10 percent earned more than $950. Earnings vary by industry and geographic region. In addition to wages, most of these workers receive benefits such as health and life insurance, pension plans, annual leave, and sick days. Labor unions to which some industrial machinery repairers be long include the United Steelworkers of America; the United Auto mobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; and the International Union of Electronic, Electrical, Salaried, Ma chine, and Furniture Workers. Related Occupations Other occupations that involve repairing machinery include aircraft mechanics and engine specialists; elevator installers and repairers; machinists; millwrights; and automotive and motorcycle, diesel, farm equipment, general maintenance, mobile heavy equipment, and heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics. Sources of Additional Information Information about employment and apprenticeship opportunities in this field may be obtained from local offices of the State employment service or from: ••The Association for Manufacturing Technology, 7901 Westpark Dr., Mclean, VA 22102. ••Associated General Contractors of America, 1957 E St. NW„ Washington, DC 20006. Line Installers and Cable Splicers (D.O.T. 821.261-010, -014, -022. and -026, .281-010, .361-010, -018, -022 -026, -030. and -038, .684-022, .687-010; 822.381-014; 823.261-014' 829.361-010 and -014; and 959.367-010) Nature of the Work Vast networks of wires and cables transmit the electric power pro duced in generating plants to individual customers, connect tele phone central offices to customers' telephones and switchboards, and extend cable television to residential and commercial customers. These networks are constructed and maintained by line installers and cable splicers and their helpers. To install new electric power or telephone lines, line installers or line erectors install poles and terminals, erect towers, and place wires and cables. They usually use power equipment to dig holes and set poles. Line installers climb the poles or use truck-mounted buckets (aerial work platforms) and use handtools to attach the cables. When working with electric power lines, installers bolt or clamp insulators onto the pole before attaching the cable. They may also install transformers, circuit breakers, switches, or other equipment. To bury underground cable, they use trenchers, plows, and other power equipment. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ar Splicers connect individual wires or fibers within the cable when lines have to be moved. Line installers also lay cable television lines underground or hang them on poles with telephone and utility wires. These lines transmit broadcast signals from microwave towers to customers' homes. Installers place wiring in the house, connect the customers’ television sets to it, and check that the television signal is strong. After telephone line installers place cables in position, cable splicers, also referred to as cable splicing technicians, complete the line connections. (Electric power line workers install and splice the cables simultaneously.) Splicers connect individual wires or fibers within the cable and rearrange wires when lines have to be changed. They first read and interpret service orders and circuit diagrams to determine splicing specifications. Splices are then made by joining wires and cables with small handtools, epoxy, or mechanical equip ment. At each splice, they place insulation over the conductor, and seal the splice with some type of moisture proof covering. They may fill the cable sheathing on critical transmission routes with com pressed air so that leaks in the sheathing can be monitored and re paired. Splicers work on poles, aerial ladders and platforms, in manholes, or in basements of large buildings. Fiber optic cables are being used to replace worn or obsolete copper cables. These tiny hair-thin strands of glass are able to carry more signals per cable because they transmit pulses of light instead of electricity. Splices of fiber optic cables are completed in a van positioned near the splice point. These vans house workshops that contain all the necessary equipment, such as machines that heat the glass fibers so they can be joined. Line installers and cable splicers also maintain and repair tele phone, power, and cable television lines. They periodically make sure lines are clear of tree limbs or other obstructions that could cause problems and check insulation on cables and other equipment on line poles. When bad weather or earth quakes break wires or cables, knock poles down, or cause underground ducts to collapse, they make emergency repairs. Working Conditions Because telephone, electric, and television cables are strung from utility poles or are underground, line installers and cable splicers must climb and lift or work in stooped and cramped positions. They 366 Occuptional Outlook Handbook usually work outdoors in all kinds of weather and are subject to 24hour call. Most usually work a 40-hour week, but, for example, when severe weather damages transmission and distribution lines, they may work long and irregular hours to restore service. At times, they may travel to distant locations—and occasionally stay for a lengthy period to help restore damaged facilities or build new ones. Line installers and cable splicers face many situations in which safety procedures must be followed. They wear safety equipment when entering manholes and test for the presence of gas before going underground. They may be exposed to hazardous chemicals from the solvents and plugging compounds that they use when splicing cables. Electric power line workers have the most hazardous jobs. They typically work at higher elevations because the electric cable is always above telephone and cable television lines. Moreover, the voltages in electric power lines are lethal. Employment Line installers and cable splicers held about 302,000 jobs in 1994. More than half were telephone and cable television line installers and repairers. Nearly all worked for telephone, cable television compa nies, or electric power companies, or for construction companies specializing in power line, telephone, and cable television construc tion. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Line installers are often hired as helpers or ground workers. Most employers prefer high school graduates. Many employers test appli cants for basic verbal, arithmetic, and abstract reasoning skills. Some employers test for physical ability such as balance, coordina tion, and strength and mechanical aptitude. Because the work entails a lot of climbing, applicants should have stamina and must be una fraid of heights. Knowledge of basic electricity and training in installing telephone systems obtained in the Armed Forces or voca tional education programs may be helpful. The ability to distinguish colors is necessary because wires and cables usually are coded by color. Motivation, self-discipline, and the ability to work as part of a team are needed to work efficiently and safely. Line installers and cable splicers in electric companies and con struction firms specializing in cable installation generally complete a formal apprenticeship program. These are administered jointly by the employer and the union representing the workers, either the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers or the Communica tions Workers of America. These programs last several years and combine formal instruction with on-the-job training. Workers in telephone companies generally receive several years of informal onthe-job training, in some cases learning other skills like telephone installation and repair. They may also attend training provided by equipment manufacturers. A growing number of employers are using computer-assisted instruction, video cassettes, movies, or "programmed" workbooks. Some training facilities are equipped with poles, cable-supporting clamps, and other fixtures, to simulate working conditions as closely as possible. Trainees learn to work on poles while keeping their hands free. In one exercise, for example, they play catch with a basketball while on the poles. Formal training includes instruction in electrical codes, blueprint reading, and basic electrical theory. Afterwards trainees leam on the job and work with a crew of experienced line installers under a line supervisor. Line installers and cable splicers receive training throughout their careers to qualify for more difficult assignments and to keep up with technological changes. Since deregulation of the telephone industry, many telephone companies have reduced the scope of their training programs in order to reduce their costs and to remain competitive. Increasingly, work ers are responsible for their own training, which is provided by community colleges and postsecondary vocational schools. For installers in the telephone industry, advancement may come about through promotion to splicer. Splicers can advance to engi https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis neering assistants or may move into other kinds of work, such as sales. Promotion to a supervisory position also is possible. In the electric industry, promotion is usually to a supervisory position. Job Outlook Job seekers are expected to face competition. Because prerequisite skills and training are minimal, and earnings are above average, applicants outnumber available job openings. Employment growth is not expected to provide many opportunities; most will result from the need to replace the larger than average number of older workers reaching retirement age. Job prospects will be best for electrical line workers employed by electric utilities and construction firms because the effects of new technology are expected to be less than for tele phone line workers. In telephone companies, those who combine knowledge of line installation, fiber optic or copper cable splicing, and repair of many types of equipment should enjoy better prospects. Overall employment of line installers and cable splicers is ex pected to show little or no growth through the year 2005. Techno logical advances will result in divergent trends within this occupation. Employment of electrical power line installers is ex pected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations as the demand for electricity grows and the need to maintain existing lines continues. Employment of telephone and cable television line installers and repairers, however, is expected to decline despite growth in telephone and cable television usage. Layoffs of telephone line workers have already occurred, due to increased efficiency being built into telephone systems. New ways of transmitting informa tion—satellites, microwave towers, and underground fiber optic cable, for example—are not as vulnerable to adverse weather condi tions as aerial wires, and fewer workers are needed to maintain them. Fiber optic cables will continue to replace copper cables, and this will generate short-term demand for installers. Also, some will be needed to install the infrastructure for the new telecommunications system. Telephone, cable, and even utility companies are converting more of their networks to fiber optics which makes it possible to carry voice, data, and video signals over the same lines to a wide range of customers. Over the longer term, however, employment will fall as the conversion to fiber optics is completed and as mainte nance requirements are reduced. Improved splicing techniques as well as new power tools and equipment also will continue to improve the efficiency of cable splicers. Finally, most areas of the country that can economically be served by cable television have already been wired, and fewer installers will be needed. Earnings Pay rates for line installers and cable splicers vary greatly across the country and depend on length of service; specific information may be obtained from local telephone, electric power, and cable television companies. It generally takes about 5 years to go from the bottom to the top of the pay scale. In 1994, line installers and repairers who worked full time earned a median weekly wage of $712. The middle 50 percent earned between $501 and $887. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $337; the top 10 percent earned more than $1,089 a week. Line installers and cable splicers employed by AT&T and the Bell Operating Companies and represented by the Communications Workers of America and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers earned between $469 and $1,063 a week in 1994. Because of low job turnover in these occupations, many workers earn salaries near the top of the pay scale. Most line installers and cable splicers belong to unions, princi pally the Communications Workers of America and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. For these workers, union con tracts set wage rates, wage increases, and the time needed to advance from one step to the next. These contracts require extra pay for overtime and for all work on Sundays and holidays. Most contracts provide for additional pay for night work. Time in service deter Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers 367 mines the length of paid vacations. Depending on the locality, there are 9 to 12 holidays a year. Related Occupations Workers in other skilled crafts and trades who work with tools and machines include communications equipment mechanics, biomedical equipment technicians, telephone installers and repairers, electri cians, and sound technicians. Sources of Additional Information For more details about employment opportunities, contact the tele phone or electric power company in your community or local offices of the unions that represent these workers. For general information on line installer and cable splicer jobs, write to: ••Communications Workers of America, 501 3rd St. NW„ Washington, DC 20001. UK 1 For additional information on the telephone industry and career opportunities contact: •■United States Telephone Association, 1401 H St. NW., Suite 600, Washing ton, DC 20005-2136. For information on employment and training contact: •■Utility Workers Union of America, 815 16th. St. NW, Washington, DC 20006. •-International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 1125 15th. St. NW, Room 807, Washington, DC 20005. Millwrights (D.O.T. 638.261-010, -014, -018, -026, .281-018, -022) Nature of the Work Millwrights install, repair, replace, and dismantle the machinery and heavy equipment used in almost every industry. These responsibili ties require a wide range of skills—from blueprint reading and pouring concrete to diagnosing and solving mechanical problems. The millwright's responsibilities begin when machinery arrives at the job site. The new equipment must be unloaded, inspected, and then moved into position. To lift and move light machinery, mill wrights may use rigging and hoisting devices such as pulleys and cables. In other cases, they require the assistance of hydraulic lifttruck or crane operators to position the machinery. Because mill wrights often decide what device to use for moving machinery, they must know the load-bearing properties of ropes, cables, hoists, and cranes. New machinery sometimes requires a new foundation. Mill wrights either personally prepare the foundation or supervise its construction, so they must know how to read blueprints and work with building materials such as concrete, wood, and steel. When assembling machinery, millwrights fit bearings, align gears and wheels, attach motors, and connect belts according to the manu facturer's blueprints and drawings. Precision leveling and alignment are important in the assembly process; millwrights must have good mathematical skills so that they can measure angles, material thick ness, and small distances with tools such as squares, calipers, and micrometers. When a high level of precision is required, devices such as lasers may be used. They also use hand and power tools, cutting torches, welding machines, and soldering guns. Some mill wrights use metalworking equipment such as lathes or grinders to modify parts to specifications. The increasing level of automation found in most industries means that there are more sophisticated machines for millwrights to install and maintain. This machinery often requires special care and knowledge, so millwrights often work closely with computer or electronic experts, electricians, engineers, and manufacturer’s repre sentatives to install it. (Additional information about commercial https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis In addition to installing new equipment, millwrights may also per form maintenance and repairs. and industrial electronic equipment repairers as well as electricians appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) In addition to installing and dismantling machinery, many mill wrights repair and maintain equipment. This includes preventive maintenance, such as lubrication, and fixing or replacing worn parts. (For further information on machinery maintenance, see the state ment on industrial machinery repairers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Working conditions of millwrights vary by industry. Those em ployed in manufacturing often work in a typical shop setting and use protective equipment to avoid common hazards. For example, inju ries from falling objects or machinery are avoided by protective de vices such as safety belts, protective glasses, and hard hats. Those in construction may work outdoors in uncomfortable weather condi tions. Millwrights may work independently or as part of a team. They must work quickly and precisely because non-functioning machinery costs a company time and money. Most millwrights work overtime; nearly two-thirds report working more than 40 hours during a typical week. Employment Millwrights held about 77,000 jobs in 1994. Most worked in manu facturing, primarily in durable goods industries such as motor vehi cles and equipment and basic steel products. Millwrights found in other sectors were employed primarily by construction firms and machining and equipment wholesalers. Many of these workers are contractors. Although millwrights work in every State, employment is concen trated in heavily industrialized areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Millwrights receive their training from a formal apprenticeship program, a community college, or informally on the job. Appren ticeship programs normally last 4 years and combine on-the-job training with classroom instruction. Apprenticeship programs in clude training in dismantling, moving, erecting, and repairing ma chinery. Apprentices may also work with concrete and receive instruction in related skills such as carpentry, welding, and sheetmetal work. Classroom instruction is given in mathematics, blue print reading, hydraulics, electricity, and increasingly, computers or electronics. Most employers prefer applicants with a high school diploma and some vocational training or experience. Courses in science, mathe matics, mechanical drawing, and machine shop practice are useful. 368 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Because millwrights assemble and disassemble complicated machin ery, mechanical aptitude is very important. Strength and agility also are important because the work can require a considerable amount of lifting and climbing. Millwrights need good interpersonal and communication abilities in order to work as part of a team and give detailed instructions to others. Advancement for millwrights usually takes the form of higher wages. Some advance to supervisor. mm Job Outlook Employment of millwrights is projected to decline through the year 2005, due in part to an expected downturn in new industrial con struction. When construction activity falls, jobs are scarce, and even experienced millwrights may face layoffs or shortened workweeks. In coming years, new industrial construction is expected to be insuf ficient to maintain existing employment levels. In addition, some of the duties of millwrights are being transferred to other workers, such as electronic technicians and industrial machinery mechanics, as new automation becomes more complicated and involves more electronic components. Finally, millwrights are becoming more productive through technologies like hydraulic torque wrenches, ultrasonic measuring tools, and laser shaft alignment that allow fewer of these workers to perform a greater amount of work. Although employment is expected to decline, millwrights will still be needed to maintain and repair existing machinery, to disman tle old machinery, and to install and maintain new equipment. Workers with these skills will encounter a number of job openings that will arise annually as experienced millwrights transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Earnings Median weekly earnings of full-time millwrights were about $700 in 1994; the middle 50 percent earned between $520 and $880. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $380, while the top 10 percent earned more than $1,290. Earnings vary by industry and geographic location. Two-thirds of millwrights belong to labor unions, one of the highest rates of membership in the economy. Typical benefits for these workers include health and life insurance, pension plans, paid vacation, and sick leave. Related Occupations To set up machinery for use in a plant, millwrights must know how to use hoisting devices and how to assemble, disassemble, and in some cases repair machinery. Other workers with similar job duties are industrial machinery repairers, mobile heavy equipment mechan ics, aircraft mechanics and engine specialists, diesel mechanics, farm equipment mechanics, ironworkers, and machine assemblers. Sources of Additional Information For further information on apprenticeship programs, write to the Apprenticeship Council of your State's labor department, local offices of your State employment service, or local firms that employ millwrights. In addition, you may contact: ••The United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Consti tution Ave. NW., Washington DC 20001. •"Association for Manufacturing Technology, 7901 Westpark Dr., Mclean, VA 22102. ••Associated General Contractors of America, 1957 E St. NW., Washington, DC 20006. Mobile Heavy Equipment Mechanics (D.O.T. 620.261-022, .281-042, .381-014) Nature of the Work Mobile heavy equipment is indispensable to construction, logging, surface mining, and other industrial activities. Mobile heavy equip https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Field service mechanics often work outdoors on construction sites because mobile heavy equipment is too difficult to bring into a repair shop. ment mechanics service and repair the engines, transmissions, hy draulics, electrical systems, and other components of equipment such as motor graders, trenchers and backhoes, crawler-loaders, and stripping and loading shovels. (Mechanics who specialize in servic ing only diesel engines are discussed in the section on diesel mechan ics elsewhere in the Handbook.) Mobile heavy equipment mechanics perform routine maintenance on the diesel engines that power most heavy equipment, and, if an operator reports a malfunction, they search for its cause. First, they inspect and operate the equipment to diagnose the nature of the repairs required. If necessary, they may partially dismantle the engine, examining parts for damage or excessive wear. Then they repair, replace, clean, and lubricate the parts as necessary, and reas semble and test the engine for operating efficiency. If repairs to the drive train are needed, mechanics remove and repair the transmission or differential. Many types of mobile heavy equipment use hydraulics to raise and lower movable parts such as scoops, shovels, log forks, or scraper blades. Repairing malfunctioning hydraulic components is an important responsibility of mobile heavy equipment mechanics. When hydraulics loses power, mechanics examine them for hydraulic fluid leaks and replace ruptured hoses or worn gaskets on fluid reservoirs. Occasionally, more extensive repairs are required, such as replacing a defective hydraulic pump. Mobile heavy equipment mechanics perform a variety of other types of repairs. They diagnose and correct electrical problems and Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers 369 replace defective electronic components. They also disassemble and repair crawler undercarriages and track assemblies. Occasionally, mechanics weld broken body and structural parts, using electric or gas welders. Many mechanics work in small repair shops of construction contractors, logging and mining companies, and local government road maintenance departments. They typically perform routine maintenance and minor repairs necessary to keep the equipment in operation. Mechanics in larger repair shops—particularly those of mobile heavy equipment dealers and the Federal Government— perform more difficult repairs, such as rebuilding or replacing en gines, repairing hydraulic fluid pumps, or correcting electrical prob lems. Mechanics in some large shops specialize in one or two types of work, such as hydraulics or electrical systems. Mobile heavy equipment mechanics use a variety of tools in their work, including common handtools such as pliers, wrenches, and screwdrivers and power tools such as pneumatic wrenches. They use micrometers and gauges to measure wear on parts, and a variety of testing equipment. For example, they use tachometers and dyna mometers to locate engine malfunctions; when working on electrical systems, they use ohmmeters, ammeters, and voltmeters. Working Conditions Most mobile heavy equipment repair shops are well ventilated, lighted, and heated. Many mechanics work indoors in shops, but others work as field service mechanics and spend much of their time away from the shop working outdoors. When mobile heavy equip ment breaks down at a construction site, it may be too difficult or expensive to bring it into a repair shop, so a field service mechanic is sent to the job site to make repairs. Generally, the more experienced mobile heavy equipment mechanics specialize in field service; they usually drive specially equipped trucks and sometimes must travel many miles to reach disabled machinery. For many mechanics, the independence and challenge of field work outweigh the occasional long hours or bad weather, but other mechanics are more comfortable with the routine of shop work and the opportunity to work as part of a team. Mechanics handle greasy and dirty parts and often work in awk ward or cramped positions. They sometimes must lift heavy tools and parts, and must be careful to avoid bums, bruises, and cuts from hot engine parts and sharp edges of machinery. However, serious accidents may be prevented when the shop is kept clean and orderly and safety practices are observed. Employment Mobile heavy equipment mechanics held about 101,000 jobs in 1994. Over half worked for mobile heavy equipment dealers and construc tion contractors. About one-fifth were employed by Federal, State, and local governments; the Department of Defense is the primary Federal employer. Other mobile heavy equipment mechanics worked for surface mine operators, public utility companies, logging camps and contractors, and heavy equipment rental and leasing companies. Still others repaired equipment for machinery manufacturers, air lines, railroads, steel mills, and oil and gas field companies. About 1 out of 20 mobile heavy equipment mechanics was self-employed. Mobile heavy equipment mechanics are employed in every sec tion of the country, but most work near cities and towns, where most construction takes place. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For trainee jobs, employers hire persons with mechanical aptitude who are high school graduates and at least 18 years of age. They seek persons knowledgeable about the fundamentals of diesel en gines, transmissions, electrical systems, and hydraulics. Although some persons are able to acquire these skills on their own or by working as helpers to experienced mechanics, most employers prefer to hire graduates of formal training programs in diesel or heavy equipment mechanics. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training programs in diesel and heavy equipment mechanics are given by vocational and technical schools and community and junior colleges. Training in the fundamentals of electronics is also essential because new mobile heavy equipment increasingly features elec tronic controls and sensing devices. Some 1- to 2-year programs lead to a certificate of completion; others lead to an associate degree if they are supplemented with additional academic courses. These programs provide a foundation in the basics of diesel and heavy equipment technology, including hydraulics, and enable trainee mechanics to advance more rapidly to the journey, or experienced worker, level. Through a combination of formal and on-the-job training, trainee mechanics acquire the knowledge and skills to efficiently service and repair the particular types of equipment handled by the shop. Begin ners are assigned relatively simple service and repair tasks. As they gain experience and become more familiar with the equipment, they are assigned increasingly difficult jobs, and are exposed to a greater variety of equipment. Many employers send trainee mechanics to training sessions conducted by heavy equipment manufacturers. These sessions, which typically last up to 1 week, provide intensive instruction in the repair of a manufacturer's equipment. Some sessions focus on par ticular components found in all of the manufacturer's equipment, such as diesel engines, transmissions, axles, and electrical systems. Other sessions focus on particular types of equipment, such as crawler-loaders and crawler-dozers. As they progress, trainees may periodically attend additional training sessions. Experienced me chanics also occasionally attend training sessions to gain familiarity with new technology or with types of equipment they may never have repaired. High school courses in automobile mechanics, physics, chemistry, and mathematics provide an essential foundation for a career as a mechanic. Good reading and basic mathematics skills and a basic understanding of scientific principles are needed to help a mechanic learn important job skills and to keep abreast of new technology through the study of technical manuals. Experience working on diesel engines and heavy equipment acquired in the Armed Forces also is valuable. Mobile heavy equipment mechanics usually must buy their own handtools, although employers furnish power tools and test equip ment. Trainee mechanics are expected to accumulate their own tools as they gain experience. Many experienced mechanics have thou sands of dollars invested in tools. Experienced mechanics may advance to field service jobs, where they have greater opportunity to tackle problems independently and earn overtime pay. Mechanics who have leadership ability may become shop supervisors or service managers. Some mechanics open their own repair shops. Job Outlook Opportunities should generally be good for persons who have com pleted formal training programs in diesel or heavy equipment me chanics. Persons without formal training are expected to encounter growing difficulty entering this occupation. Employment of mobile heavy equipment mechanics is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Increasing numbers of mechanics will be required in repair shops of equipment dealers and rental and leasing companies as the growing complexity of mobile heavy equipment necessitates more repairs being done by professionals. More mechanics also will be needed by all levels of government to service construction equip ment that repairs and maintains the country's system of highways and bridges. But employment of mechanics will increase more slowly at the Federal level as defense-related spending is trimmed. Employ ment of mechanics by construction contractors will increase more slowly as more of the equipment in use is rented or leased. As the economy expands, growth of construction activity should result in the use of more mobile heavy equipment, which would 370 Occuptional Outlook Handbook increase the necessity for periodic service and repair. Various kinds of equipment will be needed in increasing numbers to grade con struction sites, excavate basements, lay water and sewer lines, and put in streets. In addition, construction of new highways and bridges and repair or rebuilding of existing ones will also require more mechanics for servicing the equipment. Since construction and mining are sensitive to changes in the level of economic activity, mobile heavy equipment may be idled during downturns. In addition, winter is traditionally the slack season for construction activity, particularly in colder regions. Fewer mechanics may be needed during periods when equipment is used less intensively, but employers usually try to retain experienced workers. However, employers may be reluctant to hire inexperienced workers during slack periods. Earnings Median weekly earnings of mobile heavy equipment mechanics were about $554 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned from around $409 to $684 a week; the lowest 10 percent earned less than $322 a week, and the top 10 percent earned over $864 a week in 1994. Some mobile heavy equipment mechanics are members of unions. The unions include the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union of Operating Engineers; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who repair and service diesel-powered vehicles and heavy equipment include rail car repairers and diesel, farm equipment, and mine machinery mechanics. Sources of Additional Information More details about work opportunities for mobile heavy equipment mechanics may be obtained from local mobile heavy equipment dealers, construction contractors, surface mining companies, and government agencies. Local offices of the State employment service may also have information on work opportunities and training pro grams. Motorcycle, Boat, and Small-Engine Mechanics (D.O.T. 620.281-054, .684-026; 623.261, .281-038, -042; 625.281-018, -026, -030, -034, .381; 721.281-022) Nature of the Work Although the engines that power motorcycles, boats, and lawn and garden equipment are usually smaller than those that power auto mobiles and trucks, they have many things in common, including breakdowns. Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics repair and service power equipment ranging from chain saws to yachts. Small engines, like larger engines, require periodic servicing to minimize the possibility of breakdowns and keep them operating at peak efficiency. At routine intervals, mechanics adjust, clean, lubri cate, and, when necessary, replace worn or defective parts such as spark plugs, ignition points, valves, and carburetors. Routine main tenance is normally a major part of the mechanic's work. When breakdowns occur, mechanics diagnose the cause and repair or replace the faulty parts. The mark of a skilled mechanic is the ability to diagnose mechanical, fuel, and electrical problems and to make repairs in a minimum amount of time. A quick and accurate diagnosis requires problem-solving ability as well as a thorough knowledge of the equipment's operation. The mechanic first obtains a description of the symptoms of the problem from the owner, and then, if possible, operates the equipment to observe the symptoms. The mechanic may have to use special diagnostic testing equipment and disassemble some components for further examination. After pinpointing the cause of the problem, the needed adjustments, re https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis pairs, or replacements are made. Some jobs require only the adjust ment or replacement of a single item, such as a carburetor or fuel pump, and may be completed in less than an hour. In contrast, a complete engine overhaul may require a number of hours, because the mechanic must disassemble and reassemble the engine to replace worn valves, pistons, bearings, and other internal parts. Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics use common handtools such as wrenches, pliers, and screwdrivers, as well as power tools such as drills and grinders. Engine analyzers, compres sion gauges, ammeters and voltmeters, and other testing devices help mechanics locate faulty parts and tune engines. Hoists may be used to lift heavy equipment such as motorcycles, snowmobiles, or boats. Mechanics often refer to service manuals for detailed directions and specifications while performing repairs. Mechanics usually specialize in the service and repair of one type of equipment, although they may work on closely related products, Motorcycle mechanics repair and overhaul motorcycles, motor scooters, mopeds, and all-terrain vehicles. Besides engines, they may work on transmissions, brakes, and ignition systems, and make minor body repairs. Because many motorcycle mechanics work for dealers that service only the products they sell, mechanics may specialize in servicing only a few of the many makes and models of motorcycles. Motorboat mechanics repair and adjust the engines and electrical and mechanical equipment of inboard and outboard marine engines. Most small boats have portable outboard engines that can be re moved and brought into the repair shop. Larger craft, such as cabin cruisers and commercial fishing boats, are powered by diesel or gasoline inboard or inboard-outdrive engines, which are only re moved for major overhauls. Motorboat mechanics may also work on propellers, steering mechanisms, marine plumbing, and other boat equipment. Small-engine mechanics service and repair outdoor power equip ment such as lawnmowers, garden tractors, edge trimmers, and chain saws. They also may occasionally work on portable generators, gocarts, and snowmobiles. Working Conditions Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics usually work in repair shops that are well lighted and ventilated, but which are sometimes noisy when engines are being tested. However, motorboat mechanics may work outdoors in all weather when repairing inboard engines aboard boats; they may have to work in cramped or awkward posi tions to reach a boat's engine. In northern States, motorcycles, boats, lawnmowers, and other equipment are used less, or not at all, during the winter, and mechan ics may work fewer than 40 hours a week; many mechanics are only hired temporarily during the busy spring and summer seasons. Some Routine maintenance is a major part of motorcycle mechanics' work. Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers 371 of the winter slack is taken up by scheduling time-consuming engine overhauls and working on snowmobiles and snowblowers. Many mechanics may work considerably more than 40 hours a week when the weather is warmer in the spring, summer, and fall. chanics. In larger shops, mechanics with leadership ability can advance to supervisory positions such as shop supervisor or service manager. Mechanics who are able to raise enough capital may open their own repair shops or equipment dealerships. Employment Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics held almost 46,000 jobs in 1994. About 11,000 were motorcycle mechanics, while the remainder specialized in the repair of boats or outdoor power equip ment such as lawnmowers, garden tractors, and chain saws. More than one-quarter of all motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics worked for dealers of boats, motorcycles, and miscellaneous vehi cles. Others were employed by independent repair shops, marinas and boat yards, equipment rental companies, and hardware and lawn and garden stores. Nearly one-third were self-employed. Job Outlook Employment of motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The majority of job openings are expected to occur because many experienced motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics leave each year to transfer to other occupations, retire, or stop working for other reasons. Job prospects should be especially favorable for persons who complete mechanic training programs. Growth of personal disposable income over the 1994-2005 period should provide consumers with more discretionary dollars to buy boats, lawn and garden power equipment, and motorcycles— requiring more mechanics to keep the growing amount of equipment in operation. However, growth in the demand for mechanics will be slowed by design improvements that should continue to make equipment more reliable and lengthen intervals between routine service. Employment of motorcycle mechanics should increase slowly as the popularity of motorcycles rebounds. Beginning in the late 1990's, the number of persons between the ages of 18 and 24 should begin to grow. Motorcycle usage should continue to be popular with persons in this age group, who historically have the greatest proportion of motorcycle enthusiasts. Motorcycles have also been increasing in popularity with persons between the ages of 25 and 40, a group with more disposable income to spend on recreational equipment such as motorcycles and boats. Recreational boating is expected to continue to be popular, and construction of new single-family houses will result in an increase in the lawn and garden equipment in operation, increasing the need for mechanics. However, equipment growth will be slowed by trends toward smaller lawns and contracting out their maintenance to lawn service firms. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Due to the increasing complexity of motorcycles, most employers prefer to hire motorcycle mechanics who are graduates of formal training programs. However, because technology has not had as great an impact on boat and outdoor power equipment, most boat and small-engine mechanics learn their skills on the job. For trainee jobs, employers hire persons with mechanical aptitude who are knowl edgeable about the fundamentals of small 2- and 4-cycle engines. Many trainees develop an interest in mechanics and acquire some basic skills through working on automobiles, motorcycles, boats, or outdoor power equipment as a hobby, or through mechanic voca tional training in high school, vocational and technical schools, or community colleges. A growing number also prepare for their careers by completing training programs in motorcycle, marine, or small-engine mechanics, but only a relatively small number of such specialized programs exist. Trainees begin by learning routine service tasks under the guid ance of experienced mechanics, such as replacing ignition points and spark plugs, or taking apart, assembling, and testing new equipment. Equipment manufacturers' service manuals are an important training tool. As trainees gain experience and proficiency, they progress to more difficult tasks, such as diagnosing the cause of breakdowns or overhauling engines. Up to 3 years of training on the job may be necessary before an inexperienced beginner becomes skilled in all aspects of the repair of some motorcycle and boat engines. Employers sometimes send mechanics and trainees to special training courses conducted by motorcycle, boat, and outdoor power equipment manufacturers or distributors. These courses, which can last as long as 2 weeks, are designed to upgrade the worker's skills and provide information on repairing new models. Most employers prefer to hire high school graduates for trainee mechanic positions, but will accept applicants with less education if they possess adequate reading, writing, and arithmetic skills. Many equipment dealers employ students part time and during the summer to help assemble new equipment and perform minor repairs. Helpful high school courses include small-engine repair, automobile mechan ics, science, and business arithmetic. Knowledge of basic electronics is increasingly desirable for motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics. Electronics are increasingly being used in engine controls, instrument displays, and a variety of other components of motorcycles, boats, and outdoor power equipment. Mechanics should be familiar with at least the basic principles of electronics in order to recognize when an elec tronic malfunction may be responsible for a problem, and be able to test and replace electronic components. Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics are sometimes required to furnish their own handtools. Employers generally pro vide some tools and test equipment, but beginners are expected to gradually accumulate handtools as they gain experience. Some experienced mechanics have thousands of dollars invested in tools. Some mechanics are able to use skills learned through repairing motorcycles, boats, and outdoor power equipment to advance to higher paying jobs as automobile, truck, or heavy equipment me https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics who usually worked full time had median earnings of about $407 a week in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $286 and $516 a week. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $202 a week, while the highest paid 10 percent earned over $644 a week. Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics tend to receive few fringe benefits in small shops, but those employed in larger shops often receive paid vacations and sick leave and health insurance. Some employers also pay for work-related training and provide uniforms. Related Occupations The work of motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics is closely related to that of mechanics and repairers who work on other types of mobile equipment powered by internal combustion engines. Related occupations include automotive mechanic, diesel mechanic, farm equipment mechanic, and mobile heavy equipment mechanic. Sources of Additional Information For more details about work opportunities, contact local motorcycle, boat, and lawn and garden equipment dealers, and boat yards and marinas. Local offices of the State employment service also may have information about employment and training opportunities. General information about motorcycle mechanic careers may be obtained from: •■Motorcycle Mechanics Institute, 2844 West Deer Valley Rd„ Phoenix, AZ 85027. General information about motorboat mechanic careers may be obtained from: •“Marine Mechanics Institute, 2844 West Deer Valley Rd., Phoenix, AZ 85027. 372 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Musical Instrument Repairers and Tuners (D.O.T. 730.281-014, -026, -038, -050, -054, .361, .381-010, -026, -034, -038, -042, -058, .681-010, .684-022, -026, and -094) Nature of the Work Musical instruments are a source of entertainment and recreation for millions of people. Maintaining these instruments so they perform properly is the job of musical instrument repairers and tuners. The occupation includes piano tuners and repairers (often called piano technicians); pipe-organ tuners and repairers; and brass, woodwind, percussion, or string instrument repairers. Piano tuners adjust piano strings to the proper pitch. A string's pitch is the frequency at which it vibrates—and produces sound— when it is struck by one of the piano's wooden hammers. Tuners first adjust the pitch of the "A" string. Striking the key, the tuner com pares the string’s pitch with that of a tuning fork. Using a tuning hammer (also called a tuning lever or wrench), the tuner turns a steel pin to tighten or loosen the string until its pitch matches that of the tuning fork. The pitch of each of the other strings is set in relation to the "A" string. The standard 88-key piano has 230 strings and can be tuned in about an hour and a half. A piano has thousands of wooden, steel, iron, ivory, and felt parts which can be plagued by an assortment of problems. It is the task of piano repairers to locate and correct these problems. In addition to repair work, piano repairers may also tune pianos. To diagnose problems, repairers talk with customers before partially dismantling a piano to inspect its parts. Repairers may realign moving parts, replace old or worn ones, or completely rebuild pianos. Repairers use common handtools as well as special ones, such as regulating, repining, and restringing tools. Some piano tuners service pianos that have built-in computers that control humidity, assist in recording, or allow the piano to operate as an automatic player-piano. Piano repair work will increas ingly require some knowledge of electronics, as sales of sophisticated pianos increase, and people decide to upgrade their older pianos. Pipe-organ repairers tune, repair, and install organs that make music by forcing air through flue pipes or reed pipes. (Repairers who service electronic organs are included in the statement on electronic home entertainment equipment repairers elsewhere in the Hand book.) The flue pipe sounds when a current of air strikes a metal lip in the side of the pipe. The reed pipe sounds when a current of air vibrates a brass reed inside the pipe. To tune an organ, repairers first match the pitch of the "A" pipes with that of a tuning fork. The pitch of other pipes is set by compar ing it to that of the "A" pipes. To tune a flue pipe, repairers move the metal slide that increases or decreases the pipe's "speaking length." To tune a reed pipe, the tuner alters the length of the brass reed. Most organs have hundreds of pipes, so often a day or more is needed to completely tune an organ. Pipe-organ repairers locate problems, repair or replace worn parts, and clean pipes. Repairers also assemble organs on site in churches and auditoriums, following manufacturer's blueprints. They use hand and power tools to install and connect the air chest, blowers, air ducts, pipes, and other components. They may work in teams or be assisted by helpers. Depending on the size of the organ, a job may take several weeks or even months. Violin repairers adjust and repair bowed instruments, such as violins, violas, and cellos, using a variety of handtools. They find defects by inspecting and playing instruments. They remove cracked or broken sections, repair or replace defective parts, and restring instruments. They also fill in scratches with putty, sand rough spots, and apply paint or varnish. Guitar repairers inspect and play the instrument to determine https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis -.J Musical instrument repairers need good hearing, mechanical apti tude, and manual dexterity. defects. They replace levels using handtools, and fit wood or metal parts. They reassemble and string guitars. Brass and woodwind instruments include trumpets, cornets, French horns, trombones, tubas, clarinets, flutes, saxophones, oboes, and bassoons. Brass and wind instrument repairers clean, adjust, and repair these instruments. They move mechanical parts or play scales to find defects. They may unscrew and remove rod pins, keys, and pistons, and remove soldered parts using gas torches. They repair dents in metal instruments using mallets or burnishing tools. They fill cracks in wood instruments by inserting pinning wire and covering them with filler. Repairers also inspect instrument keys and replace worn pads and corks. Percussion instrument repairers work on drums, cymbals, and xylophones. In order to repair a drum, they remove drum tension rod screws and rods by hand or by using a drum key. They cut new drumheads from animal skin, stretch the skin over rimhoops and tuck it around and under the hoop using hand tucking tools. To prevent a crack in a cymbal, gong or similar instrument from advancing repair ers may operate a drill press or hand power drill to drill holes at the inside edge of the crack. Another technique they may use involves cutting out sections around the cracks using shears or grinding wheels. They also replace the bars and wheels of xylophones. Working Conditions Although they may suffer small cuts and bruises, the work of musical instrument repairers and tuners is relatively safe. Most brass, woodwind, percussion, and string instrument repairers work in repair shops or music stores. Piano and organ repairers and tuners usually work on instruments in homes, schools, and churches and may spend several hours a day driving. Salaried repairers and tuners work out of a shop or store; the self-employed generally work out of their homes. Employment Musical instrument repairers and tuners held about 9,702 jobs in 1994. Most worked on pianos. About two-thirds were selfemployed. Eight of 10 wage and salary repairers and tuners worked in music stores, and most of the rest worked in repair shops or for musical instrument manufacturers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For musical instrument repairer and tuner jobs, employers prefer people with post high school training in music repair technology. Some musical instrument repairers and tuners learn their trade on the job as apprentices or assistants, but employers willing to provide onthe-job training are difficult to find. A few music stores, large repair shops, and self-employed repairers and tuners hire inexperienced Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers 373 people as trainees to learn how to tune and repair instruments under the supervision of experienced workers. Trainees may sell instru ments, clean up, and do other routine work. Usually 2 to 5 years of training and practice are needed to become fully qualified. A small number of technical schools and colleges offer courses in piano technology or brass, woodwind, string, and electronic musical instrument repair. A few music repair schools offer 1- or 2-year courses. There are also home-study (correspondence school) courses in piano technology. Graduates of these courses generally refine their skills by working for a time with an experienced tuner or tech nician. Music courses help develop the student’s ear for tonal quality. The ability to play an instrument is helpful. Knowledge of wood working is useful for repairing instruments made of wood. Repairers and tuners need good hearing, mechanical aptitude, and manual dexterity. For those dealing directly with customers, a neat appearance and a pleasant, cooperative manner are important. Musical instrument repairers keep up with developments in their fields by studying trade magazines and manufacturers' service manuals. The Piano Technicians Guild helps its members improve their skills through training conducted at local chapter meetings and at regional and national seminars. Guild members also can take a series of tests to earn the title Registered Piano Technician. The National Association of Professional Band Instrument Repair Tech nicians offers similar programs, scholarships, and a trade publication. Its members specialize in the repair of woodwind, brass, string and percussion instruments. Repairers and technicians who work for large dealers, repair shops, or manufacturers can advance to supervi sory positions or go into business for themselves. Job Outlook Musical instrument repairer and tuner jobs are expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Replacement needs will provide the most job opportunities as many repairers and tuners near retirement age. Nonetheless, due to its small size the number of openings due to both growth and re placement needs is very low relative to other occupations. Because training is difficult to get—there are only a few schools that offer training programs and few experienced workers are willing to take on apprentices—opportunities for those who do get training should be excellent. Several competing factors are expected to influence the demand for musical instrument repairers and tuners. Although the number of people employed as musicians will increase, the number of students of all ages playing musical instruments is expected to grow slowly. Yet, consumers should continue to buy more expensive instruments, so they should be willing to spend more on tuning and repairs to protect their value. Earnings According to the limited information available, repairers and tuners employed full-time by retail music stores averaged about $26,550 in 1994. Repairers and tuners who worked full-time plus supervised at least one other technician averaged $34,250. Related Occupations Musical instrument repairers need mechanical aptitude and manual dexterity. Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers, vending machine servicers and repairers, home appliance and power tool repairers, and computer and office machine repairers all require similar talents. Sources of Additional Information Details about job opportunities may be available from local music instrument dealers and repair shops. For general information about piano technicians and a list of schools offering courses in piano technology, write to: •■Piano Technicians Guild, 3930 Washington St., Kansas City, MO 64111 2963. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis For general information on musical instrument repair, write to: ••National Association of Professional Band Instrument Repair Technicians (NAPBIRT), P.O. Box 51, Normal, IL 61761. Vending Machine Servicers and Repairers (D.O.T. 319.464-014 and 639.281-014) Nature of the Work Coin-operated vending machines are a familiar sight. These ma chines dispense many types of refreshments, from cold soft drinks to hot meals. Vending machine servicers and repairers install, service, and stock these machines and keep them in good working order. Vending machine servicers periodically visit coin-operated ma chines that dispense soft drinks, candy and snacks, and food items. They collect coins from the machines, restock merchandise, change labels to indicate new selections, and adjust temperature gauges so that items are kept at the right temperature. They are also responsi ble for keeping the machines clean. Because many vending ma chines dispense food, these workers must comply with State and local public health and sanitation standards. Servicers make sure machines operate correctly. When checking complicated electrical and electronic machines, such as beverage dispensers, they make sure that the machines mix drinks properly and that refrigeration and heating units work correctly. On the relatively simple gravity-operated machines, servicers check handles, springs, plungers, and merchandise chutes. They also test coin and change making mechanisms. When installing the machines, they make the necessary water and electrical connections and recheck the machines for proper operation. They also make sure installations comply with local plumbing and electrical codes. Preventive maintenance—avoiding trouble before it starts—is a major job of these workers. For example, they periodically clean refrigeration condensers, lubricate mechanical parts, and adjust machines to perform properly. If a machine breaks down, vending machine repairers inspect it for obvious problems, such as loose electrical wires, malfunctions of the coin mechanism, and leaks. If the problem cannot be readily located, they refer to technical manuals and wiring diagrams and use testing devices such as electrical circuit testers to find defective parts. Repairers sometimes fix faulty parts at the site, but they often install replacements and take broken parts to the company shop for repair. When servicing electronic machines, repairers may only have to replace a circuit board or other component. They also repair micro wave ovens used to heat food dispensed from machines. In repair and maintenance work, repairers use hammers, pliers, pipe cutters, soldering guns, wrenches, screwdrivers, and electronic testing devices. In the repair shop, they use power tools, such as grinding wheels, saws, and drills as well as voltmeters, ohmmeters, oscilloscopes, and other testing equipment. Vending machine servicers and repairers employed by small companies may both fill and fix machines on a regular basis. These combination servicers-repairers stock machines, collect money, fill coin and currency changers, and repair machines when necessary. Servicers and repairers also do some clerical work, such as filing reports, preparing repair cost estimates, ordering parts, and keeping daily records of merchandise distributed. However, many of the new computerized machines reduce the paperwork that a servicer per forms. Working Conditions Some vending machine repairers work primarily in company repair shops, but many servicers and repairers spend much of their time on the road visiting machines wherever they have been placed. Vend- 374 Occuptional Outlook Handbook 'f Many vending machine repairs must be done on the site. ing machines operate around the clock, so repairers often work at night and on weekends and holidays. Vending machine repair shops generally are quiet, well lighted, and have adequate work space. However, when servicing machines on location, the work may be done where pedestrian traffic is heavy, such as in busy supermarkets, industrial complexes, offices, or schools. Repair work is relatively safe, although servicers and repairers must take care to avoid hazards such as electrical shocks and cuts from sharp tools and metal objects. They also must follow safe work procedures, especially when moving heavy vending ma chines or working with electricity and radiation from microwave ovens. Employment Vending machine servicers and repairers held about 19,000 jobs in 1994. Most repairers work for vending companies that sell food and other items through machines. Others work for soft drink bottling companies that have their own coin-operated machines. Some work for companies that own video games, pin-ball machines, juke boxes, and similar types of amusement equipment. Although vending machine servicers and repairers are employed throughout the coun try, most are located in areas with large populations and many coin and vending machines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers generally prefer to hire high school graduates and to train them to fill and fix machines informally on the job by observing, working with, and receiving instruction from experienced repairers. High school or vocational school courses in electricity, refrigeration, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and machine repair are an advantage in qualifying for entry jobs. Employers usually require applicants to demonstrate mechanical ability, either through their work experience or by scoring well on mechanical aptitude tests. Because vending machine servicers and repairers sometimes handle thousands of dollars in merchandise and cash, employers hire persons who have a record of honesty and respect for the law. The ability to deal tactfully with people also is important. A commercial driver's license and a good driving record are essential for most vending machine repairer jobs. Electronics are becoming more prevalent in vending machines, so employers increasingly prefer applicants to have some training in electronics. Technologically advanced machines with features such as multilevel pricing, inventory control, and scrolling messages extensively use electronics and microchip computers. Some voca tional high schools and junior colleges offer 1- to 2-year training programs in basic electronics for vending machine servicers and repairers. Beginners may start their training with simple jobs such as cleaning or painting machines. They then may learn to rebuild machines—removing defective parts, repairing, adjusting, and testing the machines. Next, they accompany an experienced repairer on service calls, and finally make visits on their own. This learning process may take from 6 months to 3 years, depending on the indi vidual's abilities, previous education, types of machines, and the quality of instruction. The' National Automatic Merchandising Association has estab lished an apprenticeship program for vending machine repairers. Apprentices receive 144 hours of home-study instruction in subjects such as basic electricity and electronics, blueprint reading, customer relations, and safety. Upon completion of the program, performance and written tests must be passed to become certified. To learn about new machines, repairers and servicers sometimes attend training sessions sponsored by manufacturers, which may last from a few days to several weeks. Both trainees and experienced workers sometimes take evening courses in basic electricity, elec tronics, microwave ovens, refrigeration, and other related subjects. Skilled servicers and repairers may be promoted to supervisory jobs, Job Outlook Employment of vending machine servicers and repairers is expected to decline through the year 2005. More vending machines are likely to be installed in industrial plants, hospitals, stores, and other busi ness establishments to meet the public demand for vending machine items. In addition, the range of products dispensed by machine can be expected to increase as vending machines continue to become more automated and more are built with microwave ovens, mini refrigerators, and freezers. However, improvements in technology should require servicers and repairers to check on machines less frequently, reducing their employment. New machines will need to be repaired and restocked less often, and contain computers that record sales and inventory data, reducing time-consuming paperwork now done by servicers. Some new machines will even be able to signal the vending machine company when they need to be restocked or repaired, allowing servicers and repairers to be dispatched only when needed, instead of their having to check each machine on a regular schedule. Although employment is expected to decline, job openings will nevertheless arise as experienced workers transfer to other occupa tions or leave the labor force. Persons with some background in electronics should have the best job prospects because electronic circuitry is an increasingly important component of vending ma chines. If firms cannot find trained or experienced workers for these jobs, they are likely to train qualified route drivers or hire inexperi enced people who have acquired some mechanical, electrical, or electronic training by taking high school or vocational courses. Earnings According to a survey conducted by the National Automatic Mer chandising Association, the average hourly wage rate for nonunion Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers 375 vending machine servicers was $8.30 in 1994, with rates ranging from just under $4.25 to nearly $16.00 an hour, depending on the size of the firm and the region of the country. Nonunion repairers aver aged $10.21 an hour in 1994, but rates ranged from $5.00 to $22.00. Servicers and repairers who were members of unions generally earned slightly more. Most vending machine repairers work 8 hours a day, 5 days a week, and receive premium pay for overtime. Some union contracts stipulate higher pay for night work and for emergency repair jobs on weekends and holidays. Some vending machine repairers and servicers are members of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations Other workers who repair equipment with electrical and electronic components include home appliance and power tool repairers, elec tronic equipment repairers, and general maintenance mechanics. Sources of Additional Information Further information on job opportunities in this field can be obtained from local vending machine firms and local offices of the State employment service. For general information and a list of schools offering courses in vending machine repair, write to: •"National Automatic Merchandising Association, 20 N. Wacker Dr., Suite 3500, Chicago, IL 60606-3102. Construction Trades Occupations Bricklayers and Stonemasons (D.O.T. 779.684-058; 861.361-010 and -014, .381-010 through -042, except -034, .684-010 and -014; and 899.364-010) Nature of the Work Bricklayers and stonemasons work in closely related trades that produce attractive, durable surfaces and structures. The work they perform varies in complexity, from laying a simple masonry walk way to installing the ornate exterior of a high-rise building. Brick layers build walls, floors, partitions, fireplaces, chimneys, and other structures with brick, precast masonry panels, concrete block, and other masonry materials. Some specialize in installing firebrick linings in industrial furnaces. Stonemasons build stone walls as well as set stone exteriors and floors. They work with two types of stone—natural cut, such as marble, granite, and limestone, and artificial stone made from concrete, marble chips, or other masonry materials. Stonemasons usually work on structures such as houses of worship, hotels, and office buildings. In putting up a wall, bricklayers build the comers of the structure first. Because of the necessary precision, these corner leads are very time consuming to erect and require the skills of the most experi enced bricklayers on the job. After the comer leads are complete, less experienced bricklayers fill in the wall between the comers, using a line from comer to comer to guide each course or layer of brick. Because of the expense associated with building comer leads, an increasing number of bricklayers are using comer poles, also called masonry guides, that enable them to build the entire wall at the same time. They fasten the comer posts or poles in a plumb position to define the wall line and stretch a line between them. The line serves as a guide for each course of brick. Bricklayers then spread a bed of mortar (a cement, sand, and water mixture) with a trowel (a flat, bladed metal tool with a handle), place the brick on the mortar bed, and then press and tap it into place. As blueprints specify, they either cut brick with a hammer and chisel or saw them to fit around windows, doors, and other openings. Mortar joints are finished with jointing tools for a sealed, neat, and uniform appearance. Although bricklayers generally use steel supports or "lintels" at window and door openings, they sometimes build brick arches that support and enhance the beauty of the brickwork. Bricklayers are assisted by hod carriers, or helpers, who bring brick and other materials, mix mortar, and set up and move the scaffolding. Stonemasons often work from a set of drawings in which each stone has been numbered for identification. Helpers may locate and bring the prenumbered stones to the masons. A derrick operator using a hoist may be needed to lift large pieces into place. When building a stone wall, masons set the first course of stones into a shallow bed of mortar. They align the stones with wedges, plumblines, and levels, and adjust them into position with a hard rubber mallet. Masons build the wall by alternating layers of mortar and courses of stone. As the work progresses, they remove the wedges and fill the joints between stones and use a pointed metal tool, called a "tuck pointer," to smooth the mortar to an attractive finish. To hold large stones in place, stonemasons attach brackets to the stone and weld or bolt them to anchors in the wall. Finally, masons wash the stone with a cleansing solution to remove stains and dry mortar. When setting stone floors, which often consist of large and heavy pieces of stone, masons first trowel a layer of damp mortar over the 376 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis surface to be covered. Using crowbars and hard rubber mallets for aligning and leveling, they then set the stone in the mortar bed. To finish, workers fill the joints and wash the stone slabs. Masons use a special hammer and chisel to cut stone. They cut it along the grain to make various shapes and sizes. Valuable pieces often are cut with a saw that has a diamond blade. Some masons specialize in setting marble which, in many respects, is similar to setting large pieces of stone. Bricklayers and stonemasons also repair imperfections and cracks or replace broken or missing ma sonry units in walls and floors. Most nonresidential buildings are now built with prefabricated panels made of concrete block, brick veneer, stone, granite, marble, tile, or glass. In the past, bricklayers did mostly interior work, such as block partition walls and elevator shafts. Now they must be more versatile and work with many materials. For example, bricklayers now install lighter-weight insulated panels used in new skyscraper construction. Refractory masons are bricklayers who specialize in installing firebrick and refractory tile in high-temperature boilers, furnaces, cupolas, ladles, and soaking pits in industrial establishments. Most work in steel mills, where molten materials flow on refractory beds from furnaces to rolling machines. Working Conditions Bricklayers and stonemasons usually work outdoors. They stand, kneel, and bend for long periods and often have to lift heavy mate rials. Common hazards include injuries from tools and falls from scaffolds, but these can be avoided when proper safety practices are followed. Employment Bricklayers and stonemasons held about 147,000 jobs in 1994. The vast majority were bricklayers. Workers in these crafts are employed primarily by special trade, building, or general contractors. They work throughout the country but, like the general population, are concentrated in metropolitan areas. Bricklayers spend much of their time standing, kneeling, or bending. Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations 377 Nearly three of every 10 bricklayers and stonemasons are selfemployed. Many of the self-employed specialize in contracting on small jobs such as patios, walks, and fireplaces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most bricklayers and stonemasons pick up their skills informally by observing and learning from experienced workers. Many get training in vocational education schools. The best way to learn these skills, however, is through an apprenticeship program, which generally provides the most thorough training. Individuals who learn the trade on the job usually start as helpers, laborers, or mason tenders. They carry materials, move scaffolds, and mix mortar. When the opportunity arises, they are taught to spread mortar, lay brick and block, or set stone. As they gain experi ence, they make the transition to full-fledged craft workers. The learning period generally lasts much longer than an apprenticeship program, however. Apprenticeships for bricklayers and stonemasons usually are sponsored by local contractors or by local union-management committees. The apprenticeship program requires 3 years of on-thejob training in addition to a minimum 144 hours of classroom in struction each year in subjects such as blueprint reading, mathemat ics, layout work, and sketching. Apprentices often start by working with laborers, carrying mate rials, mixing mortar, and building scaffolds. This period generally lasts about a month and familiarizes them with job routines and materials. Next, they learn to lay, align, and join brick and block. Apprentices also learn to work with stone and concrete. This enables them to be certified to work with more than one masonry material. Applicants for apprenticeships must be at least 17 years old and in good physical condition. A high school education is preferable, and courses in mathematics, mechanical drawing, and shop are help ful. The International Masonry Institute, a division of the Interna tional Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen, operates training centers in several large cities that help job seekers develop the skills they will need to successfully complete the formal apprenticeship program. Experienced workers can advance to supervisory positions or become estimators. They also can open contracting businesses of their own. Job Outlook Job opportunities for skilled bricklayers and stonemasons are ex pected to be good as the growth in demand outpaces the supply of workers trained in this craft. Employment of bricklayers and stone masons is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occu pations through the year 2005, and additional openings will result from the need to replace bricklayers and stonemasons who retire, transfer to other occupations, or leave the trades for other reasons. However, the pool of young workers available to enter training programs will also be increasing slowly and many in that group are reluctant to seek training for jobs that may be strenuous and have uncomfortable working conditions. Population and business growth will create a need for new facto ries, schools, hospitals, offices, and other structures, increasing the demand for bricklayers and stonemasons. Also stimulating demand will be the need to restore a growing stock of old masonry buildings, as well as the increasing use of brick for decorative work on building fronts and in lobbies and foyers. Brick exteriors should continue to be very popular as the trend continues toward more durable exterior materials requiring less maintenance. Employment of bricklayers who specialize in refractory repair will decline, along with employ ment in other occupations in the primary metal industries. Employment of bricklayers and stonemasons, like that of many other construction workers, is sensitive to changes in the economy. When the level of construction activity falls, workers in these trades can experience periods of unemployment. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings Median weekly earnings for bricklayers and stonemasons were about $486 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $338 and $648 weekly. The highest 10 percent earned more than $830 weekly; the lowest 10 percent, less than $261. Earnings for workers in these trades may be reduced on occasion because poor weather and down turns in construction activity limit the time they can work. In each trade, apprentices or helpers usually start at about 50 percent of the wage rate paid to experienced workers. This increases as they gain experience. Some bricklayers and stonemasons are members of the Interna tional Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen. Related Occupations Bricklayers and stonemasons combine a thorough knowledge of brick, concrete block, stone, and marble with manual skill to erect very attractive yet highly durable structures. Workers in other occu pations with similar skills include concrete masons, plasterers, terrazzo workers, and tilesetters. Sources of Additional Information For details about apprenticeships or other work opportunities in these trades, contact local bricklaying, stonemasonry, or marble setting contractors; a local of the union listed above; a local joint unionmanagement apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about the work of either bricklayers or stonemasons, contact: •-International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen, International Masonry Institute Apprenticeship and Training, 815 15th St. NW„ Suite 1001, Washington, DC 20005. Information about the work of bricklayers also may be obtained from: •-Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW„ Wash ington, DC 20006. •"Brick Institute of America, 11490 Commerce Park Dr., Reston VA 22091 1525. •-Home Builders Institute, National Association of Home Builders, 1201 15th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20005. •"National Concrete Masonry Association, 2302 Horse Pen Rd Herndon VA 22071. Carpenters (D.O.T. 806.281-058; 860.281-010 through .664-010 and .684-101 and -014 863.684-010; 869.361-018, .381-010, -034, .684-018, -034, -042 and -058- ’ and 962.281-010) Nature of the Work Carpenters are involved in many different kinds of construction activity. They cut, fit, and assemble wood and other materials in the construction of buildings, highways and bridges, docks, industrial plants, boats, and many other structures. Their duties vary by type of employer. A carpenter employed by a special trade contractor, for example, may specialize in one or two activities, such as setting forms for concrete construction or erecting scaffolding. However, a carpenter employed by a general building contractor may perform many tasks, such as framing walls and partitions, putting in doors and windows, hanging kitchen cabinets, and installing paneling and tile ceilings. Local building codes often dictate where certain materials can be used, and carpenters have to know these requirements. Each carpen try task is somewhat different, but most tasks involve the same basic steps. Working from blueprints or instructions from supervisors, car penters first do the layout—measuring, marking, and arranging mate- 378 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Some carpenters specialize in setting forms for concrete construction. rials. They then cut and shape wood, plastic, ceiling tile, fiberglass, or drywall using hand and power tools, such as chisels, planes, saws, drills, and sanders, and then join the materials with nails, screws, staples, or adhesives. In the final step, they check the accuracy of their work with levels, rules, plumb bobs, and framing squares and make any necessary adjustments. When working with prefabricated components, such as stairs or wall panels, the carpenter's task is somewhat simpler because it does not require as much layout work or the cutting and assembly of as many pieces. These components are designed for easy and fast installation and can generally be installed in a single operation. Carpenters employed outside the construction industry do a variety of installation and maintenance work. They may replace panes of glass, ceiling tiles, and doors, as well as repair desks, cabi nets, and other furniture. Depending on the employer, they may install partitions, doors, and windows; change locks; and repair broken furniture. In manufacturing firms, carpenters may assist in moving or installing machinery. (For more information on workers who install this machinery, see the statements on industrial machin ery repairers and millwrights elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions As in other building trades, carpentry work is sometimes strenuous. Prolonged standing, climbing, bending, and kneeling often are neces sary. Carpenters risk injury from slips or falls, from working with sharp or rough materials, and from the use of sharp tools and power equipment. Many carpenters work outdoors. Some carpenters change employers each time they finish a con struction job. Others alternate between working for a contractor and working as contractors themselves on small jobs. Employment Carpenters—the largest group of building trades workers—held about 992,000 jobs in 1994. Four of every 5 worked for contractors who build, remodel, or repair buildings and other structures. Most of the remainder worked for manufacturing firms, government agencies, wholesale and retail establishments, and schools. About 4 of every 10 were self-employed. Carpenters are employed throughout the country in almost every community. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Carpenters learn their trade through on-the-job training and through formal training programs. Some pick up skills informally by work ing under the supervision of experienced workers. Many acquire skills through vocational education. Others participate in employer training programs or apprenticeships. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most employers recommend an apprenticeship as the best way to learn carpentry. Because the number of apprenticeship programs is limited, however, only a small proportion of carpenters learn their trade through these programs. Apprenticeship programs are adminis tered by local joint union-management committees of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America and the Associ ated General Contractors, Inc. or the National Association of Home Builders. Training programs are administered by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors and by local chapters of the Associated General Contraptors, Inc. These programs combine onthe-job training with related classroom instruction. Apprenticeship applicants generally must be at least 17 years old and meet local requirements. For example, some union locals test an applicant s aptitude for carpentry. The length of the program, usually about 3 to 4 years, varies with the apprentice's skill. On the job, apprentices learn elementary structural design and become familiar with common carpentry jobs such as layout, form building, rough framing, and outside and inside finishing. They also learn to use the tools, machines, equipment, and materials of the trade. Apprentices receive classroom instruction in safety, first aid, blueprint reading and freehand sketching, basic mathematics, and different carpentry techniques. Both in the classroom and on the job, they learn the relationship between carpentry and the other building trades. Informal on-the-job training usually is less thorough than an apprenticeship. The degree of training and supervision often depends on the size of the employing firm. A small contractor who special izes in home-building may only provide training in rough framing. In contrast, a large general contractor may provide training in several carpentry skills. Although specialization is becoming increasingly common, it is important to try to acquire skills in all aspects of carpentry to have the flexibility to be able to do whatever kind of work may be available. Carpenters with a well-rounded background can switch from residential building to commercial construction to remodeling jobs, depending on demand. A high school education is desirable, including courses in carpen try, shop, mechanical drawing, and general mathematics. Manual dexterity, eye-hand coordination, physical fitness, and a good sense of balance are important. The ability to solve arithmetic problems quickly and accurately also is helpful. Employers and apprenticeship committees generally view favorably training and work experience obtained in the Armed Services and the job corps. Carpenters may advance to carpentry supervisors or general construction supervisors. Carpenters usually have greater opportuni ties than most other construction workers to become general con struction supervisors because they are exposed to the entire construction process. Some carpenters become independent contrac tors. To advance, carpenters should be able to estimate the nature and quantity of materials needed to properly complete a job. They also must be able to estimate with accuracy how long a job should take to complete and its cost Job Outlook Job opportunities for carpenters are expected to be plentiful through the year 2005, due primarily to extensive replacement needs. Well over 100,000 job openings will become available each year as car penters transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The total number of job openings for carpenters each year usually is greater than for other craft occupations because the occupation is large and turnover is high. Since there are no strict training require ments for entry, many people with limited skills take jobs as carpen ters but eventually leave the occupation because they find they dislike the work or cannot find steady employment. Increased demand for carpenters will create additional job open ings. Employment is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Construction activity should increase slowly in response to demand for new hous ing and commercial and industrial plants and the need to renovate Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations 379 and modernize existing structures. Opportunities for frame carpen ters will be particularly good. The demand for carpenters will be offset somewhat by expected productivity gains resulting from the increasing use of prefabricated components, such as prehung doors and windows and prefabricated wall panels and stairs, that can be installed much more quickly. Prefabricated walls, partitions, and stairs can be quickly lifted into place in one operation; beams, and in some cases entire roof assemblies, can be lifted into place using a crane. As prefabricated components become more standardized, their use will increase. In addition, stronger adhesives that reduce the time needed to join materials and lightweight cordless pneumatic and combustion tools such as nailers and drills, as well as sanders with electronic speed controls, will make carpenters more efficient as well as reduce fatigue. Although employment of carpenters is expected to grow over the long run, people entering the occupation should expect to experience periods of unemployment. This results from the short-term nature of many construction projects and the cyclical nature of the construction industry. Building activity depends on many factors—interest rates, availability of mortgage funds, government spending, and business investment—that vary with the state of the economy. During eco nomic downturns, the number of job openings for carpenters de clines. The introduction of new and improved tools, equipment, techniques, and materials has vastly increased carpenters' versatility. Therefore, carpenters with all-round skills will have better opportu nities than those who can only do relatively simple, routine tasks. Job opportunities for carpenters also vary by geographic area. Construction activity parallels the movement of people and busi nesses and reflects differences in local economic conditions. There fore, the number of job opportunities and apprenticeship opportunities in a given year may vary widely from area to area. Earnings Median weekly earnings of carpenters, excluding the self-employed, were $424 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $315 and $591 per week. Weekly earnings for the top 10 percent of all carpen ters were more than $785; the lowest 10 percent earned less than $252. Earnings may be reduced on occasion because carpenters lose work time in bad weather and during recessions when jobs are un available. ^ Many carpenters are members of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America. Related Occupations Carpenters are skilled construction workers. Workers in other skilled construction occupations include bricklayers, concrete masons, electricians, pipefitters, plasterers, plumbers, stonemasons, and terrazzo workers. Carpet Installers (D.O.T. 864.381-010) Nature of the Work Many buildings—including homes, offices, stores, and restaurants— have carpet that was installed by a carpet installer. Before installing the carpet, these craft workers first inspect the surface to be covered to determine its condition and, if necessary, correct any imperfec tions that could show through the carpet. They must measure the area to be carpeted and plan the layout, keeping in mind expected traffic patterns and placement of seams for best appearance and maximum wear. When installing wall-to-wall carpet without tacks, installers first fasten a tackless strip to the floor, next to the wall. They then install the padded cushion or underlay. Next, they roll out, measure, mark, and cut the carpet, allowing for 2 to 3 inches of extra carpet for the final fitting. Using a knee kicker, they position the carpet, stretching it to fit evenly on the floor and snugly against each wall and door threshold. They then rough cut the excess. Finally, using a power stretcher, they stretch the carpet, hooking it to the tackless strip to hold it in place. The installer then finishes the edges using a wall trimmer. Because most carpet comes in 12-foot widths, wall-to-wall instal lations require installers to tape or sew sections together for large rooms. They join the seams by sewing them with a large needle and special thread or by using heat-taped seams—a special plastic tape made to join seams when activated with heat. On special upholstery work, such as stairs, carpet may be held in place with staples. Also, in commercial installations, carpet is often glued directly to the floor or to padding which has been glued to the floor. Carpet installers use handtools such as hammers, drills, staple guns, carpet knives, and rubber mallets. They also may use carpet laying tools, such as carpet shears, knee kickers, wall trimmers, loop pile cutters, heat irons, and power stretchers. Working Conditions Carpet installers generally work regular daytime hours, but when recarpeting stores or offices, they may work evenings and weekends to avoid disturbing customers or employees. Installers usually work under better conditions than most other construction workers, al though, the work is very labor intensive. Because carpets are in stalled in finished or nearly finished structures, work areas usually Sources of Additional Information For information about carpentry apprenticeships or other work opportunities in this trade, contact local carpentry contractors, locals of the union mentioned above, local joint union-contractor appren ticeship committees, or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about carpentry, contact: ••Associated Builders and Contractors, 1300 North 17th Street, Rosslyn VA 22209. ' •■Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Wash ington, DC 20006. •Home Builders Institute, National Association of Home Builders, 1201 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. •United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis When installing wall-to-wall carpet, carpet installers first lay a cushion or underlay. 380 Occuptional Outlook Handbook are clean, well lighted, safe, and comfortable. Installers kneel, reach, bend, stretch, and frequently lift heavy rolls of carpet. They also may be required to move heavy furniture. Safety regulations may require that they wear knee pads or safety goggles when using certain tools. Employment Carpet installers held about 66,000 jobs in 1994. Many worked for flooring contractors or floor covering retailers. About two-thirds of all carpet installers are self-employed. Although installers are employed throughout the Nation, they tend to be concentrated in urban areas where there are high levels of construction activity. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The vast majority of carpet installers learn their trade informally on the job as helpers to experienced installers. Others learn through formal apprenticeship programs, which include on-the-job training as well as related classroom instruction. Informal training is often sponsored by individual contractors and generally lasts from about 1 1/2 to 2 years. Helpers begin with simple assignments, such as installing stripping and padding, or helping stretch newly installed carpet. With experience, helpers take on more difficult assignments, such as measuring, cutting, and fitting. Apprenticeship programs and some contractor-sponsored pro grams provide comprehensive training in all phases of carpet laying. Most apprenticeship programs are union sponsored and consist of weekly classes and on-the-job training that usually last 3 to 4 years. Persons who wish to begin a career in carpet installation as a helper or apprentice should be 18 years old and have good manual dexterity. Since carpet installers frequently deal directly with cus tomers, they should be courteous and tactful. High school graduation is preferred, though not necessary: courses in general mathematics and shop are helpful. Some employers may require a driver's license and a criminal background check. Carpet installers may advance to positions as supervisors or installation managers for large installation firms. Some installers become salespersons or estimators. Many installers who begin working for a large contractor or installation firm also eventually go into business for themselves as independent subcontractors. Job Outlook Employment of carpet installers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Growth will be due primarily to the continued need to renovate and refurbish existing structures, which usually involves laying new carpet. Carpet as a floor covering continues to be popular and its usage is expected to grow in structures such as schools, offices, hospitals, and industrial plants. Demand for carpet will also be stimulated by new, more durable fibers that are stain and crush resistant and which come in a wider variety of colors. More resilient carpet needs to be replaced less often, but these attractive new products may induce more people to replace their old carpeting, contributing further to the demand for carpet installers. This occupation is less sensitive to changes in economic condi tions than most other construction occupations. Because much of their work involves replacing carpet in existing buildings, renovation work usually allows employment of carpet installers to remain rela tively stable even when new construction activity declines. In the many houses built with plywood, rather than hardwood floors, wallto-wall carpeting is a necessity. Similarly, offices, hotels, and stores often cover concrete floors with wall-to-wall carpet, which must be periodically replaced. Earnings Median weekly earnings of all full-time carpet installers were about https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis $412 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $272 and $613 per week. The top 10 percent earned more than $751 and the lowest 10 percent earned less than $195. Carpet installers get paid either on an hourly basis or by the number of yards installed. The rates vary widely depending on the geographic location and whether the installer is affiliated with a union. Nonunion carpet installers are usually paid by the number of yards installed. In 1994, they received between $1.50 and $3.00 a yard. According to limited information available, union carpet installers earned between $16 and $25 an hour in 1994, including benefits. Benefits average about $3.50 to $4.00 an hour, most of which is for health insurance. Apprentices and other trainees usually start out earning about half of what an experienced worker earns, though their wage rate increases as they advance through the training program. Some installers belong to the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America or the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades. Related Occupations Carpet installers measure, cut, and fit carpet materials. Workers in other occupations involving similar skills but using different materi als include carpenters, cement masons, drywall installers, floor layers, lathers, painters and paperhangers, roofers, sheet-metal work ers, terrazzo workers, and tilesetters. Sources of Additional Information For details about apprenticeships or work opportunities, contact local flooring contractors or retailers; locals of the unions previously mentioned; or the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency or the State employment service. For general information about the work of carpet installers, contact: •"Floor Covering Installation Contractors Association, P.O. Box 948, Dalton, GA 30722-0948. For information concerning training contact: •"United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Constitution Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20001. •"International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20006. ••New York City District Council of Carpenters Labor Technical College, 395 Hudson St., New York, NY 10014. Concrete Masons and Terrazzo Workers (D.O.T. 844.364-010, -014, . 461-010, .684-010; and 861.381-046, and -050) Nature of the Work Concrete—a mixture of Portland cement, sand, gravel, and water—is used for many types of construction projects. Whether small jobs, such as patios and floors, or huge dams or miles of roadway, con crete masons place and finish the concrete. They also may color concrete surfaces, expose aggregate (small stones) in walls and sidewalks, or fabricate concrete beams, columns, and panels. Terrazzo workers create attractive walkways, floors, patios, and panels by exposing marble chips and other fine aggregates on the surface of finished concrete. Much of the preliminary work of terrazzo workers is similar to that of concrete masons. In preparing a site for placing concrete, masons set the forms for holding the concrete to the desired pitch and depth and properly align them. They then direct the casting of the concrete and supervise laborers who use shovels or special tools to spread it. Masons then guide a straightedge back and forth across the top of the forms to "screed," or level, the freshly placed concrete. Immediately after Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations 381 leveling the concrete, masons carefully smooth the concrete surface with a "bull float," a long-handled tool about 8 by 48 inches that covers the coarser materials in the concrete and brings a rich mixture of fine cement paste to the surface. After the concrete has been leveled and floated, finishers press an edger between the forms and the concrete and guide it along the edge and the surface. This produces slightly rounded edges and helps prevent chipping or cracking. They use a special tool called a "groover" to make joints or grooves at specific intervals that help control cracking. Next, finishers trowel the surface using either a powered or a hand trowel, a small, smooth, rectangular metal tool. Troweling removes most imperfections and brings the fine cement paste to the surface. As the final step, masons retrowel the concrete surface back and forth with powered and hand trowels to create a smooth finish. For a coarse, nonskid finish, masons brush the surface with a broom or stiff-bristled brush. For a pebble finish, they embed small gravel chips into the surface. They then wash any excess cement from the exposed chips with a mild acid solution. For color, they use colored premixed concrete. On concrete surfaces that will remain exposed after forms are stripped, such as columns, ceilings, and wall panels, concrete masons cut away high spots and loose concrete with ham mer and chisel, fill any large indentations with a Portland cement paste and smooth the surface with a rubbing carborundum stone. Finally, they coat the exposed area with a rich Portland cement mixture using either a special tool or a coarse cloth to rub the con crete to a uniform finish. Attractive, marble-chip terrazzo requires three layers of materials. First, concrete masons or terrazzo workers build a solid, level con crete foundation that is 3 to 4 inches deep. After the forms are removed from the foundation, workers place a l-inch deep mixture of sandy concrete. Before this layer sets, terrazzo workers partially embed metal divider strips into the concrete wherever there is to be a joint or change of color in the terrazzo. These strips separate the different designs and colors of the terrazzo panels and help prevent cracks. For the final layer, terrazzo workers blend and place a fine marble chip mixture that may be color-pigmented into each of the panels, then hand trowel each panel until it is level with the tops of the ferrule strips. While the mixture is still wet, workers toss addi tional marble chips of various colors into each panel and roll a light weight roller over the entire surface. When the terrazzo is thoroughly dry, helpers grind it with a terrazzo grinder (somewhat like a floor polisher, only much heavier). Slight depressions left by the grinding are filled with a matching grout material and hand troweled for a smooth, uniform surface. ffm Concrete masons set the forms for holding the concrete. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Terrazzo workers then clean, polish, and seal the dry surface for a lustrous finish. Working Conditions Concrete or terrazzo work is fast paced and strenuous. Since most finishing is done at floor level, workers must bend and kneel a lot. Many jobs are outdoors, but work is generally halted during rain or freezing weather. To avoid chemical burns from uncured concrete and sore knees from frequent kneeling, many workers wear kneepads. Workers usually wear water-repellent boots while working in wet concrete. Employment Concrete masons and terrazzo workers held about 126,000 jobs in 1994; terrazzo workers accounted for a very small proportion of the total. Most concrete masons worked for concrete contractors or for general contractors on projects such as highways, bridges, shopping malls, or large buildings such as factories, schools, and hospitals. A small number were employed by firms that manufacture concrete products. Most terrazzo workers worked for special trade contractors who install decorative floors and wall panels. Fewer than 1 out of 10 concrete masons and terrazzo workers was self-employed, a smaller proportion than in other building trades. Most self-employed masons specialized in small jobs, such as drive ways, sidewalks, and patios. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Concrete masons and terrazzo workers learn their trades either through on-the-job training as helpers or through 3-year apprentice ship programs. Many masons first gain experience as construction laborers. When hiring helpers and apprentices, employers prefer high school graduates who are at least 18 years old, in good physical condition, and licensed to drive. The ability to get along with others also is important because concrete masons frequently work in teams. High school courses in shop mathematics and blueprint reading or mechanical drawing provide a helpful background. On-the-job training programs consist of informal instruction from experienced workers in which helpers learn to use the tools, equip ment, machines, and materials of the trade. They begin with tasks such as edging and jointing and using a straightedge on freshly placed concrete. As they progress, assignments become more com plex, and trainees usually can do finishing work within a short time. Three-year apprenticeship programs, usually jointly sponsored by local unions and contractors, provide on-the-job training in addition to a recommended minimum of 144 hours of classroom instruction each year. A written test and a physical exam may be required. In the classroom, apprentices learn applied mathematics, blueprint reading, and safety. Apprentices generally receive special instruction in layout work and cost estimating. Experienced concrete masons or terrazzo workers may advance to become supervisors or contract estimators. Some open their own concrete contracting businesses. Job Outlook Employment of concrete masons and terrazzo workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. In addition to job openings that will stem from the rising demand for the services of these workers, other jobs will become available as experienced workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The demand for concrete masons and terrazzo workers will rise as the population and the economy grow. More masons will be needed to build highways, bridges, subways, factories, office buildings, hotels, shopping centers, schools, hospitals, and other structures. In addition, the increasing use of concrete as a building material— particularly in nonresidential construction—will add to the demand. 382 Occuptional Outlook Handbook More concrete masons also will be needed to repair and renovate existing highways, bridges, and other structures. Employment growth of concrete masons and terrazzo workers, however, will not keep pace with the growth of these construction projects. Nevertheless, their productivity will increase as a result of the use of improved concrete pumping systems, continuous concrete mixers, quicker setting cement, troweling machines, prefabricated masonry systems, and other improved materials, equipment, and tools. Employment of concrete masons and terrazzo workers, like that of many other workers, is sensitive to the ups and downs in the economy. Workers in these trades may experience periods of unem ployment when the level of nonresidential construction falls. On the other hand, shortages of these workers may occur in some areas during peak periods of building activity. Earnings Median weekly earnings of full-time concrete masons and terazzo workers were about $407 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $310 and $528 per week. The top 10 percent earned more than $701 and the lowest 10 percent earned less than $231. According to the limited information available, average hourly earnings—including benefits—for concrete masons who belonged to a union and worked full time ranged between $15.90 and $42.16 in 1994. Concrete masons in. New York, Boston, San Francisco, Chicago, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, and other large cities received the highest wages. Nonunion workers generally have lower wage rates than union workers. Apprentices usually start at 50 to 60 percent of the rate paid to experienced workers. Concrete masons often work overtime, with premium pay, be cause once concrete has been placed, the job must be completed. Annual earnings of concrete masons and terrazzo workers may be lower than the hourly rates suggest because bad weather and down turns in construction activity can limit the time they can work. Many concrete masons and terrazzo workers belong to the Opera tive Plasterers' and Cement Masons' International Association of the United States and Canada, or to the International Union of Bricklay ers and Allied Craftsmen. Some terrazzo workers belong to the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of the United States. Related Occupations Concrete masons and terrazzo workers combine skill with knowledge of building materials to construct buildings, highways, and other structures. Other occupations involving similar skills and knowledge include bricklayers, form builders, marble setters, plasterers, stone masons, and tilesetters. Drywall Workers and Lathers (D.O.T. 842.361-010, -014, and -030, .664-010, .684-014; and 869.684-050) Nature of the Work Drywall consists of a thin layer of gypsum sandwiched between two layers of heavy paper. It is used today for walls and ceilings in most buildings because it is both faster and cheaper to install than plaster. There are two kinds of drywall workers: installers and finishers. Installers, also called applicators, fasten drywall panels to the inside framework of residential houses and other buildings. Finishers, or tapers, prepare these panels for painting by taping and finishing joints and imperfections. Because drywall panels are manufactured in standard sizes usually 4 feet by 8 or 12 feet—installers must measure, cut, and fit some pieces around doors and windows. They also saw or cut holes in panels for electrical outlets, air-conditioning units, and plumbing. After making these alterations, installers may glue, nail, or screw the wallboard panels to the wood or metal framework. Because drywall is heavy and cumbersome, a helper generally assists the installer in positioning and securing the panel. A lift is often used when placing ceiling panels. After the drywall is installed, finishers fill joints between panels with a joint compound. Using the wide, flat tip of a special trowel, they spread the joint compound into and along each side of the joint with brushlike strokes. They immediately use the trowel to press a paper tape—used to reinforce the drywall and to hide imperfec tions—into the wet compound and to smooth away excess material. Nail and screw depressions also are covered with this compound, as are imperfections caused by the installation of air-conditioning vents and other fixtures. On large commercial projects, finishers may use automatic taping tools that apply the joint compound and tape in one step. Finishers apply second and third coats, sanding the treated areas after each coat to make them as smooth as the rest of the wall surface. This results in a very smooth and almost perfect surface. Some finishers apply textured surfaces to walls and ceilings with trowels, brushes, or spray guns. Lathers apply metal or gypsum lath to walls, ceilings, or orna mental frameworks to form the support base for plaster coatings. Gypsum lath is similar to a drywall panel, but smaller. Metal lath is used where the plaster application will be exposed to weather or water, or for curved or irregular surfaces for which drywall is not a practical material. Lathers usually nail, screw, staple, or wire-tie the lath directlv to the structural framework. Sources of Additional Information For information about apprenticeships and work opportunities, contact local concrete or terrazzo contractors; locals of unions previ ously mentioned; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State employment service or apprenticeship agency. For general information about concrete masons and terrazzo workers, contact: «■Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW„ Wash ington, DC 20006. •■International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen, International Masonry Institute Apprenticeship and Training, 815 15th St. NW., Suite 1001, Washington, DC 20005. •■Operative Plasterers' and Cement Masons’ International Association of the United States and Canada, 1125 17th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. ••National Terrazzo and Mosaic Association, 3166 Des Plaines Ave., Suite 132, Des Plaines, IL 60018. •■Portland Cement Association, 5420 Old Orchard Rd., Skokie, IL 60077. ••United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Drywall workers install metal lathing around windows. Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations 383 Working Conditions As in other construction trades, drywall and lathing work sometimes is strenuous. Applicators, tapers, finishers, and lathers spend most of the day on their feet, either standing, bending, or kneeling. Some finishers use stilts to tape and finish ceiling and angle joints. In stallers have to lift and maneuver heavy panels. Hazards include falls from ladders and scaffolds, and injuries from power tools. Because sanding joint compound to a smooth finish creates a great deal of dust, some finishers wear masks for protection. Employment Drywall workers and lathers held about 133,000 jobs in 1994. Most worked for contractors who specialize in drywall or lathing installa tion; others worked for contractors who do many kinds of construc tion. Nearly one-third were self employed independent contractors. Most installers, finishers, and lathers are employed in urban areas. In other areas, where there may not be enough work to keep a drywall worker or lather employed full time, the work is usually done by carpenters and painters. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most drywall and lathing workers start as helpers and learn their skills on the job. Installer and lather helpers start by carrying mate rials, lifting and holding panels, and cleaning up debris. Within a few weeks, they learn to measure, cut, and install materials. Even tually, they become fully experienced workers. Finisher apprentices begin by taping joints and touching up nail holes, scrapes, and other imperfections. They soon learn to install comer guards and to con ceal openings around pipes. At the end of their training, they learn to estimate the cost of installing and finishing drywall and gypsum lath. Some installers and lathers learn their trade in an apprenticeship program. The United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, in cooperation with local contractors, administers an ap prenticeship program in carpentry that includes instruction in drywall and lath installation. In addition, local affiliates of the Associated Builders and Contractors and the National Association of Home Builders conduct training programs for nonunion workers. The International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades conducts a 2-year apprenticeship program for drywall finishers. Employers prefer high school graduates who are in good physical condition, but they frequently hire applicants with less education. High school or vocational school courses in carpentry provide a helpful background for drywall work. Regardless of educational background, installers must be good at simple arithmetic. Drywall workers and lathers with a few years' experience and leadership ability may become supervisors. Some workers start their own contracting businesses. Job Outlook Replacement needs will account for almost all job openings for drywall workers and lathers through the year 2005. Tens of thou sands of jobs will open up each year because of the need to replace workers who transfer to jobs in other occupations or leave the labor force. Turnover in this occupation is very high, reflecting the lack of formal training requirements and the ups and downs of the business cycle, to which the construction industry is very sensitive. Because of their relatively weak attachment to the occupation, many workers with limited skills leave the occupation when they find they dislike the work or because they can't find steady employment. Additional job openings will be created by the rising demand for drywall work. Employment is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations, reflecting the slow growth of new construction and renovation. In addition to traditional interior work, the growing acceptance of insulated exterior wall systems will pro vide additional jobs for drywall workers. Despite the growing use of exterior panels, most drywall installa tion, finishing, and lathing are usually done indoors. Therefore, these workers lose less work time because of bad weather than some other https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis construction workers. Nevertheless, they may be unemployed be tween construction projects and during downturns in construction activity. Earnings Median weekly earnings for drywall workers and lathers were about $419 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $311 and $596 weekly. The top 10 percent earned over $818 and the bottom 10 percent earned less than $257 a week. Trainees usually started at about half the rate paid to experienced workers and received wage increases as they became more highly skilled. Some contractors pay these workers according to the number of panels they install or finish per day; others pay an hourly rate. A 40hour week is standard, but sometimes the workweek may be longer. Those who are paid hourly rates receive premium pay for overtime. Related Occupations Drywall workers and lathers combine strength and dexterity with precision and accuracy to make materials fit according to a plan. Other occupations that require similar abilities include carpenters, floor covering installers, form builders, insulation workers, and plasterers. Sources of Additional Information For information about work opportunities in drywall application and finishing, contact local drywall installation contractors; a local of the unions previously mentioned; a local joint union-management ap prenticeship committee; a State or local chapter of the Associated Builders and Contractors; or the nearest office of the State employ ment service or State apprenticeship agency. For details about job qualifications and training programs in drywall application and finishing, write to: •“Associated Builders and Contractors, Inc., 1300 North 17th St., Rosslyn VA 22209. •“International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington. DC 20006. For information on training programs in drywall application and lathing, write to: •“United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001. •“Home Builders Institute, National Association of Home Builders, 1201 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. Electricians (D.O.T. 729.381-018; 806.381-062; 822.361-018, -022; 824.261, .281-010 -018, .381, .681; 825.381-030, -034; 829.261-018; and 952.364 and .381) Nature of the Work Electricity is essential for light, power, air-conditioning, and refrig eration. Electricians install, connect, test, and maintain electrical systems for a variety of purposes, including climate control, security, and communications. They also may install and maintain the elec tronic controls for machines in business and industry. Although most electricians specialize in either construction or maintenance, a growing number do both. Electricians work with blueprints when they install electrical systems in factories, office buildings, homes, and other structures. Blueprints indicate the location of circuits, outlets, load centers, panel boards, and other equipment. Electricians must follow the National Electric Code and comply with State and local building codes when they install these systems. In factories and offices, they first place conduit (pipe or tubing) inside designated partitions, walls, or other concealed areas. They also fasten to the wall small metal or plastic boxes that will house electrical switches and outlets. They 384 Occuptional Outlook Handbook work in awkward or cramped positions. Electricians risk injury from electrical shock, falls, and cuts; to avoid injuries, they must follow strict safety procedures. Some electricians may have to travel to job sites, which may be up to 100 miles away. Most electricians work a standard 40-hour week, although over time may be required. Those in maintenance work may have to work nights, on weekends, and be on call. Companies that operate 24 hours a day may employ 3 shifts of electricians. Generally, the first shift is primarily responsible for routine maintenance, while the other shifts perform preventive maintenance. Employment Electricians held about 528,000 jobs in 1994. More than half were employed in the construction industry. Others worked as mainte nance electricians and were employed in virtually every industry. In addition, about 1 out of 10 electricians was self-employed. Because of the widespread need for electrical services, jobs for electricians are found in all parts of the country. Electricians join wires by twisting their ends together and covering them with plastic connectors. then pull insulated wires or cables through the conduit to complete circuits between these boxes. In lighter construction, such as resi dential, plastic-covered wire usually is used rather than conduit. Regardless of the type of wire being used, electricians connect it to circuit breakers, transformers, or other components. Wires are joined by twisting ends together with pliers and covering the ends with special plastic connectors. When stronger connections are required, electricians may use an electric "soldering gun" to melt metal onto the twisted wires, which they then cover with durable electrical tape. When the wiring is finished, they test the circuits for proper connections. In addition to wiring a building's electrical system, electricians may install coaxial or fiber optic cable for computers and other telecommunications equipment. A growing number of electricians install telephone and computer wiring and equipment. They also may connect motors to electrical power and install electronic controls for industrial equipment. Maintenance work varies greatly, depending on where the elec trician is employed. Electricians who specialize in residential work may rewire a home and replace an old fuse box with a new circuit breaker to accommodate additional appliances. Those who work in large factories may repair motors, transformers, generators, and electronic controllers on machine tools and industrial robots. Those in office buildings and small plants may repair all kinds of electrical equipment. Maintenance electricians spend much of their time in preventive maintenance. They periodically inspect equipment and locate and correct problems before breakdowns occur. Electricians also may advise management whether continued operation of equipment could be hazardous. When needed, they install new electrical equipment. When breakdowns occur, they must make the necessary repairs as quickly as possible in order to minimize inconvenience. Electricians may replace items such as circuit breakers, fuses, switches, electrical and electronic components, or wire. When working with complex electronic devices, they may work with engineers, engineering technicians, or industrial machinery repairers. (For information about each of these occupations, see the statements located elsewhere in the Handbook.) Electricians use handtools such as screwdrivers, pliers, knives, and hacksaws. They also use power tools and testing equipment such as oscilloscopes, ammeters, and test lamps. Working Conditions Electricians’ work is sometimes strenuous. They may stand for long periods and frequently work on ladders and scaffolds. They often https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The best way to learn the electrical trade is by completing a 4- or 5year apprenticeship program. Apprenticeship gives trainees a thor ough knowledge of all aspects of the trade and generally improves their ability to find a job. Although more electricians are trained through apprenticeship than workers in other construction trades, some still learn their skills informally on the job. Large apprenticeship programs are usually sponsored by joint training committees made up of local unions of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers and local chapters of the National Electrical Contractors Association. Training may also be provided by company management committees of individual electrical con tracting companies and by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors and the Independent Electrical Contractors. Because of the comprehensive training received, those who complete appren ticeship programs qualify to do both maintenance and construction work. The typical large apprenticeship program provides at least 144 hours of classroom instruction each year and 8,000 hours of on-thejob training over the course of the apprenticeship. In the classroom, apprentices learn blueprint reading, electrical theory, electronics, mathematics, electrical code requirements, and safety and first aid practices. They also receive specialized training in welding and communications and fire alarm systems. On the job, under the supervision of experienced electricians, apprentices must demon strate mastery of the electrician's work. At first, they drill holes, set anchors, and set up conduit. Later, they measure, fabricate, and install conduit, as well as install, connect, and test wiring, outlets, and switches. They also learn to set up and draw diagrams for entire electrical systems. Those who do not enter a formal apprenticeship program can begin to learn the trade informally by working as helpers for experi enced electricians. While learning to install conduit, connect wires, and test circuits, helpers also are taught safety practices. Many helpers supplement this training with trade school or correspondence courses. Regardless of how one learns the trade, previous training is very helpful. High school courses in mathematics, electricity, electronics, mechanical drawing, science, and shop provide a good background. Special training offered in the Armed Forces and by postsecondary technical schools also is beneficial. All applicants should be in good health and have at least average physical strength. Agility and dexterity also are important. Good color vision is needed because workers frequently must identify electrical wires by color. Most apprenticeship sponsors require applicants for apprentice positions to be at least 18 years old and have a high school diploma or its equivalent. For those interested in becoming maintenance electricians, a background in electronics is increasingly important Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations 385 because of the growing use of complex electronic controls on manu facturing equipment. Most localities require electricians to be licensed. Although licensing requirements vary from area to area, electricians generally must pass an examination that tests their knowledge of electrical theory, the National Electrical Code, and local electric and building codes. Electricians periodically take courses offered by their employer or union to keep abreast of changes in the National Electrical Code, materials, or methods of installation. Experienced electricians can become supervisors and then super intendents. Those with sufficient capital and management skills may start their own contracting business, although this may require an electrical contractor's license. Job Outlook Job opportunities for skilled electricians are expected to be good as the growth in demand outpaces the supply of workers trained in this craft. There is expected to be a shortage of skilled workers during the next decade because of the anticipated smaller pool of young workers entering training programs. Employment of electricians is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. As popu lation and the economy grow, more electricians will be needed to install and maintain electrical devices and wiring in homes, factories, offices, and other structures. New technologies also are expected to continue to stimulate the demand for these workers. Increasingly, buildings will be prewired during construction to accommodate use of computers and telecommunications equipment. More and more factories will be using robots and automated manufacturing systems. Installation of this equipment, which is expected to increase, also should stimulate demand for electricians. Additional jobs will be created by rehabilitation and retrofitting of existing structures. In addition to jobs created by increased demand for electrical work, many openings will occur each year as electricians transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Because of their lengthy training and relatively high earnings, a smaller proportion of electricians than other craft workers leave their occupation each year. The number of retirements is expected to rise, however, as more electricians reach retirement age. Employment of construction electricians like that of many other construction workers, is sensitive to changes in the economy. This results from the limited duration of construction projects and the cyclical nature of the construction industry. During economic downturns, job openings for electricians are reduced as the level of construction declines. Apprenticeship opportunities also are less plentiful during these periods. Although employment of maintenance electricians is steadier than that of construction electricians, those working in the automotive and other manufacturing industries that are sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy may be laid off during recessions. Also, efforts to reduce operating costs and increase productivity through the in creased use of contracting out for electrical services may limit oppor tunities for maintenance electricians in many industries. However, this should be partially offset by increased demand by electrical contracting firms. Job opportunities for electricians also vary by geographic area. Employment opportunities follow the movement of people and businesses among States and local areas and reflect differences in local economic conditions. The number of job opportunities in a given year may fluctuate widely from area to area. Some parts of the country may experience an oversupply of electricians, for example, while others may have a shortage. Earnings Median weekly earnings for full-time electricians who were not selfemployed were $574 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $415 and $754 weekly. The lowest 10 percent earned less https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis than $301, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $971 a week. According to a survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas, maintenance electricians had median hourly earnings of $17.45 in 1993. The middle half earned between $14.00 and $20.25 an hour. Annual earnings of electricians also tend to be higher than those of other building trades workers because electricians are less affected by the seasonal nature of construction. Depending on experience, apprentices usually start at between 30 and 50 percent of the rate paid to experienced electricians. As they become more skilled, they receive periodic increases throughout the course of the apprenticeship program. Many employers also provide training opportunities for experienced electricians to improve their skills. Many construction electricians are members of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Among unions organizing maintenance electricians are the International Brotherhood of Elec trical Workers; the International Union of Electronic, Electrical, Salaried, Machine, and Furniture Workers; the International Asso ciation of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; and the United Steelworkers of America. Related Occupations To install and maintain electrical systems, electricians combine manual skill and a knowledge of electrical materials and concepts. Workers in other occupations involving similar skills include air conditioning mechanics, cable installers and repairers, electronics mechanics, and elevator constructors. Sources of Additional Information For details about apprenticeships or other work opportunities in this trade, contact offices of the State employment service, the State apprenticeship agency, local electrical contractors or firms that employ maintenance electricians, or local union-management elec trician apprenticeship committees. This information may also be available from local chapters of the Independent Electrical Contrac tors, Inc.: the National Electrical Contractors Association; the Home Builders Institute; the Associated Builders and Contractors; and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. For general information about the work of electricians, contact: •"Independent Electrical Contractors, Inc., 507 Wythe St., Alexandria VA 22314. •National Electrical Contractors Association (NECA), 3 Metro Center, Suite 1100, Bethesda, MD 20814. •International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers (IBEW), 1125 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. •Associated Builders and Contractors, 1300 North 17th St., Rosslyn VA 22209. •Homebuilders Institute, National Association of Home Builders, 1201 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. Glaziers (D.O.T. 865.361 and .381) Nature of the Work Glass serves many uses in modem buildings. Insulated and specially treated glass keeps in warmed or cooled air and provides good con densation and sound control qualities; tempered and laminated glass makes doors and windows more secure. In large commercial build ings, glass panels give skyscrapers a distinctive look while reducing the need for artificial lighting. The creative use of large windows, glass doors, skylights, and sun room additions make homes bright, airy, and inviting. 