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V:;V W& -7-7u/ *7 / ational U S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics April 1990 Bulletin 2350 1990-91 Edition gjjyfajs.j*'' 1. g $> i-*‘L mrm ^fesas*v>- x^x&Jr- A- •>-> tessssg 9jftgg| - MW*^F$*KS#livmL. If WE\ 1 **■'v ^?vWicws!si » • o*- < https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ' , . iiBS TSb»^. . V* 1*—»**£-. ~ - • * i K .. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Things Worth Noting Pointers on interpreting the information presented in the Handbook are found in the chapter Keys To Understanding What’s in the Handbook, page 1. Additional career-oriented materials, available from private and public organizations, are described in the chapter Leads to More Information, page 4. An overview of the job outlook for the year 2000 is given in Tomorrow’s Jobs, page 8. For some 80 occupations not covered in detail in the Handbook, brief descriptions of the nature of the work, number of jobs in 1988, and the projected 1988-2000 change in employment are presented in a section beginning on page 452. The assumptions and methods used in preparing BLS employment projections are described briefly on page 459. Occupational Projections and Training Data and the Occupational Outlook Quarterly are publications that supplement or complement material presented in the Handbook. See page 494 and the inside back cover for information about these publications. Sources of State and local job outlook information can be found on pages 460-62. Information also can be obtained from any of the following Bureau of Labor Statistics Regional Offices: Atlanta 1371 Peachtree Street, NE. Atlanta, GA 30367 Phone: (404) 347-4416 Boston Suite 1603 John F. Kennedy Federal Building Government Center Boston, MA 02203 Phone: (617) 565-2327 Chicago 9th Floor Federal Office Building 230 South Dearborn Street Chicago, IL 60604 Phone: (312) 353-1880 Dallas Federal Building 525 Griffin Street Room 221 Dallas TX 75202 Phone: (214) 767-6970 Kansas City 911 Walnut Street Kansas City, MO 64106 Phone: (816) 426-2481 New York Room 808 201 Varick Street New York, NY 10014 Phone: (212) 337-2400 Philadelphia 3535 Market Street P.O. Box 13309 Philadelphia, PA 19101 Phone: (215) 596-1154 San Francisco 71 Stevenson Street PO. Box 3766 San Francisco, CA 94119 Phone: (415) 744-6600 Occupational Outlook Handbook 1990-91 Edition ■sSrfljS- U.S. Department of Labor Elizabeth Dole, Secretary Bureau of Labor Statistics Janet L. Norwood, Commissioner April 1990 Bulletin 2350 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis S.M.S.U. LIBRARY U.S. npDno'TQRY may 2 9 1990 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Message From the Secretary Workplace competency will be the keystone support ing future increases in our standard of living and our global competitiveness. Preparation for tomorrow’s jobs and the challenges posed by demographic trends, chang ing technology, and increased international competition will require an efficient match between workplace require ments and worker skills. The Occupational Outlook Handbook, the Government’s premier publication on career guidance, provides essential information about the changes in the world of work and the qualifications that will be needed by tomorrow’s workers. ELIZABETH DOLE https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Foreword -•w- -Wg; 1 1 '^5^' spsm •>* (Changing technology and business practices, increased foreign competition, and shifts in the demand for goods and services will reshape tomorrow’s job market—mak ing the need for comprehensive, up-to-date, and reliable career information more important than ever before. The Bureau’s Occupational Outlook Handbook has been a nationally recognized source of career information for more than four decades. Revised every two years, the Handbook describes what workers do on the job, working conditions, the training and education needed, earnings, and expected job prospects in a wide range of occupations covering over 100 million jobs. The 1990-91 edition of the Handbook should provide valuable assistance to individuals making career decisions about their future work lives. JANET L. NORWOOD Commissioner Bureau of Labor Statistics v r https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Acknowledgments The Handbook was produced in the Bureau of Labor Statistics under the general guidance and direction of Neal H. Rosenthal, Chief, Division of Occupational Outlook, and Ronald E. Kutscher, Associate Commissioner for Employment Projections. Mike Pilot, Manager, Occupational Outlook Program, was respon sible for planning and day-to-day direction. Project leaders supervising the research and preparation of material were Douglas I. Braddock, Daniel E. Hecker, Anne Kahl, Chester C. Levine, and Darrel Patrick Wash. Occupa tional analysts who contributed material were Thomas A. Amirault, Verada P. Bluford, Liesel E. Brand, Shelley J. Davis, Conley Hall Dillon, Jr., Lawrence C. Drake, Jr., Sandy Gamliel, Arthur J. Gartaganis, Steven D. Hitchcock, Elizabeth McGregor, Ludmilla K. Murphy, Janet Pfleeger, Jon Q. Sargent, Stephen G. Tise, Brenda S. Wallace, Anne E. Weston, and Martha C. White. Under the direction ofBeverly A. Williams, word processing support was handled by Marilyn Queen and Idena B. Sanders. Note A great many trade associations, professional societies, unions, industrial organizations, and government agencies provide career information that is valuable to counselors and jobseekers. For the convenience of Handbook users, some of these organizations are listed at the end of each occupational statement. Although these references were carefully compiled, the Bureau of Labor Statistics has neither authority nor facilities for investigating the organiza tions or the information or publications that may be sent in response to a request and cannot guarantee the accuracy of such information. The listing of an organization, therefore, does not constitute in any way an endorsement or recommendation by the Bureau either of the organization and its activities or of the information it may supply. Each organization has sole responsibility for whatever information it may issue. The occupational information contained in the Handbook pres ents a general, composite description ofjobs and cannot be expected to reflect work situations in specific establishments or localities. The Handbook, therefore, is not intended and should not be used as a guide for determining wages, hours, the right of a particular union to represent workers, appropriate bargaining units, or formal job evaluation systems. Nor should earnings data in the Handbook be used to compute future loss of earnings in adjudication proceed ings involving work injuries or accidental deaths. Material in this publication is in the public domain and, with appropriate credit, may be reproduced without permission. Com ments about the contents of this publication and suggestions for improving it are welcome. Please address them to Chief, Division of Occupational Outlook, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Depart ment of Labor, Washington, DC 20212. ■ VI Photograph Credits The Bureau of Labor Statistics wishes to express its appreciation for the cooperation and assistance of the many government and private sources—listed below—that either contributed photo graphs or made their facilities available to photographers work ing under contract to the U.S. Department of Labor. Photo graphs may not be free of every possible safety or health hazard. Depiction of company or trade name in no way constitutes endorsement by the Department of Labor. A.F. & G. Tool & Die Company, Inc.; AT&T; Allen-Mitchell Company; American Textile Manufacturers Institute; Baltimore County Public Schools, MD; Baltimore Gas and Electric Com pany; Baltimore-Washington International Airport; Bethlehem Steel Corporation; Blakeslee-Lane, Inc.-Stuart Zolotorow; Buzzell Building Corporation; C & P Telephone; Carey, Bow man, and Associates, Inc.; Carl’s Messenger Service; Connor Travel; Designer Optical; District of Columbia Department of Correction; Dulles International Airport; Exxon Company, U.S. A.; F. Scott Black’s Harborlights Dinner Theatre; Ferris, Baker, & Watts; Finch and Company; Fontana Lithograph, Inc.; Fort Meyer Construction Company; General Dynamics Corporation; George Meany Labor Studies Center; George Washington University; George Washington University Hospi tal; Georgetown Barber Shop; Georgetown Cobbler Shop; Giant Food, Inc.; Hartford Insurance Group; Hecht’s; Hotel Belve dere; Howard University; Inter-American Foundation; Iona House Senior Services; Jack Blevins and Associates, Inc.; Jemi Fashions, Inc.; M & M Fabricators, Inc.; Madison West De sign; Memorial Hospital & Medical Center of Cumberland, Inc.; Metropolitan Washington Area Transit Authority; Metro politan Washington Council of Governments; Microlog Corpo ration; Montgomery County Public Schools, MD; MPR Associ ates; National Aeronautics and Space Administration; National Association of Professional Insurance Agents; National Trading Sales Corporation; National Zoological Park; North Carolina Highway Department; Omni-Mill Operations; Oregon State De partment of Forestry; PEPCO; Petrovitch Auto Repair; Port City Press; R.P. Upholstery Shop; Shannon & Luchs Co.; St. Martin’s Parish School; Star Rug Company; Super 8 Motel; Ted’s Music Store; U.S. Department of Agriculture; U.S. De partment of Commerce; U.S. Department of Defense; U.S. Department of Labor; U.S. General Services Administration; U.S. Postal Service; University of Maryland; USAir Group; WMAR-TV (Baltimore); W.R. Grace & Company; Working Images Photographs-Martha Tabor. \ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis VII Contents Special Features Keys To Understanding What’s in the Handbook....... 