386 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Glaziers generally work on four types of projects. Residential glazing involves work such as replacing glass in home windows, installing glass mirrors, shower doors and bathtub enclosures, and glass for table tops and display cases. On commercial interior proj ects, glaziers install items such as heavy, often etched, decorative room dividers and windows with speak holes and security glazing. Glazing projects may also involve replacement of storefront windows for establishments such as stores, supermarkets, auto dealerships, and banks. In construction of large commercial buildings, glaziers build metal framework extrusions and install glass panels or curtainwalls. Glaziers select, cut, install, and remove all types of glass as well as plastics, granite, marble, and similar materials used as glass substi tutes. They may mount steel and aluminum sashes or frames and attach locks and hinges to glass doors. For most jobs, the glass is precut and mounted in frames at a factory or a contractor's shop. It arrives at the job site ready for glaziers to position and secure it in place. They may use a crane or hoist with suction cups to lift large, heavy pieces of glass. They then gently guide the glass into position by hand. Once glaziers have the glass in place, they secure it with mastic, putty, or other pastelike cement, or with bolts, rubber gaskets, glaz ing compound, metal clips, or metal or wood molding. When they secure glass using a rubber gasket—a thick, molded rubber half-tube with a split running its length—they first secure the gasket around the perimeter within the opening, then set the glass into the split side of the gasket, causing it to clamp to the edges and hold the glass firmly in place. When they use metal clips and wood molding, glaziers first secure the molding to the opening, place the glass in the molding, and then force spring-like metal clips between the glass and the molding. The clips exert pressure and keep the glass firmly in place. When a glazing compound is used, glaziers first spread it neatly against and around the edges of the molding on the inside of the opening. Next, they install the glass. Pressing it against the com pound on the inside molding, workers screw or nail outside molding that loosely holds the glass in place. To hold it firmly, they pack the space between the molding and the glass with glazing compound and then trim any excess material with a glazing knife. For some jobs, the glazier must cut the glass manually at the job site. To prepare the glass for cutting, glaziers rest it either on edge on a rack or "A-frame" or flat against a cutting table. They then measure and mark the glass for the cut. Glaziers cut glass with a special tool that has a very hard metal wheel about 1/6 inch in diameter. Using a straightedge as a guide, the glazier presses the cutter’s wheel firmly on the glass, guiding and rolling it carefully to make a score just below the surface. To help Glaziers often work in pairs. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis the cutting tool move smoothly across the glass, workers brush a thin layer of oil along the line of the intended cut or dip the cutting tool in oil. Immediately after cutting, the glazier presses on the shorter end of the glass to break it cleanly along the cut. In addition to handtools such as glass cutters, suction cups, and glazing knives, glaziers use power tools such as saws, drills, cutters, and grinders. An increasing number of glaziers use computers in the shop or at the job site to improve their layout work and reduce the amount of glass that is wasted. Working Conditions Glaziers often work outdoors, sometimes in inclement weather. At times they work on scaffolds at great heights. They do a consider able amount of bending, kneeling, lifting, and standing. Glaziers may be injured by broken glass or cutting tools, falls from scaffolds, or from improperly lifting heavy glass panels. Employment Glaziers held about 34,000 jobs in 1994. Most worked for glazing contractors engaged in new construction, alteration, and repair. Others worked for retail glass shops that install or replace glass and for wholesale distributors of products containing glass. Glaziers work throughout the country, but jobs are concentrated in metropoli tan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many glaziers learn the trade informally on the job. They usually start as helpers, carrying glass and cleaning up debris in glass shops. They often practice cutting on discarded glass. After a while they are given an opportunity to cut glass for a job. Eventually, helpers assist experienced workers on simple installation jobs. By working with experienced glaziers, they eventually acquire the skills of a fully qualified glazier. Employers recommend that glaziers learn the trade through a formal apprenticeship program that lasts 3 to 4 years. Apprenticeship programs, which are administered by the National Glass Association and local union-management committees or local contractors' asso ciations, consist of on-the-job training, as well as 144 hours of class room instruction or home study each year. On the job, apprentices learn to use the tools and equipment of the trade; handle, measure, cut, and install glass and metal framing; cut and fit moldings; and install and balance glass doors. In the classroom, they are taught basic mathematics, blueprint reading and sketching, general con struction techniques, safety practices, and first aid. Learning the trade through an apprenticeship program usually takes less time and provides more complete training than acquiring skills informally on the job, but opportunities for apprenticeships are declining. Local apprenticeship administrators determine how apprentices are recruited and selected. In general, applicants for apprenticeships and for helper positions must be in good physical condition and at least 17 years old. High school or vocational school graduates are preferred. In some areas, applicants must take mechanical aptitude tests. Courses in general mathematics, blueprint reading or mechani cal drawing, general construction, and shop provide a good back ground. Standards for acceptance into apprenticeship programs are rising to reflect changing requirements associated with new products and equipment. Glaziers need a basic understanding of electricity and electronics in order to be able to install electrochromatic glass and electronically controlled glass doors. In addition, the growing use of computers in glass layout requires more and more that glaziers be familiar with personal computers. Because many glaziers do not learn the trade through a formal apprenticeship program, the National Glass Association (NGA) offers a series of written examinations which certify an individual's competency to perform glazier work at three progressively more difficult levels of proficiency. These levels include Level I, Glazier; Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations 387 Level II, Commercial Interior/Residential Glazier or Storefront/ Curtainwall Glazier; and Level III, Master Glazier. Advancement generally consists of increases in pay for most glaziers; some advance to supervisory jobs or become contractors or estimators. Job Outlook Employment of glaziers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as a result of anticipated slow growth in residential and non-residential construc tion. Demand for glaziers will be spurred by the continuing need to modernize and repair existing structures and the popularity of glass in bathroom and kitchen design. Improved glass performance in insulation, privacy, safety, condensation control, and noise reduction are also expected to contribute to the demand for glaziers. In addi tion, job openings for glaziers will occur each year due to the need to replace experienced workers who retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. People wishing to become construction glaziers should expect to experience periods of unemployment. These result from the limited duration of construction projects and the cyclical nature of the con struction industry. During bad economic times, job openings for glaziers are reduced as the level of construction declines. Because construction activity varies from area to area, job openings—as well as apprenticeship opportunities—fluctuate with local economic conditions. Consequently, some parts of the country may experience an oversupply of these workers while others may have a shortage. Employment and apprenticeship opportunities should be greatest in metropolitan areas, where most glazing contractors and glass shops are located. Earnings The median weekly earnings of glaziers were about $420 a week in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $330 and $530 a week. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $240 a week, while 10 percent with the highest pay earned $660 or more a week, According to the Engineering News Record, union glaziers re ceived an average hourly wage of $26.05 in 1994, including benefits. Wages ranged from a low of $15.80 in Dallas to a high of $40.27 in New York City. Glaziers covered by union contracts generally earn more than their non-union counterparts. Apprentice wage rates usually start at 50 to 60 percent of the rate paid to experienced gla ziers and increase every 6 months. Because glaziers can lose time due to weather conditions and fluctuations in construction activity, their overall earnings may be lower than their hourly wages suggest. Many glaziers employed in construction are members of the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades. Insulation Workers (D.O.T. 863.364-010 and -014, .381-010 and -014, .664-010, and .685-010) Nature of the Work Properly insulated buildings reduce energy consumption by keeping heat in during the winter and out in the summer. Refrigerated stor age rooms, vats, tanks, vessels, boilers, and steam and hot water pipes also are insulated to prevent the wasteful transfer of heat. Insulation workers install this insulating material. Insulation workers cement, staple, wire, tape, or spray insulation. When covering a steam pipe, for example, insulation workers meas ure and cut sections of insulation to the proper length, stretch it open along a cut that runs the length of the material, and slip it over the pipe. They fasten the insulation with adhesive, staples, tape, or wire bands. Sometimes they wrap a cover of aluminum, plastic, or canvas over it and cement or band the cover in place. Sometimes insulation workers screw on sheet metal around insulated pipes to protect the insulation from weather conditions or physical abuse. When covering a wall or other flat surface, workers may use a hose to spray foam insulation onto a wire mesh. The wire mesh provides a rough surface to which the foam can cling and adds strength to the finished surface. Workers may then install drywall or apply a final coat of plaster for a finished appearance. In attics or exterior walls of uninsulated buildings, workers blow in loose-fill insulation. A helper feeds a machine with shredded fiberglass, cellulose, or rock wool insulation while another worker blows the insulation from the compressor hose into the space being filled. In new construction or major renovations, insulation workers staple fiberglass or rockwool batts to exterior walls and ceilings before drywall, paneling, or plaster walls are put in place. In major renovations of old buildings or when putting new insulation around pipes and industrial machinery, insulation workers often must first remove the old insulation. In the past, asbestos—now known to cause cancer in humans—was used extensively in walls and ceilings and for covering pipes, boilers, and various industrial equipment. Because of this danger, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency regulations require that asbestos be removed before a building under goes major renovations or is demolished. When removing asbestos, insulation workers must follow carefully prescribed asbestos removal techniques and work practices. First they seal and depressurize the area that contains the asbestos, then they remove it using hand tools and special filtered vacuum cleaners and air-filtration devices. Related Occupations Glaziers use their knowledge of construction materials and tech niques to install glass. Other construction workers whose jobs also involve skilled, custom work are bricklayers, carpenters, floor layers, paperhangers, terrazzo workers, and tilesetters. Sources of Additional Information For more information about glazier apprenticeships or work oppor tunities, contact local glazing or general contractors; a local of the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades; a local joint union-management apprenticeship agency; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about the work of glaziers, contact: I •"International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20006. For information concerning training for glaziers contact: •"National Glass Association, Education and Training Department, 8200 Greensboro Dr., 3rd floor, McLean, VA 22102. •"Glass Association of North America, White Lakes Professional Building, 3310 Southwest Harrison St., Topeka, KS 66611-2279. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Insulation workers often use rolls of insulation to cover walls and pipes. 388 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Insulation workers use common handtools—trowels, brushes, knives, scissors, saws, pliers, and stapling guns. They use power saws to cut insulating materials, welding machines to join sheet metal or secure clamps, and compressors for blowing or spraying insulation. regulations governing industrial asbestos removal in plants and factories, and an annual AHERA recertification program. Skilled insulation workers may advance to supervisor, shop superintendent, insulation contract estimator, or set up their own insulation or asbestos abatement business. Working Conditions Insulation workers generally work indoors. They spend most of the workday on their feet, either standing, bending, or kneeling. Some times they work from ladders or in tight spaces. However, the work is not strenuous; it requires more coordination than strength. Insula tion work is often dusty and dirty. The minute particles from insula tion materials, especially when blown, can irritate the eyes, skin, and respiratory system. Removing cancer-causing asbestos insulation is a hazardous task and is done by specially trained workers. To protect themselves from the dangers of asbestos and irritants, workers follow strict safety guidelines, wear protective suits, masks, and respirators, take decontamination showers, and keep work areas well ventilated. Job Outlook Employment of insulation workers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005, reflect ing the demand for insulation associated with new construction and renovation as well as the demand for asbestos removal in existing structures. Concerns about the efficient use of energy to heat and cool buildings will result in growth in demand for insulation workers in the construction of new residential, industrial, and commercial buildings. In addition, renovation and efforts to improve insulation in existing structures also will increase demand. Asbestos removal also will provide many jobs for insulation workers, not only because insulation workers often remove asbestos, but because they replace it with another insulating material. The 1986 Asbestos Hazard Emergency Act requires that all public and private schools have an asbestos management plan. Federal regula tions also require that asbestos be removed from buildings that are to be demolished or undergo major renovations. In addition, many banks require that buildings be free of asbestos before a real estate loan will be granted. All these regulatory requirements are expected to stimulate asbestos removal and employment growth. The need to maintain, remove, and replace asbestos insulation on old pipes, boilers, and a variety of equipment in chemical and refrigeration plants and petroleum refineries will also add to employment requirements. Despite this growth in demand, replacement needs will account for most job openings. This occupation has the highest turnover of all the construction trades. Each year thousands of jobs will become available as insulation workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Since there are no strict training requirements for entry, many people with limited skills work as insulation workers for a short time and then move on to other types of work, creating many job openings. Insulation workers in the construction industry may experience periods of unemployment because of the short duration of many construction projects and the cyclical nature of construction activity. Workers employed in industrial plants generally have more stable employment because maintenance and repair must be done on a continuing basis. Unlike other construction occupations, insulation workers usually do not lose work time when weather conditions are poor. Most insulation is applied after buildings are enclosed. Employment Insulation workers held about 64,0000 jobs in 1994; most worked for insulation or other construction contractors. Others worked for the Federal Government, in wholesale and retail trade, in shipbuilding, and in other manufacturing industries that have extensive installa tions for power, heating, and cooling. Most worked in urban areas. In less populated areas, insulation work may be done by carpenters, heating and air-conditioning installers, or drywall installers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most insulation workers leant their trade informally on the job, although some workers complete formal apprenticeship programs. For entry jobs, insulation contractors prefer high school graduates who are in good physical condition and are licensed to drive. High school courses in blueprint reading, shop math, sheet-metal layout, and general construction provide a helpful background. Applicants seeking apprenticeship positions must have a high school diploma or its equivalent, and be at least 18 years old. Trainees are assigned to experienced insulation workers for instruction and supervision. They begin with simple tasks, such as carrying insulation or holding material while it is fastened in place. On-the-job training can take up to 2 years, depending on the work. Learning to install insulation in homes generally requires less train ing than insulation application in commercial and industrial settings. As they gain experience, trainees receive less supervision, more responsibility, and higher pay. In contrast, trainees in formal apprenticeship programs receive in depth instruction in all phases of insulation. Apprenticeship pro grams may be provided by a joint committee of local insulation contractors and the local union of the International Association of Heat and Frost Insulators and Asbestos Workers, to which many insulation workers belong. Programs normally consist of 4 years of on-the-job training coupled with classroom instruction, and trainees must pass practical and written tests to demonstrate a knowledge of the trade. Insulation workers who work with asbestos usually have to be licensed. Although licensure requirements vary from area to area, most States require asbestos removal workers to complete a 3-day training program in compliance with the 1986 Asbestos Hazard Emergency Act (AHERA). The National Asbestos Council (NAC) provides this training in over 100 locations. This program empha sizes "hands-on" training. Typically, students build a decontamina tion unit, handle a respirator and filtered vacuum cleaners, and perform simulated asbestos removal. In addition, they receive class room instruction on a wide variety of topics, such as government regulations, health effects and worker protection, sampling for asbes tos, and work practices. NAC also offers a 2-day course on compli ance with Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings Median weekly earnings for insulation workers who worked full time were $485 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $337 and $653. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $276, and the top 10 percent earned more than $819. According to the Engineering News Record, union insulation workers received an average hourly wage of $30.20 in 1994, includ ing benefits. Wages ranged from a low of $20.38 an hour in New Orleans to a high of $46.67 in New York City. Insulation workers doing commercial and industrial work earn substantially more than those working in residential construction, which does not require as much skill. Related Occupations Insulation workers combine a knowledge of insulation materials with the skills of cutting, fitting, and installing materials. Workers in occupations involving similar skills include carpenters, carpet in stallers, drywall applicators, floor layers, roofers, and sheet-metal workers. Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations 389 Sources of Additional Information For information about training programs or other work opportunities in this trade, contact a local insulation contractor; a local of the International Association of Heat and Frost Insulators and Asbestos Workers; the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency, or: •■National Insulation and Abatement Contractors Association, 99 Canal Center Plaza, Suite 222, Alexandria, VA 22314. ••Insulation Contractors Association of America, 1321 Duke St., Suite 303, Alexandria, VA 22314. Painters and Paperhangers (D.O.T. 840.381, .681, and .684; 841.381) Nature of the Work . Paint and wall coverings make surfaces clean, attractive and bright. In addition, paints and other sealers protect outside walls from wear caused by exposure to the weather. Although some people do both painting and paperhanging, each requires different skills. Painters apply paint, stain, varnish, and other finishes to buildings and other structures. They choose the right paint or finish for the surface to be covered, taking into account customers' wishes, dura bility, ease of handling, and method of application. They first pre pare the surfaces to be covered so the paint will adhere properly. This may require removing the old coat by stripping, sanding, wire brushing, burning, or water and abrasive blasting. Painters also wash walls and trim to remove dirt and grease, fill nail holes and cracks, sandpaper rough spots, and brush off dust. On new surfaces, they apply a primer or sealer to prepare them for the finish coat. Painters also mix paints and match colors, relying on knowledge of paint composition and color harmony. There are several ways to apply paint and similar coverings. Painters must be able to choose the right paint applicator for each job, depending on the surface to be covered, the characteristics of the finish, and other factors. Some jobs only need a good bristle brush with a soft, tapered edge; others require a dip or fountain pressure roller; still others can best be done using a paint sprayer. Many jobs need several types of applicators. The right tools for each job not only expedite the painter's work but also produce the most attractive surface. When working on tall buildings, painters erect scaffolding, in cluding "swing stages," scaffolds suspended by ropes or cables attached to roof hooks. When painting steeples and other conical structures, they use a "bosun chair," a swinglike device. Paperhangers cover walls and ceilings with decorative wall coverings made of paper, vinyl, or fabric. They first prepare the surface to be covered by applying "sizing," which seals the surface and makes the covering stick better. When redecorating, they may first remove the old covering by soaking, steaming, or applying solvents. When necessary, they patch holes and take care of other imperfections before hanging the new wall covering. After the surface has been prepared, paperhangers must prepare the paste or other adhesive. Then they measure the area to be cov ered, check the covering for flaws, cut the covering into strips of the proper size, and closely examine the pattern to match it when the strips are hung. The next step is to brush or roll the adhesive onto the back of the covering, then to place the strips on the wall or ceiling, making sure the pattern is matched, the strips are hung straight, and the edges butted together to make tight, closed seams. Finally, paperhangers smooth the strips to remove bubbles and wrinkles, trim the top and bottom with a razor knife, and wipe off any excess adhesive. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis r v Remodeling, restoration, and maintenance projects often provide jobs for painters and paperhangers, even when new construction declines. Working Conditions Most painters and paperhangers work 40 hours a week or less; about 1 out of 6 works part time. Painters and paperhangers must stand for long periods. Their jobs also require a considerable amount of climbing and bending. These workers must have stamina because much of the work is done with their arms raised overhead. Painters often work outdoors, but seldom in wet, cold, or inclement weather. Painters and paperhangers risk injury from slips or falls off lad ders and scaffolds. They may sometimes work with materials that can be hazardous if masks are not worn or if ventilation is poor. Some painting jobs can leave a worker covered with paint. Employment Painters and paperhangers held about 439,000 jobs in 1994; most were painters. The majority of painters and paperhangers work for contractors engaged in new construction, repair, restoration, or remodeling work. In addition, organizations that own or manage large buildings, such as apartment complexes, employ maintenance painters, as do some schools, hospitals, and factories. Self-employed independent painting contractors accounted for almost half of all painters and paperhangers, about twice the propor tion of building trades workers in general. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Painting and paperhanging are learned through apprenticeship or informal, on-the-job instruction. Although training authorities rec 390 Occuptional Outlook Handbook ommend completion of an apprenticeship as the best way to become a painter or paperhanger, most painters learn the trade informally on the job as a helper to an experienced painter. Few opportunities for informal training exist for paperhangers because few paperhangers have a need for helpers. The apprenticeship for painters and paperhangers consists of 3 to 4 years of on-the-job training, in addition to 144 hours of related classroom instruction each year. Apprentices receive instruction in color harmony, use and care of tools and equipment, surface prepa ration, application techniques, paint mixing and matching, character istics of different finishes, blueprint reading, wood finishing, and safety. Whether a painter learns the trade through a formal apprentice ship or informally as a helper, on-the-job instruction covers similar skill areas. Under the direction of experienced workers, trainees carry supplies, erect scaffolds, and do simple painting and surface preparation tasks while they learn about paint and painting equip ment. Within 2 or 3 years, trainees learn to prepare surfaces for painting and paperhanging, to mix paints, and to apply paint and wall coverings efficiently and neatly. Near the end of their training, they may learn decorating concepts, color coordination, and cost estimating techniques. Apprentices or helpers generally must be at least 16 years old and in good physical condition. A high school education or its equivalent that includes courses in mathematics is generally required to enter an apprenticeship program. Applicants should have manual dexterity and a good color sense. Painters and paperhangers may advance to supervisory or estimat ing jobs with painting and decorating contractors. Many establish their own painting and decorating businesses. Job Outlook Employment of painters and paperhangers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as the level of new construction increases and the stock of buildings and other structures that require maintenance and renovation grows. In addition to job openings created by rising demand for the services of these workers, many tens of thousands of jobs will become available each year as painters and paperhangers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. There are no strict training requirements for entry, so many people with limited skills work as painters or paperhangers for a short time and then move on to other types of work, creating many job openings. Many fewer openings will occur for paperhangers because the number of these jobs is comparatively small. Prospects for persons seeking jobs as painters or paperhangers should be quite favorable, due to the high turnover. Since there are no strict training requirements, a significant number of people work as painter for a short time and transfer to something else or work part-time. Despite the favorable overall conditions, job seekers considering these occupations should expect some periods of unem ployment because many construction projects are of the short dura tion and construction activity is cyclical and seasonal in nature. Remodeling, restoration, and maintenance projects, however, often provide many jobs for painters and paperhangers even when new construction activity declines. The most versatile painters and pa perhangers generally are most able to keep working steadily during downturns in the economy. Earnings Median weekly earnings for painters who were not self-employed were about $381 in 1994. Most earned between $288 and $516 weekly. The top 10 percent earned over $721 and the bottom 10 percent earned less than $721 a week. In general, paperhangers earn more than painters. Earnings for painters may be reduced on occa sion because of bad weather and the short-term nature of many construction jobs. Hourly wage rates for apprentices usually start at 40 to 50 percent https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis of the rate for experienced workers and increase periodically. Some painters and paperhangers are members of the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades. Some maintenance painters are members of other unions. Related Occupations Painters and paperhangers apply various coverings to decorate and protect wood, drywall, metal, and other surfaces. Other occupations in which workers apply paints and similar finishes include billboard posterers, metal sprayers, undercoaters, and transportation equipment painters. Sources of Additional Information For details about painting and paperhanging apprenticeships or work opportunities, contact local painting and decorating contractors; a local of the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; or an office of the State apprenticeship agency or State employment service. For general information about the work of painters and paperhangers, contact: •"Associated Builders and Contractors, 1300 North 17th St., Rosslyn, VA 22209. •International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006. •Home Builders Institute, National Association of Home Builders, 1201 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. Plasterers (D.O.T. 842.361-018, -022, and -026, and .381-014) Nature of the Work Plastering—one of the oldest crafts in the building trades—is enjoy ing a resurgence in popularity because of the introduction of newer, less costly materials and techniques. Plasterers apply plaster to interior walls and ceilings to form fire-resistant and relatively sound proof surfaces. They also apply plaster veneer over drywall to create smooth or textured abrasion-resistant finishes. They apply durable plasters such as polymer-based acrylic finishes and stucco to exterior surfaces, and install prefabricated exterior insulation systems over existing walls for good insulation and interesting architectural ef fects. In addition, they cast ornamental designs in plaster. Drywall workers and lathers—a related occupation—use drywall instead of plaster when erecting interior walls and ceilings. (See the statement on drywall workers and lathers elsewhere in the Handbook.) When plasterers work with interior surfaces such as cinder block and concrete, they first apply a brown coat of gypsum plaster that provides a base, followed by a second or finish coat—also called "white coat"—which is a lime-based plaster. When plastering metal lath (supportive wire mesh) foundations, they apply a preparatory or "scratch coat" with a trowel. They spread this rich plaster mixture into and over the metal lath. Before the plaster sets, they scratch its surface with a rake-like tool to produce ridges so the subsequent brown coat will bond to it tightly. Laborers prepare a thick, smooth plaster for the brown coat. Plasterers spray or trowel this mixture onto the surface, then finish by smoothing it to an even, level surface. For the finish coat, plasterers prepare a mixture of lime, plaster of Paris, and water. They quickly apply this onto the brown coat using a "hawk"—a light, metal plate with a handle—trowel, brush, and water. This mixture, which sets very quickly, produces a very smooth, durable finish. Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations 391 Working Conditions Most plastering jobs are indoors; however, plasterers work outside when applying stucco or exterior wall insulation and decorative finish systems. Because plaster can freeze, heat is usually necessary to complete plastering jobs in cold weather. Sometimes plasterers work on scaffolds high above the ground. Plastering is physically demanding, requiring considerable stand ing, bending, lifting, and reaching overhead. The work can be dusty and dirty; plaster materials also soil shoes and clothing and can irritate skin and eyes. Employment Plasterers held about 30,000 jobs in 1994. Most plasterers work on new construction, particularly where special architectural and light ing effects are part of the work. Some repair and renovate older buildings. Many plasterers are employed in Florida, California, and the Southwest, where exterior plasters with decorative finishes are very popular. Most plasterers work for independent contractors. About 1 out of every 5 plasterers is self-employed. Plasterers trowel plaster onto a surface and smooth it until it is even and level. Plasterers also work with a plaster material that can be finished in a single coat. This thin-coat or gypsum veneer plaster is made of lime and plaster of Paris and is mixed with water at the job site. It provides a smooth, durable, abrasion resistant finish on interior masonry surfaces, special gypsum base board, or drywall prepared with a bonding agent. Plasterers create decorative interior surfaces as well. They do this by pressing a brush or trowel firmly against the wet plaster surface and using a circular hand motion to create decorative swirls. For exterior work, plasterers usually apply a mixture of Portland cement, lime, and sand (stucco) over cement, concrete, masonry, and lath. Stucco is also applied directly to a wire lath with a scratch coat followed by a brown coat and then a finish coat. Plasterers may also embed marble or gravel chips into the finish coat to achieve a peb blelike, decorative finish. Increasingly, plasterers apply insulation to the exteriors of new and old buildings. They cover the outer wall with rigid foam insula tion board and reinforcing mesh and then trowel on a polymer-based or polymer-modified base coat. They apply an additional coat of this material with a decorative finish. Plasterers sometimes do complex decorative and ornamental work that requires special skill and creativity. For example, they mold intricate wall and ceiling designs. Following an architect's blueprint, they pour or spray a special plaster into a mold and allow it to set. Workers then remove the molded plaster and put it in place accord ing to the plan. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although most employers recommend apprenticeship as the best way to learn plastering, many people learn the trade by working as helpers to experienced plasterers. Those who learn the trade informally as helpers usually start by carrying materials, setting up scaffolds, and mixing plaster. Later they learn to apply the scratch, brown, and finish coats. Apprenticeship programs, sponsored by local joint committees of contractors and unions, generally consist of 2 or 3 years of on-the-job training, in addition to at least 144 hours annually of classroom instruction in drafting, blueprint reading, and mathematics for layout work. In the classroom, apprentices start with a history of the trade and the industry. They also learn about the uses of plaster, estimating materials and costs, and casting ornamental plaster designs. On the job, they learn about lath bases, plaster mixes, methods of plaster ing, blueprint reading, and safety. They also learn how to use vari ous tools, such as hand and powered trowels, floats, brushes, straightedges, power tools, plaster-mixing machines, and piston-type pumps. Some apprenticeship programs also allow individuals to obtain training in related occupations such as cement masonry and bricklaying. Applicants for apprentice or helper jobs generally must be at least 17 years old, be in good physical condition, and have manual dexter ity. Applicants who have a high school education are preferred. Courses in general mathematics, mechanical drawing, and shop provide a useful background. Plasterers may advance to supervisors, superintendents, or esti mators for plastering contractors, or may become self-employed contractors. Job Outlook Employment of plasterers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. In addition to job openings due to rising demand for plastering work, additional jobs will open up as plasterers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. In past years, employment of plasterers declined as more builders switched to drywall construction. This decline has halted, however, and employment of plasterers is expected to continue growing as a result of greater appreciation for the durability and attractiveness that troweled finishes provide. Thin-coat plastering—or veneering—in particular, is gaining greater acceptance as more builders recognize its ease of application, durability, quality of finish, and fire-retarding qualities. An increasing use of prefabricated wall systems and new polymer-based or polymer-modified acrylic exterior insulating 392 Occuptional Outlook Handbook finishes are also gaining popularity, not only because of their dura bility, attractiveness, and insulating properties, but also because of their lower cost. These wall systems and finishes are growing in popularity particularly in the South and Southwest regions of the country. In addition, plasterers will be needed to renovate plaster work in older structures and create special architectural effects such as curved surfaces, which are not practical with drywall materials. Most plasterers work in construction, where prospects fluctuate from year to year due to changing economic conditions. Bad weather affects plastering less than other construction trades because most work is indoors. On exterior surfacing jobs, however, plasterers may lose time because materials cannot be applied under wet or freezing conditions. Best employment opportunities should continue to be in Florida, California, and the Southwest, where exterior plaster and decorative finishes are expected to remain popular. Earnings Median weekly earnings for plasterers working full time were about $385 a week in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $260 and $489 a week. The top 10 percent earned more than $626 and the lowest 10 percent less than $237 a week. According to the limited information available, average hourly earnings—including benefits—for plasterers who belonged to a union and worked full time ranged between $15.80 and $37.63 in 1994. Plasterers in New York, Boston, Chicago, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and other large cities received the higher hourly earnings. Apprentice wage rates start at about half the rate paid to experienced plasterers. Annual earnings for plasterers and apprentices may be less than the hourly rate would indicate because poor weather and periodic declines in construction activity may limit their work time. Many plasterers are members of unions. They are represented by the Operative Plasterers' and Cement Masons' International Associa tion of the United States and Canada, or the International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen. Related Occupations Other construction workers who use a trowel as their primary tool include drywall finishers, bricklayers, concrete masons, marble setters, stonemasons, terrazzo workers, and tilesetters. Sources of Additional Information For information about apprenticeships or other work opportunities, contact local plastering contractors; locals of the unions previously mentioned; a local joint union-management apprenticeship commit tee; or the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency or the State employment service. For general information about the work of plasterers, contact: Pipe systems in power plants carry the steam that powers huge turbines. Pipes also are used in manufacturing plants to move mate rial through the production process. Although plumbing and pipefitting sometimes are considered a single trade, workers generally specialize in one or the other. Plumb ers install and repair the water, waste disposal, drainage, and gas systems in homes and commercial and industrial buildings. They also install plumbing fixtures—bathtubs, showers, sinks, and toilets—and appliances such as dishwashers and water heaters. Pipefitters install and repair both high and low-pressure pipe systems that are used in manufacturing, in the generation of electricity, and in heating and cooling buildings. They also install automatic controls that are increasingly being used to regulate these systems. Some pipefitters specialize in only one type of system. Steamfitters, for example, install pipe systems that move liquids or gases under high pressure. Sprinklerfitters install automatic fire sprinkler systems in buildings. Plumbers and pipefitters use many different materials and con struction techniques, depending on the type of project. Residential water systems, for example, use copper, steel, and increasingly plastic pipe that can be handled and installed by one or two workers. Municipal sewerage systems, on the other hand, are made of large cast iron pipes; installation normally requires crews of pipefitters. Despite these differences, all plumbers and pipefitters must be able to follow building plans or blueprints and instructions from supervisors, lay out the job, and work efficiently with the materials and tools of the trade. When construction plumbers install piping in a house, for exam ple, they work from blueprints or drawings that show the planned location of pipes, plumbing fixtures, and appliances. They lay out the job to fit the piping into the structure of the house with the least waste of material and within the confines of the structure. They measure and mark areas where pipes will be installed and connected. They check for obstructions, such as electrical wiring, and, if neces sary, plan the pipe installation around the problem. Sometimes plumbers have to cut holes in walls, ceilings, and floors of a house. For some systems, they may have to hang steel supports from ceiling joists to hold the pipe in place. To assemble the system, plumbers cut and bend lengths of pipe using saws, pipe cutters, and pipe-bending machines. They connect lengths of pipe with fittings; the method depends on the type of pipe used. For plastic pipe, plumbers connect the sections and fittings with adhe sives. For copper pipe, they slide fittings over the end of the pipe and solder the fitting in place with a torch. After the piping is in place in the house, plumbers install the fixtures and appliances and connect the system to the outside water or sewer lines. Using pressure gauges, they check the system to insure that the plumbing works properly. •"International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen, 815 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. •"Operative Plasterers' and Cement Masons' International Association of the United States and Canada, 1125 17th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Plumbers and Pipefitters (D.O.T. 862.261; .281-010, -014, -022, and -026;.361-014, -018, and -022; .381 except -010 and -038; .681; .682-010; and .684-034) Nature of the Work Most people are familiar with plumbers who come to their home to unclog a drain or install an appliance. In addition to these activities, however, plumbers and pipefitters install, maintain, and repair many different types of pipe systems. For example, some systems move water to a municipal water treatment plant, and then to residential, commercial, and public buildings. Others dispose of waste. Some bring in gas for stoves and furnaces. Others supply air-conditioning. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Plumbers cut and bend pipe to meet the specifications of the job. Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations 393 Working Conditions Because plumbers and pipefitters frequently must lift heavy pipes, stand for long periods, and sometimes work in uncomfortable or cramped positions, they need physical strength as well as stamina. They may have to work outdoors in inclement weather. They also are subject to falls from ladders, cuts from sharp tools, and bums from hot pipes or from soldering equipment. Plumbers and pipefitters engaged in construction generally work a standard 40-hour week; those involved in maintaining pipe systems, including those who provide maintenance services under contract, may have to work evening or weekend shifts, as well as be on call. These maintenance workers may spend quite a bit of time traveling to and from work sites. Employment Plumbers and pipefitters held about 375,000 jobs in 1994. About two-thirds worked for mechanical and plumbing contractors engaged in new construction, repair, modernization, or maintenance work. Others did maintenance work for a variety of industrial, commercial, and government employers. For example, pipefitters were employed as maintenance personnel in the petroleum and chemical industries, where manufacturing operations require the moving of liquids and gases through pipes. One of every 5 plumbers and pipefitters is selfemployed. Jobs for plumbers and pipefitters are distributed across the coun try in about the same proportion as the general population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Virtually all plumbers undergo some type of apprenticeship training. Many programs are administered by local union-management committees made up of members of the United Association of Jour neymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry of the United States and Canada, and local employers who are members of either the Mechanical Contractors Association of America, Inc., the National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors, or the National Fire Sprinkler Association, Inc. Nonunion training and apprenticeship programs are administered by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors, the National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors, the American Fire Sprinkler Association, and the Home Builders Insti tute of the National Association of Home Builders. Apprenticeships—both union and nonunion—consist of 4 to 5 years of on-the-job training, in addition to at least 144 hours annually of related classroom instruction. Classroom subjects include drafting and blueprint reading, mathematics, applied physics and chemistry, safety, and local plumbing codes and regulations. On the job, ap prentices first learn basic skills such as identifying grades and types of pipe, the use of the tools of the trade, and the safe unloading of materials. As apprentices gain experience, they learn how to work with various types of pipe and install different piping systems and plumbing fixtures. Apprenticeship gives trainees a thorough knowl edge of all aspects of the trade. Although most plumbers are trained through apprenticeship, some still learn their skills informally on the job. Applicants for union or nonunion apprentice jobs must be 18 years old and in good physical condition. Apprenticeship commit tees may require applicants to have a high school diploma or its equivalent. Armed Forces training in plumbing and pipefitting is considered very good preparation. In fact, persons with this back ground may be given credit for previous experience when entering a civilian apprenticeship program. Secondary or post secondary courses in shop, plumbing, general mathematics, drafting, blueprint reading, and physics also are good preparation. Although there are no uniform national licensing requirements, most communities require plumbers to be licensed. Licensing re quirements vary from area to area, but most localities require work ers to pass an examination that tests their knowledge of the trade and of local plumbing codes. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Some plumbers and pipefitters may become supervisors for mechanical and plumbing contractors. Others go into business for themselves. Job Outlook Job opportunities for skilled plumbers and pipefitters are expected to be good as the growth in demand outpaces the supply of workers trained in this craft. Employment of plumbers and pipefitters is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. However, the pool of young workers avail able to enter training programs will also be increasing slowly and many in that group are reluctant to seek training for jobs that may be strenuous and have uncomfortable working conditions. Construction activity—residential, industrial, and commercial—is expected to grow slowly over the next decade. Demand for plumbers will stem from building renovation, including the increasing installa tion of sprinkler systems; repair and maintenance of existing residen tial systems, and maintenance activities for places that have extensive systems of pipes, such as power plants, water and wastewater treat ment plants, pipelines, office buildings, and factories. However, the growing use of plastic pipe and fittings, which are much easier to use; more efficient sprinkler systems; and other technologies will mean that employment will not grow as fast as it has in past years. In addition, several thousand positions will become available each year from the need to replace experienced workers who leave the occupation. Traditionally, many organizations with extensive pipe systems have employed their own plumbers or pipefitters to maintain their equipment and keep everything running smoothly. But, in order to reduce their labor costs, many of these firms no longer employ a full time in-house plumber or pipefitter. Instead, when they need one they rely on workers provided, under service contracts, by plumbing and pipefitting contractors. All construction projects provide only temporary employment, so when a project ends, plumbers and pipefitters working on it may experience short bouts of unemployment. Because construction activity varies from area to area, job openings, as well as apprentice ship opportunities, fluctuate with local economic conditions. How ever, employment of plumbers and pipefitters generally is less sensitive to changes in economic conditions than some of the other construction trades. Even when construction activity declines, maintenance, rehabilitation, and replacement of existing piping systems, as well as the growing installation of fire sprinkler systems, provide many jobs for plumbers and pipefitters. Earnings Median weekly earnings for plumbers and pipefitters who were not self-employed were $530 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $373 and $742 weekly. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $284; the highest 10 percent earned more than $970 a week. In 1993, the median hourly wage rate for maintenance pipefitters in 160 metropolitan areas were about $18.70. The middle 50 percent earned between about $16.90 and $20.90 an hour. In comparison, the average wage for all nonsupervisory and production workers in private industry, except farming, was $10.80. In general, wage rates tend to be higher in the Midwest and West than in the Northeast and South. Apprentices usually begin at about 50 percent of the wage rate paid to experienced plumbers or pipefitters. This increases periodi cally as they improve their skills. After an initial waiting period, apprentices receive the same benefits as experienced plumbers and pipefitters. Many plumbers and pipefitters are members of the United Asso ciation of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefit ting Industry of the United States and Canada. 394 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers install and repair mechanical systems in buildings are boilermakers, stationary engineers, electri cians, elevator installers, industrial machinery repairers, millwrights, sheet-metal workers, and heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics. Sources of Additional Information For information about apprenticeships or work opportunities in plumbing and pipefitting, contact local plumbing, heating, and air conditioning contractors; a local or State chapter of the National Association of Plumbing, Heating, and Cooling Contractors; a local chapter of the Mechanical Contractors Association; a local of the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry of the United States and Canada; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprentice ship agency. This information is also available from; •■The Home Builders Institute, National Association of Home Builders, 1201 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. For general information about the work of plumbers, pipefitters, and sprinklerfitters, contact: ••National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors, P.O. Box 6808, Falls Church, VA 22046. ••Associated Builders and Contractors, 1300 North 17th St., Rosslyn, VA 22209. •■National Fire Sprinkler Association, P.O. Box 1000, Patterson, NY 12563. •■American Fire Sprinkler Association, Inc., 12959 Jupiter Rd„ Suite 142, Dallas, TX 75238-3200. •■Mechanical Contractors Association of America, 1385 Piccard Dr., Rockville, MD 20850. Roofers (D.O.T. 866.381-010, -014, and .684-010) Nature of the Work A leaky roof can damage ceilings, walls, and furnishings. To protect buildings and their contents from water damage, roofers repair and install roofs of tar or asphalt and gravel, rubber, thermoplastic, and metal; and shingles made of asphalt, slate, fiberglass, wood, tile, or other material. Repair and reroofing—replacing old roofs on existing buildings—provide many work opportunities for these workers. Roofers also may waterproof foundation walls and floors. There are two types of roofs, flat and pitched (sloped). Most commercial, industrial, and apartment buildings have flat or slightly sloping roofs. Most houses have pitched roofs. Some roofers work on both types; others specialize. Most flat roofs are covered with several layers of materials. Roofers first put a layer of insulation on the roof deck. Over the insulation, they then spread a coat of molten bitumen, a tar-like substance. Next, they install partially overlapping layers of roofing felt—a fabric saturated in bitumen—over the insulation surface and use a mop to spread hot bitumen over it and under the next layer. This seals the seams and makes the surface watertight. Roofers repeat these steps to build up the desired number of layers, called "plies.” The top layer is either glazed to make a smooth finish, or has gravel embedded in the hot bitumen for a rough surface. An increasing number of flat roofs are covered with a single-ply membrane of waterproof rubber or thermoplastic compounds. Roof ers roll these sheets over the roofs insulation and seal the seams. Adhesive, mechanical fasteners, or stone ballasts hold the sheets in place. The building must be of sufficient strength to hold the ballast. Most residential roofs are covered with shingles. To apply shin gles, roofers first lay, cut, and tack 3-foot strips of roofing felt lengthwise over the entire roof. Then, starting from the bottom edge, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis gggy&fl Repairing and replacing old roofs provides many work opportunities for roofers. they nail overlapping rows of shingles to the roof. Workers measure and cut the felt and shingles to fit intersecting roofs, and to fit around vent pipes and chimneys. Wherever two roof surfaces intersect or shingles reach a vent pipe or chimney, roofers cement or nail "flashing," strips of metal or shingle, over the joints to make them watertight. Finally, roofers cover exposed nailheads with roofing cement or caulking to prevent water leakage. Some roofers also waterproof and dampproof masonry and con crete walls and floors. To prepare surfaces for waterproofing, they hammer and chisel away rough spots or remove them with a rubbing brick before applying a coat of liquid waterproofing compound. They also may paint or spray surfaces with a waterproofing material or attach waterproofing membrane to surfaces. When dampproofing, they usually spray a bitumen-based coating on interior or exterior surfaces. Working Conditions Roofers' work is strenuous. It involves heavy lifting, as well as climbing, bending, and kneeling. Roofers risk injuries from slips or falls from scaffolds, ladders, or roofs, and bums from hot bitumen. In fact, of all construction industries, the roofing industry has the highest accident rate. Roofers work outdoors in all types of weather, particularly when making repairs. Roofs are extremely hot during the summer. Employment Roofers held about 126,000 jobs in 1994. Almost all wage and salary roofers worked for roofing contractors. Nearly one-third of all roofers were self-employed. Many self-employed roofers specialize in residential work. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most roofers acquire their skills informally by working as helpers for experienced roofers. They start by carrying equipment and material and erecting scaffolds and hoists. Within 2 or 3 months, they are taught to measure, cut, and fit roofing materials and then to lay asphalt or fiberglass shingles. Because some roofing materials are used infrequently, it can take several years to get experience working on all the various types of roofing applications. Some roofers train through 3-year apprenticeship programs administered by local union-management committees representing roofing contractors and locals of the United Union of Roofers, Waterproofers, and Allied Workers. The apprenticeship program gen erally consists of a minimum of 1,400 hours of on-the-job training annually, plus 144 hours of classroom instruction a year in subjects such as tools and their use, arithmetic, and safety. On-the-job train Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations 395 ing for apprentices is similar to that for helpers, except that the apprenticeship program is more structured. Apprentices also learn to dampproof and waterproof walls. Good physical condition and good balance are essential for roof ers. A high school education or its equivalent is helpful, as are courses in mechanical drawing and basic mathematics. Most ap prentices are at least 18 years old. Roofers may advance to supervisor or estimator for a roofing contractor or become contractors themselves. Job Outlook Jobs for roofers should be plentiful through the year 2005, primarily because of the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupa tions or who leave the labor force. Turnover is high; roofing work is hot, strenuous, and dirty, and a significant number of workers treat roofing as a temporary job until something better comes along. Some roofers leave the occupation to go into other construction trades. Employment of roofers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Roofs deteriorate faster than most other parts of buildings and periodically need to be repaired or replaced. About 75 percent of roofing work is repair and reroofing, a higher proportion than in most other construction work. As a result, demand for roofers is less susceptible to downturns in the economy than some of the other construction trades. In addition to repair and reroofing work on the growing stock of buildings, new construction of industrial, commercial, and residential buildings will add to the demand for roofers. However, many innovations and advances in materials, techniques, and tools have made roofers more productive and will restrict the growth of employment at least to some extent. Jobs should be easiest to find during spring and sum mer, when most roofing is done. Earnings Median weekly earnings for roofers working full time were about $371 a week in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $278 and $498 a week. The top 10 percent earned more than $630 weekly and the lowest 10 percent less than $219 a week. According to the Engineering News Record, average hourly earnings—including benefits—for union roofers were $23.98 in 1994. Wages ranged from a low of $13.90 in Denver to a high of $38.58 in New York City. Apprentices generally start at about 40 percent of the rate paid to experienced roofers and receive periodic raises as they acquire the skills of the trade. Earnings for roofers are reduced on occasion because poor weather often limits the time they can work. Some roofers are members of the United Union of Roofers, Waterproofers & Allied Workers. Sheetmetal Workers (D.O.T. 804.281-010 and -014) Nature of the Work Sheetmetal workers make, install, and maintain air-conditioning, heating, ventilation, and pollution control duct systems; roofs; siding; rain gutters and downspouts; skylights; restaurant equipment; out door signs; and many other building parts and products made from metal sheets. They may also work with fiberglass and plastic mate rials. Although some workers specialize in fabrication, installation, or maintenance, most do all three jobs. (Workers employed in the mass production of sheetmetal products in manufacturing are not included in this section.) Sheetmetal workers usually fabricate their products at a shop away from the construction site. They first study plans and specifi cations to determine the kind and quantity of materials they will need. They then measure, cut, bend, shape; and fasten pieces of sheet metal to make duct work, counter tops, and other custom products. In an increasing number of shops, sheetmetal workers use computerized metalworking equipment. This enables them to ex periment with different layouts and to select the one that results in the least waste of material. They cut or form the parts with com puter-controlled saws, lasers, shears, and presses. In shops without computerized equipment and for products that cannot be made on such equipment, sheetmetal workers use hand calculators to make the required calculations and use tapes, rulers, and other measuring devices for layout work. They then cut or stamp the parts on machine tools. Before assembling the pieces, sheetmetal workers check each part for accuracy and, if necessary, finish it by using hand, rotary, or squaring shears and hacksaws. After the parts have been inspected, workers fasten the seams and joints together with welds, bolts, cement, rivets, solder, specially formed sheetmetal drive clips, or other connecting devices. They then take the parts to the construc tion site where they further assemble the pieces as they install them. These workers install ducts, pipes, and tubes by joining them end to end and hanging them with metal hangers secured to a ceiling or a wall. They also use shears, hammers, punches, and drills to make parts at the worksite or to alter parts made in the shop. Some jobs are done completely at the job site. When installing a metal roof, for example, sheetmetal workers measure and cut the roofing panels that are needed to complete the job. They secure the first panel in place and interlock and fasten the grooved edge of the Related Occupations Roofers use shingles, bitumen and gravel, single-ply plastic or rubber sheets, or other materials to waterproof building surfaces. Workers in other occupations who cover surfaces with special materials for protection and decoration include carpenters, concrete masons, drywall installers, floor covering installers, plasterers, terrazzo workers, and tilesetters. Sources of Additional Information For information about roofing apprenticeships or work opportunities in this trade, contact local roofing contractors; a local of the Roofers union; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State appren ticeship agency. For information about the work of roofers, contact: ••National Roofing Contractors Association, 10255 W. Higgins Rd., Rosemont, IL 60018. •"United Union of Roofers, Waterproofers and Allied Workers, 1125 17th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20036. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sheetmetal workers fabricate their products in a shop and take them to a construction site for assembly and installation. 396 Occuptional Outlook Handbook next panel into the grooved edge of the first. Then they nail or weld the free edge of the panel to the structure. This two-step process is repeated for each additional panel. Finally, they fasten machinemade molding at joints, along comers, and around windows and doors for a neat, finished effect. In addition to installation, some sheetmetal workers specialize in testing, balancing, adjusting, and servicing existing air-conditioning and ventilation systems to make sure they are functioning properly and to improve their energy efficiency. Some sheetmetal workers also remove asbestos and toxic materials. Working Conditions Sheetmetal workers usually work a 40-hour week. Those who fabri cate sheetmetal products work in shops that are well lighted and well ventilated. They stand for long periods and lift heavy materials and finished pieces. Sheetmetal workers must follow safety practices because working around high-speed machines can be dangerous. They are subject to cuts from sharp metal, bums from soldering and welding, and falls from ladders and scaffolds. They generally wear safety glasses and must not wear jewelry or loose-fitting clothing that could easily get caught in a machine. Those doing installation work do considerable bending, lifting, standing, climbing, and squatting, sometimes in close quarters or in awkward positions. Although installing duct systems and kitchen equipment is done indoors, the installation of siding, roofs, and gutters involves much outdoor work, requiring sheetmetal workers to work in all kinds of weather. Employment Sheetmetal workers held about 100,00 wage and salary jobs in the construction industry in 1994. Three-fourths worked for plumbing, heating, and air-conditioning contractors; most of the rest worked for roofing and sheetmetal contractors; and a few worked for other special trade contractors and for general contractors engaged in residential and commercial building. Unlike many other construction trades, very few sheetmetal workers are self-employed. Jobs for sheetmetal workers are distributed throughout the coun try in about the same proportion as the total population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Sheetmetal contractors consider apprenticeship the best way to learn this trade. The apprenticeship program consists of 4 or 5 years of onthe-job training and a minimum of 144 hours per year of classroom instruction. Apprenticeship programs provide comprehensive in struction in both sheetmetal fabrication and installation. They are administered by local joint committees composed of the Sheet Metal Workers' International Association and local chapters of the Sheet Metal and Air-Conditioning Contractors National Association, or by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors. On the job, apprentices learn the basics of pattern layout and how to cut, bend, fabricate, and install sheet metal. They begin with basic ductwork and gradually advance to more difficult jobs, such as making more complex ducts, fittings, and decorative pieces. They also use materials such as fiberglass, plastics, and other non-metallic materials. In the classroom, apprentices learn drafting, plan and specifica tion reading, trigonometry and geometry applicable to layout work, the use of computerized equipment, welding, and the principles of heating, air-conditioning, and ventilating systems. Safety is stressed throughout the program. In addition, apprentices learn the relation ship between sheetmetal work and other construction work. A relatively small number of persons pick up the trade informally, usually by working as helpers to experienced sheetmetal workers. Most begin by carrying metal and cleaning up debris in a metal shop while they leant about materials and tools and their uses. Later, they learn to operate machines that bend or cut metal. In time, helpers go out on the job site to learn installation. Those who acquire their skills this way often take vocational school courses in mathematics or https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis sheetmetal fabrication to supplement their work experience. To be promoted to the journey level, helpers usually must pass the same written examination as apprentices. Applicants for jobs as apprentices or helpers should be in good physical condition and have mechanical and mathematical aptitude. Good eye-hand coordination, spatial and form perception, and man ual dexterity are also important. Local apprenticeship committees require a high school education or its equivalent. Courses in Alge bra, trigonometry, geometry, mechanical drawing, and shop provide a helpful background for learning the trade, as does work experience obtained in the Armed Services. It is important that experienced sheetmetal workers keep abreast of new technological developments such as the growing use of computerized layout and laser cutting machines. Workers often take additional training provided by the union or by their employer in order to improve existing skills or to acquire new ones. Sheetmetal workers may advance to supervisory jobs. Some take additional training in welding and do more specialized work. Others go into the contracting business for themselves. Because a sheet metal contractor must have a shop with equipment to fabricate prod ucts, this type of contracting business is more expensive to start than other types of construction contracting. Job Outlook Opportunities should be good for individuals who acquire for ap prenticeship training. Employment of sheetmetal workers in con struction is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations reflecting the growth of that sector. Demand for sheet metal installation should increase as more industrial, commercial, and residential structures are built. Growing demand for more en ergy-efficient air-conditioning, heating, and ventilation systems in the growing stock of older buildings, as well as other types of reno vation and maintenance work, also should boost employment. In addition, the greater use of decorative sheetmetal products and increased architectural restoration are expected to add to the demand for sheetmetal workers, Despite this growth in demand, most job openings will result from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Job prospects are expected to be good for skilled sheetmetal workers over the long run, although workers may experience periods of unemployment when construction projects end and when eco nomic conditions reduce the amount of construction activity. Be cause local economic conditions can vary so widely, there can be shortages of experienced workers in some areas and an oversupply in other parts of the country. The availability of training slots also fluctuates with economic conditions, so the number of openings may vary from year to year and by geographic area. Nevertheless, em ployment of sheetmetal workers is less sensitive to declines in new construction than employment of some other construction workers, such as carpenters. Maintenance of existing equipment—which is less affected by economic fluctuations than new construction— makes up a large part of the work done by sheetmetal workers. Installation of new air-conditioning and heating systems in existing buildings also continues during construction slumps as individuals and businesses seek more energy-efficient equipment to cut utility bills. In addition, a large proportion of sheetmetal installation and maintenance is done indoors so these workers usually lose less work time due to bad weather than other construction workers. Earnings Median weekly earnings for sheetmetal workers working full time were about $444 a week in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $317 and $692 a week. The top 10 percent earned more than $914 and the lowest 10 percent less than $283 a week. According to the Engineering News Record, average hourly earnings—including benefits—-for union sheetmetal workers were $29.40 in 1994. Wages ranged from a low of $19.92 in Birmingham, Alabama, to a high of $46.69 in New York City. Apprentices gen Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations 397 erally start at about 40 percent of the rate paid to experienced work ers. As they acquire more skills of the trade throughout the course of the apprenticeship program, they receive periodic increases until their pay approaches that of experienced workers. In addition, union workers in some areas receive supplemental wages from the union when they are on layoff or shortened workweeks. Many sheetmetal workers are members of the Sheet Metal Workers' International Association. Related Occupations To fabricate and install sheetmetal products, sheetmetal workers combine metalworking skills and knowledge of construction materi als and techniques. Other occupations in which workers lay out and fabricate metal products include layout workers, machinists, metal fabricators, metal patternmakers, shipfitters, and tool and die makers. Construction occupations requiring similar skills and knowledge include heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration technicians and glaziers. Sources of Additional Information For more information about apprenticeships or other work opportu nities, contact local sheetmetal contractors or heating, refrigeration, and air-conditioning contractors; a local of the Sheet Metal Workers; a local of the Sheetmetal and Air Conditioning Contractors Associa tion; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State employment service or apprenticeship agency. For general information about sheetmetal workers, contact: •"The Sheet Metal National Training Fund, 601 N. Fairfax St., Suite 240, Alexandria, VA 22314. •"Associated Builders and Contractors, 1300 N. 17th St. NW., Rosslyn, VA 22209. •"The Sheetmetal and Air Conditioning Contractors Association, 4201 Lafayette Center Dr., Chantilly, VA 22021. •"The Sheet Metal Workers International Association, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006. Structural and Reinforcing Ironworkers (D.O.T. 801.361-014, -018, -022, .381-010, .684-026; and 809.381-022, and -026) Nature of the Work Materials made from iron, steel, aluminum, and bronze are used extensively in the construction of highways, bridges, office buildings, power transmission towers, and other large buildings. These struc tures have frames made of steel columns, beams, and girders. In addition, reinforced concrete—concrete containing steel bars or wire fabric—is an important material in buildings, bridges, and other structures. The steel gives the concrete additional strength. Metal stairways, catwalks, floor gratings, ladders, and window frames, as well as lampposts, railings, fences, and decorative ironwork are used to make these structures more functional and attractive. Structural and reinforcing ironworkers fabricate, assemble, and install these products. These workers also repair, renovate, and maintain older buildings and structures such as steel mills, utility plants, automobile factories, highways, and bridges. Before construction can begin, ironworkers must erect the steel frames and assemble the cranes and derricks that move structural steel, reinforcing bars, buckets of concrete, lumber, and other mate rials and equipment around the construction site. This equipment arrives at the construction site in sections. There it is lifted into position by a mobile crane. Ironworkers then connect the sections and set up the cables that do the hoisting. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Once this job has been completed, structural ironworkers begin to connect steel columns, beams, and girders according to blueprints and instructions from supervisors and superintendents. Structural steel, reinforcing rods, and ornamental iron generally are delivered to the construction site ready for erection—cut to the proper size with holes drilled for bolts and numbered for assembly. This work is done by ironworkers in fabricating shops located away from the construc tion site. There they lay out the raw steel received from a steel mill and cut, bend, drill, bolt, and weld each piece according to the speci fications for that particular job. Ironworkers at the construction site unload and stack the fabricated steel so it can be hoisted easily when needed. To hoist the steel, ironworkers attach cables from the crane or derrick. One worker directs the hoist operator with hand signals. Another worker holds a rope (tag line) attached to the steel to prevent it from swinging. The steel is hoisted into place in the framework, where several workers using spud wrenches position it with connect ing bars and jacks. Workers use driftpins or the handle of a spud wrench—a long wrench with a pointed handle—to align the holes in the steel with the holes in the framework. Then they bolt the piece in place temporarily, check vertical and horizontal alignment with plumb bobs, laser equipment, transits, or levels and then bolt or weld it permanently in place. Reinforcing ironworkers set the bars in the forms that hold con crete, following blueprints that show the location, size, and number of reinforcing bars. They fasten the bars together by tying wire around them with pliers. When reinforcing floors, workers place blocks under the reinforcing bars to hold them off the deck. Al though these materials usually arrive ready to use, ironworkers occasionally have to cut the bars with metal shears or acetylene torches, bend them by hand or machine, or weld them with arc welding equipment. Some concrete is reinforced with welded wire fabric. Workers cut and fit the fabric and, while a concrete crew places the concrete, ironworkers use hooked rods to position it prop erly in the concrete. Ornamental ironwork and related pieces are installed after the exterior of the building has been completed. As the pieces are hoisted into position, ironworkers bring them into position, make sure they fit correctly, and bolt, braze, or weld them for a secure fit. They also erect metal tanks used to store petroleum, water, or other fluids and assemble prefabricated metal buildings according to plans or specifications. Working Conditions Structural and reinforcing ironworkers usually work outside in all kinds of weather. However, those who work at great heights do not work when it is wet, icy, or extremely windy. Because the danger of is* fe.N - -i 1 a rr i i l Reinforcing workers bolt or weld reinforcing tie rods in place. 398 Occuptional Outlook Handbook injuries due to falls is so great, ironworkers use safety devices such as safety belts, scaffolding, and nets to reduce the risk. Employment Structural and reinforcing ironworkers held about 61,000 jobs in 1994. Almost all of these workers were employed in the construction industry. Nearly 6 of every 10 worked for structural steel erection contractors; most of the remainder worked for a variety of contrac tors specializing in the construction of homes, factories, commercial buildings, churches, schools, bridges and tunnels, and water, sewer, communications, and power lines. Very few were self-employed. Ironworkers are employed in all parts of the country, but most work in metropolitan areas, where most commercial and industrial construction takes place. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers recommend apprenticeship as the best way to learn this trade. The apprenticeship consists of 3 years of on-the-job training and a minimum of 144 hours a year of classroom instruction. Apprenticeship programs are usually administered by joint unionmanagement committees made up of representatives of local unions of the International Association of Bridge, Structural and Ornamental Ironworkers and local chapters of contractors' associations. Ironworkers generally must be at least 18 years old. A high school diploma may be preferred by employers and may be required by some local apprenticeship committees. High School courses in general mathematics, mechanical drawing, and shop are helpful. Because materials used in ironworking are heavy and bulky, iron workers must be in good physical condition. They also need good agility, balance, eyesight, and spatial perception in order to work at great heights on narrow beams and girders. Ironworkers should not be afraid of heights or suffer from dizziness. In the classroom, apprentices study blueprint reading, mathemat ics for layout work, the basics of structural erecting, rigging, rein forcing, welding and burning, ornamental erection and assembling, and the care and safe use of tools and materials. On the job, appren tices work in all aspects of the trade, such as unloading and storing materials at the job site, rigging materials for movement by crane or derrick, connecting structural steel, and welding. Some ironworkers learn the trade informally on the job without completing an apprenticeship. These workers generally do not receive classroom training, although some large contractors have extensive training programs. On-the-job trainees usually begin by assisting experienced ironworkers by doing simple jobs, like carrying various materials. With experience, they perform more difficult tasks like cutting and fitting different parts. Learning through work experience alone may not provide training as complete as an appren ticeship program, however, and usually takes longer. Some experienced workers become supervisors. Others may go into the contracting business for themselves. Job Outlook Employment of structural and reinforcing ironworkers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. The rehabilitation and maintenance of an increasing number of older buildings, factories, power plants, and highways and bridges is expected to increase, but employment growth will be slowed by the continued slow growth in industrial and commercial construction. In addition, more ironworkers will be needed to build incinerators and other structures to contain hazardous materials as part of ongoing toxic waste cleanup. Although employment growth will create many new jobs for structural and reinforcing ironworkers, most openings will result from the need to replace experienced ironworkers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The number of job openings fluctuates from year to year as economic conditions and the level of construction activity change. During economic downturns, ironworkers can experience high rates https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis of unemployment. Similarly, job opportunities for ironworkers may vary widely by geographic area. Job openings for ironworkers usually are more abundant during the spring and summer months, when the level of construction activity increases. Earnings Median weekly earnings of structural and reinforcing ironworkers employed full time were about $611 a week in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $494 and $813 a week. The top 10 percent earned more than $1,040 and the lowest 10 percent less than $414 a week. According to the Engineering News Record, prevailing union wage rates—including benefits—for ironworkers averaged about $28.95 an hour in 1994. Their wages ranged from a low of about $18.50 in New Orleans, to a high of between $42.26 and $52.85 in New York City. Apprentices generally start at about 40 percent of the rate paid to experienced workers. They receive periodic increases throughout the course of the apprenticeship program as they acquire the skills of the trade until their pay approaches that of experienced workers. Earnings for ironworkers may be reduced on occasion because work can be limited by bad weather and the short-term nature of construction jobs. Many workers in this trade are members of the International Association of Bridge, Structural and Ornamental Ironworkers. Related Occupations Structural and reinforcing ironworkers play an essential role in erecting buildings, bridges, highways, powerlines, and other struc tures. Others who also work on these construction jobs are operating engineers, concrete masons, and welders. Sources of Additional Information For more information on apprenticeships or other work opportunities, contact local general contractors; a local of the International Asso ciation of Bridge, Structural and Ornamental Ironworkers union; a local joint ironworkers' union-management apprenticeship commit tee; a local or State chapter of the Associated Builders and Contrac tors, or the nearest office of the State employment service or apprenticeship agency. For general information about ironworkers, contact: •■Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1300 North 17th St., Rosslyn, VA 22209-3883 ••International Association of Bridge, Structural and Ornamental Iron Work ers, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Suite 400, Washington, DC 20006. •"National Erectors Association, 1501 Lee Hwy., Suite 202, Arlington, VA 22209. •■National Association of Reinforcing Steel Contractors, P.O. Box 280, Fairfax, VA 22030. Tilesetters (D.O.T. 861.381-054, -058, and .684-018) Nature of the Work In ancient Egypt and Rome, tile was used for mosaics—an art form using small, decorative ceramic squares. Over the years, tile has been a popular building material because it is durable, impervious to water, and easy to clean. It is used today, for instance, in shopping centers, hospitals, tunnels, lobbies of buildings, bathrooms, and kitchens. Tilesetters, like the ancient artists, apply tile to floors, walls, and ceilings. To set tile, which generally ranges in size from 1 inch to 12 inches square, they use cement or "mastic," a very sticky paste. When using cement, tilesetters nail a support of metal mesh to the Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations 399 Much of the workday is spent bending, kneeling, and reaching, activities that require endurance but not exceptional strength. To protect their knees, most workers wear kneepads. Although workers are subject to cuts from tools or materials, falls from ladders, and strained muscles, the occupation is not as hazard ous as some other construction occupations. Employment Tilesetters held about 27,000 jobs in 1994. Most wage and salary tilesetters were employed by tilesetting contractors who work mainly on nonresidential construction projects, such as schools, hospitals, and office buildings. Nearly one of every 2 tilesetters is selfemployed, compared to 1 of every 4 construction workers. Most self-employed tilesetters work on residential projects. Tilesetters are employed throughout the country but are found largely in urban areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most tilesetters acquire their skills on the job by working as helpers to experienced workers. They begin by learning about the tools of the trade, and then they leam to mix and apply cement and to apply mastic. As they progress, they leam to cut and install tile, apply grout, and do finishing work. Employers recommend completion of a 3-year apprenticeship program, which consists of on-the-job training and related classroom instruction in subjects such as blueprint reading, layout, and basic mathematics. When hiring apprentices or helpers, employers usually prefer high school graduates who have had courses in general mathematics, mechanical drawing, and shop. Good physical condition, manual dexterity, and a good sense of color harmony also are important assets. Skilled tilesetters may start their own contracting businesses or may become supervisors or estimators for other contractors. After setting tile in cement, tilesetters fill the joints with grout. wall or ceiling to be tiled. They use a trowel to apply a cement mortar—called a "scratch coat"—onto the metal screen and scratch the surface of the soft mortar with a small tool, similar to a rake. After the scratch coat has dried, tilesetters apply another coat of mortar to level the surface and then apply mortar to the back of the tile and place it onto the surface. To set tile in mastic or a cement adhesive, called "thin set," tilesetters need a flat, solid surface such as drywall, concrete, plaster, or wood. They use a tooth-edged trowel to spread mastic on the surface or apply cement adhesive to the back of the tile and then properly position it. Because tile varies in color, shape, and size, workers sometimes prearrange tiles on a dry floor according to a specified design. This allows workers to examine the pattern and make changes. In order to cover all exposed areas, including comers and around pipes, tubs, and wash basins, tilesetters cut tiles to fit with a machine saw or a special cutting tool. Once the tile is placed, they gently tap the surface with their trowel handle or a small block of wood to seat the tiles evenly. When the cement or mastic has set, tilesetters fill the joints with "grout," a very fine cement. They then scrape the surface with a rubber-edged device called a "squeegee" to dress the joints and remove excess grout. Before the grout sets, they finish the joints with a damp sponge for a uniform appearance. Working Conditions Tilesetters generally work indoors. Because most of the structure has been completed, the work area is relatively clean and uncluttered. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of tilesetters is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Increased demand for tilesetters will stem from population and business growth, which should result in more construction of shopping malls, hospitals, schools, restaurants, and other structures where tile is used extensively. Tile is expected to continue to increase in popularity as a building material and be used more extensively, particularly in more expensive homes, whose construction is expected to increase. In more modestly priced homes, however, the use of tile substitutes, such as plastic or fiberglass tub and shower enclosures, is expected to increase, slowing the growth in demand for tilesetters. Despite the increased demand for tilesetting, most job openings will result from the need to replace tilesetters who retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. Job opportunities will not be as plenti ful as in other construction occupations because the occupation is small and turnover is relatively low. Earnings The median weekly earnings for tilesetters were about $450 a week in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $340 and $710 a week; 10 percent earned less than $280 a week; 10 percent earned more than $960 a week. Apprentices usually start earning 50 percent of experienced workers’ wages. Earnings vary greatly by geographic location. They tend to be highest in the North and lowest in the South. Some tilesetters belong to the International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen or the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America. Related Occupations Tilesetters use their knowledge of tools and masonry materials along with skill and dexterity to produce attractive, durable surfaces. Other 400 Occuptional Outlook Handbook workers with similar abilities include bricklayers, concrete masons, marblesetters, plasterers, stonemasons, and terrazzo workers. Sources of Additional Information For details about apprenticeship or other work opportunities in this trade, contact local tilesetting contractors; locals of the unions previ ously mentioned; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis For general information about the work of tilesetters, contact: •"International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen, International Masonry Institute, Apprenticeship and Training, 815 15th St. NW„ Washing ton, DC 20005. •"United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, Tile, Marble, and Terrazzo Finishers Division, 101 Constitution Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20001. Production Occupations Assemblers Precision Assemblers (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 478.) Nature of the Work Workers who put together the parts of manufactured products are called assemblers. In some instances, such as the building of a car, hundreds of assemblers work on a single product; in others, such as the assembly of a toy doll, a single assembler may be responsible for each product. Assembly work varies from simple, repetitive jobs that are relatively easy to learn to those requiring great precision and many months of experience and training. Precision assemblers are the highly experienced and trained workers who assemble compli cated products. The work of precision assemblers requires a high degree of accuracy. Workers must be able to interpret detailed specifications and instructions and apply independent judgment. Some experienced assemblers work with engineers and technicians, assembling proto types or test products. Precision assemblers involved in product development must know how to read and interpret engineering specifications from text, drawings, and computer-aided drafting systems, and how to use a variety of tools and precision measuring instruments. Precision assemblers may work on subassemblies or the final assembly of finished products or components of a vast array of products. For example, precision electrical and electronic equipment assemblers put together or modify prototypes or final assemblies of items such as missile control systems, radio or test equipment, com puters, machine-tool numerical controls, radar, sonar, telemetering systems, and appliances. Precision electromechanical equipment assemblers prepare and test equipment or devices such as dynamome ters, ejection seat mechanisms, magnetic drums, and tape drives. Precision machine builders construct, assemble, or rebuild engines and turbines, and office, agricultural, construction, oil field, rolling mill, textile, woodworking, paper, printing, and food wrapping machinery. Precision aircraft assemblers put together and install parts of airplanes, space vehicles, or missiles, such as wings or landing gear. Precision structural metal fitters align and fit structural metal parts according to detailed specifications prior to welding or riveting. The manufacturing process is changing. Flexible manufacturing systems, which include the manufacturing applications of robotics, computers, programmable motion control, and various sensing technologies, are changing the way goods are made and affecting the jobs of those who make them. Precision assemblers have had to learn to use these machines and adapt to changes in work processes. The advent of cellular manufacturing in American firms, for exam ple, has meant that the assembly line is more likely to be composed of "cells" that place a premium on communication and teamwork. As the United States manufacturing sector continues to evolve in the face of growing international competition, the nature of precision assembly will change along with it. Working Conditions The conditions under which precision assemblers work depend on the manufacturing plant where they are employed. Electronics assem blers sit at tables in rooms that are clean, well lighted, and free from dust. Assemblers of aircraft and industrial machinery, however, usually come in contact with oil and grease, and their working areas may be quite noisy. They also may have to lift and fit heavy objects. Most full-time assemblers work a standard 40-hour week, al though overtime is fairly common. Work schedules of assemblers may vary at plants with more than one shift. In some plants, workers can accept or reject a certain job on a given shift, usually in order of seniority. Employment Virtually all of the 324,000 precision assembler jobs in 1994 were in plants that manufacture durable goods. One-third of all jobs involved assembly of electronic and electrical machinery, equipment, and supplies, including electrical switches, welding equipment, electric motors, lighting equipment, household appliances, and radios and television sets. Nearly one-quarter of all jobs involved assembly of industrial machinery—diesel engines, steam turbine generators, farm tractors, mining and construction machinery, and office machines. Other industries employing many precision assemblers were trans portation equipment (aircraft, autos, trucks, and buses) and instru ments manufacturing. The following tabulation lists the wage and salary employment of precision assemblers in 1994 by industry. Electronic and other electrical equipment manufacturing................... 109,000 Industrial machinery and equipment manufacturing........................... 81,000 Transportation equipment manufacturing............................................ 57,000 Instruments and related products manufacturing................................. 57,000 Fabricated metal products manufacturing........................................... 15,000 All other industries............................................................................... 5,000 Precision assembly requires concentration and manual dexterity. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Precision assemblers often are promoted from the ranks of workers in less skilled jobs in the same firm. Sometimes, outside applicants may be hired if they possess suitable experience. The ability to do 401 402 Occuptional Outlook Handbook accurate work at a rapid pace is a key job requirement. A high school diploma is helpful but usually is not required. For some precision assembly jobs, applicants need specialized training. For example, employers may require that applicants for electrical or electronic assembler jobs be technical school graduates or have equivalent military training. Good eyesight, with or without glasses, is required for assemblers who work with small parts. In plants that make electrical and elec tronic products, which may contain many different colored wires, applicants often are tested for color vision. As precision assemblers become more experienced, they may progress to jobs that require more skill and be given more responsi bility. Experienced assemblers who have learned many assembly operations and understand the construction of a product may become product repairers. These workers fix assembled articles that opera tors or inspectors have identified as defective. Assemblers also can advance to quality control jobs or be promoted to supervisor. In some firms, assemblers can become trainees for one of the skilled trades. Those with a background in math, science, and computers may advance to programmers or operators of more highly automated production equipment. Job Outlook Employment of precision assemblers is expected to decline through the year 2005, as increasing automation and internationalization of production will offset any increase in employment that would have resulted from industrial growth. As manufacturing firms strive for greater precision and productivity, jobs that can be performed more economically or more accurately by automated equipment will be upgraded or will disappear. Recent advancements have made robot ics more applicable and affordable for manufacturing firms. The introduction of robots in these plants should continue to grow in coming years, raising the productivity of assembly workers and adversely affecting their employment. The effects of automation will be felt more acutely in some industries than in others. Flexible manufacturing systems are expen sive, and a large volume of repetitive work is required to justify their purchase. Also, where the assembly parts involved are irregular in size or location, new technology is only now beginning to make inroads. For example, much precision assembly in the aerospace industry is done in hard-to-reach locations unsuited for robots— inside airplane fuselages or gear boxes, for example—and replace ment of these workers by automated processes will be slower and less comprehensive than replacement of other workers such as weld ers and painters. On the other hand, automation will continue to make more inroads in the precision assembly of electronic goods, where a third of these workers are employed. An alternative to automation for many firms is sending their subassembly or component production functions to countries where labor costs are lower. This growing internationalization of produc tion will be promoted by more liberal trade and investment. Al though there will be some growth in exports of goods assembled in the United States as a result of this freer trade environment, growing imports and decisions by American corporations to relocate assembly in other nations will, on balance, lead to employment reductions for precision assemblers. Despite the expected decline in employment, job openings will still arise as workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Moreover, the need for precision, independent judgment, and specialized knowledge will ensure the continued employment of many precision assemblers. Earnings Earnings information is somewhat limited for precision assemblers. Full-time workers who assemble electrical and electronic equipment had median weekly earnings of about $330 in 1994. Most earned between $260 and $430; the lowest 10 percent earned less than $210 a week while the highest 10 percent earned over $590. In addition to earnings, most precision assemblers receive typical benefits such as health and life insurance, a pension plan, paid vacation, and sick leave. Many precision assemblers are members of labor unions. These unions include the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers of America; the United Automobile, Aerospace and Agri cultural Implement Workers of America; the International Brother hood of Electrical Workers; and the United Steelworkers. Related Occupations Other occupations that involve operating machines and tools and assembling products include welders, ophthalmic laboratory techni cians, and machine operators. Sources of Additional Information Information about employment opportunities for assemblers is avail able from local offices of the State employment service and from locals of the unions mentioned earlier. Blue-Collar Worker Supervisors (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 478.) Nature of the Work For the millions of workers who assemble manufactured goods, service electronics equipment, build office buildings, load trucks, or perform thousands of other activities, a blue-collar worker supervisor is the boss. These supervisors ensure that workers, equipment, and materials are used properly and efficiently to maximize productivity. They are often responsible for very expensive and complex equip ment or systems. Supervisors make sure machinery is set up cor rectly and schedule or perform repairs and maintenance work. Supervisors create work schedules, keep production and employee records, monitor employees and ensure that work is done correctly https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and on time. They organize the workers' activities and make any necessary adjustments to ensure that work continues uninterrupted. Supervisors also train new workers and ensure the existence of a safe working environment. Blue-collar worker supervisors may have other titles, such as first-line supervisor or foreman/forewoman. In the textile industry, they may be referred to as second hands; on ships they may be called boatswains. In the construction industry, they can be referred to as superintendents, crew chiefs, or foremen/forewomen, depending upon the type and size of their employer. Toolpushers or gang pushers are the common terms used to describe blue-collar supervi sors in the oil drilling business. Regardless of industry setting or job title, a supervisor's primary responsibility is to ensure that the work gets done. The way supervi Production Occupations 403 sors accomplish this task, however, is changing in some organiza tions. In companies that have restructured their operations for maximum efficiency, supervisors use computers to schedule work flow, monitor the quality of their workers' output, keep track of materials used, update their inventory control system, and perform other supervisory tasks. New management philosophies emphasize fewer levels of management and greater employee power and deci sion making. In the past, supervisors used their power and authority to direct the efforts of their subordinates; increasingly, supervisors are assuming the role of a facilitator for groups of workers, aiding in group decision making and conflict resolution. Blue-collar worker supervisors have many interpersonal tasks related to their job as well. They inform workers about company plans and policies; recommend good performers for wage increases, awards, or promotions; and deal with poor performers by outlining expectations, counseling workers in proper methods, issuing warn ings, or recommending disciplinary action. They also meet on a regular basis with their managers, reporting any problems and dis cussing possible solutions. Supervisors also meet among themselves to discuss goals, company operations, and performance. In compa nies with labor unions, supervisors must follow all provisions of labor-management contracts. Working Conditions Many blue-collar worker supervisors work in a shop environment. They may be on their feet much of the time overseeing the work of subordinates and may work near loud and dangerous machinery. Other supervisors, such as those in construction and oil exploration and production, may work outdoors and are subject to all kinds of weather conditions. Supervisors may be on the job before other workers arrive and stay after they leave. Some supervisors work in plants that operate around the clock and may work any one of three shifts as well as on weekends and holidays. In some cases, supervisors work all three shifts on a rotating basis; in others, shift assignments are made on the basis of seniority. Employment Blue-collar worker supervisors held about 1.9 million jobs in 1994. Although salaried supervisors are found in almost all industries, 4 of every 10 worked in manufacturing—supervising the production of industrial machinery, motor vehicles, appliances, and thousands of other products. Other industries employing blue-collar worker supervisors included construction, wholesale and retail trade, public utilities, repair shops, transportation, and government. Employment is distributed in much the same way as the population, and jobs are located in all cities and towns. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement When choosing supervisors, employers generally look for experi ence, job knowledge, organizational skills, and leadership qualities. Employers emphasize the ability to motivate employees, maintain high morale, and command respect. In addition, employers desire well rounded applicants who are able to deal with different situations and different types of people. Communication and interpersonal skills are extremely important attributes in this occupation. Completion of high school is often the minimum educational requirement to become a blue-collar worker supervisor, but workers generally need training in human resources and management before they advance to these positions. Although many workers still rise through the ranks with high school diplomas, employers are increas ingly hiring applicants with postsecondary technical degrees. In high-technology industries, such as aerospace and electronics, em ployers typically require a bachelor's degree or technical school training. Employers in the manufacturing sector generally prefer a background in engineering, mathematics, science, business admini stration, or industrial relations. Large companies usually offer better opportunities than smaller companies for promotion to blue-collar worker supervisor positions. In most manufacturing companies, a degree in business or engi neering combined with in-house training is needed to advance to department head or production manager. In the construction indus try, supervisors increasingly need a degree in construction manage ment or engineering, particularly if they expect to advance to project manager, operations manager, or general superintendent. Some use their skills and experience to start their own construction contracting firms. Supervisors in repair shops may open their own business. Job Outlook No change is expected in the employment of blue-collar worker supervisors through the year 2005. Because the occupation is so large, however, many openings will arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Job prospects vary by industry. In manufacturing, employment of supervisors is expected to decline slightly as the trend continues for supervisors to oversee more workers. This reflects the increasing use of computers to meet supervisory responsibilities such as scheduling, the effects of worker empowerment programs that relieve supervisors of some of the more time-consuming tasks, and corporate downsiz ing. In construction and most other nonmanufacturing industries, employment of blue-collar worker supervisors is expected to rise along with the employment of the workers they supervise. Because of their skill and seniority, blue-collar worker supervi sors often are protected from layoffs during a recession. However, some in the highly cyclical construction industry may be laid off when construction activity declines. Earnings Median weekly earnings for blue-collar worker supervisors were about $610 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $450 and $810. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $360, while the highest 10 percent earned over $1,080. Most supervisors earn sig nificantly more than their subordinates. While most blue-collar workers are paid by the hour, the majority of supervisors receive an annual salary. Some supervisors receive extra pay when they work overtime. Typical benefits for these workers include health and life insurance, pension plans, paid vacation, and sick leave. ■ ■ RSH Blue-collar worker supervisors are employed in nearly every industry. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations Other workers with supervisory duties include those who supervise professional, technical, sales, clerical, and service workers. Some of these are retail store or department managers, sales managers, cleri- 404 Occuptional Outlook Handbook cal supervisors, bank officers, head tellers, hotel managers, postmas ters, head cooks, head nurses, and surveyors. Sources of Additional Information For information on educational programs for blue-collar worker supervisors, contact: •"American Management Association, 135 West 50th St., New York, NY 10020. •"National Management Association, 2210 Arbor Blvd., Dayton, OH 45439. •"American Institute of Constructors, 466 94th Ave. North, St. Petersburg, FL 33702. •"Enterprises, 1429 Colonial Blvd., Suite 203, Fort Myers, FL 33907. Food Processing Occupations Butchers and Meat, Poultry, and Fish Cutters (D.O.T. 316.681-010 and .684 except -014; 521.687-058,-106, and -126; 525.361, .381, .664, .684 except -026, -034, and -040, and .687-030, -066, and -074; and 529.686-022.) Nature of the Work Butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters carve animal carcasses into small pieces of meat suitable for sale to consumers. In meat packing plants, meatcutters slaughter cattle, hogs, goats, and sheep and cut the carcasses into large wholesale cuts such as rounds, loins, ribs, and chucks to facilitate handling, distribution, and marketing. Meat trimmings are used to prepare sausages, luncheon meats, and other fabricated meat products. Meatcutters usually work on assem bly lines, with each individual responsible for only a few of the many cuts needed to process a carcass. Depending on the type of cut, they may use knives, cleavers, meat saws, bandsaws, and other equipment. In grocery stores, wholesale establishments that supply meat to restaurants, and institutional food service facilities, butchers separate the wholesale cuts of meat into retail cuts or individual size servings. They cut the meat into steaks and chops using knives and electric saws, shape and tie roasts, and grind beef for sale as chopped meat. Boneless cuts are prepared using knives, slicers, or power cutters, while bandsaws are required on bone-in pieces. Butchers in retail food stores also may weigh, wrap, and label the cuts and arrange them in refrigerated cases for display to customers. They also may prepare special cuts of meat ordered by customers. Poultry cutters slaughter and cut up chickens, turkeys, and other types of poultry. The poultry processing industry is becoming in creasingly automated, but many jobs such as trimming, packing, and deboning are still done manually. Fish cleaners cut, scale, and dress fish in fish processing plants and wholesale and retail fish markets. They remove the head, scales, and other inedible portions and cut the fish into steaks or boneless fillets. In markets, they may wait on customers and clean fish to order. Retail meat, poultry, and fish cutters also prepare ready-to-heat foods. This often entails filleting meat or fish or cutting it into bite sized pieces, preparing and adding vegetables, or applying sauces or breading. Working Conditions Working conditions vary by the type and size of establishment. In meatpacking plants and larger retail food establishments, butchers and meatcutters work in large meatcutting rooms equipped with power machines and conveyors. In small retail markets, the butcher https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis or fish cleaner may work in a space behind the meat counter. To avoid viral and bacterial infections, work areas must be clean and sanitary. Butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters often work in cold, damp rooms. Cutting rooms are refrigerated to prevent meat from spoiling; they are damp because meat cutting generates large amounts of blood and fat. The low temperature, combined with the need to stand for long periods of time, makes the work tiring. Butch ers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters are more susceptible to Hi Meat cutters in grocery stores separate wholesale cuts of meat into retail cuts or individual sized servings. Production Occupations 405 injury than other workers. In 1992, meatpacking plants had the highest incidence of work-related injury and illness of any industry. Cuts and even amputations, occur when knives, cleavers, and power tools are used improperly. The cool damp floors of meat processing areas increase the likelihood of slips and falls. Repetitive slicing and lifting often leads to cumulative trauma injuries, such as carpal tunnel syndrome. To reduce the incidence of cumulative trauma disorders, many employers have reduced work loads, redesigned jobs and tools, and increased awareness of early warning signs. Neverthe less, workers in this occupation still face a serious threat of a disa bling injury. Employment Butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters held about 351,043 jobs in 1994. Over four-fifths worked in meatpacking and poultry and fish processing plants and retail grocery stores, while others were employed by meat and fish markets, restaurants, hotels, and whole sale establishments. The majority of the 218,994 skilled butchers and meatcutters worked in retail grocery stores, while more than 9 out of 10 of the semiskilled meat, poultry, and fish cutters worked in meatpacking and poultry and fish processing plants. Skilled butchers and meatcutters are employed in almost every city and town in the Nation, while semiskilled meat, poultry, and fish cutter jobs are concentrated in communities with food processing plants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters acquire their skills informally on the job or through apprenticeship programs. A few learn their basic skills by attending trade and vocational schools. However, graduates of these schools may need additional on-the-job training and experience to work as butchers and meatcutters. Generally, on-the-job trainees begin by doing less difficult jobs, such as removing bones. Under the guidance of experienced work ers, they learn the proper use of tools and equipment and how to prepare various cuts of meat. After demonstrating skill with tools, they learn to divide quarters into wholesale cuts and wholesale cuts into retail and individual portions. Trainees may learn to roll and tie roasts, prepare sausage, and cure meat. Those employed in retail food establishments may learn marketing operations such as inven tory control, meat buying, and record keeping. Retail meatcutters and butchers who learn the trade through apprenticeship programs generally complete 2 years of supervised on-the-job training supplemented by classroom work. At the end of the training period, apprentices must pass a meatcutting test. In some areas, apprentices may become meatcutters or butchers without completing the entire training program if they can pass the test. Skills important in meat, poultry, and fish cutting are manual dexterity, good depth perception, color discrimination, and good eyehand coordination. Also, physical strength is often needed to lift and move heavy pieces of meat. Butchers and fish cleaners who wait on customers must have a pleasant personality, a neat appearance, and the ability to communicate clearly. In some States a health certifi cate may be required for employment. Butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters may progress to supervisory jobs, such as meat or seafood department managers in supermarkets. A few become meat or seafood buyers for wholesalers and supermarket chains. Some become grocery store managers or open their own meat or fish markets. In processing plants, butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters may move up to supervisory positions. Job Outlook Overall employment of butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as more meat cutting and processing shifts from the retail store to the food processing plant. Nevertheless, job https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis opportunities should be plentiful due to the need to replace experi enced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. As the Nation's population grows, the demand for meat, poultry, and seafood should continue to increase. Successful marketing by the poultry industry is likely to increase demand for rotisserie chicken and ready-to-heat products. Similarly, the development of lower fat and ready-to-heat products promises to stimulate the con sumption of red meat. The demand for fish and seafood should reach record levels in the coming years. Employment growth of semiskilled meat, poultry, and fish cutters who work primarily in meatpacking, poultry, and fish processing plants is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupa tions through the year 2005. Although much of the production of poultry and fabricated poultry products is performed by machines, the growing popularity of labor-intensive ready-to-heat goods prom ises to spur demand for poultry workers. Semiskilled meat and fish cutters also will be in demand as the task of preparing ready-to-heat meat and fish goods slowly shifts from the retail store to the process ing plant. Although the supply of edible ocean fish is limited, ad vances in fish farming, or "aquaculture," are expected to reduce the gap between supply and demand, and produce ample opportunities for fish cutters. Employment of skilled butchers and meatcutters, who work primarily in retail stores, is expected to decline gradually. Although meat is increasingly cut and processed at meatpacking plants, this transformation is proceeding slowly. At present, most red meat arrives at the grocery store partially cut up. The retail butcher per forms the final processing—cutting wholesale meat cuts into steaks, chops, and roasts and packaging them for sale. Eventually, as ready-to-heat goods become more popular, both fresh meat and prepared foods will be completely processed and packaged at the plant. Consumers and the retail stores are slowly adjusting to this trend, and the demand for retail meat, poultry, and fish cutters should decline. Earnings Butchers and meatcutters had median weekly earnings of $329 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $250 and $522 a week. The highest paid 10 percent earned over $702 a week. Meatcutters employed by retail grocery stores are generally among the highest paid workers. Butchers and meat and fish cutters generally received paid vaca tions, sick leave, health insurance, and life insurance. Those who were union members and employed by grocery stores also had pen sion plans. However, poultry workers tended to rarely earn substan tial benefits. Many butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters are members of the United Food and Commercial Workers International Union. In 1992, nearly 30 percent of all butchers and meatcutters were union members or covered by a union contract. Related Occupations Butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters must be skilled at both hand and machine work and must have some knowledge of processes and techniques involved in handling and preparing food. Other occupations in food preparation which require similar skills and knowledge include bakers, chefs and cooks, and food preparation workers. Sources of Additional Information Information about work opportunities can be obtained from local employers or local offices of the State employment service. For information on training and other aspects of the trade, contact: •"United Food and Commercial Workers International Union, 1775 K St. NW„ Washington, DC 20006. Inspectors, Testers, and Graders (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 478.) Nature of the Work Inspectors, testers, and graders ensure that your food won't make you sick, your car will run when you buy it, and your pants won't split the first time you wear them. These workers monitor quality standards for virtually all manufactured products, including foods, textiles, clothing, glassware, motor vehicles, electronic components, comput ers, and structural steel. Inspectors visually check products and may also listen to, feel, smell, or even taste them. They verify dimensions, color, weight, texture, strength, or other physical characteristics of objects, and look for imperfections such as cuts, scratches, bubbles, missing pieces, misweaves, or crooked seams. Many inspectors use micrometers, electronic equipment, calipers, alignment gauges, and other instru ments to check and compare the dimensions of parts against the parts' specifications. Those testing electrical devices may use voltmeters, ammeters, and oscilloscopes to test the insulation, current flow, and resistance. Machinery testers generally check that parts fit and move correctly and are properly lubricated, check the pressure of gases and the level of liquids, test the flow of electricity, and do a test run to check for proper operation. Some jobs involve only a quick visual inspection; others require a much longer detailed one. Senior inspec tors may also set up tests and test equipment. Inspectors, testers, and graders are involved at every stage of the production process. Some inspectors examine materials received from a supplier before sending them to the production line. Others inspect components, subassemblies, and assemblies or perform a final check on the finished product. Inspectors mark, tag, or note problems. They may reject defec tive items outright, send them for rework, or, in the case of minor problems, fix them themselves. If the product checks out, they may screw on a nameplate, tag it, stamp a serial number, or certify it in some other way. Inspectors, testers, and graders record the results of their inspections, compute the percentage of defects and other statis tical parameters, prepare inspection and test reports, notify supervi sors of problems, and help analyze and correct problems in the production process. They also calibrate precision instruments used in inspection work. The recent emphasis on quality control in manufacturing has meant that inspection is becoming more fully integrated into the production process. Many machines are now self-monitoring to ensure that the product is produced within quality standards. Inspec tors still test products to ensure that they meet specifications, but, with the help of these machines, they direct the production line to adjust the machinery before the manufacturing line produces unus able parts. Also, many firms have automated inspection with the help of advanced vision systems, using machinery installed at one or several points in the production process. The inspectors in these firms generally are trained to operate this equipment. Working Conditions Working conditions vary from industry to industry. Some inspectors examine similar products for an entire shift; others examine a variety of items. Most remain at one work station, but some travel from place to place to do inspections. Some are on their feet all day; others sit. In some industries, inspectors are exposed to the noise and grime of machinery; in others, they work in a clean, quiet environ ment. Some may have to lift heavy objects. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Some inspectors work evenings, nights, or weekends. In these cases, shift assignments generally are made on the basis of seniority. Overtime may be required to meet production goals. Employment Inspectors, testers, and graders held about 654,000 jobs in 1994. More than 3 out of 4 worked in manufacturing industries, including industrial machinery and equipment, motor vehicles and equipment, primary and fabricated metals industries, electronic components and accessories, textiles, apparel, and aircraft and parts. Others worked in temporary help services, communications and utilities, wholesale trade, engineering and management services, and government agen cies. Although they are employed throughout the country, most jobs are in large metropolitan areas where many large factories are located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school diploma is helpful and may be required for some jobs. Simple jobs are generally filled by beginners with a few days of training. More complex ones are filled by experienced assemblers, machine operators, or mechanics who already have a thorough knowledge of the products and production processes. Inspectors, Inspection is becoming more integrated into the production process. 406 Production Occupations 407 testers, and graders also need mechanical aptitude, good hand-eye coordination, and good vision. In-house training for new inspectors may cover the use of special meters, gauges, computers, or other instruments; quality control techniques; blueprint reading; and reporting requirements. There are some postsecondary training programs in testing, but many employ ers prefer to train inspectors themselves. Advancement for these workers frequently takes the form of higher pay. However, they also may advance to inspector of more complex products, supervisor, or quality control technician. Job Outlook Individuals wishing to become inspectors, testers, or graders may face competition. Although the occupation is large, giving rise to a large number of openings due to normal turnover, some jobs may be available only to those having experience with the production proc ess. Also, like many other occupations concentrated in manufactur ing, employment of these workers is projected to decline through the year 2005. Even though the volume of manufactured goods will grow, em ployment of inspectors, testers, and graders will not grow for several reasons. Manufacturers are taking steps to improve production methods by using computers and statistical analysis to control the production process. In some cases, machines alert workers when items approach limits so that problems can be corrected before defects occur. This growing emphasis on quality will drive down the number of defective parts and help to reduce the demand for inspec tors. In addition, assemblers, machine operators, and other produc tion workers are becoming responsible for quality control in many firms, and they are correcting problems as they occur. As these responsibilities shift from inspectors to other workers, fewer inspec tors, testers, and graders will be needed. Moreover, automated inspecting machinery is improving inspectors’ speed and accuracy, resulting in higher productivity and adversely affecting employment of these workers. In many industries, however, automation is not being aggressively pursued as an alternative to manual inspection. When key inspection elements are size oriented, such as length, width, or thickness, auto mation may play some role in the future. But when taste, smell, texture, appearance, or product performance are important, inspec tion will probably continue to be done by humans. Earnings Iinspectors, testers, and graders had median weekly earnings of about $430 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $310 and $590 a week. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $240 a week; the highest 10 percent earned more than $780. In addition to these earnings, most inspectors, testers, and graders receive benefits includ ing health and life insurance, pension plans, paid vacations, and sick leave. Related Occupations Other workers who inspect products or services are construction and building inspectors and inspectors and compliance officers, except construction, which includes consumer safety, environmental health, agricultural commodity, immigration, customs, postal, motor vehicle, safety, and other inspectors. Sources of Additional Information For general information about this occupation, contact: •"The National Tooling and Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Fort Washington, MD 20744. •■The American Society for Quality Control, 611 East Wisconsin Ave., Milwaukee, WI53202-4606. Metalworking and Plastics-Working Occupations Boilermakers (D.O.T. 805.261 .361, and .381) Nature of the Work Boilermakers and boilermaker mechanics make, install, and repair boilers, vats, and other large vessels that hold liquids and gases. Boilers supply steam to drive huge turbines in electric power plants and to provide heat or power in buildings, factories, and ships. Tanks and vats are used to process and store chemicals, oil, beer, and hundreds of other products. Boilers and other high pressure vessels are usually made in sec tions by casting each piece out of molten iron or steel. Manufactur ers are increasingly automating this process to increase quality. The boiler sections are then welded together, often using automated orbital welding machines, which make more consistent welds than possible by hand. Small boilers may be assembled in the manufac turing plant; larger boilers are usually assembled on site. Following blueprints, boilermakers locate and mark reference points on the boiler foundation for installing boilers and other ves sels, using straightedges, squares, transits, and tape measures. They attach rigging and signal crane operators to lift heavy frame and plate https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis sections and other parts into place. They align sections, using plumb bobs, levels, wedges, and tumbuckles; use hammers, files, grinders, and cutting torches to remove irregular edges so they fit properly; and bolt or weld them together. Boilermakers align and attach water tubes, stacks, valves, gauges, and other parts and test complete vessels for leaks or other defects. Usually they assemble large vessels temporarily in a fabrication shop to insure a proper fit and again on their permanent site. Because boilers last for a long time—35 years or longer— boilermakers regularly maintain them and update components such as burners and boiler tubes to make them as efficient as possible. Boilermaker mechanics maintain and repair boilers and similar vessels. They clean or direct others to clean boilers and inspect tubes, fittings, valves, controls, and auxiliary machinery. They repair or replace defective parts, using hand and power tools, gas torches, and welding equipment, and may operate metalworking machinery to repair or make parts. They also dismantle leaky boilers, patch weak spots with metal stock, replace defective sections, or strengthen joints. Working Conditions Boilermakers often use potentially dangerous equipment such as acetylene torches and power grinders, handle heavy parts, and work on ladders or on top of large vessels. Work may be done in cramped 408 Occuptional Outlook Handbook employment of boilermakers is expected to decline through the year 2005. However, a limited number of openings will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who leave the occupation. Growth should be limited by several factors: The trend toward repairing and retrofitting rather than replacing existing boilers; the use of smaller boilers, which require less on-site assembly; automa tion of production technologies; and an increase in the use of im ported boilers. Most of the industries that purchase boilers are sensitive to eco nomic conditions. Therefore, during economic downturns, construc tion boilermakers may be laid off. However, because boilers are maintained and repaired even during economic downturns, boiler maker mechanics generally have more stable employment. Boilermakers constantly check their work to ensure the safe operation of the installed boiler system. quarters inside boilers, vats, or tanks that often are damp and pootjy ventilated. To reduce the chance of injuries, they may wear hardhats, harnesses, respirators, protective clothing, and safety glasses and shoes. Boilermakers usually work a 40-hour week but may experi ence extended periods of overtime when equipment is shut down for maintenance. Overtime work may also be required to meet con struction or production deadlines. Employment Boilermakers held about 20,000 jobs in 1994. About 44 percent worked in manufacturing, primarily in boiler manufacturing shops, iron and steel plants, petroleum refineries, chemical plants, and shipyards. One-third worked in the construction industry, assem bling and erecting boilers and other vessels. Some also work for boiler repair firms, railroads, and in Navy shipyards and Federal power facilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities recommend a formal apprenticeship to learn this trade. Some people become boilermakers by working as helpers to experienced boilermakers, but generally lack the wide range of skills acquired through apprenticeship. Apprenticeship programs usually consist of 4 years of on-the-job training, supplemented by about 144 hours of classroom instruction each year in subjects such as set-up and assembly rigging, welding of all types, blueprint read ing, and layout. Experienced boilermakers often attend apprentice ship classes to keep their knowledge current. When an apprenticeship becomes available, the local union will publicize the opportunity by notifying local vocational schools and high school vocational programs. Qualified applicants take an aptitude test administered by the union specifically designed for boilermaking. The apprenticeship is awarded to the person scoring highest on this test. When hiring helpers, employers prefer high school or vocational school graduates. Courses in shop, mathematics, blueprint reading, welding, and machine metalworking are useful. Mechanical aptitude and the manual dexterity needed to handle tools also are important. Some boilermakers advance to supervisory positions; because of their broader training, apprentices generally have an advantage in promotion. Job Outlook Persons who wish to become boilermakers may face some competi tion, due to the limited number of apprenticeships available and the relatively good wages a journey boilermaker earns. In addition, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings According to the limited data available, boilermakers who usually worked full time had median earnings of about $532 per week in 1994. According to the International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, journey boilermakers earned $21.20 per hour in 1994. Apprentices started at 60 percent of journey wages, or about $12.70 hourly, with wages increasing gradually to the journey wage as progress is made in the apprenticeship. However, wages vary greatly around the country, with higher wages in Northeastern, Great Lakes, and Far Western cities than in other areas of the country. Most boilermakers belong to labor unions. The principal union is the International Brotherhood of Boilermakers. Others are members of the International Association of Machinists, the United Automo bile Workers, and the United Steelworkers of America. Related Occupations Workers in a number of other occupations assemble, install, or repair metal equipment or machines. These include assemblers, black smiths, instrument makers, ironworkers, machinists, millwrights, patternmakers, plumbers, sheet-metal workers, tool and die makers, and welders. Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding boilermaking apprenticeships or other training opportunities, contact local offices of the unions previ ously mentioned, local construction companies and boiler manufac turers, or the local office of the State employment service. For general information regarding boilermaking and opportunities in the boiler manufacturing industry, contact: •"American Boiler Manufacturing Association, 950 North Glebe Rd., Suite 160, Arlington, VA 22203-1824. Jewelers (D.O.T. 199.281; 700.281-010, -014, -022, and .381-030, -042, and -046) Nature of the Work Jewelers make, repair, and adjust rings, necklaces, bracelets, ear rings, and other jewelry. Using drills, pliers, jeweler's soldering torches, saws, jeweler's lathes, and a variety of other handtools, they mold and shape metal and set gemstones. Jewelers also may use chemicals and polishing compounds, such as flux for soldering and tripoli and rouge for finishing. Jewelers usually specialize in one or more areas of the jewelry field—buying, design, gem cutting, repair, sales, or appraisal. In small retail or repair shops, they may be involved in all aspects of the work. Regardless of the type of establishment or work setting, how ever, their work requires a high degree of skill and attention to detail. Those working in retail jewelry stores, in addition to their primary responsibility to sell jewelry, may spend some time repairing or Production Occupations 409 adjusting it. In other cases, retailers send jewelry to specialized jewelry repair shops. Typical work includes enlarging or reducing rings, resetting stones, and replacing broken clasps and mountings. Some jewelers also design or make their own jewelry. Following their own designs or those created by designers or customers, they begin by shaping the metal or by carving wax to make a model for casting the metal. The individual parts are then soldered together, and the jeweler may mount a diamond or other gem or may engrave a design into the metal. Jewelers who own or manage stores or shops hire and train em ployees; order, market, and sell merchandise; and perform other managerial duties. In manufacturing, jewelers usually specialize in a single operation. Some may make models or tools for the jewelry that is to be produced. Others do finishing work, such as setting stones, polishing, or engraving. A growing number of jewelers use lasers for cutting and improving the quality of stones. Technology has not yet greatly affected the jewelry industry. However, some manufacturing firms use CAD/CAM (computeraided design and manufacturing) to facilitate product design and automate some steps in mold and model making. Use of such sys tems should increase in the future as they become more affordable for smaller companies. In retail stores, computers are used mainly for inventory control; some jewelers use computers to design and create customized pieces according to their customers' wishes. With the aid of computers, customers visualize different combinations of styles, cuts, shanks, sizes, and stones to create their own pieces. , •. ■ t, *!»v Jewelers need a keen eye for details. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Conditions Jewelers usually do most of their work seated in comfortable sur roundings, and the trade involves few physical hazards. While the work is not physically strenuous, there is a lot of work with detail and intricate designs which may be tiring to some. Caution must be taken because the chemicals, sawing and drilling tools, and torches a jeweler uses can cause serious injury. In addition, doing delicate work on precious stones or metals while trying to satisfy demands for speed and quality from customers and employers can cause stress, and bending over a workbench for long periods can be uncomfort able. In the future, the use of computers may ease some of these conditions since applications like CAD/CAM greatly increase the speed and accuracy of the design and manufacturing process. Because many of the materials with which they work are very valuable, those working in retail stores must observe strict security procedures. These may include locked doors that are only opened by a buzzer, barred windows, burglar alarms, and the presence of armed guards. In repair shops, jewelers generally work alone with little supervi sion. In retail stores, on the other hand, they may talk with customers about repairs, perform custom design work, and even do some sales work. Employment Jewelers held about 30,000 jobs in 1994. About 35 percent of all jewelers were self-employed; many operated their own store or repair shop, and some specialized in designing and creating custom jewelry. Nearly 55 percent of all salaried jewelers worked in retail estab lishments, while another 30 percent were employed in manufacturing plants. Although jewelry stores and repair shops can be found in every city and many small towns, most job opportunities are in larger metropolitan areas. Many jewelers employed in manufacturing work in New York, California, or Rhode Island. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Jewelers' skills usually are learned in technical schools, through correspondence courses, or informally on the job. Some aspiring jewelers begin working as clerks in department stores and transfer to jobs in jewelry shops or manufacturing firms after gaining experi ence. Colleges and art schools also offer programs which can lead to a bachelor's or master's degree of fine arts in jewelry design. Formal training in the basic skills of the trade enhances one's employment and advancement opportunities. Many employers prefer wellrounded jewelers with design, repair, and sales skills. For those interested in working in a jewelry store or repair shop, technical schools or courses offered by local colleges are the best sources of training. In these programs, which vary in length from 6 months to 2 years, students learn the use and care of jewelers' tools and machines and basic jewelry making and repairing skills, such as design, casting, stone setting, and polishing. Technical school courses also cover topics like blueprint reading, math, and shop theory. Most employers feel that graduates need several more years of supervised on-the-job training to refine their repair skills and to learn more about the operation of the store or shop. In addition, some employers encourage workers to improve their skills by enroll ing in short-term technical school courses such as sample making, wax carving, or gemology. Many employers pay all or part of the cost of this additional training. The Gemological Institute of America offers programs lasting about 6 months, and self-paced correspondence courses lasting several years, leading to a gemologist diploma and a jeweler di ploma. These advanced programs cover a wide range of topics including appraisal, evaluating diamonds and colored stones, identi fying gems, and designing jewelry. In jewelry manufacturing plants, workers traditionally have developed their skills through apprenticeships and informal on-thejob training. This training may last 3 to 4 years, depending on the difficulty of the specialty. Training usually focuses on casting, 410 Occuptional Outlook Handbook stonesetting, modelmaking, or engraving. In recent years, a growing number of technical schools and colleges have begun to offer training designed for jewelers working in manufacturing. Like employers in retail trade, those in manufacturing prefer graduates of these pro grams because they are familiar with the production process, allow ing less in-house training. To enter most technical school or college programs, a high school diploma or its equivalent is required. Courses in art, math, mechani cal drawing, and chemistry are useful. Since computer-aided design is increasingly used in the jewelry field, it is recommended that students—especially those interested in design and manufacturing— obtain training in CAD. The precise and delicate nature of jewelry work requires fin ger and hand dexterity, good hand-eye coordination, patience, and concentration. Artistic ability and fashion consciousness are major assets, because jewelry must be stylish and attractive. Those who work in jewelry stores have frequent contact with customers and should be neat, personable, and knowledgeable about the merchan dise. In addition, employers require someone of good character because jewelers work with very valuable materials. Advancement opportunities are limited and greatly dependent on an individual's skill and initiative. In manufacturing, some jewelers advance to supervisory jobs, such as master jeweler or head jeweler, but for most, advancement takes the form of higher pay for doing the same job. Jewelers who work in jewelry stores or repair shops may become salaried managers; some open their own businesses. For those interested in starting their own business, a substantial financial investment is needed to acquire the necessary inventory. Also, because the jewelry business is highly competitive, jewelers who plan to open their own store should have experience in selling, as well as knowledge of marketing and business management. Courses in these areas often are available from technical schools and community colleges. Job Outlook Employment of jewelers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Traditionally, job opportunities for jewelers depended largely on jewelry sales and on demand for jewelry repair services. Now, however, non-traditional jewelry marketers such as discount stores, mail-order catalogue companies, and television shopping networks have limited the growth of sales made by traditional jewelers, limiting job opportuni ties because these types of establishments require few if any jewelers. Because the demand for jewelry is largely affected by the amount of disposable income people have, the increasing number of affluent individuals, working women, double-income households, and fashion conscious men are expected to keep jewelry sales strong. Jewelers have a relatively strong attachment to their occupa tions—reflecting the large proportion of self-employed workers. Nevertheless, job openings will largely result from the need to re place jewelers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Opportunities in jewelry stores and repair shops will be best for graduates from jeweler or gemologist training programs. Demand for repair workers will be strong because maintaining and repairing jewelry is an ongoing process, even during economic slowdowns. In fact, demand for jewelry repair may increase during recessions as people repair or restore existing pieces rather than purchase new ones. Increasing automation within jewelry manufacturing will ad versely affect employment of low-skilled occupations, like assembler and polisher. Automation will have a lesser impact on more creative, highly skilled positions, such as mold and model maker. Because of recent international trade agreements, exports are steadily increasing as manufacturers become more competitive in foreign markets. Earnings Median weekly earning of jewelers in all industries were $400 in 1994. Depending on the employer, jewelers may receive commis https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis sions on what they sell or bonuses for outstanding work. According to the Jewelers’ Circular-Keystone annual salary survey, the median salary of jewelers in retail stores was approximately $25,700 in 1993, while the median annual salary of jewelry repair workers was $26,200. For those in manufacturing, earnings of experienced, unionized jewelry workers averaged between $12 and $17 an hour in 1994, according to the limited information available. According to the Manufacturing Jewelers and Silversmiths of America, the median average hourly wage of jewelers in companies with more than 10 employees was $11.64 in 1994. Beginners in jewelry factories gen erally start at considerably less than experienced workers; as they become more proficient, they receive periodic raises. Most jewelers enjoy a variety of fringe benefits including reim bursement from their employers for work-related courses and dis counts on jewelry purchases. Related Occupations Other skilled workers who do similar jobs include polishers, dental laboratory technicians, gemcutters, hand engravers, and watch mak ers and repairers. Sources of Additional Information Information on job opportunities and training programs for jewelers is available from: ••Gemological Institute of America, 1660 Stewart St., Santa Monica, CA 90404. General career information is available from: ••Jewelers of America, 1185 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10036. •"Manufacturing Jewelers and Silversmiths of America, 1 State St., 6th Floor, Providence, RI 02908-5035. To receive a list of technical schools accredited by the Accredit ing Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology that have programs in jewelry design, contact: •■Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201. Machinists and Tool Programmers (D.O.T. 007.167-018; 600.260-022, .280-022, -026, -030, -034, -042, .281-010, .380-010; 609.262-010; and 714.281-018) Nature of the Work Machinists use machine tools such as lathes, drill presses, and mill ing machines to produce precision metal parts. Although they may produce large quantities of one part, machinists usually produce small batches or one-of-a-kind items. They use their knowledge of the working properties of metals—such as steel, cast iron, aluminum, and brass—and their skill with machine tools to plan and carry out the operations needed to make machined products that meet precise specifications. Machinists first review blueprints or written specifications for a job. Next, they calculate where to cut or bore into the workpiece, how fast to feed the metal into the machine, and how much metal to remove. They then select tools and materials for the job, plan the sequence of cutting and finishing operations, and mark the metal stock to show where these cuts should be made. After this layout work is completed, machinists perform the necessary machining operations. They position the metal stock on the machine tool—drill presses, lathes, milling machines, or others— set the controls, and make the cuts. Today, new machinery allows various functions to be performed with one setup, which reduces the need for additional, labor-intensive setups, saving time and money. During the machining process, they must constantly monitor the feed and speed of the machine. Machinists must also ensure that the Production Occupations 411 workpiece is being properly lubricated and cooled because the ma chining of metal products generates a significant amount of heat. Some machinists, often called production machinists, may pro duce large quantities of one part, especially parts requiring complex operations and great precision. For unusually sophisticated proce dures, expensive machinery is used. Usually, however, large num bers of parts requiring more routine operations are produced by metalworking machine operators (see the statement on metalworking and plastics-working machine operators elsewhere in the Handbook). Other machinists do maintenance work—repairing or making new parts for existing machinery. For example, to repair a broken part, maintenance machinists may refer to blueprints and perform the same machining operations that were needed to create the original part. Increasingly, the machine tools used to produce metal parts are numerically controlled (NC)—that is, they contain an electronic controller that directs the machine's operations. Most NC machines today are computer numerically controlled (CNC), which means that the controllers are computers. The controller "reads" a program—a coded list of the steps necessary to perform a specific machining job—and runs the machine tool's mechanisms through the steps. The introduction of computer numerically controlled machines has greatly changed the nature of the work and productivity of ma chinists. These machines enable machinists to be more productive and to produce parts with a level of precision that is not possible with traditional machining techniques. Furthermore, because precise movements are recorded in the program, they allow this high level of precision to be consistently repeated. The quality of the products these machines produce depends largely on the programs, which may be produced by machinists or by tool programmers—workers who specialize in programming machine tools. Tool programmers begin as machinists do—by analyzing blue prints, computing the size and position of the cuts, determining the sequence of machine operations, selecting tools, and calculating the machine speed and feed rates. They then write the program in the language of the machine's controller and store it. Skilled machinists may also do programming. In fact, as computer software becomes more user friendly and CNC machines are used more widely, ma chinists are expected to perform this function more and more. Machinists may work alone or with tool programmers to check new programs to ensure that machinery will function properly and the output will meet specifications. Because a problem with the program could damage the costly machinery and cutting tools, com- Despite a slight projected decline, employment opportunities should be good for skilled machinists. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis puter simulations may be used instead of a trial run to check the program. If errors are found, the program must be changed and retested until the problem is resolved. Some programs are modified for use on other jobs with similar specifications, thereby reducing the time and effort needed to start production of a part. A growing number of firms employ computer-aided design (CAD) systems to assist in writing programs. Working Conditions Most machine shops are well lighted and ventilated. Nevertheless, working around high-speed machine tools presents certain dangers, and workers must follow safety precautions. Machinists must wear protective equipment such as safety glasses to shield against bits of flying metal and earplugs to protect against machinery noise. They must also exercise caution when handling hazardous coolants and lubricants. The job requires stamina because machinists stand most of the day and may lift moderately heavy workpieces. Some tool programmers work in offices that are near, but separate from, the shop floor. These work areas are usually clean, well lighted, and free of machine noise. Most machinists and tool programmers work a 40-hour week. Evening and weekend shifts are becoming more common as compa nies invest in more expensive machinery. Overtime is common during peak production periods. Employment Machinists and tool programmers held about 376,000 jobs in 1994. Most machinists worked in small machining shops or in manufactur ing firms that produce durable goods such as metalworking and industrial machinery, aircraft, or motor vehicles. Maintenance machinists work in most industries that use production machinery. Although machinists and tool programmers work in all parts of the country, jobs are most plentiful in areas where manufacturing is concentrated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school or vocational school education, including mathemat ics, blueprint reading, metalworking, and drafting, is desirable for becoming a machinist or tool programmer. A basic knowledge of computers and electronics is helpful because of the increased use of computer-controlled machine tools. Experience with machine tools also is helpful. In fact, many of the people who enter these occupa tions have previously worked as machine tool operators or setters. Machinist training varies from formal apprenticeship and postsec ondary programs to informal on-the-job training. Apprentice pro grams consist of shop training and related classroom instruction. In shop training, apprentices learn filing, handtapping, and dowel fitting, as well as the operation of various machine tools. Classroom instruction includes math, physics, blueprint reading, mechanical drawing, and shop practices. In addition, as machine shops have increased their use of computer-controlled equipment, training in the operation and programming of numerically controlled machine tools has become essential. A growing number of machinists and tool programmers receive most of their formal training from community colleges. Qualifications for tool programmers vary widely depending upon the complexity of the job. Basic requirements parallel those of machinists. Employers often prefer skilled machinists, tool and die makers, or those with technical school training. For some specialized types of programming, such as with complex parts for the aerospace or shipbuilding industries, employers may prefer individuals with a degree in engineering. For those entering tool programming directly, a basic knowledge of computers and electronics is necessary and experience with ma chine tools is extremely helpful. Classroom training includes an introduction to numerical control and the basics of programming and then advances to more complex topics such as computer-aided de sign. Trainees start writing simple programs under the direction of 412 Occuptional Outlook Handbook an experienced programmer. Although machinery manufacturers are trying to standardize programming languages, currently there are numerous languages in use. Because of this, tool programmers must be able to learn and adapt to new programming languages. Established workers may also take courses to update their skills and to leant the latest technology and equipment. Some employers offer tuition reimbursement for job-related courses. In addition, when new machinery is introduced, workers receive training in its operation—usually from a representative of the equipment manufacturer. Persons interested in becoming a machinist or tool programmer should be mechanically inclined. They also should be able to work independently and do highly accurate work that requires concentra tion as well as physical effort. Workers may advance in several ways. Experienced machinists may become tool programmers; some move into supervisory or administrative positions in their firms; and a few may open their own shops. Job Outlook Employment of machinists and tool programmers is expected to decline slightly through the year 2005. Nevertheless, job opportuni ties will be good, as employers continue to report difficulties in attracting workers to machining and tool programming occupations. Therefore, candidates with the necessary mechanical and mathemati cal aptitudes should encounter ample demand for their skills. Many job openings also will arise each year from the need to replace expe rienced machinists and programmers who transfer to other occupa tions or retire. The number of openings for machinists is expected to be far greater than the number of openings for tool programmers, primarily because the occupation is larger. Automation is the major factor in the employment decline pro jected for machinists and tool programmers. The use of computercontrolled machine tools, for example, reduces the time required for machining operations and increases worker productivity. This allows fewer machinists to accomplish the same amount of work previously performed by more workers. Advanced machine tool technology is allowing some programming to be performed on the shop floor by machinists, tool and die makers, and machine operators. These simplified controls are one of the main factors behind the slight employment decline expected for tool programmers in the coming years. Employment levels in these occupations is influenced by eco nomic cycles; as the demand for machined goods falls, machinists and tool programmers involved in production may be laid off or be forced to work fewer hours. Employment of machinists involved in plant maintenance, however, is often more stable because proper maintenance and repair of costly equipment remain vital concerns even when production levels fall. Earnings Earnings of machinists compare favorably with those of other skilled workers. In 1994, median weekly earnings for machinists were about $520. Most earned between $400 and $690. The lowest paid ten percent of all machinists had median weekly earnings of less than $300; the 10 percent with the highest earnings made more than $880 a week. In addition to their hourly wage, most workers receive typical benefits such as health and life insurance, a pension plan, paid vacations, and sick leave. Related Occupations Occupations most closely related to that of machinist and tool pro grammer are the other machining occupations. These include tool and die maker, tool and die designer, tool planner, and instrument maker. Workers in other occupations that require precision and skill in working with metal include blacksmiths, gunsmiths, locksmiths, metal patternmakers, and welders. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Tool programmers apply their knowledge of machining opera tions, metals, blueprints, and machine programming to write pro grams that run machine tools. Computer programmers also write detailed instructions for a machine—in this case a computer. Sources of Additional Information For general information about this occupation, contact: •■The Association for Manufacturing Technology, 7901 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102. •■The National Tooling and Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Fort Washington, MD 20744. •■The Tooling and Manufacturing Association, ATTN: Education Depart ment, 1177 South Dee Rd., Park Ridge, IL 60068. •"Precision Metalforming Association, 27027 Chardon Rd., Richmond Heights, OH 44143. Metalworking and Plastics-Working Machine Operators (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 478.) Nature of the Work Consider the parts of a toaster—the metal or plastic housing or the lever that lowers the toast, for example. These parts, and many other metal and plastic products, are produced by metalworking and plastics-working machine operators. In fact, manual and numerical control machine tool operators in the metalworking and plastics industries play a major part in producing most of the consumer products on which we rely daily. These workers can be separated into two groups—those who set up machines for operation and those who tend the machines during production. Set-up workers prepare the machines prior to production and may adjust the machinery during operation. Operators and tenders, on the other hand, primarily monitor the machinery during operation, sometimes loading or unloading the machine or making minor adjustments to the controls. Many workers do both—set up and operate the equipment. Because the set-up process requires an understanding of the entire production process, setters usually have more training and are more highly skilled than those who simply operate or tend the machinery. Setters, operators, tenders, and set-up operators are usually iden tified by the type of machine with which they work. Some examples of specific titles are screw machine operator, plastics-molding ma chine set-up operator, punch press operator, and lathe tender. Al though some workers specialize in one or two types of machinery, many are trained to set up or operate a variety of machines. Job duties usually vary based on the size of the firm as well as on the type of machine being operated. Metalworking machine setters and operators set up and tend machines that cut and form all types of metal parts. Traditionally, set-up workers plan and set up the sequence of operations according to blueprints, layouts, or other instructions. They adjust speed, feed, and other controls, choose the proper coolants and lubricants, and select the instruments or tools for each operation. Using microme ters, gauges, and other precision measuring instruments, they may compare the completed work with the tolerance limits stated in the specifications. Although there are many different types of metalworking machine tools that require specific knowledge and skills, most operators perform similar tasks. Whether tending grinding machines that remove excess material from the surface of machined products or presses that extrude metal through a die to form wire, operators usually perform simple, repetitive operations that can be learned quickly. Typically, these workers place metal stock in a machine on P roduction Occupations 413 which the operating specifications have already been set. They may watch one or more machines and make minor adjustments according to their instructions. Regardless of the type of machine they operate, machine tenders usually depend on skilled set-up workers for major adjustments when the machines are not functioning properly. Plastics working machine operators set up and tend machines that transform plastic compounds—chemical based products that can be produced in powder, pellet, or syrup form—into a wide variety of consumer goods such as toys, tubing, and auto parts. These products are produced by various methods, of which injection molding is the most common. The injection molding machine heats a plastic com pound and forces it into a mold. After the part has cooled and hard ened, the mold opens and the part is released. Many common kitchen products are produced using this method. To produce long parts such as pipes or window frames, on the other hand, an extrud ing machine is usually employed. These machines force a plastic compound through a die that contains an opening of the desired shape of the final product. Yet another type of plastics working technique is blow molding. Blow-molding machines force hot air into a mold which contains a plastic tube. As the air moves into the mold, the plastic tube is inflated to the shape of the mold and a plastic container is formed. The familiar 2-liter soft drink bottles are produced using this method. Regardless of the process used, plastics-working machine opera tors check the materials feed, the temperature and pressure of the machine, and the rate at which the product hardens. Depending on the type of equipment in use, they may also load material into the machine, make minor adjustments to the machinery, or unload and inspect the finished products. Plastics-working machine operators also remove clogged material from molds or dies. Because molds and dies are quite costly, operators must exercise proper care to avoid damaging them. Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators are in creasingly being called upon to work with numerically controlled (NC) equipment. These machine tools have two major compo nents—an electronic controller and a machine tool. Almost all NC machines today are computer numerically controlled (CNC), which means that the controllers are computers. The controller directs the mechanisms of the machine tool through the positioning and machin ing described in the program or instructions for the job. A program could contain, for example, commands that cause the controller to move a drill bit to certain spots on a workpiece and drill a hole at each spot. Each type of CNC machine tool, such as a milling machine, a lathe, or a punch press, performs a specific task. A part may be worked on by several machines before it is finished. CNC machines are often used in computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) systems. In these systems, automated material handling equipment moves workpieces through a series of work stations where machining proc esses are computer numerically controlled. In some cases, the workpiece is stationary and the tools change automatically. Al though the machining is done automatically, numerically controlled machine tools must be set up and used properly in order to obtain the maximum benefit from their use. These tasks are the responsibility of numerical-control machine-tool operators or, in some instances, machinists. (See the statement on machinists and tool programmers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Like the duties of manual metal and plastics machine operators, the duties of numerical-control machine-tool operators vary. In some shops, operators tend just one machine. More likely, however, they tend a number of machines or do some programming. As a result, the skill requirements of these workers vary from job to job. Al though there are many variations in operators' duties, they generally involve many of the tasks described below. Working from given instructions, operators load programs that are usually stored on disks into the controller. They also securely posi tion the workpiece, attach the necessary tools, and check the coolants and lubricants. Many numerically controlled machines are equipped https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis with automatic tool changers, so operators may also load several tools in the proper sequence. In addition, heat generated by machin ing could damage the cutting tools and the part being machined, so operators must ensure that the proper coolants and lubricants are being used. This entire process may require a few minutes or several hours, depending on the size of the workpiece and the complexity of the job. A new program must be "debugged," or adjusted, to obtain the desired results. If the tool moves to the wrong position or makes a cut that is too deep, for example, the program must be changed so that the job is done properly. NC operators rarely debug programs. More often, a machinist or tool programmer will perform this func tion, occasionally with the assistance of a computer automated design program that simulates the operation of machine tools. (See the statement on machinists and tool programmers elsewhere in the Handbook.) A new generation of machine tool technology called direct numerical control allows operators to make changes to the program and enter new specifications using minicomputers on the shop floor. Because numerically controlled machine tools are very expensive, an important duty of operators is to monitor the machinery to prevent situations that could result in costly damage to the cutting tools or other parts. The extent to which the operator performs this function depends on the type of job as well as the type of equipment being used. Some numerically controlled machine tools automatically monitor and adjust machining operations. When the job has been properly set up and the program has been checked, the operator may I t . '»•] a Computers are playing a vital role in the jobs of many machine operators. 414 Occuptional Outlook Handbook only need to monitor the machine as it operates. These operators often set up and monitor more than one machine. Other jobs require frequent loading and unloading, tool changing, or programming. Operators may check the finished part using micrometers, gauges, or other precision inspection equipment to ensure that it meets specifi cations. Increasingly, however, this function is being performed by numerically controlled machine tools that are able to inspect products as they are being produced. CNC machines are changing the nature of the work that machine setters and operators perform. For example, computer-controlled machines simplify setups by using formerly tested computer pro grams for new workpieces. If a workpiece is similar to one previ ously produced, small adjustments can be made to the old program instead of developing a new program from scratch. Also, operators of this equipment have less physical interaction with the machinery or materials. They primarily act as "troubleshooters," monitoring machines on which the loading, forming, and unloading processes are often controlled by computers. Working Conditions Most metalworking and plastics-working machine operators work in areas that are clean, well lit, and well ventilated. Regardless of setting, all of these workers operate powerful, high-speed machines that can be dangerous if strict safety rules are not observed. Most operators wear protective equipment such as safety glasses and earplugs to protect against flying particles of metal or plastic and noise from the machines. Other required equipment varies by work setting and by machine. For example, workers in the plastics indus try who work near materials that emit dangerous fumes or dust must wear face masks or self-contained breathing apparatuses. Most metal and plastics working machine operators work a 40hour week, but overtime is common during periods of increased production. Because many metalworking and plastics working shops operate more than one shift daily, some operators work nights and weekends. The work requires stamina because operators are on their feet much of the day and may do moderately heavy lifting. Approxi mately one-third of these workers are union members; the metal working industries have a higher rate of unionization than the plastics industry. Employment Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators held about 1,445,000 jobs in 1994. Of these, 1,370,000 were manual machine operators, and 75,000 were NC machine operators. Eight out of every 10 of these workers are found in five manufacturing indus tries—fabricated metal products, industrial machinery and equip ment, miscellaneous plastic products, transportation equipment, and primary metals. The following tabulation shows the distribution of employment of metalworking and plastics-working machine opera tors by detailed occupation. Machine tool cutting and forming machine setters and operators....... Molding machine setters and operators............................................... Sheet metal workers and duct installers.............................................. Combination machine tool setters and operators................................. Numerical control machine operators.................................................. Metal fabricators, structural metal products......................................... Plating machine setters and operators................................................. Heat treating machine setters and operators......................................... All other metal and plastics working machine operators..................... 709,000 205,000 116,000 106,000 75,000 44,000 42,000 20,000 128,000 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most metalworking and plastics-working machine operators learn their skills on the job. Trainees begin by observing and assisting experienced workers, often in formal training programs. Under supervision they may supply material, start and stop the machine, or remove finished products from the machine. As part of their training they advance to more difficult tasks like adjusting feed https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis speeds, changing cutting tools, or inspecting a finished product for defects. Eventually they become responsible for their own machine or machines. The complexity of equipment largely determines the time re quired to become an operator. Most operators learn the basic ma chine operations and functions in a few weeks, but they may need several years to become a skilled operator or to advance to the more highly skilled job of set-up operator. Although set-up operators perform many of the same tasks as skilled machine operators, they also need to have a thorough knowl edge of the machinery and of the products being produced. Set-up operators often study blueprints, plan the sequence of work, make the first production run, and determine which adjustments need to be made. Strong analytical abilities are particularly important to per form this job. Some companies have formal training programs for set-up operators that combine classroom instruction with on-the-job training. CNC machine tool operators undergo similar training. Working under a supervisor or an experienced operator, trainees learn to set up and run one or more kinds of numerically controlled machine tools. They usually learn the basics of their jobs within a few months. However, the length of the training period varies with the number and complexity of the machine tools the operator will run and with the individual’s ability. If the employer expects operators to write programs, trainees may attend programming courses offered by machine tool manufacturers or technical schools. These courses usually last a couple of weeks. Although no special education is required for most operating jobs, employers prefer to hire applicants with good basic skills. Many require employees to have a high school education and to read, write, and speak English. This is especially true for numerical control machine operators, who may need to be retrained often in order to learn to operate new equipment. Because machinery is becoming more complex and shop floor organization is changing, employers increasingly look for persons with good communication and interper sonal skills. Mechanical aptitude, manual dexterity, and experience working with machinery are also pluses. Those interested in becom ing a metalworking or plastics-working machine operator can im prove their employment opportunities by completing high school courses in shop, mathematics, and blueprint reading and by gaining a working knowledge of the properties of metals and plastics. Advancement for operators usually takes the form of higher pay, although there are some limited opportunities for operators to ad vance to new positions as well. For example, they can become multiple machine operators, set-up operators, or trainees for the more highly skilled positions of machinist or tool and die maker. Manual machine operators can move on to CNC equipment when it is intro duced into their establishments. Some set-up workers and CNC operators may advance to supervisory positions. CNC operators who have substantial training in numerical control programming may advance to the higher paying job of tool programmer. (See state ments on machinists and tool programmers, and tool and die makers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Overall employment of metalworking and plastics-working machine operators is expected to decline through the year 2005. This decline is likely to affect metalworking machine operators more than those working with plastics machines. In addition, setters and more highly skilled operators are more likely to be retained by firms than are semi-skilled operators and tenders. In spite of the overall employ ment decline, however, a large number of jobs will become available each year as current operators and setters transfer to other occupa tions or leave the labor force. A major factor driving the employment decline is the increasing productivity resulting from computer-controlled equipment. In order to remain competitive, many firms are adopting this technology to improve quality and lower production costs. Computer-controlled Production Occupations 415 equipment allows operators to simultaneously tend a greater number of machines and often makes setup easier, thereby reducing the amount of time set-up workers spend on each machine. For these reasons, employment of CNC machine operators is expected to increase in the future despite the decline in machine operators as a whole. Lower-skilled positions like manual machine tool operators and tenders are more likely to be eliminated by increasing automa tion than those of setters and set-up operators, whose higher skills are more in demand and whose job functions are less easily automated. The demand for metalworking and plastics-working machine operators largely mirrors the demand for the parts they produce. In recent years, plastic products have been substituted for metal goods in many consumer and manufacturing products. Although the rate of substitution may slow in the future, this process is likely to continue and should result in a relatively stronger demand for machine opera tors in plastics than in metalworking. Both industries, however, face stiff foreign competition that is limiting the demand for domesticallyproduced parts. One way that larger U.S. producers have responded to this competition is by moving production operations to other coun tries in order to reduce labor costs. These moves are likely to con tinue and will further reduce employment opportunities for metal working and plastics-working machine tool operators in the United States. Workers with a thorough background in machine operations, exposure to a variety of machines, and a good working knowledge of the properties of metals and plastics will be best able to adjust to this changing environment. In addition, new shopfloor arrangements will reward workers with good basic mathematics and reading skills, good communication skills, flexibility, and the ability and willing ness to learn new tasks. Those interested in working with CNC machine tools will most likely need to have a high school education and should be familiar with several types of machines and operating systems. Earnings Median weekly earnings for most metalworking and plastics-working machine operators were about $420 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $310 and $570. The top 10 percent earned over $760 and the bottom 10 percent earned less than $240. Metal and plastics molding, plating, heat-treating, and other processing machine opera tors earned somewhat less, about $390 a week. In addition to wages, most machine operators receive benefits such as health and life insurance, pension plans, paid vacation, and sick leave. Earnings of production workers vary considerably by industry. The following tabulation shows 1994 average weekly wages for produc tion workers in manufacturing industries where employment of metal working and plastics-working machine operators is concentrated. Transportation equipment........................................................................... $730 Primary metals industries........................................................................... 540 Industrial machinery and equipment.......................................................... 570 Fabricated metal products.......................................................................... 510 Rubber and miscellaneous plastics products.............................................. 450 Related Occupations Workers in occupations closely related to metalworking and plasticsworking machine occupations include machinists, tool and die mak ers, extruding and forming machine operators producing synthetic fibers, woodworking machine operators, and metal patternmakers. Numerical-control machine-tool operators may program CNC ma chines or alter existing programs, which are functions closely related to those performed by NC machine tool programmers. Sources of Additional Information For general information about the metalworking trades, contact: ••The Association for Manufacturing Technology, 7901 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ••The National Tooling and Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Fort Washington, MD 20744. ••The Tooling and Manufacturing Association, ATTN: Education Depart ment, 1177 South Dee Rd., Park Ridge, IL 60068. ••The National Screw Machine Products Association, 6700 West Snowville Rd., Brecksville, OH 44141. ••The Precision Metalforming Association, 27027 Chardon Rd., Richmond Heights, OH 44143. Information on educational programs in plastics technology and polymer sciences is available from: ••The Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc., 1275 K St. NW„ Washington, DC 20005. Tool and Die Makers (D.O.T. 601.260-010, -014, .280 except -038 and -054, .281-010, -014, -026 .380, .381 except -018 and -038; 739.381-018, -022) Nature of the Work Tool and die makers are highly skilled workers who produce tools, dies, and special guiding and holding devices that are used in ma chines that produce a variety of products—from clothing and furni ture to heavy equipment and parts for aircraft. Toolmakers craft precision tools which are used to cut, shape, and form metal and other materials. They also produce jigs and fixtures (devices that hold metal while it is bored, stamped, or drilled) and gauges and other measuring devices. Diemakers construct metal forms (dies) that are used to shape metal in stamping and forging operations. They also make metal molds for diecasting and for molding plastics, ceramics, and composite materials. In addition, tool and die makers may repair worn or damaged tools, dies, gauges, jigs, and fixtures, and design tools and dies. Tool and die makers must have a much broader knowledge of machining operations, mathematics, and blueprint reading than most other machining workers. They use many types of machine tools and precision measuring instruments and must be familiar with the ma chining properties, such as hardness and heat tolerance, of a wide variety of common metals and alloys. Working from blueprints or instructions, tool and die makers plan the sequence of operations necessary to manufacture the tool or die. They measure and mark the pieces of metal that will be cut to form parts of the final product. They then cut, bore, or drill the part as required. They also check the accuracy of what they have done to ensure that the final product will meet specifications. Then they assemble the parts and perform finishing jobs such as filing, grind ing, and smoothing surfaces. Modem technology is helping to change tool and die makers' jobs. Firms commonly use computer aided design (CAD) to develop products. Specifications from the computer program can then be used to develop designs electronically for the required tools and dies. The designs can then be sent to computer numerically controlled (CNC) machines to produce the die. Programs can also be electroni cally stored and adapted for future use. This saves time and in creases productivity of the workers. In shops that use numerically controlled (NC) machine tools, tool and die makers' duties may be slightly different. For example, although they still manually check and assemble the tool or die, each of its components may be produced on an NC machine. In addition, they often assist in the planning and writing of NC programs. Working Conditions Tool and die makers usually work in toolrooms. These areas are quieter than the production floor because there are fewer machines in use at one time. Machines have guards and shields that minimize the statement on machinists and tool programmers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Because tools and dies must meet strict specifications—precision to one ten-thousandth of an inch is not uncommon—the work of tool and die makers requires a high degree of patience and attention to detail. Good eyesight is essential. Persons entering this occupation should also be mechanically inclined, able to work independently, and capable of doing work that requires concentration and physical effort. There are several ways for skilled workers to advance. Some move into supervisory and administrative positions in their firms; others become tool designers or tool programmers; and a few may open their own shops. Toot and die makers are highly skilled workers with a broad knowledge of machining operations. exposure of workers to moving parts. Tool and die makers, however, must follow safety rules and wear protective equipment, such as safety glasses to shield against bits of flying metal and earplugs to protect against noise. They also may be exposed to hazardous lubri cants and cleaners. In addition, they spend much of the day on their feet and may do moderately heavy lifting. Companies employing tool and die makers traditionally operate one shift per day. However, as the cost of new machinery and tech nology has increased, many employers now have more than one shift. Overtime and Saturday work are common, especially during peak production periods. Employment Tool and die makers held about 142,000 jobs in 1994. Most worked in industries that manufacture metalworking machinery and equip ment, motor vehicles, aircraft, and plastics products. Although they are found throughout the country, jobs are most plentiful in the Midwest and Northeast, where many of the metalworking industries are located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Tool and die makers learn their trade through formal apprenticeship and postsecondary programs or informal on-the-job training. The best way to learn all aspects of tool and die making, according to most employers, is a formal apprenticeship program that combines classroom instruction and job experience. A growing number of tool and die makers, however, receive most of their formal training from community colleges. Courses in math, blueprint reading, metalworking, and drafting, as well as machine shop experience, provide a helpful background. During the 4 or 5 years of a tool and die apprenticeship, appren tices learn to operate milling machines, lathes, grinders, and other machine tools. They also learn to use handtools in fitting and as sembling tools, gauges, and other mechanical and metal forming equipment, and they study metalworking processes such as heat treating and plating. Classroom training usually consists of mathe matics, mechanical drawing, tool designing, tool programming, and blueprint reading. Workers who become tool and die makers without completing formal apprenticeships generally acquire their skills through a com bination of informal on-the-job training and classroom instruction at a vocational school or community college. They often begin as machine operators and gradually take on more difficult assignments. Many machinists become tool and die makers. In fact, tool and die makers are often considered highly specialized machinists. (See the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of tool and die makers is expected to decline through the year 2005. Nevertheless, jobseekers with the appropriate skills and background should find excellent opportunities, as employers across the Nation report difficulties in finding skilled workers to hire as tool and die makers. Many openings will be created each year by tool and die makers who retire. Three out of 10 tool and die makers are 50 years or older. As older workers begin to leave the occupation in larger numbers, employers in certain parts of the country may face more pronounced shortages. The projected decline in employment reflects advancements in automation, including computer numerically controlled machine tools and computer aided design. CNC machine tools have made tool and die makers more productive, while CAD has allowed some functions of these workers to be carried out by a computer and tool programmer. In addition, because precision metal products are a primary component of manufacturing machinery, increased imports of finished goods and precision metal products may lessen the de mand for tool and die makers. These workers, however, are highly skilled and play a key role in the operation of many firms. This fact, coupled with a growing demand for motor vehicles, aircraft, ma chinery, and other products that use machined metal parts, should help to moderate the decline in employment. Earnings Median weekly earnings for tool and die makers who worked full time were $660 in 1994. Most earned between $490 and $860 a week. Ten percent earned less than $380 a week, and the 10 percent with the highest weekly earnings made more than $1,130. In addi tion to their hourly wage, most workers receive health and life insur ance, a pension plan, paid vacations, and sick leave. Related Occupations The occupations most closely related to the work of tool and die makers are the other machining occupations. These include machin ist, mold maker, instrument maker, metalworking and plasticsworking machine operator, and tool programmer. Other occupations that require precision and skill in working with metal include blacksmith, gunsmith, locksmith, metal patternmaker, and welder. Sources of Additional Information For general information about tool and die makers, contact: •"The Association for Manufacturing Technology, 7901 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102. •■The National Tooling and Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Ft. Washington, MD 20744. •■The Tooling and Manufacturing Association, ATTN: Education Depart ment, 1177 South Dee Rd., Park Ridge 1L 60068. •■Precision Metalforming Association, 27027 Chardon Rd., Richmond Heights, OH 44143. Production Occupations 417 Welders, Cutters, and Welding Machine Operators (D.O.T. 613.667-010; 614.684-010; 709.684-086; 727.662, .684-022; 810; 811; 812; 814; 815; 816except .482 and .682; 819.281-010,-014 -022 361 .381, .384, .684, and .685) ’ ’' ’ Nature of the Work Welding is the most common way of permanently joining metal parts. Heat is applied to the pieces to be joined, melting and fusing them to form a permanent bond. Because of its strength, welding is used to construct and repair parts of ships, automobiles, spacecraft, and thousands of other manufactured products. Welding is used to join beams when constructing buildings, bridges, and other struc tures, and pipes in nuclear power plants and refineries. Welders use all types of welding equipment in a variety of posi tions, such as flat, vertical, horizontal, and overhead. They may perform manual welding, in which the work is entirely controlled by the welder, or semi-automatic welding, in which the welder uses machinery, such as a wire feeder, to perform welding tasks. They generally plan work from drawings or specifications or by analyzing damaged metal, using their knowledge of welding and metals. They select and set up welding equipment and may also examine welds to insure they meet standards or specifications. Some welders have more limited duties. They perform routine production work that has already been planned and laid out. These jobs do not require knowl edge of all welding techniques. In many production processes—where the work is repetitive and the items to be welded are relatively uniform—automated welding is used. In this process, a machine performs the welding tasks while monitored by a welding machine operator. Welding machine opera tors set up and operate welding machines as specified by layouts, work orders, or blueprints. Operators must constantly monitor the machine to ensure that it produces the desired weld. The work of arc, plasma, and flame cutters is closely related to that of welders. However, instead of joining metals, cutters use the heat from burning gases or an electric arc to cut and trim metal objects to specific dimensions. Cutters also dismantle large objects, such as ships, railroad cars, automobiles or aircraft. Some operate and monitor cutting machines similar to those used by welding machine operators. Working Conditions Welders and cutters frequently are exposed to potential hazards. They use protective clothing, safety shoes, goggles, helmets with protective lenses, and other devices to prevent bums and eye injuries and to protect them from falling objects. Automated welding ma chine operators are not exposed to as many hazards. A face shield or goggles generally provide adequate protection. Because some metals may give off toxic gases and fumes as they melt, Federal regulations require ventilation to meet strict guidelines to minimize these haz ards. Occasionally, some workers are in contact with rust, grease, and dirt on metal surfaces. Some welders are isolated for short intervals while they work in booths constructed to contain sparks and glare. Welders often work in a variety of awkward positions, having to make welds while bending, stooping, or working overhead. In some settings, however, working conditions are much better and few hazards or discomforts are encountered. Employment Welders, cutters, and welding machine operators held about 416,000 jobs in 1994. About 9 out of 10 welders and cutters were employed in manufacturing, services, construction, or wholesale trade. The majority of those in manufacturing were employed in transportation equipment, industrial machinery and equipment, or fabricated metal https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Certification is the key to job mobility for welders. products. All welding machine operators were employed in manu facturing industries, primarily fabricated metal products, machinery, and motor vehicles. Almost 2 of 5 welders are employed in six States. Texas, California, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Illi nois—States heavily dominated by automobile and fabricated metal products manufacturing, and by the petroleum and chemical industry. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training for welders can range from a few weeks of school or on-thejob training for low skilled positions to several years of combined school and on-the-job training for highly skilled jobs. Formal train ing is available in high schools, vocational schools, and post secondary institutions such as vocational-technical institutes, com munity colleges, and private welding schools. The Armed Forces operate welding schools as well. Some employers provide training to help welders improve their skills. Courses in blueprint reading, shop mathematics, mechanical drawing, physics, chemistry, and metal lurgy are helpful. Some welders become certified, a process whereby the employer sends a worker to an institution, such as an independent testing lab or technical school to weld a test specimen to specific codes and stan dards required by the employer. The testing procedures are usually based on the standards and codes set by one of several industry associations the employer may be affiliated with. If the welding inspector at the examining institution determines that the worker has performed according to the employer's guidelines, he or she then certifies that the welder being tested is able to work with a particular welding procedure. Welders and cutters need manual dexterity, good eyesight, and good hand-eye coordination. They should be able to concentrate on detailed work for long periods and be able to bend, stoop, and work in awkward positions. Welders can advance to more skilled jobs with additional training and experience. They may be promoted to welding technicians, supervisors, inspectors, or instructors. Some experienced welders open their own repair shops. Job Outlook Opportunities for those who wish to become welders, cutters, and welding machine operators should be good through the year 2005 as the number of qualified (certified) welders graduating from technical schools is expected to be in balance with the number of job openings resulting from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment of weld ers, cutters, and welding machine operators is expected to decline through the year 2005. 418 Occuptional Outlook Handbook The growth of welders, cutters, and welding machine operators varies greatly by industry. Percent change 50 r Welders, cutters, and welding machine operators cially those with a wide variety of skills, will still be needed for the maintenance, repair, and other work in manufacturing that cannot be automated. Certified welders, especially those certified in more than one process, will have much better employment opportunities than non-certified welders. Welders, cutters, and welding machine operators in construction and manufacturing are vulnerable to periodic layoffs due to eco nomic downturns. V/A All occupations 40 Earnings Median earnings for welders and welding machine operators were about $460 a week in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $345 and $597. The top 10 percent earned more than $786, and the lowest 10 percent earned less than $281. More than one-fourth of welders belong to unions. Among these are the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Work ers; the International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Ship Build ers, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada; and the United Electrical, Radio, and Machine Workers of 30 20 10 Services All industries Construction Wholesale trade -10 Manufacturing -20 Industry In certain industries—construction, wholesale trade, and repair services, for example—employment of welders and cutters will increase (see accompanying chart). The level of construction is expected to expand, as is the number of metal products needing repair, increasing the need for welding and cutting. This work is generally less routine and more difficult to automate than other welding jobs. Greater use of welding automation in manufacturing using simple repetitive welds could cause manual welders to be replaced by or retrained to become welding machine operators. Automated welding systems are expected to cause a decline in the employment of welding machine operators. Despite the welding jobs eliminated by automated welding systems, manual welders, espe America. Related Occupations Welders and cutters are skilled metal workers. Other metal workers include blacksmiths, forge shop workers, all-round machinists, machine-tool operators, tool and die makers, millwrights, sheet-metal workers, boilermakers, and metal sculptors. Welding machine operators run machines that weld metal parts. Others who run metalworking machines include lathe and turning, milling and planing, punching and stamping press, and rolling ma chine operators. Sources of Additional Information For information on training opportunities and jobs for welders, cutters, and welding machine operators, contact local employers, the local office of the State employment service, or schools providing welding training. Information on careers in welding is available from; ••American Welding Society, 550 NW. LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126-5699. For a list of accredited schools that offer training in welding, contact: •-Career College Association, 750 1st Street NE, Suite 900, Washington, DC 20002. Plant and Systems Operators tions and over a network of transmission and distribution lines to Electric Power Generating Plant Operators and Power Distributors and Dispatchers (D.O.T. 820.662-010; 951.685-010; 952.167-014, .362, .367-014, and .382) Nature of the Work Although electricity is vital for most of our everyday activities, it only takes a downed powerline for us to realize how much we take it and the people who help generate it for granted. Power plant opera tors control the machinery that generates electricity. Power distribu tors and dispatchers control the flow of electricity through substa https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis users. Electric power generating plant operators who work in plants fueled by coal, oil, or natural gas regulate and monitor boilers, tur bines, generators, auxiliary equipment, such as coal crushers, and switching gear. They operate switches to distribute power demands among generators, combine the current from several generators, and regulate the flow of electricity into powerlines. When power re quirements change, they start or stop generators and connect or disconnect them from circuits. Operators monitor instruments to see that electricity flows from the plant properly and that voltage is maintained. They also keep records of switching operations and loads on generators, lines, and transformers and prepare reports of unusual incidents or malfunctioning equipment during their shift. Production Occupations 419 Operators in newer plants with automated control systems work mainly in a central control room and usually are called control room operators and control room operator trainees or assistants. In older plants, the controls for the equipment are not centralized, and opera tors work throughout the plant, operating and monitoring valves, switches, and gauges. Job titles in older plants may be more varied than in newer plants. Auxiliary equipment operators work through out the plant, while switchboard operators control the flow of elec tricity from a central point. Operators of nuclear power plants are licensed by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). NRC-licensed reactor operators are authorized to operate equipment that affects the power of the reactor in a nuclear power plant. In addition, an NRC-licensed senior reactor operator acts as the supervisor of the plant for each shift, and super vises operation of all controls in the control room. Power distributors and dispatchers, also called load dispatchers or systems operators, control the flow of electricity through transmis sion lines to users. They operate current converters, voltage trans formers, and circuit breakers. Dispatchers monitor equipment and record readings at a pilot board, which is a map of the transmission grid system showing the status of transmission circuits and connec tions with substations and large industrial users. Dispatchers antici pate power needs such as those caused by changes in the weather; they call control room operators to start or stop boilers and generators to bring production into balance with needs. They handle emergen cies such as transformer or transmission line failures and route current around affected areas. They also operate and monitor equip- Power dispatchers work to balance the supply ofpower with the demands from different parts of the transmission circuit. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ment in substations, which step up or step down voltage, and operate switchboard levers to control the flow of electricity in and out of substations. Working Conditions Because electricity is provided around the clock, operators, distribu tors, and dispatchers usually work one of three daily 8-hour shifts on a rotating basis. Workers usually rotate to a different daily shift schedule periodically so that duty on less desirable shifts is shared by all operators. Work on rotating shifts can be stressful and fatiguing because of the constant change in living and sleeping patterns. Op erators, distributors, and dispatchers who work in control rooms generally sit or stand at a control station. This work is not physically strenuous, but requires constant attention. Operators who work outside the control room may be exposed to danger from electric shock, falls, and burns. Nuclear power plant operators are subject to random drug and alcohol tests. Employment Electric power generating plant operators and power distributors and dispatchers held about 43,000 jobs in 1994. Over 90 percent worked for electric utility companies and government agencies that produced electricity. Some worked for manufacturing establishments that produce electricity for their own use. Jobs are located throughout the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers seek high school graduates for entry level operator, distributor, and dispatcher positions. Those with strong math and science skills are preferred. College level courses or prior experience in a mechanical or technical job may be helpful. Most entry level positions are in helper or laborer jobs in power plants or in other areas of the utility such as powerline construction. Workers may be assigned to train for any one of many utility positions in operations, maintenance, or other areas. Assignments depend on the results of aptitude tests, worker preferences, and availability of openings. Workers selected for training as a power distributor or power plant operator at a conventionally fueled power plant undergo exten sive on-the-job and classroom training provided by the employer. Several years of training and experience are required to become a fully qualified control room operator or power distributor. With further training and experience, workers may advance to shift super visor. Because utilities generally promote from within, opportunities to advance by moving to another employer are limited. Entrants to nuclear power plant operator trainee jobs must have strong math and science skills. Experience in other power plants or with Navy nuclear propulsion plants also is helpful. Extensive training and experience are necessary to pass the Nuclear Regulatory Commission's examinations for licensed reactor operator and senior reactor operator, including on-the-job and simulator training, class room instruction, and individual study. Licensed reactor operators must pass an annual practical plant operation exam and a biennial written exam administered by their employer to maintain their li cense. With further training and experience, reactor operators may advance to senior reactor operators, who are qualified to be shift supervisors. In addition to preliminary training as a power plant operator or power distributor or dispatcher, most workers are given periodic refresher training. Nuclear power plant operators are given frequent refresher training on a plant simulator. Job Outlook People who want to become power plant operators and power dis tributors and dispatchers are expected to encounter keen competition for jobs. With relatively modest qualifications for employment, good wages, and low turnover in this moderately sized occupation, job opportunities are expected to be few compared to the number of eligible candidates. 420 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Opportunities for those interested in working as power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers will be affected by the pace of new plant construction and equipment upgrading. The pace of expansion in power generating capacity through the year 2005 is expected to be moderate because capacity was somewhat overbuilt in the past. The increasing use of automatic controls and more efficient equipment should further offset the need for new plant construction and operators. Also, few new nuclear power plants are likely to be operational before the year 2005. A recent development in the utility industry is the Energy Policy Act of 1992. This legislation has increased competition in power generating utilities by allowing independent power producers, who generally have lower prices, to sell their power directly to industrial customers. As a result, utilities are restructuring their operations to reduce costs and compete effectively, resulting in fewer jobs at all levels and reducing job security. Overall, employment of electric power generating plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers is expected to decline through the year 2005. Earnings Earnings in the electric utility industry are relatively high. Accord ing to the limited information available, median weekly earnings for conventional power plant operators were about $857 in 1994. Ac cording to information from union contracts, wages for power plant operators ranged from $520 to $832 weekly. Nuclear power plant operators earned weekly wages of about $990 in 1994. Senior or chief operators in both nuclear and conventional power plants earned 10-15 percent more than operators. Related Occupations Other workers who monitor and operate plant and systems equipment include stationary engineers, water and sewage treatment plant operators, waterworks pumpstation operators, chemical operators, and refinery operators. Sources of Additional Information For information about employment opportunities, contact local electric utility companies, locals of unions mentioned below, or an office of the State employment service. For general information about power plant an4 nuclear reactor operators and power distributors and dispatchers, contact. •"International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 1125 15th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20005. •"Utility Workers Union of America, 815 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20006. For a copy of Careers in Electric Power and a catalog of other guidance information, send $5 to: ment, and if necessary, make adjustments. They use hand and power tools to perform repairs and maintenance ranging from a complete overhaul to replacing defective valves, gaskets, or bearings. They also record relevant events and facts concerning operation and maintenance in an equipment log. On steam boilers, for example, they observe, control, and record steam pressure, temperature, water level, power output, and fuel consumption. They watch and listen to machinery and routinely check safety devices, identifying and cor recting any trouble that develops. New building and plant systems are increasingly being run by stationary engineers using computers. These systems allow engi neers to monitor, adjust, and diagnose systems from a central loca tion or using a laptop computer linked into the buildings communications network. Stationary engineers also perform routine maintenance, such as lubricating moving parts, replacing filters, and removing soot and corrosion that can reduce operating efficiency. They test boiler water and add chemicals to prevent corrosion and harmful deposits. They also may check the air quality of the ventilation system and make adjustments to keep within mandated guidelines. In a large building or industrial plant, a stationary engineer may be in charge of all mechanical systems in the building or an industrial power plant or engine room. Engineers may direct the work of assistant stationary engineers, turbine operators, boiler tenders, and air-conditioning and refrigeration operators and mechanics. In a small building or industrial plant, there may be only one stationary engineer. Working Conditions Stationary engineers generally have steady year-round employment. They usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week. Many work one of three daily 8-hour shifts, and weekend and holiday work often is required. Engine rooms, power plants, and boiler rooms usually are clean and well lighted. Even under the most favorable conditions, how ever, some stationary engineers are exposed to high temperatures, dust, dirt, and high noise levels from the equipment. General main tenance duties may cause contact with oil and grease, as well as fumes or smoke. Workers spend much of their time on their feet; they also may have to crawl inside boilers and work in crouching or kneeling positions to inspect, clean, or repair equipment. Because stationary engineers work around boilers as well as electrical and mechanical equipment, they must be alert to avoid bums, electric shock, and injury from moving parts. They also must be aware of exposure to hazardous materials such as asbestos and certain chemicals. •-Edison Electric Institute, P.O. Box 2800, Keameysville, WV 25430-2800. Stationary Engineers (D.O.T. 950.362-014, .382 except -014 and -022; and .485) Nature of the Work Heating, air-conditioning, and ventilation systems are what keep large buildings comfortable all year long. Industrial plants often have facilities to provide electrical power, steam, or other services as well. Stationary engineers operate and maintain these systems, which can include boilers, air-conditioning and refrigeration equip ment, diesel engines, turbines, generators, pumps, condensers, and compressors. These workers are called stationary engineers because the equipment they operate is similar to equipment operated by locomotive or marine engineers except it is not on a moving vehicle. Stationary engineers start up, regulate, and shut down equipment. They ensure that it operates safely and economically and within established limits by monitoring attached meters, gauges, other in struments, and computerized controls. They manually control equip https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A stationary engineer begins the sequence of operations required to start up a boiler. Production Occupations 421 Employment Stationary engineers held about 30,000 jobs in 1994. They worked in a wide variety of places, including factories, hospitals, hotels, office and apartment buildings, schools, and shopping malls. Stationary engineers work throughout the country, generally in the more heavily populated areas where large industrial and com mercial establishments usually are located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most stationary engineers acquire their skills through a formal ap prenticeship program or through informal on-the-job training which usually is supplemented by courses at trade or technical schools. In addition, a good background can be obtained in the Navy or the Merchant Marine because marine engineering plants are similar to many stationary power and heating plants. The increasing complex ity of the equipment with which they work has made a high school diploma or its equivalent necessary; many stationary engineers have some college education. Apprenticeship programs are sponsored by the International Union of Operating Engineers, the principal union to which station ary engineers belong. In selecting apprentices, most local labormanagement apprenticeship committees prefer applicants who have received instruction in mathematics, computers, mechanical drawing, machine-shop practice, physics, and chemistry. Mechanical aptitude, manual dexterity, and good physical condition also are important. An apprenticeship usually lasts 4 years. In addition to 8,000 hours of on-the-job training, apprentices receive 600 hours of class room instruction in boiler design and operation, basic chemistry and water treatment, elementary physics, pneumatics, refrigeration and air conditioning, electricity and electronics, computer systems, and other technical subjects. Those who acquire their skills on the job usually start as helpers to experienced stationary engineers or as boiler tenders. This practi cal experience may be supplemented by postsecondary vocational training in computerized controls and instrumentation. However, becoming a stationary engineer without going through a formal apprenticeship program usually requires many years of work experience. Most large and some small employers encourage and pay for skill-improvement training for their employees. Training is almost always provided when new equipment is introduced, usually by a representative of the machinery manufacturer, or when regulations concerning some aspect of their duties change. Most States and cities have licensing requirements for stationary engineers. Applicants usually must be at least 18 years of age, reside for a specified period in the State or locality, meet experience re quirements, and pass a written examination. Because of regional differences in licensing requirements, a stationary engineer who moves from one State or city to another may have to pass an exami nation for a new license. Generally, there are several classes of stationary engineer li censes, each specifying the type of equipment or the steam pressure or horsepower of the equipment the engineer can operate without supervision. A first-class license covers equipment of all types and capacities. A licensed first-class stationary engineer is qualified to run a large facility and to supervise others. An applicant for this license may be required to have a high school education, apprentice ship or on-the-job training, and several years of experience. Lower class licenses limit the types or capacities of equipment the engineer may operate without the supervision of a higher rated engineer. Stationary engineers advance by being placed in charge of larger, more powerful, or more varied equipment. Generally, engineers advance to these jobs as they obtain higher class licenses. Some stationary engineers advance to boiler inspectors, chief plant engi neers, building and plant superintendents, or building managers. A few obtain jobs as examining engineers or technical instructors. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Persons wishing to become stationary engineers may face competi tion because of the small number of openings expected through the year 2005. Although growing commercial and industrial develop ment will increase the amount of equipment to be operated and maintained, automated systems and computerized controls will make newly installed equipment more efficient and reduce the number of stationary engineers needed. Therefore, employment of stationary engineers is expected to decline through the year 2005. Most of the job openings will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Because turnover in this occupation is low, partly due to its high wages, relatively few replacement openings are expected. Due to the increasing complexity of power-generating systems, job opportunities will be best for those with apprenticeship training or vocational school courses in computerized controls and instrumen tation. Earnings In 1994, the median weekly earnings for stationary engineers who worked full time were about $591. The middle 50 percent earned between $430 and $758 a week; 10 percent earned less than $304 a week; and 10 percent earned more than $977. Related Occupations Other workers who monitor and operate stationary machinery include nuclear reactor operators, power station operators, water and waste water treatment plant operators, waterworks pump-station operators, chemical operators, and refinery operators. Sources of Additional Information Information about training or work opportunities is available from local offices of State employment services, locals of the International Union of Operating Engineers, and from State and local licensing agencies. Specific questions about the occupation should be addressed to: •'International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St. NW Washing ton, DC 20036. •■National Association of Power Engineers, Inc., 1 Springfield St„ Chicopee MA 01013. ’ •■Building Owners and Managers Institute International, 1521 Ritchie Hwy., ' Suite 3A, Arnold, MD 21403. Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators (D.O.T. 954.382-010, -014; 955.362-010, .382, and .585) Nature of the Work Clean water is essential for many things: Health, recreation, fish and wildlife, and industry. Water treatment plant operators treat water so that it is safe to drink. Wastewater treatment plant operators remove harmful pollutants from domestic and industrial wastewater so that it is safe to return to the environment. Water is pumped from wells, rivers, and streams to water treat ment plants where it is treated and distributed to customers. Waste is collected from customers, carried by water through sewer pipes to wastewater treatment plants where it is treated and returned to streams, rivers, and oceans. Operators in both types of plants control processes and equipment to remove solid materials, chemical com pounds, and micro-organisms from the water or to render them harmless. They also control pumps, valves, and other processing equipment to move the water or wastewater through the various treatment processes, and dispose of the waste materials removed from the water. 422 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Operators read and interpret meters and gauges to make sure plant equipment and processes are working properly and adjust controls as needed. They operate chemical-feeding devices; take samples of the water or wastewater; perform chemical and biological laboratory analyses; and test and adjust the amount of chemicals such as chlo rine in the water. Operators also make minor repairs to valves, pumps, and other equipment. They use gauges, wrenches, pliers, and other common handtools, as well as special tools. Water and wastewater treatment plant operators increasingly rely on computers to help them monitor equipment, store sampling re sults, make process control decisions, and produce reports. When problems occur, operators may use their computers to determine the cause of and solution to the malfunction. Occasionally operators must work under emergency conditions. A heavy rainstorm, for example, may cause large amounts of waste water to flow into sewers, exceeding a plant's treatment capacity. Emergencies also can be caused by conditions inside a plant, such as chlorine gas leaks or oxygen deficiencies. To handle these condi tions, operators are trained in emergency management response using special safety equipment and procedures to protect public health and the facility. During these periods, operators may work under extreme pressure to correct problems as quickly as possible. These periods may create dangerous working conditions and operators must be extremely cautious. The specific duties of plant operators depend on the type and size of plant. In smaller plants, one operator may control all machinery, perform tests, keep records, handle complaints, and do repairs and maintenance. Some operators may handle both a water treatment and a wastewater treatment plant. In larger plants with many employees, operators may be more specialized and only monitor one process. The staff may also include chemists, engineers, laboratory techni cians, mechanics, helpers, supervisors, and a superintendent. Water pollution standards have become increasingly stringent since adoption of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972, which implemented a national system of regulation on the discharge of pollutants. Under the 1972 law and subsequent reauthorizations in 1977 and 1987, it is illegal to discharge any pollutant without a permit. Industrial facilities that send their wastes to municipal treatment plants must meet certain minimum standards and ensure that these wastes have been adequately pretreated so that they do not damage municipal treatment facilities. Municipal treatment plants also must meet stringent discharge standards set forth in the Clean Water Act of 1972 and the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974. Opera tors must be familiar with the guidelines established by the Clean Water Act and how they affect their plant. In addition to Federal regulations, operators also must be aware of any guidelines imposed by the State or locality in which the plant operates. syifi A wastewater treatment plant operator checks the water temperature at the pump pushing sewage through the plant. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Conditions Water and wastewater treatment plant operators work both indoors and outdoors and may be exposed to noise from machinery and some unpleasant odors, although chemicals may be used to minimize these. Operators have to stoop, reach, and climb and sometimes get their clothes dirty. They must pay close attention to safety procedures for they may be confronted with hazardous conditions, such as slippery walkways, dangerous gases, and malfunctioning equipment. Because plants operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, operators work one of three 8-hour shifts and on a rotational basis, weekends and holidays. Whenever emergencies arise, operators may be required to work overtime. Water and wastewater treatment plant operators held about 95,000 jobs in 1994. The vast majority worked for local governments; some worked for private water supply and sanitary services companies, some of which provide operation and management services to local governments on a contract basis. About half worked as water treat ment plant operators and half worked as wastewater treatment plant operators. Water and wastewater treatment plant operators are employed throughout the country, with most jobs in larger towns and cities. Although nearly all work full time, those who work in small towns may only work part time at the water or wastewater treatment plant—the remainder of their time may be spent handling other municipal duties. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Trainees usually start as attendants or operators-in-training and learn their skills on the job under the direction of an experienced operator. They learn by observing the processes and equipment in operation and by doing routine tasks such as recording meter readings; taking samples of wastewater and sludge; and doing simple maintenance and repair work on pumps, electric motors, and valves. They also clean and maintain plant equipment. Larger treatment plants gener ally combine this on-the-job training with formal classroom or selfpaced study programs. Operators need mechanical aptitude and should be competent in basic mathematics, as they need to apply data to formulas of treat ment requirements, flow levels, and concentration levels. Because of the introduction of computer-controlled equipment and more sophis ticated instrumentation, a high school diploma generally is required. In addition, employers prefer those who have had high school courses in chemistry, biology, and mathematics. Some positions, particularly in larger cities and towns, are cov ered by civil service regulations, and applicants may be required to pass written examinations testing elementary mathematics skills, mechanical aptitude, and general intelligence. Some 2-year programs leading to an associate degree in waste water technology and 1-year programs leading to a certificate are available; these provide a good general knowledge of water treatment processes as well as basic preparation for becoming an operator. Because plants are becoming more complex, completion of such courses increases an applicant's chances for employment and promotion. Most State water pollution control agencies offer training courses to improve operators' skills and knowledge. These courses cover principles of treatment processes and process control, laboratory procedures, maintenance, management skills, collection systems, safety, chlorination, sedimentation, biological treatment, sludge treatment and disposal, and flow measurements. Some operators take correspondence courses on subjects related to wastewater treatment, and some employers pay part of the tuition for related college courses in science or engineering. As operators are promoted, they become responsible for more complex treatment processes. Some operators are promoted to plant supervisor or superintendent, while others advance by transferring to Production Occupations 423 a larger facility. Some postsecondary training in water and wastewa ter treatment coupled with increasingly responsible experience as an operator may be sufficient to qualify for superintendent of a small plant, since at many small plants the superintendent also serves as an operator. However, educational requirements are rising as larger, more complex treatment plants are built to meet new water pollution control standards. With each promotion, the operator must have greater knowledge of Federal, State, and local regulations. Superin tendents of large plants generally need an engineering or science degree. A few operators get jobs with State water pollution control agencies as technicians, who monitor and provide technical assis tance to plants throughout the State. Vocational-technical school or community college training generally is preferred for technician jobs. Experienced operators may transfer to related jobs with industrial wastewater treatment plants, companies selling wastewater treatment equipment and chemicals, engineering consulting firms, or voca tional-technical schools. In 49 States, operators must pass an examination to certify that they are capable of overseeing wastewater treatment plant operations. A voluntary certification program is in effect in the remaining State. Water plant operators must also be certified in most States. Typi cally, there are different levels of certification depending on the operator's experience and training. Higher certification levels qualify the operator for a wider variety of treatment processes. Certification requirements vary by State, and by size of treatment plants. There is no nationally mandated certification program for opera tors, and relocation may mean having to become certified in a new location. However, many States have begun accepting other States' certifications. Job Outlook Those who wish to become water and wastewater treatment plant operators should have good opportunities through the year 2005. Despite low turnover and job growth that is expected to be slower than average, the number of applicants in this field is normally low, making for good job prospects for qualified applicants. The increasing population and growth of the economy are ex pected to increase demand for water and wastewater treatment serv ices. As new plants are constructed to meet this demand, employ ment of water and wastewater treatment plant operators should increase. In addition, some job openings will occur as experienced operators transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Although local government is the largest employer of water and wastewater treatment plant operators, increased reliance on private firms specializing in the operation and management of water and wastewater treatment facilities should shift some employment de mand to these companies. Increased pre-treatment activity by manu facturing firms should also create new job opportunities. Water and wastewater treatment plant operators generally have steady employment because the services they provide are essential even during economic downturns. Earnings Annual salaries of water and wastewater treatment plant operators averaged $27,100 in 1994; the lowest paid 10 percent of the occupa tion earned about $16,600, the middle 50 percent of the occupation earned between $22,300 and $35,200, and the top 10 percent earned about $42,100. Salaries depend, among other things, on the size and location of the plant, the complexity of the operator's job, and the operator's level of certification. In addition to their annual salaries, water and wastewater treat ment plant operators generally receive benefits that include health and life insurance, a retirement plan, and educational reimbursement for job-related courses. Related Occupations Other workers whose main activity consists of operating a system of machinery to process or produce materials include boiler operators, gas-compressor operators, power plant operators, power reactor operators, stationary engineers, turbine operators, chemical plant operators, and petroleum refinery operators. Sources of Additional Information For information on certification, contact: •■Association of Boards of Certification, 208 Fifth St., Suite 1A, Ames, IA 50010-6259. For educational information on careers as a water treatment plant operator, contact: •■American Waterworks Association, 6666 West Quincy Ave., Denver CO 80235. •"Water Environment Federation, 601 Wythe St., Alexandria, VA 22314. For information on jobs, contact State or local water pollution control agencies, State water and waste water operator associations, State environmental training centers, or local offices of the State employment service. Printing Occupations Bindery Workers (D.O.T. 653.360, .382, .662, .682, .685; 692.685-146; 794.687-026' and 977.381 and .684-026) Nature of the Work The process of combining printed sheets into finished products such as books, magazines, catalogs, folders, or directories is known as "binding." Binding involves cutting, folding, gathering, gluing, stitching, trimming, sewing, wrapping, and other finishing opera tions. Bindery workers operate and maintain the machines perform ing these various tasks. Job duties depend on the kind of material being bound. In firms that do edition binding, for example, workers bind books produced in large numbers or "runs." Job binding workers bind books produced https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis in smaller quantities. In firms that specialize in library binding, workers repair books and provide other specialized binding services to libraries. Pamphlet binding workers produce leaflets and folders, and manifold binding workers bind business forms such as ledgers and books of sales receipts. Blankbook binding workers bind blank pages to produce notebooks, checkbooks, address books, diaries, calendars, and note pads. Some binding consists of only one step. Preparing leaflets or newspaper inserts, for example, requires only folding. Binding of books, on the other hand, requires the following steps. Bookbinders assemble books from large, flat, printed sheets of paper. Many skilled bookbinders also bind magazines. Machines are used extensively throughout the process. Skilled bookbinders oper ate machines that first fold printed sheets into units known as "signatures," which are groups of pages arranged sequentially. Bookbinders then sew, stitch, or glue the assembled signatures together, shape the book bodies with presses and trimming machines, 424 Occuptional Outlook Handbook and reinforce them with glued fabric strips. Covers are created separately, and glued, pasted, or stitched onto the book bodies. The books then undergo a variety of finishing operations, often including wrapping in paper jackets. A small number of bookbinders work in hand binderies. These highly skilled workers design original or special bindings for limited editions or restore and rebind rare books. The work requires creativ ity, knowledge of binding materials, and a thorough background in the history of binding. Hand bookbinding gives individuals the opportunity to work at the greatest variety of jobs. Bindery workers in small shops may perform many binding tasks, while those in large shops are usually assigned only one or a few operations, such as operating complicated paper cutters or folding machines. Others specialize in adjusting and preparing equipment, and may when necessary perform minor repairs. Working Conditions Binderies are often noisy and jobs can be fairly strenuous, requiring considerable lifting, standing, and carrying. They may also require stooping, kneeling, and crouching. Binding often resembles an assembly line, and workers should not mind performing repetitive tasks. Employment In 1994, bindery workers held about 78,000 jobs, including over 5,900 working as skilled bookbinders and nearly 72,000 working as lesser skilled bindery machine operators. Although some bindery workers are employed by large libraries and book publishers, the majority of jobs are in commercial printing plants. Few publishers maintain their own manufacturing facilities, so most contract out the printing and assembly of books to commer cial printing plants or bindery trade shops. Bindery trade shops, the second largest employer of bindery workers, specialize in binding for printers without binderies, or whose printing production exceeds their binding capabilities. Bindery workers are employed in all parts of the country, but jobs are concentrated near large metropolitan areas such as New York, Chicago, Washington, DC, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, and Dallas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For bindery jobs, employers prefer high school graduates with basic mathematics and language skills. Accuracy, patience, neatness, and good eyesight are also important. Bindery work requires careful ■is'c Binding involves cutting, folding, gluing, trimming, and other finishing operations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis attention to detail, because mistakes at this stage in the printing process can cost a lot. Finger dexterity is essential to count, insert, paste, and fold, and mechanical aptitude is needed to operate the newer, more automated equipment. Artistic ability and imagination are necessary for hand bookbinding. Most bindery workers learn the craft through on-the-job training. Inexperienced workers are usually assigned simple tasks such as moving paper from cutting machines to folding machines. They learn basic binding skills, including the characteristics of paper and how to cut large sheets of paper into different sizes with the least amount of waste. As workers gain experience, they advance to more difficult tasks and learn how to operate one or more pieces of equip ment. Generally, it takes 1 to 3 months to learn how to operate the simpler machines well, but it can take up to 1 year to learn how to operate the more complex equipment, such as computerized binding machines. Employers prefer to hire and train workers with some basic knowledge of binding operations. High school students interested in bindery careers can gain some exposure to the craft by taking shop courses or attending a vocational-technical high school. Occupa tional skill centers, usually operated by labor unions, also provide an introduction. Formal apprenticeships are not as common as they used to be, but are still offered by some employers. They provide a more structured program that enables workers to acquire the high levels of speciali zation and skill needed for some bindery jobs. For example, a 4-year apprenticeship usually is necessary to teach workers how to restore rare books and to produce valuable collectors' items. Training in graphic arts is also an asset. Postsecondary programs in the graphic arts are offered by vocational-technical institutes, skill updating or retraining programs, and community and junior colleges. Some updating and retraining programs require students to have bindery experience; other programs are available through unions for members. Four-year colleges also offer programs, but their emphasis on preparing people for careers as graphic artists or managers in the graphic arts field. To keep pace with ever-changing technology, occasional retraining will become increasingly important for bindery workers. Advancement opportunities in bindery work are limited. In large binderies, experienced bookbinders may advance to supervisory positions. Job Outlook Employment of bindery workers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as demand for printed material grows but productivity in bindery operations increases. Most job openings for bindery workers will result from the need to replace experienced workers who change jobs or leave the labor force. Growth of the printing industry will continue to spur demand for bindery workers by commercial printers. The volume of printed material should grow due to increased marketing of products through catalogs, newspaper inserts, and direct mail advertising. Book publishing is expected to continue to grow in response to rising school enrollments, and the expanding middle-aged and older popu lation—age groups that do the most leisure reading. Even though major technological changes are not anticipated, binding is becoming increasingly mechanized. New "in-line" equip ment performs a number of operations in sequence, beginning with raw stock and ending with a complete finished product. Growth in requirements for bindery workers who assist skilled bookbinders will be slowed as binding machinery continues to become more efficient. Opportunities for hand bookbinders are limited by the small number of establishments that do this highly specialized work. Experienced bindery workers will have the best opportunities. Production Occupations 425 Earnings Bindery workers in 1994 had median weekly earnings of about $396. The middle 50 percent earned about $283 to $539 a week. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $205 a week, while the highest paid 10 percent earned $673 a week or more. Workers covered by union contracts generally had higher earnings. Related Occupations Other workers who set up and operate production machinery include papermaking machine operators, press operators, and various preci sion machine operators. Sources of Additional Information Information about apprenticeships and other training opportunities may be obtained from local printing industry associations, local bookbinding shops, local offices of the Graphic Communications International Union, or local offices of the State employment service. For general information on bindery occupations, write to: •"Graphic Communications International Union, 1900 L St. NW., Washing ton, DC 20036. For information on careers and training programs in printing and the graphic arts, contact: •"Education Council of the Graphic Arts Industry, 1899 Preston White Dr., Reston, VA 22091-4326. •"PIA-PrintED Accreditation Program for the Graphic Arts, 100 Daingerfield Rd., Alexandria, VA 22314. Prepress Workers (A list of D.O.T. codes is available upon request. See page 478.) Nature of the Work The printing process has three stages—prepress, press, and binding or finishing. Prepress workers prepare material for printing presses. They perform a variety of tasks involved with transforming text and pictures into finished pages and making printing plates of the pages. As personal computers recently have come into more widespread use, advances in computer software and printing technology have begun to greatly change prepress work. Much of the typesetting and page layout work formerly done by prepress workers is increasingly done by customers on their computers. Customers are able to use their computers to send material to printers that looks more and more like the desired finished product. This change, called "desktop publishing," poses new challenges for the printing industry. Instead of receiving simple typed text from customers, prepress workers increasingly get the material on a computer disk, and instead of relying on prepress workers to suggest a format, customers are increasingly likely to have already settled on one by experimenting on their personal computers. The printing industry is rapidly moving towards complete "digital imaging," by which customers' material received on computer disks is converted directly into printing plates. Other aspects of prepress work experiencing innovation include digital color page makeup systems, electronic page layout systems, and off-press color proofing systems. As electronic imaging becomes more prevalent, the use of film in printing will decline. Film, however, is still often the most economi cal and efficient data storage and retrieval medium currently in use. Today, electronic imaging is limited to more advanced printing shops, but as costs decline and quality improves, the process will become the method of choice in the industry. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A growing number ofprinting companies do typesetting and page layout on the computer. Typesetting and page layout have been greatly affected by techno logical changes. Today, composition work is done with computers and "cold type" technology. The old "hot type" method of text composition—which used molten lead to create individual letters, paragraphs, and full pages of text—is nearly extinct. Cold type, which is any of a variety of methods that create type without molten lead, has traditionally used "phototypesetting" to ready text and pictures for printing. Although this method has many variations, all use photography to create positive images on paper. The images are assembled into page format and rephotographed to create film nega tives from which the actual printing plates are made. However, newer cold type methods are coming into increasing use; these automate the photography or make printing plates directly from material in a computer. In one common form of phototypesetting, text is entered into a computer programmed to hyphenate, space, and create columns of text. Keyboarding of text may be done by typesetters or data entry clerks at the printing establishment or, increasingly, by the author before the job is sent out for composition. The computer stores the text on magnetic tape, floppy disk, or hard disk. The magnetically coded text is then transferred to a typesetting machine which uses photography, a cathode-ray tube, or a laser to create an image on typesetting paper or film. Once it has been developed, the paper or film is sent to a lithographer who makes the actual printing plate. In another type of phototypesetting, a computer produces text on special paper in the desired format. In newspapers, for example, text is printed in long columns. Workers called paste up artists cut and arrange the columns of text and illustrations onto a special illustra tion board called a "mechanical." The special paper adheres easily to the board, yet is designed to allow easy removal and positioning. Once the text is arranged in final form, the board is sent to the cam era department where a photographic negative used to create printing plates is produced. In small shops, job printers may be responsible for composition and page layout, reading proof for errors and clarity, correcting mistakes, and printing. The most advanced method of typesetting, called "electronic pagination," is in growing commercial use. Electronic pagination system operators use a keyboard to enter and select the size and style of type, the column width, and appropriate spacing, and to store it in the computer. The computer then displays and arranges columns of type on a screen that resembles a television screen. An entire news paper page—complete with artwork and graphics—can be made up on the screen exactly as it will appear in print. Operators transmit the pages for production into film and then into plates, or directly into plates, eliminating the role of paste up artists. 426 Occuptional Outlook Handbook New technologies are also affecting the roles of other composition workers. Improvements in desktop publishing software will allow customers to do more typesetting directly. Laser printers read text from computer memory and then "beam” it directly onto film, paper, or plates, bypassing the slower photographic process traditionally used. After the material has been arranged and typeset, in traditional processes that use photography it is passed on to workers who further prepare it for the presses. Camera operators are generally classified as line camera operators, halftone operators, or color separation photographers. Line camera operators start the process of making a lithographic plate by photographing and developing film negatives or positives of the material to be printed. They adjust light and expose film for a specified length of time, and then develop film in a series of chemical baths. They may load unexposed film in machines that automatically develop and fix the image. Normal continuous-tone photographs cannot be reproduced by most printing processes, so halftone camera operators separate the photograph into pictures that are made up of tiny dots, which can be reproduced. Color separation photography is more complex. In this process, camera operators produce four-color separation negatives from a continuous-tone color print or transparency which is being reproduced. More of this separation work will be done electronically in the future on scanners. Scanner operators use computerized equipment to create film negatives or positives of photographs or art. The computer controls the color separation or the scanning process, correcting for mistakes, or compensating for deficiencies in the original color print or transparency. Operators review all work to determine if corrections to the original are necessary and adjust the equipment accordingly. They then use a densitometer to measure the density of the colored areas, and adjust the scanner to obtain the best results. An original color photograph or transparency is scanned for each color to be printed. Each scan produces a dotted image, or halftone, of the original in one of four primary colors—yellow, magenta, cyan, and black. The images are used to produce printing plates that print each of these colors, one at a time. The printing is done with primary process color inks which are transparent, creating "secondary" color combinations of red, green, blue, and black. These secondary colors can be combined to produce all the colors and hues of the original photograph. The computer controls the color separa tion or the scanning process, correcting for mistakes or compensating for deficiencies in the original color print or transparency. Scanners which can perform color correction during the color separation procedure are rapidly replacing lithographic dot etchers, who retouch film negatives or positives by sharpening or reshaping images. They do the work by hand, using chemicals, dyes, and special tools. Dot etchers must know the characteristics of all types of paper and must produce fine shades of color. Like camera opera tors, they are usually assigned to only one phase of the work, and may have job titles such as dot etcher, retoucher, or letterer. New technology is also eliminating the need for strippers, who cut the film to required size and arrange and tape the negatives onto "flats"—or layout sheets used by platemakers to make press plates. When completed, flats resemble large film negatives of the text in its final form. In large printing establishments like newspapers, ar rangement is done automatically. Platemakers use a photographic process to make printing plates. The film assembly or flat is placed on top of a thin metal plate treated with a light-sensitive chemical. Exposure to ultraviolet light activates the chemical in those parts not protected by the film's dark areas. The plate is then developed in a special solution that removes the unexposed nonimage area, exposing bare metal. The chemical on areas of the plate exposed to the light hardens and becomes water repellent. The hardened parts of the plate form the text. A growing number of printing plants use lasers to directly convert electronic data to plates without any use of film. Entering, storing, and retrieving information from computer-aided equipment requires https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis technical skills. In addition to operating and maintaining the equip ment, lithographic platemakers must make sure that plates meet quality standards. During the printing process, the plate is first covered with a thin coat of water. The water adheres only to the bare metal nonimage areas, and is repelled by the hardened areas that were exposed to light. Next, the plate comes in contact with a rubber roller covered with an oil-based ink. Because oil and water do not mix, the ink is repelled by the water-coated area and sticks to the hardened areas. The ink covering the hardened text is transferred to paper. Technological changes will continue in the prepress area as hand work is automated. Although computers will perform a wider variety of tasks, printing will still involve text composition, page layout, and plate making, so printing will still require prepress workers. Com puter skills will be increasingly important to prepress workers. These workers will, however, need to demonstrate a desire and an ability to benefit from the frequent retraining that rapidly changing technology necessitates. Working Conditions Prepress workers usually work in clean, air-conditioned areas with little noise. Some workers, such as typesetters and compositors, may develop eyestrain from working in front of a video display terminal, as well as musculoskeletal problems, such as backaches. Litho graphic artists and strippers may find working with fine detail tiring to the eyes. Platemakers, who work with toxic chemicals, face the hazard of skin irritations. Stress may be an important factor as workers are often subject to the pressures of shorter and shorter deadlines and tighter and tighter work schedules. Prepress employees generally work an 8-hour day. Some work ers—particularly those employed by newspapers—work night shifts, weekends, and holidays. Employment Prepress workers held about 169,000 jobs in 1994. Employment was distributed as follows: Prepress precision workers Strippers, printing............................................................................. Paste-up workers............................................................................... Electronic pagination systems workers............................................ Camera operators.............................................................................. Job printers........................................................................................ Platematers.......................................................................... Compositors and typesetters............................................................. Photoengravers.................................................................................. All other precision printing workers................................................. 31,000 22,000 18,000 15,000 14,000 13,000 11,000 7,000 13,000 Prepress machine operators Typesetting and composing machine operators............................... 20,000 Photoengraving and lithographic machine operators....................... 5,000 Most prepress jobs were found in firms that handle commercial or business printing and in newspaper plants. Commercial printing firms print newspaper inserts, catalogs, pamphlets, and advertise ments, while business form establishments print material such as sales receipts and paper used in computers. Additional jobs are found in printing trade service firms and "in-plant" operations. Establishments in printing trade services typically perform custom compositing, platemaking, and related prepress services. The printing and publishing industry is one of the most geo graphically dispersed in the United States, and prepress jobs are found throughout the country. However, job prospects may be best in large printing centers such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, Washington DC, and Dallas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The length of training required for prepress jobs varies by occupa tion. Some, such as typesetting, can be learned in only a few months, Production Occupations 427 but they are the most likely to be automated. Others, such as strip ping, require years of experience to master. Nevertheless, even workers in these occupations should expect to receive intensive retraining. Workers often start as helpers who are selected for onthe-job training programs once they demonstrate their reliability and interest in learning the job. They begin instruction with an experi enced craft worker and advance based upon their demonstrated mastery of skills at each level of instruction. All workers should expect to be retrained from time to time to handle new, improved equipment. Apprenticeship is another way to become a skilled prepress worker, although few apprenticeships have been offered in recent years. Apprenticeship programs emphasize a specific craft—such as camera operator, stripper, lithographic etcher, scanner operator, or platemaker—but apprentices are introduced to all phases of printing. Generally, most employers prefer to hire high school graduates who possess good communication skills, both oral and written. Prepress workers need to be able to deal courteously with people because in small shops they may take customer orders. They may also need to add, subtract, multiply, divide, and compute ratios to estimate job costs. Persons interested in working for firms that use advanced printing technology need to know the basics of electronics and computers. Mathematical skills are also essential for operating many of the software packages used to run modem, computerized prepress equipment. Prepress workers need manual dexterity, and they must be able to pay attention to detail and work independently. Good eyesight, including visual acuity, depth perception, field of view, color vision, and the ability to focus quickly, is an asset. Artistic ability is often a plus. Employers seek persons who are even-tempered and adaptable, important qualities for workers who often must meet deadlines and learn how to operate new equipment. Formal graphic arts programs, offered by community and junior colleges and some 4-year colleges, also introduce persons to the industry. These programs provide job-related training, and enrolling in one demonstrates an interest in the graphic arts, which may im press an employer favorably. Bachelor's degree programs in graphic arts are generally intended for students who may eventually move into management positions, and 2-year associate degree programs are designed to train skilled workers. Courses in various aspects of printing are also available at voca tional-technical institutes, industry-sponsored update and retraining programs, and private trade and technical schools. As workers gain experience, they advance to positions with greater responsibility. Some move into supervisory positions. Job Outlook Employment of prepress workers is expected to decline through the year 2005. Demand for printed material should grow rapidly spurred by rising levels of personal income, increasing school enrollments, and higher levels of educational attainment. However, increased use of computers in typesetting and page layout should eliminate many prepress jobs. New technologies are also expected to spur demand for printed materials by expanding markets, allowing advertising dollars cur rently allotted to nonprint media, such as television, to be spent on direct mail. Work previously requiring a week or more can now be completed in a few days. Much faster turnaround time will permit printers to compete with nonprint media for time-sensitive business, providing advertisers with specialty advertisements used to target specific market segments, for example. Technological advances will have a varying effect on employ ment among the prepress occupations. Employment of electronic pagination system operators is expected to much grow much faster than average, reflecting the increasing proportion of page layout and design that will be performed using computers. In contrast, prepress machine operators are expected to decline sharply as the work that these workers perform manually is increasingly automated. Occupa https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis tions that are expected to experience moderate declines as hand work becomes automated include paste-up workers, job printers, precision compositors and typesetters, photoengravers, platemakers, and camera operators. Job prospects also will vary by industry, most notably for com positors and typesetters. Changes in technology have shifted many employment opportunities away from the traditional printing plants into advertising agencies, public relations firms, and large corpora tions. Many companies are turning to in-house typesetting or "desktop publishing" due to the advent of inexpensive personal computers with graphic capabilities. Corporations are finding it more profitable to print their own newsletters and other reports than to send them out to trade shops. In addition, press shops themselves have responded to desktop publishers' needs by sending their own staff into the field to help customers prepare a disk that will live up to the customer's expectations. Compositors and typesetters should find competition extremely keen in the newspaper industry, currently their largest employer. Computerized equipment that allows reporters and editors to specify type and style and to format pages at a desktop computer terminal has already eliminated many typesetting and composition jobs, and more are certain to disappear in the years ahead. Many new jobs for prepress workers are expected to emerge in commercial printing establishments. New equipment should reduce the time needed to complete a printing job, and allow commercial printers to make inroads into new markets that require fast turn around. Because small establishments predominate, commercial printing should provide the best opportunities for inexperienced workers looking to gain a good background in all facets of printing. Opportunities for prepress workers should also be good in the printing trade services industry. Despite the fact that companies may have their own typesetting and printing capabilities, they usually turn to professionals in printing trade services if quality and time are of the essence. Most employers prefer to hire experienced prepress workers. However, among persons without experience, opportunities should be best for those with a computer background who have completed postsecondary programs in printing technology. Many employers prefer graduates of these programs because the comprehensive training they receive helps them learn the printing process and adapt more rapidly to new processes and techniques. Earnings Wage rates for prepress workers vary according to occupation, level of experience and training, location and size of the firm, and whether they are union members. According to limited data available, the median earnings of full-time workers were $549 a week in 1994 for lithographers and photoengravers and $389 a week for typesetters and compositors. Of the prepress workers who were unionized, scanner operators earned an hourly wage of $21.88 in 1995, and strippers earned $17.57 per hour, according to the Graphic Communications Interna tional Union, the principal union for prepress workers. Related Occupations Prepress workers use artistic skills in their work. These skills are also essential for sign painters, jewelers, decorators, engravers, and graphic artists. Other workers who operate machines equipped with keyboards like typesetters include clerk-typists, computer terminal system operators, keypunch operators, and telegraphic-typewriter operators. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeship and other training programs may be obtained from local employers such as newspapers and printing shops or from local offices of the State employment service. For information on careers and training in printing and the graphic arts, write to: 428 Occuptional Outlook Handbook •"PIA-PrintED Accreditation Program for the Graphic Arts, 100 Daingerfield Rd., Alexandria, VA 22314. •■Education Council of the Graphic Arts Industry, 1899 Preston White Dr., Reston, VA 22091-4326. •■Graphic Communications International Union, 1900 L St. NW„ Washing ton, DC 20212. Printing Press Operators MBs (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 478.) Nature of the Work Printing press operators prepare, operate, and maintain the printing presses in a pressroom. Duties of press operators vary according to the type of press they operate—offset, gravure, flexography, screen printing, or letterpress. Offset is the dominant printing process and is expected to remain so into the next century. Gravure and flexogra phy should increase in use, but letterpress should continue being phased out. In addition to the major printing processes, plateless or nonimpact processes are coming into general use. Plateless proc esses—including electronic, electrostatic, and ink-jet printing—are used for copying, duplicating, and document and specialty printing, generally by quick and in-house printing shops. To prepare presses for printing, press operators install and adjust the printing plate, mix fountain solution, adjust pressure, ink the presses, load paper, and adjust the press to the paper size. Press operators check that paper and ink meet specifications, and adjust control margins and the flow of ink to the inking rollers accordingly. They then feed paper through the press cylinders and adjust feed and tension controls. While printing presses are running, press operators monitor their operation and keep the paper feeders well stocked. They make adjustments to correct uneven ink distribution, speed, and tempera tures in the drying chamber, if the press has one. If paper jams or tears—which can happen with some offset presses—and the press stops, operators quickly correct the problem to minimize downtime. Similarly, operators working with other high-speed presses con stantly look for problems, making quick corrections to avoid expen sive losses of paper and ink. Throughout the run, operators also occasionally pull sheets to check for any printing imperfections. In many shops, press operators perform preventive maintenance. They oil and clean the presses and make minor repairs to keep them running smoothly. Press operators' jobs differ from one shop to another because of differences in the kinds and sizes of presses. Small commercial shops tend to have relatively small presses which print only one or two colors at a time and are operated by one person. Operators who work with large presses have assistants and helpers. Large newspa per, magazine, and book printers use giant "in-line web" presses that require a crew of several press operators and press assistants. These presses are fed paper in big rolls, called "webs," up to 50 inches or more in width. Presses print the paper on both sides; trim, assemble, score, and fold the pages; and count the finished sections as they come off the press. Most plants have or soon will have installed printing presses that have computers and sophisticated instruments to control press opera tions, making it possible to set up for jobs in much less time. Compu ters allow press operators to perform many of their tasks electroni cally. With this equipment, press operators monitor the printing pro cess on a control panel that allows them to adjust the press electroni cally by pushing buttons. Working Conditions Operating a press can be physically and mentally demanding, and sometimes tedious. Press operators are on their feet most of the time. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis To prepare presses for printing, press operators load and feed paper through the press cylinders. Often, operators work under pressure to meet deadlines. Most print ing presses are capable of high printing speeds, and adjustments must be made quickly to avoid waste. Pressrooms are noisy, and workers in certain areas wear ear protectors. Working with press machinery can be hazardous, but accidents can be avoided when safe work practices are observed. The danger of accidents is much less with newer computerized presses because operators make most adjust ments from a control panel. Many press operators work evening, night, and overtime shifts. Employment Press operators held about 244,000 jobs in 1994. Employment was distributed as follows: Printing press machine setters and operators.........................................113,000 Offset lithographic press operators........................................................ 79,000 Screen printing machine setters and setup operators............................. 26,000 Letterpress operators.............................................................................. 14,000 All other printing press setters and set-up operators............................. 13,000 Most jobs were in newspaper plants or in firms that handle com mercial or business printing. Commercial printing firms print news paper inserts, catalogs, pamphlets, and the advertisements found in your mailbox, and business form establishments print items such as sales receipts and paper used in computers. Additional jobs were in the "in-plant" section of organizations and businesses that do their own printing—among them, banks, insurance companies, and gov ernment agencies. The printing and publishing industry is one of the most geo graphically dispersed in the United States, and press operators can find jobs throughout the country. However, jobs are concentrated in large printing centers such as New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Philadelphia, Washington, DC, and Dallas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although completion of a formal apprenticeship or a post secondary program in printing equipment operation continue to be the best way to learn the trade, most printing press operators are trained informally on the job working as assistants or helpers to experienced operators. Beginning press operators load, unload, and clean presses. With time, they move up to operating one-color sheet-fed presses and eventually advance to multicolor presses. Operators are likely to gain experience on many kinds of printing presses during the course of their career. Apprenticeship, once the dominant method of preparing for this occupation, is becoming less prevalent with the growing importance Production Occupations 429 of formal post secondary programs in printing equipment operation offered by technical and trade schools and community and junior colleges. Apprenticeships for press operators in commercial shops take 4 years. In addition to on-the-job instruction, apprenticeships include related classroom or correspondence school courses. In contrast, although some post secondary school programs require 2 years of study and award an associate degree, most programs can be completed in 1 year or less. Post secondary courses in printing are increasingly important because they provide the theoretical knowl edge needed to operate advanced equipment. Persons who wish to become printing press operators need me chanical aptitude to make press adjustments and repairs and an ability to visualize color in order to work on color presses. Oral and writing skills also are required. Operators should be able to compute percentages, weights, and measures, and should possess adequate mathematical skills to calculate the amount of ink and paper needed to do a job. Because of technical developments in the printing industry, courses in chemistry, electronics, color theory, and physics are helpful. Technological changes have had a tremendous effect on the skills needed by press operators. New presses require basic computer skills. Printing plants that change from sheet-fed offset presses to web-offset presses have to retrain the entire press crew because the skill requirements for the two types of presses are different. Weboffset presses, with their faster operating speeds, require faster deci sions, monitoring of more variables, and greater physical effort. Even experienced operators periodically receive retraining and skill updating. In the future, workers are expected to need to retrain several times during their career. Press operators may advance in pay and responsibility by taking a job working on a more complex printing press. For example, a onecolor sheet-fed press operator may, through experience and demon strated ability, become a four-color sheet-fed press operator. Others may advance to pressroom supervisor and become responsible for the work of the entire press crew. Job Outlook Persons seeking jobs as printing press operators will face keen com petition from experienced operators and prepress workers who have been displaced by new technology, particularly those who have completed retraining programs. Opportunities to become printing press operators are likely to be best for persons who qualify for formal apprenticeship training or who complete postsecondary training programs. Employment of press operators is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Although demand for printed materials will grow, employment growth will be slowed by the increasing use of new, more efficient computerized printing presses. However, employment growth will vary among var ious press operator jobs. Employment of offset, gravure, and flexo graphic operators will increase, while employment of letterpress operators will decline sharply. Most job openings will result from the need to replace operators who retire or leave the occupation. Most new jobs will result from expansion of the printing industry as demand for printed material increases in response to demographic trends, U.S. expansion into foreign markets, and growing use of direct mail by advertisers. Demand for books and magazines will increase as school enrollments rise, and as substantial growth in the middle-aged and older population spurs adult education and leisure reading. Additional growth should stem from increasing foreign demand for domestic trade publications, professional and scientific works, and mass-market books such as paperbacks. Much of the growth in commercial printing will be spurred by increased expenditures for print advertising materials to be mailed directly to prospective customers. New market research techniques are leading advertisers to increase spending on messages targeted to specific audiences and should continue to require the printing of a wide variety of newspaper inserts, catalogs, direct mail enclosures, and other kinds of print advertising. Other printing, such as newspapers, books, and periodicals, will also provide jobs. Experienced press operators will fill most of these jobs because many employers are under severe pressure to meet deadlines and have limited time to train new employees. Earnings The basic wage rate for a press operator depends on the type of press being run and the area of the country in which the work is located. Median weekly earnings of press operators who worked full time were about $432 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $307 and $605 a week. The lowest 10 percent earned $239 or less a week, while the highest 10 percent earned over $787 a week. Fewer than 1 out of 5 press operators belonged to a union. Related Occupations Other workers who set up and operate production machinery include papermaking machine operators, shoemaking machine operators, bindery machine operators, and various precision machine operators. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeships and other training opportunities may be obtained from local employers such as newspapers and printing shops, local offices of the Graphic Communications International Union, local affiliates of Printing Industries of America, or local offices of the State employment service. For general information about press operators, write to: •■Graphic Communications International Union, 1900 L St. NW, Washing ton, DC 20036. For information on careers and training in printing and the graphic arts, write to: •“PIA-PrintED Accreditation Program for the Graphic Arts, 100 Daingerfield Rd., Alexandria, VA 22314. •■Education Council of the Graphic Arts Industry, 1899 Preston White Dr., Reston, VA 22091-4326. Textile, Apparel, and Furnishings Occupations Apparel Workers (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 478.) https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Apparel workers help to keep us warm, comfortable, and in style. They play this important role in our lives by transforming cloth, leather, and fur into clothing and other consumer products. Many apparel workers also repair and alter these products. (Some items 430 Occuptional Outlook Handbook that we think of as apparel, such as socks or pantyhose, are produced in knitting mills. Workers who are employed in these factories are classified as textile rather than as apparel workers. A separate state ment on textile machinery operators is presented in this section of the Handbook.) Apparel production begins with a designer’s creation that has been made into a sample product. (A separate statement on designers is presented elsewhere in the Handbook.) Because many of these goods are to be mass produced, a pattern of the product must be developed. This is usually done with the aid of a computer. Sample makers often produce the sample garment for the designer. Once the pattern has been created, the fabric must be spread and cut. Many layers of material may be spread on the cutting table, depending on the quantity being produced and the type of material. Workers known as markers must determine the best arrangement or layout of the pattern pieces to minimize waste. In most plants, this step depends on the judgment of the worker, but computers increas ingly are used to determine the optimum arrangement of the pattern pieces. Using an electric knife or other cutting tool, other workers cut out the various pieces of material following the outline of the pattern. On especially delicate or valuable items, this may be done by hand. Workers must pay close attention to detail because a mistake in the cutting process can ruin many yards of material. In more automated firms, electronic copies of layouts are sent to computer-controlled cutting machines. Workers then monitor the machine. Once the material has been cut, it is ready to be sewn together into a shirt, knapsack, dress, or other product. Most sewing is done by sewing machine operators, who are classified by the type of machine and product on which they work. Because each product requires a variety of sewing operations that cannot be done on the same machine, companies producing apparel have many types of specialized sewing machines. Sewing machine operators' skills vary by the type of machine on which they work. Sewing machine operators are also categorized by the specific product they produce. The most basic division, however, is between sewing machine operators who produce clothing and those who produce nongarment items such as towels, sheets, and curtains. Both garment and nongarment machine operators usually specialize in a single operation, such as bindings, collars, or hems. Because of the value and delicate nature of some materials, sewing often is done by hand rather than on a machine. Hand sewers may specialize in a particular operation, such as sewing buttonholes or adding lace or other trimming. They also work with the designer to make a sample of a new product. When sewing operations have been completed, workers remove loose threads, basting stitching, and lint from the finished product. Final inspection of the product is done at this time. Inspectors are found in all stages of the production process. They mark defects in uncut fabric so that layout workers can position the pattern to avoid them, or they mark defects in semifinished garments, which they may repair themselves or send back to be mended. (For a more detailed discussion, see the statement on inspectors, testers, and graders elsewhere in the Handbook.) The shape and appearance of certain finished products depend, to a large extent, on the pressing that is done at different stages of production. Pressing is done by hand or by pressing machines. Some pressers specialize in a particular garment part; others do the final pressing before the product is shipped to the store. Not all apparel goods are mass produced. Some people prefer clothing made especially for them. Custom tailors make garments from start to finish by taking measurements and helping the customer select the right fabric. These workers are highly skilled and must be knowledgeable in all phases of clothing production. Many work in retail outlets, where they make alterations and adjustments to readyto-wear clothing. Many apparel workers are employed by small firms that lack the capital resources to invest in new, more efficient equipment. Be https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Apparel production has been difficult to automate due to the flexibility and variety offabrics. cause of this, the nature of the work for many apparel workers has remained relatively unchanged. Nevertheless, in larger firms with modern facilities, some operations are computerized, and some of the product-moving operations are done by automated material handling systems. In addition, many firms are using modular manufacturing systems. In these systems, which often reduce production time while increasing product quality, operators work together in a module or group. Although each worker specializes in one operation, most are cross-trained in the various operations performed within the group. Not only do operators communicate more with other workers, they are given added responsibilities, including correcting problems, scheduling, and monitoring standards. Working Conditions Working conditions in apparel production vary by establishment and by the type of job. Older factories tend to be congested and poorly lit and ventilated, but more modem facilities are usually better planned, have more work space, and are well lighted and ventilated. Due to the nature of the work and the machinery being used, sewing and pressing areas are usually noisy, whereas pattemmaking and spread ing areas are quieter. Laundries and dry-cleaning establishments are often hot and noisy; retail stores, on the other hand, generally are relatively quiet and comfortable. Most persons in apparel occupations work a standard 5-day, 35to 40-hour week. Some apparel manufacturers add second shifts to justify the expense of new machinery. Also, those employed in retail stores and in laundry and dry-cleaning establishments may work evening and weekend hours. Apparel production work can be physically demanding. Some workers sit for long periods, and others spend many hours on their feet, leaning over tables and operating machinery. In some instances, new machinery and production techniques have decreased the physi cal demands upon workers. For example, newer pressing machines are now operated by foot pedals or computer controls and don’t require much strength to operate. Although there are no lifethreatening dangers or health hazards associated with apparel occu pations, operators must be attentive while running equipment such as sewing machines, pressers, and automated cutters. A few workers must use protective devices such as gloves. In some areas of apparel production, the emphasis on individual performance is shifting to an emphasis on teamwork and cooperation. Incentive programs may also be based on a team's performance. The team or module often has managerial authority over itself, increasing the overall responsibility of each operator and allowing more inter personal contact. It also means that groups and individual sewing Production Occupations 431 machine operators are under pressure to improve their performance while maintaining quality. Employment Apparel workers held 924,000 jobs in 1994. The following tabu lation shows that more than 7 out of 10 were sewing machine operators. Garment sewing machine operators............................................531,000 Nongarment sewing machine operators.......................................129,000 Custom tailors......................................................................... 84,000 Pressing machine operators....................................................... 77,000 Hand cutters and trimmers....................................................... 51,000 Hand sewers............................................................................ 19,000 Patternmakers and layout workers............................................. 17,000 Hand pressers......................................................................... 16,000 Production jobs are concentrated in California, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and Georgia. Most of these jobs are in the apparel and textile industries, except for pressers and custom tailors. Although pressing operations are an integral part of the apparel production process, more than one-half of all pressers are employed in the laundry and dry-cleaning industry. In addition, more than one-half of all custom tailors work in retail clothing establishments; many others are self-employed. For both of these occupations, jobs are found in every part of the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements vary by industry. In the apparel industry, for example, few employers require production workers to have a high school diploma or previous work experience. Nevertheless, entrants with secondary or postsecondary vocational training or previous work experience in apparel production usually have a better chance of getting a job and advancing to a supervisory position. Retailers prefer to hire custom tailors and sewers with previous experience in apparel manufacture, design, or alterations. Knowl edge of fabrics, design, and construction is very important. Although laundries and dry cleaners prefer entrants with previous work experi ence, they routinely hire inexperienced workers. Apparel workers need good hand-eye coordination and the ability to perform repetitive tasks for long periods. Knowledge of fabrics and their characteristics is sometimes required. Regardless of setting, workers usually begin by performing simple tasks. As they gain experience, they are assigned more diffi cult operations. Further advancement is limited, however. Some production workers may become first-line supervisors, but the ma jority remain on the production line. Occasionally, a patternmaker may advance to designer, but usually only after additional training at a design school. Some experienced custom tailors open their own tailoring shop. Custom tailoring is a very competitive field, how ever, and training in small business operations can mean the differ ence between success and failure. Machinery operators are usually trained on the job by more experienced employees or by machinery manufacturers' representa tives. However, as machinery in the industry continues to become more complex, apparel workers will need training in the basics of computers and electronics. For example, some workers use comput ers to determine the best layout and then electronically send the layout to an automated cutting machine. In addition, the trend to ward cross-training of operators will increase the time needed to learn different machines as well as increase an operator's skills. Job Outlook Employment of apparel workers is expected to decline through the year 2005. The job outlook of these workers depends largely on conditions in the apparel industry, where most apparel workers are employed. Increased imports, use of offshore assembly, and greater productivity through the introduction of labor-saving machinery will reduce the demand for these workers. Because of the large size of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis this occupation, however, many thousands of job openings will arise each year from the need to replace persons who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Employment in the domestic apparel industry has declined in recent years as foreign producers have gained a greater share of the U.S. market. Imports now account for roughly half of domestic apparel consumption, and this share is expected to increase as the U.S. market is opened further by the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the Uruguay Round Agreement (URA) of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). NAFTA allows apparel produced in Mexico and Canada to be imported, without tariffs, to the United States. Some apparel companies are expected to move their production facilities to Mexico to reduce costs. In addition, the URA will result in the elimination of quotas and a reduction in tariffs for many apparel products. As this agree ment is phased in over the next 10 years, domestic production will continue to move abroad and imports into the U.S. market will increase, causing further employment decline for apparel workers in the United States. To avoid losing more of the market, domestic manufacturers are developing the ability to take advantage of their closeness to the U.S. market by responding more quickly to changes in market demand. This is especially important in high-fashion items with unpredictable demand. U.S. producers are able to use computers and electronic data interchange to closely monitor the sales of the items that they produce and to respond rapidly to diminishing inventories. They are, therefore, able to keep retailers in stock of the most popular items and to reduce production of apparel that is not selling well. Despite these advances in technology, it has been difficult to use automated equipment extensively in the apparel industry due to the soft properties of textile products. In addition, it is time consuming and expensive to adapt existing technology to the wide variety of items produced and the frequent style and seasonal changes. How ever, some of the larger firms and those that produce standardized items have automated pre-sewing functions, material handling, and some very simple sewing procedures. Technological developments, such as computer-aided marking and grading, computer-controlled cutters, semiautomatic sewing and pressing machines, and automated material handling systems, have increased output while reducing the need for workers in larger firms. As the apparel industry continues to restructure and consolidate, more of the smaller, less efficient pro ducers will lose market share to larger firms. Another strategy that domestic manufacturers have adopted to reduce costs is the use of offshore assembly. A provision in U.S. tariff regulations reduces tariffs on apparel imports from Caribbean nations that are assembled from pieces of fabric which were cut in the United States. This enables the most labor-intensive step in the production process—sewing—to be done at much lower wage rates. This trend is expected to continue, and will curtail job opportunities for sewing machine operators in the United States. Because many pre-sewing functions will continue to be done domestically, however, workers who perform these functions will not be as adversely af fected. In fact, the only apparel worker occupation which is expected to grow—patternmakers and layout workers—will benefit from this program. Earnings Earnings of apparel workers vary by industry and by occupation. Average weekly earnings of production workers in the apparel indus try were $275 in 1994, compared to about $510 for production workers in all manufacturing industries. Earnings vary significantly, depending on the product being manufactured. Average weekly earnings ranged from a low of $230 in firms producing women's blouses and shirts to a high of $440 in establishments making auto motive and apparel trimmings. Sewing machine operators—accounting for 7 of every 10 apparel workers—had median weekly earnings of $240 in 1994. Because many production workers in apparel manufacturing are paid accord 432 Occuptional Outlook Handbook ing to the number of acceptable pieces they or their group produce, their total earnings depend on skill, speed, and accuracy. Benefits also vary. Those offered by large employers usually include paid holidays and vacations, health and life insurance cover age, and increasingly, child care. Those employed in retail trade also may receive a discount of 10 to 30 percent on their purchases. In addition, some of the larger manufacturers operate company stores, where employees can purchase apparel products at significant dis counts. Some small firms, however, offer only limited benefits. In addition to employer-sponsored benefits, the principal union— the Union of Needletrades, Industrial, and Textile Employees (UNITE)—provides benefits to its members. Related Occupations The work of apparel workers varies from that requiring very little skill and training to that which is highly complex, requiring several years of training. Those operating machinery and equipment, such as pressing or sewing machine operators, perform duties similar to metalworking and plastics-working machine operators, textile opera tives, and shoe sewing machine operators. Other workers who perform handwork are precision woodworkers, precision assemblers, upholsterers, and shoe and leather workers. Sources of Additional Information Information regarding careers in apparel is available from numerous colleges and universities that have specialized textile and apparel programs. A list of these can be found in college guides. In addi tion, the local office of the State employment service or an apparel manufacturer can provide information on job opportunities in a specific area. For general information on the apparel industry, write to: involve preparing inserts, heel pads, and lifts from casts of customers' feet. Saddlemakers often apply leather dyes and liquid top coats to produce a gloss finish on a saddle. They may also decorate the saddle surface by hand stitching or by stamping the leather with decorative patterns and designs. Luggage makers fasten leather to a frame and attach handles and other hardware. They also cut and secure linings inside the frames and sew or stamp designs onto the luggage exterior. Shoe and leather repairers use their knowledge of leatherworking to give worn leather goods extended wearability. The most common type of shoe repair is replacing soles and heels. Repairers place the shoe on a last and remove the old sole and heel with a knife or pliers or both. They attach new soles and heels to shoes either by stitching them in place or by using cement or nails. Other leather goods, suitcases or handbags, for example, may need seams to be re-sewn or handles and linings to be replaced. Leather workers and repairers use handtools and machines. The most commonly used handtools are knives, hammers, awls (used to poke holes in leather to make sewing possible), and skivers (for splitting leather). Power-operated equipment includes sewing ma chines, heel nailing machines, hole punching machines, and sole stitchers. Self-employed shoe repairers and owners of custom-made shoe and leather shops have managerial responsibilities in addition to their regular duties. They must maintain good relations with their custom ers, make business decisions, and keep accurate records. •"American Apparel Manufacturers Association, 2500 Wilson Blvd., Suite 301, Arlington, VA 22201. Shoe and Leather Workers and Repairers % (D.O.T. 365.361; 780.381-030; 781.381-018; 783.361-010, .381-018 through -026; 788.261-010, .381) Nature of the Work Creating stylish and durable leather products is the job of precision shoe and leather workers; keeping them in good condition is the work of repairers. Among the workers who do leather work and repair are custom orthopedic shoemakers, saddlemakers, and luggage makers. Although these workers produce different goods, their duties are actually quite similar. Depending on the size of the factory or shop, a leather worker may perform one or more of the steps required to complete a product. In smaller factories or shops, workers generally perform several tasks, while those in larger facilities tend to specialize. However, most leather workers eventually learn the different skills involved in producing leather goods as they move from one task to another. Leather workers must first check the leather for texture, color, and strength. They then place a pattern of the item being produced on the leather, trace the pattern onto the leather, cut along the outline, and sew the pieces together. Other steps may vary according to the type of good being produced. Orthopedic shoemakers, for example, attach the insoles to shoe lasts (a wooden form shaped like a foot), affix the shoe uppers, and apply heels and outsoles. They shape the heels with a knife and then sand them on a buffing wheel for smoothness. Finally, they dye and polish the shoes. Custom shoe workers also may modify existing footwear for people with foot problems and special needs. This can https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Workers in shoe repair shops may work irregular hours. Production Occupations 433 Working Conditions Working conditions of leather workers vary according to the type of work performed, the size of the factory or business, and the practices of each individual shop. Workers employed in custom leather goods manufacturing estab lishments generally work a regular 40-hour week. Those in repair shops work nights and weekends and often work irregular hours. For those who own their own repair shop, long hours are common. Although there are few health hazards if precautions are followed, work areas can be noisy and odors from leather dyes and stains are often present. Employment Shoe and leather workers and repairers held about 24,000 jobs in 1994. Self-employed individuals, who typically own and operate small shoe repair shops or specialty leather manufacturing firms, held about 7,000 of these jobs. Of the remaining workers, about half were employed in the manufacture of footwear products, and an additional one-fifth were employed in production of leather goods such as luggage, handbags, and apparel. Another fifth worked in shoe repair and shoeshine shops. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Precision shoe and leather workers and repairers generally learn their craft on the job, either through in-house training programs or work ing as helpers to experienced workers. Helpers generally begin by performing simple tasks and then progress to more difficult projects like cutting or stitching leather. Trainees generally become fully skilled in 6 months to 2 years; the length of training varies according to the nature of the work and the aptitude and dedication of the individual. A limited number of schools offer vocational training in shoe repair and leather work. These programs may last from 6 months to 1 year and impart basic skills including leather cutting, stitching, and dyeing. Students learn shoe construction, practice shoe repair, and study the fundamentals of running a small business. Graduates are encouraged to gain additional training by working with an experi enced leather worker or repairer. National and regional associations also offer specialized training seminars and workshops in custom shoe making, shoe repair, and other leather work. Manual dexterity and the mechanical aptitude to work with handtools and machines are important in the shoe repair and leather working occupations. Shoe and leather workers who produce custom goods should have artistic ability as well. These workers must have self-discipline to work alone under little supervision. In addition, leather workers and repairers who own shops will need to have a knowledge of business practices and management as well as a pleas ant manner when dealing with customers. Many individuals who begin as workers or repairers advance to salaried supervisory and managerial positions. Some may open their own shop or business. Job Outlook Employment of shoe and leather workers is expected to decline through the year 2005. Inexpensive imports have made the cost of replacing shoes and leather goods cheaper or more convenient than repairing them, thus reducing the demand for shoe and leather repair ers. These workers are also adversely affected by the rising cost of leather and higher rents in the high-traffic areas in which more shoe repairers are relocating. Some of the more expensive, fine leather products will continue to be repaired, however, and this demand will moderate the employment decline of shoe repairers. Consumers are also buying more comfort-soled leather shoes, which should also increase demand for the services provided by shoe repairers. In the future, though, most job openings in this occupation will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occu pations or leave the work force. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Prospects for workers employed in the manufacture and modifi cation of custom-made molded or orthopedic shoes are better than those for most other leather workers. This is a result of substantial expected growth in the elderly population and an increasing emphasis on preventive foot care. The employment effects of these trends may be limited, however, since the demand for orthopedic footwear is increasingly fulfilled by manufactured shoes that are modified to specification instead of totally custom made. Earnings Data on earnings of shoe and leather workers are very limited. Their earnings vary greatly depending upon the place of employment. Beginning workers often start near the minimum wage and can advance in just a few months. Owners of shoe repair and custom shoe manufacturing shops can earn substantially more. Related Occupations Other workers who make or repair items using handtools and ma chinery include dressmakers, designers and patternmakers, and furriers. Sources of Additional Information For information about the custom-made prescription shoe business, and about training opportunities in this field, contact: •■Pedorthic Footwear Association, 9861 Broken Land Pkwy., Suite 255, Columbia, MD 21046-1151. For information about opportunities in shoe repair, contact: •■Shoe Service Institute of America, Educational Library, 5024-R Campbell Blvd., Baltimore, MD 21236-5974. Textile Machinery Operators (List of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 478.) Nature of the Work Textile machinery operators tend machines that manufacture a wide range of textile products. Hosiery, skirts, and socks are familiar examples of these products, but many people are surprised to learn that textile products are used in such things as roofs, tires, and roads. There are many phases in the textile production process, and opera tors' duties and responsibilities depend on the product and the type of machinery in use. Machinery operators control equipment that cleans, cards, combs, and draws the fiber; spins the fiber into yam; and weaves, knits, or tufts the yam into textile products. They are responsible for numerous machines that they start, stop, clean, and monitor for proper functioning. The textile production process begins with the preparation of synthetic or natural fibers for spinning. Fibers are cleaned and aligned through carding and combing. To prepare the fiber for the spinning process, very short fibers and any foreign matter are re moved and the fibers are drawn into a substance called sliver. Dur ing this process, different types of fibers may be combined to give products the desired textures, durability, or other characteristics. This is how "50 percent cotton, 50 percent polyester" blends, for example, are created. Operators constantly monitor their machines during this stage, checking the movement of the fiber, removing and replacing cans of sliver, repairing breaks in the sliver, and making minor repairs to the machinery. The full cans of sliver are then taken to the spinning area. Spin ning draws and twists the sliver to produce yam which is then wound onto conical structures called bobbins or cones. This is an automated version of the old fashion spinning wheel. Some workers oversee machinery that makes manufactured fibers. These fibers, used in many textile products, are created from materials that, unlike cotton, wool, and flax, are not fibrous in their 434 Occuptional Outlook Handbook natural form. To make this fiber, wood pulp or chemical compounds are dissolved or melted in a liquid which is then extruded, or forced, through holes in a metal plate, called a spinneret. The sizes and shapes of the holes in the spinneret determine the shape and the uses of the fiber. Workers adjust the flow of fiber base through the spin neret, repair breaks in the fiber, and make minor adjustments to the machinery. Because this fiber is created by a chemical process, the majority of these workers are employed by chemical companies, not textile mills. When the yam is ready, it is taken to be woven, knitted, tufted, or bonded with heat or chemicals. Each of these processes produces a different type of textile product and requires a different type of machine. For example, woven fabrics are made on looms that inter lace the yam. Knit products, such as socks or women’s hosiery, are produced by intermeshing loops of yam. Carpeting is made through the tufting process, in which the loops of yam are pushed through a material backing. Although the processes are now highly automated, these concepts have been used for many centuries to produce textile products. Even though operators work with many different kinds of ma chines, they share many responsibilities. Each operator oversees numerous machines—repairing breaks in the yam, monitoring the supply of yam, and making minor repairs to the machinery. As increasingly automated machinery is used in textile mills, more processes are controlled by computers, making it possible for each operator to monitor a larger area or number of machines. Because of the complexity of many machines, operators often specialize in a particular type of machine. In addition, operators prepare the ma chinery prior to a production ran and help maintain the equipment. For example, they adjust the timing on a machine, thread the har nesses that create patterns in textile goods, and repair machinery. Once the yam has been woven, knitted, or tufted, the resulting fabric is ready to be dyed and finished either at the textile mill or at a plant specializing in textile finishing. Because of the variety of consumer preferences, manufacturers print and dye textiles in thou sands of different designs and colors. Depending upon the end use of the yam, it may be dyed before or after it is woven, knitted, or tufted. Some fabric is treated before it is dyed to remove other chemical additives that could affect the quality of the finished product. In addition to dyeing and printing, products are often finished by treating them to prevent excessive shrinkage, to provide strength, to make them stain-resistant, or to give a silky luster. In the production of hosiery and socks, for example, the stocking or sock is placed on a form and then exposed to steam and heat to give it shape. tv I * -53 The future of international trade is the greatest uncertainty facing textile workers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Conditions Most textile machine operators work in textile mills or chemical plants. Working conditions depend upon the age of the facility or equipment and its degree of modernization. Newer facilities usually offer better ventilation and climate control that reduce potential problems caused by airborne fibers and fumes. Workers in areas with high levels of these airborne materials often use protective glasses and masks that cover their nose and mouth. Although some of the newer machinery has reduced the level of noise, workers in some areas still must wear ear protection. Because many machines operate at high speeds, workers must be careful not to wear clothing or jewelry that could get caught in moving parts. In addition, extruding and forming machine operators wear protective shoes and clothing when working with some types of chemical compounds. Most textile machinery operators worked a standard 40-hour week. Because many textile and fiber mills operate 24 hours a day, night and weekend shifts are common. However, many employers use a rotating schedule of shifts so operators don't consistently work nights or weekends. Operators are on their feet moving between machines during most of their shift. Although workers have traditionally worked under close supervi sion, new management philosophies are placing an increasing em phasis on teamwork, which will allow operators greater interpersonal contact and more initiative. Employment Textile machinery operators held about 281,000 jobs in 1994. Most of these workers were employed in weaving, finishing, yam, and thread mills. Knitting mills and manufactured fiber producers also employed a substantial number of these workers. Most extruding and forming machine operators were employed in chemical plants. North Carolina was the leading State in the employment of textile workers, accounting for about 30 percent of the total. Georgia and South Carolina combined accounted for another 30 percent. Most of the remaining workers were employed in other southern States and in the northeast. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Education and training are becoming increasingly important for working with complex machinery and advanced manufacturing methods. A high school diploma in addition to extensive technical training is becoming a prerequisite for entry to many jobs. This training may be obtained, in part, at a formal training institution such as a technical school. Extensive on-the-job training by more experi enced workers or representatives of machinery manufacturers is also common. As the textile industry becomes more highly automated, operators will need to understand complex machinery and be able to diagnose problems. Because textile machinery is increasingly controlled electronically, many operators will need good computer skills. Physical stamina and manual dexterity are important attributes for these jobs. In addition, self-direction and interpersonal skills are becoming more important for textile machinery operators. Organ izational changes that promote teamwork and encourage fewer levels of management are leading operators to assume greater responsibility and to take more initiative. Textile machinery operatives can advance in several ways. Some workers become instructors and train new employees. Others ad vance by taking positions requiring higher skills and greater respon sibility. First-line supervisory positions usually are filled from the ranks of skilled operators. Job Outlook Employment of textile machinery operators is expected to decline over the 1994-2005 period. Changing trade regulations and greater productivity through the introduction of labor-saving machinery are the major factors influencing employment in this occupation. In Production Occupations 435 spite of the projected decline, thousands of openings will be created annually as workers change occupations or leave the labor force. The greatest uncertainty facing textile machinery operators is the future of trade. Recent trade agreements, like the North American Free Trade Agreement and the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, will help to open export markets for textiles produced in the United States. At the same time, they will dismantle much of the protection that has been provided to the industry for decades. While the textile industry is highly efficient and will be able to compete in many product lines, the more labor intensive U.S. apparel industry will be more adversely affected. Because the apparel industry is the largest consumer of Americanmade textiles, this will negatively affect the demand for textile machinery operators. Textile firms will respond to this growing competition by invest ing in new equipment, reorganizing their work practices, and devel oping new uses for textiles. New machinery, such as faster shuttleless and air jet looms and computer-integrated manufacturing processes, increase productivity by producing goods at a faster rate. They also allow each operator to monitor a larger number of machines. Many factories are also reorganizing production floors to further increase productivity and to give workers more responsibility. In addition, textile firms are developing new uses for textiles that replace non textiles, such as wallcoverings, medical products, and dome covers. Because the textile industry is highly automated, persons with technical skills and some computer training will have the best oppor tunities. In particular, bleaching and dyeing machine operator em ployment is expected to grow in coming years. Also, extruding machine operators who produce synthetic fibers will encounter growing employment opportunities as the demand for synthetic fiber grows. Upholsterers (D.O.T. 780.381 except -030 and -034, .384, .684-034, -118, and -122) Nature of the Work Whether making a new piece of furniture, restoring a treasured antique, or simply giving an ordinary living room couch a facelift, upholsterers combine knowledge of fabrics and other materials with artistic flair and manual skill. Some repair and replace automobile upholstery and convertible and vinyl tops. Upholsterers who make new furniture start with a bare wooden frame. Those who recondition old furniture first remove the old cover, padding, and springs, using hammers and tack pullers. They remove the material and padding that cover the arms, back, sides, and seat. They examine the springs and replace broken or bent ones. The springs sit on a cloth mat, called "webbing," that is attached to the frame. If the webbing is worn, upholsterers remove all the springs and webbing. They reglue loose sections of the frame and refinish exposed wood. The first step in upholstering new furniture or reupholstering old pieces is to install webbing of nylon, jute, or cotton in the frame tc hold the springs. Upholsterers tack webbing to one side of the frame, stretch it tight, and tack it to the opposite side. Additional webbing is woven across the first row of webbing and attached to the frame to form a new mat. After putting springs on the mat so they com press evenly, upholsterers sew or staple each spring to the webbing Earnings Average weekly earnings for production workers in the textile and manufactured fiber industries were $380 in 1994, compared to about $510 for production workers throughout all manufacturing industries. Earnings vary significantly, depending upon the type of mill, job specialty, shift, and seniority. Average weekly earnings for produc tion workers in the chemical industry, where most extruding machine operators are found, were around $660 in 1994. Benefits usually include paid holidays and vacations, health and life insurance, a retirement plan, and sick leave. Some firms provide on-site daycare facilities. Employees may also receive discounts in company-owned outlet stores. Related Occupations Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators perform similar duties and have many of the same entry and training require ments as extruding and forming machine operators and tenders, textile machine operators and tenders, and textile bleaching and dyeing machine operators. Setters and setup operators in other indus tries—metal fabrication and plastics manufacturing, for example— perform duties comparable to those of textile machine setters and setup operators. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities in textile and synthetic fiber production is available from local employers or local offices of the State employment service. For general information on careers, technology, or trade regula tions in the textile industry, write to: '•‘American Textile Manufacturers Institute, Inc., 1801 K St. NW., Suite 900, Washington, DC 20006. •“Institute of Textile Technology, P.O. Box 391, Charlottesville, VA 22901. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis About I out of 3 upholsterers is self-employed. 436 Occuptional Outlook Handbook or frame and tie each spring to the ones next to it. Burlap then is stretched over the springs, cut, smoothed, and tacked to the frame. To form a smooth rounded surface over the springs and other parts of the frame, upholsterers cover the furniture with filling material. They then cover this with a layer of felt and heavy cloth, and tack the cloth to the frame. Upholsterers measure and cut fabric for arms, backs, and other sections with as little waste as possible. They tem porarily stitch pieces together for fitting and after assuring tight and smooth fit of the cover—or noting where adjustments are neces sary—they remove the cover, sew it together, and tack, staple, or glue it to the frame. To complete the job, upholsterers sew, tack, or glue on fringes, buttons, or other ornaments. Upholsterers use common handtools, including tack hammers, staple guns, tack and staple removers, pliers, and shears, and special tools such as webbing stretchers and upholstery needles. They also use sewing machines. Upholsterers who work in upholstery shops pick up and deliver furniture or help customers select new furniture coverings. Those who manage shops also order supplies and equipment and keep business records. Working Conditions Most upholsterers work inside a shop or factory. Working conditions in these facilities vary—many are spacious, adequately lighted, well ventilated, and well heated; others are small and dusty. The work is not dangerous, but upholsterers must be careful to avoid cuts and bruises when they use sharp tools and when they lift and handle furniture or springs. Upholsterers stand most of the workday, and they do a lot of bending and heavy lifting. They also have to work in awkward positions for short periods of time. Employment Furniture upholsterers held about 63,000 jobs in 1994. About 1 out of 3 were self-employed. Of the remaining upholsterers, companies that manufacture household and office furniture employed 65 percent and shops that reupholster and repair furniture employed nearly another 17 percent. Over 10 percent worked in shops that specialize in reupholstering the seats of automobiles and other motor vehicles, and a few worked in furniture stores. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most upholsterers are trained on the job as a helper to an experienced worker. Usually about 3 years of on-the-job training are required to become a fully skilled upholsterer. On-the-job training in a furniture factory usually is much shorter because the range of skills required is more limited. Others learn upholstery through apprenticeship or formal training. When hiring helpers, employers generally prefer people with some knowledge of the trade. Inexperienced persons may get basic training in upholstery in high school, vocational and technical schools, and some community colleges. Programs include sewing machine operation, measuring, cutting, springing, frame repair, tufting, and channeling; as well as business and interior design courses. However, additional training and experience usually are required before graduates can perform as quickly and efficiently as experienced upholsterers. Upholsterers should have manual dexterity, good coordination, and strength to lift heavy furniture. An eye for detail and flair for color and creative use of fabrics are helpful. The major form of advancement for upholsterers is opening their own shop. It is relatively easy to open a shop because a small in vestment in handtools and a sewing machine are all that is needed. The upholstery business is extremely competitive, however, so operating a shop successfully is difficult. In large shops and facto ries, experienced or highly skilled upholsterers may become supervi sors. Job Outlook Employment of upholsterers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Most of the growth will be in furniture manufacturing. Employment in reuphol stery shops is expected to remain steady. Each upholstery job is unique, so upholstery work does not lend itself to automation; conse quently, technology is not expected to affect employment of uphol sterers. Most job openings will arise because of the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Opportunities for experienced upholsterers should be very good. The number of upholsterers with experience is limited because few young people want to enter the occupation and because few shops are willing to train people. Earnings Median weekly earnings of upholsterers were $359 in 1994; the middle 50 percent earned between $283 and $490 per week. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $198, and the top 10 percent earned more than $617. Earnings of self-employed upholsterers depend not only on the size and location of the shop but also on the number of hours worked. Related Occupations Other workers who combine manual skills and knowledge of materi als such as fabrics and wood are fur cutters, furniture finishers, pattern and model makers, and casket coverers. Sources of Additional Information For details about work opportunities for upholsterers in your area, contact local upholstery shops or the local office of the State em ployment service. To receive a list of technical schools accredited by the Accredit ing Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology that have programs in upholstery, contact: •■Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201. Woodworking Occupations (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 478.) Nature of the Work Wood is one of the oldest, most basic building materials. Yet, even in our age of sophisticated composites and alloys, the demand for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis wood products continues unabated. Helping to meet this demand are production and precision woodworkers. Production woodworkers can be found in primary industries, such as sawmills and plywood mills, as well as in secondary industries that manufacture furniture, kitchen cabinets, musical instruments, and other fabricated wood products. Precision woodworkers, on the other hand, usually work in Production Occupations 437 small shops that make architectural woodwork, furniture, and many other specialty items. Woodworkers are employed at some stage of the process through which logs of wood are transformed into finished products. Some of these workers produce the structural elements of buildings; others mill hardwood and softwood lumber; still others assemble finished wood products. They operate machines that cut, shape, assemble, and finish raw wood to make the doors, windows, cabinets, trusses, plywood, flooring, paneling, molding, and trim that are components of most homes. Others may fashion home accessories such as beds, sofas, tables, dressers, and chairs. In addition to these household goods, they also make sporting goods, including baseball bats, rac quets, and oars, as well as musical instruments, toys, caskets, tool handles, and thousands of other wooden items. Production workers usually set up, operate, and tend woodwork ing machines—such as power saws, planers, sanders, lathes, jointers, and routers—to cut and shape components from lumber, plywood, and other wood panel products. Working from blueprints, instruc tions from supervisors, or shop drawings that they produce, wood workers determine the method of shaping and sequence of assembling parts. Before cutting, they must often measure and mark the materials to be cut. They verify dimensions to adhere to specifi cations and may trim parts to insure a tight fit, using handtools such as planes, chisels, wood files, or sandpaper. Most production woodworkers operate a specific woodworking machine, but others are responsible for a variety of machines. Lower skilled operators may merely press a switch on a woodworking machine and monitor the automatic operation, while more highly skilled operators set up their equipment, cut and shape wooden parts, and verify dimensions using a template, caliper, or rule. In sawmills, machine operators cut logs into planks, timbers, or boards. In veneer mills, they cut veneer sheets from logs for making plywood. While in furniture plants, they make furniture components such as table legs, drawers, rails, and spindles. Many companies have installed computer-controlled machinery, which raises worker productivity and reduces wasted resources. With computerized numerical controls, an operator can program a machine to perform a sequence of operations automatically, resulting in greater precision and reliability. The integration of computers with equipment has improved production speeds and capabilities, simplified setup and maintenance requirements, and increased the demand for workers with some computer skills. Whether computer-controlled or manual equipment is used to machine the parts, the next step in the manufacturing process is the production of subassemblies using fasteners and adhesives. These pieces are then brought together to form a complete unit. The prod uct is then finish sanded, stained, and if necessary, coated with a sealer such as lacquer or varnish. Woodworkers may perform this work in teams or be assisted by a helper. Precision or custom woodworkers, such as cabinetmakers, model makers, wood machinists, and furniture and wood finishers, work on a customized basis, often building one-of-a-kind items. For this reason, they normally need substantial training and an ability to work from detailed instructions and specifications. They often are required to exercise independent judgment when undertaking an assignment. Precision woodworkers generally perform a complete cycle of cut ting, shaping, surface preparation, and assembling prepared parts of complex wood components into a finished wood product. Working Conditions Working conditions vary from industry to industry, and job to job. In primary industries, such as logging and sawmilling, working condi tions are physically demanding due to the handling of heavy, bulky material. Workers in this area may also encounter excessive noise and dust and other air quality pollutants. However, these factors can be controlled by using earplugs and respirators. Rigid adherence to safety precautions minimizes risk of injury from contact with rough woodstock, sharp tools, and power equipment. The risk of injury is https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 0 4 - Woodworking requires skill and precision. also lowered by the installation of computer-controlled equipment that reduces the physical labor and the hands-on contact with the machine. In secondary industries, such as furniture and kitchen cabinet manufacturing, working conditions also depend on the industry and the particular job. Those employees who operate machinery must wear ear and eye protection, follow operating safety instructions, and use safety shields or guards when appropriate. Those who work in the finishing area must either be provided with an appropriate dust or vapor mask, a complete protective safety suit, or they must be in a finishing environment that removes all vapors and particle matter from the atmosphere. Prolonged standing, lifting, and fitting heavy objects are also common characteristics of the job. Employment Workers in woodworking occupations held about 367,000 jobs in 1994. Self-employed woodworkers, mostly cabinetmakers and furniture finishers, accounted for 50,000 of these jobs. Employment was distributed as follows: Woodworkers, precision..................................................................241,000 Woodworking machine setters and operators...................................126,000 Head sawyers.......................................................... Woodworking machine operators............................................. 64,000 Eighty percent of salaried woodworkers worked in manufacturing industries. Among these woodworkers, 31 percent were employed in 62 438 Occuptional Outlook Handbook establishments fabricating household and office furniture and fix tures; 24 percent were in establishments making millwork, plywood, and structural wood members, used primarily in construction; and 12 percent worked in sawmills and planing mills manufacturing a vari ety of raw, intermediate, and finished woodstock. Woodworkers also were employed by wholesale and retail lumber dealers, furniture stores, reupholstery and furniture repair shops, and construction firms. Woodworking jobs are found throughout the country. However, production jobs are concentrated in the South and Northwest, close to the supply of wood, while furniture makers are more prevalent in the East. Custom shops can be found everywhere, but are generally concentrated in or near highly populated areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most woodworkers are trained on the job, picking up skills infor mally from experienced workers. Some acquire skills through voca tional education or by working as carpenters on construction jobs. Others may attend colleges or universities that offer training in many areas including wood technology, furniture manufacturing, wood engineering, and production management. These programs prepare students for positions in production, supervision, engineering, or management. Beginners usually observe and help experienced machine opera tors. They may supply material or remove fabricated products from the machine. Trainees do simple machine operating jobs and are at first closely supervised by experienced workers. As they gain expe rience, they perform more complex jobs with less supervision. Some may leam to read blueprints, set up machines, and plan the sequence of their work. Most woodworkers leam the basic machine operations or job tasks in a few months, but becoming a skilled woodworker often requires 2 years or more. In the past, a high school education was seldom required. How ever, persons seeking woodworking jobs can enhance their employ ment and advancement prospects by completing high school. Training in mathematics, science, and computer applications will be beneficial in the future as woodworking technology becomes more sophisticated, and as more companies install computerized equip ment. Employers often look for individuals with mechanical ability, manual dexterity, and the ability to pay attention to detail. Advancement opportunities are often limited and depend upon availability, seniority, and a worker's skills and initiative. Experi enced woodworkers may become inspectors or supervisors responsi ble for the work of a group of woodworkers. Production workers can advance into these positions by assuming additional responsibilities and by attending workshops, seminars, or college programs. Those who are highly skilled may set up their own woodworking shops. Job Outlook Little change is expected in the employment of woodworkers through the year 2005, as growth among precision woodworkers will be offset by the declining employment of woodworking machine opera tors. As the Nation's population, personal income, and business expenditures grow, the demand for wood products will increase. In addition, the continuing need for repair and renovation of residential and commercial properties is expected to stimulate demand. Oppor tunities for woodworkers who specialize in such items as moldings, cabinets, stairs, and windows should, therefore, be particularly good. Several factors may limit the growth of woodworking occupations in coming years. Environmental measures designed to control vari ous pollutants used in or generated by woodworking processes are https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis likely to have a significant impact on employment, especially in secondary industries. Primary industries will be more affected by a shortage of timber as the harvesting of old growth forests on Federal lands becomes more restricted. Technological advances like com puterized numerical control machinery and robots will prevent employment from rising as fast as the demand for wood products, particularly in the mills and manufacturing plants where many of the processes can be automated. In addition, some jobs will be lost in the United States as imports continue to grow and as U.S. firms move production to other countries. Finally, materials such as metal, plastic, and fiberglass will continue to be used as alternatives to wood in many products, primarily because they are cheaper, stronger, or easier to shape. As a result of these trends, employment opportunities in the primary wood industries may be more limited than those in the secondary industries. Also, as firms automate production, the de mand for highly skilled workers will increase. Employment in all of the woodworking occupations is highly sensitive to economic cycles, so the growth in these occupations will be primarily affected by the overall state of the economy. Although this growth will be modest, thousands of openings will arise each year because of the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Earnings Median weekly earnings for salaried full-time precision woodwork ers were about $390 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $280 and $510. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $230, while the highest 10 percent earned over $650. Median weekly earnings for full-time woodworking machine operators were around $310 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $250 and $420. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $200, while the highest 10 percent earned over $525. Earnings vary by industry, geographic region, skill, educational level, and complexity of the machinery operated. Woodworkers usually receive a basic benefit package including medical and dental benefits and a pension plan. Some woodworkers, such as those in logging or sawmills, who are engaged in processing primary wood and building materials, are members of the International Association of Machinists. Others may belong to the United Furniture Workers of America or the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America. Related Occupations Many woodworkers follow blueprints and drawings and use ma chines to shape and form raw wood into a final product. Workers who perform similar functions working with other materials include precision metalworkers, metalworking and plastics-working machine operators, metal fabricators, molders and shapers, and leather work ers. Sources of Additional Information For information about woodworking occupations, contact local furniture manufacturers, sawmills and planing mills, cabinetmaking or millwork firms, lumber dealers, a local of one of the unions men tioned above, or the nearest office of the State employment service. For general information about furniture woodworking occupa tions, contact: •"American Furniture Manufacturers Association, Manufacturing Services Division, P.O. Box HP-7, High Point, NC 27261. Miscellaneous Production Occupations Dental Laboratory Technicians (D.O.T. 712.381-014, -018, -022, -026, -030, -042, -046, and -050 .664-010) Nature of the Work Dental laboratory technicians fill prescriptions from dentists for crowns, bridges, dentures, and other dental prosthetics. Dentists send a specification of the item to be fabricated along with an impression (mold) of the patient's mouth or teeth to the technicians. Then dental laboratory technicians, also called dental technicians, create a model of the patient's mouth by pouring plaster into the impression and allowing it to set. They place the model on an apparatus which mimics the bite and movement of the patient's jaw. The model serves as the basis of the prosthetic device. Technicians examine the model, noting the size and shape of the adjacent teeth or gaps within the gumline. Based upon these observations and the dentist's specifi cations, technicians build and shape a wax tooth or teeth using small hand instruments called wax spatulas and wax carvers. They use this wax model to cast the metal framework for the prosthetic device. Once the wax tooth has been formed, dental technicians pour the cast and form the metal. Using small hand-held tools, they prepare the surface of the metal to allow the metal and porcelain to bond. They apply porcelain in layers to arrive at the precise shape and color of a tooth. Technicians place the tooth in a porcelain furnace to bake the porcelain onto the metal framework, then adjust the shape and color with subsequent grinding and addition of porcelain to achieve a sealed finish. The final product is an exact replica of the lost tooth or teeth. In some laboratories, technicians perform all stages of the work, while in others, each does only a few. Dental laboratory technicians also may specialize in one of five areas: Orthodontic appliances, crown and bridge, complete dentures, partial dentures, or ceramics. Job titles may reflect specialization in these areas. For example, technicians who make porcelain and acrylic restorations are called dental ceramists. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most dental laboratory technicians learn their craft on the job. They begin with simple tasks, such as pouring plaster into an impression, and progress to more complex procedures, such as making porcelain crowns and bridges. Becoming a fully trained technician requires an average of 3 to 4 years depending upon the individual's aptitude and ambition, but it may take a few more years to become an accom plished technician. Training in dental laboratory technology is also available through community and junior colleges, vocational-technical institutes, and the Armed Forces. Formal training programs vary greatly both in length and the level of skill they impart. In 1995, 37 programs in dental laboratory technology were ap proved (accredited) by the Commission on Dental Accreditation in conjunction with the American Dental Association (ADA). These programs provide classroom instruction in dental materials science, oral anatomy, fabrication procedures, ethics, and related subjects. In addition, each student is given supervised practical experience in the school or an associated dental laboratory. Accredited programs generally take 2 years to complete and lead to an associate degree. Working Conditions Dental laboratory technicians generally work in clean, well-lighted, and well-ventilated areas. Technicians usually have their own work benches, which may be equipped with Bunsen burners, grinding and polishing equipment, and hand instruments, such as wax spatulas and wax carvers. The work is extremely delicate and quite time consuming. Sala ried technicians usually work 40 hours a week, but self-employed technicians frequently work longer hours. Employment Dental laboratory technicians held about 49,000 jobs in 1994. Most jobs were in commercial dental laboratories, which usually are small, privately owned businesses with fewer than five employees. How ever, some laboratories are larger; a few employ over 50 technicians. Some dental laboratory technicians worked in dentists' offices. Others worked for hospitals that provide dental services, including Department of Veterans Affairs hospitals. Some technicians work in dental laboratories in their homes, in addition to their regular job. Approximately 1 technician in 7 is self-employed, a higher propor tion than in most other occupations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Dental laboratory technicians' earnings rise substantially with experience. 439 440 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Graduates of 2-year training programs need additional hands-on experience to become fully qualified. Each dental laboratory owner operates in a different way, and classroom instruction does not necessarily expose students to techniques and procedures favored by individual laboratory owners. Students who have taken enough courses to learn the basics of the craft generally are considered good candidates for training, regardless of whether they have completed the formal program. Many employers will train someone without any classroom experience. Certification, which is voluntary, is offered by the National Board for Certification in five specialty areas: Crown and bridge, ceramics, partial dentures, complete dentures, and orthodontic appliances. In larger dental laboratories, technicians may become supervisors or managers. Experienced technicians may teach or take jobs with dental suppliers in such areas as product development, marketing, or sales. Still, for most technicians, opening one's own laboratory is the way toward advancement and higher earnings. A high degree of manual dexterity, good vision, and the ability to recognize very fine color shadings and variations in shape are neces sary. An aptitude for detailed and precise work also is important. Useful high school courses are art, metal and wood shop, drafting, and sciences. Courses in management and business may help those wishing to operate their own laboratories. Job Outlook Job opportunities for dental laboratory technicians should be favor able despite the absence of growth in the occupation. Employers have difficulty filling trainee positions, probably because of rela tively low entry-level salaries and lack of familiarity with the occu pation. Also, experienced technicians who have built up a favorable reputation with dentists should have good opportunities for establish ing laboratories of their own. * Although job opportunities are favorable, employment of dental laboratory technicians is expected to decline through the year 2005, due to changes in dental care. The fluoridation of drinking water, which has reduced the incidence of dental cavities, and greater emphasis on preventive dental care since the early-1960s have im proved the overall dental health of the population. As a result, people are keeping their teeth longer. Instead of full or partial den tures, most people will need a bridge or crown. Office-based, computer-aided equipment, designed to measure a patient's mouth and fabricate the required prosthetic device, is cur rently under development and is beginning to come into use in this country after years of testing in Europe. While not replacing the technicians completely, such equipment, when and if it comes into widespread use in this country, could reduce the amount of time required to produce dental prosthetics and, therefore, the demand for dental laboratory technicians. Earnings The annual wage for all workers in dental laboratories was $22,269 in 1993. According to limited data, trainees in dental laboratories average only a little over minimum wage. However, earnings rise sharply with experience. In general, earnings of self-employed technicians exceed those of salaried workers. Technicians in large laboratories tend to specialize in a few procedures, and therefore tend to be paid a lower wage than those employed in small laboratories who perform a variety of tasks. Related Occupations Dental laboratory technicians fabricate artificial teeth, crowns and bridges, and orthodontic appliances following the specifications and instructions provided by dentists. Other workers who make medical devices include arch-support technicians, orthotics tech nicians (braces and surgical supports), prosthetics technicians (artificial limbs and appliances), opticians, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information For information about training and a list of approved schools, contact: •"Commission on Dental Accreditation, American Dental Association, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, 1L 60611. General information on grants and scholarships is available from dental technology schools. For information on career opportunities in commercial laborato ries, contact: •"National Association of Dental Laboratories, 3801 Mt. Vernon Ave., Alexandria, VA 22305. For information on requirements for certification, contact: •"National Board for Certification in Dental Technology, 3801 Mt. Vernon Ave., Alexandria, VA 22305. Ophthalmic Laboratory Technicians (DOT 711.381-010; 713.381-010, .681-010; 716.280-010, -014, and -018, 381-014, .382-010, -014, -018, and -022, .462-010, .681-010,-014, and -018, 682-014’ and -018) Nature of the Work Ophthalmic laboratory technicians—also known as manufacturing opticians, optical mechanics, or optical goods workers—make pre scription eyeglass lenses. Prescription lenses are curved in such a way that light is correctly focused onto the retina of the patient's eye, improving vision. Some ophthalmic laboratory technicians manufac ture lenses for other optical instruments, such as telescopes and binoculars. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians cut, grind, edge, and finish lenses according to specifications provided by dispensing opticians, optometrists, or ophthalmologists, and may insert lenses into frames to produce finished glasses. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians should not be confused with workers in other vision care occupations. Ophthalmologists and optometrists are "eye doctors" who examine eyes, diagnose and treat vision problems, and prescribe corrective lenses. Ophthalmologists also perform eye surgery. Dispensing opticians, who may also do work described here, help patients select frames and lenses, and adjust finished eyeglasses. (See the statement on physicians, which includes ophthalmologists, and the statements on optometrists and dispensing opticians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Ophthalmic laboratory technicians read prescription specifica tions, then select standard glass or plastic lens blanks and mark them to indicate where the curves specified on the prescription should be ground. They place the lens into the lens grinder, set the dials for the prescribed curvature, and start the machine. After a minute or so, the lens is ready to be "finished" by a machine which rotates the lens against a fine abrasive to grind it and smooth out rough edges. The lens is then placed in a polishing machine with an even finer abra sive, to polish it to a smooth, bright finish. Next, the technician examines the lens through a lensometer, an instrument similar in shape to a microscope, and makes sure the degree and placement of the curve is correct. The technician then cuts the lenses and bevels the edges to fit the frame, dips each lens into dye if the prescription calls for tinted or coated lenses, polishes the edges, and assembles the lenses and frame parts into a finished pair of glasses. In small laboratories, technicians generally handle every phase of the operation. In large ones, technicians may specialize in one or more steps, assembly-line style. Working Conditions Ophthalmic laboratory technicians work in relatively clean and welllighted laboratories and have limited contact with the public. Sur roundings are relatively quiet despite the humming of machines. At Production Occupations 441 individual s aptitude, it may take 6 to 18 months to become proficient in all phases of the work. Some ophthalmic laboratory technicians learn their trade in the Armed Forces. Others attend the few programs in optical technology offered by vocational-technical institutes or trade schools. These programs have classes in optical theory, surfacing and lens finishing, and the reading and applying of prescriptions. Programs vary in length from 6 months to 1 year, and award certificates or diplomas. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians can become supervisors and managers. Some technicians become dispensing opticians, although further education or training may be required. Job Outlook Employment of ophthalmic laboratory technicians is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 due to rising demand for corrective lenses. Nonetheless, most job openings will come from the need to replace technicians who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Relatively few opportunities will occur in any year because the occupation is small. Demographic trends make it likely that many more Americans will wear glasses in the years ahead. Not only will the population grow, but the number of middle-aged and older adults will grow particularly rapidly. Middle age is a time when many people use corrective lenses for the first time, and older persons require appre ciably more vision care than the rest of the population. The public's heightened awareness of vision care should also increase demand for corrective lenses. The emergence of eyewear as a fashion item—eyewear now comes in an assortment of attractive shapes and colors—has been enticing many people to purchase two or three pair of glasses rather than just one. Most new jobs for ophthalmic laboratory technicians will be in retail optical chains that manufacture prescription glasses on the premises and provide fast service. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians work in clean, well-lighted laboratories and have limited contact with the public. times, technicians may need to wear goggles to protect their eyes, and may spend a great deal of time standing. Most ophthalmic laboratory technicians work a 5-day, 40-hour week, which may include weekends, evenings, or occasionally, some overtime. Some work part time. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians need to take precautions against the hazards associated with cutting glass, handling chemicals, and working near machinery. Employment Ophthalmic laboratory technicians held about 19,000 jobs in 1994. More than half of these jobs were in optical laboratories. These laboratories manufacture eyewear for dispensing by retail stores that sell but do not fabricate prescription glasses, and by ophthalmologists and optometrists. Most of the rest were in retail stores that manufac ture and sell prescription glasses—primarily chains of optical goods stores or independent retailers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Nearly all ophthalmic laboratory technicians learn their skills on the job. Employers filling trainee jobs prefer applicants who are high school graduates. Courses in science and mathematics are valuable; manual dexterity and the ability to do precision work is essential. Technician trainees start on simple tasks such as marking or blocking lenses for grinding, then progress to lens grinding, lens cutting, edging, beveling, and eyeglass assembly. Depending on the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings Earnings vary greatly according to geographical region. According to the Opticians Association of America, the beginning average salary for laboratory technicians in retail optical stores was $14,185 in 1994. Those with 3 to 5 years of experience averaged $17,913; 6 to 10 years, $22,873; and 11 years or more, $23,980. Trainees may start at the minimum wage. Related Occupations Workers in other precision production occupations include biomedi cal equipment technicians, dental laboratory technicians, orthodontic technicians, orthotics technicians, prosthetics technicians, and in strument repairers. Sources of Additional Information For general information about a career as an ophthalmic laboratory technician and for a list of accredited programs in ophthalmic labora tory technology, contact: •■Commission on Opticianry Accreditation, 10111 Martin Luther King, Jr. Hwy., Suite 100, Bowie, MD 20720-4299. Painting and Coating Machine Operators (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 478.) Nature of the Work Paints and coatings are an important part of most products. In manu facturing, everything from cars to candy is covered by either paint, 442 Occuptional Outlook Handbook plastic, varnish, chocolate, or some special coating solution. Often the paints and coatings are merely intended to enhance the products' appeal to consumers, as with the chocolate coating on candy. More often, however, the protection provided by the paint or coating is essential to the product, as with the coating of insulating material covering wires and other electrical and electronic components. Many paints and coatings have dual purposes, such as the paint finish on an automobile, which heightens the visual appearance of the vehicle while providing protection from corrosion. Painting and coating machine operators control the machinery and equipment that applies these paints and coatings to a wide range of manufactured products. These workers use several basic methods to apply paints and coatings to manufactured articles. For example, dippers immerse racks or baskets of articles in vats of paint, liquid plastic, or other solutions using a power hoist. Tumbling barrel painters deposit articles of porous materials in a barrel of paint, varnish, or other coating, which is then rotated to insure thorough coverage. Commonly, paints and coatings are applied by spraying the article with a solution. Spray-machine operators use spray guns to coat metal, wood, ceramic, fabric, paper, and food products with paint and other coating solutions. Following a formula, operators fill the equipment's tanks with a mixture of paints or chemicals, adding prescribed amounts or proportions. They screw nozzles onto the spray guns and adjust them to obtain the proper dispersion of the spray, and hold or position the guns to direct the spray onto the article. The pressure of the spray is regulated by adjusting valves. Operators check the flow and viscosity of the paint or solution and visually inspect the quality of the coating. They may also regulate the temperature and air circulation in drying ovens. In response to concerns about air pollution and worker safety, manufacturers are increasingly using new types of paints and coat ings on their products instead of high-solvent paints. Water-based paints and powder coatings are two of the most common. These compounds do not emit as many volatile organic compounds into the air and can be applied to a wide variety of products. Powder coatings are sprayed much like liquid paints and heated to melt and cure the coating. The switch to new types of paints is often accompanied by a conversion to newer, more automated painting equipment that the operator sets and monitors. Operators position the automatic spray guns, set the nozzles, and synchronize the action of the guns with the speed of the conveyor carrying articles through the machine and drying ovens. The operator may also add solvents or water to the paint vessel that prepares the paint for application. During operation, the operator attends the painting machine, observes gauges on the control panel and randomly checks articles for evidence of any variation of the coating from specifications. The operator then "touches up" spots where necessary, using a spray gun. Painting and coating machine operators use various types of spray machines to coat a wide range of products. Often their job title reflects the specialized nature of the machine or the coating being applied. For example, paper coating machine operators spray "size" on rolls of paper to give it its gloss or finish. Silvering applicators spray silver, tin, and copper solutions on glass in the manufacture of mirrors. Enrobing machine operators coat, or "enrobe," confection ery, bakery, and other food products with melted chocolate, cheese, oils, sugar, or other substances. Although the majority of painting and coating machine operators are employed in manufacturing, the best known group of them work in automotive body repair and paint shops refinishing old and dam aged cars, trucks, and buses. Automotive painters are among the most highly skilled manual spray operators because they often have to mix paint to match the original color, which can be very difficult, particularly if the color has faded. To prepare a vehicle for painting, automotive painters or their helpers use power sanders and sandpaper to remove the original paint or rust, and then fill small dents and scratches with body filler. They https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis also remove or mask parts they do not want painted, such as chrome trim, headlights, windows, and mirrors. Automotive painters use a spray gun to apply several coats of paint. They apply lacquer, enamel, or water-based primers to vehicles with metal bodies, and flexible primers to newer vehicles with plastic body parts. Control ling the spray gun by hand, they apply successive coats until the finish of the repaired sections of the vehicle matches that of the original undamaged portions. To speed drying between coats, they may place the freshly painted vehicle under heat lamps or in a special infrared oven. After each coat of primer dries, they sand the surface to remove any irregularities and to improve the adhesion of the next coat. Final sanding of the primers may be done by hand with a fine grade of sandpaper. A sealer is then applied and allowed to dry, followed by the final topcoat. When lacquer is used, painters or their helpers usually polish the finished surface after the final coat has dried; enamel dries to a high gloss and usually is not polished. Working Conditions Painting and coating machine operators work indoors and may be exposed to dangerous fumes from paint and coating solutions. Many operators wear masks or respirators that cover their nose and mouth, and painting is usually done in special ventilated booths that protect the operators from these hazards. The Clean Air Act of 1990 has led to a decrease in workers’ exposure to hazardous chemicals by regulat ing emissions of volatile organic compounds from paints and other chemicals. Operators have to stand for long periods of time and, when using a spray gun, they may have to bend, stoop, or crouch in uncomfort able positions to reach all parts of the article. Most operators work a normal 40-hour week, but self-employed automotive painters some times work more than 50 hours a week, depending on the number of vehicles customers bring in to be repainted. Employment Painting and coating machine operators held about 155,000 jobs in 1994. Eighty percent worked in manufacturing establishments—in the production of fabricated metal products, motor vehicles and related equipment, industrial machines, household and office furni ture, and plastics, wood, and paper products, for example. Other workers included automotive painters employed by independent automotive repair shops and body repair and paint shops operated by retail automotive dealers. Five percent of painting and coating machine operators were self-employed; most of these were automo tive painters. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most painting and coating machine operators acquire their skills on the job, usually by watching and helping experienced operators. For most operators, training lasts from a few days to several months. However, becoming skilled in all aspects of automotive painting usually requires 1 to 2 years of on-the-job training. Most automotive painters start as helpers and gain their skills informally by working with experienced painters. Beginning helpers usually remove trim, clean and sand surfaces to be painted, mask surfaces that they do not want painted, and polish finished work. As helpers gain experience, they progress to more complicated tasks, such as mixing paint to achieve a good match and using spray guns to apply primer coats or final coats to small areas. Painters should have keen eyesight and a good color sense. Completion of high school is generally not required but is advan tageous. Additional instruction is offered at many community col leges and vocational or technical schools. Such programs enhance one's employment prospects and can speed promotion to the next level. Production Occupations 443 Employment of these workers in the auto repair industry will grow slowly, as the improved quality of car finishes and the increas ing use of nonrusting alloys slow the growth in demand for refin ishing services. The employment outlook for skilled automotive painters, however, should remain bright. The number of job openings for painting and coating machine operators may fluctuate from year to year due to cyclical changes in economic conditions. When demand for manufactured goods slack ens, production may be suspended or reduced, and workers may be laid off or face a shortened workweek. Automotive painters, on the other hand, can expect relatively steady work because automobiles damaged in accidents require repair and refinishing regardless of the state of the economy. Painters wear protective equipment when using spray guns. Some employers sponsor training programs to help their workers become more productive. This training is available from manufac turers of chemicals, paints, or equipment or from other private sources. It may include safety and quality tips and knowledge of products, equipment, and general business practices. Some automo tive painters are sent to technical schools to learn the intricacies of mixing and applying different types of paint. Voluntary certification by ASE (the National Institute for Auto motive Service Excellence) is recognized as the standard of achievement for automotive painters. For certification, painters must pass a written examination and have at least 2 years of experience in the field. High school, trade or vocational school, or community or junior college training in automotive painting and refinishing may substitute for up to 1 year of experience. To retain certification, painters must retake the examination at least every 5 years. Experienced painting and coating machine operators with leader ship ability may advance to supervisory jobs. Those who acquire practical experience or college or other formal training may become sales or technical representatives to large customers or for chemical or paint companies. Some automotive painters open their own shops. Job Outlook Little change is expected in the employment of painting and coating machine operators through the year 2005, as technological improve ments enable these operators to work more productively. Neverthe less, several thousand jobs will become available each year as employers replace experienced operators who transfer to other occu pations or leave the labor force. In manufacturing, employment of painting and coating machine operators is expected to decline, reflecting the increasing automation of paint and coating application. Improvements in the capabilities of industrial robots allow them to move and aim spray guns more like humans. As the cost of these machines continues to fall, they will be more widely used. The Clean Air Act of 1990, which sets limits on the emissions of ozone-forming volatile organic compounds, also is reducing the demand for operators in manufacturing. As firms switch to water-based and powder coatings to comply with the law, many are upgrading their equipment to increase the efficiency of the painting process. In fact, the powder coating process alone is much more efficient for work on assembly lines than liquid sprays because no drying time is required between coats and fewer operators are needed for touch-up painting. The expected employment decline resulting from these trends will be moderated, however, as painting and coating machine operators assume emissions monitoring and recording responsibilities. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings Painting and coating machine operators who usually worked full time had median weekly earnings of $370 in 1994. The middle 50 percent had usual weekly earnings between $280 and $560, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $750 weekly. Beginning automotive painter apprentices usually start at about half the hourly rate of fully qualified painters. As they progress, their wages gradually approach those of experienced automotive painters. Helpers start at lower wage rates than beginning apprentices. Many automotive painters employed by automobile dealers and independent repair shops receive a commission based on the labor cost charged to the customer. Under this method, earnings depend largely on the amount of work a painter does and how fast it is completed. Employers frequently guarantee commissioned painters a minimum weekly salary. Helpers and apprentices usually receive an hourly rate until they become sufficiently skilled to work on a com mission basis. Trucking companies, bus lines, and other organiza tions that repair their own vehicles usually pay by the hour. Many painting and coating machine operators belong to unions, including the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Sheet Metal Work ers' International Association; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Most union operators work for manufacturers and the larger automobile dealers. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers apply paints and coatings in clude construction and maintenance painters, electrolytic metal platers, and hand painting, coating, and decorating occupations. Sources of Additional Information For more details about work opportunities, contact local manufactur ers, automotive-body repair shops, automotive dealers, and voca tional schools; locals of the unions previously mentioned; or the local office of the State employment service. The State employment service also may be a source of information about training programs. For general information about a career as an automotive painter, write to: •■Automotive Service Industry Association, 25 Northwest Point, Suite 425, Elk Grove Village, IL 60007-1035. •■Automotive Service Association, Inc., P.O. Box 929, Bedford, TX 76021 0929. Information on how to become a certified automotive painter is available from: •■National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE), 13505 Dulles Technology Dr., Herndon, VA 22071-3415. 444 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Photographic Process Workers (D O.T. 962.361; 970.281-010 and -018, .381-010 and -034; 972.384-014; 976.361, .380-010, .381-010, -018, and -022, .382-010, -018, -022, -030, and -038, .384-010 and -014, .385, .665, .681, .682-010, -014, -018, and -022, .684-014, and -030, .685-014, -018, -022, -026, -030, -034, and -038; 979.384) Nature of the Work Most photographers, both amateur and professional, rely on photo processing workers to develop their film, make prints or slides, and do related tasks such as enlarging or retouching photographs. Photo graphic processing machine operators and tenders operate various machines, such as motion picture film printing machines, photo graphic printing machines, film developing machines, and mounting presses. Precision photographic process workers perform more delicate tasks, such as retouching photographic negatives and prints to emphasize or correct specific features. They may restore damaged and faded photographs, and may color or shade drawings to create photographic likenesses using an airbrush. They also may color photographs, using oil colors to produce natural, lifelike appearances according to specifications. The following jobs are examples of the work that machine opera tors perform. Film process technicians develop exposed photo graphic film or sensitized paper in a series of chemical and water baths to produce negative or positive images. They first mix the developing and fixing solutions, following a formula. They then immerse the exposed film in a developer solution to bring out the latent image, immerse the negative in stop-bath to halt the developer action, immerse it in hyposolution to fix the image, and finally immerse it in water to remove chemicals. The worker then dries the films. In some cases, these steps may be performed by hand. Color printer operators control equipment which produces color prints from the negatives. They read customer instructions to deter mine processing requirements. They load the rolls into color printing equipment, examine the negatives to determine equipment control settings, set the controls, and produce a specified number of prints. They inspect the finished prints for defects, and remove any that are found, finally inserting the processed negatives and prints into an envelope for return to the customer. Paper process technicians develop strips of exposed photographic paper; takedown sorters sort processed film; and automatic mounters operate equipment that cuts and mounts slide film into individual transparencies. Precision photographic process workers, also known as digital imaging technicians, may take a conventional negative and, using a computer, vary the contrast of images, remove unwanted back ground, or even combine features from several different photographs. Precision photographic process workers in portrait studios, on the other hand, deal in very high volume, and tend to work directly on the photo negative, rather than on a computer. These workers include airbrush artists, who restore damaged and faded photographs; photo graphic retouchers, who alter photographic negatives and prints to accentuate the subject; colorists, who apply oil colors to portrait photographs to create natural, lifelike appearances; and photographic spotters, who spot out imperfections on photographic prints. Working Conditions In recent years, more commercial photographic processing has been done on computers than in darkrooms, and this trend is expected to continue. Work generally is performed in clean, appropriately lighted, well-ventilated, and air-conditioned offices, photofinishing laboratories, or 1-hour minilabs. At peak times, portrait studios hire individuals who work at home retouching negatives. Photographic process machine operators must do repetitious work at a rapid pace without any loss of accuracy. Precision process https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis .. Photo processing has become a largely automated process that requires skilled operators. workers do detailed tasks, such as airbrushing and spotting, which may contribute to eye fatigue. Some photographic process workers are continuously exposed to the chemicals and fumes associated with developing and printing. These workers must wear rubber gloves and aprons and take precau tions against chemical hazards. Many photo laboratory employees work a 40-hour week, includ ing weekends, and may work overtime during peak seasons. Employment Photographic process workers held about 57,000 jobs in 1994. Photofinishing laboratories and 1 -hour minilabs employed about twothirds. About 3 out of 10 worked for portrait studios and commercial laboratories that specialize in processing the work of professional photographers for advertising and other industries. Employment fluctuates over the course of the year; peak periods include school graduation, summer vacation, and Christmas time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most photographic process machine operators receive on-the-job training from manufacturers’ representatives, company management, and more experienced workers. New employees gradually learn to use the machines and chemicals that develop and print film. Employers prefer applicants who are high school graduates or those who have some experience or knowledge in the field. As preparation for precision work, proficiency in mathematics, art, Production Occupations 445 chemistry, and computer science, as well as photography courses that include instruction in film processing are valuable. Such courses are available through high schools, vocational-technical institutes, pri vate trade schools, and colleges and universities. On-the-job training in photographic processing occupations can range from just a few hours for print machine operators to years for precision workers like airbrush artists, spotters, and negative re touchers. Some workers attend periodic training seminars to main tain a high level of skill. Manual dexterity, good hand-eye coordination, and good vision, including normal color perception, are important qualifications for precision photographic process workers. They must be comfortable with computers and able to adapt to technological advances. Photographic process machine workers can advance from jobs as machine operators to supervisory positions in laboratories. Precision photographic process workers generally earn more as their skill level and the complexity of tasks they can perform increases. Job Outlook Employment of photographic process workers is expected to in crease about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Most openings will result from replacement needs, which tend to be higher for machine operators than for precision process workers. Digital cameras, which use electronic memory rather than a film negative to record the image, are now available. However, these cameras are much more expensive than conventional cameras, and generally are not capable of producing an equally sharp image. Also, traditional photo development will coexist, rather than compete directly, with electronic photography for many years. As this tech nology improves and the prices decline, photographic process ma chine operators may be displaced. Technological change is unlikely to affect demand for precision photographic process workers because the adjustments they make to https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis pictures need to be done to digital images as well as to negatives. No matter what improvements occur in camera technology, there always will be some images which require precise manipulation. Because photographic processing services are luxuries for most consumers, the number of job openings decreases during recessions. Earnings Earnings of photographic process workers vary greatly depending on skill level, experience, and geographic location. Median earnings for full-time photographic process workers in 1994 were about $327 a week. The middle 50 percent earned between $245 and $469 a week. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $201 a week while the highest 10 percent earned more than $611. Related Occupations Precision photographic process workers need a specialized knowl edge of the photodeveloping process. Other workers who apply specialized technical knowledge include chemical laboratory techni cians, crime laboratory analysts, food testers, medical laboratory assistants, metallurgical technicians, quality control technicians, engravers, and some of the printing occupations, such as photolitho grapher. Photographic process machine operators perform work similar to that of other machine operators, such as computer and peripheral equipment operators and printing press operators. Sources of Additional Information For information about employment opportunities in photographic laboratories and schools that offer degrees in photographic technol ogy, write to: •“Photo Marketing Association International, 3000 Picture Place Jackson MI 49201. Transportation and Material Moving Occupations Busdrivers (D.O.T. 913.363, .463-010, and .663-014 and -018) Nature of the Work Busdrivers provide transportation for millions of Americans every day. Intercity busdrivers transport people between regions of a State or of the country; local transit busdrivers, within a metropolitan area or county; and school busdrivers, to and from schools and related events. They follow time schedules and routes over highways and city and suburban streets to provide passengers with an alternative to the automobile and other forms of transportation. Intercity busdrivers and local transit busdrivers report to their assigned terminal or garage, where they receive tickets and transfers and prepare trip report forms. School busdrivers do not always have to report to an assigned terminal or garage. Instead, school busdriv ers often have the choice of taking their bus home, or parking it in another more convenient area. Before beginning their routes, drivers check their vehicle's tires, brakes, windshield wipers, lights, oil, fuel, water, and safety equipment, such as fire extinguishers, first aid kits, and emergency reflectors. Drivers pick up and discharge passengers at bus stops or stations, or, in the case of students, at comers or in front of houses. Intercity and local transit busdrivers collect fares; answer questions about schedules, routes, and transfer points; and sometimes announce stops. School busdrivers do not collect fares. Instead, they prepare weekly reports with the number of students, trips or runs, work hours, and miles and the amount of fuel consumption. Time schedules and routes are set by their supervisors. Busdrivers’ days are run by the clock, as they must adhere to schedules. Drivers must operate safely, especially when traffic is heavier than normal. However, they cannot let light traffic put them ahead of schedule so that they miss passengers. Busdrivers must be alert to prevent accidents, especially in heavy traffic or in bad weather, and to avoid sudden stops or swerves which jar passengers. School busdrivers must exercise particular caution when children are getting on or off the bus. They must know and reinforce the same set of rules used elsewhere in the school system. Bus routes vary. Local transit busdrivers may make several trips each day over the same city and suburban streets, stopping as fre quently as every few blocks. School busdrivers also drive the same routes each day, stopping frequently to pick up pupils in the morning and return them to their homes in the afternoon. School busdrivers may also transport students and teachers on field trips or to sporting events. Intercity busdrivers may make only a single one-way trip to a distant city or a round trip each day, stopping at towns just a few miles apart or only at large cities hundreds of miles apart. Drivers who operate chartered buses pick up groups, take them to their destination, and generally remain with them until they return. Trips frequently last more than 1 day, and if they are assigned to a tour, they may be away for a week or more. Local transit busdrivers submit daily trip reports with a record of tickets and fares received, trips made, and significant delays in schedule, and report mechanical problems. All busdrivers must be able to fill out accident reports when necessary. Intercity drivers who drive across State or national boundaries must comply with U.S. 446 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Department of Transportation regulations. These include completing vehicle inspection reports and recording distances traveled and the periods of time they spend driving, performing other duties, and off duty. Working Conditions Driving a bus through heavy traffic while dealing with passengers is not physically strenuous, but it can be stressful and fatiguing. On the other hand, many drivers enjoy the opportunity to work without direct supervision, with full responsibility for the bus and passengers. Intercity busdrivers may work nights, weekends, and holidays and often spend nights away from home, where they stay at hotels at company expense. Senior drivers with regular routes have regular weekly work schedules, but others do not have regular schedules and must be prepared to report for work on short notice. They report for work only when called for a charter assignment or to drive extra 4 Wayne gSr--— ■l H Before beginning their routes, busdrivers check their vehicle's fuel, water, and oil levels. Transportation and Material Moving Occupations 447 buses on a regular route. Intercity bus travel and charter work tend to be seasonal. From May through August, drivers may work the maximum number of hours per week that regulations allow. During winter, junior drivers may work infrequently, except for busy holiday travel periods, and may be furloughed for periods of time. School busdrivers work only when school is in session. Many work 20 hours a week or less, driving one or two routes in the morn ing and afternoon. Drivers taking field or athletic trips or who also have midday kindergarten routes may work more hours a week. Regular local transit busdrivers usually have a 5-day workweek; Saturdays and Sundays are considered regular workdays. Some drivers work evenings and after midnight. To accommodate com muters, many work "split shifts," for example, 6 a.m. to 10 a.m. and 3 p.m. to 7 p.m., with time off in between. Employment Busdrivers held about 568,000 jobs in 1994. Over 40 percent worked part time. Nearly 3 out of 4 drivers worked for school systems or companies that provide school bus services under contract, as shown in the accompanying chart. Most of the remainder worked for pri vate and local government transit systems; some also worked for intercity and charter buslines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Busdriver qualifications and standards are established by State and Federal regulations. Federal regulations require drivers who operate vehicles designed to transport 16 or more passengers to obtain a commercial driver's license from the State in which they live. In order to be licensed, applicants for a commercial driver's license must take and pass a knowledge test and demonstrate that they have the skills necessary to operate a commercial motor vehicle safely. Applicants are also required to pass a behind-the-wheel road test in the type of vehicle that they will be operating. Trainees must be accompanied by another driver who has a commercial driver's license until they are issued their own commercial license. Most busdrivers operate school buses. Distribution of wage and salary employment, 1994 Intercity busdrivers Other busdrivers \ Local transit busdrivers https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis School busdrivers Interstate busdrivers must meet additional qualifications. For example, they must be at least 21 years old and pass a physical examination. State agencies and municipalities may also have addi tional requirements for drivers who operate within their jurisdictions. Drivers should be in good health and have at least 20/40 vision with or without glasses, good hearing, and normal use of their arms and legs. Many employers prefer high school graduates and require a physical examination and a written test of ability to follow complex bus schedules. Many intercity and public transit bus companies pre fer applicants who are at least 24 years of age; some require several years of bus or truck driving experience. Public transit and interstate busdrivers are also required to submit to drug and alcohol screening as a condition of employment. In some States, school busdrivers must pass a background investigation to uncover any criminal record or history of mental problems. Because busdrivers deal with passengers, they must be courteous. They need an even temperament and emotional stability because driving in heavy, fast-moving, or stop-and-go traffic and dealing with passengers can be stressful. Most intercity bus companies and local transit systems give driver trainees 2 to 8 weeks of classroom and "behind-the-wheel" instruc tion. In the classroom, trainees learn U.S. Department of Transpor tation and company work rules, safety regulations, State and municipal driving regulations, and safe driving practices. They also learn to read schedules, determine fares, keep records, and deal courteously with passengers. School busdrivers are also required to obtain a commercial driver s license from the State in which they live. Many persons who enter school busdriving have never driven any vehicle larger than an automobile. They receive between 1 and 4 weeks of driving instruc tion plus classroom training on State and local laws, regulations, and policies of operating school buses; safe driving practices; driverpupil relations; first aid; disabled student special needs; and emer gency evacuation procedures. During training, busdrivers practice driving on set courses. They practice turns and zigzag maneuvers, back up, and drive in narrow lanes. Then they drive in light traffic and, eventually, on congested highways and city streets. They also make trial runs, without pas sengers, to improve their driving skills and learn the routes. Local transit trainees memorize and drive each of the runs operating out of their assigned garage. New drivers begin with a "break-in" period. They make regularly scheduled trips with passengers, accompanied by an experienced driver who gives helpful tips, answers questions, and evaluates the new driver's performance. New intercity and local transit drivers usually are placed on an "extra” list to drive charter runs, extra buses on regular runs, and special runs (for example, during morning and evening rush hours and to sports events). They also substitute for regular drivers who are ill or on vacation. New drivers remain on the extra list, and may work only part time, perhaps for several years, until they have enough seniority to get a regular run. Senior drivers may bid for runs they prefer, such as those with more work hours, lighter traffic, weekends off, or, in the case of intercity busdrivers, higher earnings or fewer workdays per week. Opportunities for promotion generally are limited. However, ex perienced drivers may become supervisors or dispatchers, who assign buses to drivers, check whether drivers are on schedule, reroute buses to avoid blocked streets or other problems, and dispatch extra vehi cles and service crews to scenes of accidents and breakdowns. In transit agencies with rail systems, drivers may become train operators or station attendants. A few drivers become managers. Promotion in publicly owned bus systems is often by competitive civil service examination. Job Outlook Persons seeking jobs as busdrivers over the 1994-2005 period should encounter good opportunities. Opportunities should be best for individuals with good driving records who are willing to start on a 448 Occuptional Outlook Handbook part-time or irregular schedule, as well as for those seeking jobs as school busdrivers in metropolitan areas that are growing rapidly. Those seeking higher paying intercity and public transit busdriver positions may encounter competition. Employment of busdrivers is expected to increase about as fast as average for all occupations through the year 2005, primarily to meet the transportation needs of a growing school-age population. Thou sands of additional job openings are expected to occur each year because of the need to replace workers who take jobs in other occu pations, retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. School busdriving jobs should be easiest to get because most of these positions are part time and often have high turnover. The number of school busdrivers is expected to increase as a result of growth in elementary and secondary school enrollments. In addition, as more of the Nation's population is concentrated in suburban ar eas—where students generally ride school buses—and less in the central cities—where transportation is not provided for most pupils more school busdrivers will be needed. Employment of local transit and intercity drivers will grow as bus ridership increases. Local and intercity travel is expected to increase as the population and labor force grow and incomes rise, but most growth in intercity drivers will probably be in group charter travel, rather than scheduled intercity bus services, as more individual travelers opt to travel by airplane or automobile rather than by bus. There may continue to be competition for local transit and intercity busdriver jobs in some areas since many of these positions offer relatively high wages and attractive benefits. The most competitive positions will be those that offer regular hours and steady driving routes. Full-time busdrivers are rarely laid off during recessions. How ever, hours of part-time local transit and intercity busdrivers may be reduced if bus ridership decreases, because fewer extra buses would be needed. Seasonal layoffs are common. Many intercity busdrivers with little seniority, for example, are furloughed during the winter when regular schedule and charter business falls off; school busdriv ers seldom work during the summer or school holidays. Earnings Median weekly earnings of busdrivers who worked full time were $401 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between about $291 and $610 a week. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $227 a week, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $758 a week. In 1994, according to the American Public Transit Association, local transit busdrivers in metropolitan areas with more than 2 mil lion inhabitants were paid a median top hourly wage rate of $16.74 by companies with over 1,000 employees, and $14.39 by those with fewer than 1,000 employees. In smaller metropolitan areas, they had a median top hourly wage rate of $12.65 in areas with between 250,000 and 500,000 residents, and $10.96 in areas with populations below 50,000. Generally, drivers could reach the top rate in 3 or 4 years. Earnings of intercity busdrivers depend primarily on the number of miles they drive. According to limited information, in 1994 beginning intercity drivers worked about 6 months out of the year and earned about $22,000 while many senior drivers who worked year round earned more than $48,000. According to a survey by the Educational Research Service, the average rate for school busdrivers employed by public school sys tems was $10.35 an hour during the 1993-94 school year. Lowest hourly rates averaged $9.04 while highest hourly rate averaged $11.94. The fringe benefits that busdrivers receive from their employers vary greatly. Most intercity and local transit busdrivers receive paid health and life insurance, sick leave, and free bus rides on any of the regular routes of their line or system. Drivers who work full time also get as much as 4 weeks of vacation annually. Most local transit busdrivers are also covered by dental insurance and pension plans. School busdrivers get sick leave, and many are covered by health and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis life insurance and pension plans, but because they generally do not work when school is not in session, they do not get vacation leave. In a number of States, local transit and school busdrivers who are employed by local governments are covered by a State-wide public employee pension system. Most intercity and many local transit busdrivers are members of the Amalgamated Transit Union. Local transit busdrivers in New York and several other large cities belong to the Transport Workers Union of America. Some drivers belong to the United Transportation Union and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Related Occupations Other workers who drive vehicles on highways and city streets are taxi drivers, truckdrivers, and chauffeurs. Sources of Additional Information For further information on employment opportunities, contact local transit systems, intercity buslines, school systems, or the local offices of the State employment service. Information on school busdriving is available from: ••National School Transportation Association, P.O. Box 2639, Springfield, VA 22152. General information on local transit busdriving is available from: •-American Public Transit Association, 1201 New York Ave. NW„ Suite 400, Washington, DC 20005. Material Moving Equipment Operators (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 478.) Nature of the Work Material moving equipment operators use machinery to move con struction materials, manufactured goods, earth, logs, petroleum products, grain, coal, and other heavy materials. Generally they move materials over short distances—around a construction site, factory, warehouse, or on or off trucks and ships. Operators control equipment by moving levers or foot pedals, operating switches, or turning dials. They may also set up and inspect equipment and make adjustments and minor repairs. Material moving equipment operators usually are classified by the type of machines they operate. Those who operate bulldozers, cranes, loaders, and similar equipment are often called construction equipment operators even though they work in the mining, logging, utilities, and other industries as well as the construction industry. Others operate industrial trucks and tractors and similar equipment in manufacturing plants and warehouses. Some operate many kinds of equipment; others only one. Crane and tower operators lift and move materials, machinery, or other heavy objects using mechanical or hydraulic booms and tower and cable equipment. Although some cranes are used on construc tion sites, most are used in manufacturing and other industries. Excavation and loading machine operators run and tend machin ery equipped with scoops, shovels, or buckets to excavate earth at construction sites and to load and move loose materials, mainly in the construction and mining industries. Grader, dozer, and scraper operators remove, distribute, level, and grade earth with vehicles equipped with blades. In addition to the familiar bulldozers, they operate trench excavators, road graders, and similar equipment. Although many work in the construction industry, grader, dozer, and scraper operators also work for State and local governments, mainly in maintenance and repair work. Hoist and winch operators lift and pull loads by using poweroperated equipment. Most work in loading operations in construe- Transportation and Material Moving Occupations 449 tion, manufacturing, logging, transportation and public utilities, and mining. Operating engineers are qualified to operate more than one type of the construction equipment discussed above. Although the term operating engineer often is applied to many construction equipment operators, many work for State and local governments. Industrial truck and tractor operators drive and control industrial trucks or tractors. A typical industrial truck, often called a forklift or lift truck, has a hydraulic lifting mechanism and forks. Industrial truck operators use these to carry loads on a skid or pallet around a factory or warehouse. Industrial tractor operators pull trailers loaded with materials, goods, or equipment within factories and warehouses, or around outdoor storage areas. Other material moving equipment operators tend air compressors or pumps at construction sites. Some operate oil or natural gas pumps and compressors at oil and gas wells and on oil and gas pipelines, and others operate ship loading and unloading equipment, conveyors, hoists, and other kinds of specialized material handling equipment such as mine or railroad tank car unloading equipment. Material moving equipment operators may keep records of mate rials moved, and do some manual loading and unloading. They also may clean, fuel, and service their equipment. Working Conditions Many material moving equipment operators work outdoors, in hot and cold weather, and sometimes in rain or snow. Industrial truck and tractor operators work mainly indoors, in warehouses or manu facturing plants. Some machines, particularly bulldozers and scrap ers, are noisy and shake or jolt the operator. To avoid injury while operating an industrial truck, operators must take care to avoid roll overs, collisions, and other accidents as well as protect materials and equipment from damage. While operating a bulldozer, care must be taken to keep it from overturning on a steep slope. However, these jobs have become much safer with the adoption of overhead guards on forklift trucks and roll bars on construction machinery. As with most machinery, most accidents can be avoided when proper operat ing procedures and safety practices are observed. Employment Material moving equipment operators held nearly 1,061,000 jobs in 1994. They were distributed among the detailed occupations of this group as follows: fpfpii Many material moving equipment operators work outdoors, in hot and cold weather and sometimes in rain or snow. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Industrial truck and tractor operators.....................................................464,000 Operating engineers............................................................................... 146’()00 Grader, dozer, and scraper operators..................................................... 108,000 Excavation and loading machine operators.......................................... 88,000 Crane and tower operators.................................................................. 45 000 Hoist and winch operators............................................................ 9 000 All other material moving equipment operators.................................... 201,000 The largest proportion—one-third—of material moving equip ment operators worked in manufacturing; most of these were indus trial truck and tractor operators. More than one-fifth worked in the construction industry. Significant numbers also worked in State and local governments and in the trucking and warehousing, wholesale trade, and mining industries. A few material moving equipment operators were self-employed. Material moving equipment operators work in every section of the country. Some work in remote locations on large construction proj ects, such as highways and dams, or in factory or mining operations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Operation of material moving equipment is usually learned on the job. Operators need a good sense of balance, the ability to judge distance, and good eye-hand-foot coordination. Employers of mate rial moving equipment operators prefer to hire high school graduates, although, for some equipment, persons with less education may occasionally be accepted. Mechanical aptitude and high school training in automobile mechanics are helpful because workers may perform some maintenance on their machines. Experience operating mobile equipment, such as farm tractors or heavy equipment in the Armed Forces, is an asset. Beginning material moving equipment operators handle light equipment under the guidance of an experienced operator. Later, they may operate heavier equipment such as bulldozers and cranes. Some construction equipment operators, however, are trained in formal 3year apprenticeship programs administered by union-management committees of the International Union of Operating Engineers and the Associated General Contractors of America. Because apprentices learn to operate a wider variety of machines than other beginners, they usually have better job opportunities. Apprenticeship programs consist of at least 3 years or 6,000 hours of on-the-job training and 144 hours a year of related classroom instruction. Private vocational schools offer instruction in the operation of certain types of construction equipment. Completion of such a pro gram may help a person get a job as a trainee or apprentice. How ever, persons considering such training should check the reputation of the school among employers in the area. Job Outlook Employment of material moving equipment operators is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as equipment improvements, including the growing auto mation of material handling in factories and warehouses, make operators more productive. Opportunities for individuals who wish to become material mov ing equipment operators are related to the outlook of the industries in which they are employed. The majority of these workers are em ployed in construction and manufacturing industries; employment in construction is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations, while jobs in manufacturing are expected to decline. Despite the projected slow growth, this is a large occupation with many opportunities arising from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. However, both construction and manufacturing are very sensitive to changes in economic conditions, so the number of job openings for material moving equipment operators in these industries may fluctu ate widely from year to year. 450 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Excavation and loading machine operators is the only occupation in this group that is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations. Their growth is expected to stem from increased spending on improving the Nation's infrastructure of highways, bridges, and dams. The majority of excavation and loading machine operators work in mining and construction, the sector that constructs and maintains most of these facilities. Employment of crane and tower operators and hoist and winch operators is expected to decline as more precise computerized con trols and robotics allow many of these jobs to be automated. All of the remaining material moving equipment operating occupations are projected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations, including industrial truck and tractor operators, the largest occupa tion in the group. Growth of industrial truck and tractor operators—the largest occupation in this group—will be slower than average for all occu pations due to productivity increases resulting from improved ma neuverability and efficiency of industrial trucks and tractors. In addition, although the volume of goods to be moved will increase as the economy grows, fewer operator jobs will result as material han dling systems in large factories and warehouses will continue to become more automated. Some systems use computerized dispatch ing or onboard data communication devices to enable industrial truck and tractor operators to move goods more efficiently. In other sys tems, some industrial trucks and tractors may be replaced by com puter-controlled conveyor systems, overhead handling systems, and automated vehicles that don't require operators. Earnings Earnings for material moving equipment operators vary considerably. In 1994, median earnings of all material moving equipment operators were $459 a week; the middle 50 percent earned between $339 and $608. Ten percent earned less than $265 and 10 percent more than $839. Median weekly earnings of crane and tower operators were $535 in 1994; excavation and loading machine operators, $454; grader, dozer, and scraper operators, $497; industrial truck and tractor operators, $425; operating engineers, $527; hoist and winch operators, $514; and other material moving equipment operators, $463. Pay scales generally are higher in metropolitan areas. Annual earnings of some workers may be lower than weekly rates would indicate because the amount of time they work can be limited by bad weather. Related Occupations Other workers who operate mechanical equipment include truck and bus drivers, manufacturing equipment operators, and farmers. Sources of Additional Information For further information about apprenticeships or work opportunities for construction equipment operators, contact a local of the Interna tional Union of Operating Engineers; a local apprenticeship commit tee; or the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency. In addition, the local office of the State employment service may pro vide information about apprenticeship and other training programs. For general information about the work of construction equipment operators, contact: •■Associated Builders and Contractors, National Center for Construction Education and Research, 1300 North 17th St., Rosslyn, VA 22209. •■Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Wash ington, DC 20006. •"International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St. NW., Washing ton, DC 20036. . Information on industrial truck and tractor operators is available from: -■Industrial Truck Association, 1750 K St. NW., Suite 460, Washington, DC 20006. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Rail Transportation Workers (DOT 184 167-278, 198; 850.663-018; 910.362, .363, .364, .367-010, -022, .382, .583, .664, .667-026, .683-010, -014, -022; 913.463-014; 919.663-014, .683-018,-026; 932.664-010) __________ Nature of the Work Rail transportation workers operate our Nation's trains, subways, and streetcars to facilitate the movement of passengers and cargo. Rail road transportation workers deliver travelers and freight to destina tions throughout the nation while subway and streetcar operators provide passenger service within a single metropolitan area. Railroad transportation workers. Locomotive engineers and rail yard engineers are among the most highly skilled workers on the railroad. They operate locomotives in yards, stations, and over the track between distant stations and yards. Locomotive engineers operate trains carrying cargo and passengers between stations, while rail yard engineers move cars within yards to assemble or disassem ble trains. In addition to those engineers who work for railroads, some engineers called dinkey operators work at industrial plants or mines operating smaller engines that pull cars loaded with coal, rock, or supplies around the site. Engineers operate the throttle to start and accelerate the train and use air brakes or dynamic brakes to slow and stop it. They monitor gauges and meters that measure speed, fuel, temperature, battery charge, and air pressure in the brake lines. Both on the road and in the yard, they watch for signals that indicate track obstructions, other train movements, and speed limits. They must have a thorough knowledge of the signal systems, yards, and terminals along their routes and be constantly aware of the condition and makeup of their train. This is extremely important because trains react differently to acceleration, braking, and curves, depending on the number of cars, the ratio of empty to loaded cars, and the amount of slack in the train. Most engineers run diesel locomotives; a few run electric loco motives. Before and after each run, engineers check locomotives for mechanical problems. Minor adjustments are made on the spot, but major problems are reported to the engine shop supervisor. In an effort to reduce costs, most railroads are phasing out assistant engi neers, also known as firers, who monitor locomotive instruments and signals and observe the track for obstructions. Most of these duties are now performed by brake operators. Road conductors and yard conductors are in charge of the train and yard crews. Conductors assigned to freight trains record each car's contents and destination and make sure that cars are added and removed at the proper points along the route. Conductors assigned to passenger trains collect tickets and fares and assist passengers. At stops, they signal engineers when to pull out of the station. Before a train leaves the terminal, the road conductor and engi neer discuss instructions received from the dispatcher concerning the train's route, timetable, and cargo. While underway, conductors receive additional information by radio. This may include informa tion about track conditions ahead or instructions to pull off at the next available stop to let another train pass. During the run, conduc tors use two-way radios to contact engineers. They pass on instruc tions received from dispatchers and remind engineers of stops, reported track conditions, and the presence of other trains. While underway, conductors receive information from brake operators regarding any equipment problems, and they may arrange for defective cars to be removed from the train for repairs at the nearest station or stop. They inform dispatchers of any problems using a radio or wayside telephone. Yard conductors supervise the crews that assemble and disas semble trains. Some cars are sent to special tracks for unloading, while the rest are moved to other tracks to await assemblage into trains destined for different cities. Conductors tell engineers where Transportation and Material Moving Occupations 451 to move cars. They tell brake operators which cars to couple and uncouple and which switches to throw to divert the locomotive or cars to the proper track. In yards that have automatic classification systems, conductors use electrical remote controls to operate the track switches that route cars to the correct track. Brake operators play a pivotal role in making locomotives and cars into trains. Working under the direction of conductors, they do the physical work involved in adding and removing cars at railroad stations and assembling and disassembling trains in railroad yards. Freight train crews include either one or two brake operators— one in the locomotive with the engineer and another in the rear car. An increasing number of freight trains use only one brake operator because new visual instrumentation and monitoring devices have eliminated the need for operators outside the locomotive. Before departure, brake operators inspect the train to make sure that all couplers and airhoses are fastened, that handbrakes on all the cars are released, and that the air brakes are functioning properly. While underway, they regularly look for smoke, sparks, and other signs of sticking brakes, overheated axle bearings, and other potentially faulty equipment. They may make minor repairs to airhoses and couplers. In case of unexpected stops, brake operators set up signals to protect both ends of the train. When freight trains approach an industrial site, the brake operator in the locomotive gets off the train and runs ahead to switch the train to the proper track. They uncouple the cars and throw track switches to route them to certain tracks if they are to be unloaded, or to an outgoing train if their final destination is further down the line. They also set hand brakes to secure cars. Many smaller railroads operate with only two crew members—an engineer and a conductor. Most passenger trains no longer employ brake operators but employ assistant conductors to help conductors collect tickets and assist passengers. Subway and streetcar operators. Subway operators control trains that transport passengers throughout a city and its suburbs. The trains usually run on tracks in underground tunnels, but some systems have lines that run in part on tracks on the surface or elevated above streets. Observing the system's signals, operators start, slow, or stop the subway train. They make announcements to riders, open and close the doors, and ensure that passengers get on and off the subway safely. Operators should have a basic understanding of the operating system and be able to recognize common equipment problems. When breakdowns or emergencies occur, operators contact their dispatcher or supervisor and may have to evacuate cars. To meet predetermined schedules, operators must control the amount of time spent at each station. Streetcar operators drive electric-powered streetcars or trolleys that transport passengers. Streetcars run on tracks that may be re cessed in city streets, so operators must observe traffic signals and cope with car and truck traffic. Operators start, slow, and stop their cars so passengers may board or alight. They collect fares, and issue change and transfers. They also answer questions from passengers concerning fares, schedules, and routes. Working Conditions Because trains operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, many rail transportation employees often work nights, weekends, and holidays. On some days subway operators may work multiple shifts. Undesir able shifts are assigned to persons who have the least seniority. Most freight trains are unscheduled, and few workers on these trains have scheduled assignments. Instead, their names are placed on a list, and when their turn comes they are assigned to the next train, usually on short notice and often at odd hours. Because road service personnel often work on trains that operate between stations that are hundreds of miles apart, they may spend several nights a week away from home. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis v- m Subway operators make announcements to riders and ensure that passengers get on and off safely. Freight and yard conductors and brake operators spend most of their time outdoors in all kinds of weather. The work of brake opera tors on local runs—where trains frequently stop at stations to pick up and deliver cars is physically demanding. Climbing up and down and getting off moving cars is strenuous and can be dangerous. Employment Rail transportation workers held about 86,000 jobs in 1994__ including 26,000 conductors, 22,000 locomotive engineers, 19,000 brake operators, and 6,000 rail yard engineers and dinkey operators. Subway and streetcar operators accounted for over 12,000 jobs. Railroads employ about 82 percent of all rail transportation workers. The rest work for state and local governments as subway and street car operators, and for mining and manufacturing establishments that operate their own locomotives and rail cars to move ore, coal, and other bulk materials. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most railroad transportation workers begin as trainees for either engineer or brake operator jobs. Railroads prefer that applicants have a high school education. Applicants must have good hearing, eyesight, and color vision, as well as good hand-eye coordination^ manual dexterity, and mechanical aptitude. Physical stamina is required for brake operator jobs. Most employers require that appli cants for railroad transportation jobs pass a physical examination and tests that screen for drug and alcohol use. 452 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Railroads prefer that applicants for locomotive engineer jobs be at least 21 years old. Engineer jobs are frequently filled by workers with experience in other railroad operating occupations, such as brake operators or conductors. Most beginning engineers undergo a 6-month training program, which includes classroom and hands-on instruction in locomotive operation. At the end of the training pe riod, aspiring engineers must pass qualifying tests covering locomo tive equipment, air brake systems, fuel economy, train handling techniques, and operating rules and regulations. On most railroads, brake operators begin by making several trips with conductors and experienced operators to become familiar with the job. On some railroads, however, new brake operators undergo extensive training, including instruction in signaling, coupling and uncoupling cars, throwing switches, and boarding moving trains. As railroads need new engineers and brake operators, newly trained workers who have the most seniority are placed on the extra board." Extra board engineers and brake operators work only when the railroad needs substitutes for regular workers who are absent because of vacation, illness, or other personal reasons. Extra board engineers and brake operators frequently must wait years until they accumulate enough seniority to get a regular assignment. Seniority rules also may allow workers with greater seniority to select their type of assignment. For example, an engineer may move from an initial regular assignment in yard service to road service. Engineers undergo periodic physical examinations and drug and alcohol testing to determine their fitness to operate locomotives. Unannounced safety and efficiency tests are also given to judge their overall conduct of operations. In some cases, engineers who fail to meet these physical and conduct standards are restricted to yard service; in other instances, they may be disciplined, trained to per form other work, or discharged. Conductor jobs generally are filled from the ranks of experienced brake operators who have passed tests covering signals, timetables, operating rules, and related subjects. Some companies require these tests be passed within the first few years of employment. Until permanent positions become available, new conductors are put on the extra board, where they substitute for experienced conductors who are absent. On most railroads, conductors on extra board may work as brake operators if there are not enough conductor runs available that month. Seniority usually is the main factor in determining promotion from brake operator to conductor and from extra board to a permanent position. Advancement to conductor jobs is limited because there are many more brake operators than conductors. Most railroads maintain separate seniority lists for road service and yard service conductors. Conductors usually remain in one type of service for their entire career. On some railroads, however, con ductors start in the yards, then move to freight service, and finally to passenger service. Some conductors advance to managerial or administrative positions. For subway and streetcar operator jobs, subway transit systems prefer applicants to have a high school education. Some systems require subway operators to work as busdrivers for a specified period of time. Applicants must be in good health, articulate, and able to make quick, responsible judgments. New operators generally are placed in training programs that last from a few weeks to 6 months. At the end of the period of classroom and on-the-job training, operators usually must pass qualifying examinations covering the operating system, troubleshooting, and evacuation and emergency procedures. Some operators with suffi cient seniority can advance to station managers. Job Outlook Competition for available opportunities is expected to be keen. Many persons qualify for rail transportation occupations because education beyond high school generally is not required and many more desire employment than can be hired because the pay is good and the work steady. While employment of railroad transportation workers is expected to decline for all occupations through the year https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 2005, employment of subway and streetcar operators is expected to grow faster than the average. The total number of new jobs, how ever, is not large. Also, relatively few opportunities resulting from replacement needs will occur because the attractive pay and job security results in relatively few rail transportation workers leaving their jobs. Demand for railroad freight service will grow as the economy expands, but opportunities for railroad transportation workers will be limited because of ongoing reductions in the size of operating crews and improvements in the efficiency of railroad operations. Railroad freight service is expected to increase as the population and economy grow in size, and as intermodal freight transportation continues to become more efficient. Intermodal systems use trucks to pick-up and deliver the shippers' sealed trailers or containers, and trains to trans port them long distance. Productivity and efficiency improvements cutting the time railroads need to deliver cargoes are also increasing shippers' use of railroads. In order to compete with other modes of transportation such as trucks, ships and barges, and aircraft, railroads are improving delivery times and on-time service while reducing shipping rates. As a result, businesses are expected to increasingly use railroads to carry their goods. However, growth in the number of railroad transportation workers will be affected by innovations such as larger, faster, more fuelefficient trains and computerized classification yards that make it possible to move passengers and freight more economically. Com puters are used to keep track of freight cars, match empty cars with the closest loads, and dispatch trains. Computer-assisted devices alert engineers to train malfunctions, eliminating the need for brake operators in the rear car. Also, new work rules that allow trains to operate with two- or three-person crews instead of the traditional five-person crews are now becoming widespread. Many positions will not be filled as people leave the occupations, or the work will be restructured so that it can be done by other railroad employees. Employment opportunities for locomotive and yard engineers should be slightly better than other rail occupations because they should be less affected by technological changes and reductions in crew size. On the other hand, employment of brake operators should be the most adversely affected as visual instrumentation and monitoring devices eliminate the need for rear brake operators. Subway and streetcar operator employment is expected to grow as cities build new rail systems and add new lines to existing systems. New construction is spurred by population growth in metropolitan areas that increases automobile traffic and makes streets and high ways more congested. Improved rail systems offer an alternative to automobile transportation that can reduce road congestion and, by reducing automobile use, also contribute to government mandated improvements in air quality. Earnings Earnings of railroad transportation workers vary by occupation, size of the train, and type of service. According to the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, in 1993, passenger engineers averaged about $63,900 a year, through-freight engineers about $62,900. local way freight engineers about $60,800, and yard engineers about $47,700 a year. . 1994, According to the Association of American Railroads, in annual earnings of conductors averaged $41,000 for through-freight and $39,200 for local and way freight. Brake operators averaged about $28,300 for through-freight and $31,000 for local and way freight. Yard brake operators averaged about $24,800 in 1994, while passenger brake operators averaged $21,600. According to the American Public Transit Association, in 1994, operators for commuter rail had hourly earnings of about $ 19.20; operators for heavy rail about $17.30; and operators for light rail, about $15.90. Most rail transportation employees in yards work 40 hours a week and receive extra pay for overtime. Most railroad workers in road service are paid according to miles traveled or hours worked, which Transportation and Material Moving Occupations 453 ever leads to higher earnings. Full-time employees have steadier work, more regular hours, and higher earnings than those assigned to the extra board. Most railroad transportation workers are members of unions. Many different railroad unions represent various crafts on the rail roads, but most railroad engineers are members of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, while most other railroad transportation workers are members of the United Transportation Union. Many subway operators are members of the Amalgamated Transit Union, while others belong to the Transport Workers Union of North Amer ica. Sources of Additional Information Information on employment opportunities for railroad transportation workers may be obtained from the employment offices of the various railroads and rail transit systems, or State employment service of fices. For general information about career opportunities in passenger transportation, contact: ••American Public Transit Association, 1201 New York Ave. NW., Suite 400, Washington, DC 20005. General information on rail transportation occupations and career opportunities as a locomotive engineer is available from: ••Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, 1370 Ontario Ave., Cleveland OH 44113-1702. Taxi Drivers and Chauffeurs (D.O.T. 359.673-010 and -014; 913.463-018. .663-010; 919.663-010, and Nature of the Work Taxi drivers and chauffeurs pick up and drive people to their desti nation in cars, limousines, or vans. Except for a small number of chauffeurs employed in private service, most charge passengers a fee. Taxi drivers, also known as cab drivers, drive taxicabs, which are custom automobiles modified for transporting passengers. Taxi drivers take passengers to such places as airports, convention centers and hotels, or places of entertainment. Drivers collect fees from passengers based on the number of miles that are traveled or the amount of time spent reaching the destination. They record on a log, or trip sheet, the length of each trip, the point of pick-up, and the destination. At the start of their driving shift, cab drivers usually report to a cab service or garage where they are assigned a cab. They are given a trip sheet, where they record their name, date of work, and cab identification number. They check the cab's fuel and oil levels, and make sure the lights, brakes, and windshield wipers are in good working order. Drivers adjust rear and side mirrors and their seat for comfort. Any equipment or parts not in good working order are reported to the dispatcher or company mechanic. Taxi drivers pick up their passengers in one of three ways. Cus tomers requesting transportation may call the cab company and give a place and an approximate time they wish to be picked up, and their destination. The cab company dispatcher then relays the information to a driver by two-way radio. In urban areas, drivers may cruise streets and pick up passengers who hail them, or "wave them down." Drivers also may get passengers by waiting at cab stands or in taxi lines at airports, train stations, hotels, and other places where people frequently seek taxis. Drivers should be familiar with streets in the areas they service so they can use the most efficient route to destinations. They also should know the locations of frequently requested destinations, such as airports, bus and railroad terminals, convention centers, hotels, popular restaurants, sport facilities, museums, art galleries and other https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis points of interest. Locations of the fire and police departments, as well as hospitals, should also be known in case of emergency. Upon reaching the destination, drivers determine the fare and announce it to the rider. Fares often consist of many parts. One part is called a "drop charge," which is a flat fee just for using the cab. Another part of the fare is based on the length of the trip and the amount of time it took. In many taxicabs this is measured by a taximeter, a machine which drivers turn on as soon as passengers enter the cab and turn off when the destination is reached that dis plays the fare as it accrues. The fare may also include a surcharge for additional passengers or for handling luggage. In addition to paying the fare, most passengers will give the driver a tip. The amount of the gratuity depends on the passengers' satisfaction with the quality and efficiency of the ride and courtesy of the driver. When passengers request, a driver issues a receipt. Drivers enter onto the trip sheet all information regarding the trip, such as place and time of pick-up and drop-off and total fee. They also must fill out accident reports when necessary. Chauffeurs drive passengers in private automobiles, limousines, or vans owned by limousine companies. Chauffeurs drive many types of passengers. Many transport travelers and other persons between hotels and airports or bus and train terminals in large vans. Others are hired to drive luxury automobiles, such as limousines, to popular entertainment and social events. Still others are employed full time by wealthy families and private companies to provide personal transportation. At the start of the work day, chauffeurs make sure their automo bile is ready for use. They inspect it for cleanliness and, when needed, vacuum the interior and wash windows, the exterior car body, and mirrors. They check fuel and oil levels and make sure the lights, tires, brakes, and windshield wipers are in good working order. Chauffeurs may perform routine maintenance and make minor repairs, such as changing tires or adding oil and other fluids when needed. If more serious repairs are needed, the chauffeur takes the vehicle to a professional mechanic. Chauffeurs often strive to pamper their passengers with attentive service. They assist riders into the car, usually holding the door, holding umbrellas when raining, and loading packages and luggage into the trunk of the car. They may perform errands for their em ployers, such as delivering packages or picking up items. They also may meet persons arriving at airports. Many chauffeurs offer con veniences and luxuries in their limousines to insure a pleasurable ride, such as newspapers, music, drinks, televisions, and telephones. Working Conditions Taxi drivers and chauffeurs occasionally have to load and unload heavy luggage and packages. Driving for long periods of time can be Taxi drivers may pick up their passengers by answering customers' requests for transportation. 454 Occuptional Outlook Handbook tiring, especially in densely populated urban areas, and driving in bad weather, heavy traffic, or mountainous and hilly areas can be nerve racking. Sitting for long periods of time can be uncomfortable. Drivers must be alert to conditions on the road, especially in heavy and congested traffic or in bad weather, to prevent accidents and to avoid sudden stops, turns, and other driving maneuvers that would jar the passenger. Work hours of taxi drivers and chauffeurs vary greatly. Some jobs offer full-time or part-time employment; in others hours are very flexible. Hours can change from day to day or be the same every day. Drivers sometimes must report to work on short notice. Chauf feurs who work for a single employer may be on call much of the time. For those who work for a limousine service, evening and weekend work is common. The work schedule of chauffeurs is usually dictated by the needs of their client or employer. The work of taxi drivers is much less structured. Working free from supervision, they may break for a meal or a rest whenever their vehicle is unoccupied. However, taxi drivers risk robbery because they work alone and often carry a lot of Full-time taxi drivers usually work one shift a day, which may last from 8 to 12 hours. Part-time drivers may work half a shift each day, or work a full shift once or twice a week. Because most taxi companies offer services 24 hours a day, drivers must be on duty at all times of the day and night. Early morning and late night shifts are not uncommon. Drivers also work long hours during holidays, weekends, and other special events. Independent drivers, however, can often set their own hours and schedules. Taxi drivers and chauffeurs meet many different types of people. Patience is required when waiting for passengers or when dealing with rude customers. Many municipalities and taxicab and chauffeur companies require dress codes. In many cities, taxicab drivers are required to wear clothes that are clean and neat. Many chauffeurs wear more formal attire, such as a coat and tie or a dress, or some times a uniform and cap or a tuxedo. Employment . ., Taxi drivers and chauffeurs held about 129,000 jobs in 1994. About 5 out of 9 were wage and salary workers employed by a company or business. Of these, about 31 percent worked for local and suburban transportation companies and about 21 percent worked for taxicab companies. Others worked for automotive rental dealerships, private households, and funeral homes. About 4 out of 9 were selfemployed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Local governments regulate taxicabs and set standards and tests required to be licensed as a taxi driver or chauffeur. Although re quirements vary, most municipalities have minimum qualifications for age and driving experience. Many taxi and limousine companies have higher standards than the ones required by law: They ask to see a driving record and check credit and criminal records. In addition, many companies require a higher minimum age and prefer that drivers be high school graduates. Persons interested in driving a limousine or taxicab must first have a regular automobile drivers license. They also must acquire a chauffeur or taxi driver's license, commonly called a "hacker's" license. Local authorities generally require applicants for a hacker s license to pass a written exam or complete a training program. To qualify either through an exam or a training program, applicants must know local geography, motor vehicle laws, safe driving practices, regulations governing taxicabs, and display some aptitude for being able to deal courteously with the public. In many municipalities, applicants sponsored by taxicab or limousine companies may be given a temporary permit that allows them to drive, even though they may not yet have finished the training program or taken the test. Many localities are adding a test on English usage, usually in the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis form of listening comprehension. Applicants who do not pass the English exam must take an English course sponsored by the munici pality. Many local authorities require that applicants pass a physical exam and many take applicants' fingerprints to check for a criminal record. The majority of taxi drivers and chauffeurs are called lease drivers." Lease drivers pay a monthly or weekly fee to the company that allows them to lease their vehicle and have access to the com pany dispatch system. The fee may also include a charge for vehicle maintenance and a deposit. Lease drivers may take their cars home with them when they are not on duty. Some taxi and limousine companies give new drivers on-the- job training. They may show drivers how to operate the taximeter and two-way radio, and how to complete paperwork. Other topics cov ered may include driver safety and popular sightseeing and enter tainment destinations. Many companies have contracts with social service agencies and transportation services to transport elderly and disabled citizens, so new drivers may get special training on how to properly handle wheelchair lifts and other mechanical devices. Taxi drivers and chauffeurs should be able to get along with many different types of people. They must be patient when waiting for passengers or when dealing with rude customers, and driving in heavy and congested traffic requires tolerance and a mild tempera ment. Drivers should also be dependable because passengers rely on them to be picked up at prearranged times and taken to the correct destination. Because drivers work with little supervision, they must be responsible and self-motivated if they are to be successful. Opportunities for advancement are limited for taxi drivers and chauffeurs. Experienced drivers may obtain preferred routes or shifts. Some advance to dispatcher or to manager jobs; others may start their own limousine company. On the other hand, many drivers like the independent, unsupervised work of driving their own automobile. In many small and medium size communities, drivers are able to purchase their own taxi, limousine, or other type of automobile and go into business for themselves. These independent owner-drivers are usually required to get an additional permit that allows them to operate their vehicle as a company. In some big cities, however, the number of operating permits is limited and may only be obtained by purchasing one from an owner-driver who is leaving the business. Although many independent owner-drivers are successful, some fail to cover expenses and eventually lose their permit and their auto mobile. Independent owner-drivers should have good business sense and courses in accounting, business, and business arithmetic are helpful. Knowledge of mechanics can enable independent owneroperators to cut expenses and perform their own routine maintenance and minor repairs. Job Outlook Persons seeking jobs as taxi drivers and chauffeurs should encounter good opportunities. Thousands of job openings will occur each year as drivers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. However, driving jobs vary greatly in terms of earnings, work hours, and working conditions. Because driving does not require education beyond high school, competition is expected for jobs that offer regular hours and attractive earnings and working conditions. Oppor tunities should be best for persons with good driving records who are able to be flexible in their work schedules. Employment of taxi drivers and chauffeurs is expected to grow faster than average for all occupations through the year 2005 as local and intercity travel increases with population growth. Opportunities should be best in metropolitan areas that are growing rapidly. Job opportunities may fluctuate from season to season and from month to month. Extra drivers may be hired during holiday seasons and peak travel and tourist times. During economic slowdowns, drivers are seldom laid off but they may have to increase their work ing hours and their earnings may decline somewhat. Independent owner-operators are particularly vulnerable to economic slowdowns. Transportation and Material Moving Occupations 455 Earnings Earnings of taxi drivers and chauffeurs vary greatly, depending on the number of hours worked, customers' tips, and other factors. Those who usually worked full time had median weekly earnings of $375 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $262 and $510 a week. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $204, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $759 a week. Earnings were generally higher in more urban areas. According to limited information available, the majority of inde pendent taxi owner-drivers earned from about $20,000 to $30,000, including tips. However, professional drivers with a regular clientele often earn more. Many chauffeurs who worked full time earned from about $25,000 to $50,000 including tips. Related Occupations Other workers who drive vehicles on highways and city streets are ambulance drivers, busdrivers, and truckdrivers. Sources of Additional Information Information on licensing and registration of taxi drivers and chauf feurs is available from offices of local governments that regulate taxicabs. For information about work opportunities as a taxi driver or chauffeur, contact local taxi or limousine services or State em ployment service offices. For general information about the work of taxi drivers, contact: •"International Taxicab and Livery Association, 3849 Farragut Ave., Kens ington, MD 20895. For general information about the work of limousine drivers, contact: ••National Limousine Association, 1300 L Street NW., Suite 1050, Washing ton, DC. 20005-4107. Truckdrivers (D.O.T. 292.353, .363, .463, .483, and .667; 900 through 905.683; 906 909.663; 919.663-018, -022, -026; and 953.583) Nature of the Work Nearly all goods are transported by truck during some of their jour ney from producers to consumers. Goods may also be shipped between terminals or warehouses in different cities by train, ship, or plane. But truckdrivers usually make the initial pickup from facto ries, consolidate cargo at terminals for intercity shipment, and deliver goods from terminals to stores and homes. Before leaving the terminal or warehouse, truckdrivers check their trucks for fuel and oil. They also inspect the trucks to make sure the brakes, windshield wipers, and lights are working and that a fire extinguisher, flares, and other safety equipment are aboard and in working order. Drivers adjust mirrors so that both sides of the truck are visible from the driver's seat, and make sure cargo has been loaded properly so it will not shift during the trip. Drivers report to the dispatcher any equipment that does not work or is missing, or cargo that is not loaded properly. Once underway, drivers must be alert to prevent accidents. Because drivers of large tractor-trailers sit higher than cars, pickups, and vans, they can see farther down the road. They seek traffic lanes that allow them to move at a steady speed, and, when going down hill, they may increase speed slightly to gain momentum for a hill ahead. Long-distance runs vary widely. On short "turnarounds," truckdrivers deliver a load to a nearby city, pick up another loaded trailer, and drive it back to their home base the same day. Other runs take an entire day, and drivers remain away from home overnight. On longer runs, drivers may haul loads from city to city for a week or more before returning home. Some companies use two drivers on very https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis long runs. One drives while the other sleeps in a berth behind the cab. "Sleeper" runs may last for days, or even weeks, usually with the truck stopping only for fuel, food, loading, and unloading. Some long-distance drivers who have regular runs transport freight to the same city on a regular basis. Because shippers request varying amounts of service to different cities every day, many drivers have unscheduled runs. Dispatchers tell these drivers when to report for work and where to haul the freight. After long-distance truckdrivers reach their destination or com plete their operating shift, they are required by the U.S. Department of Transportation to complete reports about the trip and the condition of the truck and to give a detailed report of any accident. In addition, drivers are subject to random alcohol and drug tests while on duty. Long-distance truckdrivers spend most of their working time behind the wheel but may be required to unload their cargo. Drivers hauling specialty cargo often load or unload their trucks, since they may be the only one at the destination familiar with this procedure. Auto-transport drivers, for example, drive and position the cars on the trailers and head ramps and remove them at the final destination. When picking up or delivering furniture, drivers of long-distance moving vans hire local workers to help them load or unload. When local truckdrivers receive assignments from the dispatcher to make deliveries, pickups, or both, they also get delivery forms. Before the drivers arrive for work, material handlers generally have loaded the trucks and arranged the items in order of delivery to minimize handling of the merchandise. At the customer's place of business, local truckdrivers generally load or unload the merchandise. If there are heavy loads or many deliveries to make during the day, drivers may have helpers. Cus tomers must sign receipts for goods and drivers may receive money for material delivered. At the end of the day, they turn in receipts, money, and records of deliveries made and report any mechanical problems their trucks may have. The work of local truckdrivers varies, depending on the product they transport. Produce truckers usually pick up a loaded truck in the early morning and spend the rest of the day delivering produce to many different grocery stores. Lumber truckdrivers, on the other hand, make several trips from the lumber yard to one or more con struction sites. Gasoline tank truckdrivers attach the hoses and operate the pumps on their trucks to transfer the gasoline to gas stations' storage tanks. Some local truckdrivers have sales and customer relations re sponsibilities. These drivers—called "driver-sales workers" or "route drivers"—are primarily responsible for delivering their firm's prod ucts, but they also represent the company. Their reaction to customer complaints and requests for special services can make the difference between a large order and losing a customer. Route drivers also may use their selling ability to increase sales and to gain additional cus tomers. The duties of driver-sales workers vary according to the industry in which they are employed, the policies of their particular company, and how strongly their sales responsibilities are emphasized. Most have wholesale routes—that is, they deliver to businesses and stores rather than homes. A few distribute various foods, or pick up and deliver dry-cleaning to households, but these retail routes are now rare. Wholesale bakery driver-sales workers, for example, deliver and arrange bread, cakes, rolls, and other baked goods on display racks in grocery stores. Paying close attention to the items that are selling well and those just sitting on the shelves, they estimate the amount and variety of baked goods that will be sold. They may recommend changes in a store's order or may encourage the manager to stock new bakery products. From time to time, they try to get the business of new stores along their route. Driver-sales workers employed by laundries that rent linens, towels, work clothes, and other items visit businesses regularly to replace soiled laundry. 456 Occuptional Outlook Handbook yards, or distributors of food and grocery products. The rest were scattered throughout the economy, including government agencies. Fewer than 1 out of 10 truckdrivers are self-employed; of these, a significant number are owner-operators, who either operate inde pendently, serving a variety of businesses, or lease their services and their trucks to a trucking company. Some truckdrivers may be required to load and unload their trucks. Vending machine driver-sales workers service machines in facto ries, schools, and other buildings. They check items remaining in the machines, replace stock, and remove money deposited in the cash boxes. They also examine each vending machine to see that mer chandise and change are dispensed properly, make minor repairs, and clean machines. After completing their route, driver-sales workers order items for the next day which they think customers are likely to buy, based primarily on what products have been selling well, the weather, time of year, and any customer feedback. Working Conditions Truckdriving has become less physically demanding because most trucks now have more comfortable seats, better ventilation, and improved cab designs. However, driving for many hours at a stretch, unloading cargo, and making many deliveries can be tiring, and driving in bad weather, heavy traffic, or mountains can be nerve racking. Local truckdrivers, unlike long-distance drivers, usually can return home in the evening. Some self-employed long distance truckdrivers who own as well as operate their trucks spend over 240 days a year away from home. Local truckdrivers frequently work 48 hours or more a week. Many who handle food for chain grocery stores, produce markets, or bakeries drive at night or early in the morning. Although most drivers have a regular route, some have different routes each day. Many local truckdrivers—particularly driver-sales workers-—load and unload their own trucks, which requires considerable lifting, carrying, and walking. The U.S. Department of Transportation governs work hours and other matters of trucking companies engaged in interstate commerce. For example, a long-distance driver cannot be on duty for more than 60 hours in any 7-day period and cannot drive more than 10 hours following at least 8 consecutive hours off duty. Many drivers, par ticularly on long runs, work close to the maximum time permitted. Drivers on long runs may face boredom, loneliness, and fatigue. Although many drivers work during the day, travel at night and on holidays and weekends is frequently necessary in order to avoid traffic delays and deliver cargo on time. Employment Truckdrivers held 2,900,000 jobs in 1994. Jobs are concentrated in and around large cities. Some drivers are employed in almost all communities, however. Trucking companies employed nearly one-third of all truckdnvers, and another one-third worked for companies engaged in whole sale or retail trade, such as auto parts stores, oil companies, lumber https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Qualifications and standards for truckdrivers are established by State and Federal regulations. States must meet Federal standards, and some States have more stringent regulations. All truckdrivers must have a driver's license issued by the State in which they live, and most employers require a good driving record. All drivers of trucks designed to carry at least 26,000 pounds—which includes most tractor-trailers as well as bigger straight trucks—are required to obtain a special commercial driver's license (CDL) from the State in which they live; in many States a regular driver's license is sufficient for driving light trucks and vans. All truckdrivers who operate trucks that carry hazardous materials also must obtain a CDL. To qualify for a commercial driver's license, applicants must pass a knowledge test and demonstrate that they can operate a commercial truck safely. A national data bank permanently records all driving violations incurred by persons who hold commercial licenses, so drivers whose commercial license is suspended or revoked in one State may not be issued a new one in another State. Trainees must be accompanied by a driver with a CDL until they get their own CDL. Information on how to apply for a commercial driver’s license may be obtained from State motor vehicle administrations. The U.S. Department of Transportation establishes minimum qualifications for truckdrivers who are engaged in interstate com merce. A driver must be at least 21 years old and pass a physical examinatioh, which the employer usually pays for. Good hearing, 20/40 vision with or without glasses or corrective lenses, normal use of arms and legs (unless a waiver is obtained), and normal blood pressure are the main physical requirements. Persons with epilepsy or diabetes controlled by insulin are not permitted to be interstate truckdrivers, and drivers may not use any controlled substances unless prescribed by a licensed physician. In addition, drivers must take a written examination on the Motor Carrier Safety Regulations of the U.S. Department of Transportation. Many trucking operations have higher standards than those de scribed. Many firms require that drivers be at least 25 years old, be able to lift heavy objects, and have driven trucks for 3 to 5 years. Many prefer to hire high school graduates and require annual physi cal examinations. Federal regulations require employers to test their drivers for alcohol and drug use as a condition of employment, and require periodic random tests while on duty. Since drivers often deal directly with the company’s customers, they must get along well with people. For jobs as driver-sales work ers, an ability to speak well and a neat appearance are particularly important, as are self-confidence, initiative, and tact. For all truckdriver jobs, employers also look for responsible, self-motivated individuals, since drivers work with little supervision. Driver-training courses are a desirable method of preparing for truckdriving jobs and for obtaining a commercial driver’s license. High school driver-training courses are an asset, and courses in automotive mechanics may help drivers make minor roadside repairs. Many private and public technical-vocational schools offer tractortrailer driver training programs. Students learn to inspect the trucks and freight, to maneuver large vehicles on crowded streets and in highway traffic, and to comply with Federal, State, and local regula tions. Some programs provide only a limited amount of actual driving experience, and completion of a program does not assure a job. Persons interested in attending one of these schools should check with local trucking companies to make sure the school's train ing is acceptable or should seek a school certified by the Professional Truck Driver Institute of America as providing training that meets Transportation and Material Moving Occupations 457 Federal Highway Administration guidelines for training tractortrailer drivers. Training given to new drivers by employers usually is informal and may consist only of a few hours of instruction from an experi enced driver, sometimes on the new employee's own time. New drivers also may ride with and observe experienced drivers before being assigned their own runs. Additional training may be given if they are to drive a special type of truck or if they are handling haz ardous materials. Some companies give 1 to 2 days of classroom instruction which covers general duties, the operation and loading of a truck, company policies, and the preparation of delivery forms and company records. Driver-sales workers also receive training on the various types of products they carry so they will be more effective sales workers and better able to handle customer requests. Very few people enter truckdriving directly from school; most truckdrivers previously held jobs in other occupations. Driving experience in the Armed Forces can be an asset. In some instances, a person also may start as a truckdriver's helper, driving part of the day and helping to unload and load freight. When driving vacancies occur, senior helpers usually are promoted. New drivers sometimes start on panel or other small "straight" trucks. As they gain experience and show good driving skills, they may advance to larger and heavier trucks, and finally to tractortrailers. Although most new truckdrivers are assigned immediately to regular driving jobs, some start as extra drivers, who substitute for regular drivers who are ill or on vacation. They receive a regular assignment when an opening occurs. Advancement of truckdrivers is generally limited to driving runs that provide increased earnings or preferred schedules and working conditions. For the most part, a local truckdriver may advance to driving heavy or special types of trucks, or transfer to long-distance truckdriving. Working for companies that also employ long-distance drivers is the best way to advance to these positions. A few truckdrivers may advance to dispatcher, manager, or traffic work—for example, planning delivery schedules. Some long-distance truckers purchase a truck and go into business for themselves. Although many of these owner-operators are suc cessful, others fail to cover expenses and eventually lose their trucks. Owner-operators should have good business sense as well as truck driving experience. Courses in accounting, business, and business arithmetic are helpful, and knowledge of truck mechanics can enable owner-operators to perform their own routine maintenance and minor repairs. Job Outlook Opportunities should be favorable for persons who are interested in truckdriving. This occupation has among the largest number of job openings each year. Although thousands of openings will be created by growth in demand for drivers, the majority will occur as experi enced drivers transfer to other fields of work or retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. Truckdriver jobs vary greatly in terms of earnings, weekly work hours, number of nights that must be spent "on the road," and in the quality of equipment operated. Because truckdriving does not require education beyond high school, compe tition is expected for jobs with the most attractive earnings and working conditions. Employment of truckdrivers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005 as the econ omy grows and the amount of freight carried by trucks increases. However, increased integration of truck and railroad long-distance freight transportation should continue to slow somewhat the growth of truckdriver jobs. Trailers are expected increasingly to be carried between distant regions on trains, thus requiring truckdrivers only to deliver and pick them up at rail depots. Perishable goods should continue to be shipped long distance by truck. Average growth of local and long-distance truckdriver employ ment should outweigh the slow growth in driver-sales worker jobs. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The number of truckdrivers with sales responsibilities is expected to increase slowly because companies are increasingly splitting their responsibilities among other workers, shifting sales, ordering, and customer service tasks to sales and office staffs, and using regular truckdrivers to make deliveries to customers. Job opportunities may vary from year to year because the amount of freight moved by trucks fluctuates with the economy. Many new truckdrivers are hired when the economy and the volume of freight are expanding, but fewer when these decline. During economic slowdowns, some truckdrivers are laid off and others have decreased earnings because of reduced hours or miles driven. Independent owner-operators are particularly vulnerable to slowdowns. Truckdrivers employed in industries such as wholesale food distribution, which is usually not affected much by recessions, are less likely to be laid off. Earnings As a rule, local truckdrivers are paid by the hour and receive extra pay for working overtime, usually after 40 hours. Long-distance drivers are generally paid primarily by the mile, and their rate per mile can vary greatly from employer to employer; their earnings increase with mileage driven, seniority, and the size and type of truck. Most driver-sales workers receive a commission based on their sales in addition to an hourly wage. In 1993, truckdrivers had average straight-time hourly earnings of $12.73. Depending on the size of the truck, average hourly earnings were as follows: Medium trucks....................................................................................... $14.87 Tractor-trailers........................................................................................ 13.29 Heavy straight trucks............................................................................. 11.80 Light trucks............................................................................................ 8.06 Drivers employed by trucking companies had the highest earn ings, averaging about $15.97 an hour in 1993. Truckdrivers in the Northeast and West had the highest earnings; those in the South had the lowest. Most long-distance truckdrivers operate tractor-trailers, and their earnings vary widely, from as little as $20,000 to over $40,000 annually. Most self-employed truckdrivers are primarily engaged in long-distance hauling. After deducting their living expenses and the costs associated with operating their trucks, earnings of $20,000 to $25,000 a year are common. Many truckdrivers are members of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Some truckdrivers employed by companies outside the trucking industry are members of unions that represent the plant workers of the companies for which they work. Related Occupations Other driving occupations include ambulance driver, busdriver, chauffeur, and taxi driver. Sources of Additional Information Information on truckdriver employment opportunities is available from local trucking companies and local offices of the State em ployment service. Information on career opportunities in truckdriving may be ob tained from: •"American Trucking Associations, Inc., 2200 Mill Rd., Alexandria, VA 22314. The Professional Truck Driver Institute of America, a nonprofit organization established by the trucking industry, manufacturers, and others, certifies truckdriver training programs that meet industry standards. A free list of certified tractor-trailer driver training pro grams may be obtained from: •■Professional Truck Driver Institute of America, 8788 Elk Grove Blvd., Suite 20, Elk Grove, CA 95624. 458 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Water Transportation Occupations (D.O.T 197.130-010, .133 except -010 and -018, .137-010, .161-010, .163 010, -014, -018, .167 except -014; 911.131-010, .133-010, .137-010, -014, .263-010, .363-010, -014, .364-010, .584-010, .664-010, -014, .687-022 and -030, 951.685-018) Nature of the Work Workers in water transportation occupations operate and maintain deep sea merchant ships, tugboats, towboats, ferries, dredges, re search vessels, and other waterborne craft on the oceans and the Great Lakes, in harbors, on rivers and canals, and on other water ways. (Workers who operate water craft used in commercial fishing are described in the section on fishers, hunters, and trappers else where in the Handbook.) Captains or masters are in overall command of the operation of a vessel and they supervise the work of the other officers and the crew. They set course and speed, maneuver the vessel to avoid hazards and other ships, and periodically determine position using navigation aids, celestial observations, and charts. They direct crew members who steer the vessel, operate engines, signal to other vessels, perform maintenance and handle lines, or operate towing or dredging gear. Captains insure that proper procedures and safety practices are followed, check that machinery and equipment are in good working order, and oversee the loading and unloading of cargo or passengers. They also maintain logs and other records of ships' movements and cargo carried. Captains on large vessels are assisted by deck officers or mates. Merchant marine vessels—those carrying cargo overseas—have a chief or first mate, a second mate, and a third mate. Mates oversee the operation of the vessel, or "stand watch" for specified periods, usually 4 hours on and 8 off. On smaller vessels, there may be only one mate (called a pilot on some inland vessels) who alternates watches with the captain. Engineers or marine engineers operate, maintain, and repair propulsion engines, boilers, generators, pumps, and other machinery. Merchant marine vessels usually have four engineering officers: A chief engineer and a first, second, and third assistant engineer. Assistant engineers stand periodic watches, overseeing the operation of engines and machinery. Seamen, also called deckhands, particularly on inland waters, operate the vessel and its deck equipment under the direction of the ship's officers, and keep the nonengineering areas in good condition. They stand watch, looking out for other vessels, obstructions in the ship's path, and aids to navigation. They also steer the ship, measure water depth in shallow water, and maintain and operate deck equip ment such as life boats, anchors, and cargo-handling gear. When docking or departing, they handle lines. They also perform mainte nance chores such as repairing lines, chipping rust, and painting and cleaning decks and other areas. Seamen may also load and unload cargo. On vessels handling liquid cargo, they hook up hoses, operate pumps, and clean tanks. Deckhands on tugboats or tow vessels tie barges together into tow units, inspect them periodically, and discon nect them when the destination is reached. Larger vessels have a boatswain or head seaman. Marine oilers work below decks under the direction of the ship's engineers. They lubricate gears, shafts, bearings, and other moving parts of engines and motors, read pressure and temperature gauges and record data, and may repair and adjust machinery. A typical deep sea merchant ship has a captain, three deck offi cers or mates, a chief engineer and three assistant engineers, plus six or more seamen and oilers. Depending on their size, vessels operat ing in harbors, rivers, or along the coast may have a crew comprising only of a captain and one deckhand, or as many as a captain, a mate or pilot, an engineer, and seven or eight seamen. Large vessels also have a full-time cook and helper, while on small ones, a seaman does the cooking. Merchant ships also have an electrician, machinery https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Many newer vessels are air-conditioned and soundproofed from noisy machinery. mechanics, and a radio officer. Pilots guide ships in and out of harbors, through straits, and on rivers and other confined waterways where a familiarity with local water depths, winds, tides, currents, and hazards such as reefs and shoals is of prime importance. Pilots on river and canal vessels usually are regular crew members, like mates. Harbor pilots are generally independent contractors, who accompany vessels while they enter or leave port. They may pilot many ships in a single day. Working Conditions Merchant mariners are away from home for extended periods, but eam long leaves. Most are hired for one voyage, with no job security after that. At sea, they usually stand watch for 4 hours and are off for 8 hours, 7 days a week. Those employed on Great Lakes ships work 60 days and have 30 days off, but do not work in the winter when the lakes are frozen over. Workers on rivers and canals and in harbors are more likely to have year-round work. Some work 8- or 12-hour shifts and go home every day. Others work steadily for a week or month and then have an extended period off. When working, they are usually on duty for 6 or 12 hours and are off for 6 or 12 hours. People in water transportation occupations work in all weather conditions and although merchant mariners try to avoid severe storms while at sea, working in damp and cold conditions is unpleasant. It is uncommon for vessels to sink, but workers nevertheless face the possibility that they may have to abandon their craft on short notice if it collides with other vessels or runs aground. They also risk injury or death from falling overboard and hazards associated with working with machinery, heavy loads, and dangerous cargo. Some newer vessels are air-conditioned, soundproofed from noisy machinery, and have comfortable living quarters. Nevertheless, some workers do not like the long periods away from home and the confinement aboard ship. Employment Water transportation workers held about 48,000 jobs in 1994. Many merchant marine officers and seamen worked only part of the year, so the total number who worked some time during the year was somewhat greater. The following tabulation shows employment in the occupations that make up this group: Seamen and marine oilers Captains and pilots.......... Engineers......................... Mates............................... 20,000 13,000 7,600 7,300 A few of the captains and pilots were self-employed, operating their own vessel, or were pilots who were independent contractors. Transportation and Material Moving Occupations 459 About 45 percent of all water transportation workers were em ployed on board merchant marine ships or U.S. Navy Military Sealift ships operating on the oceans or Great Lakes. Another 42 percent were employed in transportation services, working on tugs, towboats, ferries, dredges, and other watercraft in harbors, on rivers and canals, and other waterways. Others worked in water transportation services such as piloting vessels in and out of harbors, operating lighters and chartered boats, and in marine construction, salvaging, and survey ing. The remaining water transportation workers were employed on vessels that carry passengers, such as cruise ships, sightseeing and excursion boats, and ferries. Training and Other Qualifications Entry, training, and educational requirements for most water trans portation occupations are established and regulated by the U.S. Coast Guard. All officers and operators of watercraft must be licensed by the U.S. Coast Guard, which offers nearly 60 different licenses, depending on the position and type of craft. Licensing differs some what between the merchant marine and others. Deck and engineering officers in the merchant marine must be licensed. To qualify for a license, applicants must have graduated from the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy, or one of the six State academies, and pass a written examination. A physical examination and a drug test are also required. Persons with at least 3 years of appropriate sea experience also can be licensed if they pass the written exam, but it is difficult to pass without substantial formal schooling or independent study. Also, because seamen may work 6 months a year or less, it can take 5 to 8 years to accumulate the necessary experience. The academies offer 4-year bachelor's degree programs (one offers a 3-year associate program) in nautical science or marine engineering to prepare students to be third mates or third assistant engineers. With experience and passing of additional exams, third officers may qualify for higher rank. Because of keen competition, however, officers may have to take jobs below the grade for which they are qualified. For employment in the merchant marine as an unlicensed seaman, a merchant mariner's document is needed. Applicants for merchant marine documents do not need to be U.S. citizens. A medical certifi cate of excellent health, and a certificate attesting to vision, color perception, and general physical condition may be required for higher-level deckhands. While no experience or formal schooling is required, training at a union-operated school is helpful. Beginners are classified as ordinary seaman and may be assigned to the deck or engineering department. With experience at sea, and perhaps unionsponsored training, an ordinary seaman can pass the able seaman exam. Merchant marine officers and seamen, both experienced and beginners, are hired for voyages through union hiring halls or directly by shipping companies. Harbor pilot training is usually an apprenticeship with a shipping company or a pilot employees' association. Entrants may be able seamen or licensed officers. No training or experience is needed to become a seaman or deck hand on vessels operating in harbors or on rivers or other waterways. Newly hired workers generally learn skills on the job. With experi ence, they are eligible to take a Coast Guard exam to qualify as a mate, pilot, or captain. Substantial knowledge gained through experi ence, courses in seamanship schools, and independent study are needed to pass the exam. Job Outlook Keen competition is expected to continue for jobs in water transpor tation occupations. Overall, employment in these jobs is projected to change little through the year 2005, but opportunities will vary by sector. Employment in deep sea shipping is expected to continue its long term sharp decline as U.S.-staffed ships carry an even smaller pro portion of international cargo. (In 1992, only 4 percent of our im https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ports and exports were carried on U.S.-staffed ships.) Stringent Federal regulations require larger crews on U.S.-staffed ships, which allow vessels that fly foreign flags—and have smaller crew sizes—to operate at lower cost and charge lower shipping rates. A fleet of deep sea U.S.-staffed ships is considered to be vital to the Nation's defense, so they receive Federal support through operating subsidies and provisions in laws that limit certain Federal cargoes to ships that fly the U.S. flag. Newer ships are designed to be operated safely by much smaller crews. Innovations include automated controls and computerized monitoring systems in navigation, engine control, watchkeeping, ship management, and cargo handling. As older vessels are replaced, crew sizes will shrink, and employed seamen will need greater skills. Vessels on rivers and canals and on the Great Lakes mostly carry bulk products such as coal, iron ore, petroleum, sand and gravel, grain, and chemicals. Shipments of these products are expected to grow through the year 2005, but productivity increases should cause employment to decline. Employment in water transportation services is likely to show little or no change. The decline in jobs has created competition for jobs, with many experienced merchant mariners going for long periods without work. As a result, unions generally accept few new members. Also, many merchant marine academy graduates have not found licensed ship board jobs in the U.S. merchant marine, although most do find related jobs. All are commissioned as ensigns in the U.S. Naval Reserve, and many go on active duty in the Navy. Some find jobs on tugboats or other watercraft or on foreign-flag vessels, or take jobs as seamen on U.S. flag ships. Some take land-based jobs with shipping companies, marine insurance companies, manufacturers of boilers or related machinery, civilian jobs with the U.S. Navy, or other related jobs. Unless the number of people seeking merchant marine jobs declines sharply, the present keen competition is likely to continue. Earnings Water transportation workers who usually worked full time had median weekly earnings of $595 in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $403 and $856 a week. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $284, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $1,092 a week. Captains and mates had median weekly earnings of $684 a week in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $522 and $908 a week. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $423, while the highest more than $ 1,112 a week. Seamen had median weekly earnings of $533 a week in 1994. The middle 50 percent earned between $336 and $764 a week. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $264 a week, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $970 a week. Related Occupations Workers in occupations having duties and responsibilities similar to these occupations include fishing vessel captains, ferryboat operators, and hatchtenders. Sources of Additional Information Information on merchant marine careers, training, and licensing requirements is available from: •■Maritime Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, 400 7th St. SW., Washington, DC 20590. ••Coast Guard, Licensing and Evaluation Branch, Merchant Vessel and Personnel Division, 2100 2nd St. SW., Washington, DC 20593. Individuals interested in attending a merchant marine academy should contact: •"Admissions Office, U.S. Merchant Marine Academy, Steamboat Rd., Kings Point, NY 11024. •■Admissions Office, California Maritime Academy, P.O. Box 1392, Vallejo, CA 94590. Handlers, Equipment Cleaners, Helpers, and Laborers (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 478.) Nature of the Work Employers in almost all industries hire entry level workers to do tasks that require little training, or to assist more skilled production, construction, operating, and maintenance workers. These workers perform a broad array of helper and laborer jobs, ranging from moving boxes and feeding machines to cleaning equipment and work areas. Many do tasks needed to make the work of more skilled employees flow smoothly. They often do routine, physical work under close supervision. They generally follow oral or written instructions from supervisors or more experienced workers, and have little opportunity to make decisions. In order to perform their jobs effectively, helpers and laborers must be familiar with the duties of workers they help, as well as with the materials, tools, and machinery they use. Freight, stock, and material hand movers move materials to and from storage and production areas, loading docks, delivery vehicles, ships’ holds, and containers. They move materials either manually or with forklifts, dollies, handtrucks, or carts. Their specific duties vary by industry and work setting. In factories, they may move raw materials, components, and finished goods between loading docks, storage areas, and work areas. They receive and sort materials and supplies and prepare them according to work orders for delivery to work or storage areas. In grocery stores, they stock shelves, bag groceries, carry packages to customers' cars, and return shopping carts to designated areas. Helpers assist skilled construction trades workers, mechanics and repairers, and workers in production and extractive occupations. (Information on these occupations appears elsewhere in the Hand book.) They aid machine operators and tenders by moving materials, supplies, and tools to and from work areas. Some may tend ma chines during operation if an operator is not available. Helpers may sort finished products, keep records of machine processes, report malfunctions to operators, and clean machinery after use. Mechan ics' helpers assist mechanics and service technicians who repair motor vehicles, industrial machinery, and electrical, electronic, and other equipment. They may fetch tools, materials, and supplies; hold materials or tools; take apart defective equipment; remove rivets; prepare replacement parts; or clean work areas. Construction trades' helpers carry tools, materials, and equipment to carpenters, electri cians, plasterers, masons, painters, plumbers, roofers, and other construction trades workers. Helpers for bricklayers and plasterers, for example, mix cement or plaster and fetch bricks or other materi als, set up and move scaffolding, and perform other lesser skilled tasks. Construction craft laborers provide much of the routine physical labor at building, highway, and heavy construction projects, tunnel and shaft excavations, and demolition sites. They clean and prepare sites, dig trenches, set braces to support the sides of excavations, and clean up rubble and debris. In addition to performing a variety of excavation, tunneling, and pipe work, construction craft laborers work as individuals on highly specialized tasks. The installation of utility pipe, for example, requires the set up and operation of lasers guidance equipment for precise pipe elevation and placement. Tunnel and shaft projects may require workers to be trained and experienced in the use of drilling equipment and explosives. Con 460 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis struction craft laborers operate jackhammers, earth tampers, cement mixers, buggies, front-end loaders, "walk-behind" ditchdiggers, small mechanical hoists, laser beam equipment, and surveying and measur ing equipment. In addition to working on building and transportation projects, construction craft laborers work on other projects, such as hazardous waste cleanup and asbestos and lead abatement. In hazardous waste removal, they may operate, maintain, and read monitoring devices; perform material and atmospheric sampling; build, clean, or maintain facilities for hazardous material removal and decontamination; and package and transport hazardous or radioactive materials. Hand packers and packagers manually package or wrap materi als. They may inspect items for defects, label cartons and stamp information on products, keep records of items packed, and stack packages on loading docks. Machine feeders and ojfbearers feed materials into or remove materials from automatic equipment or machines tended by other workers. Service station attendants fill fuel tanks and wash windshields on automobiles, buses, trucks, and other vehicles. They may perform simple service and repair tasks under the direction of a mechanic, such as change oil, repair tires, and replace belts, lights, windshield wipers, and other accessories. They may also collect payment for services and supplies. Refuse collectors gather trash, garbage, and recyclables from homes and businesses along a regularly scheduled route and deposit the refuse in their truck for transport to a dump, landfill, or recycling center. They lift and empty garbage cans by hand or operate a hy draulic lift truck that picks up and empties dumpsters. Vehicle washers and equipment cleaners clean machinery, vehi cles, storage tanks, pipelines, and similar equipment using water and other cleaning agents, vacuums, hoses, brushes, cloths, and other cleaning equipment. Parking lot attendants assist customers in parking their cars in lots or storage areas and collect fees from customers. Construction craft laborers perform much of the routine physical labor at construction and demolition sites. Handlers, Equipment Cleaners, Helpers, and Laborers 461 Working Conditions Most handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers do repeti tive, physically demanding work. They may lift and carry heavy objects, and stoop, kneel, crouch, or crawl in awkward positions. Some work at great heights, or outdoors in all weather conditions. Some jobs expose workers to harmful materials or chemicals, fumes, odors, loud noise, or dangerous machinery. These employees may need to wear safety clothing, such as gloves and hard hats, and devices to protect their eyes, mouth, or hearing. However, they can avoid injury if they constantly observe safety procedures. In many industries, handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers may have to work evening or "graveyard" shifts. Their shifts are generally 8 hours, but sometimes they may work 12 hour shifts. Service station and parking lot attendants may work at night since these establishments may be open at all hours; handlers in grocery stores may stock shelves at night when stores are closed. Garbage collectors often work early morning shifts, starting at 5:00 or 6:00 A.M. Employment Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers held about 4.8 million jobs in 1994. Their employment was distributed among the following detailed occupations: Hand packers and packagers............................................................ 942,000 Freight, stock, and material movers, hand....................................... 765,000 513,000 Helpers, construction trades............................................................. Machine feeders and offbearers....................................................... 262,000 Vehicle washers and equipment cleaners.......................................... 249,000 Service station attendants................................................................. 167 000 Refuse collectors.............................................................................. Ill 000 Parking lot attendants....................................................................... 64,000 All other helpers, laborers, and material movers, hand.................... 1,727,000 Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers are employed throughout the country in virtually all industries, with the greatest numbers concentrated in manufacturing, construction, and wholesale and retail trade. Nearly 1 out of 4 works part time. A growing number are employed on a temporary or contract basis. For example, companies that only need a laborer for a few days to move materials or clean up a site contract with temporary help agencies specializing in this type of worker. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For most handler, equipment cleaner, helper, and laborer jobs, em ployers will hire people without work experience or specific training. Some require a high school diploma, others do not. Some jobs require union membership and may have long waiting lists. Most employers, however, require workers to be at least 18 years old and physically able to perform the work. For those jobs requiring physi cal exertion, employers may require that applicants pass a physical exam. Some employers require mandatory drug testing prior to employment. For all of these jobs, employers look for people who are reliable and hard working. For those jobs that involve dealing with the public, such as grocery store helpers and garage and parking lot attendants, workers should be pleasant and tactful. Some jobs re quire reading and basic mathematics skills to read billing and other records and collect payment for services from customers. Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers are often younger than workers in other occupations—reflecting the limited training but significant physical requirements of these jobs. Generally, handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers learn skills informally from more experienced workers or supervi sors. Workers who use dangerous equipment or handle toxic chemi cals, for example, often receive special training in safety awareness and procedures. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Formal construction craft laborer apprenticeship programs pro vide more thorough preparation for these jobs. Local apprenticeship programs are operated under guidelines established by the LaborersAssociated General Contractors of America (AGC) Education and Training Fund. Programs include at least 4,000 hours of on-the job training, including 144 hours of classroom training. Most union contractors and laborer unions require some training before an ap prentice is placed on the job. Apprentices are instructed in the correct use of numerous tools and equipment that must be mastered before they complete the program. Experience in many of these jobs may allow workers to qualify for or become trainees for more skilled positions as construction trades workers, machine operators, assemblers, or other production workers; transportation, material moving equipment, or vehicle operators, or mechanics or repairers. Some may advance to become supervisors of handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers. In fact, rather than directly hiring workers for mechanic, construction trade, production, or similar occupations, many employers prefer to promote qualified handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers as openings arise. Job Outlook Employment of handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Job openings should be numerous because the occupation is very large and turnover is relatively high— characteristic of occupations that require little formal training. Many openings will arise from the need to replace workers who retire, transfer to other occupations, or who leave the labor force for other reasons. Employment changes for individual occupations, however, will vary. Among service station attendants and machine feeders and offbearers, for example, employment is expected to decline. A decline in employment has also been projected for freight, stock, and material movers. Employment of refuse collectors, on the other hand, should increase more slowly than the average. Vehicle wash ers and equipment cleaners, hand packers and packagers, and con struction trades helpers can expect average employment growth. Employment of parking lot attendants is also expected to increase as fast as average. Overall, demand for handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers will depend on growth in the industries that employ these workers, as well as growth of the skilled workers whom they assist. Average growth among construction trade helpers and laborers, for example, is directly related to construction activity and the growing demand for construction trades workers. Growth of helper and laborer employment may be spurred by the Nation's emphasis on hazardous waste cleanup and other environmental projects, and on rebuilding infrastructure—roads, bridges, tunnels, and communica tions facilities, for example. Employment growth will also be affected by automation. Some of these jobs are repetitive and, therefore, easily replaced by new machines and equipment that improve productivity and quality control. Some helper, handler, and hand packer and packaging jobs will be eliminated by automated material handling equipment, such as conveyor belts and computer-controlled lift mechanisms and machines that automatically load, unload, and package materials. As more skilled jobs, such as those of assemblers, become automated, demand for these types of employees who assist them will decline. In addition to automation, many employers have adopted cost cutting measures such as consolidating or combining job responsi bilities or contracting out labor. Job combinations may lead to displacement of handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers because the tasks they perform may be assumed by more highly skilled workers, or they may be required to assist more than one type of worker. These types of occupations may increasingly be staffed by a growing group of contingent workers and as companies continue 462 Occuptional Outlook Handbook to downsize, more employers may turn to hiring temporary handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers. Earnings Median weekly earnings for handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers in 1994 were about $311. The middle 50 percent earned from $234 to $456 weekly. The top 10 percent earned over $632 weekly, and the bottom 10 percent earned less than $186 weekly. Construction craft laborers generally have higher weekly earnings than other workers in this group. However, they may be more likely to lose work time because of bad weather and the cyclical nature of construction work. Mechanics and repairers' helpers, garage and service station related occupations, and stock handlers and baggers have the lowest weekly earnings among workers in this group. Over 20 percent of all handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers are members of a union. Many helpers and laborers belong to the Laborers' International Union of North America. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations Other entry level workers who perform mostly physical work are roustabouts in the oil industry, certain timber cutting and logging occupations, and groundskeepers. The jobs of handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers are often similar to those of the more experienced workers they assist, including machine operators, con struction craft workers, assemblers, mechanics, and repairers. Sources of Additional Information For information about jobs as handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers, contact local building or construction contractors, manufacturers, and wholesale and retail establishments, or the local office of the State employment service. For general information about the work of construction craft laborers, contact: ••Laborers' International Union of North America, 905 16th St. NW., Wash ington, DC 20006. Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces Nature of the Work The mission of the Armed Forces is to: 1) Deter aggression and defeat attack against the Nation, 2) strengthen and build alliances, 3) prevent a hostile power from dominating a region critical to our interests, and 4) prevent conflicts by reducing sources of re gional turmoil through various means, including humanitarian aid, counterterrorism, or limiting the spread of militarily significant technology. The Army and Air Force prepare for defensive and offensive operations, on land and in the air, respectively. The Navy organizes and trains forces primarily for sea operations, while the Marine Corps, part of the Department of the Navy, prepares for land inva sions in support of naval or amphibious operations. The Coast Guard, under the Department of Transportation (except in wartime, when it serves with the Navy), enforces Federal maritime laws, rescues distressed vessels and aircraft at sea, operates aids to naviga tion, and prevents smuggling. Together, the Armed Forces constitute America's largest em ployer. Maintaining a strong defense encompasses such diverse activities as running a hospital, commanding a tank, programming computers, operating a nuclear reactor, and repairing and maintaining a helicopter. The military's occupational diversity provides educa tional opportunities and work experience in literally thousands of occupations. Military personnel hold managerial and administrative jobs; professional, technical, and clerical jobs; construction jobs; electrical and electronics jobs; mechanical and repair jobs; and many others. The military provides job training and work experience for people who can serve for a relatively brief period (3 to 6 years of active duty) or embark on a career that lasts 20 years or more. There are more than 2,000 basic and advanced military occupa tional specialties for enlisted personnel and 1,600 for officers. Over 75 percent of these occupational specialties have civilian counter parts. A brief discussion of the major military occupational groups follows. Infantry, gun crews, and seamanship specialists are the backbone of the Armed Forces. Officers plan and direct military operations, oversee security activities, and serve as combat troop leaders. En listed personnel serve as infantrymen, aircraft crew members, weap ons specialists, armored vehicle operators, demolition experts, artillery crew, rocket specialists, special operations forces, and combat engineers. Although these functions are unique to the Armed Forces, some involve skills that can be applied to a number of civil ian occupations such as police officers, firefighters, and heavy equipment operators. In addition, people in this category learn how to work as team members and can develop leadership, managerial, and supervisory skills. Military personnel assigned to electronic equipment repair occu pations are responsible for maintaining and repairing many different types of equipment. Officers manage the regular maintenance and repair of avionics, communications, radar, and air traffic control equipment. Enlisted personnel repair radio, navigation, missile guidance, and flight control equipment as well as telephone, teletype, and data processing equipment. Many of these skills are directly transferable to jobs in the civilian sector. Communications and intelligence specialists in the military have civilian scientific and engineering counterparts. Officers serve as intelligence gatherers and interpreters, cryptologists, information analysts, translators, science and engineering researchers, and in related intelligence occupations. Enlisted personnel work as com puter programmers, air traffic controllers, interpreters and translators, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and radio, radar, and sonar operators. Military medical and dental occupations all have civilian coun terparts. Holding the rank of medical officer are physicians, dentists, optometrists, nurses, therapists, veterinarians, pharmacists, and others in health diagnosing and treating occupations. Enlisted personnel are trained to work as medical laboratory technologists and technicians, radiologic technologists, emergency medical technicians, dental assistants, optical assistants, pharmaceutical assistants, sanitation specialists, and veterinary assistants. Health professions training obtained in the military is usually recognized in the civilian sector; service-trained health professionals are eligible to apply for certifica tion or registration, a hiring prerequisite in many civilian health settings. Military experience in other technical and allied specialty occu pations is often directly transferable to civilian life. Officers in this field work as meteorologists, mapping directors, television and motion picture directors, and band directors. Enlisted personnel are trained to work as photographers, motion picture camera operators, mapping and surveying specialists, illustrators, weather data collec tors, explosives disposal specialists, divers, and musicians. Functional support and administrative occupations in military service require the same skills as similar jobs in private businesses and government agencies. Officers in this category work as direc tors, executives, adjutants, administrative officers, personnel manag ers, training administrators, budget officers, finance officers, public affairs officers, accountants, hospital administrators, inspectors, computer systems managers, and lawyers. Enlisted personnel in this category work as accounting clerks, payroll clerks, personnel clerks, computer programmers, computer operators, chaplain assistants, counseling aides, typists, stenographers, storekeepers, and other clerks. Those in electrical and mechanical equipment repair occupations maintain aircraft, motor vehicles, and ships. Officers manage the maintenance of aircraft, missiles, conventional and nuclear-powered ships, trucks, earth-moving equipment, and other vehicles. Enlisted personnel serve as mechanics, engine specialists, and boiler techni cians. They also install and maintain wire communications systems such as telephones. Skills obtained in these jobs are readily transfer able to those in the civilian sector. Military forces train and work to be prepared in all climates, weather conditions, and settings. 463 464 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Military personnel assigned to craft occupations are skilled craft workers. Officers serve as civil engineers and architects and manage the work of enlisted personnel who work as carpenters, construction equipment operators, metalworkers, machinists, plumbers, welders, electricians, and heating and air-conditioning specialists. Military personnel in service and supply occupations handle food service, security, and personal services and supply. Officers work as logistics officers, supply managers, transportation and traffic manag ers, and procurement officers. Enlisted personnel include military police, correction specialists, detectives, firefighters, and food prepa ration and other service workers. They operate transportation equip ment such as trucks, ships, boats, airplanes, and helicopters, and act as quartermasters, supply specialists, and cargo specialists. Many of these skills can be transferred to civilian occupations. Working Conditions Military life is much more regimented than civilian life, and one must be willing to accept the discipline. It is important to remember that by signing an enlistment contract, you sign a legal document that obligates you to serve for a specified period of time. Dress and grooming requirements are stringent, and rigid for malities govern many aspects of everyday life. For instance, officers and enlisted personnel do not socialize together, and superior com missioned officers are saluted and addressed as "sir" or "ma'am." These and other rules encourage respect for superiors whose com mands must be obeyed immediately and without question. The needs of the military always come first. As a result, hours and working conditions can vary substantially. However, most military personnel usually work 8 hours a day, 5 days a week. Some assignments require night and weekend work, or require people to be on call at all hours. All may require substantial travel. Many require long periods at sea, sometimes in cramped quarters, or lengthy overseas assignments in countries offering few amenities. Some jobs are in isolated areas subject to extreme cold or heat. Others, such as carrier flight deck duty, are hazardous even in noncombat situations. During times of conflict, many are in combat, and may find themselves in life or death situations. Countless hours of training produce teamwork that is highly critical to the success or failure of an operation, and possibly to the lives of individuals in the unit. Also, rapidly advancing military technology has made warfare more precise and lethal, further increasing the need for teamwork. Non combatants may also face danger if their duties bring them close to the combat zone. They may also participate in dangerous training activities. Military officers and enlisted personnel in all branches are paid according to the same pay scales and receive the same basic benefits. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Those aboard ship, on air crews, and others travel regularly, while others in the military are stationed at bases throughout the country or overseas. Military personnel usually are transferred to a new duty station every few years. Military personnel enjoy more job security than their civilian counterparts. Satisfactory job performance generally assures one of steady employment and earnings. Employment In 1995, about 1.6 million persons were on active duty in the Armed Forces—about 523,000 in the Army; 405,000 in the Air Force; 442,000 in the Navy; 172,000 in the Marine Corps; and 34,000 in the Coast Guard. About one in eight of those on active duty were women. Military personnel are stationed throughout the United States and in many countries around the world. California, Texas, North Caro lina, and Virginia accounted for more than 1 in 3 military jobs. About 287,000 were stationed outside the United States in 1994. Over 142,000 of these were stationed in Europe (mainly in Ger many); large numbers also were in the Western Pacific area. Table 1 shows the occupational composition of enlisted personnel in 1995. Nearly 4 out of 10 held jobs that involved communications, electronic, mechanical, or related equipment, a reflection of the highly technical nature of the fighting forces today. Table 2 shows the occupational composition of officer personnel in 1995. Offi cers—who accounted for about 16 percent of all military personnel— are concentrated in combat activities, where they serve as ships’ officers, aircraft pilots and crew members, and infantry or artillery officers. Officers also serve in engineering and maintenance, and medical and dental positions. Qualifications, Training, and Advancement General enlistment qualifications. As it has since 1973, the military expects to continue to meet its personnel requirements through volunteers. Enlisted members must enter a legal agreement called an enlistment contract, which usually involves a commitment to 8 years of service. Depending on the terms of the contract, 2 to 6 years are spent on active duty, the balance in the reserves. The enlistment contract obligates the service to provide the agreed-upon options— job, rating, pay, cash bonuses for enlistment in certain occupations, medical and other benefits, occupational training, and continuing education. In return, enlisted persons must serve satisfactorily for the specified period of time. Requirements for each service vary, but certain qualifications for enlistment are common to all branches. Enlistees must be between the ages of 17 and 35, must be a U.S. citizen or immigrant alien holding permanent resident status, must not have a felony record, and must possess a birth certificate. Applicants who are 17 must have the consent of a parent or legal guardian before entering the service. Air Force enlisted personnel must enter active duty before their 28th birthday. Applicants must pass both a written examination—the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery—and meet certain minimum physical standards such as height, weight, vision, and overall health. All branches prefer high school graduation or its equivalent and require it for certain enlistment options. In 1995, 95 percent of enlistees were high school graduates. Single parents are generally not eligible to enlist. People thinking about enlisting in the military should learn as much as they can about military life before making a decision. This is especially important if you are thinking about making the military a career. Speaking to friends and relatives with military experience is a good idea. Determine what the military can offer you and what it will expect in return. Then talk to a recruiter, who can determine if you qualify for enlistment; explain the various enlistment options; and tell you which military occupational specialties currently have openings for trainees. Bear in mind that the recruiter's job is to recruit promising applicants into the military, so the information he or she gives you is likely to stress the positive aspects of military life. Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces 465 Table 1. Military enlisted personnel by broad occupational category and branch of military service, 1995 Occupational Group Total Infantry, gun crews, and seamanship specialists Electronic equipment repairers Communications and intelligence specialists Health care specialists Other technical and allied specialists Functional support and administration Electrical/mechanical equipment repairers Craftworkers Service and supply handlers Nonoccupational Total Army Navy 1,300,937 221,353 127,110 119,392 87,562 32,685 212,637 258,114 53,503 116,900 68,974 439,471 124,590 25,177 45,543 33,943 12,799 75,035 60,608 8,444 49,313 1,369 381,241 37,273 56,765 39,158 30,086 4,121 39,947 97,884 25,149 20,133 30,703 Marine Air Corps Force 153,841 38,237 9,119 12,150 (') 3,609 25,361 23,008 4,167 21,183 16,992 326,384 21,253 36,049 22,541 23,533 12,156 72,294 76,614 15,743 26,271 19,910 'The Marine Corps employ no medical personnel. Their medical services are provided by the Navy. SOURCE: U S. Department of Defense Table 2. Military officer personnel by broad occupational category and branch of service, 1995 Occupational Group Total General officers and executives Tactical operations officers Intelligence officers Engineering and maintenance officers Scientists and professionals Medical officers Administrators Supply, procurement, and allied officers Nonoccupational Total Army Navy 240,986 2,019 93,263 12,580 31,814 11,380 41,708 16,264 20,441 9,433 83,930 328 33,623 5,987 9,755 2,919 16,184 5,070 8,038 137 60,325 226 23,007 2,251 7,543 2,377 11,602 3,150 3,597 6,517 Marine Air Corps Force 17,825 684' 8,697 716 1,752 466 (2) 1,588 2,078 1,735 78,905 78 P 27,936 3,626 12,763 5,618 13,922 6,456 6,728 1,044 'The Marine Corps includes colonels as general officers. There were 68 generals in the Marine Corps in 1995. 2The Marine Corps employ no medical personnel. Their medical services are provided by the Navy. '’There were 274 general officers and 507 executives, not elsewhere classified, in the Air Force in 1995. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Defense Ask the recruiter to assess your chances of being accepted for training in the occupation or occupations of your choice, or, better still, take the aptitude exam to see how well you score. The military uses the aptitude exam as a placement exam, and test scores largely determine an individual's chances of being accepted into a particular training program. Selection for a particular type of training depends on the needs of the service, general and technical aptitudes, and personal preference. Because all prospective recruits are required to take the exam, those who do so before committing themselves to enlist have the advantage of knowing in advance whether they stand a good chance of being accepted for training in a particular specialty. The recruiter can schedule you for the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery without any obligation. Many high schools offer the exam as an easy way for students to explore the possibility of a military career. Enlistment contract. If you decide to join the military, the next step is to pass the physical examination and then enter into the en listment contract. This involves choosing, qualifying, and agreeing on a number of enlistment options such as length of active duty time, which may vary according to the enlistment option. (Most active duty programs have enlistment options ranging from 3 to 6 years, although there are some 2-year programs.) The contract will also https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis list the date of enlistment and other options such as bonuses and types of training to be received. If the service is unable to fulfill its part of the contract (such as providing a certain kind of training) the contract may become null and void. All services offer a "delayed entry program" by which an enlistee can delay entry into active duty for up to 1 year. High school stu dents can enlist during their senior year and enter a service after graduation. Other enlistees choose this program because the job training they desire is not currently available but will be within the coming year, or because they need time to arrange personal affairs. Women are eligible to enter almost all military specialties. Although many women serve in medical and administrative support positions, women also work as mechanics, missile maintenance technicians, heavy equipment operators, fighter pilots, and intelli gence officers. Only some occupations involving a high probability of direct exposure to combat are excluded—for example, artillery man and infantryman. People planning to apply the skills gained through military train ing to a civilian career should look into several things before select ing their military occupation. First, they should determine how good the prospects are for civilian employment in jobs related to the military specialty which interests them. Second, they should know 466 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Many occupations in the military have training applicable to civilian jobs. the prerequisites for the related civilian job. Many occupations require a license, certification, or a minimum level of education. In such cases, it is important to determine whether military training is sufficient to enter the civilian equivalent or, if not, what additional training will be required. Other Handbook statements discuss the job outlook for civilian occupations for which military training is helpful. Additional infor mation often can be obtained from schools, unions, trade associa tions, and other organizations in the field of interest, or from a school counselor. Training programs for enlisted personnel. Following enlistment, new members of the Armed Forces undergo recruit training. Better known as "basic" training, recruit training provides a 6- to 11-week introduction to military life with courses in health, first aid, and military skills and protocol. Days and nights are carefully structured and include rigorous physical exercises designed to improve strength and endurance. Following basic training, most recruits take additional training at technical schools that prepare them for a particular military occupa tional specialty. The formal training period generally lasts from 10 to 20 weeks, although training for certain occupations—nuclear power plant operator is an example—may take as much as 1 year. Recruits not assigned to classroom instruction receive on-the-job training at their first duty assignment. In addition to on-duty training, military personnel may choose from a variety of educational programs. Most military installations have tuition assistance programs for people wishing to take courses during off-duty hours. These may be correspondence courses or de gree programs offered by local colleges or universities. Also avail able are courses designed to help service personnel earn high school equivalency diplomas. Each service branch provides opportunities for full-time study to a limited number of exceptional applicants. Military personnel accepted into these highly competitive programs receive full pay, allowances, tuition, and related fees. In return, they must agree to serve an additional amount of time in the service. Other very selective programs enable enlisted personnel to qualify as commissioned officers through additional military training. Officer training. Officer training in the Armed Forces is provided through the Federal service academies (Military, Naval, Air Force, and Coast Guard); the Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC); Officer Candidate School (OCS); the National Guard (State Officer Candidate School programs); the Uniformed Services University of Health Sciences; and other programs. All are very selective and are good options for those wishing to make the military a career. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The Coast Guard works to defend the Nation's shorelines from attack, smuggling, and illegal immigration. Federal service academies provide a 4-year college program leading to a bachelor of science degree. The midshipman or cadet is provided free room and board, tuition, medical care, and a monthly allowance. Graduates receive regular commissions and have a 5-year active duty obligation, or longer if entering flight training. To become a candidate for appointment as a cadet or midshipman in one of the service academies, most applicants obtain a nomination from an authorized source (usually a Member of Congress). Candi dates do not need to know a Member of Congress personally to request a nomination. Nominees must have an academic record of the requisite quality, college aptitude test scores above an established minimum, and recommendations from teachers or school officials; they also must pass a medical examination. Appointments are made from the list of eligible nominees. Appointments to the Coast Guard Academy are made strictly on a competitive basis. A nomination is not required. ROTC programs train students in about 950 Army, 60 Navy and Marine Corps, and 550 Air Force units at participating colleges and universities. Trainees take 2 to 5 hours of military instruction a week in addition to regular college courses. After graduation, they serve as officers on active duty for a stipulated period of time. In the last 2 years of an ROTC program, students receive a monthly allowance while attending school and additional pay for summer training. ROTC scholarships for 2, 3, and 4 years are available on a competi tive basis. All scholarships pay for tuition and have allowances for subsistence, textbooks, supplies, and other fees. Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces 467 enlisted and officer personnel come easily. Subsequent promotions are much more competitive. Criteria for promotion may include time in service and grade, job performance, a supervisor's recommenda tion, and written examinations. Although the Armed Forces is a large organization that will continue to promote many of its people, the military drawdown continues to reduce the number of promotion slots. People who are continually passed over for promotion are eventually encouraged to leave the military. Most military occupations are open to women. College graduates can earn a commission in the Armed Forces through OCS programs in the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, Coast Guard, and National Guard. Persons with training in certain health professions may qualify for direct appointment as officers. In the case of health professions students, financial assistance and internship opportunities are avail able from the military in return for specified periods of military service. Prospective medical students can apply to the Uniformed Services University of Health Sciences, which offers free tuition in a program leading to an M.D. degree. In return, graduates must serve for 7 years in either the military or the Public Health Service. Direct appointments also are available for those qualified to serve in other special duties, such as the judge advocate general (legal) or chaplain corps. Flight training is available to commissioned officers in each branch of the Armed Forces. In addition, the Army has a direct enlistment option to become a warrant officer aviator. Advancement opportunities. Each service has different criteria for promoting personnel. Generally, the first few promotions for both Job Outlook America's strategic position is stronger than it has been in decades. Due primarily to the reduction in the threat from Eastern Europe and Russia, the Armed Forces enacted a personnel reduction plan that is now nearly completed. From 1994 to 1999, planned reductions are as follows: Army, 18,000; Navy, 9,000; Air Force, 25,000; the Marine Corps has no further planned reductions. After 1997, the number of active duty personnel is expected to remain constant. The Armed Forces' goal is to maintain a sufficient force to fight and win two major regional conflicts occurring at the same time. However, political events could cause these plans to change. This personnel reduction has caused a decrease in recruiting levels and a toughening of advancement standards. In addition, many career personnel have been given the option of a severance payment to leave the service before their planned retirement. In spite of this personnel reduction, job opportunities should be good in all branches of the Armed Forces through the year 2005. Persons entering the Armed Forces in the late-1990s will finish their first enlistment after 2000, and by then the planned personnel reduc tion should be complete. About 190,000 enlisted personnel and 15,000 officers must be recruited each year to replace those who complete their enlistment or retire. Educational requirements will continue to rise as military jobs become more technical and complex; high school graduates and applicants with some college background will be sought to fill the ranks of enlisted personnel. Earnings, Allowances, and Benefits Starting salaries. Annual salaries by rank and years of service of military personnel are shown in table 3. Most enlisted personnel started as recruits at Grade E-l in 1995; however, those with special skills or above-average education started as high as Grade E-3. Most Table 3. Military basic pay by grade for active duty personnel with fewer than 2 years service at grade, 1995 Basic monthly pay Army Commissioned officers: 0-6 Colonel 0-5 Lieutenant Colonel 0-4 Major 0-3 Captain 0-2 1st Lieutenant O-l 2nd Lieutenant Warrant officers: W-2 Chief Warrant Officer W-l Warrant Officer Enlisted personnel: E-6 Staff Sergeant E-5 Sergeant E-4 Corporal E-3 Private First Class E-2 Private E-l Recruit 'Fewer than 4 months active duty. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Defense https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ' ‘ Navy Air Force Marine Corps Captain Commander Lieutenant Commander Lieutenant Lieutenant (JG) Ensign Colonel Lieutenant Colonel Major Captain 1st Lieutenant 2nd Lieutenant Colonel Lieutenant Colonel Major Captain 1st Lieutenant 2nd Lieutenant Chief Warrant Officer Warrant Officer Chief Warrant Officer Warrant Officer Chief Warrant Officer Warrant Officer 1,752.90 1,460.10 Petty Officer 1 st Class Petty Officer 2nd Class Petty Officer 3rd Class Seaman Seaman Apprentice Seaman Recruit Technical Sergeant Staff Sergeant Airman 1st Class Airman 2nd Class Airman 3rd Class Basic Airman Staff Sergeant Sergeant Corporal Lance Corporal Private 1 st Class Private 1,290.30 1,132.20 1,056.00 995.10 957.60 854.40 790.20 $3,449.70 2,759.10 2,325.60 2,161.20 1,884.60 1,636.20 468 Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces warrant officers started at Grade W-l or W-2, depending upon their occupational and academic qualifications and the branch of service. Most commissioned officers started at Grade 0-1; highly trained officers—for example, physicians, engineers, and scientists—started as high as Grade 0-3 or 0-4. Allowances. In addition to basic pay, military personnel receive free room and board (or a housing and subsistence allowance), medical and dental care, a military clothing allowance, military supermarket and department store shopping privileges, 30 days of paid vacation a year, and travel opportunities. Other allowances are paid for foreign duty, hazardous duty, submarine and flight duty, and employment as a medical officer. Athletic and other recreational facilities—such as libraries, gym nasiums, tennis courts, golf courses, bowling centers, and movies— are available on many military installations. Military personnel are eligible for retirement benefits after 20 years of service. Annual earnings. In 1995, the average compensation of all military personnel—including basic pay and housing and subsistence allowances—was $29,300. Enlisted personnel averaged $25,400; warrant officers averaged $42,400; and commissioned officers averaged $52,800. Veterans' benefits. The Veterans Administration (VA) provides numerous benefits to those who have served at least 2 years in the Armed Forces. Veterans are eligible for free care in VA hospitals for all service-connected disabilities regardless of time served; those with other medical problems are eligible for free VA care if they are unable to pay the cost of hospitalization elsewhere. Admission to a VA medical center depends on the availability of beds, however. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Veterans are also eligible for certain loans, including home loans. Veterans, regardless of health, can convert a military life insurance policy to an individual policy with any participating company in the veteran's State of residence. In addition, job counseling, testing, and placement services are available. Veterans who participate in the New Montgomery GI Bill Pro gram receive educational benefits. Under this program, Armed Forces personnel may elect to deduct from their pay up to $100 a month to put toward their future education. Depending on the length of enlistment, the Government will contribute up to $9,600, until the combined contributions reach a maximum of $10,800. In addition, each service may provide its own additional contributions to put toward future education. This sum becomes the service member's educational fund. Upon separation from active duty, the fund can be used to finance an education at any VA-approved institution. VAapproved schools include many vocational, correspondence, busi ness, technical, and flight training schools; community and junior colleges; and colleges and universities. Information on educational and other veterans' benefits is avail able from VA offices located throughout the country. Sources of Additional Information Each of the military services publishes handbooks, fact sheets, and pamphlets that describe entrance requirements, training and ad vancement opportunities, and other aspects of military careers. These publications are widely available at all recruiting stations, most State employment service offices, and in high schools, colleges, and public libraries. Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail Employment in the approximately 250 occupations covered in detail in the main body of the Handbook accounts for about 110 million or 87 percent of all jobs in the economy. Although occupations cover ing the full spectrum of work are included, those requiring lengthy education or training are generally given the most attention. This chapter presents summary data on 79 additional occupations, for which employment projections are prepared, but for which de tailed occupational information is not developed. These occupations account for about 5 percent of all jobs. For each occupation, a brief description of the nature of work, the number of jobs in 1994, a phrase describing the projected employment change from 1994 to 2005, and the most significant source of training are presented. For guidelines to interpreting the description of projected employment change, refer to an earlier chapter, Occupational Information In cluded in the Handbook. The approximately 8 percent of all jobs not covered either in the detailed occupational descriptions in the main body of the Handbook or in the summary data presented in this chapter are mainly residual categories, such as "all other management support workers," for which little meaningful information could be developed. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations________ Communications, transportation, and utilities operations managers Plan, organize, direct, control, or coordinate management activities related to: Communications by telephone, telegraph, radio, or tele vision; transporting people or goods by air, highway, railway, water, or pipeline; transportation facilities, such as airports, harbors, or terminals; warehouse and storage facilities; and electricity, gas, water, steam, or sanitation services. 1994 employment: 154,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Work experience plus bachelor's degree Credit analysts Analyze current data and financial statements of individuals or firms to determine the degree of risk involved in extending credit or lend ing money. Prepare reports with this credit information for use in making decisions. 1994 employment: 39,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: Bachelor's degree Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents 1994 employment: 38,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: More than 12 months of on-thejob training Directors, religious activities and education Direct and coordinate activities of a denominational group to meet religious needs of students. Plan, organize, and direct religious school programs designed to promote religious education. Provide counseling and guidance on marital, health, financial, and religious problems. 1994 employment: 81,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Bachelor's degree Farm and home management advisors Advise, instruct, and assist individuals and families engaged in ag riculture and related processes or home economics activities. Apply research findings and procedures to solve problems and provide instruction and training in the development of products, sales, and the use of machinery and equipment. 1994 employment: 14,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Bachelor's degree Instructors and coaches, sports and physical training Instruct or coach groups in the fundamentals of sports, and demon strate techniques and methods of participation. Observe and inform participants of corrective measures to improve their skills. Includes those who are not required to hold teaching degrees. 1994 employment: 283,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Residential counselors Coordinate activities for residents of care and treatment institutions, boarding schools, college fraternities or sororities, children's homes, or similar establishments. Work includes developing or assisting in the development of program plans for individuals, maintaining household records, and assigning rooms. Counsel residents in identi fying and resolving social or other problems. Order supplies and determine need for maintenance, repairs, and furnishings. 1994 employment: 266,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Bachelor's degree Determine tax liability or collect taxes from individuals or business firms according to prescribed laws and regulations. 1994 employment: 63,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: Little change Most significant source of training: Bachelor's degree Professional Specialty Occupations Athletes, coaches, umpires, and referees Participate in competitive professional athletic events as a player, coach, manager, umpire, or judge. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Technicians and Related Support Occupations Pharmacy technicians Fill orders for unit doses and prepackaged pharmaceuticals and perform other related duties under the supervision and direction of a pharmacy supervisor or staff pharmacist. Duties include keeping records of drugs delivered to the pharmacy, storing incoming mer chandise in proper locations, and informing supervisor or stock needs 469 470 Occuptional Outlook Handbook and shortages. May clean equipment used in the performance of duties and assist in the care and maintenance of equipment and supplies. 1994 employment: 81,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: Associate degree Psychiatric technicians Provide nursing care to mentally ill, emotionally disturbed, or men tally retarded patients, and participate in rehabilitation and treatment programs. Help with personal hygiene. Administer oral medications and hypodermic injections, following physician’s prescriptions and hospital procedures. Monitor patients and their emotional well-being and report to medical staff. 