1 Leads to More Information.......................................... 4 Tomorrow’s Jobs............................................................. 8 Summary Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail'............................................................................ 452 Assumptions and Methods Used in Preparing Employment Projections............................................. 459 Sources of State and Local JobOutlook Information. 460 Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage.................. 463 Reprints ............................................................................. 480 Index................................................................................. 483 Companion Publications................................................... 494 Occupational Coverage xecutive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations Accountants and auditors........................... v..................................... Administrative services managers................................................... Budget analysts................................................................................... Construction and building inspectors.............................................. Construction managers...................................................................... Cost estimators................................................................................... Education administrators................................................................... Employment interviewers................................................................. Engineering, science, and data processing managers................... Financial managers............................................................................ General managers and top executives............................................ Government chief executives and legislators................................. Health services managers.................................................................. Hotel managers and assistants......................................................... Industrial production managers........................................................ Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction............. Management analysts and consultants............................................ Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers................ Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers................................................................................. Property and real estate managers................................................... Purchasing agents and managers..................................................... Restaurant and food service managers........................................... Underwriters....................................................................................... Wholesale and retail buyers............................................................. 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 26 28 30 32 33 35 38 39 41 44 46 Electrical and electronicsengineers.................................................. Industrial engineers............................................................................ Mechanical engineers......................................................................... Metallurgical, ceramic, andmaterials engineers............................. Mining engineers................................................................................ Nuclear engineers............................................................................... Petroleum engineers.......................................................................... 66 67 67 68 68 69 69 Architects and surveyors Architects............................................................................................. Landscape architects.......................................................................... Surveyors............................................................................................. 71 72 74 Computer, mathematical, and operations research occupations Actuaries.............................................................................................. Computer systems analysts............................................................... Mathematicians................................................................................... Operations research analysts............................................................ Statisticians.......................................................................................... 76 77 79 81 82 Life scientists Agricultural scientists........................................................................ * Biological scientists............................................................................ Foresters and conservation scientists .............................................. 85 86 88 Physical scientists Chemists.............................................................................................. Geologists and geophysicists............................................................ Meteorologists.................................................................................... Physicists and astronomers............................................................... 90 91 93 94 Lawyers and judges 96 Social scientists and urban planners ... Economists and market research analysts Psychologists............................................... Sociologists ................................................. Urban and regional planners.................... Social and recreation workers Human services workers........................... Social workers............................................ Recreation workers.................................... 101 110^ 113 115 118 Religious workers Protestant ministers............................................................................ 121 Rabbis.................................................................................................. 122 Roman Catholic priests..................................................................... 123 3Kjkachers, librarians, and counselors 48 (Adult and vocational education teachers........................................ 51 Archivists and curators...................................................................... 54 College and university faculty......................................................... 56 Counselors............................................................................................ 58 Kindergarten and elementary school jeachers................................ 60 \ Librarians......................................... .................. 7777777777777777......... Secondary school teachers..................................................... s,........ 125 126 128 130 132 133 135 Health diagnosing practitioners Chiropractors....................................................................................... Dentists................................................................................................ Optometrists......................................................................................... Physicians............................................................................................ 138 139 141 143 Professional Specialty Occupations Engineers........................................................................................... Aerospace engineers.......................................................................... Chemical engineers............................................................................ Civil engineers.................................................................................... https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 62 64 65 65 ' Podiatrists ... Veterinarians 146---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------147 Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical Adjusters, investigators, and collectors.......................................... 2.44 Health assessment and treating occupations Dietitians and nutritionists................................................................ 150 ^•Bank tellers......................................................................................... 248 Clerical supervisors and managers................................................... 250 Occupational therapists........................................................................(152 Computer and peripheral equipment operators............................... 251 Pharmacists.......................................................................................... 153 Credit clerks and authorizers............................................................. 253 Physical therapists............................................................................. 155 Financial records processors............................................................. 254 Physician assistants............................................................................ 157 Billing clerks.................................................................................... 255 Recreational therapists...................................................................... 