1994 employment: 72,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Associate degree Title examiners and searchers Title examiners: Search public records and examine titles to de termine legal status of property titles. Copy or summarize (abstract) recorded documents, such as mortgages, trust deeds, and contracts, affecting title to property. May prepare and issue policy that guaran tees legality of title. Abstractors: Summarize pertinent legal or insurance details, or sections of statutes or case law from reference books for examination, proof, or ready reference. Search out titles to determine if title deed is correct. Searchers: Compile lists of mort gages, deeds, contracts, judgments, and other instruments pertaining to titles by searching public and private records for real estate or title insurance company. 1994 employment: 28,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: Little change Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Veterinary technicians and technologists Perform medical tests in a laboratory environment for use in the treatment and diagnosis of diseases in animals. Prepare vaccines and serums for prevention of diseases. Prepare tissue samples, take blood samples, and execute laboratory tests such as urinalysis and blood counts. Clean and sterilize instruments and materials and maintain equipment and machines. 1994 employment: 22,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Associate degree Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical Court clerks Perform clerical duties in courts of law; prepare docket of cases to be called; secure information for judges; and contact witnesses, at torneys, and litigants to obtain information for court. 1994 employment: 151,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Up to 1 month of on-the-job training Duplicating, mail, and other office machine operators Duplicating machine operators: Operate one or a variety of dupli cating machines to make copies of printed and other information. Mail machine operators: Operate machines to emboss names, ad dresses, and other matter onto metal plates for use in addressing machines; to print names, addresses and other similar information onto items, such as envelopes, accounting forms, and advertising literature; to address, fold, stuff, seal, and stamp mail; and to open envelopes. Transit clerks: Sort, record, proof, and prepare transit items for mailing to or from out-of-city banks to insure correct routing and prompt collection. 1994 employment: 222,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Up to 1 month of on-the-job training Municipal clerks Draft agendas for town or city councils, record minutes of council meetings, answer official correspondence, keep fiscal records and accounts, and prepare reports on civic needs. 1994 employment: 22,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Up to 1 month of on-the-job training Proofreaders and copy markers Read transcript or proof of type setup to detect and mark for cor rection any grammatical, typographical, or compositional errors. 1994 employment: 26,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Up to 1 month of on-the-job training Real estate clerks Perform duties concerned with rental, sale, and management of real estate, such as typing copies of listings, computing interest owed or penalty payments, holding collateral in escrow, and checking due notices on taxes and renewal dates of insurance and mortgage loans. 1994 employment: 24,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: Slower than average Most significant source of training: Up to 1 month of on-the-job training Statistical clerks 1994 employment: 51,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Up to 1 month of on-the-job training Compile and compute data according to statistical formulas for use in statistical studies. May also perform actuarial computations, using algebra and trigonometry, and compile charts and graphs for use by actuaries. Customer service representatives, utilities 1994 employment: 75,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Interview applicants for water, gas, electric, or telephone service. Talk with customers by phone or in person and receive orders for installation, turn-on, discontinuance, or change in service. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail 471 Service Occupations Ambulance drivers and attendants, except emergency medical technicians Drive ambulance or assist ambulance driver in transporting sick, injured, or convalescent persons. Assist in lifting patients and ren dering first aid. May be required to have Red Cross first-aid training certificate. 1994 employment: 18,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Up to 1 month of on-the-job training Amusement and recreation attendants Perform one or more of the following duties at amusement or rec reation facilities: Schedule use of recreation facilities, allocate equipment to participants in sporting events or recreational pursuits, collect fees, set pins, prepare billiard tables, provide caddying and other services for golfers, or operate carnival rides and amusement concessions. 1994 employment: 267,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: Much faster than average Most significant source of training: Up to 1 month of on-the-job training Baggage porters and bellhops Carry baggage for travelers at transportation terminals or for guests at hotels or similar establishments. Perform additional duties, such as assisting handicapped persons, running errands, delivering ice, and directing people to their desired destinations. 1994 employment: 35,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: Up to 1 month of on-the-job training Ushers, lobby attendants, and ticket takers Assist patrons at entertainment events, such as sporting events and motion picture performances. May assist in finding seats, searching for lost articles, and locating rest rooms and telephones. Collect admission tickets and passes from patrons. 1994 employment: 59,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: Up to 1 month of on-the-job training Agricultural, Forestry, Fishing, and Related Occupations Animal breeders and trainers Breeders: Breed livestock or pets for purposes such as riding, working, or show; and for products such as milk, wool, meat, and hair. They select and breed animals according to knowledge of the animals' genealogy, characteristics, and offspring. Trainers: Train animals for riding, harness, security, or obedience. Accustom ani mals to human voice and contact; condition animals to respond to oral, hand, spur, and rein commands. Train animals according to standards for show or competition. May train animals to carry pack loads or work as part of pack team. 1994 employment: 16,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Bachelor's degree Farm workers Plant, cultivate, harvest, and store crops; tend livestock and poultry; operate and maintain farm machinery; and maintain structures. May haul livestock and produce to market or terminal shipping point. 1994 employment: 906,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Crossing guards Guide or control vehicular or pedestrian traffic at such places as street and railroad crossings and construction sites. 1994 employment: 58,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: Little change Most significant source of training: Up to 1 month of on-the-job training Pest controllers and assistants Spray or release chemical solutions or toxic gases and set mechanical traps to kill pests and vermin, such as mice, termites, and roaches, that infest buildings and surrounding areas. 1994 employment: 56,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: Much faster than average Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Pharmacy assistants Mix pharmaceutical preparations under direction of pharmacist. Duties include issuing medicine, labeling and storing supplies, and cleaning equipment and work areas. 1994 employment: 52,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most significant source of training: Up to 1 month of on-the-job training Lawn service managers Plan, organize, direct, control, or coordinate activities of workers engaged in pruning trees and shrubs, cultivating lawns, and applying pesticides and other chemicals according to service contract specifi cations. Work may involve reviewing contracts to ascertain service, machine, and work force requirements; answering inquiries from potential customers regarding methods, material, and price ranges; and preparing service estimates according to labor, material, and machine costs. 1994 employment: 36,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: Work experience Nursery and greenhouse managers Plan, organize, direct, control, or coordinate activities of workers engaged in propagating, cultivating, and harvesting horticultural specialties, such as trees, shrubs, flowers, mushrooms, and other plants. Work may involve training new employees in gardening techniques, inspecting facilities for signs of disrepair, and delegating repair duties to staff. 1994 employment: 19,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: Much faster than average Most significant source of training: Work experience 472 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Nursery workers Plant, cultivate, harvest, and transplant trees, shrubs, or plants in nursery facilities. 1994 employment: 83,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: Up to 1 month of on-the-job training Supervisors, farming, forestry, and agricultural-related occupations Directly supervise and coordinate the activities of agricultural, for estry, fishing, and related workers. May supervise helpers assigned to these workers. 1994 employment: 85,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: Slower than average Most significant source of training: Work experience Veterinary assistants Examine animals for veterinarian; prepare animals for surgery; per form post-operational medical treatment as needed; and give medi cations to animals. Usually works directly under veterinarian. Re ceive extensive training on the job and may also have some post secondary education, such as trade school or junior college. 1994 employment: 31,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Associate degree Paving, surfacing, and tamping equipment operators Operate equipment used for applying concrete, asphalt, or other ma terials to roadbeds, parking lots, or airport runways and taxiways; or equipment used for tamping gravel, dirt, or other materials. 1994 employment: 73,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Pipelayers and pipelaying fitters Pipelayers: Lay glazed or unglazed clay, concrete, plastic, or castiron pipe for storm or sanitation sewers, drains, water mains, and oil or gas lines. May grade trenches or culverts, position pipe, or seal joints. Pipelaying fitters: Align pipeline section preparatory to welding. Signal tractor driver in placing pipeline sections in proper alignment and insert steel spacers. 1994 employment: 57,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Roustabouts Assemble or repair oil field equipment using hand and power tools. Perform other tasks as needed. 1994 employment: 28,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Up to 1 month of on-the-job training Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations Highway maintenance workers Maintain highways, municipal and rural roads, airport runways, and rights-of-way in safe condition by patching broken or eroded pave ment or erecting and repairing guard rails, highway markers, and snow fences. May also clear brush or plant trees along rights-of-way. 1994 employment: 167,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: Slower than average Most significant source of training: Up to 1 month of on-the-job training Mining, quarrying, and tunneling occupations Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers Bicycle repairers Repair and service bicycles using hand tools. 1994 employment: 40,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Camera and photographic equipment repairers Rock splitters, quarry: Separate blocks of rough dimension stone from quarry mass using jackhammer, wedges, and feathers. Roof bolters: Operate self-propelled machine to install roof support bolts in underground mines. Mining machine operators: Operate mining machines, such as self-propelled or truck-mounted drilling machines, continuous mining machines, channeling machines, and cutting machines to extract coal, metal and nonmetal ores, rock, stone, or sand from underground or surface excavation. Continuous mining machine operators: Operate self-propelled mining machine that rips coal from the face and loads it onto conveyors or into shuttle cars in a continuous operation. Mine cutting and channeling machine opera tors: Cut or channel along the face or seams of coal, quarry stone, or other mining surfaces to facilitate blasting, separating, or removing minerals or materials from mines or from the earth's surface. Repair and adjust cameras and photographic equipment, including motion picture cameras and equipment, using specialized tools and testing devices. 1994 employment: 18,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: More than 12 months of on-thejob training 1994 employment: 12,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: More than 12 months of on-thejob training https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1994 employment: 11,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: Slower than average Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Electric meter installers and repairers Install electric meters on pole or customer's premises, test meters, make necessary repairs, and turn current on/off by connecting or disconnecting service drop. Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail 473 Electromedical and biomedical equipment repairers Test, adjust, and repair electromedical equipment using hand tools and meters. Production Occupations 1994 employment: 9,500 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: More than 12 months of on-thejob training Bakers, manufacturing Locksmiths and safe repairers Repair and open locks, make keys, change locks and safe combina tions, and install and repair safes. 1994 employment: 20,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Precision instrument repairers Install, test, repair, maintain, and adjust indicating, recording, teleme tering, and controlling instruments used to measure and control variables such as pressure, flow, temperature, motion, force, and chemical composition. 1994 employment: 40,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: Little change Most significant source of training: More than 12 months of on-thejob training Riggers Mix and bake ingredients according to recipes to produce breads, pastries, and other baked goods. Goods are produced in large quan tities for sale through establishments such as grocery stores. Generally, high-volume production equipment is used. 1994 employment: 36,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Boiler operators and tenders, low pressure Operate or tend low-pressure stationary steam boilers and auxiliary steam equipment, such as pumps, compressors, and air-conditioning equipment, to supply steam heat for office buildings, apartment houses, or industrial establishments; to maintain steam at specified pressure aboard marine vessels; or to generate and supply com pressed air for operation of pneumatic tools, hoists, and air lances. 1994 employment: 18,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Cannery workers Perform a variety of routine tasks in canning, freezing, preserving, or packing food products. May sort, grade, wash, peel, trim, or slice agricultural produce. Set up or repair rigging for ships and shipyards, manufacturing plants, logging yards, construction projects, and for the entertainment industry—for example, motion picture production. Select cables, ropes, pulleys, winches, blocks, and sheaves according to weight and size of load to be moved. Coordinate and direct other workers and the movement of equipment to accomplish the task. 1994 employment: 73,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Up to 1 month of on-the-job training 1994 employment: 11,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: More than 12 months of on-thejob training Operate or tend cementing and gluing machines to join together items, such as veneer sheets and plywood; paper and glass wool, cardboard, or paper; rubber and rubberized fabric parts; plastic; and simulated leather or other materials, to form completed product or to form product for further processing. Tire repairers and changers 1994 employment: 36,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Cementing and gluing machine operators and tenders Repair and replace tires, tubes, treads, and related products on auto mobiles, buses, trucks, and other vehicles. Mount tires on wheels, balance tires and wheels, and test and repair damaged tires and inner tubes. 1994 employment: 89,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: Slower than average Most significant source of training: Up to 1 month of on-the-job training Chemical equipment controllers, operators, and tenders Repair, clean, and adjust mechanisms of instruments such as watches, time clocks, and timing switches using hand tools and measuring instruments. Controllers and operators'. Control or operate equipment to control chemical changes or reactions in the processing of industrial or consumer products. Common types of equipment are reaction ket tles, catalytic converters, continuous or batch treating equipment, saturator tanks, electrolytic cells, reactor vessels, recovery units, and fermentation chambers. Tenders: Tend equipment in which a chemical change or reaction takes place to process chemical sub stances into industrial or consumer products. Common types of equipment are devulcanizers, batch stills, fermenting tanks, steamjacketed kettles, and reactor vessels. 1994 employment: 6,100 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: More than 12 months of on-thejob training 1994 employment: 75,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Watchmakers https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 474 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Chemical plant and system operators Control and operate an entire chemical process or system of ma chines, such as reduction pots and heated air towers, using panel boards, control boards, or semiautomatic equipment. 1994 employment: 37,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: More than 12 months of on-thejob training Coil winders, tapers, and finishers Using coil winding machines, wind wire coils used in turing of electrical components, such as resistors and and electrical equipment, such as field cores, bobbins, cores; and using coil making machines, form coils motors, generators, and control equipment. the manufac transformers, and armature for electrical 1994 employment: 21,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Up to 1 month of on-the-job training Cooking and roasting machine operators and tenders Cooking machine operators and tenders: Operate or tend cooking equipment, such as steam cooking vats, deep fry cookers, pressure cookers, kettles, and boilers, to prepare food products, such as meats, sugar, cheese, and grain. Roasting, baking, and drying machine operators and tenders: Operate or tend roasting, baking, or drying equipment, such as hearth ovens, kiln dryers, roasters, char kilns, steam ovens, and vacuum drying equipment, to reduce moisture content of food or tobacco products such as tobacco, cocoa and coffee beans, macaroni, and grain; to roast grain, nuts, or coffee beans; to bake bread or other bakery products; or to process food preparatory to canning. 1994 employment: 28,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: Slower than average Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Crushing and mixing machine operators and tenders Crushing, grinding, and polishing machine operators and tenders: Operate or tend machines to crush or grind materials such as coal, glass, plastic, dried fruit, grain, stone, chemicals, food, or rubber; or operate or tend machines to buff and polish materials such as stone, glass, slate, plastic or metal trim, bowling balls, or eyeglasses. Mixing and blending machine operators and tenders: Operate or tend machines to mix or blend materials such as spices, dough batter, tobacco, fruit juices, chemicals, livestock feed, food products, color pigments, or explosive ingredients. 1994 employment: 137,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Cutting and slicing machine setters, operators, and tenders Operators and tenders: Operate or tend machines to cut or slice materials such as tobacco, food, paper, roofing slate, glass, stone rubber, cork, and insulating material. Setters and setup operators: Set up and operate machines to cut or slice materials such as glass, stone, cork, rubber, crepe, wallboard, and fibrous insulating board, to specified dimensions for further processing. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1994 employment: 92,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Dairy processing equipment operators, including setters Set up, operate, or tend continuous flow or vat-type equipment to process milk, cream, or other dairy products following specified methods and formulas. 1994 employment: 14,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Electrical and electronic assemblers Perform work at a level less than that required of the precision level. Includes occupations such as electronic wirers, armature connectors, electric motor winders, skein winders, carbon brush assemblers, battery parts assemblers, electric sign assemblers, and electronic assemblers. 1994 employment: 212,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Up to 1 month of on-the-job training Electronic semiconductor processors Process materials used in the manufacture of electronic semicon ductors; load semiconductor material into furnace; saw formed ingots into segments; load individual segment into crystal-growing chamber and monitor controls; locate crystal axis in ingot using x-ray equip ment and saw ingots into wafers; clean, polish, and load wafers into series of special-purpose furnaces, chemical baths, and equipment used to form circuitry and change conductive properties. May scribe or separate wafer into dice. 1994 employment: 33,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: Little change Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Extruding and forming machine setters, operators, and tenders Operators and tenders: Operate or tend machines to shape and form manufactured products such as glass bulbs, molded food and candy, rubber goods, clay products, wax products, tobacco plugs, cosmetics, or paper products, by means of extruding, compressing, or compact ing. Setters and setup operators: Set up and operate machines such as glass forming machines, plodder machines, and tuber machines, to manufacture products such as soap bars, formed rubber, glassware, soft candy, brick, and tile, by means of extruding, compressing, or compacting. 1994 employment: 102,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Foundry mold assembly and shakeout workers Prepare molds, such as cleaning and assembling foundry molds, for pouring. Assemble cores in fixture of automatic core-sorting ma chine, and bond cope and drags together to form completed shell mold. 1994 employment: 10,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail 475 Furnace operators and tenders Operate or tend furnaces, such as gas, oil, coal, electric-arc or electric induction, open-hearth, or oxygen furnaces, to melt and refine metal prior to casting or to produce specified types of steel. 1994 employment: 20,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Machine assemblers Perform work at a level less than that required of the precision level. Includes occupations such as air-conditioning coil assemblers, ball bearing ring assemblers, fuel injection assemblers, and subassem blers. 1994 employment: 51,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: Slower than average Most significant source of training: Up to 1 month of on-the-job training Furnace, kiln, or kettle operators and tenders Operate or tend heating equipment other than basic metal or plastic processing equipment. Furnace operators and tenders'. May anneal glass, roast sulfur, convert chemicals, or process petroleum. Kiln operators and tenders: May heat minerals, dry lumber, fire green ware, anneal glassware, or bake clay products. Oven operators and tenders: May bake fiberglass or painted products, fuse glass or enamel to metal products, carbonize coal, or cure rubber or other products. Drier operators and tenders: May remove moisture from paper, chemicals, ore, clay products, or slurry. Kettle operators and tenders: May melt antimony or asphalt materials, or boil soap. Motion picture projectionists Set up and operate motion picture projection and sound-reproducing equipment to produce coordinated effects on screen. 1994 employment: 7,900 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Up to 1 month of on-the-job training Packaging and filling machine operators and tenders 1994 employment: 28,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Gas and petroleum plant and systems occupations Gaugers: Gauge and test oil in storage tanks and regulate flow of oil into pipelines at wells, tank farms, refineries, and marine and rail terminals following prescribed standards and regulations. Petroleum refinery and control panel operators: Analyze specifications or follow process schedules to operate and control panelboards and continuous petroleum refining and processing units. Gas plant operators: Distribute or process gas for utility companies and others. Distribute the gas for an entire plant or process, often using panel boards, control boards, or semiautomatic equipment. Petroleum pump systems operators: Operate and control manifold and pumping systems to circulate liquids through petroleum refinery. Operate or tend machines, such as filling, casing-running, ham rolling, preservative filling, baling, wrapping, and stuffing machines, to prepare industrial or consumer products, such as gas cylinders, meat and other food products, tobacco, insulation, ammunition, stuffed toys and athletic equipment, and upholstered pads, as end products or for storage and shipment. 1994 employment: 329,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: Slower than average Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Painting, coating, and decorating workers, hand Paint, coat, and decorate, using handtools or hand-held power tools, a wide variety of manufactured items, such as furniture, glass and flatware, lamps, jewelry, books, or leather products. 1994 employment: 33,000 1994 employment: 31,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: More than 12 months of on-thejob training Projected 1994-2005 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Grinders and polishers, hand Paper goods machine setters and setup operators Perform work at a level less than that required of the precision level. Grind and polish a wide variety of metal, stone, clay, plastic, and glass objects or parts, using hand tools or hand-held power tools. 1994 employment: 74,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Up to 1 month of on-the-job training Laundry and drycleaning machine operators and tenders, except pressing Operate and tend washing or drycleaning machines to clean or dryclean commercial, industrial, or household articles, such as suede, leather, and cloth garments, furs, blankets, draperies, fine linens, rugs, and carpets. 1994 employment: 175,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Set up and operate paper goods machines to convert, saw, corrugate, band, wrap, box, stitch, form, or seal paper or paperboard sheets into products such as toilet tissue, towels, napkins, bags, envelopes, tubing, cartons, wax rolls, and containers. 1994 employment: 51,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Separating and still machine operators and tenders Operate or tend machines, such as filter presses, shaker screens, centrifuges, condenser tubes, precipitator tanks, fermenting tanks, evaporating tanks, scrubbing towers, and batch stills, to extract, sort, or separate liquids, gases, or solid materials from other materials in order to recover a refined product or material. 1994 employment: 20,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training 476 Occuptional Outlook Handbook Shipfitters Lay out and fabricate metal structural parts, such as plates, bulk heads, and frames, and brace them in position within hull or ship for riveting or welding. May prepare molds and templates for fab rication of nonstandard parts. 1994 employment: 12,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: More than 12 months of on-thejob training Shoe sewing machine operators and tenders Operate or tend single, double, or multiple-needle stitching machines to join or decorate shoe parts, reinforce shoe parts, or attach buckles. 1994 employment: 14,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Solderers and brazers Join together metal parts or components of metal products, and fill holes, indentations, and seams of fabricated metal products using hand soldering and brazing equipment as specified by job orders, work layouts, or blueprints. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1994 employment: 27,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Up to 1 month of on-the-job training Soldering and brazing machine operators and setters Operators and tenders: Operate or tend soldering and brazing ma chines to braze, solder, or spot-weld fabricated metal products or components as specified by job orders, work layouts, or blueprints. Setters and setup operators: Set up and operate soldering and brazing machines to bronze, solder, heat-treat, or spot-weld fabri cated metal products or components as specified by job orders, work layouts, or blueprints. 1994 employment: 9,700 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Tire building machine operators Operate machines, such as collapsible drum devices, to build pneu matic tires from rubber components, such as beads, ply stock, tread, and sidewalls. 1994 employment: 14,000 Projected 1994-2005 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: 1 to 12 months of on-the-job training Assumptions and Methods Used in Preparing Employment Projections Occupational statements in the Handbook use one of five adjectives to describe projected change in employment. (See figure on page 20.) The adjectives are based on numerical projections developed using the Bureau's employment projections model system. The employment projections are the final output of the system, which also projects the size and composition of the labor force, the level of gross domestic product (GDP)—sales to all final consuming sectors in the economy—the total output of goods and services by industry, and employment by industry. A full description, including numerical projections of employment, appears in the November 1995 Monthly Labor Review, and in Employment Outlook: 1994-2005, BLS Bulle tin 2472. The Fall 1995 Occupational Outlook Quarterly presents the projections in a series of charts. The projections reflect the knowledge and judgment of staff in the Bureau's Office of Employment Projections, who prepared them, and of knowledgeable people from other offices in the Bureau, other government agencies, colleges and universities, industries, unions, professional societies, and trade associations, who furnished data and information, prepared reports, or reviewed the projections. The Bureau, of course, takes full responsibility for them. Assumptions. Because the future course of the economy is uncer tain, the Bureau prepares three scenarios of future economic growth—low, moderate, and high—with varying assumptions about growth of the labor force, output, productivity, inflation, and un employment. The information in the Handbook is based on the moderate-growth scenario, which is characterized by slightly higher productivity growth than in the past, slowing labor force growth, a roughly constant unemployment rate, and a decreasing trade deficit. Other assumptions include real cuts in defense spending, a slight decline in consumer spending on automobiles, and an increase in consumer spending on durable goods such as computers and house hold electronics. Spending on food and beverages will grow more slowly than the average for all consumer expenditures, while spend ing on health care and other services, such as entertainment, recrea tion, and financial services, will grow faster. Investment in production equipment, including that for factory automation, com munication, and computer items, will grow rapidly. Offsetting the expected slowdown in residential construction will be a relatively strong resumption of growth in nonresidential construction, leaving overall construction growing roughly as it did in the past. While the Bureau considers these assumptions reasonable, the economy may well follow a different course, resulting in a different pattern of occupational growth. Growth also could be different from that projected here because most occupations are sensitive to a much wider variety of factors than those considered in the various models. Unforeseen changes in consumer, business, or government spending patterns and in the way goods and services are produced could greatly alter the growth of individual occupations. Methods. This section summarizes the steps by which the Bureau arrives at projections of employment by occupation. BLS uses Bureau of the Census projections of the population by age, gender, and race, combined with projections of labor force participation rates, to arrive at estimates of the civilian labor force. The projections of the labor force and assumptions about other demographic variables, fiscal policy, foreign economic activity, and energy prices and availability form the input to the macroeconomic https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis model. This model provides a balanced and internally consistent representation of the U.S. economy. It projects GDP and the distri bution of GDP by its major demand components—consumer ex penditures, investment, government purchases, and net exports. These are broken down by detailed component, such as health or housing. The resulting estimates of demand for goods and services are used, in conjunction with detailed input-output tables, to project industry output of final products as well as of products required in the production process—total output by industry. Industry output of goods and services is then converted to industry employment. Studies of trends in productivity and technology are used to estimate future output per worker hour, and regression analysis is used to estimate worker hours. These estimates, along with output projections, are used to develop the final industry em ployment projections. An industry-occupation matrix is used to project employment for wage and salary workers. The matrix shows occupational staffing patterns—each occupation as a percent of the work force in every industry. It includes 260 detailed industries and 513 detailed occu pations. Data for current staffing patterns in the matrix come pri marily from the Bureau's Occupational Employment Statistics sur veys, which collect data from employers on a 3-year cycle. The occupational staffing patterns for each industry were projected based on anticipated changes in the way goods and services are produced, then applied to projected industry employment, and the resulting employment summed across industries to get total wage and salary employment by occupation. Using this method, employment is projected to grow faster than average in those occupations concen trated in fast-growing industries and more slowly in slow-growing industries. For example, health care workers are expected to grow rapidly, reflecting rapid growth of health care industries. Employment in an occupation also may grow or decline as a result of many other factors. For example, rapid growth is expected among teacher aides and educational assistants as increasing attention to the quality of education leads schools to hire more support staff. Rapid growth is also expected among computer systems analysts as tech nology advances and organizations place more emphasis on network applications and maximizing the efficiency of their computer sys tems. On the other hand, automation, the expanding use of comput ers, and developments in computer software enhance productivity and will result in slower than average growth among many clerical workers, machine operators, and assemblers—thus lowering their proportion of the labor force. The projected-year matrix incorporates these expected changes. Data on self-employed workers in each occupation come from the Current Population Survey. Self-employed workers were projected separately. Replacement needs. In most occupations, replacement needs pro vide more job openings than growth. Replacement openings occur as people leave occupations. Some individuals transfer to other oc cupations as a step up the career ladder or to change careers. Some stop working temporarily, perhaps to return to school or care for a family. Other workers—retirees for example—leave the labor force permanently. A discussion of replacements, including separation rates for selected occupations, is presented in Occupational Projec tions and Training Data, 1996 Edition, BLS Bulletin 2471. ATT Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage The Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) was designed to pro vide detailed standardized occupational information to facilitate pub lic employment service activities involving classification and place ment of jobseekers. Its coding structure also is used to help bridge or relate to other occupational classification systems used in the collec tion of employment data. Columns 1 and 3 below list the numbers and titles, respectively, from the D.O.T., Fourth Edition, Revised 1991. Column 4 gives the page of the Handbook on which the relevant occupational statement begins. Nearly all occupational statements in the Handbook list the D O T. codes that relate to or match the definitions used in the Bu reau's Occupational Employment Statistics Survey—the major source of occupational staffing patterns used in the Occupational Outlook Program. However, the D.O.T. numbers associated with the follow ing occupations are too numerous to list: Apparel workers Blue-collar worker supervisors Clerical supervisors and managers General managers and top executives Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers Industrial machinery repairers Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction Inspectors, testers, and graders Manufacturers' and wholesale sales representatives Material moving equipment operators Material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations (except for dispatchers, stock clerks, and traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks) Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators Painting and coating machine operators Precision assemblers Prepress workers Printing press operators Retail sales workers Science technicians Textile machinery operators Woodworking occupations These, nevertheless, are available on request from the Chief, Division of Occupational Outlook, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Depart ment of Labor, Washington, DC 20212. Numbers in column 2 refer to the coding structure of the 1980 Standard Occupational Classification Manual (S.O.C.). The S.O.C. is the basis for the occupational arrangement used in the National In dustry-Occupation Employment Matrix—the Handbook's source of data on current and projected employment. D.O.T. Number 001061010 001061018 001167010 001261010 001261014 002061010 002061014 002061018 002061022 002061026 002061030 002167010 SOC Code 1610 1610 1610 3720 3720 1622 1622 1622 1622 1622 1622 1622 D.O.T. Title Architect................................... Landscape architect.................. School-plant consultant............ Drafter, architectural................ Drafter, landscape.................... Aerodynamicist........................ Aeronautical engineer.............. Aeronautical test engineer....... Aeronautical-design engineer... Aeronautical-research engineer Stress analyst........................... Value engineer......................... 478 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis „ Page 85 87 85 224 224 79 79 79 79 79 79 79 D.O.T Number SOC Code D.O.T Title „ Page 002167014 1622 Field-service engineer............................................... 002167018 1622 Aeronautical project engineer................................... 002261010 3720 Drafter, aeronautical.................................................. 002261014 3719 Research mechanic.................................................... 002262010 3719 Flight-test data acquisition technician...................... 003061010 1633 Electrical engineer..................................................... 003061014 1633 Electrical test engineer.............................................. 003061018 1633 Electrical-design engineer......................................... 003061022 1633 Electrical-prospecting engineer................................. 003061026 1633 Electrical-research engineer...................................... 003061030 1633 Electronics engineer.................................................. 003061034 1633 Electronics-design engineer...................................... 003061038 1633 Electronics-research engineer................................... 003061042 1633 Electronics-test engineer........................................... 003061046 1633 Illuminating engineer................................................ 003061050 1633 Planning engineer, central office facilities................ 003131010 3720 Supervisor, drafting and printed circuit design......... 003161010 3711 Electrical technician.................................................. 003161014 3711 Electronics technician............................................... 003161018 3711 Technician, semiconductor development.................. 003167010 1633 Cable engineer, outside plant.................................... 003167014 1633 Distribution-field engineer........................................ 003167018 1633 Electrical engineer, power system............................. 003167022 1633 Electrolysis-and-corrosion-control engineer............. 003167026 1633 Engineer of system development.............................. 003167030 1633 Engineer-in-charge, studio operations...................... 003167034 1633 Engineer-in-charge, transmitter................................. 003167038 1633 Induction-coordination power engineer.................... 003167042 1633 Outside-plant engineer.............................................. 003167046 1633 Power-distribution engineer...................................... 003167050 1633 Power-transmission engineer.................................... 003167054 1633 Protection engineer.................................................... 003167058 1633 Supervisor, microwave.............................................. 003167066 1633 Transmission-and-protection engineer...................... 003167070 1260 Engineering manager, electronics............................. 003187010 1633 Central-office equipment engineer............................ 003187014 1633 Commercial engineer................................................ 003187018 1633 Customer-equipment engineer.................................. 003261010 3711 Instrumentation technician........................................ 003261014 3720 Controls designer....................................................... 003261018 3720 Integrated circuit layout designer.............................. 003261022 3720 Printed circuit designer.............................................. 003281010 3720 Drafter, electrical....................................................... 003281014 3720 Drafter, electronic...................................................... 003362010 3719 Design technician, computer-aided........................... 005061010 1628 Airport engineer........................................................ 005061014 1628 Civil engineer............................................................ 005061018 1628 Hydraulic engineer.................................................... 005061022 1628 Irrigation engineer..................................................... 005061026 1628 Railroad engineer...................................................... 005061030 1628 Sanitary engineer....................................................... 005061034 1628 Structural engineer.................................................... 005061038 1628 Transportation engineer............................................ 005061042 1628 Waste-management engineer, radioactive materials.. 005167010 1628 Chief engineer, waterworks...................................... 005167014 1628 Drainage-design coordinator..................................... 005167018 1628 Forest engineer.......................................................... 005167022 1134 Highway-administrative engineer............................. 005167026 1634 Production engineer, track........................................ 005261014 3710 Civil engineering technician..................................... 005281010 3720 Drafter, civil.............................................................. 005281014 3720 Drafter, structural...................................................... 006061010 1623 Ceramic design engineer........................................... 006061014 1623 Ceramic engineer....................................................... 006061018 1623 Ceramic research engineer........................................ 006061022 1623 Ceramics test engineer.............................................. 006261010 3719 Scientific glass blower.............................................. 007061010 1635 Automotive engineer................................................. 007061014 1635 Mechanical engineer................................................. 007061018 1635 Mechanical-design engineer, facilities...................... 007061022 1635 Mechanical-design engineer, products...................... 007061026 1635 Tool designer............................................................. 79 39 224 226 226 81 81 81 81 81 81 81 81 81 81 81 224 226 226 226 81 81 81 81 81 81 39 81 81 81 81 81 81 81 39 81 81 81 226 224 224 224 224 224 226 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 39 80 80 39 81 226 224 224 82 82 82 82 226 82 82 82 82 82 Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage 479 d.o.t. Number soc Code 007061030 007061034 007061038 007061042 007161010 007161014 007161018 007161022 007161026 007161030 007161034 007161038 007167010 007167014 007167018 007181010 007261010 007261014 007261018 007261022 007267010 007267014 007281010 008061010 008061014 008061018 008061022 008061026 008167010 008261010 010061010 010061010 010061014 010061018 010061022 010061022 010061026 010061030 010061030 010161010 010161014 010167010 010167014 010167018 010261010 010261026 010281010 010281014 010281018 011061010 011061014 011061018 011061022 011061026 1635 1635 1635 1635 3720 3720 3720 3713 3713 3713 1635 1635 3713 1635 3974 3713 3720 3720 3720 3720 1635 3713 3720 1626 1626 1626 1626 1626 1626 3719 1624 1624 1624 1625 1624 1624 1624 1624 1624 1625 1625 1625 1625 1260 3719 3719 3720 3720 3720 1623 1623 1623 1623 1623 011161010 1260 011261010 011261014 011261018 011261022 011281014 011361010 012061018 012067010 012167010 012167014 012167018 012167030 012167038 012167042 012167046 012167050 012167054 012167058 012167062 012167070 012167074 012167078 012167082 012187014 012261014 3719 3719 3719 3719 3719 3719 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 7100 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 3712 D.O.T. Title Tool-designer apprentice.......................................... Utilization engineer................................................. Applications engineer, manufacturing..................... Stress analyst......................................................... Die designer............................................................. Die-designer apprentice........................................... Engineering assistant, mechanical equipment.......... Mechanical research engineer................................. Mechanical-engineering technician.......................... Optomechanical technician....................................... Test engineer, mechanical equipment...................... Solar-energy-systems designer.................................. Die-drawing checker.............................................. Plant engineer........................................................... Tool programmer, numerical control........................ Heat-transfer technician........... Chief drafter..........................................ZZ!!ZZ! Drafter, castings................................................ Drafter, patent....................................................... Drafter, tool design................................................... Drawings checker, engineering................................ Tool design checker............................................ Drafter, mechanical................................................... Absorption-and-adsorption engineer......................... Chemical design engineer, processes...................... Chemical engineer.................................................... Chemical research engineer.......... ........................... Chemical-test engineer............................................. Technical director, chemical plant............................ Chemical-engineering technician.............................. Design engineer, mining-and-oil-field equipment.... Design engineer, mining-and-oil-field equipment.... Mining engineer....................................................... Petroleum engineer................................................... Research engineer, mining-and-oil-well equipment.. Research engineer, mining-and-oil-well equipment.. Safety engineer, mines.............................................. Test engineer, mining-and-oil-field equipment......... Test engineer, mining-and-oil-field equipment......... Chief engineer, research........................................... Chief petroleum engineer....................................... Chief engineer........................................................... District supervisor, mud-analysis well logging......... Superintendent, oil-well services.............................. Field engineer, specialist...................................... Test-engine evaluator............................................... Drafter, directional survey................................. Drafter, geological........................................ Drafter, geophysical.................................................. Foundry metallurgist.............................................. Metallographer.......................................................... Metallurgist, extractive.................................. Metallurgist, physical......................................... Welding engineer...................................................... Supervisor, metallurgical-and-quality-controltesting................................................................. Metallurgical technician.................................. Welding technician................................................... Nondestructive tester................................................ Laboratory assistant, metallurgical............................ Spectroscopist...................... Tester................................................... ...ZZZZ!! Standards engineer.......................................... Metrologist................................................................ Configuration management analyst........................... Manager, quality control........................................... Factory lay-out engineer.................................... Industrial engineer............................................... Liaison engineer........................................................ Manufacturing engineer............................................ Production engineer........................................... Production planner.................................................... Quality control engineer........................................... Safety manager......................................................... Supervisor, vendor quality........................................ Time-study engineer........................................... Tool planner.............................................................. Documentation engineer........................................... Material scheduler.................................................... Shoe-lay-out planner................................................. Quality control technician........................................ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Page 82 82 82 82 224 224 224 82 226 226 82 82 226 39 410 226 224 224 224 224 82 226 224 80 80 80 80 80 39 226 83 84 83 84 83 84 83 83 84 39 39 84 84 39 226 226 224 224 224 82 82 82 82 82 39 226 226 226 226 226 226 81 81 81 81 81 81 81 81 81 81 81 39 39 81 81 81 81 81 226 D.O.T. SOC Number Code D.O.T. Title Page 012267010 3712 Industrial engineering technician............ 013161010 3719 Agricultural-engineering technician....... 014281010 3720 Drafter, marine....................................... 015021010 1843 Health physicist...................................... 015061010 1627 Design engineer, nuclear equipment....... 015061014 1627 Nuclear engineer..................................... 015061018 1627 Research engineer, nuclear equipment..... 015061022 1627 Test engineer, nuclear equipment........... 015061026 1627 Nuclear-fuels reclamation engineer......... 015061030 1627 Nuclear-fuels research engineer.............. 015067010 1627 Nuclear-criticality safety engineer........... 015137010 1627 Radiation-protection engineer................. 015167010 1627 Nuclear-plant technical advisor............... 015167014 1627 Nuclear-test-reactor program coordinator. 017161010 3720 Drafter, chief, design............................... 017261010 3713 Auto-design checker......... ....................... 017261014 3720 Design drafter, electromechanisms.... 017261018 3720 Detailer.................................................... 017261022 3720 Detailer, furniture.................................... 017261026 3720 Drafter, commercial................................. 017261030 3720 Drafter, detail........................................... 017261034 3720 Drafter, heating and ventilating................ 017261038 3720 Drafter, plumbing.................................... 017261042 3720 Drafter, automotive design...................... 017281010 3720 Auto-design detailer................................ 017281014 3720 Drafter apprentice.................................... 017281018 3720 Drafter, assistant...................................... 017281026 3720 Drafter, automotive design layout............ 017281030 3720 Drafter, oil and gas.................................. 017281034 3720 Technical illustrator................................. 018131010 3734 Supervisor, cartography.......................... 018161010 1649 Surveyor, mine... 018167010 3733 Chief of party............................................ 018167014 3739 Geodetic computator................................ 018167018 1643 Land surveyor........................................... 018167022 1260 Manager, land surveying.......................... 018167026 1649 Photogrammetric engineer....................... 018167030 3734 Supervisor, mapping................................. 018167034 3733 Surveyor assistant, instruments................ 018167038 1649 Surveyor, geodetic.................................... 018167042 1649 Surveyor, geophysical prospecting........... 018167046 1649 Surveyor, marine...................................... 018261010 3734 Drafter, cartographic................................ 018261018 3734 Editor, map.......... 018261022 3734 Mosaicist..................................... 018261026 3739 Photogrammetrist..................................... 018262010 1644 Field-map editor....................................... 018281010 3734 Stereo-plotter operator.............................. 019061014 1623 Materials engineer.................................... 019161010 3720 Supervisor, estimator and drafter.............. 0)9161014 3719 Test technician.......................................... 019167014 1639 Project engineer........................................ 019167018 1628 Resource-recovery engineer..................... 019261014 3720 Estimator and drafter................................ 019261018 3890 Facilities planner...................................... 019261022 3890 Test technician.......................................... 019261026 3710 Fire-protection engineering technician...... 019261034 3890 Laser technician........................................ 019267010 3719 Specification writer................................... 019281010 3711 Calibration laboratory technician.............. 020067014 1739 Mathematician........................................... 020067018 1721 Operations-research analyst...................... 020067022 1733 Statistician, mathematical.......................... 020167010 1732 Actuary...................................................... 020167026 1733 Statistician, applied................................... 020167030 1739 Weight analyst...................................... 021067010 1842 Astronomer............... 022061010 1845 Chemist........ .................. 022061014 1845 Chemist, food.............. .... 022081010 3820 Toxicologist.................................... ZZ”’ 022137010 1845 Laboratory supervisor............................... 022161010 1845 Chemical laboratory chief.......................... 023061010 1843 Electro-optical engineer............................ 023061014 1843 Physicist..................................................... 023067010 1843 Physicist, theoretical.................................. 024061010 1847 Crystallographer....................................... 0240610L4 1649 Geodesist............. 024061018 1847 Geologist............................. 024061022 1847 Geologist, petroleum................................. 024061026 J847 Geophysical prospector............................. 024061030 1847 Geophysicist.............................................. ZZZZZZZZZZZ 226 226 224 113 84 84 84 84 84 84 84 84 84 84 224 226 224 224 224 224 224 224 224 224 224 224 224 224 224 224 89 89 89 89 89 39 89 89 89 89 89 89 89 89 89 89 89 89 82 224 226 39 80 224 226 226 226 226 226 226 96 97 99 91 99 96 113 107 107 103 107 39 113 113 113 109 89 109 109 109 109 480 Occuptional Outlook Handbook D.O.T. SOC Number Code D.O.T. Title 024061030 1847 Geophysicist............................................ 024061034 1847 Hydrologist............................................. 024061038 1847 Mineralogist............................................. 024061042 1847 Paleontologist......................................... 024061046 1847 Petrologist................................................ 024061050 1847 Seismologist............................................. 024061054 1847 Stratigrapher............................................ 024161010 1847 Engineer, soils......................................... 024167010 1847 Geophysical-laboratory chief.................. 025062010 1846 Meteorologist.......................................... 029167014 1260 Project manager, environmental research. 030062010 1636 Software engineer.................................... 030162010 3971 Computer programmer............................. 030162014 1712 Programmer-analyst................................. 030162018 3972 Programmer, engineering and scientific.. 030162022 1712 Systems programmer.............................. 030167010 3971 Chief, computer programmer................. 030167014 1712 Systems analyst....................................... 031132010 3990 Supervisor, network control operators .... 031262010 3990 Data communications analyst................. 031262014 3990 Network control operator........................ 032132010 3990 User support analyst supervisor.............. 032262010 3990 User support analyst............................... 033162010 1490 Computer security coordinator............... 033162014 1490 Data recovery planner............................. 033162018 1719 Technical support specialist................... 033167010 1636 Computer systems hardware analyst...... 033262010 1719 Quality assurance analyst....................... 033362010 1490 Computer security specialist................... 039162010 3990 Data base administrator.......................... 039162014 3990 Data base design analyst......................... 039264010 3990 Microcomputer support specialist.......... 040061010 1853 Agronomist............................................ 040061014 1853 Animal scientist...................................... 040061018 1853 Dairy scientist........................................ 040061030 1852 Forest ecologist...................................... 040061038 1853 Horticulturist.......................................... 040061042 1853 Poultry scientist..................................... 040061046 1852 Range manager...................................... 040061050 1852 Silviculturist........................................... 040061054 1852 Soil conservationist................................ 040061058 1853 Soil scientist........................................... 040061062 1852 Wood technologist................................. 040167010 1852 Forester................................................. 041061010 1855 Anatomist............................................... 041061014 1853 Animal breeder...................................... 041061018 1853 Apiculturist............................................ 041061022 1854 Aquatic biologist.................................... 041061026 1854 Biochemist............................................ 041061030 1854 Biologist................................................ 041061034 1854 Biophysicist.......................................... 041061038 1854 Botanist................................................. 041061042 1854 Cytologist.............................................. 041061046 1853 Entomologist......................................... 041061050 1854 Geneticist.............................................. 041061054 1855 Histopathologist.................................... 041061058 1854 Microbiologist....................................... 041061062 1854 Mycologist............................................ 041061066 1854 Nematologist......................................... 041061070 1855 Parasitologist......................................... 041061074 1855 Pharmacologist..................................... 041061078 1854 Physiologist........................................... 041061082 1853 Plant breeder......................................... 041061086 1854 Plant pathologist................................... 041061090 1854 Zoologist............................................... 041061094 1854 Staff toxicologist................................... 041067010 1855 Medical coordinator, pesticide use....... 041081010 1853 Food technologist................................. 041261010 1855 Public-health microbiologist................ 045061010 1915 Psychologist, developmental................ 045061014 1915 Psychologist, engineering..................... 045061018 1915 Psychologist, experimental................... 045067010 1915 Psychologist, educational..................... 045067014 1915 Psychologist, social.............................. 045067018 1915 Psychometrist....................................... 045107010 2400 Counselor............................................. 045107014 2400 Counselor, nurses'association.............. 045107018 2400 Director of counseling......................... 045107022 1915 Clinical psychologist........................... 045107026 1915 Psychologist, counseling..................... 045107030 1915 Psychologist, industrial-organizational https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Page 109 109 109 109 109 109 109 109 39 111 39 93 222 93 222 222 222 93 93 93 93 93 93 93 93 93 93 93 93 93 93 93 101 101 101 105 101 101 105 105 105 101 105 105 103 101 101 103 103 103 103 103 103 101 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 101 103 103 103 103 101 103 124 124 124 124 124 124 145 145 145 124 124 124 D.O.T. SOC Number Code D.O.T. Title 045107034 1915 Psychologist, school................................................ 045107038 2400 Residence counselor................................................ 045107042 2400 Vocational rehabilitation counselor........................ 045107046 1915 Psychologist, chief.................................................. 045107050 3039 Clinical therapist.................................................... 045107054 2400 Counselor, marriage and family............................. 045107058 2032 Substance abuse counselor..................................... 045117010 2400 Director of guidance in public schools.................. 049127010 1852 Park naturalist......................................................... 050067010 1912 Economist............................................................... 050067014 1912 Market-research analyst I....................................... 070061010 2610 Pathologist........................ ..................................... 070101010 2610 Anesthesiologist..................................................... 070101014 2610 Cardiologist............................................................ 070101018 2610 Dermatologist......................................................... 070101022 2610 General practitioner................................................ 070101026 2610 Family practitioner................................................. 070101034 2610 Gynecologist........................................................... 070101042 2610 Internist................................................................... 070101046 2610 Public health physician.......................................... 070101050 2610 Neurologist............................................................. 070101054 2610 Obstetrician............................................................ 070101058 2610 Ophthalmologist..................................................... 070101062 2610 Otolaryngologist..................................................... 070101066 2610 Pediatrician............................................................ 070101070 2610 Physiatrist.............................................................. 070101078 2610 Physician, occupational.......................................... 070101082 2610 Police surgeon....................................................... 070101086 2610 Proctologist.............................. •............................. 070101090 2610 Radiologist............................................................. 070101094 2610 Surgeon.................................................................. 070101098 2610 Urologist................................................................ 070101102 2610 Allergist-immunologist......................................... 070107014 2610 Psychiatrist............................................................ 071101010 2610 Osteopathic physician........................................... 072061010 2620 Oral pathologist..................................................... 072101010 2620 Dentist.................................................................... 072101014 2620 Endodontist............................................................ 072101018 2620 Oral and maxillofacial surgeon............................. 072101022 2620 Orthodontist........................................................... 072101026 2620 Pediatric dentist..................................................... 072101030 2620 Periodontist............................................................ 072101034 2620 Prosthodontist........................................................ 072101038 2620 Public-health dentist.............................................. 072117010 2620 Director, dental services........................................ 073061010 2700 Veterinarian, laboratory animal care..................... 073061014 2700 Veterinary anatomist............................................ 073061018 2700 Veterinary microbiologist..................................... 073061022 2700 Veterinary epidemiologist..................................... 073061026 2700 Veterinary parasitologist...................................... 073061030 2700 Veterinary pathologist.......................................... 073061034 2700 Veterinary pharmacologist................................... 073061038 2700 Veterinary physiologist........................................ 073101010 2700 Veterinarian.......................................................... 073101014 2700 Veterinarian, poultry............................................ 073101018 2700 Zoo veterinarian................................................... 073161010 2700 Veterinary livestock inspector.............................. 073261010 2700 Veterinary virus-serum inspector......................... 073264010 2700 Veterinap' meat-inspector.................................... 074161010 3010 Pharmacist............................................................ 074161014 3010 Radiopharmacist................................................... 074167010 1310 Director, pharmacy services................................. 075117010 1283 Consultant, educational, state board of nursing.... 075117014 1310 Director, community-health nursing.................... 075117018 1283 Director, educational, community-health nursing 075117022 1310 Director, nursing service...................................... 075117026 1310 Director, occupational health nursing.................. 075117030 1310 Director, school of nursing................................... 075117034 1354 Executive director, nurses'association................ 075124010 2900 Nurse, school........................................................ 075124014 2900 Nurse, staff, community health............................ 075127010 2390 Instructor, psychiatric aide................................... 075127014 2900 Nurse, consultant......................................... 075127026 2900 Nurse, supervisor, community-health nursing.. 075127030 2900 Nurse, supervisor, evening-or-night.................... 075127034 2900 Nurse, infection control....................................... 075137010 2900 Nurse, supervisor,occupational health nursing... 075137014 2900 Nurse, head.................................................. 075167010 2900 Nurse, supervisor......................................... 075167014 2900 Quality assurance coordinator............................. 075264010 2900 Nurse practitioner................................................ Page 124 145 145 124 145 145 132 145 105 121 121 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 157 157 157 157 157 157 157 157 157 48 163 163 163 163 163 163 163 163 163 163 150 163 163 163 168 168 48 34 48 34 48 48 48 48 174 174 138 174 174 174 174 174 174 174 174 174 Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage 481 d.o.t. Number soc Code D.O.T. Title page 075264014 2900 Nurse-midwife...................................... 174 075364010 2900 Nurse, general duty................................ 174 075371010 2900 Nurse anesthetist.................................... 174 075374014 2900 Nurse, office................................................. 174 075374018 2900 Nurse, private duty............................................. J74 075374022 2900 Nurse, staff, occupationalhealth nursing......... 174 076101010 3034 Audiologist................................................. 177 076104010 3034 Voice pathologist................................... 177 076107010 3034 Speech pathologist................................................ 177 076117010 3039 Coordinator of rehabilitation services............ 48 076121010 3032 Occupational therapist................................ 166 076121014 3033 Physical therapist.......................................... iaq 076124014 3039 Recreational therapist................................. 177 076127010 3039 Art therapist.............................................. 177 076127014 3039 Music therapist....................................... 177 076127018 3039 Dance therapist................................................ 177 076167010 3032 Industrial therapist............................................... 166 076224010 5233 Physical therapist assistant........................ 313 076361014 3031 Respiratory therapist........................................... 176 076364010 5233 Occupational therapy assistant.............. 717 077061010 3020 Dietitian, research................................... .... 167 077117010 3020 Dietitian, chief............................................ 40 077127010 3020 Community dietitian................................. 167 077127014 3020 Dietitian, clinical...................................... 167 077127018 3020 Dietitian, consultant................................ 167 077127022 3020 Dietitian, teaching................................................ I65 078131010 3650 Chief technologist, nuclear medicine.............. 48 078161010 3620 Medical technologist, chief........................... ZZZ 48 078161014 3690 Cardiopulmonary technologist, chief.................. 48 078162010 3650 Radiologic technologist, chief...................... 48 078221010 3690 Immunohematologist.................................... ............ 200 078261010 3620 Biochemistry technologist.................................... 200 078261014 3620 Microbiology technologist......................... 200 078261026 3620 Cytogenetic technologist.............................. 200 078261030 3620 Histotechnologist................................... 200 078261038 3620 Medical technologist.................................... 200 078264010 3690 Holier scanning technician........................ I go 078281010 3620 Cytotechnologist....................................... 200 078361010 3630 Dental hygienist...................................................... 202 078361018 3650 Nuclear medicine technologist................................... 210 078361034 3650 Radiation-therapy technologist.............. 217 078361038 3690 Ophthalmic technician.................................. 714 078362018 3690 Electrocardiograph technician.................................. 199 078362022 3690 Electroencephalographic technologist........................ 205 078362026 3650 Radiologic technologist............................................. 212 078362026 3650 Radiologic technologist........................................... 212 078362030 3690 Cardiopulmonary technologist.................................... 199 078362042 3690 Polysomnographic technician............................... 205 078362046 3650 Special procedures technologist, angiogram.............. 212 078362050 3650 Special procedures technologist, cardiac catheterization.................................................... I99 078362054 3650 Special procedures technologist, ct scan....................... 212 078362058 3650 Special procedures technologist, magnetic resonance imaging........................... 919 078362062 3690 Stress test technician............................................. 199 078364010 3690 Ultrasound technologist..................................... 212 078364014 3690 Echocardiograph technician............................ 199 078367010 3690 Cardiac monitor technician...................................... 199 078381014 3690 Medical-laboratory technician................................... 200 078687010 5233 Laboratory assistant, blood and plasma......... 200 079021014 1843 Medical physicist.................................... 117 079101010 2890 Chiropractor........... ........ isf. 079101018 2810 Optometrist............ ............................................. ™ 079101022 079117010 079127010 079131010 079151010 079167014 079267010 079361018 079362010 079362014 079362018 079364010 079364014 079364018 079364026 079374010 079374014 079374018 ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ. 2830 Podiatrist....................... 162 1310 Emergency medical services coordinator.!.'”.'””'''''!' 48 1430 Inservice coordinator, auxiliary personnel............ 63 1310 Director, speech-and-hearing.............................. 4s 3690 Transplant coordinator.................................................... 43 1310 Medical-record administrator.................................... 48 1310 Utilization-review coordinator............... 40 5232 Dental assistant.......................................... 717 5233 Medical assistant.......................................... 714 3640 Medical record technician........................ 209 3640 Tumor registrar....................................... 209 5233 Chiropractor assistant...................................... 714 3690 Optometric assistant........................................ 714 3040 Physician assistant............................... 171 3690 Paramedic................................................. 206 3690 Emergency medical technician............. ?n6 3660 Nurse, licensed practical................................ 208 5233 Podiatric assistant............................................... 3)4 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis D.O.T. SOC Number Code D.O.T. Title Page 079374022 3690 Surgical technician................................................ "" 090107010 090117010 090117014 090117018 090117022 090117026 090117030 090167014 090167018 090167022 090167026 090167030 090167034 090222010 2400 Foreign-student adviser.................................. ..... 1281 Academic dean............................... 1281 Alumni secretary.................................. 1281 Dean of students..................................... 1281 Director, athletic............................................... 1281 Director, extension work............................... 1281 Financial-aids officer........................................ 1281 Director of admissions............................................. 1281 Director of institutional research................... 1281 Director of student affairs........................................ 1281 Director, summer sessions........................................ 1281 Registrar, college or university.............. 1281 Director, field services.............................................. 2233 Instructor, business education.......................... ’**’’*" 2200 Faculty member, college or university...........ZZ! 090227018 2390 Instructor, extension work................ 091107010 1282 Assistant principal................................ 091221010 2330 Teacher, industrial arts..................................... 091227010 2330 Teacher, secondary school..................................... 092167010 1283 Director, day care center.................................. 092227010 2320 Teacher, elementary school................................... 092227014 2310 Teacher, kindergarten.................................... 092227018 2310 Teacher, preschool..................................... 094107010 2350 Work-study coordinator, special education.............. 094117010 1283 Director, commission for the blind............................ 094167014 1283 Director, special education......................... 094224010 2350 Teacher, hearing impaired............................. 094224014 2350 Teacher, physically impaired................................ 094224018 2350 Teacher, visually impaired......................... 094227010 2350 Teacher, emotionally impaired............................ 094227022 2350 Teacher, mentally impaired........................ ............ 094227026 2350 Teacher, vocational training................................ 094227030 2350 Teacher, learning disabled 094267010 2350 Evaluator........ . ....................... ZIZ.'.................. 096161010 1283 Home-service director............................................ 096167010 1283 District extension service agent.....................ZZZ 096167014 1283 Specialist-in-charge, extension service.................... 097167010 1283 Director, vocational training......................... .......... 097221010 2390 Instructor, vocational training...............,ZZ”"...... 097227010 2390 Instructor, flying II............................ 099117010 1283 Director, educational program................................. 1Education supervisor, correctional institution.......... 099117018 1282 Principal.......................................... 099117030 1283 Director, education........................................... 099167010 1430 Certification and selection specialist................ 099167030 1283 Educational resource coordinator............................ 099167034 1283 Director of pupil personnel program.......... 099223010 2390 Instructor, driving................................... .... 099224010 2390 Instructor, physical education............ZZZ.......... 099224014 2390 Teacher, adventure education.................................. 099227014 2390 Instructor, correspondence school......... 099227018 2390 Instructor, ground services............................. 099227022 099227026 099227030 099227038 099227042 099327010 100117010 100117014 100127010 100127014 100167010 100167014 100167018 100167022 100167026 100167030 100167034 100167038 100267010 100267014 100367010 100367014 100367018 100367022 100367026 100387010 101167010 102017010 2249 2390 2390 2216 2300 3990 1283 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2520 2520 214 ZZZ" 145 74 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 X38 143 ns 34 no 150 34 150 nn 32] 153 34 34 133 153 153 153 153 157 1 si 153 go 34 34 34 138 130 34 34 34 34 63 140 34 170 150 133 138 13s Instructor, military science................. ............ iso Instructor, modeling........................... .... 130 Teacher, adult education..... ..... 138 Teacher...................................... 78 Teacher, resource. 133 Teacher aide I...............„ZZZZ"“.................... 791 Library director....................................... 34 Library consultant........................................ <g Chief librarian, branch or denartment mq Librarian.............................P...... . . .................. 48 Audiovisual librarian................................... 148 Bookmobile librarian............................... 148 Children's librarian.................................... 14s Institution librarian.................................. 140 Librarian, special library.............................. 148 Media specialist, school library............................ 148 Young-adult librarian.............................. 140 News librarian..................................... 140 Acquisitions librarian................................................... 143 Librarian, special collections............ 148 Bibliographer......................... 140 Classifier...................................................... 140 Library technical assistant............................. 227 Music librarian................................................. 143 Music librarian, international broadcast.......... 148 Catalog librarian............................ 140 Archivist............... 140 Curator......................... 140 ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ 482 Occuptional Outlook Handbook d.o.t. soc Number Code D.O.T. Title 102117010 2520 Supervisor, historic sites.................................. 102117014 2520 Director, museum-or-zoo................................. 102167010 2520 Art conservator................................................ 102167014 2520 Historic-site administrator............................... 102167018 2520 Registrar, museum.......................................... 102261010 2520 Conservation technician................................. 102261014 3250 Paintings restorer............................................ 102361010 2520 Restorer, lace and textiles................................ 102361014 2520 Restorer, ceramic............................................ 102381010 2520 Museum technician......................................... 109067010 1719 Information scientist....................................... 109067014 2520 Research associate.......................................... 109267010 2520 Research assistant I...............■........................ 109267014 2510 Research worker, encyclopedia...................... 109281010 2520 Armorer technician......................................... 109361010 2520 Restorer, paper-and-prints.............................. 109364010 2520 Craft demonstrator.......................................... 110107010 2110 Lawyer........................................................... 110107014 2110 Lawyer, criminal............................................. 110117010 2110 District attorney.............................................. 110117014 2110 Insurance attorney......................... ................. 110117018 2110 Lawyer, admiralty.......................................... 110117022 2110 Lawyer, corporation....................................... 110117026 2110 Lawyer, patent............................................... 110117030 2110 Lawyer, probate............................................. 110117034 2110 Lawyer, real estate......................................... 110117038 2110 Tax attorney................................................... 110117042 2110 Title attorney.................................................. 110167010 2110 Bar examiner................................................. 111107010 2120 Judge............................................................. 111107014 2120 Magistrate..................................................... 119107010 2120 Hearing officer.............................................. 119117010 2120 Appeals reviewer, veteran............................. 119167010 2120 Adjudicator................................................... 119267014 2120 Appeals referee............................................. 119267022 3960 Legal investigator......................................... 119267026 3960 Paralegal....................................................... 120107010 2042 Clergy member............................................. 120107010 2042 Clergy member............................................. 120107010 2042 Clergy member............................................. 131067010 3313 Columnist/commentator............................... 131067010 3313 Columnist/commentator............................... 131067014 3313 Copywriter................................................... 131067018 3313 Critic............................................................ 131067022 3313 Editorial writer............................................. 131067026 3210 Humorist...................................................... 131067030 3210 Librettist....................................................... 131067034 3210 Lyricist......................................................... 131067038 3210 Playwright.................................................... 131067042 3210 Poet.............................................................. 131067046 3210 Writer, prose, fiction and nonfiction........... 131067050 3210 Screenwriter................................................ 131087010 3210 Continuity writer.......................................... 131087014 3210 Reader......................................................... 131262010 3313 Newscaster.................................................. 131262014 3313 Newswriter.................................................. 131262018 3313 Reporter...................................................... 131267022 3312 Script reader................................................ 131267026 3980 Writer, technical publications...................... 132017010 3312 Editor, managing, newspaper...................... 132017014 3312 Editor, newspaper....... ..... ......... ■••••••••■;...... 132017018 3312 Editor, technical and scientific publications 132037010 3312 Continuity director...................................... 132037014 3312 Editor, city.................................................. 132037018 3312 Editor, department...................................... 132037022 3312 Editor, publications..................................... 132037026 3312 Story editor................................................ 132067010 3312 Bureau chief............................................... 132067014 3312 Editor, book............................................... 132067018 3312 Editor, dictionary........................................ 132067022 3312 Editor, greeting card................................... 132067026 3312 Editor, news............................................... 132067030 3240 Program proposals coordinator................... 132132010 3312 Assignment editor....................................... 132267010 3312 Editor, telegraph........................................ 132267014 3312 Editorial assistant....................................... 132367010 3312 Editor, index.............................................. 139167010 3280 Program coordinator.................................. 141031010 3250 Art director................................................. 141051010 3220 Color expert.............................................. 141061010 3250 Cartoonist.................................................. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Page 140 140 140 140 140 140 191 140 140 140 93 140 140 148 140 140 140 115 115 115 115 115 115 115 115 115 115 115 115 115 115 115 115 115 115 229 229 135 136 137 181 184 184 184 184 184 184 184 184 184 184 184 184 . 184 . 181 . 184 . 182 . 184 . 184 . 184 . 184 . 184 . 184 . 184 . 184 . 184 .. 184 .. 184 .. 184 .. 184 .. 184 .. 184 .. 184 .. 184 .. 184 .. 184 .. 184 .. 193 ... 191 ... 186 ... 191 D.O.T. SOC Number Code D.O.T. Title 141061014 3250 Fashion artist.............................................. 141061018 3220 Graphic designer........................................ 141061022 3250 Illustrator.............................. -•................. 141061026 3250 Illustrator, medical and scientific............... 141061030 3250 Illustrator, set.............................................. 141061034 3250 Police artist................................................ 141061038 3220 Commercial designer.................................. 141067010 3220 Creative director........................................ 141081010 3250 Cartoonist, motion pictures....................... 141137010 1250 Production manager, advertising............... 142031014 3220 Manager, display....................................... 142051010 3220 Display designer........................................ 142051014 3220 Interior designer........................................ 142061010 3220 Bank-note designer.................................... 142061014 3220 Cloth designer........................................... 142061018 3220 Fashion designer........................................ 142061022 3220 Furniture designer..................................... 142061026 3220 Industrial designer..................................... 142061030 3250 Memorial designer..................................... 142061034 3220 Ornamental-metalwork designer............... 142061038 3220 Safety-clothing-and-equipment developer 142061042 3220 Set decorator............................................. 142061046 3220 Set designer.............................................. 142061050 3220 Set designer.............................................. 142061054 3220 Stained glass artist.................................... 142061058 3220 Exhibit designer................................... 142061062 3220 Art director............................................... 142081010 3220 Floral designer.......................................... 142081014 3220 Fur designer.............................................. 142081018 3220 Package designer...................................... 142281010 3220 Copyist...................................................... 143062010 3260 Director of photography........................... 143062014 3260 Photographer, aerial................................. 143062018 3260 Photographer, apprentice.......................... 143062022 3260 Camera operator....................................... 143062026 3260 Photographer, scientific........................... 143062030 3260 Photographer, still................................... 143062034 3260 Photojoumalist........................................ 143260010 3260 Optical-effects-camera operator.............. 143362010 3260 Biological photographer.......................... 143362014 3260 Ophthalmic photographer........................ 143382010 3260 Camera operator, animation.................... 143382014 3260 Photographer, finish................................ 143457010 3260 Photographer........................................... 144061010 3250 Painter...................................................... 144061014 3250 Printmaker............................................... 144061018 3250 Sculptor................................................... 149021010 2390 Teacher, art.............................................. 149041010 3250 Quick sketch artist................................... 149261010 3250 Exhibit artist........................................... 150027010 3240 Dramatic coach....................................... 150027014 2390 Teacher, drama....................................... 150047010 3240 Actor....................................................... 150067010 3240 Director, stage........................................ 150147010 3240 Narrator................................................... 151027010 3270 Choreographer........................................ 151027014 2390 Instructor, dancing.................................. 151047010 3270 Dancer..................................................... 152021010 2390 Teacher, music........................................ 152041010 3230 Musician, instrumental........................... 152047010 3230 Choral director........................................ 152047014 3230 Conductor, orchestra.............................. 152047018 3230 Director, music....................................... 152047022 3230 Singer.................................................... 152067010 3230 Arranger................................................. 152067014 3230 Composer............................................... 152067018 3230 Cue selector........................................... 152067022 3230 Orchestrator........................................... 152267010 3230 Copyist................................................... 152367010 3230 Prompter................................................ 153137010 1352 Manager, pool........................................ 153227014 2390 Instructor, physical................................ 159041010 3280 Magician................................................ 159041014 3280 Puppeteer............................................... 159044010 3280 Ventriloquist.......................................... 159047010 3280 Clown.................................................... 159047014 3280 Comedian............................................... 159047018 3280 Impersonator......................................... 159047022 3280 Mime..................................................... 159067010 3240 Director, motion picture....................... 159067014 3240 Director, television............................... Page 191 191 191 191 191 191 186 186 191 60 186 189 186 186 186 186 186 186 191 186 186 186 186 186 186 186 186 186 186 186 186 189 189 189 189 189 189 189 189 189 189 189 189 189 191 191 191 138 191 191 193 138 193 193 193 195 . 138 . 195 . 138 . 197 . 197 . 197 . 197 . 197 . 197 . 197 . 197 . 197 . 197 .. 197 .. 130 .. 138 .. 193 .. 193 .. 193 .. 193 .. 193 .. 193 .. 193 .. 193 .. 193 Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage 483 D.O.T. Number soc Code D.O.T. Title Page D.O.T. SOC Number Code D.O.T. Title Page 159117010 3240 Producer............................................................. 193 166067010 1430 Occupational analyst.......................................... . 63 159124010 2033 Counselor, camp....................................... 130 166117010 1230 Director, industrial relations.................................. 63 159147010 3330 Announcer........................................................ i»i 166117014 1430 Manager, employee welfare................... . 63 159147014 3330 Disc jockey............................................................ jgj 166117018 1230 Manager, personnel............................................ . 63 159147018 3330 Show host/hostess..................................................... 181 166167010 1430 Contestant coordinator................................. . 63 159167010 3280 Artist and repertoire manager.................. 193 166167014 1430 Director of placement................................. . 63 159167014 3240 Director, radio............................................... 193 166167018 1230 Manager, benefits............................................... 63 159167018 3240 Manager, stage......................................................... 193 166167022 1430 Manager, compensation..................................... 63 159167022 1250 Executive producer, promos............................. 60 166167026 1230 Manager, education and training.................... 63 159227010 2390 Instructor, bridge..... 138 166167030 1230 Manager, employment............................. 159247010 3280 Acrobat............................... 93 63 166167034 1430 Manager, labor relations....................... 63 159247014 3280 Aerialist..................................................................... I93 166167038 1430 Port purser......................................... 63 159267010 3240 Director, casting... 193 166167042 1430 Senior enlisted advisor........................................ 63 159341010 3280 Juggler................................ 193 166167050 1230 Program specialist, employee-health maintenance.... 63 159341014 3280 Stunt performer........................................................ 193 166167054 1430 Technical training coordinator............................. 63 159344010 3280 Equestrian.................................................................. 193 166221010 2390 Instructor, technical training...................... 138 159344014 3280 Rodeo performer......................................................... 193 166227010 2390 Training representative..................................... 138 159347014 3280 Aquatic performer........................................... 193 166257010 3320 Employer relations representative......................... 63 159347018 3280 Thrill performer.......................................... 193 166267010 1430 Employment interviewer.................................... 37 159347022 3280 Wire walker............................................................. 193 166267014 1430 Hospital-insurance representative............... 63 159367010 3280 Ring conductor............................................................ I93 166267018 1430 Job analyst......................................................... 63 159647010 3280 Amusement park entertainer........... 193 166267022 1430 Prisoner-classification interviewer........ 63 159647014 3240 Extra.................................................... .................... 93 166267026 1430 Recruiter......................................... 63 159647022 3280 Showgirl........................................................... 193 166267030 1430 Retirement officer........................................... 63 160162010 1412 Accountant, tax...................................................... 21 166267034 1430 Job development specialist..................... 63 160162018 1412 Accountant............................................................... 21 166267038 1430 Personnel recruiter....................................... 63 160162022 1412 Accountant, budget..................................................... 21 166267042 1430 Employee relations specialist............................... 63 160162026 1412Accountant, cost............................................................ 21 166267046 1430 Human resource advisor.................... 63 160162030 1412 Auditor, data processing............................................. 21 168167030 1472 Inspector, building.................................... 28 160167022 1412 Accountant, property................................................. 21 168167034 1472 Inspector, electrical.......................... 28 160167026 1412 Accountant, systems................................................. 21 168167038 1472 Inspector, elevators............................................. 28 160167030 1412 Auditor, county or city........................................ 21 168167046 1472 Inspector, heating and refrigeration................ 28 160167034 1412 Auditor, internal................................................ 21 168167050 1472 Inspector, plumbing......................... 28 160167038 1412 Auditor, tax.................. 21 168267010 1472 Building inspector................... 28 160167042 1412 Bursar.................................... ................. 21 168267014 1473 Claim examiner.................................................. 254 160167054 1412 Auditor................................................. 21 168267038 4784 Eligibility-and-occupancy interviewer,...... 254 160167058 1220 Controller......................... .....’""ZZ.ZZ!Z"”"“" 41 168267102 1472 Plan checker............................. 28 160267014 1412Director, utility accounts......................................... 21 169107010 1430 Arbitrator.............................. 63 161117010 1419Budget officer.............................................................. 25 169167022 1852 Fire assistant.................................................... 299 161117014 1420Director, records management.............................. 38 169167030 1260 Manager, data processing.............. 39 161117018 1220 Treasurer.................................................................. ” 41 169167034 1370 Manager, office................................................. 24 161167010 1420 Management analyst................................................ 58 169167050 4122 Special agent, group insurance.............................. 236 161167014 1420 Manager, forms analysis............................................ 58 169167054 1449 Tooling coordinator, production engineering.........' 69 161167018 1420 Manager, records analysis......................................... 58 169167062 1390 Coordinator, skill-training program....................... 63 161167022 1420Manager, reports analysis............................................. 58 58 161267010 1420 Clerical-methods analyst................................. 58 169167074 1420 Preventive maintenance coordinator............ 169167082 1260 Manager, computer operations............................. 39 161267018 1420 Forms analyst............................................................ 58 169167086 1220 Manager, credit and collection................ 41 161267022 1420 Records-management analyst.............. 58 169207010 1430 Conciliator................................. 63 161267026 1420 Reports analyst................................................... 58 169267010 2120 Claims adjudicator..................................... 115 161267030 1419 Budget analyst......................................................... ”” 25 169267022 1283 Secretary, board-of-education.............................. 34 162117014 1370 Contract administrator............................................. 24 169267026 2400 Supervisor, special services......... 145 162117018 1449 Contract specialist..................................................... 69 169267038 1490 Estimator................................ 32 162117030 1139 Research-contracts supervisor.... 39 169267046 1414 Underwriter............................................ 74 162157018 1442 Buyer....................................................... ................. 6o 180117010 5525 Manager, christmas-tree farm.............................. 331 162157022 1442 Buyer, assistant........................................................ 69 180161010 5523 Manager, production, seed com............................ 331 162157030 1449 Outside property agent......................................... 69 180161014 5525 Superintendent, horticulture................ 331 162157034 1449 Procurement engineer..................................... 69 180167018 5522 General manager, farm........................ 331 162157038 1449 Purchasing agent...................................................... 69 180167026 5524 Manager, dairy farm............................ 331 162167022 1240 Manager, procurement services............................... 69 180167030 5524 Manager, fish hatchery........................................ 331 162167030 1449 Purchase-price analyst................................. 69 180167034 5524 Manager, game breeding farm............................. 331 162167034 4124 Floor broker.................................................... 247 180167038 5524 Manager, game preserve................................. 331 162167038 4124 Securities trader.......................................................... ' 247 180167046 5524 Manager, poultry hatchery..................... 331 163117010 1449 Manager, contracts.......................... 69 180167054 1320 Superintendent............................................... 52 163117014 1250 Manager, export........................................................ 60 180167058 5523 Superintendent, production......................... 331 163117018 1250 Manager, promotion................................................. 60 180167066 5523 Manager, orchard............................... 331 163117022 1250 Director, media marketing............................................. 60 181117010 1320 Manager, bulk plant..................... 52 163117026 1250 Director, underwriter solicitation............................. 60 182167010 1330 Contractor................................ 30 163167010 1250 Manager, advertising................................................ 60 182167014 1330 Landscape contractor........................................... 339 163167014 1390 Manager, circulation................................... 60 182167018 1330 Railroad-construction director............................. 30 163167018 1250 Manager, sales............................................................ ’ 60 .ZZZZZZZZZZZZZ"' ZZZZZZZ"' ZZ.Z.Z. 163167022 163167026 163267010 164117010 164117014 164117018 164167010 165017010 165157010 165167010 165167014 1250 1370 1250 1250 1250 1250 1250 3320 4152 3320 3320 Z. Manager, utility sales and service............................ 60 Property-disposal officer........................................... 24 Field representative................................................... 60 Manager, advertising................................................ 60 Manager, advertising agency........................... 60 Media director...................................................... 60 Account executive................... 60 Lobbyist................................... 179 Songplugger............................................................. 249 Sales-service promoter.............................................. 179 Public-relations representative.................................. 179 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ..ZZZZZZZZZZZ"" 182167022 182167026 182167030 182167034 182267010 183117010 183117014 183161014 183167010 183167014 183167018 183167022 1320 1330 1330 1330 1472 1320 1320 1320 1320 1320 1320 1320 Superintendent, concrete-mixing plant.................. Superintendent, construction................................ Superintendent, maintenance of way..................." Supervisor, bridges and buildings................ Construction inspector....................... Manager, branch........................................... Production superintendent..................... Winemaker................................... Brewing director................................................. General superintendent, milling..................... General supervisor............................ General supervisor.............................................. 52 30 30 30 28 52 52 52 52 52 52 52 484 Occuptional Outlook Handbook D.O.T. Number SOC Code D.O.T. Title 183167026 1320 Manager, food processing plant............................... 183167034 1320 Superintendent, car construction.............................. 183167038 1320 Superintendent, logging............................................. 184117010 3240 Director, public service.............................................. 184117078 1240 Superintendent, commissary..................................... 184162010 3240 Manager, production................................................... 184167010 1342 Boat dispatcher............................................................ 184167014 3240 Director, news.............................................................. 184167022 3240 Director, operations, broadcast................................. 184167030 3240 Director, program....................................................... 184167034 3240 Director, sports..................................................... ...... 184167262 8113 Train dispatcher........................................................... 184167278 8133 Yard manager............................................................... 184387010 4716 Wharfinger................................................................... 185137010 1351 Manager, fast food services...................................... 185137010 1351 Manager, fast food services...................................... 185157014 1250 Supervisor of sales..................................................... 185167014 4030 Manager, automobile service station...................... 185167030 4020 Manager, meat sales and storage............................ 185167038 4030 Manager, parts............................................................ 185167046 4030 Manager, retail store.................................................. 186117042 1353 Manager, land development..................................... 186117046 1353 Manager, leasing......................................................... 186117058 1353 Real-estate agent......................................................... 186117062 1353 Rental manager, public events facilities................ 186117066 1419 Risk and insurance manager.................................... 186117070 1220 Treasurer, financial institution................................. 186117086 1419 Manager, exchange floor.......................................... 186167018 1353 Manager, apartment house........................................ 186167030 1353 Manager, housing project......................................... 186167038 1353 Manager, land leases-and-rentals........................... 186167042 1353 Manager, market........................................................ 186167046 1353 Manager, property..................................................... 186167054 1220 Reserve officer........................................................... 186167062 1353 Condominium manager........................................... 186167066 4123 Manager, real-estate firm......................................... 186167078 1415 Commercial loan collection officer....................... 186167086 1220 Manager, financial institution................................. 186167090 1370 Manager, title search................................................. 186267018 1415 Loan officer........................................... ..................... 186267022 1419 Loan review analyst.................................................. 186267026 1415 Underwriter, mortgage loan.................................... 187117010 1210 Administrator, health care facility......................... 187117038 1351 Manager, hotel or motel........................................... 187117058 1310 Director, outpatient services................................... 187117062 1310 Radiology administrator.......................................... 187137018 1351 Manager, front office................................................ 187161010 1351 Executive chef........................................................... 187167026 1351 Director, food services............................................. 187167030 1359 Director, funeral........................................................ 187167034 1359 Director, nurses’registry.......................................... 187167046 1351 Executive housekeeper............................................ 187167078 1351 Manager, convention............................................... 187167082 1390 Manager, customer services................................... 187167090 1359 Manager, dental laboratory.................................... 187167106 1351 Manager, food service............................................ 187167106 1351 Manager, food service............................................ 187167122 1351 Manager, hotel recreational facilities.................. 187167126 1351 Manager, liquor establishment............................. 187167158 1359 Manager, travel agency........................................... 187167162 1250 Manager, vehicle leasing and rental.................... 187167174 3240 Producer..................................................................... 187167178 3240 Producer..................................................................... 187167182 3240 Producer, assistant................................................... 187167190 1353 Superintendent, building......................................... 187167206 1351 Dietary manager........................................................ 187167210 1351 Director, food and beverage.................................. 187167238 1352 Recreation supervisor............................................. 188117010 1132 Apprenticeship consultant..................................... 188117082 1134 Director, medical facilities section....................... 188117086 1370 Director, merit system............................................ 188117114 1120 Manager, city............................................................ 188117122 1370 Property-utilization officer................................... 188167094 1131 Superintendent, industries, correctional facility 188167106 1370 Unclaimed property officer................................... 188167110 1920 Planner, program services..................................... 188217010 1139 Commissioner of conciliation.............................. 189117014 1260 Director, research and development................... 189117018 1250 Manager, customer technical services................ 189117038 1419 User representative, internationalaccounting ... 189117042 1320 Director, quality assurance................................... https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Page 52 52 52 193 69 193 273 193 193 193 193 273 243 281 72 243 60 243 243 243 243 66 66 66 66 41 41 4l 66 66 66 66 66 41 66 66 57 41 66 57 57 57 48 50 48 48 50 72 72 43 48 50 50 243 48 50 72 50 72 243 60 193 193 193 66 . . . . . . . . 72 72 130 63 48 63 46 24 34 24 126 63 39 60 41 52 D.O.T. Number 189157010 SOC Code D.O.T. Title Page 1353 Business-opportunity-and-property-investment 66 broker.......................................................................... 52 189167042 1320 Superintendent, labor utilization................................... 52 189167046 1320 Superintendent, maintenance........................................* 189167054 5144 Security consultant........................................................... 306 189267010 2032 Field representative.......................................................... 132 66 191117030 1353 Lease buyer......................................................................... 66 191117042 1353 Permit agent, geophysical prospecting........................ 66 191117046 1353 Right-of-way agent........................................................... 66 191117050 1353 Right-of-way supervisor.................................................. 191167022 4783 Service representative...................................................... 254 191267010 4123 Appraiser, real estate........................................................ 240 193162010 3920 Air-traffic coordinator...................................................... 218 193162014 3920 Air-traffic-control specialist, station............................ 218 193162018 3920 Air-traffic-control specialist, tower............................... 218 193167010 3920 Chief controller.................................................................. 218 193167014 3930 Field supervisor, broadcast.............................................. 220 193262018 3930 Field engineer.................................................................... 220 193262038 3930 Transmitter operator......................................................... 220 194062010 3990 Television technician........................................................ 220 194122010 3930 Access coordinator, cable television............................ 220 194262010 3930 Audio operator................................................................... 220 194262014 3719 Sound controller................................................................ 220 194262018 3719 Sound mixer....................................................................... 220 194262022 3930 Master control operator................................................... 220 194282010 3930 Video operator.................................................... .............. 220 194362010 3719 Recording engineer.......................................................... 220 194362014 3719 Rerecording mixer............................................................ 220 194362018 3930 Telecine operator............................................................... 220 194362022 3930 Technician, news gathering............................................ 220 194381010 3711 Technical testing engineer............................................... 226 194382010 3719 Section-plotter operator................................................... 226 194382014 3719 Tape transferrer................................................................. 220 194382018 3930 Videotape operator........................................................... 220 195107010 2032 Caseworker......................................................................... 132 195107014 2032 Caseworker, child welfare............................................... 132 132 195107018 2032 Caseworker, family.......................................................... 195107022 2032 Social group worker......................................................... 132 195107026 2032 Social worker, delinquency prevention........................ 132 132 195107030 2032 Social worker, medical.................................................... 195107034 2032 Social worker, psychiatric............................................... 132 195107038 2032 Social worker, school....................................................... 132 195107042 2032 Correctional-treatment specialist.................................. 132 195107046 2032 Probation-and-parole officer.......................................... 132 195137010 2032 Casework supervisor........................................................ 132 132 195164010 2032 Group worker.................................................................... 195167010 2032 Community organization worker........................... ...... 132 195167014 2032 Community-relations-and-services advisor, public... 132 195227010 2033 Program aide, group work............................................... 130 195227014 2033 Recreation leader............................................................... 130 195227018 2350 Teacher, home therapy..................................................... 153 195267010 4784 Eligibility worker.............................................................. 254 195267018 2032 Patient-resources-and-reimbursement agent............... 132 195267022 2032 Child support officer........................................................ 132 128 195367010 2032 Case aide............................................................................. 195367014 2032 Management aide............................................................. 128 195367018 2032 Community worker.......................................................... 128 195367022 2032 Food-management aide................................................... 128 195367026 5133 Preparole-counseling aide............................................... 132 195367034 2032 Social-services aide.......................................................... 128 196167010 8250 Chief pilot........................................................................... 215 196223010 8250 Instructor, flying I............................................................ 215 196223014 8250 Instructor, pilot.................................................................. 215 196263010 8250 Airplane pilot..................................................................... 215 196263014 8250 Airplane pilot, commercial............................................. 215 196263018 8250 Airplane pilot, photogrammetry.................................... 215 196263022 8250 Check pilot......................................................................... 215 196263026 8250 Controller, remotely-piloted vehicle............................ 215 196263030 8250 Executive pilot................................................................... 215 196263034 8250 Facilities-flight-check pilot............................................ 215 215 196263038 8250 Helicopter pilot................................................................. 215 196263042 8250 Test pilot............................................................................ 197130010 8244 Engineer.............................................................................. 458 334 197133010 8241 Captain, fishing vessel................................................... 458 197133014 8241 Master, yacht.................................................................... 334 197133018 8241 Mate, fishing vessel......................................................... 334 197133018 8241 Mate, fishing vessel......................................................... 458 197133022 8241 Mate, ship.......................................................................... 458 197133026 8241 Pilot, ship........................................................................... 458 197133030 8242 Tugboat captain................................................................ 197133034 8242 Tugboat mate.................................................................... . 458 Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage 485 D.O.T. Number SOC Code D.O.T. Title Page 197137010 8242 Dredge mate................................................... 197161010 8242 Dredge captain............................................... 197163010 8241 Ferryboat captain........................................... 197163014 8242 Master, passenger barge................................ 197163018 8241 Master, riverboat............................................ 197167010 8241 Mastership.................................................... 198167010 8113 Conductor, passenger car................................ 198167014 8113 Conductor, pullman....................................... 198167018 8113 Conductor, road freight.................................. 199167014 1920 Urban planner................................................ 199261014 3990 Parking analyst............................................... 199267014 1739 Cryptanalyst............................. 199281010 3990 Gemologist................................................ .Z 201162010 4622 Social secretary.............................................. 201362010 4622 Legal secretary............................................. . 201362014 4622 Medical secretary........................................... 201362018 4622 Membership secretary.................................... 201362022 4622 School secretary............................................. 201362026 4622 Script supervisor............................................. 201362030 4622 Secretary.................................................... 202362010 4623 Shorthand reporter......................................... 202362014 4623 Stenographer.................................................. 202362018 4623 Stenographer, print shop................................. 202362022 4623 Stenotype operator......................................... 202382010 4623 Stenocaptioner............................................... 203362010 4624 Clerk-typist.................................................... 203362014 4649 Credit reporting clerk....................................... 203362026 3290 Caption writer................................................. 203382014 4699 Cancellation clerk........................................... 203382018 4793 Magnetic-tape-composer operator.................. 203382026 4793 Varitype operator............................................ 203382030 4624 Word processing machine operator................. 203582010 4793 Braille operator................ 203582014 4793 Braille typist...................................... 203582038 4793 Perforator typist.............................................. 203582042 4793 Photocomposing-perforator-machine operator 203582046 4793 Photocomposition-keyboard operator............. 203582054 4793 Data entry clerk............................................... 203582058 4623 Transcribing-machine operator....................... 203582062 4793 Typesetter-perforator operator............ 203582066 4624 Typist.............................................................. 203582078 4624 Notereader................................................. 205362010 4692 Civil-service clerk............................................ 205362014 4692 Employment clerk........................................... 205362018 4642 Hospital-admitting clerk................................. 205362022 4692 Identification clerk.......................................... 205362026 4642 Customer service representative...................... 205362030 4642 Outpatient-admitting clerk............................... 205367014 4642 Charge-account clerk.......... 205367018 4782 Claims clerk 11........................................... Z! 205367022 4642 Credit clerk.................................................... 205367026 4642 Creel clerk.................................................. . 205367034 4787 License clerk................................................ 205367038 4645 Registrar.......................................................... 205367042 4642 Registration clerk............................................. 205367046 4784 Rehabilitation clerk.......................................... 205367054 4642 Survey worker.................................................. 205367058 4642 Traffic checker................................................. 205367062 4692 Referral clerk, temporary help agency............. 205567010 4692 Benefits clerk II.............. 206367014 4696 File clerk II......................................... 206367018 4696 Tape librarian................................................... 206387010 4696 Classification clerk.......................................... 206387014 4696 Fingerprint clerk II........................................... 206387022 4696 Record clerk... 206387034 4696 File clerk I.......................... 208382010 4793 Terminal-makeup operator............................... 209362018 4783 Credit reference clerk....................................... 209362026 4692 Personnel clerk................................................. 209362030 4630 Congressional-district aide............................... 209367042 4753 Reconsignment clerk....................................... 209382010 4624 Continuity clerk............................................... 209382014 4799 Special-certificate dictator................................ 209387018 4664 Contact clerk.................................................... 209387026 4694 Library clerk, talking books............................. 209562010 4630 Clerk, general................................................... 209567014 4364 Order clerk, food and beverage........................ 209587018 4744 Direct-mail clerk............... 209687010 4792 Checker II........ ............. 209687014 4742 Mail handler............................................... Z"! 209687018 4699 Reviewer................................................. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Z'.ZZ'Z ZZZZZZZ ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ^. 458 458 458 458 458 458 244 244 244 126 226 96 408 287 287 287 287 287 287 287 289 289 289 289 289 294 268 184 254 294 294 294 294 294 294 294 294 294 289 294 294 294 287 287 268 287 268 268 268 254 263 268 254 268 268 254 268 268 287 287 283 283 283 283 283 283 294 263 287 264 276 294 254 285 284 264 234 270 282 277 254 D.O.T. Number SOC Code D.O.T. Title 209687026 4744 Mail clerk............................................... 210362010 4712 Distribution-accounting clerk............... 210367010 4712 Account-information clerk.................... 210367014 4712 Foreign-exchange-position clerk............ 210382010 4712 Audit clerk............................................. 210382014 4712 Bookkeeper............................................ 210382030 4712 Classification-control clerk.................... 210382038 4712 Credit-card clerk.................................... 210382042 4712 Fixed-capital clerk................................. 2103 82046 4712 General-ledger bookkeeper.................... 210382050 4712 Mortgage-loan-computation clerk.......... 210382054 4712 Night auditor.......................................... 210382062 4712 Securities clerk....................... 211362010 4364 Cashier I................................................. 211362014 4791 Foreign banknote teller-trader........ 211362018 4791 Teller................................................... . 211367010 4364 Paymaster of purses....................... 211382010 4791 Teller, vault.............. 211462010 4364 Cashier II............................................... 211462014 4364 Cashier-checker..................................... , 211462018 4364 Cashier-wrapper.................................... 211462022 4364 Cashier, gambling................................... 211462026 4364 Check cashier......................................... 211462030 4364 Drivers’-cash clerk............. 211462034 4364 Teller.............. 211462038 4364 Toll collector.......................................... 211467010 4364 Cashier, courtesy booth.......................... 211467014 4364 Money counter........................................ 211467018 4364 Parimutuel-ticket cashier........................ 211467022 4364 Parimutuel-ticket seller........................... 211467026 4364 Sheet writer............................................. 211467030 4364 Ticket seller............................................ 211467034 4364 Change person........................................ 211482010 4364 Cashier, tube room................................. 211482014 4718 Food checker.......................................... 211482018 4364 Food-and-beverage checker.................... 213362010 4612 Computer operator.................................. 213382010 4613 Computer peripheral equipment operator 213582010 4613 Digitizer operator................................... 214267010 4716 Rate analyst, freight................................ 214362010 4715 Demurrage clerk..................................... 214362014 4715 Documentation-billing clerk................... 214362022 4715 Insurance clerk....................................... 214362026 4715 Invoice-control clerk.............................. 214362030 4715 Rate clerk, passenger.............................. 214362038 4716 Traffic-rate clerk..................................... 214362042 4715 Billing clerk............................................. 214362046 4699 Statement clerk....................................... 214382014 4715 Billing typist.......................... 214382018 4715 C.o.d. clerk.............................................. 214382022 4716 Interline clerk.......................................... 214382026 4716 Revising clerk.......................................... 214382030 4716 Settlement clerk....................................... 214387010 4715 Billing-control clerk................................ 214387014 4716 Rate reviewer........................................... 214387018 4716 Services clerk.......................................... 214462010 4718 Accounts-adjustable clerk....................... 214467010 4716 Foreign clerk............................................ 214467014 4716 Pricer, message and delivery service....... 214482010 4718 Billing-machine operator........................ 214482014 4715 Deposit-refund clerk................................ 214482018 4716 Medical-voucher clerk........... 214482022 4716 Rater.............................................. ZZ! 214587010 4716 Telegraph-service rater............. 214587014 4753 Traffic clerk............................................. 215167010 4752 Car clerk, pullman................................... 215362018 4713 Flight-crew-time clerk............................. 215362022 4713 Timekeeper.............................................. 215367018 4751 Taxicab coordinator................................. 215382014 4713 Payroll clerk................. 215563010 4745 Caller........................................ZZZZ 216362014 4712 Collection clerk....................................... 216362022 4718 Food-and-beverage controller.................. 216362026 4712 Mortgage-accounting clerk...................... 216362034 4712 Reserves clerk........................................... 216362038 4712 Electronic funds transfer coordinator........ 216362042 4712 Margin clerk I........................................... 216362046 4699 Transfer clerk........................................... 216382022 4712 Budget clerk............................................. 216382026 4712 Clearing-house clerk................. 216382034 4716 Cost clerk.......................................... Page 270 282 282 282 282 282 282 282 282 282 282 282 282 234 258 258 234 258 234 234 234 234 234 234 234 234 234 234 234 234 234 234 234 234 281 281 261 261 261 281 281 281 281 281 269 281 281 282 281 281 281 281 281 281 281 281 281 281 281 281 281 281 281 281 276 273 286 286 273 286 270 282 282 282 282 282 282 282 282 282 281 486 Occuptional Outlook Handbook D.O.T. Number SOC Code D.O.T. Title 216382046 4699 Margin clerk II................................. 216382050 4718 Policy-value calculator.................... 216382054 4716 Receipt-and-report clerk.................. 216382058 4712 Retumed-item clerk......................... 216482010 4712 Accounting clerk.............................. 216482018 4718 Audit-machine operator................... 216482022 4718 Calculating-machine operator......... 216482026 4712 Dividend-deposit-voucher clerk...... 216482030 4363 Laundry pricing clerk..................... 216482034 4712 Dividend clerk................................ 216587010 4712 Booking clerk.................................. 217382010 4718 Proof-machine operator................... 219362010 4630 Administrative clerk....................... 219362018 4699 Brokerage clerk II........................... 219362022 4630 Clerk, telegraph service.................. 219362026 4630 Contract clerk, automobile............. 219362038 4799 Mortgage-closing clerk................... 219362042 4699 Policy-change clerk........................ 219362050 4699 Revival clerk................................... 219362054 4699 Securities clerk................................ 219362066 4712 Voucher clerk.................................. 219362074 4622 Trust operations assistant................ 219367014 4699 Insurance clerk................................ 219367018 4754 Merchandise distributor.................. 219367022 4753 Paper-control clerk.......................... 219367030 4753 Shipping-order clerk....................... 219367042 4712 Canceling and cutting control clerk. 219367046 4649 Disbursement clerk......................... 219367050 4712 Letter-of-credit clerk....................... 219387026 4754 Space-and-storage clerk.................. 219387030 4754 Stock control clerk.......................... 219462010 4791 Coupon clerk................................... 219467010 4795 Grading clerk.................................. 219482010 4699 Brokerage clerk I............................ 219482014 4699 Insurance checker........................... 219487010 4712 Tax clerk........................................ 219587010 4712 Parimutuel-ticket checker............... 221362014 4751 Dispatcher, relay............................. 221362018 4752 Estimator, paperboard boxes.......... 221367014 4752 Estimator, printing.......................... 221367022 4753 Industrial-order clerk..................... 221367070 4751 Service clerk.................................. 221367082 4751 Work-order-sorting clerk............... 221587018 4754 Odd-piece checker......................... 221587022 4754 Outsole scheduler........................... 222167010 4754 Metal-control coordinator.............. 222367014 4754 Cut-file clerk.................................. 222367022 4744 Express clerk.................................. 222367026 4754 Film-or-tape librarian..................... 222367038 4754 Magazine keeper............................ 222367042 4754 Parts clerk...................................... 222367050 4754 Prescription clerk, lens-and-frames 222367062 4754 Tool-crib attendant......................... 222367066 4754 Truckload checker......................... 222387014 4753 Car checker.................................... 222387018 4754 Fuel-oil clerk.................................. 222387022 4753 Gun-repair clerk............................. 222387026 4754 Inventory clerk............................... 222387030 4754 Linen-room attendant.................... 222387034 4754 Material clerk................................. 222387038 4744 Parcel post clerk............................. 222387042 4754 Property custodian......................... 222387050 4753 Shipping and receiving clerk......... 222387054 4753 Sorter-pricer................................... 222387058 4754 Stock clerk..................................... 222387062 4754 Storekeeper.................................... 222485010 4753 Milk-receiver, tank truck............... 222487010 4754 Checker, bakery products.............. 222487014 4754 Order filler.................................... 222567010 4753 Grain elevator clerk....................... 222567014 4753 Ship runner.................................... 222567018 4744 Slot-tag inserter............................. 222587014 4694 Braille-and-talking books clerk..... 222587018 4753 Distributing clerk........................... 222587022 4754 Kitchen clerk................................. 222587030 4744 Mailer............................................ 222587032 4744 Mailer apprentice.......................... 222587034 4753 Route-delivery clerk..................... 222587054 4754 Transformer-stock clerk................ 222587058 4753 Vault worker................................. 222684010 4754 Meat clerk.................................... https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Page 282 281 281 282 282 281 281 282 235 282 282 281 264 282 264 264 263 254 254 282 282 287 254 275 276 276 282 263 282 275 275 258 291 282 254 282 282 273 32 32 276 273 273 275 275 275 275 270 275 275 275 275 275 276 276 275 276 275 275 275 270 275 276 276 275 275 276 275 275 276 276 270 284 276 275 270 270 276 275 276 275 D.O.T. Number SOC Code D.O.T. Title 222687022 4753 Routing clerk............................................... 222687030 4756 Shipping checker......................................... 222687038 4754 Tooth clerk.................................................. 222687046 4754 Protective-clothing issuer............................ 229367010 4754 Field recorder.............................................. 229367014 4754 Parts lister.................................................... 229587014 4754 Quality-control clerk................................... 230363010 4743 Rural mail carrier......................................... 230367010 4743 Mail carrier................................................... 230647010 4745 Singing messenger....................................... 230663010 4745 Deliverer, outside........................................ 235462010 4732 Central-office operator................................ 235562014 4732 Switchboard operator, police district.......... 235662014 4732 Communication-center operator.................. 235662018 4732 Directory-assistance operator....................... 235662022 4732 Telephone operator....................................... 235662026 4739 Telephone-answering-service operator....... 236252010 4152 Representative, personal service................. 237267010 4649 Information clerk, automobile club.............. 237367010 4645 Appointment clerk....................................... 237367014 4783 Call-out operator......................................... 237367018 4649 Information clerk......................................... 237367022 4645 Information clerk......................................... 237367026 4649 Land-leasing examiner................................ 237367038 4645 Receptionist................................................. 237367042 4649 Referral-and-information aide..................... 237367046 4649 Telephone quotation clerk.......................... 237367050 4649 Tourist-information assistant....................... 238167010 4644 Travel clerk.................................................. 238167014 4644 Travel counselor, automobile club............... 238362014 4644 Reservation clerk........................................ 238367010 4644 Gate agent................................................... 238367014 4644 Reservation clerk......................................... 238367018 4644 Reservations agent....................................... 238367022 4649 Space scheduler........................................... 238367026 4644 Ticket agent................................................ 238367030 4644 Travel clerk................................................. 238367034 4649 Scheduler..................................................... 238367038 4643 Hotel clerk................................................... 239137010 1283 Commercial-instructor supervisor............... 239167014 4751 Dispatcher.................................................... 239227010 2390 Customer-service-representative instructor 239267010 4122 Placer........................................................... 239367014 4751 Dispatcher, maintenance service................ 239367018 4742 Mail-distribution-scheme examiner............ 239367022 4751 Receiver-dispatcher..................................... 239367030 4751 Dispatcher, street department...................... 239567010 4745 Office helper................................................ 239677010 4745 Messenger, copy.......................................... 239687010 4745 Route aide.................................................... 239687014 4745 Tube operator.............................................. 241217010 4782 Claim adjuster.............................................. 241267010 4692 Agent-contract clerk................................... 241267014 4782 Appraiser, automobile damage................... 241267018 4782 Claim examiner........................................... 241267026 4716 Deposit clerk................................................ 241267030 4783 Investigator.................................................. 241267030 4783 Investigator.................................................. 241267034 4783 Investigator, utility-bill complaints............. 241357010 4786 Collection clerk........................................... 241362010 4782 Claims clerk I.............................................. 241367010 4786 Collector...................................................... 241367014 4783 Customer-complaint clerk............................ 241367018 1415 Loan interviewer, mortgage....................... 241367022 4786 Repossessor................................................ 241367026 4783 Skip tracer................................................... 241367030 4783 Throw-out clerk.......................................... 241367034 4783 Tire adjuster................................................ 241387010 4783 Claims clerk................................................ 243362014 4630 Police aide................................................... 243367010 4744 Mail censor................................................. 243367014 4742 Post-office clerk.......................................... 245362014 4630 Unit clerk..................................................... 245367010 4630 Animal-hospital clerk................................... 245367014 4630 Blood-donor-unit assistant.......................... 245367018 4630 Calendar-control clerk, blood bank........... 245367026 4664 Order-control clerk, blood bank.................. 248362010 4753 Incoming-freight clerk................................. 248367014 4753 Booking clerk............................................ 248367022 4753 Container coordinator................................... 248367026 4751 Dispatcher, ship pilot................................. Page 276 276 275 275 275 275 275 277 277 270 270 293 293 293 293 293 293 249 268 268 263 268 268 268 268 268 268 268 269 269 269 269 269 269 268 269 269 268 267 34 273 138 236 273 277 273 273 270 270 270 270 254 287 254 254 281 254 263 254 254 254 254 254 263 254 281 281 254 254 264 270 277 264 264 264 264 285 276 276 276 273 Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage 487 d.o.t. Number soc Code D.O.T. D.O.T. Title Page 248367030 4745 Waterway traffic checker..................... 248382010 4644 Ticketing clerk................................................. 249167014 4751 Dispatcher, motor vehicle...................................... 249262010 4649 Policyholder-information clerk......... 249362010 4363 Counter clerk................................ 249362014 4799 Mortgage clerk................................ 249362018 4799 Mortgage loan closer............................. 249362022 4799 Mortgage loan processor................................. 249362026 4664 Order clerk........................................ 249363010 4694 Bookmobile driver................................ 249365010 4694 Registration clerk.................................... 249366010 4363 Counter clerk....................................... 249367010 4630 Animal-shelter clerk...................................... 249367014 4630 Career-guidance technician......................... 249367022 4799 Credit authorizer............................. 249367030 4787 Dog licenser....... 249367034 4716 Evaluator.......................!!ZZZZZZZZZZ! 249367042 4664 Gas-distribution-and-emergency clerk......... 249367046 4694 Library assistant.......................................... 249367058 4754 Parts-order-and-stock clerk................. 249367070 4751 Routing clerk........................... 249367074 4795 Teacher aide H................................ 249367082 4645 Park aide............................................... 249367086 4795 Satellite-instruction facilitator.................. 249367090 4692 Assignment clerk................................................ 249467010 4364 Information clerk-cashier................... 249687010 4744 Office copy selector.... 249687014 4694 Page.............................................ZZZZZ......... 250157010 4123 Superintendent, sales..................... 250257010 4122 Sales agent, insurance................... 250257014 4100 Financial planner........................................ 250257018 4124 Registered representative......................................... 250257022 4124 Sales representative, financial services .... 250357010 4123 Building consultant...................................... 250357014 4123 Leasing agent, residence...................... 250357018 4123 Sales agent, real estate......................... 250357018 4123 Sales agent, real estate............................ 250357022 4152 Sales representative............................................... 250357026 4124 Sales agent, financial-report service......................... .... 251157014 4152 4152 Sales representative, data processing services..... 251257014 Sales agent, psychological tests and industrial relations........................................................ 251357010 4152 Sales agent, business services................................... 251357018 4152 Sales agent, pest control service.......................... Z" 251357022 4152 Sales representative, franchise.................................. 251357026 4152 Sales representative, herbicide service........ 252152010 4369 Travel agent............. 252257010 4152 Traffic agent.........................ZZZZ""Z!ZZZ 252357010 4152 Crating-and-moving estimator.................................. 252357014 4152 Sales representative, shipping services.................... 253157010 4152 Communications consultant..................................... 253257010 4152 Sales representative, telephone services.................... 253357010 4152 Sales representative, public utilities......................... 254251010 4153 Sales representative, graphic art............................... 254257010 4153 Sales representative, signs and displays.................... 254357010 4153 Leasing agent, outdoor advertising........................ 254357014 4153 Sales representative, advertising.............................. 254357018 4152 Sales representative, printing................... 254357022 4153 Sales representative, signs........................................ 259157010 4369 Sales representative, audiovisual program productions........................................................ 259157014 4152 Sales representative, hotel services........................... .... 259257010 4369 Sales representative, education courses................. 259257018 4152 Service representative, elevators, escalators, and dumbwaiters................................................ 259257022 4152 Sales representative, security systems........... 259357010 4369 Group-sales representative....................................... 259357014 4369 Sales representative, dancing instructions................. 259357018 4153 Sales representative, radio and television time......... 259357022 4369 Sales representative, television cable service............ 259357026 4348 Sales representative, upholstery and furniture repair. 259357030 4152 Sales representative, weather-forecasting service.. 259357034 4369 Ticket broker............................................... 259357038 4152 Tobacco-warehouse agent........................................ 269357018 4153 Sales-promotion representative................................. 273357014 4369 Sales representative, automotive-leasing .... 279357042 4369 Salesperson, burial needs........................... 292353010 8218 Driver, sales route............................ . 292363010 8218 Newspaper-delivery driver..................... 292463010 8218 Lunch-truck driver............................. 292483010 8218 Coin collector................................ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 269 273 268 235 263 263 263 285 284 284 235 264 264 263 254 281 285 284 275 273 291 268 291 287 234 270 284 240 236 247 247 247 240 240 240 240 249 247 249 249 249 249 249 249 251 249 249 249 249 249 249 249 249 249 249 249 249 249 249 249 249 249 249 249 249 249 249 249 249 249 249 249 249 455 455 455 455 Number SOC Code D.O.T. Title page 292667010 8218 Driver helper, sales route.............................. 4ss 293157010 4369 Fund raiser 1................................................... 249 293357010 4369 Blood-donor recruiter............................................. 249 293357014 4369 Fund raiser II..................................................... 249 293357022 4450 Membership solicitor.......................................... 249 294567010 4364 Auction clerk......................................... 234 295357010 4363 Apparel-rental clerk................................................. 235 295357014 4363 Tool-and-equipment-rental clerk............................. 235 295357018 4363 Furniture-rental consultant................................. 235 295367010 4363 Airplane-charter clerk............................................. 235 295367014 4363 Baby-stroller and wheelchair rental clerk...... 235 295367018 4664 Film-rental clerk.................................................. 285 295367026 4363 Storage-facility rental clerk................................. 235 295467010 4363 Bicycle-rental clerk................................................. 235 295467014 4363 Boat-rental clerk......................................................... 235 295467018 4363 Hospital-television-rental clerk........... 235 295467022 4363 Trailer-rental clerk...................................................... 235 295467026 4363 Automobile rental clerk.................................... 235 299137010 4030 Manager, department.................................................. 243 299137026 4030 Supervisor, marina sales and service...................... 243 299361010 4490 Optician, dispensing................................................... 203 299361014 4490 Optician apprentice, dispensing.... 203 299367014 4362 Stock clerk............................ .......... ...................... 275 299367018 4363 Watch-and-clock-repair clerk..................................... 235 299677014 4362 Sales attendant, building materials.......... 275 301137010 5050 Housekeeper, home................................................... 328 301474010 5070 House worker, general..................................... 301677010 5060 Child monitor............ 328 301687010 5070 Caretaker.............................ZZZZZ’"........... 328 301687014 5020 Day worker.............................................................. 328 302685010 5030 Laundry worker, domestic . 328 302687010 5030 Ironer........... ............................. 328 305281010 5040 Cook........................................................................... 39s 309137010 5050 Butler..................ZZZZZZZ7................... 328 309354010 5263 Homemaker................................................. 325 309367010 5090 House sitter..................................................... 328 309674010 5050 Butler, second.......................................... 328 309674014 5090 Personal attendant.................................................... 328 309677010 5090 Companion.......................................................... 328 310137010 5211 Host/hostess, restaurant............................................. 311 310267010 1420 Analyst, food and beverage........................................ 58 310357010 5213 Wine steward/stewardess..................................... 311 311472010 5216 Fast-foods worker............... 311 311477010 5216 Carhop..................................ZZZZZZZZ 311 311477014 5216 Counter attendant, lunchroom or coffee shop.......... 311 311477018 5213 Waiter/waitress, bar.................................................. 311 311477022 5213 Waiter/waitress, dining car...................................... 311 311477026 5213 Waiter/waitress, formal........................................... 311 311477030 5213 Waiter/waitress, informal......................................... 311 311477034 5216 Waiter/waitress, room service.................................. 311 311477038 5216 Waiter/waitress, take out............................... 311 311674010 5216 Canteen operator..................................................... 311 311674014 5217 Raw shellfish preparer.............................................. 308 311674018 5213 Waiter/waitress, buffet............................................. 311 311677010 5218 Cafeteria attendant.................................................... 311 311677014 311677018 312474010 312477010 312677010 312687010 313281010 313361010 313361014 313361018 313361026 313361030 313361034 313361038 313374010 313374014 313381010 313381014 313381018 313381022 313381026 313381030 313381034 313684010 313687010 315361010 5216 Counterroom attendant, cafeteria..................................... 5218 Dining attendant.............. 5212 Bartender.......................................ZZ7!.............. 5212 Bar attendant............................................... 5212 Taproom attendant...................................... 5218 Bartender helper.............. 5214 Chefdefroid........................ ZZZ”................... 5214 Baker, second................ 5214 Cook................................. ZZZZZZ.7......... 5214 Cook apprentice........................................... 5214 Cook, specialty......................................................... 5214 Cook, specialty, foreign food........................ 5214 Garde manger......................................... 5214 Pie maker.............................. 5215 Cook, fast food.......................ZZZZ.............. 5215 Cook, short order............. 5214 Baker.....................................ZZZ....................... 5214 Baker, pizza............................................................. 5214 Cook apprentice, pastry................... 5214 Cook, barbecue................................................ 5214 Cook, pastry................................................... 5214 Cook, school cafeteria.................................. 5214 Ice-cream chef............................................... 5219 Baker helper.......................................................... 5219 Cook helper, pastry............... 5214 Cook........... ....... ........................ ZZZ.ZZZ.7 \ 3 1 311 311 311 311 311 308 308 308 30c 308 308 30c 300 308 300 308 308 308 300 300 308 308 308 308 308 32 488 Occuptional Outlook Handbook d.o.t. Number soc Code D.O.T. Number SOC Code D.O.T. Title D Pa8e D.O.T. Title 315361022 5214 Cook, station................................. 315371010 5214 Cook, mess................................... 315381010 5214 Cook............................................. 315381014 5214 Cook, larder................................. 315381018 5214 Cook, railroad.............................. 315381022 5214 Cook, third................................... 315381026 5214 Second cook and baker................ 316661010 5217 Carver.......................................... 316681010 6871 Butcher, meat............................... 316684010 5217 Butcher, chicken and fish............ 316684014 5217 Deli cutter-slicer.......................... 316684018 6871 Meat cutter.................................. 316684022 6871 Meat-cutter apprentice................. 317384010 5217 Salad maker................................. 317664010 5217 Sandwich maker........................... 317684010 5217 Coffee maker................................ 317684014 5217 Pantry goods maker..................... 317687010 5219 Cook helper.................................. 318687010 5219 Kitchen helper.............................. 318687014 5219 Scullion....................................... 318687018 5219 Silver wrapper.............................. 319137014 5211 Manager, flight kitchen................ 319137018 5211 Manager, industrial cafeteria....... 319137030 5211 Kitchen supervisor...................... 319464014 5219 Vending-machine attendant........ 319474010 5216 Fountain server........................... 319484010 5219 Food assembler, kitchen............. 319677014 5216 Food-service worker, hospital.... 319687010 5218 Counter-supply worker............... 320137010 1351 Manager, boarding house........... 320137014 1351 Manager, lodging facilities......... 321137010 5241 Housekeeper............................... 321137014 5241 Inspector...................................... 323137010 5241 Supervisor, housecleaner............ 323687010 5242 Cleaner, hospital......................... 323687014 5242 Cleaner, housekeeping................ 323687018 5242 Housecleaner.............................. 330371010 5252 Barber......................................... 330371014 5252 Barber apprentice........................ 331674010 5253 Manicurist.................................. 331674014 5253 Fingernail former....................... 332271010 5253 Cosmetologist............................ 332271014 5253 Cosmetologist apprentice.......... 332271018 5253 Hairstylist.................................. 332361010 5253 Wig dresser................................ 333071010 5253 Make-up artist............................ 333271010 5253 Body-make-up artist.................. 339361010 5253 Mortuary beautician................... 339371010 5253 Electrologist............................... 339371014 5253 Scalp-treatment operator............ 339687010 4754 Supply clerk............................... 343367014 5144 Gambling monitor...................... 350137026 5241 Steward/stewardess, third.......... 350677010 5213 Mess attendant........................... 350677026 5213 Steward/stewardess, wine.......... 350677030 5213 Waiter/waitress......................... 352167010 5269 Director, social........................... 352367010 5257 Airplane-flight attendant............ 352677018 5213 Waiter/waitress, club................ 354374010 3660 Nurse, practical......................... 354377010 5236 Birth attendant.......................... 354377014 5236 Home attendant......................... 354677010 5236 First-aid attendant..................... 355354010 5233 Physical therapy aide................ 355377010 5233 Occupational therapy aide........ 355377014 5236 Psychiatric aide......................... 355377018 5233 Mental-retardation aide............. 355667010 5233 Morgue attendant...................... 355674010 5264 Child-care attendant, school..... 355674014 5236 Nurse assistant.......................... 355674018 5236 Orderly..................................... 355677014 5269 Transporter, patients................. 358687010 5244 Change-house attendant............ 359673010 8216 Chauffeur................................. 359673014 8216 Chauffeur, funeral car............... 359677010 5264 Attendant, children's institution 359677018 5264 Nursery school attendant......... 359677026 5264 Playroom attendant.................. 365361010 6854 Luggage repairer...................... 365361014 6854 Shoe repairer............................ 369367010 4363 Fur-storage clerk...................... https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 308 308 308 308 308 308 308 308 404 404 308 404 404 308 308 308 308 308 308 308 308 72 72 72 373 311 308 311 311 50 50 327 327 327 327 327 327 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 275 306 327 311 311 311 130 324 311 316 316 325 316 318 . 317 , 316 . 316 . 314 , 321 . 316 . 316 . 316 . 327 . 453 . 453 . 321 . 321 . 321 . 432 . 432 . 235 369367014 4363 Rug measurer.......................................................... 369467010 4363 Manager, branch store............................................ 369477014 4363 Service-establishment attendant............................ 369677010 4363 Self-service-laundry-and-dry-cleaning attendant... 372167010 4751 Dispatcher, security guard...................................... 372367014 5133 Jailer.................................................................. •••• 372563010 5144 Armored-car guard and driver................................ 372567010 5144 Armored-car guard................................................. 372567014 5133 Guard, immigration................................................ 372667010 5144 Airline security representative............................... 372667014 5144 Bodyguard.............................................................. 372667018 5133 Correction officer................................................... 372667030 5144 Gate guard.............................................................. 372667034 5144 Guard, security....................................................... 372667038 5144 Merchant patroller.................................................. 372677010 5133 Patrol conductor..................................................... 373134010 5111 Fire captain............................................................ 373167010 5111 Battalion chief....................................................... 373167014 5111 Captain, fire-prevention bureau............................ 373167018 5111 Fire marshal........................................................... 373267010 5122 Fire inspector......................................................... 373267014 5122 Fire marshal........................................................... 373267018 5122 Fire-investigation lieutenant.................................. 373363010 5123 Fire chief s aide...................................................... 373364010 5123 Firefighter............................................................. 373367010 5122 Fire inspector......................................................... 373663010 5123 Fire fighter, crash, fire, and rescue........................ 375227010 2249 Police-academy instructor..................................... 375362010 4630 Police clerk............................................................ 375367010 5133 Police officer II.................................................. ... 376137010 5113 Manager, internal security..................................... 376267010 5144 Investigator, cash shortage.................................... 376267014 5144 Investigator, fraud................................................. 376267018 5144 Investigator, private............................................... 376267022 5144 Shopping investigator............................................ 376367010 5144 Alarm investigator................................................ 376367014 5144 Detective I............................................................ 376367018 5144 House officer........................................................ 376367022 5144 Investigator........................................................... 376367026 5144 Undercover operator............................................. 376667010 5144 Bouncer................................................................ 376667014 5144 Detective II........................................................... 379162010 4751 Alarm operator..................................................... 379362010 4751 Dispatcher, radio.................................................. 379362018 4751 Telecommunicator................................................ 379667010 5144 Golf-course ranger................................................ 379687010 5122 Fire-extinguisher-sprinkler inspector................... 381137010 5241 Supervisor, janitorial services.............................. 381687010 4754 Central-supply worker.......................................... 381687014 5244 Cleaner, commercial or institutional.................... 381687018 5244 Cleaner, industrial................................................ 381687022 5244 Cleaner, laboratory equipment............................. 381687026 5244 Cleaner, wall......................................................... 381687030 5244 Patch worker......................................................... 381687034 5244 Waxer, floor......................................................... 382664010 5244 Janitor.................................................................. 389667010 5244 Sexton.................................................................. 389683010 5244 Sweeper-cleaner, industrial................................. 389687014 5244 Cleaner, window.................................................. 401161010 5513 Farmer, cash grain............................................... 402161010 5513 Farmer, vegetable................................................ 403161010 5513 Farmer, tree-fruit-and-nut crops.......................... 403161014 5513 Farmer, fruit crops, bush and vine...................... 404161010 5513 Farmer, field crop................................................ 405161010 5515 Bonsai culturist.................................................... 405161014 5515 Horticultural-specialty grower, field................... 405161018 5515 Horticultural-specialty grower, inside................. 405361010 5515 Plant propagator........................................... 406381010 5622 Gardener, special effects and instruction models 406683010 5622 Greenskeeper II................................................... 406684010 5622 Cemetery worker................................................. 406684014 5622 Groundskeeper, industrial-commercial............... 406684018 5622 Garden worker..................................................... 406687010 5622 Landscape specialist............................................ 407161010 5512 Farmer, diversified crops.................................... 408161010 5622 Landscape gardener............................................ 408662010 5616 Hydro-sprayer operator...................................... 408664010 5730 Tree trimmer....................................................... 408667010 5730 Tree-trimmer helper........................................... 408684010 5622 Lawn-service worker.......................................... 408684014 5614 Sprayer, hand...................................................... 235 235 235 235 273 297 301 301 297 301 301 297 301 301 301 297 299 299 299 299 299 299 299 299 299 299 299 138 264 297 306 306 306 306 306 306 306 306 306 306 301 306 273 273 273 301 299 327 275 327 327 327 327 327 327 327 327 327 327 331 331 331 331 331 331 331 331 331 . 339 . 339 . 339 . 339 . 339 . 339 . 331 . 339 . 339 . 337 . 337 , 339 . 339 Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage 489 DOT. SOC Number Code D.O.T. D.O.T. Title 408684018 5614 Treepruner.................................... 408687014 5622 Laborer, landscape........................ 410161014 5514 Fur fanner..................................... 410161018 5514 Livestock rancher.......................... 410161022 5514 Hog-confinement-system manager, 410674010 5624 Animal caretaker........................... 410674022 5624 Stable attendant............................. 411161014 5514 Poultry breeder.............................. 411161018 5514 Poultry farmer............................... 412161010 5514 Game-bird farmer......................... 412674010 5624 Animal keeper................................ 412674014 5624 Animal-nursery worker.................. 413161010 5514 Beekeeper...................................... 413161014 5514 Reptile farmer................................ 418381010 5624 Horseshoer..................................... 418674010 5624 Dog groomer................................ 418677010 5624 Dog bather...................................... 421161010 5512 Farmer, general.............................. 441132010 5830 Boatswain, otter trawler................. 441683010 5830 Skiff operator................................. 441684010 5830 Fisher, net....................................... 441684014 5830 Fisher, pot..................................... 441684018 5830 Fisher, terrapin.............................. 441684022 5830 Fisher, weir.................................... 442684010 5830 Fisher, line.............................. 443664010 5830 Fisher, diving................................. 443684010 5830 Fisher, spear................................... 446161010 5514 Fish farmer.................................... 446161014 5514 Shellfish grower............................ 447684010 5830 Sponge hooker............................... 447687010 5830 Dulser............................................. 447687014 5830 Irish-moss bleacher........................ 447687018 5830 Irish-moss gatherer........................ 447687022 5830 Kelp cutter...................................... 447687026 5830 Sponge clipper............................... 449664010 5830 Net repairer.................................... 449667010 5830 Deckhand, fishing vessel................ 449674010 5624 Aquarist.......................................... 451687010 5720 Christmas-tree farm worker............ 451687014 5720 Christmas-tree grader...................... 451687018 5720 Seedling puller................................ 451687022 5720 Seedling sorter................................ 452134010 5111 Smoke jumper supervisor............... 452167010 5122 Firewarden..................................... 452364010 5720 Forester aide.................................... 452364014 5123 Smoke jumper................................. 452367010 5122 Fire lookout.................................... 452367014 5122 Fire ranger....................................... 452687010 5720 Forest worker.................................. 452687014 5123 Forest-firefighter............................ 452687018 5720 Tree planter..................................... 453687010 5720 Forest-products gatherer................. 453687014 5720 Laborer, tree tapping....................... 454384010 5730 Fallerl............................................. 454683010 5730 Tree-shear operator......................... 454684010 5730 Bucker...................................... 454684014 5730 Fallerll........................................... 454684018 5730 Logger, all-round............................ 454684022 5730 River................................................ 454684026 5730 Tree cutter....................................... 454687010 5730 Chain saw operator......................... 454687014 5730 Laborer, tanbark.............................. 454687018 5790 Log marker...................................... 455367010 7850 Log grader......................... 455487010 5790 Log scaler................................ 455664010 5790 Rafter............................................... 455684010 5790 Log sorter........................................ 455687010 5790 Log marker................................... 459387010 5790 Cruiser............................................. 459687010 5730 Laborer, brush clearing.................... 461134010 5840 Expedition supervisor..................... 461661010 5840 Predatory-animal hunter.................. 461664010 5840 Underwater hunter-trapper............ 461684010 5840 Sealer............................................... 461684014 5840 Trapper, animal................................ 461684018 5840 Trapper, bird.................................... 522264010 2390 Training technician.......................... 525361010 6871 Slaughterer, religious ritual............. 525381010 6871 Butcher apprentice........................... 525381014 6871 Butcher, all-round............................ 525664010 6871 Meat dresser.................................... https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Page 339 339 331 331 331 330 330 331 331 331 330 330 331 331 330 330 330 331 334 334 334 334 334 334 334 334 334 331 331 334 334 334 334 334 334 334 334 330 337 337 337 337 299 299 337 299 299 299 337 299 337 337 337 337 337 337 337 337 337 337 337 337 337 337 337 337 337 337 337 337 334 334 334 334 334 334 138 404 404 404 404 SOC NumberCode 525684010 525684014 525684018 525684022 525684030 525684038 525684046 525684050 525684054 525684058 525687074 553684010 559361010 579137030 600260022 600280022 600280026 600280030 600280034 600280042 600281010 600380010 601260010 601260014 601280010 601280014 601280018 601280022 601280030 601280034 601280042 601280058 601281010 601281014 601281026 601380010 601381010 601381014 601381022 601381026 601381030 601381034 601381042 609262010 613667010 614684010 620261010 620261012 620261022 620261030 620261034 620281010 620281026 620281034 620281038 620281042 620281046 620281050 620281054 620281058 620281062 620281066 620281070 620364010 620381010 620381014 620381022 620684018 620684022 620684026 620684034 621221010 621261018 621261022 621281014 621281018 621684014 623261010 623261014 623281038 623281042 D.O.T. Title Page 7753 Boner, meat..................................................... 404 7753 Butcher, fish............................................................. 404 7753 Carcass splitter......................................... 404 7753 Crab butcher............................................ 404 7753 Fish cleaner................................................................. 404 7753 Offal separator............................................. 404 7753 Skinner........................................................................ 404 7753 Sticker, animal.......................................................... 404 7753 Trimmer, meat........................................................... 404 7753 Turkey-roll maker...................................................... 404 7753 Poultry eviscerator...................................................... 404 7714 Heat welder, plastics.................................................. 417 3690 Laboratory technician, pharmaceutical...................... 200 7100 Dispatcher, concrete products.................................... 273 6813 Machinist, experimental.................... 410 6813 Machinist................................................................. 410 6813 Machinist apprentice................................................ 410 6813 Machinist apprentice, automotive.............................. 410 6813 Machinist, automotive.............................................. 410 6813 Maintenance machinist............................................. 410 6130 Fluid-power mechanic.............................................. 410 7329 Fixture maker........................................................... 410 6811 Tool-and-die maker.................................................. 415 6811 Tool-and-die-maker apprentice................................ 415 6811 Die maker, stamping................................................ 415 6811 Die maker, trim.......................................................... 415 6811 Die maker, wire drawing.......................................... 415 6811 Die sinker................................................................. 415 6811 Mold maker, die-casting and plastic molding........... 415 6811 Tap-and-die-maker technician........... 415 6811 Toolmaker...........................................................J 415 6811 Tool-maker apprentice............................................. 415 6811 Die maker, bench, stamping..................................... 415 6811 Die-try-out worker, stamping................................... 415 6811 Tool maker, bench.................................................... 415 6829 Carbide operator....................................................... 415 6811 Die finisher............................................................... 415 6811 Die maker........................................................... .... 415 6811 Die-maker apprentice............................................... 415 6811 Plastic tool maker..................................................... 415 6811 Plastic-fixture builder............................................... 415 6811 Saw maker............................................................... 415 6811 Die maker, electronic............................................... 415 3974 Tool programmer, numerical control....................... 410 7714 Liner assembler....................................................... 417 7532 Billet assembler....................................................... 417 6111 Automobile mechanic............................................. 345 6111 Automobile-mechanic apprentice............................ 345 6117 Construction-equipment mechanic.......................... 368 6111 Automobile-service-station mechanic...................... 345 6111 Automotive-cooling-system diagnostic technician.... 345 6111 Air-conditioning mechanic...................................... 345 6111 Brake repairer.......................................................... 345 6111 Carburetor mechanic............................................... 345 6111 Front-end mechanic................................................. 345 6117 Logging-equipment mechanic................................. 368 6111 Maintenance mechanic............................................ 348 6112 Mechanic, industrial truck....................................... 348 6114 Motorcycle repairer.................. 370 6112 Tractor mechanic..................................................... 348 6111 Transmission mechanic........................................... 345 6111 Tune-up mechanic................................................... 345 6111 Vehicle-fuel-systems converter............................... 345 6115 Squeak, rattle, and leak repairer.............................. 344 6111 Automobile-radiator mechanic................................ 345 6117 Mechanic, endless track vehicle.............................. 368 6111 Repairer, heavy........................................................ 345 6111 Brake adjuster.......................................................... 345 6111 Clutch rebuilder....................................................... 345 6114 Motorcycle subassembly repairer........................... 370 6115 Used-car renovator.................................................. 344 2390 Field-service representative.................................... 138 8250 Flight engineer......................................................... 215 6116 Experimental aircraft mechanic.............................. 342 6116 Airframe-and-power-plant mechanic...................... 342 6116 Airframe-and-power-plant-mechanic apprentice.... 342 6179 Reclamation worker................................................ 342 6114 Experimental mechanic, outboard motors.............. 370 6114 Outboard-motor tester............................................. 370 6114 Motorboat mechanic............................................... 370 6114 Outboard-motor mechanic...................................... 370 490 Occuptional Outlook Handbook d .o.t. Number soc Code D.O.T. Title Page 624281010 6118 Farm-equipment mechanic 1..................................... 357 624281014 6118 Farm-equipment-mechanic apprentice.................... 357 624361014 6118 Sprinkler-irrigation-equipment mechanic................ 357 624381010 6118 Assembly repairer.................................................... 357 624381014 6118 Farm-equipment mechanic II.................................... 357 624381018 6812 Farm-machinery set-up mechanic............................. 357 624684010 6118 Greaser..................................................................... 357 625281010 6112 Diesel mechanic....................................................... 348 625281014 6112 Diesel-mechanic apprentice...................................... 348 625281018 6114 Engine repairer, service............................................. 370 625281026 6114 Gas-engine repairer................................................... 370 625281030 6114 Power-saw mechanic................................................ 370 625281034 6114 Small-engine mechanic............................................. 370 625361010 6112 Diesel-engine erector................................................ 348 625381010 6114 Engine repairer, production...................................... 370 629281018 6118 Dairy-equipment repairer......................................... 357 633261010 6154 Assembly technician................................................. 353 633261014 6174 Mail-processing-equipment mechanic...................... 353 633281010 6174 Cash-register servicer............................................... 353 633281014 6174 Dictating-transcribing-machine servicer.................. 353 633281018 6174 Office-machine servicer............................................ 353 633281022 6174 Office-machine-servicer apprentice......................... 353 633281030 6174 Statistical-machine servicer...................................... 353 637261010 6156 Air-conditioning installer-servicer, window unit..... 362 637261014 6160 Heating-and-air-conditioning installer-servicer....... 360 637261018 6179 Gas-appliance servicer.............................................. 362 637261026 6160 Refrigeration mechanic............................................. 360 637261030 6160 Solar-energy-system installer................................... 360 637261034 6160 Air and hydronic balancing technician..................... 360 637381010 6160 Evaporative-cooler installer...................................... 360 6160 Refrigeration unit repairer........................................ 360 637381014 638261010 6178 Automated equipment engineer-technician............... 367 638261014 6178 Machinery erector..................................................... 367 638261018 6178 Manufacturer's service representative...................... 367 638261026 6178 Field service technician............................................ 367 638281018 6178 Millwright................................................................. 367 638281022 6178 Millwright apprentice............................................... 367 639281014 6179 Coin-machine-service repairer................................. 373 653360010 7449 Casing-in-line setter.................................................. 423 653360018 7449 Bindery-machine setter............................................. 423 653382010 7649 Folding-machine operator......................................... 423 653382014 7649 Collating-machine operator...................................... 423 653662010 7449 Stitching-machine operator....................................... 423 653682010 7449 Book-sewing-machine operator II............................ 423 653682014 7649 Covering-machine operator....................................... 423 653682018 7449 Head-bander-and-liner operator................................ 423 653682022 7449 Tinning-machine set-up operator.............................. 423 653685010 7649 Bindery worker......................................................... 423 653685014 7649 Book-sewing-machine operator 1.............................. 423 653685018 7661 Case-making-machine operator................................. 423 653685022 7649 Magazine repairer..................................................... 423 653685026 7649 Rounding-and-backing-machine operator................. 423 653685030 7649 Spiral binder.............................................................. 423 659462010 4664 Electrotype servicer................................................... 285 669485010 7639 Power-barker operator............................................... 337 683222010 2390 Instructor, weaving.................................................... 138 689324010 2390 Instructor.................................................................... 138 692685146 7679 Saddle-and-side wire stitcher..................................... 423 693261022 6813 Rocket-motor mechanic............................................. 342 700281010 6822 Jeweler...................................................................... 408 700281014 6822 Jeweler apprentice..................................................... 408 700281022 6822 Silversmith II............................. 408 700381030 6822 Locket maker............................................................. 408 700381042 6822 Ring maker................................................................. 408 700381046 6822 Sample maker 1.......................................................... 408 706381010 6174 Aligner, typewriter..................................................... 353 706381030 6174 Repairer, typewriter................................................... 353 706381046 6111 Wheelwright.............................................................. 345 709684086 7714 Torch-straightener-and heater.................................... 417 711381010 6864 Optical-instrument assembler.................................... 440 712381014 6865 Contour wire specialist, denture................................ 439 712381018 6865 Dental-laboratory technician.......................................'439 712381022 6865 Dental-laboratory-technician apprentice.................... 439 712381026 6865 Orthodontic band maker............................................ 439 712381030 6865 Orthodontic technician.............................................. 439 712381042 6865 Dental ceramist.......................................................... 439 712381046 6865 Denture waxer............................................................ 439 712381050 6865 Finisher, denture........................................................ 439 713381010 6864 Lens-mold setter........................................................ 440 713681010 6864 Lens mounter II.......................................................... 440 714281018 6813 Machinist, motion-picture equipment........................ 410 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis D.O.T. Number 715221010 716280010 716280014 716280018 716381014 716382010 716382014 716382018 716382022 716462010 716681010 716681014 716681018 716682014 716682018 720281010 720281014 720281018 721281010 721281022 722281010 723381010 723381014 723584010 726261010 726261014 726361022 726364014 726381014 726684090 727662010 727684022 729281010 729281022 729381018 730281014 730281018 730281026 730281038 730281050 730281054 730361010 730361014 730381010 730381026 730381034 730381038 730381042 730381058 730681010 730684022 730684026 730684094 739381018 739381022 739687198 740221010 761281014 779684058 780381010 780381014 780381018 780381022 780381026 780381030 780381038 780384010 780384014 780684034 780684118 780684122 781381018 783361010 783381018 783381022 783381026 788222010 788261010 788381010 788381014 789222010 SOC Code D.O.T. Title Page 2390 Instructor, watch assembly......................................... 6864 Optician apprentice.................................................... 6864 Optician..................................................................... 6864 Optician..................................................................... 6864 Lay-out technician..................................................... 6864 Lathe operator, contact lens....................................... 6864 Optical-element coater............................................... 6864 Precision-lens grinder................................................ 6864 Precision-lens-grinder apprentice.............................. 6864 Precision-lens centerer and edger............................... 6864 Blocker and cutter, contact lens................................. 6864 Glass cutter, hand....................................................... 6864 Lens polisher, hand.................................................... 6864 Precision-lens generator............................................. 6864 Precision-lens polisher............................................... 6155 Radio repairer............................................................. 6155 Tape-recorder repairer................................................ 6155 Television-and-radio repairer..................................... 6152 Automotive-generator-and-starter repairer................ 6114 Magneto repairer........................................................ 6151 Instrument repairer..................................................... 6156 Electrical-appliance repairer...................................... 6156 Vacuum cleaner repairer............................................ 6156 Appliance repairer...................................................... 3711 Electronics assembler, developmental....................... 3711 Electrician, research................................................... 6867 Repairer, probe test card, semiconductor wafers....... 3720 Test fixture designer................................................... 6151 Electronic equipment repairer..................................... 7720 Reworker, printed circuit board.................................. 7332 Lead burner, machine................................................. 7714 Lead burner................................................................. 6155 Audio-video repairer................................................. 6867 Electric-tool repairer.................................................. 1432 Street-light repairer..................................................... 6172 Accordion repairer...................................................... 6155 Electric-organ inspector and repairer.......................... 6172 Fretted-instrument repairer.......................................... 6172 Piano technician........................................................ 6172 Violin repairer............................................................ 6172 Wind-instrument repairer............................................ 6172 Piano tuner................................................ 6172 Pipe-organ tuner and repairer...................................... 6172 Accordion tuner........................................................... 6172 Harp regulator.............................................................. 6172 Metal-reed tuner.......................................................... 6172 Organ-pipe voicer....................................................... 6172 Percussion-instrument repairer.................................... 6172 Tuner, percussion........................................................ 6172 Piano regulator-inspector........................................... 6172 Bowrehairer............................................................... 6172 Chip tuner................................................................... 6172 Tone regulator............................................................ 6811 Die maker................................................................... 6811 Die-maker apprentice................................................. 5244 Venetian-blind cleaner and repairer........................... 2390 Instructor, decorating................................................. 3220 Experimental-box tester............................................. 6413 Stone repairer............................................................. 6853 Automobile upholsterer.............................................. 6853 Automobile-upholsterer apprentice............................ 6853 Furniture upholsterer.................................................. 6853 Furniture-upholsterer apprentice................................ 6853 Upholsterer, limousine and hearse............................. 6854 Pad hand..................................................................... 6853 Upholsterer, inside..................................................... 7720 Automobile-seat-cover-and-convertible-top installer 7654 Upholsterer.................................................................. 7720 Chair upholsterer......................................................... 7720 Upholsterer, outside.................................................... 6853 Upholstery repairer...................................................... 6854 Leather stamper.......................................................... 6854 Custom-leather-products maker.................................. 6854 Harness maker............................................................ 6854 Luggage maker........................................................... 6854 Saddle maker............................................................... 2390 Instructor..................................................................... 6854 Orthopedic-boot-and-shoe designer and maker.......... 6854 Cobbler....................................................................... 6854 Shoemaker, custom..................................................... 2390 Instructor, apparel manufacture.................................. 138 440 440 440 440 440 440 440 440 440 440 440 440 440 440 354 354 354 344 370 352 362 362 362 226 226 352 224 352 352 417 417 354 362 383 372 354 372 372 372 372 372 372 372 372 372 372 372 372 372 372 372 372 415 415 327 138 226 376 435 435 435 435 435 432 435 435 435 435 435 435 432 432 432 432 432 138 432 432 432 138 Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage 491 d.o.t. Number 801361014 801361018 801361022 801381010 801684026 804281010 804281014 805261010 805261014 805361010 805361014 805381010 806281058 806361026 806381062 806384038 806684038 807261010 807267010 807281010 807361010 807381010 807381014 807381018 807381022 807381030 807484010 807664010 807684010 807684018 807684022 809381022 809381026 810382010 810384010 810384014 810664010 810684010 811482010 811684010 811684014 812360010 812682010 813684010 814382010 814682010 814684010 815380010 815382010 815382014 815682010 815682014 816364010 816464010 816684010 819281010 819281014 819281022 819361010 819361014 819381010 819384010 819384014 819684010 819685010 820662010 821261010 821261014 821261022 821261026 821281010 821361010 821361018 821361022 821361026 821361030 821361038 821684022 821687010 822261010 822261022 soc Code D.O.T. Title Page 6473 Structural-steelworker............................................... 397 6473 Structural-steel-worker apprentice............................ 397 6473 Tank setter.................................................................. 397 6473 Assembler, metal building......................................... 397 6473 Reinforcing-metalworker.......................................... 397 6824 Sheet-metalworker.................................................... 395 6824 Sheet-metal-worker apprentice.................................. 395 6814 Boilermaker apprentice.............................................. 407 6814 Boilermaker 1............................................................. 407 6814 Boilerhouse mechanic................................................ 407 6814 Boilermaker fitter....................................................... 407 6814 Boilermaker II............................................................ 407 6422 Carpenter, prototype.................................................. 377 6111 New-car get-ready mechanic...................................... 345 6432 Installer, electrical, plumbing, mechanical................. 383 6116 Pressure sealer-and-tester.......................................... 342 6111 Automobile-accessories installer............................... 345 6116 Aircraft body repairer................................................. 342 6115 Shop estimator........................................................... 344 6115 Truck-bodybuilder................................................... 344 6115 Automobile-body customizer.................................... 344 6115 Automobile-body repairer........................................ 344 6116 Bonded structures repairer.......................................... 342 6115 Frame repairer........................................................... 344 6115 Service mechanic...................................................... 344 6115 Auto-body repairer, fiberglass................................... 344 6115 Frame straightener.................................................... 344 6111 Muffler installer........................................................ 345 6115 Automobile-bumper straightener.............................. 344 6116 Aircraft skin burnisher.............................................. 342 6111 Floor service worker, spring...................................... 345 6479 Ornamental-ironworker........................................... 397 6479 Ornamental-iron-worker apprentice......................... 397 7332 Welding-machine operator, arc................................. 417 7714 Welder apprentice, arc..................................... 417 7714 Welder, arc................................................................ 417 7714 Welder, gun............................................................... 417 7714 Welder, tack.............................................................. 417 7332 Welding-machine operator, gas................................. 417 7714 Welder apprentice, gas.............................................. 417 7714 Welder, gas............................................................... 417 7332 Welder setter, resistance machine.............................. 417 7332 Welding-machine operator, resistance....................... 417 7714 Brazer, assembler...................................................... 417 7532 Welding-machine operator, friction........................... 417 7532 Welding-machine operator, ultrasonic....................... 417 7532 Welder, explosion..................................;.................. 417 7332 Welder setter, electron-beam machine....................... 417 7332 Welding-machine operator, electron beam................ 417 7532 Welding-machine operator, electroslag.................... 417 7532 Laser-beam-machine operator.................................. 417 7532 Welding-machine operator, thermit.......................... 417 7714 Arc cutter.................................................................. 417 7714 Thermal cutter, hand 1................................................ 417 7714 Thermal cutter, hand II........................................ 417 7714 Lead burner............................................................... 417 7714 Lead-burner apprentice............................................. 417 7714 Welder, experimental................................................ 417 7714 Welder-fitter............................................................. 417 7714 Welder-fitter apprentice........................................... 417 7714 Welder-assembler.................................................... 417 7714 Welder, combination............................................... 417 7714 Welder apprentice, combination................................ 417 7714 Welder, production line............................................. 417 7532 Welding-machine tender.......................................... 417 6932 Motor-room controller............................................. 418 6151 Cable television line technician................................. 365 6433 Line maintainer........................................................ 365 6159 Service restorer, emergency...................................... 365 6433 Trouble shooter II.................................................... 365 6151 Cable television installer......................................... 365 6433 Cable installer-repairer............................................ 365 6433 Line erector.............................................................. 365 6433 Line installer, street railway...................................... 365 6433 Line repairer............................................................. 365 6433 Line-erector apprentice............................................ 365 6433 Tower erector........................................................... 365 6433 Trolley-wire installer............................................... 365 6433 Steel-post installer................................................... 365 6151 Electrician, office..................................................... 352 6158 Station installer-and-repairer................................... 354 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis D.O.T. SOC Number Code D.O.T. Title 822281010 822281014 822281018 822281022 822281026 822281030 822281034 822361014 822361018 822361022 822381010 822381014 822381018 822381022 822684010 823261010 823261014 823261018 823261022 823261030 823281014 823281022 823361010 824261010 824261014 824281010 824281018 824381010 824681010 825261010 825261014 825281030 825281034 825361010 825381014 825381030 825381034 827261010 827261014 827361014 827661010 828251010 828261010 828261014 828261018 828261022 828261026 828281022 829261018 829281022 829361010 829361014 840381010 840381014 840381018 840681010 840684010 841381010 842361010 842361014 842361018 842361022 842361026 842361030 842381014 842664010 842684014 844364010 844364014 844461010 844684010 845681010 850387010 850467010 850663018 860281010 860281014 860361010 860361014 860381010 860381022 6151 Automatic-equipment technician................................ 6151 Central-office repairer............................................... 6158 Maintenance mechanic, telephone............................. 6151 Private-branch-exchange repairer............................... 6151 Signal maintainer....................................................... 6151 Technician, plant and maintenance............................ 6151 Technician, submarine cable equipment.................... 6151 Central-office installer............................................... 6432 Protective-signal installer........................................... 6432 Protective-signal repairer........................................... 6151 Equipment installer................................................... 6157 Line installer-repairer................................................ 6151 Private-branch-exchange installer............................. 6151 Telegraph-plant maintainer....................................... 6151 Frame wirer............................................................... 6151 Public-address servicer.............................................. 6153 Radio interference investigator................................. 6151 Radio mechanic.......................................................... 6151 Antenna installer, satellite communications.............. 6151 Data communications technician............................... 6151 Electrician, radio.............................................. 6151 Rigger........................................................................ 6155 Television installer..................................................... 6432 Electrician................................................................... 6432 Electrician apprentice................................................. 6432 Airport electrician....................................................... 6432 Neon-sign servicer...................................................... 6432 Street-light servicer.................................................... 6432 Electrician.................................................................. 6151 Electric-track-switch maintainer................................ 6176 Elevator examiner-and-adjuster................................. 6176 Elevator repairer........................................................ 6176 Elevator-repairer apprentice....................................... 6176 Elevator constructor.................................................. 6159 Automatic-window-seat-and-top-lift repairer............ 6432 Electrician.................................................................. 6432 Electrician apprentice................................................ 6156 Electrical-appliance servicer...................................... 6156 Electrical-appliance-servicer apprentice.................... 6160 Refrigeration mechanic............................................. 6156 Household-appliance installer.................................... 6153 Electronic-sales-and-service technician..................... 6155 Electronic-organ technician...................................... 6153 Field service engineer................................................ 3711 Senior technician, controls........................................ 6153 Electronics mechanic................................................. 6153 Electronics-mechanic apprentice.............................. 6153 Radioactivity-instrument maintenance technician..... 6153 Electrician, maintenance.......................................... 6151 Sound technician...................................................... 6157 Cable splicer............................................................. 6157 Cable-splicer apprentice........................................... 6442 Painter....................................................................... 6442 Painter apprentice, shipyard..................................... 6442 Painter, shipyard....................................................... 6442 Painter, stage settings............................................... 6442 Glass tinter...................... 6443 Paperhanger.............................................................. 6424 Lather........................................................................ 6424 Lather apprentice...................................................... 6444 Plasterer.................................................................... 6444 Plasterer apprentice.................................................. 6444 Plasterer, molding..................................................... 6424 Dry-wall applicator.................................................. 6444 Stucco mason............................................................ 6424 Taper......................................................................... 6424 Dry-wall applicator.................................................. 6463 Cement mason.......................................................... 6463 Cement-mason apprentice........................................ 6463 Concrete-stone finisher............................................ 6463 Concrete rubber....................................................... 6442 Railroad-car letterer................................................. 1472 Inspector of dredging.............................................. 1472 Grade checker........................................................ 8239 Lock tender II.......................................................... 6422 Carpenter, maintenance........................................... 6422 Carpenter, ship......................................................... 6422 Boatbuilder, wood................................................... 6422 Boatbuilder apprentice, wood.................................. 6422 Acoustical carpenter................................................ 6422 Carpenter................................................................. Page 352 352 354 352 352 352 352 352 383 383 352 365 352 352 352 352 365 352 352 352 352 352 354 383 383 383 383 383 383 352 355 355 355 355 345 383 383 362 362 360 362 352 354 352 226 352 352 352 383 352 365 365 389 389 389 389 389 389 382 382 390 390 390 382 390 382 382 380 380 380 380 389 28 28 244 377 377 377 377 377 377 492 Occuptional Outlook Handbook d.o.t. Number soc Code D.O.T. Title Page 860381026 6422 Carpenter apprentice................................................ 860381030 6422 Carpenter, bridge..................................................... 860381034 6422 Carpenter, mold....................................................... 860381038 6422 Carpenter, railcar..................................................... 860381042 6422 Carpenter, rough...................................................... 860381046 6422 Form builder.............................................................. 860381050 6422 Joiner.......................................................................... 860381054 6422 Joiner apprentice........................................................ 860381058 6422 Shipwright.................................................................. 860381062 6422 Shipwright apprentice................................................ 860381066 6422 Tank builder and erector............................................ 860381070 6422 Tank erector............................................................... 860664010 6422 Carpenter 1............................................................... 860681010 6422 Carpenter II............................................................... 860684010 6422 Builder, beam............................................................ 860684014 6422 Sider......................................................................... 861361010 6413 Composition-stone applicator................................... 861361014 6413 Monument setter....................................................... 861381010 6412 Acid-tank liner.......................................................... 861381014 6412 Bricklayer.................................................................. 861381018 6412 Bricklayer.................................................................. 861381022 6412 Bricklayer apprentice................................................ 861381026 6412 Bricklayer, firebrick and refractory tile...................... 861381030 6413 Marble setter............................................................ 861381038 6413 Stonemason............................................................... 861381042 6413 Stonemason apprentice............................................. 861381046 6463 Terrazzo worker....................................................... 861381050 6463 Terrazzo-worker apprentice...................................... 861381054 6414 Tile setter................................................................. 861381058 6414 Tile setter apprentice................................................. 861684010 6412 Cupola patcher.......................................................... 861684014 6412 Patcher...................................................................... 861684018 6414 Tile setter.................................................................. 862261010 6450 Pipefitter................................................................... 862281010 6450 Coppersmith.............................................................. 862281014 6450 Coppersmith apprentice............................................ 862281018 6160 Oil-bumer-servicer-and-installer.............................. 862281022 6450 Pipefitter................................................................... 862281026 6450 Pipe-fitter apprentice................................................ 862361010 6160 Furnace installer........................................................ 862361014 6450 Gas-main fitter.......................................................... 862361018 6450 Pipe fitter, diesel engine 1........................................... 862361022 6450 Steam service inspector............................................ 862381014 6450 Industrial-gas fitter.................................................... 862381022 6450 Pipe fitter, diesel engine II.......................................... 862381030 6450 Plumber..................................................................... 862381034 6450 Plumber apprentice................................................... 862681010 6450 Plumber..................................................................... 862682010 6450 Pipe cutter................................................................. 862684034 6450 Water-softener servicer-and-installer........................ 863364010 6465 Insulation-worker apprentice.................................... 863364014 6465 Insulation worker...................................................... 863381010 6465 Cork insulator, refrigeration plant............................ 863381014 6465 Pipe coverer and insulator......................................... 863664010 6465 Blower insulator........................................................ 863684010 6422 Composition-weatherboard applier........................... 863685010 6465 Insulation-power-unit tender..................................... 864381010 6462 Carpet layer............................................................... 865361010 6464 Mirror installer........................................................... 865381010 6464 Glazier....................................................................... 865381014 6464 Glazier apprentice...................................................... 865684010 6115 Glass installer............................................................ 866381010 6468 Roofer....................................................................... 866381014 6468 Roofer apprentice....................................................... 866684010 6468 Roofer applicator....................................................... 869261026 3719 Wind tunnel mechanic............................................... 869281010 6160 Furnace installer-and-repairer, hot air....................... 869361018 6422 Sign erector-and-repairer........................................... 869381010 6422 House repairer............................................................ 869381034 6422 Timber framer............................................................ 869684018 6422 Assembler, subassembly............................................ 869684034 6422 Lay-out worker.......................................................... 869684042 6422 Roof assembler 1........................................................ 869684050 6424 Sheetrock applicator.................................................. 869684058 6479 Stopping builder........................................................ 869684082 6479 Asbestos removal worker.......................................... 891687010 5244 Chimney sweep.......................................................... 891687018 5244 Project-crew worker................................................... 899261014 6100 Maintenance repairer, industrial................................ 899364010 6412 Chimney repairer....................................................... 899381010 6179 Maintenance repairer, building.................................. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 377 377 377 377 377 377 377 377 377 377 377 377 377 377 377 377 376 376 376 376 376 376 376 376 376 376 380 380 398 398 376 376 398 392 392 392 360 392 392 360 392 392 392 392 392 392 392 392 392 392 387 387 387 387 387 377 387 379 385 385 385 344 394 394 394 226 360 377 377 377 377 377 377 382 377 387 327 327 358 376 358 D.O.T. SOC Number Code D.O.T. Title Page 900683010 8213 Concrete-mixing-truck driver.................................. 902683010 8213 Dump-truck driver.................................................... 903683010 8213 Explosives-truck driver............................................. 903683014 8213 Powder-truck driver................................................... 903683018 8213 Tank-truck driver.................................................... 904383010 8212 Tractor-trailer-truck driver....................................... 904683010 8212 Log-truck driver....................................................... 905483010 8213 Milk driver................................................................ 905663010 8213 Garbage collector driver........................................... 905663014 8213 Truck driver, heavy.................................................. 905663018 8212 Van driver................................................................. 905683010 8213 Water-truck driver II................................................. 906683010 8214 Food-service driver................................................... 906683014 8214 Liquid-fertilizer servicer........................................... 906683018 8214 Telephone-directory-distributor driver..................... 906683022 8214 Truck driver, light..................................................... 909663010 8219 Hostler...................................................................... 910167014 4751 Train dispatcher, assistant chief................................ 910362010 8239 Tower operator......................................................... 910363010 8232 Firer, locomotive...................................................... 910363014 8232 Locomotive engineer................................................ 910363018 8232 Yard engineer........................................................... 910364010 8233 Braker, passenger train.............................................. 910367010 8233 Brake coupler, road freight....................................... 910367018 4751 Engine dispatcher..................................................... 910367022 8233 Locomotive operator helper...................................... 910382010 8239 Car-retarder operator................................................ 910583010 8239 Laborer, car bam...................................................... 910664010 8233 Yard coupler............................................................. 910667026 8233 Switch tender............................................................ 910683010 8232 Hostler...................................................................... 910683014 8232 Motor operator.......................................................... 910683022 8239 Transfer-table operator............................................. 911131010 7100 Boatswain................................................................. 911133010 8241 Cadet, deck............................................................... 911137010 8242 Barge captain............................................................ 911137014 8242 Derrick-boat captain................................................. 911167010 4751 Dispatcher, tugboat.................................................... 911263010 8242 Deep submergence vehicle operator........................ 911363010 8242 Ferryboat operator.................................................... 911363014 8243 Quartermaster............................................................ 911364010 8243 Able seaman.............................................................. 911584010 8243 Marine oiler............................................................... 911664010 8242 Ferryboat operator, cable........................................... 911664014 8243 Sailor, pleasure craft.................................................. 911687022 8243 Deckhand................................................................... 911687030 8243 Ordinary seaman........................................................ 913167010 4751 Bus dispatcher, interstate.......................................... 913363010 8215 Bus driver, day-haul or farm charter......................... 913367010 4751 Taxicab starter........................................................... 913463010 8215 Bus driver.................................................................. 913463014 8232 Streetcar operator...................................................... 913463018 8216 Taxi driver................................................................. 913663010 8216 Chauffeur................................................................... 913663014 8215 Mobile-lounge driver................................................. 913663018 8215 Driver......................................................................... 914167014 4751 Dispatcher, oil........................................................... 919162010 4751 Dispatcher, traffic or system..................................... 919223010 2390 Instructor, bus, trolley, and taxi................................ 919663010 8216 Deliverer, car rental................................................... 919663014 8232 Dinkey operator......................................................... 919663018 8213 Driver-utility worker................................................. 919663022 8214 Escort-vehicle driver................................................. 919663026 8213 Tow-truck operator.................................................... 919683014 8216 Driver......................................................................... 919683018 8239 Rail-tractor operator............................................ 919683022 8219 Street-sweeper operator............................................. 919683026 8239 Trackmobile operator................................................ 919683030 8219 Driver, starting gate................................................... 919687010 4753 Checker...................................................................... 921364010 5790 Rigging slinger.......................................................... 921667014 5790 Chaser........................................................................ 921687014 5790 Choke setter............................................................... 921687030 5790 Rigger, third............................................................... 922687082 5790 Pulppiler................................................................... 929663010 8318 Logging-tractor operator........................................... 932167010 4751 Dispatcher.................................................................. 932664010 8233 Brake holder............................................................... 939362010 4751 Dispatcher, oil well services...................................... 950362014 6931 Refrigerating engineer................................................ 950382010 6931 Boiler operator............................................................ 455 455 455 455 455 455 455 455 455 455 455 455 455 455 455 455 455 273 244 244 244 244 244 244 273 244 244 244 244 244 244 244 244 458 458 458 458 273 458 458 458 458 458 458 458 458 458 273 446 273 446 244 453 453 446 446 273 273 138 453 244 455 455 455 453 244 455 244 455 276 337 337 337 337 337 337 273 244 273 420 420 Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage 493 d .o.t. Number soc 950382018 950382022 950382026 950382030 951685018 952167010 952167014 952362010 952362014 952362018 952362022 952362026 952362030 952362034 952362038 952362042 952364010 952367014 952381010 952382010 952382014 952382018 952687010 953167010 953583010 954367010 954382010 954382014 955167010 955222010 955362010 955382010 955382014 955585010 959167010 959367010 959367014 961364010 961667014 962167010 962167014 962281010 962361010 962382010 6931 Gas-engine operator.................................................... 6932 Rotary-rig engine operator......................................... 6931 Stationary engineer.................................................... 6931 Stationary-engineer apprentice................................... 7668 Firer, marine............................................................... 4751 Dispatcher, service or work....................................... 6932 Load dispatcher.......................................................... 6932 Auxiliary-equipment operator................................... 6932 Feeder-switchboard operator..................................... 6932 Hydroelectric-station operator................................... 6932 Power-reactor operator............................................... 6932 Substation operator.................................................... 6932 Substation operator apprentice.................................. 6932 Switchboard operator................................................. 6932 Switchboard operator................................................. 6932 Turbine operator......................................................... 6432 Trouble shooter 1......................................................... 6932 Switchboard operator assistant................................... 6432 Switch inspector.......................................................... 6932 Diesel-plant operator.................................................. 6932 Power operator............................................................ 6932 Power-plant operator.................................................. 5244 Hydroelectric-plant maintainer................................... 4751 Gas dispatcher............................................................. 8213 Drip pumper............................................................... 4751 Water-service dispatcher............................................ 6910 Pump-station operator, waterworks............................ 6910 Water-treatment-plant operator.................................. 4751 Dispatcher, radioactive-waste-disposal...................... 6910 Instructor, wastewater-treatment plant....................... 6910 Wastewater-treatment-plant operator......................... 6910 Clarifying-plant operator............................................ 6910 Waste-treatment operator.......................................... 6910 Wastewater-treatment-plant attendant........................ 4751 Dispatcher, service..................................................... 6433 Electric power line examiner..................................... 6151 Facility examiner....................................................... 3240 Double.......................... 3280 Stand-in................................................ 3719 Manager, sound effects.............................................. 3240 Program assistant....................................................... 6422 Prop maker................................................................. 6868 Optical-effects layout person..................................... 3990 Recordist.................................................................... D.O.T. Code D.O.T. Title https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Page ZZZZZZZZZ. 420 420 420 420 458 273 418 418 418 418 418 418 418 418 418 418 206 418 383 418 418 418 327 273 455 273 421 421 273 138 421 421 421 421 273 365 352 193 193 220 193 377 444 220 SOC Number Code 969367010 970131014 970281010 970281018 970361018 970381010 970381034 972384014 976361010 976380010 4754 Custodian, athletic equipment................................... 275 3250 Supervisor, artist, suspect.......................................... 191 6863 Airbrush artist............................................................. 444 6868 Photograph retoucher................................................. 444 3250Artist, suspect............................................................. 191 6868 Colorist, photography................................................. 444 6868 Spotter, photographic................................................. 444 7671 Platemaker, semiconductor packages........................ 444 6868 Reproduction technician............................................. 444 7671 Computer-controlled-color-photograph-printer operator............................................................. 444 6868 Film laboratory technician 1...................................... 444 6868 Projection printer........................................................ 444 6868 Template reproduction technician............................. 444 7671 Camera operator, title................................................. 444 7671 Color-printer operator................................................ 444 7671 Film developer............................................................ 444 6868 Photostat operator.................................................. 444 7671 Photographic aligner, semiconductor wafers............. 444 7671 Photo mask pattern generator..................................... 444 7671 Photo technician......................................................... 444 7671 Photo mask processor................................................. 444 7671 Microfilm processor.................................................. 444 7671 Take-down sorter....................................................... 444 6868 Developer.................................................................. 444 7671 Film printer................................................................ 444 7671 Printer operator, black-and-white............................... 444 7671 Rectification printer................................................... 444 7671 Microfilm-camera operator........................................ 444 7671 Film laboratory technician........................................ 444 7671 Contact printer, printed circuit boards....................... 444 7671 Developer, automatic................................................ 444 7671 Film laboratory technician II..................................... 444 7671 Mounter, automatic............................. 444 7671 Print developer, automatic........................................ 444 7671 Utility worker, film processing................................. 444 7671 Developer, printed circuit board panels..................... 444 7671 Photographic processor, semiconductor wafers......... 444 4753Photofinishing laboratory worker............................. 276 6844Bookbinder................................................................ 423 6844 Bookbinder apprentice.............................................. 423 7759 Bench worker, binding.............................................. 423 2520Document restorer..................................................... 140 6868Screen maker, photographic process......................... 444 976381010 976381018 976381022 976382010 976382014 976382018 976382022 976382030 976382038 976384010 976384014 976385010 976665010 976681010 976682010 976682014 976682018 976682022 976684014 976684030 976685014 976685018 976685022 976685026 976685030 976685034 976685038 976687018 977381010 977381014 977684026 979361010 979384010 D.O.T. Title Page Reprints All the occupational statements in the 1996-97 Occupational Outlook Handbook are available in reprint form. Reprints are especially useful for jobseekers who want to know about a single field and for counselors who need to stretch the contents of a single Handbook among many students. The bulletin numbers and titles of all 20 reprints along with an index to the reprints are listed below. Prices for individual reprints or for a complete set of reprints as well as an order form appear on page 512. Bulletin No. 2470-1 2470-2 2470-3 2470-4 2470-5 2470-6 2470-7 2470-8 2470-9 2470-10 2470-11 2470-12 2470-13 2470-14 2470-15 2470-16 2470-17 2470-18 2470-19 2470-20 Title Tomorrow's Jobs Business and Managerial Occupations Engineering, Scientific, and Related Occupations Computer and Mathematics-Related Occupations Social Scientists and Legal Occupations Education and Social Service Occupations and Clergy Health Diagnosing Occupations and Assistants Dietetics, Nursing, Pharmacy, and Therapy Occupations Health Technologists and Technicians Communications, Design, Performing Arts, and Related Occupations Technologists and Technicians, Except Health Sales Occupations Clerical and Other Administrative Support Occupations Protective Service Occupations and Compliance Inspectors Service Occupations: Cleaning, Food, Health, and Personal Mechanics, Equipment Installers, and Repairers Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations Metalworking, Plastic-Working, and Woodworking Occupations Production Occupations Transportation and Forestry, Fishing, and Related Occupations order Bulletin No. 2470- Ifyou want information about... B Bank tellers.......................................................................... Barbers and cosmetologists................................................ Billing clerks and billing machine operators...................... Bindery workers.................................................................. Biological and medical scientists........................................ Blue-collar worker supervisors........................................... Boilermakers...................................................................... Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks................... Bricklayers and stonemasons.............................................. Broadcast technicians.......................................................... Brokerage clerks and statement clerks................................ Budget analysts................................................................... Busdrivers........................................................................... Butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters....................... 13 15 13 19 .3 19 18 13 17 11 13 ..2 20 19 C Cardiovascular technologists and technicians.................... Carpenters........................................................................... Carpet installers.................................................................. Cashiers.............................................................................. Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers............................ Chemical engineers............................................................ Chemists............................................................................. Chiropractors...................................................................... Civil engineers................................................................... Clergy................................................................................. Clerical supervisors and managers.................................... Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians............. College and university faculty........................................... Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers Communications equipment mechanics............................ Computer and office machine repairers............................. Computer and peripheral equipment operators................. Computer programmers..................................................... Computer scientists and systems analysts......................... Concrete masons and terrazzo workers............................. Construction and building inspectors................................ Construction managers....................................................... Correctional officers.......................................................... Cost estimators................................................................... Counselors.......................................................................... Counter and rental clerks................................................... Credit clerks and authorizes............................................. ..........9 17 or 18 ........ 17 ........ 12 ........ 15 .......... 3 .......... 3 .......... 7 .......... 3 ..........6 ........13 ..........9 ...........6 ........ 16 ........16 ........16 ........13 ..4 or 11 ...........4 .........17 ........14 ...........2 .........14 ...........2 ...........6 .........12 .........13 D ........................................10 A Accountants and auditors................................... Actors, directors, and producers......................... Actuaries............................................................ Adjusters, investigators, and collectors.............. Administrative services managers...................... Adult education teachers................................... Aerospace engineers.......................................... Agricultural scientists........................................ Air traffic controllers......................................... Aircraft mechanics, including engine specialists Aircraft pilots..................................................... Animal caretakers, except farm.......................... Apparel workers................................................ Architects........................................................... Archivists and curators....................................... Automotive body repairers................................. Automotive mechanics...................................... Digitized494 for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis .2 or 4 Dental laboratory technicians................................ .... 10 ...................................7 or 9 ...................................9 ..........................................7 .......4 ........................................16 ..........................................8 .... 13 .......2 .......6 ...... 3 ...... 3 ..... 11 ..... 16 .....11 .... 15 .... 19 .... 10 ....... 6 .... 16 .... 16 .....................................9 Drafters................................................................... .................................3 or 11 Drywall workers and lathers E Economists and marketing research analysts............. Education administrators............................................ Electric power plant operators and power distributors and dispatchers....................................................... Electrical and electronics engineers............................ Reprints 495 Electricians........................................................................................... 17 Electroneurodiagnostic technologists........................................................ 9 Electronic equipment repairers................................................................ 16 Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers.................................. 16 Elevator installers and repairers............................ .........................16 or 17 Emergency medical technicians................................................................ 9 Employment interviewers.........................................................................2 Engineering, science, and data processing managers.....................2 or 3 or 4 Engineering technicians.................................................................. 3 0r 11 Engineers............................................................................................... 3 F Farm equipment mechanics.....................................................................16 Farm operators and managers...................................................................2 File clerks.............................................................................................13 Financial managers..................................................................................2 Firefighting occupations......................................................................... 14 Fishers, hunters, and trappers..................................................................20 Flight attendants....................................................................................15 Food and beverage service occupations.................................................... 15 Foresters and conservation scientists......................................................... 3 Forestry and logging occupations........................................................... 20 Funeral directors..................................................................................... 2 G Line installers and cable splicers.............................................................16 Loan officers and counselors......................................... 2 M Machinists and tool programmers............................................................18 Mail clerks and messengers.................................................................... 13 Management analysts and consultants.......................................................2 Manufacturers' and wholesale sales representatives................................... 12 Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers................................ 2 Material moving equipment operators..................................................... 20 Material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations...................................................................................... 13 Mathematicians.......................................................................................4 Mechanical engineers.............................................................................. 3 Medical assistants..........................................................................7 or 15 Medical record technicians...................................................................... 9 Metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers......................................... 3 Metalworking and plastics-working machine occupations..........................18 Meteorologists........................................................................................ 3 Millwrights........................................................................................... 16 Mining engineers.................................................................................... 3 Mobile heavy equipment mechanics....................................................... 16 Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics......................................... 16 Musical instrument repairers and tuners...................................................16 Musicians........................................................................................... .. Gardeners and groundskeepers............................................................... 20 General maintenance mechanics............................................................. 16 General managers and top executives........................................................2 General office clerks.............................................................................. 13 Geologists and geophysicists................................................................... 3 Glaziers................................................................................................ 17 Government chief executives and legislators.............................................. 2 Guards.................................................................................................. 14 Nuclear engineers................................................................................... 3 Nuclear medicine technologists................................................................ 9 Nursing aides and psychiatric aides..................................................8 or 15 H Occupational therapists........................................................................... 8 Occupational therapy assistants and aides.................................................. 8 Operations research analysts.................................................................... 4 Ophthalmic laboratory technicians........................................................... 9 Optometrists.......................................................................................... 7 Order clerks........................................................................................ .. Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers.......................................19 Health services managers.................................................................................. 2 Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration technicians.......................16 or 17 Home appliance and power tool repairers....................................................... 16 Homemaker-home health aides..................... 15 Hotel desk clerks............................................................................................. 13 Hotel managers and assistants........................................................................... 2 Human services workers......................................................................... 6 or 15 I Industrial engineers........................................................................................... 3 Industrial machinery repairers......................................................................... 16 Industrial production managers......................................................................... 2 Information clerks........................................................................................... 13 Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction................................14 Inspectors, testers, and graders.............................................................. 14 0r 19 Insulation workers........................................................................................... 17 Insurance agents and brokers.......................................................................... 12 Interviewing and new accounts clerks............................................................ 13 J Janitors and cleaners and cleaning supervisors.............................................. 15 Jewelers.......................................................................................................... .. L Landscape architects........................................................................................ 10 Lawyers and judges........................................................................................... 5 Librarians...........................................................................................................6 Library assistants and bookmobile drivers..................................................... 13 Library technicians.................................................................................. 6 or 11 Licensed practical nurses................................................................................... 8 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis N O P Painters and paperhangers...................................................................... 17 Painting and coating machine operators................................................... 19 Paralegals..................................................................................... 5 or 11 Payroll and timekeeping clerks............................................................... 13 Personnel clerks....................................................................................13 Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers..................2 Petroleum engineers................................................................................ 3 Pharmacists.......................................................................................... .. Photographers and camera operators....................................................... 10 Photographic process workers................................................................ 19 Physical and corrective therapy assistants and aides.................................... 8 Physical therapists................................................................................. .. Physician assistants.................................................................................7 Physicians.............................................................................................. 7 Physicists and astronomers...................................................................... 3 Plasterers............................................................................................ .. Plumbers and pipefitters........................................................................ 17 Podiatrists.............................................................................................. 7 Police, detectives, and special agents...................................................... 14 Postal clerks and mail carriers................................................................ 13 Precision assemblers............................................................................. 19 Prepress workers................................................................................. .. Preschool teachers and child-care workers........................................ 6 or 15 Printing press operators.......................................................................... 19 Private detectives and investigators......................................................... 14 Private household workers......................................................................15 Property and real estate managers............................................................ 2 Protestant ministers.................................................................................6 Psychologists..........................................................................................5 Public relations specialists..............................................................2 or 10 Purchasers and buyers............................................................................. 2 496 Occuptional Outlook Handbook R .................6 ...............10 .................9 ...............20 Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers..................................... ...............12 13 ...............13 6 ft Recreational therapists................................................................... .................8 Reporters and correspondents........................................................ ...............10 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks....... ...............13 ft 2 Restaurant and food service managers............................................ ........2 or 12 ............... 12 .................6 ............... 17 S School teachers—Kindergarten, elementary, and secondary......... Science technicians........................................................................ .........3 or 11 ................13 Securities and financial services sales representatives.................. ................12 ................12 Sheetmetal workers....................................................................... .......17 or 18 Shoe and leather workers and repairers......................................... ................19 ..................5 ..................6 ................... 6 Speech-language pathologists and audiologists............................. ................... 8 Stationary engineers...................................................................... ................. 19 ................... 4 Stenographers, court reporters, and medical transcriptionists....... ................. 13 ................. 13 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Structural and reinforcing ironworkers.................................. ...............17 or 18 ..........................9 ..........................3 T Taxi drivers and chauffeurs........................................................................... 20 Teacher aides......................................................................... ...........................6 Telephone installers and repairers........................................ ........................ 16 Telephone operators.............................................................. ........................ 13 Textile machinery operators................................................. .........................19 .........................17 Tool and die makers.............................................................. Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks................................. .........................13 .........................12 .........................20 Typists, word processors, and data entry keyers.................. .........................13 U 2 .........................19 ...........................5 Vending machine servicers and repairers............................. .........................16 ...........................7 Visual artists......................................................................... w Water and wastewater treatment plant operators.................. ............................19 ?n Water transportations occupations....................................... Welders, cutters, and welding machine operators............... ............................18 Woodworking occupations.................................................. Writers and editors............................................................... ............................10 Index A Able seamen, see: Water transportation occupations.............................. Account executives, see: Securities and financial services sales representatives..................................................................................... Accountants and auditors.......................................................................... Accounting clerks...................................................................................... Actors, directors, and producers................................................................ Actuaries.................................................................................................... Adjusters, investigators, and collectors..................................................... Adjustment clerks, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors.............. Administrative assistants, see: Secretaries................................................ Administrative secretaries, ice: Secretaries.............. Administrative services managers............................................................. Administrators, school, see: Education administrators............................. Administrators, health services, see: Health services managers............... Admissions officers, see: Education administrators................................. Admitting clerks, hospital or outpatient, see: Interviewing and new accounts clerks............................................................................. Adult education teachers........................................................................... Advertising clerks, see: Record clerks...................................................... Advertising managers................................................................................ Aeronautical engineers, see: Aerospace engineers................................... Aerospace engineers.................................................................................. Affirmative action coordinators, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers....................................... Agents, purchasing.................................................................................... Agents, reservation and transportation ticket............................................ Agents and brokers, insurance.................................................................. Agents and brokers, real estate.................................................................. Agricultural chemicals inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction..................................... Agricultural commodity and quarantine inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.................... Agricultural equipment mechanics, see: Farm equipment mechanics..... Agricultural scientists................................................................................ Agricultural technicians, see: Science technicians................................... Agriculturists, see: Agricultural scientists................................................ Agronomists, see: Agricultural scientists................................................ Air safety inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.............................................................................. Air traffic controllers................................................................................. Air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration technicians........................... Air-conditioning mechanics, automotive.................................................. Airbrush artists, see: Photographic process workers................................ Aircraft engineers, see: Aerospace engineers............................................ Aircraft mechanics, including engine specialists....................................... Aircraft pilots............................................................................................. Aircraft technicians, see: Aircraft mechanics, including engine specialists............................................................................................. Airline reservation and ticket agents......................................................... Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction...................................... Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms agents, see: Police, detectives, and special agents................................................................................ Alcohol abuse counselors, see: Human services workers........................ Ambulance drivers and attendants............................................................ Amusement and recreation attendants...................................................... Animal attendants, see: Animal caretakers, except farm.......................... Animal breeders, see: Agricultural scientists............................................ Animal breeders and trainers..................................................................... Animal caretakers, except farm................................................................. Animal health technicians, see: Animal caretakers, except farm............. Animal keepers, see: Animal caretakers, except farm.............................. Animal scientists, see: Agricultural scientists.......................................... Animators, see: Visual artists.............................. Announcers................................................................................................ Anthropologists, see: Social scientists...................................................... https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 458 247 21 282 193 91 254 254 287 287 24 34 48 34 268 138 279 60 79 79 63 69 269 236 240 53 53 357 101 231 101 101 53 218 360 345 444 79 342 215 342 269 53 303 128 471 471 330 101 471 330 330 330 101 191 181 119 Apartment managers, see: Property and real estate managers................. Apiculturists, see: Agricultural scientists.................................................. Apparel workers........................................................................................ Appliance repairers, home........................................................................ Applications programmers, see: Computer programmers........................ Appraisers, see: Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers.................... Arbitrators, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers..................................................................... Archeologists, see: Social scientists........................................................ Architects, landscape................................................................................ Architects.................................................................................................. Archives technicians, see: Archivists and curators............................... Archivists and curators............................................................................... Armed Forces occupations........................................................................ Artists, see: Visual artists........................................................................ Assemblers, precision............................................................................... Assemblers, electrical and electronic........................................................ Assemblers, machine................................................................................ Astronomers.............................................................................................. Astrophysicists, see: Physicists and astronomers.................................... Athletes, coaches, umpires, and referees.................................................. Athletic directors, see: Education administrators.................................... Atmospheric scientists, see: Meteorologists............................................ Attendance officers, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction............................................................................. Attorneys, see: Lawyers........................................................................... Audio control engineers, see: Broadcast technicians.............................. Audiologists.............................................................................................. Auditing clerks.......................................................................................... Auditors..................................................................................................... Automotive body repairers....................................................................... Automotive mechanics.............................................................................. Automotive painters, see: Painting and coating machine operators........ Automotive service technicians, see: Automotive mechanics................. Aviation safety inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction............................................................... 66 101 429 362 222 240 63 119 87 85 140 140 463 191 401 469 469 113 113 469 34 111 53 115 220 177 282 21 344 345 441 345 53 B Babysitters, see: Private household workers........................................... Baggage porters and bellhops................................................................... Baggers, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers.......... Bakers, bread and pastry, see: Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers.. Bakers, manufacturing.............................................................................. Band instrument repairers, see: Musical instrument repairers and tuners Bank branch managers, see: Financial managers.................................... Bank examiners, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction............................................................................. Bank tellers................................................................................................ Barbers and cosmetologists...................................................................... Bartenders and bartender helpers, see: Food and beverage service workers................................................................................................ Beauticians, see: Barbers and cosmetologists......................................... Beauty operators, see: Barbers and cosmetologists................................. Bellhops..................................................................................................... Bibliographers, see: Librarians................................................................ Bicycle repairers....................................................................................... Bill and account collectors, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors. Billing clerks and billing machine operators............................................ Bindery workers........................................................................................ Biochemists, see: Biological and medical scientists............................... Biological and medical scientists.............................................................. Biological technicians, see: Science technicians..................................... Biologists, see: Biological and medical scientists................................... Biomedical equipment repairers............................................................... Bleaching and dyeing machine operators, textile..................................... Blood bank technologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians............................................. 328 471 460 308 473 372 41 53 258 320 311 320 320 471 148 472 254 281 423 103 103 231 103 473 433 200 497 498 Occupational Outlook Handbook Blue-collar worker supervisors.................................................................. Boat engine mechanics...................................... Boatswains, see: Water transportation occupations.................................. Body repairers, automotive....................................................................... Boiler operators and tenders, low pressure................................................ Boiler tender, see: Engineers, stationary................................................... Boilermakers.............................................................................................. Bookbinders............................................................................................... Bookbinding workers................................................................................ Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks.......................................... Bookmobile drivers............................ .............. ....... ............................... Botanists, see: Biological and medical scientists..................................... Bricklayers and stonemasons.................................................................... Bridge engineers, see: Civil engineers...................................................... Broadcast news analysts, see: Radio and television announcers and newscasters................................................................................... Broadcast technicians................................................................................ Brokerage clerks and statement clerks....................................................... Brokers, insurance, see: Insurance agents and brokers............................. Brokers, real estate, see: Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers....... Brokers, securities and financial services, see: Securities and financial services sales representatives......................................... Buckers, see: Forestry and logging occupations....................................... Budget analysts.......................................................................................... Building custodians, see: Janitors and cleaners and cleaning supervisors Building inspectors.................................................................................... Bulldozer operators, see: Material moving equipment operators............. Bus mechanics, see: Diesel mechanics..................................................... Busdrivers.................................................................................................. Butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters.............................................. Butlers, see: Private household workers................................................... Buyers, wholesale and retail trade............................................................. c Cabinetmakers, see: Woodworking occupations...................................... Cable equipment technicians, submarine, see: Communications equipment mechanics.......................................................................... Cable splicers............................................................................................. Cable TV line installers and repairers, see: Line installers and cable splicers................................................................................. Camera and photographic equipment repairers......................................... Camera operators, motion pictures, television, and video, see: Photographers and camera operators................................................... Camera operators, printing, see: Prepress workers................................... Camp counselors, see.1 Recreation workers............................................. Cannery workers........................................................................................ Captains and pilots, ship, see: Water transportation occupations............ Cardiovascular technologists and technicians........................................... Career planning counselors, see: Counselors........................................... Caretakers, see: Private household workers............................................. Carpenters.................................................................................................. Carpet installers......................................................................................... Cartographers, see: Surveyors.................................................................. Cartoonists, see: Visual artists................................................................. Case management aides, see: Human services workers........................... Caseworkers, see: Social workers............................................................ Cash register servicers, see: Computer and office machine repairers...... Cashiers..................................................................................................... Catalogers, see: Librarians....................................................................... Catholic priests, see: Roman Catholic priests........................................... Cement masons, see: Concrete masons and terrazzo workers.................. Cementing and gluing machine operators and tenders.............................. Cemetery workers, see: Gardeners and groundskeepers.......................... Central office equipment installers, see: Communications equipment mechanics.......................................................................... Central office operators, see: Telephone operators.................................. Central office repairers, see: Communications equipment mechanics..... Ceramics engineer, see Metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers .. Chauffeurs................................................................................................. Checkers, see: Cashiers............................................................................ Checkout clerks, see: Cashiers................................................................. Chefs, executive, see: Restaurant and food service managers................. Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers................................................... Chemical engineers................................................................................... Chemical equipment controllers, operators, and tenders........................... https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 402 370 458 344 473 420 407 423 423 282 284 103 376 80 181 220 282 236 240 247 337 25 327 28 448 348 446 404 328 69 436 352 365 365 472 189 425 130 473 458 199 145 328 377 379 89 191 128 132 353 234 148 137 380 473 339 352 293 352 82 453 234 234 72 308 80 473 Chemical plant and system operators.................................................. 474 Chemical technicians, see: Science technicians.................................... 231 Chemists................................... 107 Chief executive officers, see: General managers and top executives..... 44 Chief executives, government............................................................ 46 Child abuse workers, see: Human services workers............................ 128 Child health associates see: Physician assistants................................. 171 Child welfare workers, see: Social workers.......................................... 132 Child-care workers, see: Preschool teachers and child-care workers..... 321 Childcare workers, private, see: Private household workers................. 328 Chiropractors................................................................................... 156 Choke setters, see: Forestry and logging occupations.......................... 337 Choral directors, see: Musicians........................................................ 197 Choreographers, see: Dancers and choreographers.............................. 195 City managers, see: Government chief executives and legislators......... 46 City planners, see: Urban and regional planners.................................. 126 Civil engineering technicians............................................................. 226 Civil engineers................................................................................ 80 Claims adjusters, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors.............. 254 Claims clerks, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors.................. 254 Claims examiners, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors............ 254 Claims investigators, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors......... 254 Classifiers, see: Librarians................................................................ 148 Cleaners, see: Janitors and cleaners and cleaning supervisors............... 327 Cleaners, vehicles and equipment, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers...................................................... 460 Cleaning supervisors......................................................................... 327 Clergy................................................... 134 Clerical supervisors and managers..................................................... 260 Clerk-typists, see: Typists................................................................. 294 Clerks, see: Billing clerks and billing machine operators.................................. 281 Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks................................ 282 Credit clerks and authorizes........................................................ 263 File clerks.................................................................................. 283 General office clerks................................................................... 264 Hotel and motel desk clerks.......................................................... 267 Information clerks....................................................................... 265 Interviewing and new accounts clerks........................................... 268 Library assistants and bookmobile drivers..................................... 284 Mail clerks and messengers............................................... 270 Order clerks............................................................................... 285 Payroll and timekeeping clerks..................................................... 286 Personnel clerks......................................................................... 287 Postal clerks and mail carriers...................................................... 277 Receptionists.............................................................................. 268 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks.......... 269 Stock clerks............................................................ 275 Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks........................................... 276 Climatologists, see: Meteorologists.................................................... 111 Clinical chemistry technologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians....................................................... 200 Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians................................. 200 Coil winders, tapers, and finishers...................................................... 474 Coin machine servicers and repairers, see: Vending machine servicers and repairers................................................................. 373 Collectors, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors....................... 254 College and university department heads, see: Education administrators 34 College and university faculty........................................................... 143 College career planning and placement counselors, see: Counselors................................................................................. 145 College presidents, see: General managers and top executives............. 44 College student development specialists, see: Counselors................... 145 Color printer operators, see: Photographic process workers................... 444 Colorists, see: Photographic process workers..................................... 444 Columnists, see: Writers and editors.................................................. 184 Combination machine tool setters, set-up operators, operators, and tenders, see: Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators............ 412 Commentators, see: Radio and television announcers and newscasters... 181 Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers.................... 184 Commercial electronics technicians, see: Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers.................................. 184 Commercial loan collection officers, see: Loan officers and counselors.. 57 Communications, transportation, and utilities operations managers........ 469 Communications equipment mechanics.............................................. 352 Index 499 Communications specialists, see: Public relations specialists................. Communications-center operators, see: Telephone operators................. Community health nurses, see: Registered nurses................................... Community outreach workers, see: Human services workers................. Community planners, see: Urban and regional planners......................... Community residential counselors, see: Human services workers........... Community support workers, see: Human services workers.................. Companions, see: Private household workers......................................... Compensation managers, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers...................................................... Compliance officers.................................................................................. Composers, see: Musicians...................................................................... Compositors and typesetters, see: Prepress workers................................ Computer and office machine repairers.................................................... Computer and peripheral equipment operators.......................................... Computer engineers, see: Computer scientists and systems analysts....... Computer programmers............................................................................. Computer scientists and systems analysts................................................. Computer systems analysts....................................................................... Conciliators, labor relations, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers...................................................... Concrete masons and terrazzo workers..................................................... Conductors, orchestra, see: Musicians..................................................... Conservation scientists.............................................................................. Conservation workers................................................................................ Conservationists, see: Foresters and conservation scientists.................... Conservators, see: Archivists and curators.............................................. Construction equipment mechanics, see: Mobile heavy equipment mechanics.......................................................................... Construction laborers, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers............................................................................ Construction machinery operators, see: Material moving equipment operators............................................................................ Construction managers.............................................................................. Construction trades helpers, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers............................................................................ Constructors, see: Construction managers............................................... Consultants, management, see: Management analysts and consultants.... Consumer safety inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction............................................................... Contract managers, see: Administrative services managers..................... Contract specialists, see: Purchasers and buyers..................................... Controllers, financial, see: Financial managers....................................... Controllers, air traffic................................................................................ Convention services managers, see: Hotel managers and assistants........ Cooking, roasting, baking, and drying machine operators and tenders..... Cooks, see: Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers............................................ Private household workers.................................................................. Copy editors, see: Writers and editors..................................................... Copy writers, see: Writers and editors..................................................... Correctional officers.................................................................................. Correspondence clerks, see: Record clerks.............................................. Correspondents.......................................................................................... Cosmetologists.......................................................................................... Cost estimators.......................................................................................... Counselors................................................................................................. Counter and rental clerks........................................................................... Counter attendants, see: Food and beverage service workers.................. Couriers, see: Mail clerks and messengers.............................................. Court clerks............................................................................................... Court reporters........................................................................................... Crane operators, see: Material moving equipment operators................... Credit analysts........................................................................................... Credit clerks and authorizers..................................................................... Credit managers, see: Financial managers............................................... Criminologists, see: Social scientists....................................................... Critics, see: Reporters and correspondents.............................................. Crossing guards......................................................................................... Crushing and mixing machine operators and tenders................................ Curators..................................................................................................... Custodians, see: Janitors and cleaners and cleaning supervisors............. Custom tailors and sewers, see: Apparel workers.................................... Customer service representatives, see: Interviewing and new accounts clerks................................................................ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 179 293 174 128 126 128 128 328 63 53 197 425 353 261 93 222 93 93 63 380 197 105 337 105 140 368 460 448 30 460 30 58 53 24 69 41 218 50 474 308 328 184 184 297 279 182 320 32 145 235 311 270 470 289 448 469 263 41 119 182 471 474 140 327 429 268 Customer service representatives, utilities............................................... 470 Customer support analysts, see: Computer scientists and systems analysts.............................................................................. 93 Customers' engineers, see: Computer and office machine repairers........ 353 Customs agents, see: Police, detectives, and special agents.................... 303 Customs inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction............................................................................. 53 Cutters, arc, plasma, or flame, see: Welders, cutters, and welding machine operators............................................................................... 417 Cutters and trimmers, apparel, see: Apparel workers.............................. 429 Cutting and slicing machine operators, tenders, and setters..................... 474 Cyptanalysts, see: Mathematicians............................................................. 96 Cytotechnologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.................................................................................... 200 D Dairy processing equipment operators and tenders.................................. Dairy scientists, see: Agricultural scientists............................................ Dancers and choreographers..................................................................... Data entry keyers...................................................................................... Data processing equipment repairers, see: Computer and office . machine repairers................................................................................ Data processing managers......................................................................... Database administrators, see: Computer scientists and systems analysts. Dealer compliance representatives, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction..................................... Deans, see: Education administrators...................................................... Deck officers, see: Water transportation occupations............................. Deckhands, see: Water transportation occupations................................. Demographers, see: Social scientists....................................................... Dental assistants........................................................................................ Dental ceramists, see: Dental laboratory technicians.............................. Dental hygienists....................................................................................... Dental laboratory technicians................................................................... Dentists.........................................................................................;........... Designers................................................................................................... Detectives.................................................................................................. Detectives and investigators, except public.............................................. Developers, film, see: Photographic process workers............................. Diemakers................................................................................................. Diesel mechanics....................................................................................... Dietitians and nutritionists........................................................................ Dining room attendants, see: Food and beverage service workers.......... Directors, see: Actors, directors, and producers...................................... Directors, religious activities and education............................................. Directors of admissions, see:. Education administrators.......................... Directors of student affairs, see: Education administrators...................... Disk jockeys, see: Radio and television announcers and newscasters..... Dispatchers................................................................................................ Dispensing opticians................................................................................. See also: Optometrists....................................................................... Doctors, chiropractic................................................................................. Doctors, optometry.................................................................................... Doctors, medical....................................................................................... Doctors, osteopathic.................................................................................. Doctors, podiatric medicine...................................................................... Doctors, veterinary medicine.................................................................... Dog groomers, see: Animal caretakers, except farm............................... Drafters...................................................................................................... Drilling and boring machine tool setters and set-up operators, see: Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators............. Driver-sales workers, see: Truckdrivers.................................................. Drug abuse counselors, see: Human services workers............................ Druggists, see: Pharmacists..................................................................... Dry wall workers and lathers..................................................................... Duplicating, mail, and other office machine operators............................ Dyers, see: Textile machinery operators................................................. E Echocardiographers, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians . Ecologists, see: Biological and medical scientists.................................. Economists and marketing research analysts........................................... Editorial assistants, see: Writers and editors........................................... Editorial writers, see: Reporters and correspondents.............................. Editors....................................................................................................... 474 101 195 294 353 39 93 53 34 458 458 119 313 439 202 439 157 186 303 306 444 416 348 165 311 193 469 34 34 181 273 203 158 156 I5g ]60 160 162 163 330 224 412 455 128 168 382 470 433 199 103 121 184 182 j 84 500 Occupational Outlook Handbook Education administrators........................................................................ Education and training managers, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers................................... Educational assistants, clerical, see: Teacher aides............................... EEG technologists, see: Electroneurodiagnostic technologists.............. EKG technicians, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians.... Electric meter installers and repairers.................................................... Electric power generating plant operators and power distributors and dispatchers................................................................................. Electrical and electronics assemblers..................................................... Electrical and electronics engineers....................................................... Electrical and electronics technicians, see: Engineering technicians............................................................ Electrical inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors.......... Electrical powerline installers and repairers, see: Line installers and cable splicers............................................................................. Electricians............................................................................................ Electrocardiograph technicians............................................................. Electroencephalographic technologists, see: Electroneurodiagnostic technologists.............................................. Electrologists, see: Barbers and cosmetologists................................... Electrolytic plating and coating machine operators and tenders, setters and set-up operators, see: Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators................................................................ ........... Electromedical and biomedical equipment repairers............................. Electroneurodiagnostic technologists.................................................... Electronic equipment repairers............................................................... Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers............................. Electronic pagination system workers, see: Prepress workers............. Electronic semiconductor processors..................................................... Electronics engineers............................................................................. Electronics repairers, commercial and industrial equipment................. Electronics technicians, see: Engineering technicians.......................... Elementary school teachers................................................................... Elevator constructors............................................................................ Elevator inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors........... Elevator installers and repairers............................................................ Elevator mechanics................................................................................ Embalmers, see: Funeral directors....................................................... Emergency medical technicians............................................................ Employee relations specialists, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers................................... Employee-benefits and welfare managers, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers..................... Employment brokers, see: Employment interviewers......................... Employment counselors, see: Counselors........................................... Employment interviewers...................................................................... Engineering, science, and data processing managers........................... Engineering technicians........................................................................ Engineers.............................................................................................. 34 63 291 205 199 472 418 474 81 226 28 365 383 199 205 320 412 473 205 350 354 425 474 81 184 226 150 355 28 355 355 43 206 63 63 37 145 37 39 226 76 See also: Aerospace engineers........................................... ........... .... .......... Chemical engineers........................................................................ Civil engineers................................................................................ Electrical and electronics engineers................................................ Industrial engineers........................................................................ Mechanical engineers..................................................................... Metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers............................. Mining engineers............................................................................ Nuclear engineers........................................................................... Petroleum engineers....................................................................... Engineers, stationary............................................................................ Engineers, ship, see: Water transportation occupations...................... Entomologists, see: Agricultural scientists.......................................... Environmental health inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction........................................................... Equal opportunity representatives, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.......................................................... Equipment cleaners.............................................................................. Equipment rental clerks, see: Counter and rental clerks...................... Estheticians, see: Barbers and cosmetologists..................................... Estimaters, cost..................................................................................... Excavating and loading machine operators, see: Material moving equipment operators....................................................................... Executive chefs, see: Restaurant and food service managers.............. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 79 80 80 81 81 82 82 83 84 84 420 458 101 53 53 460 235 320 32 Executive housekeepers, see: Janitors and cleaners and cleaning supervisors....................................................................................................... Executive secretaries, see:Secretaries................................................................ Executives, see: Generalmanagersand top executives................................ Extruding and forming machine operators, tenders, and setters...............>. Extruding machine operators and tenders, see: Textile machinery operators............................................................................................................ 327 287 44 474 433 F Facilities managers, see: Administrative services managers.................... Fallers and buckers, see: Forestry and logging occupations.................... Family daycare providers, see: Preschool teachers and child-care workers................................................................................................ Farm and home management advisors....................................................... Farm equipment mechanics....................................................................... Farm operators and managers........................................................ .......... Farm workers............................................................................................ Farmers...................................................................................................... Fashion artists, see.' Visual artists............................................................. Fashion designers, see: Designers............................................................ Fast-food cooks......................................................................................... Fast-food workers, see: Food and beverage service workers................... FBI special agents, see: Police, detectives, and special agents................ Field engineers and technicians, see: Broadcast technicians........................................................................... Electronic equipment repairers............................................................ File clerks.................................................................................................. Film developers, see: Photographic process workers............................... Film mounters, automatic,, see: Photographic process workers.............. Financial aid directors, see: Education administrators............................. Financial managers.................................................................................... Financial planners, see: Financial services sales representatives............. Financial services sales representatives..................................................... Fine artists, see: Visual artists.................................................................. Firefighting occupations............................................................................ First-line supervisors, see: Blue-collar worker supervisors..................... Fish cleaners.............................................................................................. Fishers, hunters, and trappers.................................................................... Flight attendants......................................................................................... Flight engineers, see: Aircraft pilots......................................................... Flight service specialists, see: Air traffic controllers............................... Floor covering installers, see: Carpet installers........................................ Floral designers, see: Designers............................................................... Food and beverage managers, see: Hotel managers and assistants.......... Food and beverage service occupations.................................................... Food and drug inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.............................................................................. Food scientists and technologists, see: Agricultural scientists................. Food service managers.............................................................................. Foremen and forewomen, see: Blue-collar worker supervisors............... Forest and conservation workers, see: Forestry and logging occupations Foresters and conservation scientists......................................................... Forestry and logging occupations.............................................................. Forestry technicians and aides, see: Forestry and logging ccupations..... Forklift operators, see: Material moving equipment operators................ Forming machine operators and tenders, see: Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators............................................. Forming machine operators and tenders, see: Textile machinery operators.............................................................................................. Foundry mold assembly and shakeout workers......................................... Freight, stock, and material movers, hand, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers........................................... Front office managers, see: Hotel managers and assistants..................... Funeral directors....................................................................................... Furnace, kiln, oven, drier, or kettle operators and tenders........................ Furnace installers, see: Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration technicians............................................................................................ Furnace operators and tenders................................................................... Furniture and wood finishers, see: Woodworking occupations............... Furniture designers, see: Designers.......................................................... Furniture upholsterers............................................................................... 24 337 321 469 357 331 471 331 191 186 308 311 303 220 350 283 444 444 34 41 247 247 191 299 402 404 334 324 215 218 379 186 50 311 53 101 72 402 337 105 337 337 448 412 433 474 460 50 43 475 360 475 436 186 435 G 448 72 Gardeners and groundskeepers........................................................................... Gas and petroleum plant and systems occupations........................................ 339 475 Index 501 Gate agents, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks..................................................................................... General managers and top executives....................................................... General office clerks.................................................................................. Geodesists, see: Surveyors....................................................................... Geodesists, see: Geologists and geophysicists........................................ Geographers, see: Social scientists.......................................................... Geologists.................................................................................................... Geophysicists............................................................................................... Geoscientists, see: Geologists and geophysicists....................................... Geriatric aides, see: Nursing aides and psychiatric aides......................... Gerontologists, see: Social scientists......................................................... Gerontology aides, see: Human services workers...................................... Glaziers............................................................................................. ........ Governesses, see: Private household workers........................................... Government chief executives and legislators............................................ Grader, dozer, and scraper operators, see: Material moving equipment operators.............................................................................. Graders, see: Inspectors, testers, and graders............................................ Graphic artists, see: Visual artists.............................................................. Grinders and polishers, hand....................................................................... Grinding, lapping, and buffing machine tool setters and set-up operators, see: Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators............... Grocery clerks, see: Cashiers................................................................... Groundskeepers........................................................................................... Guards, crossing................................................................. Guards........................................................................................................ Guidance counselors, see: Counselors....................................................... I 269 44 264 89 109 119 109 109 109 316 119 128 385 328 46 448 406 191 475 412 234 339 301 145 H Hairstylists, see: Barbers and cosmetologists............................................ 320 Hand packers and packagers, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers............................................................................ 460 Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers................................. 460 Harnessmakers, see: Shoe and leather workers and repairers.................. 432 Hazardous waste management specialists, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction...................................... 53 Health and regulatory inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction............................................................... 53 Health services managers.......................................................................... 48 Heat treating, annealing, and tempering machine operators and tenders, see: Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators............. 412 Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration technicians........................... 360 Heavy equipment operators, see: Material moving equipment operators.............................................................................................. 448 Heavy mobile equipment mechanics........................................................ 368 Helicopter pilots, see: Aircraft pilots....................................................... 215 Helpers....................................................................................................... 460 Highway maintenance workers................................................................. 472 Highway patrol officers, see: Police, detectives, and special agents........ 303 Histology technicians, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.................................................................................... 200 Historians, see: Social scientists.............................................................. 119 Hoist and winch operators, see: Material moving equipment operators..................................................................................................448 Home appliance and power tool repairers.................................................. 362 Home entertainment electronic equipment repairers................................. 354 Home health aides..................................................................................... 325 Home inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors................... 28 Home management advisors..................................................................... 469 Homemaker-home health aides................................................................. 325 Horticulturists, see: Agricultural scientists.............................................. 101 Hospital administrators, see: Health service managers............................ 48 Hospital attendants, see: Nursing aides and psychiatric aides.................. 316 Hosts and hostesses, see: Food and beverage service workers................. 311 Hotel and motel desk clerks...................................................................... 267 50 Hotel managers and assistants................................................................... Housekeepers, executive, see: Hotel managers and assistants................. 50 Housekeepers, see: Private household workers........................................ 328 Human resources coordinators, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers ...................................... 63 Human services workers........................................................................... 128 Hunters....................................................................................................... 334 Hydrologists, see: Geologists and geophysicists...................................... 109 Hygienists, dental...................................................................................... 202 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Illustrators, see: Visual artists.................................................................. Immigration inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction............................................................................. Immunology technologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.................................................................................... Industrial buyers, see: Purchasers and buyers......................................... Industrial designers, see: Designers......................................................... Industrial electronic equipment repairers................................................. Industrial electronics technicians, see: Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers............................................................ Industrial engineering technicians............................................................ Industrial engineers................................................................................... Industrial machinery repairers.................................................................. Industrial nurses, see: Registered nurses................................................. Industrial production managers................................................................ Industrial safety and health inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction..................................... Industrial sales workers, see: Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives..................................................................................... Industrial truck and tractor operators, see: Material moving equipment operators............................................................................ Information brokers, see: Librarians....................................................... Information clerks..................................................................................... Information officers, see: Public relations specialists............................. Information 469 scientists, see: Computer scientists and systems analysts.......................................... Librarians............................................................................................ Inhalation therapists, see: Respiratory therapists.................................... Inside sales representatives, see: Services sales representatives.............. Inspectors, construction and building....................................................... Inspectors, health and regulatory, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction............................................................... Inspectors, testers, and graders................................................................. Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction......................... Institutional cleaning supervisors............................................................. Instructors, see: Adult education teachers..................................................................... College and university faculty............................................................ School teachers—Kindergarten, elementary, and secondary.............. Special education teachers.................................................................. Instructors and coaches, sports and physical training.............................. Instrument repairers, see: Communications equipment mechanics......... Insulation workers..................................................................................... Insurance adjusters, examiners, and investigators, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors................................................................ Insurance agents and brokers.................................................................... Insurance claims and policy processing occupations, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors................................................................ Interior designers, see: Designers............................................................ Interviewing and new accounts clerks...................................................... Investigators, insurance, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors.... Investigators, corporate, see: Private detectives and investigators.......... Investigators, legal, see: Private detectives and investigators.................. Ironworkers, see: Structural and reinforcing ironworkers...................... 191 53 200 69 186 184 184 226 81 364 174 52 J Jailers, see: Correctional officers....................................................... Janitors and cleaners and cleaning supervisors............................... Jewelers..................................................................................................... Job analysts, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers................................................................ Job development specialists, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers............................................... Job printers, see: Prepress workers................................................... Journalists, see: Reporters and correspondents.............................. Judges........................................................................................................ 53 238 448 148 265 179 93 148 176 249 28 53 406 53 327 138 143 150 153 469 352 387 254 236 254 186 268 254 306 306 397 297 327 408 63 63 425 182 115 K Keypunch operators, see: Typists, word processors, and data entry keyers................................................................................................................ Kindergarten teachers.......................................................................................... 294 150 L Labor relations specialists and managers............................................................ 63 502 Occupational Outlook Handbook Laboratory animal technologists and technicians, see: Animal caretakers, except farm........................................................................ Laboratory technicians, dental.................................................................. Laboratory technicians, film, see: Photographic process workers........... Laboratory workers, medical, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.............................. Laborers....................................... 1............................................................ Land surveyors............................... Landscape architects................ Landscape gardeners, see: Gardeners and groundskeepers...................... Lathe and turning machine tool setters and set-up operators, see: Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators............. Lathers....................................................................................................... Laundry and drycleaning machine operators and tenders, except pressers Laundry attendants, see: Counter and retail clerks................................... Lawn and garden equipment mechanics, see: Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics................................................................. Lawn maintenance workers....................................................................... Lawn service managers............................................................................. Lawn service workers, see: Gardeners and groundskeepers.................... Lawyers and judges................................................................................... Layout workers, apparel............................................................................ Leather workers and repairers.................................................................... Legal assistants, see: Paralegals................................................................ Legal secretaries, see: Secretaries............................................................. Legislators................................................................................................. Librarians................................................................................................... Library assistants and bookmobile drivers................................................. Library technicians.................................................................................... Licensed practical nurses........................................................................... Licensed vocational nurses, see: Licensed practical nurses....... ............. Life insurance agents, see: Insurance sales workers................................. Life underwriters, see: Insurance sales workers....................................... Limnologists, see: Biological and medical scientists............................... Line installers and cable splicers................................................................ Lithographic and photoengraving workers, see: Prepress workers.......... Loan and credit clerks............................................................................... Loan officers and counselors...................................................................... Locksmiths and safe repairers.................................................................... Locomotive engineers, see: Rail transportation occupations................... Log graders and scalers, see: Forestry and logging occupations.............. Log handling equipment operators............................................................. Logging equipment mechanics, see: Mobile heavy equipment mechanics............................................................................................ Logging occupations................................................................................. Logging operations inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction............................................................... Logging tractor operators.......................................................................... Luggage makers, see: Shoe and leather workers and repairers................ 330 439 444 200 460 89 87 339 412 382 475 235 370 339 471 339 115 429 432 229 287 46 148 284 227 208 208 236 236 103 365 425 263 57 473 450 337 337 368 337 53 337 432 M Machine assemblers.................................................................................. Machine feeders and offbearers, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers............................................................................ Machine tool cutting operators and tenders, see: Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators.............................................. Machine-tool operators, numerical control, see: Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators.............................................. Machine-tool setters, setup operators, operators, and tenders, see: Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators............. Machinery mechanics, industrial............................................................... Machinists and tool programmers.............................................................. Magistrates, see: Lawyers and judges.............................................. Maids, see: Janitors and cleaners and cleaning supervisors..................... Mail carriers............................................................................................... Mail clerks and messengers....................................................................... Mailhandlers, see: Postal clerks and mail carriers.................................... Maintenance administrators, see: Communications equipment mechanics............................................................................................ Maintenance mechanics, general............................................................... Maintenance mechanics, industrial machinery, see: Industrial machinery repairers............................................................................. Make-up artists, see: Barbers and cosmetologists.................................... Management analysts and consultants....................................................... Management science analysts, see: Operations research analysts............ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 475 460 412 412 412 364 410 115 327 277 270 277 352 358 364 320 58 97 Managers, see: ^Administrative services managers....................................................... Construction managers........................................................................ Engineering, science, and data processing managers.......................... Financial managers.............................................................................. Funeral directors.................................................................................. General managers and top executives.................................................. Government chief executives and legislators...................................... Health services managers..................................................................... Hotel managers and assistants............................................................. Industrial production managers........................................................... Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers....................... Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers...... Property and real estate managers....................................................... Purchasers and buyers.......................................................................... Restaurant and food service managers................................................ Manicurists, see: Barbers and cosmetologists.......................................... Manufacturers' agents, see: Manufacturers' and wholesale sales representatives...................................................................................... Manufacturers' and wholesale sales representatives.................................. Manufacturers' representatives, see: Manufacturers' and wholesale sales representatives............................................................................. Manufacturing opticians............................................................................ Map editors, see: Surveyors...................................................................... Mapping scientists, see: Surveyors........................................................... Marble setters, see: Bricklayers and stonemasons.......................,.......... Marine engineers, see: Water transportation occupations........................ Marine geologists, see: Geologists and geophysicists............................. Marine oilers, see: Water transportation occupations.............................. Markers, apparel......................................................................................... Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers............................. Marketing research analysts....................................................................... Masters, see.- Water transportation occupations....................................... Material movers, hand, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers.......................................................................................... Material moving equipment operators....................................................... Material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations........................................................................................... Materials engineers.................................................................................... Mates—ship, boat, and barge, see: Water transportation occupations.... Mathematicians.......................................................................................... Meatcutters................................................................................................. Mechanical engineering technicians.......................................................... Mechanical engineers............................................. Mechanical inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors............................................................................................. Mechanics and repairers, see: Aircraft mechanics, including engine specialists................................ Automotive body repairers.................................................................. Automotive mechanics......................................................................... Boilermakers....................................................................................... Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers................. Communications equipment mechanics.............................................. Computer and office machine repairers............................................... Diesel mechanics.................................................................................. Electronic equipment repairers............................................................ Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers........................... Elevator installers and repairers........................................................... Farm equipment mechanics................................................................. General maintenance mechanics.......................................................... Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration technicians..................... Home appliance and power tool repairers........................................... Industrial machinery repairers............................................................. Jewelers............................................................................................... Line installers and cable splicers......................................................... Millwrights.......................................................................................... Mobile heavy equipment mechanics................................................... Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics................................... Musical instrument repairers and tuners.............................................. Shoe and leather workers and repairers............................................... Telephone installers and repairers....................................................... Upholsterers......................................................................................... Vending machine servicers and repairers............................................ Media assistants, see: Library assistants and bookmobile drivers........... Media specialists, see: Librarians............................................................. 24 30 39 41 43 44 46 48 50 52 60 63 66 69 72 320 238 238 238 440 89 89 376 458 109 458 429 60 121 458 460 448 272 82 458 96 404 226 82 28 342 344 345 407 184 352 353 348 350 354 355 357 358 360 362 364 408 365 367 368 370 372 432 354 435 373 284 148 Index 503 Mediators, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists 63 and managers....................................................................................... Medical and scientific illustrators, see: Visual artists............................... 191 Medical assistants...................................................................................... 314 Medical laboratory technologists and technicians, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians................................................ 200 Medical microbiologists, see: Biological and medical scientists............. 103 Medical record technicians........................................................................ 209 Medical scientists...................................................................................... 103 Medical secretaries, see: Secretaries......................................................... 287 Medical social workers, see: Social workers............................................ 132 Medical transcriptionists........................................................................... 289 Membership secretaries, see: Secretaries................................................. 287 Mental health assistants, see: Nursing aides and psychiatric aides.......... 316 Mental health counselors, see.- Counselors.............................................. 145 Mental health technicians, see: Human services workers........................ 128 Merchandise managers, see: Purchasers and buyers................................ 69 Messengers................................................................................................ 270 Metal fabricators, structural metal products, see: Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators............................................. 412 Metal molding machine operators and tenders, setters and set-up operators, see: Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators................................................................................ 412 Metallurgical engineers............................................................................. 82 Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators............................ 412 Meteorologists........................................................................................... Ill Meter readers, see: Material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations............................................................... 272 Microbiologists, see: Biological and medical scientists........................... 103 Microbiology technologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.................................................................................... 200 Military occupations.................................................................................. 463 Millwrights...................................................................... 367 Mine safety and health inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction............................................................... 53 Mineralogists, see: Geologists and geophysicists..................................... 109 Mining, quarrying, and tunneling occupations.......................................... 472 Mining engineers....................................................................................... 83 Mining equipment repairers, see: Mobile heavy equipment mechanics ... 368 Ministers, Protestant.................................................................................. 135 Mobile heavy equipment mechanics......................................................... 368 Morticians, see: Funeral directors............................................................ 43 Motion picture camera operators................................. 189 Motion picture projectionists.................................................................... 475 Motor vehicle body repairers, see: Automotive body repairers............... 344 Motor vehicle inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.............................................................................. 53 Motor vehicle repairers, see: Automotive mechanics............................... 345 Motorboat mechanics................................................................................ 370 Motorcycle mechanics............................................................................... 370 Municipal clerks........................................................................................ 470 Museum directors, see: Archivists and curators....................................... 140 Museum technicians, see: Archivists and curators................................... 140 Musical instrument repairers and tuners................................................... 372 Musicians................................................................................................... 197 N Nannies, see: Private household workers................................................ Neurophysiologic technologists, see: Electroneurodiagnostic technologists........................................................................................ New accounts clerks.................................................................................. News anchors or co-anchors, see: Radio and television announcers and newscasters................................................................................... Newscasters............................................................................................... Newspaper reporters, see: Reporters and correspondents........................ Newswriters, see: Writers and editors...................................................... Nuclear engineers...................................................................................... Nuclear medicine technologists................................................................ Nuclear power reactor operators, see: Electric power generating plant operators and power distributors and dispatchers....................... Nuclear technicians, see: Science technicians.......................................... Numerical-control machine-tool operators and tenders, see: Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators............. Numerical-control tool programmers, see: Machinists and tool programmers............................................... https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 328 205 268 181 181 182 184 84 210 418 231 412 410 Nurse practitioners, see: Registered nurses............................................. Nursery and greenhouse managers........................................................... Nursery workers........................................................................................ Nurses, see: Licensed practical nurses.................................................................... Nursing aides and psychiatric aides.................................................... Registered nurses................................................................................ Nursing home administrators, see: Health services managers................ Nutritionists......................................................................... *................... 174 471 472 208 316 174 48 165 o Occupational analysts, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers..................................................................... Occupational health nurses, see: Registered nurses................................ Occupational safety and health inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction..................................... Occupational therapists............................................................................. Occupational therapy assistants and aides................................................ Oceanographers, see: Geologists and geophysicists............................... Office clerks, general................................................................................ Office electricians, see: Communications equipment mechanics............ Office machine repairers, see: Computer and office machine repairers... Office managers, see: Clerical supervisors and managers....................... Office nurses, see: Registered nurses...................................................... Operating engineers, see: Material moving equipment operators............ Operating room technicians, see: Surgical technologists........................ Operations research analysts..................................................................... Ophthalmic dispensers, see: Dispensing opticians.................................. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians........................................................... Ophthalmologists, see: Physicians........................................................... Optical goods workers, see: Ophthalmic laboratory technicians........................................................................................... Optical mechanics, see: Ophthalmic laboratory technicians.................... Opticians, dispensing................................................................................ Optometrists.............................................................................................. Orchestra conductors, see: Musicians..................................................... Order clerks............................................................................................... Orthodontic technicians, see: Dental laboratory technicians................... Osteopathic physicians, see: Physicians.................................................. Outside sales representatives, see: Services sales representatives........... 63 174 53 166 317 109 264 352 353 260 174 448 214 97 203 440 160 440 440 203 158 197 285 439 160 249 P Packaging and filling machine operators.................................................. Painters, visual artists............................................. Painters and paperhangers......................................................................... Painting, coating, and decorating workers, hand...................................... Painting and coating machine operators................................................... Paleontologists, see: Geologists and geoghysicists................................. Paper goods machine setting and setup operators.................................... Paperhangers............................................................................................. Paralegals.................................................................................................. Paramedics, see: Emergency medical technicians................................... Park rangers, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction............................................................................. Parking lot attendants, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers........................................................................... Parole officers, see: Social workers......................................................... Passenger agents and booking and rate clerks, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks............................... Paste-up workers, printing, see: Prepress workers.................................. Pathologists, speech-language.................................................................. Patternmakers, apparel, see: Apparel workers........................................ Paving, surfacing, and tamping equipment operators.............................. Payroll and timekeeping clerks................................................................. PBX installers and repairers...................................................................... PBX operators, see: Telephone operators............................................... Peripheral equipment operators, electronic data processing, see: Computer and peripheral equipment operators.......................... Personal attendants, see: Private household workers.............................. Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers............ Personnel clerks........................................................................................ Personnel consultants, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers..................................................................... Personnel development specialists, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers...................................... 475 191 389 475 441 109 475 389 229 206 53 460 132 269 425 177 429 472 286 352 293 261 328 63 287 63 63 504 Occupational Outlook Handbook Personnel recruiters, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers...................................................................... 63 Pest controllers and assistants.................................................................... 471 Petroleum engineers.................................................................................. 84 Petroleum technicians, see: Science technicians...................................... 231 Pharmacists................................................................................................ 168 Pharmacy assistants................................................................................... 471 Pharmacy technicials................................................................................. 469 Phlebotomists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.................................................................................... 200 Photoengraving workers, see: Prepress workers....................................... 425 Photofinishing laboratory workers, see: Photographic process workers... 444 Photogrammetrists, see: Surveyors........................................................... 89 Photographers and camera operators......................................................... 189 Photographic equipment repairers.............................................................. 472 Photographic process workers.................................................................... 444 Photographic retouchers and spotters, see: Photographic process workers................................................................................................ 444 Photojournalists, see: Photographers and camera operators..................... 189 Physical and corrective therapy assistants and aides................................. 318 Physical therapists..................................................................................... 169 Physician assistants................................................................................... 171 Physicians.................................................................................................. 160 Physicists and astronomers........................................................................ 113 Physiologists, see.' Biological and medical scientists............................... 103 Piano technicians and tuners, see: Musical instrument repairers and tuners............................................................................................. 372 Pilots, aircraft............................................................................................ 215 Pilots, ship, see: Water transportation occupations.................................. 458 Pipe-organ tuners and repairers, see: Musical instrument repairers and tuners............................................................................................. 372 Pipefitters.......................................................................................... 392 Pipelayers and pipelaying fitters................................................................ 472 Placement directors, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers..................................................................... 63 Plant breeders, see: Agricultural scientists............................................... 101 Plasterers.................................................................................................... 390 Plastic molding machine operators and tenders, setters and set-up operators, see: Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators............. 412 Plastics-working machine operators.......................................................... 412 Platemakers, printing, see: Prepress workers.....:..................................... 425 Plating and coating machine operators, see: Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators.............................................. 412 Plumbers and pipefitters............................................................................ 392 Plumbing inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors............. 28 Podiatrists.................................................................................................. 162 Police, detectives, and special agents......................................................... 303 Policy processing clerks, insurance, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors..................... 254 Political scientists, see: Social scientists................................................... 119 Polysomnographic technologists, see: Electroneurodiagnostic technologists........................................................................................ 205 Postal clerks and mail carriers.................................................................... 277 Postal inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.............................................................................. 53 Poultry cutters............................................................................................ 404 Poultry scientists, see: Agricultural scientists........................................... 101 Power distributors and dispatchers............................................................. 418 Power generating plant operators............................................................... 418 Power reactor operators............................................................................. 418 Power tool repairers, home appliances....................................................... 362 Powerline installers and repairers, see: Line installers and cable splicers 365 Practical nurses, licensed........................................................................... 208 Precision assemblers.................................................................................. 401 Precision instrument repairers................................................................... 473 Prepress workers........................................................................................ 425 Preschool teachers and child-care workers................................................ 321 Presidents, corporate and other organizations, see: General managers and top executives............................................................... 44 Press operators, printing............................................................................ 428 Press secretaries, see: Public relations specialists.................................... 179 Pressers and pressing machine operators, apparel, see: Apparel workers. 429 Priests, Roman Catholic............................................................................ 137 Principals, school, see: Education administrators..................................... 34 Print developers, photographic, see: Photographic process workers....... 444 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Printing press operators............................................................................. Printmakers, visual artists.......................................................................... Prison guards, see: Correctional officers.................................................. Private detectives and investigators........................................................... Private duty nurses, see: Registered nurses.............................................. Private household workers......................................................................... Probation officers, see: Social workers.................................................... Procurement clerks, see: Material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations........................................... Producers, see: Actors, directors, and producers...................................... Product managers, see: Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers............................................................................................. Production, planning, and expediting clerks, see: Material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations...... Production managers, industrial, see: Industrial production managers .... Professors, see: College and university faculty........................................ Programmer-analysts, see: Computer programmers................................ Programmers, computer............................................................................. Programmers, tool...................................................................................... Proofreaders and copy markers.................................................................. Property and real estate managers............................................................. Property managers, see: Administrative services managers.................... Protestant ministers................................................................................... Pruners....................................................................................................... Psychiatric aides......................................................................................... Psychiatric social workers, see: Social workers....................................... Psychiatric technicians.................. Psychologists.............................................................................................. Public affairs specialists, see: Public relations specialists....................... Public health nurses, see: Registered nurses............................................ Public relations managers.......................................................................... Public relations specialists......................................................................... Public works inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors....... Punching machine setters and set-up operators, see: Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators............................................. Purchasers and buyers................................................................................ Purchasing agents and managers, see: Purchasers and buyers................. 428 191 297 306 174 328 132 272 193 60 272 52 137 222 222 410 470 66 24 135 339 316 132 470 124 179 174 60 179 28 412 69 69 Q Quality control inspectors and coordinators, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction...................................... 53 R Rabbis................................................................................... *................... Radiation protection specialists, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction................................................................ Radiation therapy technologists, see: Radiologic technologists.............. Radio and television announcers and newscasters.................................... Radio and television service technicians, see: Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers....................................................... Radio repairers and mechanics, see: Communications equipment mechanics............................................................................................. Radiographers, see.1 Radiologic technologists.......................................... Radiologic technologists............................................................................ Radiopharmacists, see: Pharmacists......................................................... Rail transportation occupations................................................................. Rail yard engineers, dinkey operators, and hostlers, see: Rail transportation occupations................................................................... Railroad brake, signal, and switch operaters, see: Rail transportation occupations.......................................................................................... Railroad conductors and yardmasters, see: Rail transportation occupations.......................................................................................... Railroad inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.............................................................................. Range conservationists, ecologists, managers, and scientists, see: Foresters and conservation scientists.......................................... Rangers, park, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.............................................................................. Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers........ ....................................... Real estate clerks........................................................................................ Real estate managers.................................................................................. Realtors, see: Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers........................ Receptionists............................................................................................. Record clerks............................................................................................. Recording engineers, see.' Broadcast technicians..................................... 136 53 212 181 354 352 212 212 168 450 450 450 450 53 105 53 240 470 66 240 268 279 220 Index 505 Recreation attendants................................................................................ Recreation workers.................................................................................... Recreational therapists.............................................................................. Recruiters, personnel, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers..................................................................... Refractory masons, see: Bricklayers and stonemasons............................ Refrigeration technicians........................................................................... Refuse collectors, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers......................................................................................... Regional planners...................................................................................... Registered nurses....................................................................................... Registered representatives, securities, see: Securities and financial services sales representatives.............................................................. Registrars, see: Education administrators................................................ Regulatory inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.............................................................................. Rehabilitation counselors, see: Counselors.............................................. Reinforcing ironworkers........................................................................... Religious education and activities directors............................................... Rental clerks.............................................................................................. Reporters and correspondents................................................................... Rerecording mixers, see: Broadcast technicians....................................... Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks.................. Residence counselors, see: Counselors..................................................... Resident managers, see: Hotel managers and assistants........................... Residential counselors, see: Human services workers............................. Residential counselors............................................................................... Respiratory care practitioners, see: Respiratory therapists....................... Respiratory therapists................................................................................ Restaurant and food service managers...................................................... Retail buyers, see: Purchasers and buyers................................................ Retail sales workers................................................................................... Retail sales workers supervisors and managers......................................... Revenue officers, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction................................. Riggers....................................................................................................... See also: Forestry and logging occupations....................................................... Material moving equipment operators................................................ Roman Catholic priests............................................................................. Roofers....................................................................................................... Roustabouts............................................................................................... Route drivers, see: Truckdrivers.............................................................. 471 130 172 63 376 360 460 126 174 247 34 53 145 397 469 235 182 220 269 145 50 128 469 176 176 72 69 245 243 53 473 337 448 137 394 472 455 S Saddlemakers, see: Shoe and leather worker and repairers...................... Safety inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.............................................................................. Sales engineers, see: Manufacturers' and wholesale sales representatives..................................................................................... Sales managers, see: Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers.............................................................................................. Sales workers, see: Retail sales worker supervisors and managers..................................... Cashiers.................................................................. Counter and rental clerks..................................................................... Insurance agents and brokers.............................................................. Manufacturers' and wholesale sales representatives............................ Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers.......................................... Retail sales workers..........................1.................................................. Securities and financial services sales representatives........................ Services sales representatives.............................................................. Travel agents....................................................................................... Sanitarians, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.............................................................................. Sanitation inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.............................................................................. School counselors, see: Counselors.......................... School librarians, see: Librarians............................................................. School nurses, see: Registered nurses...................................................... School principals and assistant principals, see: Education administrators. School secretaries, see: Secretaries.......................................................... School social workers, see: Social workers.............................................. School superintendents, see: General managers and top executives........ School teachers—Kindergarten, elementary, and secondary.................... https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 432 53 238 60 243 234 235 236 238 240 245 247 249 251 53 53 145 148 174 34 287 132 44 150 Science managers...................................................................................... Science technicians................................................................................... Sculptors, see; Visual artists.................................................................... Seamen, see: Water transportation occupations...................................... Secondary school teachers........................................................................ Secret service agents, see: Police, detectives, and special agents............ Secretaries................................................................................................. Securities and financial services sales representatives............................. Securities compliance examiners, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction............................................................... Securities traders, see: Securities and financial services sales representatives..................................................................................... Security officers, see: Guards.......................... Seismologists, see: Geologists and geophysicists................................... Semiconductor processors........................................................................ Separating and still machine operators and tenders.................................. Service station attendants, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers........................................................................... Service technicians, see: Electronic equipment repairers........................ Services sales representatives................................................................... Set designers, see: Designers................................................................... Setters and setup operators, metalworking and plastics-working machine........................................................ Setters and setup operators, textile machine............................................. Sewage treatment plant operators............................................................. Sewers and sewing machine operators, apparel, see: Apparel workers.... Sheet metal workers, see: Metalworking and plastics-working machine operators............................................................................... Sheetmetal workers................................................................................... Sheriffs and deputy sheriffs, see: Police, detectives, and special agents.. Ship captains and pilots, see: Water transportation occupations............. Ship engineers, see: Water transportation occupations........................... Shipfitters.................................................................................................. Shipping and receiving clerks................................................................... Shoe and leather workers and repairers.................................................... Shoe sewing machine operators and tenders............................................ Short order cooks.................... Show hosts and hostesses, see: Radio and television announcers and newscasters................................................................................... Silversmiths, see: Jewelers...................................................................... Singers, see: Musicians............................................................................ Social scientists......................................................................................... Social secretaries, see: Secretaries........................................................... Social service technicians, see; Human services workers........................ Social work assistants, see: Human services workers.............................. Social workers........................................................................................... Sociologists, see; Social scientists.......................... Soil conservationists, see; Foresters and conservation scientists............. Soil scientists, see: Agricultural scientists............................................... Solderers and brazers................................................................................ Soldering and brazing machine operators and tenders.............................. Sonographers, see; Radiologic technologists.......................................... Sound mixers, see; Broadcast technicians............................................... Special education teachers........................................................................ Special librarians, see: Librarians............................................................ Speech-language pathologists and audiologists....................................... Sportscasters, see: Radio and television announcers and newscasters.... Spray-machine operators, see: Painting and coating machine operators.. Sprayers/applicators.................................................................................. Sprinklerfitters, see: Plumbers and pipefitters......................................... State police officers, see: Police, detectives, and special agents.............. Statement clerks........................................................................................ Station installers, see: Telephone installers and repairers....................... Stationary engineers.................................................................................. Statistical clerks........................................................................................ Statisticians............................................................................................... Steamfitters, see: Plumbers and pipefitters.............................................. Stenographers................................................... Stenotype operators, see: Stenographers, court reporters, and medical transcriptionists.............................................................. Stevedores, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers.... Stewardesses and stewards, airline, see: Flight attendants...................... Stock clerks............................................................................................... Stock handlers, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers....................................... 39 231 191 458 150 303 287 247 53 247 301 109 474 475 460 350 249 186 412 433 421 429 412 395 303 458 458 476 276 432 476 308 181 408 197 119 287 128 128 132 119 105 101 476 476 212 220 153 148 177 181 441 339 392 303 282 354 420 470 99 392 289 289 460 324 275 460 506 Occupational Outlook Handbook Stockbrokers, see: Securities and financial services sales representatives Stockroom clerks, see: Stock clerks.......................................................... Stonemasons.............................................................................................. Store detectives, see: Private detectives and investigators....................... Stratigraphers, see: Geologists and geophysicists.................................... Strippers, printing, see: Prepress workers................................................. Structural and reinforcing ironworkers...................................................... Stucco masons, see: Plasterers........................................................... ...... Student development specialists, see.- Counselors.................................... Subway and streetcar operators, see: Rail transportation occupations..... Supervisors, see: Blue-collar worker supervisors............................................................ Clerical supervisors and managers....................................................... Janitors and cleaners and cleaning supervisors.................................... Supervisors, agricultural, forestry, fishing, and related occupations..., Supply managers, see: Purchasers and buyers.......................................... Surgeons...................................................................................................... Surgeons'assistants..................................................................................... Surgical technologists......................................................... Survey technicians, .tec: Surveyors........................................................... Survey workers, see: Interviewing and new accounts clerks..................... Surveyors................................................................................................... Switchboard operators, see: Electric power generating plant operators and power distributors and dispatchers...................................................................................... Telephone operators.............................................................................. Systems analysts, computer....................................................................... Systems programmers, see: Computer programmers................................. 247 275 376 306 109 425 397 390 145 450 402 260 327 472 69 160 171 89 268 89 418 293 93 222 T Tailors, see: Apparel workers.................................................................... Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents........................................... Taxi drivers and chauffeurs......................................................................... Teacher aides...................................................... Teachers, see: Adult education teachers..................................................................... College and university faculty............................................................... School teachers—Kindergarten, elementary, and secondary................ Special education teachers.................................................................... Technical assistants, see: Library technicians............................................ Technical secretaries, see: Secretaries........................................................ Technical writers, see: Writers and editors............................................... Technicians, see: Air traffic controllers........................................................................... Broadcast technicians.......................................................... Cardiovascular technologists and technicians....................................... Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians................................. Computer programmers......................................................................... Dental hygienists.................................................... Dispensing opticians.............................................................................. Drafters.................................................................................................. Electroneurodiagnostic technologists.................................................... Emergency medical technicians............................................................ Engineering technicians........................................................................ Library technicians................................................ Licensed practical nurses...................................................................... Medical record technicians.................................................................... Nuclear medicine technologists............................................................ Paralegals......................................................................... Radiologic technologists....................................................................... Science technicians................................................ Surgical technologists........................................................................... Telemarketing representatives, see: Interviewing and new accounts clerks................................................... Services sales representatives............................................................... Telephone installers................................................................................... Telephone line installers and repairers, see: Line installers and cable splicers................................................................................... Telephone operators............................. Telephone repairers................................................................................... Telephone-answering-service operators, see: Telephone operators......... Television announcers and newscasters.................................................... Television camera operators, see: Photographers and camera operators.. Television service technicians, see: Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers............................................................................... https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 429 469 453 138 143 150 153 227 287 184 218 199 200 222 203 224 205 206 226 Tellers, bank................................................................................................. Terrazzo workers.......................................................................................... Testers......................................................................................................... Textile designers, see: Designers................................................................ Textile machinery operators...................................................................... Therapeutic recreation specialists, see: Recreational therapists................. Therapists, see: Occupational therapists.......................................................................... Physical therapists.................................................................................. Recreational therapists........................................................................... Respiratory therapists............................................................................. Speech-language pathologists and audiologists.................................... Ticket agents and clerks, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks................................................................ Ticket sellers, see: Cashiers................................................................................................. Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks........... Tilesetters.................................................................................................... Timber 214cutting and logging workers............................................................ Timekeeping clerks...................................................................................... Tire building machine operators.................................................................. Tire repairers and changers.......................................................................... Title examiners and searchers.................................................................... Tool and die makers................................................................................... Tool programmers, numerical control....................................................... Tower-crane operators, see: Material moving equipment operators........ Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks........................................................ Traffic controllers, air............................................................................... Traffic inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.............................................................................. Training specialists, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers...................................................................... Transcribing machine operators, see: Stenographers, court reporters, 291 and medical transcriptionists........................................ Transmitter engineers and operators, see: Broadcast technicians............ Transportation managers............................................................................ Transportation ticket agents......................................................................... Trappers....................................................................................................... Travel accommodation raters, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction................................................................ Travel agents................................................................................................ Travel clerks................................................................................................ Treasurers, see: Financial managers......................................................... Treatment plant operators, water and wastewater..................................... Tree 220 planters, see: Forestry and logging occupations................................ Trouble locators, see: Communications equipment mechanics................. Truck mechanics, see: Diesel mechanics................................................... Truckdrivers................................................................................................ Trust officers, 202 see: Financial managers.................................................... Tuners, musical instruments........................................................................ Tutors, sec: Private household workers...................................................... Typesetters, see: Prepress workers............................................................. Typists, word processors, and data entry keyers............................. 258 380 406 186 433 172 166 169 172 176 177 269 234 269 398 337 286 476 473 470 416 410 448 276 218 53 63 289 220 469 269 334 53 251 269 41 421 337 352 348 455 41 372 328 425 294 227 208 209 210 212 214 268 249 354 365 293 354 293 181 189 354 u Ultrasound technologists, see: Radiologic technologists.............. Undertakers, see: Funeral directors................................................... Underwriters, mortgage loan, see: Loan officers and counselors 229 Underwriters............................................................................................. University231 faculty.................................................................................... Upholsterers............................................................................................. Urban and regional planners................................................................. Ushers, lobby attendants, and ticket agents....................................... Utilities operations managers................................................................ 212 43 57 74 143 435 126 471 469 V Vascular technologists, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians................................................................................................. Vehicle washers, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers............................................................. Vending machine servicers and repairers......................................................... Veterinarians........................................................................................................... Veterinary assistants............................................................................................. 199 460 373 163 472 BLS Employment Outlook Information on the Internet To learn about the latest employment outlook information from the Bureau of Labor Statistics Office of Employment Projections, access our Internet Web site one of the following logos: (http://stats.bls.gov/emphome.htm) and then click on '5 H' **Under subheading Contacts.** **Under subheading FAQs:** How often are the projections updated Telephone contacts for data users: and where are they published? • Industry Employment Projections What are the fastest growing jobs? • Occupational Employment Projections What are the fastest growing industries? • Occupational Outlook • Data tapes and diskettes Do you have projections for States and local areas? **Under subheading • Most requested tables • Publications about employment projections Access to data about employment projections News releases For information on other Bureau of Labor Statistics programs, data, and contacts, click on the BLS Home Page logo at the bottom of each page: BLS Home Page For on-line prices and ordering information for current publications: Click on the Employment Projections Home Page, click on publication titles for up-to-date price information or to print your own order form for all employment outlook publications. OR Publications for access to ordering and price information for all Regional Information, then "Sales of BLS Information" to access the BLS From the BLS Home Page, click on BLS publications; or click on Publications Sales Center in Chicago. OR Access the U.S. Government Printing Office Internet Site (http://www.access.gpo.gov), then click on the Superintendent of Document's Home Page for information on purchasing government publications and what's available for free public use in nearly 1,400 Federal Depository Libraries located throughout the Nation. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Index 507 Veterinary technicians and assistants, see: Animal caretakers, except farm.......................................................................................... Veterinary technicians and technologists.................................................. Vice presidents, corporate and other organizations, see: General managers and top executives................................................................ Video rental clerks, see: Counter and rental clerks.................................. Video-control engineers, see: Broadcast technicians............................... Visual artists.............................................................................................. Vocational counselors, see: Counselors.................................................... Vocational education and training teachers, see: Adult education teachers................................................................................................ Vocational nurses, licensed, see: Licensed practical nurses..................... Vocational rehabilitation counselors, see: Counselors.... ........................ 330 470 44 235 220 191 145 138 208 145 W Wage-hour compliance inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction...................................... Waiters and waitresses, see: Food and beverage service workers............ Ward attendants, see: Nursing aides and psychiatric aides...................... Warehouse clerks, see: Stock clerks......................................................... Washers, vehicles, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers......................................................................................... Wastewater treatment plant operators........................................................ Watchmakers............................................................................................. Water and wastewater treatment plant operators....................................... Water transportation occupations............................................................... Weather forecasters, see: Meteorologists................................................. Weathercasters, see: Radio and television announcers and newscasters .. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 53 311 316 275 Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping, see: Material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations...... 272 Welders, cutters, and welding machine operators..................................... 417 Welfare eligibility workers and interviewers, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors................................................................. 254 Wholesale buyers, see: Purchasers and buyers........................................ 69 Wholesale trade sales workers, see: Manufacturers' and wholesale sales representatives............................................................................. 238 Wood machine operators........................................................................... 436 Wood machinists....................................................................................... 436 Wood pattern and model makers............................................................... 436 Woodworkers, precision............................................................................ 436 Woodworking occupations........................................................................ 436 Word processing machine operators, see: Typists, word processors, and data entry keyers........................................................................... 294 Word processors......................................................................................... 294 Writers, technical, see: Writers and editors.............................................. 184 Writers and editors.................................................................................... 184 X X-ray technicians, see: Radiologic technologists..................................... 460 421 473 421 458 111 181 212 Y Yard clerks, see: Stock clerks................................................................... z Zookeepers, see: Animal caretakers, except farm. Zoologists, see: Biological and medical scientists 275 330 103 OOH-Related Publications Occupational Projections and Training Data, 1996 Edition fWrfwtfKf rjirta ; --------- Z.------ BLS Bulletin 2471 9SI This supplement to the Occupational Outlook Handbook provides the statistical data supporting the information presented in the Handbook. Education and training plan ners, career counselors, and jobseekers can compare approximately 500 occupations on factors such as em ployment change, job openings, earnings, unemployment rate, and training requirements. The bulletin includes: • Detailed statistics on employment changes, job openings, self-employed workers, and significant sources of training. • Rankings of occupations by employment growth, job openings, earnings, susceptibility to unemployment, and part-time work. • Statistics on completion of institutional training programs by field of training. • New categories used to classify the most significant source of training for each occupation. Employment Outlook: 1994-2005 Job Quality and Other Aspects of Projected Employment Growth U d. Dsoartmem ol ..^uoi 9if uau o< Labor Statistics L'scembet '996 KIM MI I MIMA Employment Outlook: 1994-2005 BLS Bulletin 2472 Eveiy 2 years, the Bureau of Labor Statistics produces detailed projections of the U.S. economy and labor force. This bulletin presents the Bureau's latest analyses of economic and industrial growth, the labor force, and trends in occupational employment into the 21st century. The bulletin includes: • Highlights and details on BLS projections of labor force, economic growth, industry employment, and occupational employment. • Industries and occupations generating the largest portion of projected job growth. • The implications of projected employment growth on education and training requirements. • The implications of projected employment growth on the quality of jobs as measured by earnings. • A discussion relating projections of jobs to changes in the composition of the labor force. t.- 228 Note: At press time, prices for these publications were not available. For prices and ordering information, refer to the Employment Projections Web Digitized forthe FRASER Site or order form on the opposite page. ™ K s ☆ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1996 402-227A https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Publications Order Form Bulletin No. Title Quantity Pricgl Total cost Occupational Outlook Handbook, 1996-97 Edition 2470 Paper cover...................................................................................................... $38.00 Hard cover....................................................................................................... 32.00 CD-ROM (with Windows and DOS interfaces)........................................... 28.00 Occupational Outlook Handbook Reprints, 1996-97 Edition 2470-1 2470-2 2470-3 2470-4 2470-5 2470-6 2470-7 2470-8 2470-9 2470-10 2470-11 2470-12 2470-13 2470-14 2470-15 2470-16 2470-17 2470-18 2470-19 2470-20 Collated set of all 20 reprints........................................................................ Tomorrow's Jobs: Overview.............................................................................. Business and Managerial Occupations............................................................. Engineering, Scientific, and Related Occupations........................................... Computer and Mathematics-Related Occupations......................................... Social Science and Legal Occupations............................................................ Education and Social Service Occupations and Clergy.................................. Health Diagnosing Occupations and Assistants.............................................. Dietetics, Nursing, Pharmacy, and Therapy Occupations.............................. Health Technologists and Technicians.............................................................. Communications, Design, Performing Arts, and Related Occupations........ Technologists and Technicians, Except Health............................................... Sales Occupations............................................................................................... Clerical and Other Administrative Support Occupations................................ Protective Service Occupations and Compliance Inspectors......................... Service Occupations: Cleaning, Food, Health, and Personal........................ Mechanics, Equipment Installers, and Repairers............................................. Construction Trades Occupations...................................................................... Metalworking, Plastic-working, and Woodworking Occupations.................... Production Occupations...................................................................................... Transportation and Forestry, Fishing, and Related Occupations................. 00.00 1.75 3.50 2.50 1.75 1.50 2.75 1.50 1.50 1.50 2.00 1.50 1-75 3.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 2.25 1.50 2.50 1.75 2471 Occupational Projections and Training Data, 1996 Edition..................... 0.00 2472 Employment Outlook: 1994-2005.................................................................. 0.00 Occupational Outlook Quarterly Two-year subscription................................................................ One-year subscription................................................................ Single issue................................................................................. Foreign 23.80 11.90 3.75 Domestic 19.00 9.50 3.00 Total amount * At press time, prices for these publications were not available. For information on prices, access the BLS Office of Employment Projections Web Site at http://stats.bls.gov/emphome.htm or contact the Bureau of Labor Statistics Publication Sales Center at the address listed below or call (312) 353-1880. Method of Payment: □ □ □ Order Processing Number: *7796 Check or money order payable to Superintendent of Documents. GPO Deposit Account No. MasterCard/VISA or Account No.---Expiration Date Month/Year_______________ /__ (Signature) Send Occupational Outlook Quarterly subscription orders to: New Orders, Superintendent of Documents, P.O. Box 371954, Pittsburgh, PA 15250-7954, Send publication orders (except for Occupational Outlook Quarterly subscriptions) directly to: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Publication Sales Center, P.O. Box 2145, Chicago, IL 60690. Telephone orders accepted with MasterCard or VISA credit card at (312) 353-1880. 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