159 Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks.......................... 255 Registered nurses................................................................................ 160 Payroll and timekeeping clerks.................................................... 256 Respiratory therapists......................................................................... 1.63 General office clerks........................................................................... 256 Speech-language pathologists and audiologists............................ /1651 / Information clerks............................................................................... 257 Hotel and motel desk clerks.......................................................... 259 Communications occupations Interviewing and new accounts clerks......................................... 259 Public relations specialists................................................................ 168 Receptionists.................................................................................... 260 Radio and television announcers and newscasters........................ 169 Reservation and transportation ticket agents Reporters and correspondents.......................................................... 171 and travel clerks............................................................................261 Writers and editors............................................................................. 173 Mail clerks and messengers.............................................................. 262 Material recording, scheduling, dispatching, Visual arts occupations and distributing occupations.......................................................... 263 Designers............................................................................................. 175 Dispatchers...................................................................................... 265 Photographers and camera operators............................................... 177 Stock clerks..................................................................................... 266 Visual artists....................................................................................... 180 Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks....................................... 267 Postal clerks and mail carriers.......................................................... 268 Performing arts occupations Record clerks...................................................................................... 270 Actors, directors, and producers..................................................... 182 Brokerage clerks ind statement clerks....................................... 272 Dancers and choreographers............................................................ 183 File clerks........................................................................................ 272 Musicians............................................................................................. 185 Library assistants and bookmobile drivers.................................. 273 Order clerks..................................................................................... 274 Technicians and Related Support Occupations Personnel clerks.............................................................................. 275 Secretaries............................................................................................ 276 Health technologists and technicians Stenographers...................................................................................... 278 Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.......................... 187 Teacher aides...................................................................................... 279 Dental hygienists................................................................................ 189 Telephone, telegraph, and teletype operators................................ 280 Dispensing opticians.......................................................................... 191 Typists, word processors, and data entry keyers.......................... 282 EEG technologists............................................................................. 193 EKG technicians ................................................................................ 195 Service Occupations Emergency medical technicians ...................................................... 196 Licensed practical nurses.................................................................. 199 Protective service occupations Medical record technicians............................................................... 201 Correction officers.............................................................................. 285 Nuclear medicine technologists........................................................ 203 Firefighting occupations..................................................................... 286 Radiologic technologists................................................................... 205 Guards.................................................................................................. 288 Surgical technicians............................................................................ 208 Police, detectives, and special agents............................................. 290 Technologists, except health Aircraft pilots...................................................................................... Air traffic controllers......................................................................... Broadcast technicians......................................................................... Computer programmers..................................................................... Drafters................................................................................................ Engineering technicians.................................................................... Library technicians............................................................................. Paralegals............................................................................................. Science technicians............................................................................ Tool programmers, numerical control............................................ 210 212 214 215 217 219 220 221 223 224 Marketing and Sales Occupations Cashiers................................................................................................ Counter and rental clerks.................................................................. Insurance sales workers..................................................................... Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives.................... Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers.................................... Retail sales workers.......................................................................... Securities and financial services sales representatives................. Services sales representatives........................................................... Travel agents....................................................................................... https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 227 228 230 232 234 236 238 240 242 Food and beverage preparation and service occupations Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers....................................... 294 Food and beverage service occupations.......................................... 296 Health service occupations Dental assistants.................................................................................. 299 Medical assistants............................................................................... 300 Nursing aides and psychiatric aides................................................. 302 Personal service and building and grounds service occupations Animal caretakers, except farm....................................................... 304 Barbers.................................................................................................. 306 Childcare workers............................................................................... 307 Cosmetologists and related workers................................................ 308 Flight attendants.................................................................................. 310 Gardeners and groundskeepers.......................................................... 311 Homemaker-home health aides......................................................... 313 Janitors and cleaners........................................................................... 315 Private household workers................................................................. 316 Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, and Related Occupations Farm operators and managers........................................................... 318 IX Fishers, hunters, and trappers.......................................................... 320 Timber cutting and logging workers............................................... 323 Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers Aircraft mechanics and engine specialists..................................... Automotive body repairers............................................................... Automotive mechanics...................................................................... Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers.......... Communications equipment mechanics......................................... Computer and office machine repairers.......................................... Diesel mechanics................................................................................ —-Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers .................... Elevator installers and repairers...................................................... Farm equipment mechanics............................................................. General maintenance mechanics...................................................... Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigerationmechanics................ Home appliance and power tool repairers..................................... Industrial machinery repairers......................................................... Line installers and cable splicers..................................................... Millwrights.......................................................................................... Mobile heavy equipment mechanics............................................... Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics............................. Musical instrument repairers and tuners........................................ Telephone installers and repairers................................................... Vending machine servicers and repairers....................................... 326 327 329 331 333 335 337 339 341 342 344 345 347 348 350 352 353 355 357 358 360 Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations Bricklayers and stonemasons............................................................ Carpenters........................................................................................... Carpet installers................................................................................. Concrete masons and terrazzo workers........................................... Drywall workers and lathers............................................................ Electricians.......................................................................................... Glaziers............................................................................................... Insulation workers............................................................................. Painters and paperhangers................................................................ Plasterers............................................................................................. Plumbers and pipefitters................................................................... Roofers................................................................................................. Roustabouts........................................................................................ Sheet-metal workers.......................................................................... Structural and reinforcing ironworkers........................................... Tilesetters............................................................................................. 362 363 365 366 367 369 371 372 373 375 377 378 379 381 383 384 Production Occupations Assemblers Precision assemblers.......................................................................... 386 Blue-collar worker supervisors..................... .............................. 387 Food processing occupations Butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters................................. 389 Digitized xfor FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis "^Inspectors, testers, and graders.................... Metalworking and plastic-working occupations Boilermakers....................................................................................... Jewelers................................................................................................ Machinists............................................................................................ Metalworking and plastic-working machine operators................. Metalworking machine operators................................................. Plastic-working machine operators.............................................. Steel workers.................................................................................. Numerical-control machine-tool operators..................................... Tool and die makers........................................................................... Welders, cutters, and welding machine operators........................ 390 391 392 394 396 397 398 399 401 402 404 Plant and systems operators Electric power generating plant operators and power distributors and dispatchers.........................................406 Stationary engineers.......................................................................... 407 Water and wastewater treatment plant operators.......................... 409 Printing occupations Bindery workers.................................................................................. Compositors and typesetters.............................................................. Lithographic and photoengraving workers..................................... Printing press operators..................................................................... 411 412 414 416 Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations Apparel workers.................................................................................. Shoe and leather workers and repairers.......................................... Textile machinery operators.............................................................. Upholsterers......................................................................................... 418 420 421 424 Woodworking occupations.............................................................. 425 Miscellaneous production occupations Dental laboratory technicians........................................................... Ophthalmic laboratory technicians.................................................. Painting and coating machine operators.......................................... Photographic process workers.......................................................... 427 428 430 432 Transportation and Material Moving Occupations Busdrivers............................................................................................ Material moving equipment operators............................................. Rail transportation occupation......................................................... Truckdrivers......................................................................................... Water transportation occupations..................................................... 434 436 438 440 442 Handlers, Equipment Cleaners, Helpers, and Laborers............................................................................. 445 Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces........................ 447 Keys To Understanding What’s in the Handbook The Occupational Outlook Handbook describes in detail about 250 occupations—covering about 101 million jobs, or 86 percent of all jobs in the economy. Occupations that require lengthy education or training are given the most attention. In addition, summary information on 80 occupations—accounting for another 5 percent of all jobs—is presented in the chapter beginning on page 452. The Handbook is best used as a reference; it is not meant to be read from cover to cover. Instead, start by exploring the table of contents, where related occupations are grouped in clusters, or look in the alpha betical index at the end of the Handbook for specific occupations that interest you or sound familiar. This introductory chapter explains how the occupational statements are organized. The next two chapters, Leads to More Information and Tomorrow’s Jobs, tell where you can get more information and discuss the forces that are likely to affect employment opportunities in industries and occupations to the year 2000. For any occupation that sounds interesting to you, use the Handbook to find out what the work is like; what education and training are needed; what the advancement possibilities, earnings, and job outlook are; and what related occupations you might consider. Each occupa tional description, or statement, in the Handbook follows a standard format, making it easier to compare occupations. What follows is a description of each section of a Handbook statement, plus some aids for interpreting the information. About Those Numbers at the Beginning of Each Statement The numbers in parentheses that appear just below the title of most occupational statements are D.O.T. codes. D.O.T. stands for the Dictionary of Occupational Titles, a U.S. Department of Labor publication. Each number classifies the occupation by the type of work, required training, physical demands, and working condi tions. D.O.T. numbers are used primarily by State employment service offices to classify applicants and job openings. They are included in the Handbook because some career information centers and libraries use them for filing occupational information. An index at the back of this book cross-references the D.O.T. numbers to occupations covered in the Handbook. Nature of the Work This section tells what workers typically do on the job, what tools or equipment they use, how closely they are supervised, the end product of their efforts, new technologies that are changing what they do or how they do it, and new specialties that are evolving. Responsibilities of workers in the same occupation usually vary by employer, industry, and size of firm. In small organizations, for example, workers generally perform a wider range of duties because the resources simply do not exist for specialization. In addition, most occupations have several levels of skill and responsibility. Beginners or those without a lot of formal training may start as trainees, petform ing routine tasks under close supervision. Experienced workers per form more difficult duties, with greater independence, while the most skilled and most senior workers perform the most difficult and respon sible jobs. Working Conditions This section describes work hours, the physical environment, and other characteristics of the occupation. In many occupations, people usually work regular business hours—40 hours a week, mornings and afternoons, Monday through Friday. Others may work nights or https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis weekends, or more than 40 hours—periodically or on a regular basis. Some workers have a degree of freedom in determining their hours— in occupations that lend themselves to temporary work or self-employ ment, for example. Many jobs are performed in pleasant surroundings, while others are in dirty, noisy, dangerous, or stressful ones. Workers may move around a lot or work in a confined space. Some jobs require outdoor work or overnight travel. A growing number of employers require drug testing. Employment This section indicates how many jobs there were in this occupation in 1988 and what industries and parts of the country they were located in. Where significant, it also gives the proportion of workers in the occupation who worked part time (fewer than 35 hours a week) and the proportion who were self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement You can get training for jobs in high schools, colleges, postsecondary vocational schools (both public and private), home study courses, government training programs, the Armed Forces, apprenticeships and other formal training offered by employers, or informally on the job. In most occupations, there is more than one way to get training. This section identifies all the ways and notes the most common or the type generally preferred by employers. It lists high school and college courses considered useful preparation for a job and reveals if continu ing education is required to maintain the position. Remember, the amount of training you have often determines the level at which you enter an occupation and the speed with which you advance. For entry level jobs in many occupations covered in the Handbook, employers may not require specific job training but look for other qualifications. They hire people with good general skills and the ability to learn and give them the specific training needed to do the work. Employers want people who read, write, and speak well; compute accurately; get along with others; and have good work habits. They may require a high school diploma or college degree as evidence of good general skills. Statements also list other desirable aptitudes and personal characteristics—for example, mechanical aptitude, manual dexterity, patience, accuracy, and ability to work without close super vision. This section also indicates whether a certificate or license is required for entry or for independent practice, or if it is helpful for advancement. It also describes typical paths of advancement within the occupation and patterns of movement or advancement to other occupations. Job Outlook This section identifies the factors that will be affecting employment in the occupation through the year 2000. Will defense spending, new technologies, changing business practices, and shifting population patterns affect the demand for workers? The projections of the job outlook presented in the Handbook are based on a reasonable set of assumptions about how the economy is likely to change between 1988 and the year 2000. From studies of economic trends and of how industries currently operate and the direc tions in which they are moving, the number, distribution, and composi tion of jobs in the year 2000 were projected. Of course, no one can foresee with certainty all the economic, political, social, and technological forces that will ultimately affect employment growth and job prospects over the period. A summary of the assumptions and methods used by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in making employment projections is presented in a chapter beginning on page 459. A detailed description is presented in Outlook 2000, BLS Bulletin 2352. 1 2 Occupational Outlook Handbook If an occupation grows rapidly, it obviously will provide more openings than if it grows slowly. Moreover, the demand for talent in a rapidly growing occupation generally improves chances for advance ment and mobility. Keep in mind that slow-growing occupations, if large, also provide many job openings. The need to replace workers who leave their jobs creates most of the openings in most occupations, regardless of the rate of growth. Large occupations generally have more replacement openings than small ones. Those with low pay and status, few training requirements, and a high proportion of young or old or part-time workers generally have more turnover than ones with high pay and status, lengthy training requirements, and many prime working-age full-time workers. Besides describing projected employment change, this section may also discuss the degree of competition for jobs that applicants are likely to encounter. How easy or hard will it be to get a job in this field? Does the occupation attract many more jobseekers than there are openings to be filled? Do opportunities vary by industry, size of firm, or geographic location? The accompanying figure explains what is meant by key phrases used to describe projected employment change. It also explains the terms used to describe the relationship between the number of job openings and the number of jobseekers. Key Phrases in the Handbook Changing employment between 1988 and 2000 If the statement reads. . . Employment Grow much faster than the average Grow faster than the average Grow about as fast as the average Grow more slowly than the average Show little change Increase 31 percent or more Decline Increase 20 to 30 percent Increase 11 to 19 percent Increase 4 to 10 percent Finally, it is possible that prospects in your community or State are better or worse than those described in the Handbook, which discusses prospects in the Nation as a whole. Therefore, it is wise to check with local sources. (See the chapter on Leads to More Information beginning on page 4 and the list of state and local agencies, page 460.) Earnings This section cites figures on what workers in the occupation generally eam. Earnings are based on several types of pay plans. Some workers are paid a straight annual salary. Some receive an hourly wage for the hours they work, commissions based on a percentage of what they sell, or a piece rate for each item they produce. Others receive tips for services to customers. Workers may also be paid a combination of a salary or hourly wage, plus bonus, piecework, or tips. Most workers also receive employer-paid benefits such as paid vacations and holidays, health insurance, and pensions. Some also get stock options, profit-sharing plans, savings plans, and bonuses. Workers in many occupations also receive discounts on merchandise, meals and housing, reduced travel fares, business expense accounts, or use of a company car. About 10 percent of all workers are self-employed. Their earnings vary more than those of workers on wages or salaries, and, unlike most wage and salary workers, they pay for their own benefits. Within every occupation, earnings of workers vary, depending on experience, level of responsibility, performance, industry, amount of unionization, and geographic area. Earnings generally are higher in cities than in rural areas and vary from one region to another. Keep in mind that the geographic areas that offer the highest eamings often are those in which living costs are highest. The amount of responsibility that goes with a job affects eamings. The bar chart shows annual salaries for eight levels of engineers, five levels of engineering technicians, and four levels of buyers. These reflect different work levels, starting with entry level jobs and continu ing up the career ladder to the most complex and responsible supervi sory positions within the occupation. Therefore, it is not always possi ble to say that people in one occupation earn more than those in Increase or decrease 3 percent or less Decrease 4 percent or more Jobs within occupations differ in complexity, and pay varies accordingly. Opportunities and competition for jobs If the statement reads. . . Excellent opportunities Very good opportunities Good or favorable opportunities May face competition May face keen competition Job openings compared to jobseekers may be. . . Much more numerous More numerous About the same 3rd 90.000 80.000 Fewer Much fewer 70.000 ■ 1 ■ 60.000 1 1 1 quartile Mean 1 1st____ quartile ■ 50.000 ■ ■ 40.000 30.000 II Understandably, individuals might want to enter an occupation or specialty or locate in a geographic area that has fewer qualified workers than jobs because, under these shortage conditions, jobseekers gener ally can choose from more job offers, expect higher salaries, advance faster or, possibly, get a job with only minimal qualifications. Keep in mind, however, that even in occupations with a rough balance, almost all qualified applicants can find jobs. On the other hand, when there are surpluses of workers, applicants may have to look for a long time, accept an offer they would otherwise pass up, find a job in another occupation, or face extended unemployment. But since job openings do exist even in overcrowded fields, good students or wellqualified individuals should not be deterred from undertaking training or seeking entry. Some statements discuss job security—workers in some occupations are more likely than those in others to keep or lose their jobs during recessions or government budget cuts, or when new technologies are introduced. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Range of annual salaries for middle 50 percent of employees in each level, March 1988 $100,000 ■ 20.000 10,000 I II III IV V VI VII VIII Engineers Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics IV Engineering technicians V I II Buyers III IV Keys To Understanding What’s in the Handbook Half of all butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters earned between $11,400 and $25,200 in 1988. Percent distribution of full-time salaried butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters, f988 Median: $f6,300 3rd quartile: . $25,200 1st quartile $11,400 9th decile: . $30,700 1st decile: Is. S9.2CC A/ SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics another. We can say that the average is higher or that the middle range of earnings is higher, but there is usually some overlap. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 3 Many Handbook statements cite Current Population Survey (CPS) data. They show the median earnings of full-time salaried (but not self-employed) workers in 1988. (The median is the midpoint—half earned more than this and half earned less.) They generally also give the range of earnings of the middle 50 percent of workers, and earnings of the lowest 10 percent and the highest 10 percent. The accompanying chart, based on CPS data, shows the earnings distribution of butchers and meatcutters in 1988. The shaded area under the curve indicates that one-half earned between $11,400 and $25,200. The lowest 10 percent earned under $9,200, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $30,700. You can compare CPS earnings data between occupations or to the average for all occupations. The median for all full-time wage and salary workers in 1988 was $20,000; the middle 50 percent earned between $13,500 and $29,200; the top 10 percent earned $41,200 or more, the bottom 10 percent, $9,700 or less. Some statements include earnings data from sources other than the CPS. The characteristics of these data vary, making it difficult to compare earnings precisely among occupations. Related Occupations When you find that an occupation appeals to you, also explore the jobs listed in this section. Usually, they call for similar aptitudes, interests, and education and training. Sources of Additional Information This section lists names and addresses of associations, government agencies, unions, and other organizations that provide useful informa tion on careers. Also, for some occupations, this section refers you to free or relatively inexpensive publications that offer more information. These publications may also be available in libraries, school career centers, or guidance offices. (For additional sources of information, read the next chapter, Leads to More Information.) Leads to More Information In this chapter you will find many other ways to obtain information about occupations, counseling, education and training, financial aid, and finding a job. Also, look at the end of each occupational statement in the Handbook, under Sources of Additional Information, for organi zations that have agreed to provide information about that particular occupation. Career Information A good place to start collecting the information you will need is from the people closest to you, your family and friends. These personal contacts are often overlooked but can be extremely helpful. They may be able to answer your questions directly or, more importantly, put you in touch with someone who can. This “networking” can lead to an “informational interview” where you can meet with someone who is willing to answer your questions about a career or a company and who can provide inside information on related fields and other helpful hints. This is a highly effective way to learn what type of training is recommended for a certain position, how someone in that position entered and advanced, and what he or she likes and dislikes about the work. While you are developing your network of contacts, you may want to begin exploring other avenues. Public libraries, career centers, and guidance offices have a great deal of career material. To begin your library search, look in the card catalog or at the computer listings under “vocations” or “careers” and then under specific fields. Also, leaf through the file of pamphlets that describe employment in different organizations. Check the periodicals section, where you will find trade and professional magazines and journals about specific occupations. Familiarize yourself with the ac tivities of potential employers by skimming their annual reports and other information they distribute to the public. You can also find occupational information on video cassettes, in kits, and through computerized information systems. Check career centers for programs such as individual counseling, group discussions, guest speakers, field trips, and career days. Assess career guidance materials carefully. Information should be current. Be skeptical of materials produced by schools for recruitment purposes that seem to glamorize the occupation, overstate the earnings, or exaggerate the demand for workers. You may wish to seek the advice of a counselor. Counselors are trained to help you discover your strengths and weaknesses and guide you through an evaluation of your goals and values so you can begin to determine what you want in a career. The counselor will not tell you what to do, but will administer interest inventories and aptitude tests, interpret the results, and help you explore your options. Counsel ors also may be able to discuss local job markets and the entry require ments and costs of the schools, colleges, or training programs that offer preparation for the kind of work in which you are interested. You can find counselors in: —high school guidance offices. —career planning and placement offices in colleges. —placement offices in private vocational/technical schools and insti tutes. —vocational rehabilitation agencies. —counseling services offered by community organizations. —private counseling agencies or private practices. —State employment service offices affiliated with the U.S. Employ ment Service. Before employing the services of a private counselor or agency, seek recommendations or check their credentials. The International Association of Counseling Services (IACS) accredits counseling ser vices for areas throughout the country. To receive the listing of accred ited services for your region, call (703)823-9800 or send a self-ad Digitized4for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis dressed, stamped envelope to IACS, 5999 Stevenson Ave., 3rd Floor, Alexandria, VA 22304. The Directory of Counseling Services, an IACS publication providing employment counseling and other assis tance, may be available in your library or school career counseling center. Professional societies, trade associations, labor unions, business firms, and educational institutions provide a variety of free or inex pensive career material. Many of these are identified in the Sources of Additional Information section of each Handbook statement. For information on an occupation not covered in the Handbook, consult the directories in your library’s reference section for the names of potential sources. You may need to start with The Guide to American Directories or The Directory of Directories. The Encyclopedia of Associations, an annual multivolume publication listing thousands of trade associations, professional societies, labor unions, and fraternal and patriotic organizations, is another useful resource. The National Audiovisual Center, a central source for all audiovisual material produced by the U.S. Government, rents and sells material on jobs and careers. For a catalog, contact the National Audiovisual Center, 8700 Edgeworth Dr., Capitol Heights, MD 20743. Phone: (301) 763-1896. For first-hand experience in an occupation, you may wish to intern or take a summer or part-time job. Some internships offer academic credit or pay a stipend. Check with guidance offices, college career resource centers, or directly with employers. State and Local Information The Handbook provides information for the Nation as a whole. For help in locating State or area information, contact the State occupa tional information coordinating committee (SOICC) in your State. These committees may provide the information directly or refer you to other sources. Refer to the chapter beginning on page 460 for addresses and telephone numbers of the SOICC’s. Forty-six States have career information delivery systems (CIDS). Jobseekers can use the computers, printed material, microfiche, and toll-free hotlines to obtain information on occupations, educational opportunities, student financial aid, apprenticeships, and military ca reers. Look for these systems in secondary schools, postsecondary institutions, libraries, job training sites, vocational rehabilitation cen ters, and employment service offices. Ask counselors and SOICC’s for specific locations. State employment security agencies develop detailed information about the labor market, such as current and projected employment by occupation and industry, characteristics of the work force, and changes in State and local area economic activity. Addresses and telephone numbers of the directors of research and analysis in these agencies are listed in the chapter beginning on page 460. Education and Training Information Check with professional and trade associations for lists of schools that offer career preparation in a particular field. The Sources of Additional Information section of many Handbook statements directs you to organizations that can provide training information. Refer to various directories, such as those that follow, for descrip tions of courses of study, admissions requirements, expenses, and student financial aid information for colleges, universities, and other training institutions. Guidance offices, libraries, and large bookstores usually carry copies. Be sure to use the most recent edition because these directories are revised frequently. Guidance offices and libraries also have collections of college catalogs that list their specific pro grams, requirements, and expenses. The Directory of Educational Institutions, published annually, lists schools accredited by the Association of Independent Colleges and Schools (AICS). Most AlCS-accredited institutions are business Leads To More Information schools, offering programs in secretarial science, business administra tion, accounting, data processing, court reporting, paralegal studies, fashion merchandising, travel/tourism, culinary arts, drafting, elec tronics, and other subjects. For a copy of the Directory, write: Associa tion of Independent Colleges and Schools, 1 Dupont Circle NW., Suite 350, Washington, DC 20036. Phone: (202) 659-2460. For information on private trade and technical schools, write to the National Association of Trade and Technical Schools (NATTS). Among its publications are the Handbook of Accredited Private Trade and Technical Schools and a series of pamphlets, including How to Choose a Career and a Career School. For a complete list, write: NATTS, 2251 Wisconsin Ave. NW., Suite 200, Washington, DC 20007. Information about home study programs is available from The Na tional Home Study Council. It publishes the Directory of Accredited Home Study Schools. Direct requests for the Directory as well as a list of other publications to the National Home Study Council, 1601 18th St. NW., Washington, DC 20009. Phone: (202) 234-5100. Local labor unions, school guidance counselors, and State employ ment offices provide information about apprenticeships. Copies of The National Apprenticeship Program and Apprenticeship Information are available from the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. De partment of Labor, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20210. Phone: (202) 535-0545. Financial Aid Information Information about financial aid is available from a variety of sources. Contact your high school guidance counselor and college financial aid officer for information concerning scholarships, fellowships, grants, loans, and work-study programs. In addition, every State administers financial aid programs—contact State Departments of Education for information. Banks and credit unions can provide information about student loans. You also may want to study the directories and guides to sources of student financial aid available in guidance offices and public libraries. The Federal Government provides grants, loans, work-study pro grams, and other benefits to students. Information about programs administered by the U.S. Department of Education is presented in The Student Guide to Federal Financial Aid Programs, updated annually. To get a copy, call: 1-800-333-4636 or write: Federal Student Aid Programs, P.O. Box 84, Washington, DC 20044. Meeting College Costs, an annual publication of the College Board, explains how student financial aid works and how to apply for it. The current edition is available to high school students through guidance counselors. Need a Lift?, an annual publication of the American Legion, con tains career and scholarship information. Single copies may be ob tained without charge by calling (317) 635-8411. Multiple copies cost $1 each prepaid (including postage) and can be obtained from: American Legion, Attn: National Emblem Sales, 700 N. Pennsylvania St., Indianapolis, IN 46204. Some student aid programs are designed to assist specific groups— Hispanics, blacks, native Americans, or women, for example. Higher Education Opportunities for Minorities and Women, published by the U.S. Department of Education, is a guide to organizations offering assistance. This publication can be found in libraries and guidance offices, or may be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402. Phone (202) 783-3238 for price and ordering information. The Armed Forces have several educational assistance programs. These include the Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (ROTC), the New G.I. bill, and tuition assistance. Information can be obtained from military recruiting centers, located in most cities. Information on Finding a Job It takes some people a great deal of time and effort to find a job they enjoy. Others may walk right into an ideal employment situation. Don’t be discouraged if you have to pursue many leads. Friends, neighbors, teachers, and counselors may know of available jobs in your https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 5 field of interest. Read the want ads. Consult State public employment service offices and private or nonprofit employment agencies or contact employers directly. Where To Learn About Job Openings • State employment service offices. • Civil service announcements (Federal, State, local). • Classified ads. —Local and out-of-town newspapers. —Professional journals. —Trade magazines. • Labor unions. • Professional associations (State and local chapters). • Libraries and community centers. • Women’s counseling and employment programs. • Youth programs. • School or college placement services. • Employment agencies and career consultants. • Employers. • Parents, friends, and neighbors. Merchandising Your Job Talents, a U.S. Department of Labor pamphlet, offers tips on organizing your job search, writing a resume, taking preemployment tests, and making the most of an interview. It is available at most State public employment service offices or may be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington. DC 20402. Phone (202) 783-3238 for price and ordering information. Informal job search methods. It is possible to apply directly to employers without a referral. You may locate a potential employer in the Yellow Pages, in directories of local chambers of commerce, and in other directories that provide information about employers. When you find an employer you are interested in, you can file an application even if you don’t know for certain that an opening exists. Want ads. The "Help Wanted” ads in newspapers list hundreds of jobs. Realize, however, that many job openings are not listed there. Also, be aware that the classified ads commonly do not give some important information. Many offer little or no description of the job, working conditions, or pay. Some ads do not identify the employer. They may just give a post office box for sending your resume. This makes followup inquiries very difficult. Furthermore, some ads offer out-of-town jobs; others advertise employment agencies rather than employment. Keep the following in mind if you are using want ads: —Do not pin your hopes on finding a job through the classifieds; follow other leads as well. —Answer ads promptly. The opening may be filled quickly, even before the ad stops appearing in the paper. —Follow the ads diligently. Checking them every day as early as possible gives you an advantage that may result in your being hired. —Beware of “no experience necessary” ads. These ads often signal low wages or poor working conditions or straight commission work. —Keep a record of all ads to which you have responded. Public employment service. The State employment service, some times called the Job Service, operates in coordination with the Labor Department’s U.S. Employment Service. Its 2,000 local offices, also known as employment service centers, help jobseekers locate employ ment and help employers find qualified workers at no cost to them selves. To find the office nearest you, look in the State government telephone listings under “Job Service” or “Employment.” Job matching and referral. At a State employment service office, an interviewer will determine if you are “job ready” or if counseling and testing services would be helpful before you begin your job search. You may examine the Job Bank, a computerized listing of public and private sector job openings that is updated daily when you are “job 6 Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Interview Tips Preparation: • Learn about the organization. • Have specific job or jobs in mind. • Review your qualifications for the job. • Prepare to answer broad questions about yourself. • Review your resume. • Arrive before the scheduled time of your interview. Personal Appearance: • Be well groomed. • Dress appropriately. • Do not chew gum or smoke. The Interview: • Answer each question concisely. • Be prompt in giving responses. • Use good manners. • Use proper English and avoid slang. • Convey a sense of cooperation and enthusiasm. • Ask questions about the position and the organization. Test (if employer gives one): • Listen carefully to instructions. • Read each question carefully. • Write legibly and clearly. • Budget your time wisely and don't dwell on one question. Information To Bring to an Interview: • Social Security number. • Driver’s license number. • Resume. Although not all employers require applicants to bring a resume, you should be able to furnish the interviewer with information about your education and previous employment. • Usually an employer requires three references. Get permission from people before using their names. Try to avoid using relatives. For each reference, provide the following information: Name, address, telephone number, and occupation. For more information on interviews and resumes, see Resumes, Application Forms, Cover Letters, and Interviews in the Spring 1987 Occupational Outlook Quarterly. A reprint of this article may be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402. Phone (202) 783-3238 for price and ordering information. Personnel Management, for information about employment with the U.S. Government. The phone number is (202) 653-8468 or write to: Federal Job Information Center, 1900 E St. NW., Room 1416, Washington, DC 20415. Private employment agencies. These agencies can be very helpful, but don’t forget that they are in business to make money. Most agencies operate on a commission basis, with the fee dependent upon a success ful match. You or the hiring company will have to pay a fee for the matching service. Find out the exact cost and who is responsible for paying it before using the service. While employment agencies can help you save time and contact employers who otherwise may be difficult to locate, in some cases, your costs may outweigh the benefits. Weigh any guarantee they offer when figuring the cost. College career planning and placement offices. College place ment offices facilitate matching job openings with suitable jobseekers. You can set up schedules and use available facilities for interviews with recruiters or scan lists of part-time, temporary, and summer jobs maintained in many of these offices. You also can get counseling, testing, and job search advice and take advantage of their career resource library. Here you will also be able to identify and evaluate your interests, work values, and skills; attend workshops on such topics as job search strategy, resume writing, letter writing, and effective interviewing; critique drafts of resumes and videotapes of mock inter views; explore files of resumes and references; and attend job fairs conducted by the office. Community agencies. Many nonprofit organizations offer counsel ing, career development, and job placement services, generally tar geted to a particular group, such as women, youth, minorities, ex offenders, or older workers. Many communities have career counseling, training, placement, and support services for employment. These programs are sponsored by a variety of organizations, including churches and synagogues, nonprofit organizations, social service agencies, the State employment service, and vocational rehabilitation agencies. Many cities have com missions that attend to the concerns of and provide services for these special groups. Organizations for Specific Groups The organizations listed below provide information on career planning, training, or public policy support for specific groups. Handicapped: President’s Committee on Employment of the Hand icapped, 1111 20th St. NW., Room 636, Washington, DC 20036. Phone: (202) 653-5044. The blind: Call the Job Opportunities for the Blind Program, a division of the National Federation for the Blind, toll-free, at: 1-800 638-7518. What Goes Into a Resume ready.” Select openings that interest you, then get more details from a staff member who can describe job openings in detail and arrange for interviews with prospective employers. Counseling and testing. Centers can test for occupational aptitudes and interests and then help you choose and prepare for a career. Services for special groups. By law, veterans are entitled to priority at State employment service centers. Veterans’ employment represen tatives can inform you of available assistance and help you deal with any problems. Summer Youth Programs provide summer jobs in city, county, and State government agencies for low-income youth. Students, school dropouts, or graduates entering the labor market who are between 16 and 21 years of age are eligible. In addition, the Job Corps, with more than 100 centers throughout the United States, helps young people learn skills or obtain education. Service centers also refer applicants to opportunities available under the Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA) of 1982. JTPA prepares economically disadvantaged persons and those facing barriers to em ployment for jobs. Call the Federal Job Information Center, operated by the Office of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A resume should summarize your qualifications and employment history. It is usually required when applying for a managerial, administrative, professional, or technical position. Although there is no set format, it should contain the following information: • Name, address, and telephone number. • Employment objective. • Education, including school name and address, dates of atten dance, curriculum, and highest grade completed or degree awarded. • Experience, paid or volunteer. Include the following for each job: Job title, name and address of employer, and dates of em ployment. • Special skills, knowledge of machinery, honors received, awards, or membership in organizations. • Note on your resume that references are available on request. On a separate sheet, list the names, addresses, and telephone num bers of three references. Leads To More Information Minorities: League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC), National Educational Service Centers Inc., 400 First St. NW., Suite 716, Washington, DC 20001. Phone: (202) 347-1652. National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), 4805 Mount Hope Dr. Baltimore, MD21215-3297. Phone: (301) 358-8900. National Urban League, Employment Department, 500 E. 62nd St., New York, NY 10021. National Urban League, Washington Operations, 1111 14th St. NW., 6th Floor, Washington, DC 20005. Older workers: National Association of Older Workers Employ ment Services, c/o National Council on Aging, 600 Maryland Ave. SW., Washington, DC 20024. Phone: (202) 479-1200. American Association of Retired Persons, Worker Equity, 1909 K St. NW., Washington, DC 20049. Phone: (202) 872-4891. Asociacion Nacional Pro Personas Mayores (National Association for Hispanic Elderly), 2727 W. 6th St., Suite 270, Los Angeles, CA 90057. Phone: (213) 487-1922. Specifically serves low-income minority older persons. National Caucus/Center on Black Aged, Inc., 1424 K St. NW., Suite 500, Washington, DC 20005. Phone: (202) 637-8400. National Urban League, Employment Department, 500 E. 62nd St., New York, NY 10021. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 7 Veterans: Contact the nearest regional office of the Veterans Ad ministration. Women: U.S. Department of Labor, Women’s Bureau, 200 Consti tution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20210. Phone: (202) 523-6652. Catalyst, 250 Park Ave. South, New York, NY 10003. Phone: (212) 777-8900. (Ask for the free referral pamphlet called Career Development Resources.) Wider Opportunities for Women, 1325 G St. NW., Lower Level, Washington, DC 20005. Phone: (202) 638-3143. Federal laws, executive orders, and selected Federal grant programs bar discrimination in employment based on race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, and handicap. Information on how to file a charge of discrimination is available from U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission offices around the country. Their addresses and telephone numbers are listed in telephone directories under U.S. Government, EEOC, or are available from the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 2401 E St. NW., Washington, DC 20507. Phone: (202) 634-6922. Information on Federal laws concerning fair labor standards such as the minimum wage and equal employment opportunity can be obtained from the Office of Information and Consumer Affairs, Employment Standards Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, Room C-4331,200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20210. Tomorrow’s Jobs Every other year, the Bureau of Labor Statistics develops projections of the labor force, economic growth, industry employment, and occu pational employment under alternative assumptions. These projec tions, which usually cover a 10- to 15-year period, provide the frame work for the discussion of the job outlook in each of the occupational statements in the Handbook. Each of the approximately 250 statements in this edition of the Handbook identifies the principal factors that affect job prospects and indicates how these factors are expected to affect the occupation in the future. This chapter uses the moderate alternative of each of the projections to provide a framework for the individual job outlook discussions. Population Trends Population trends affect employment opportunities in a number of ways. First of all, changes in the size and composition of the population influence the demand for goods and services—a growing and aging population has increased the demand for health services, for example. Equally important, population changes produce corresponding changes in the size and characteristics of the labor force. The U.S. population is expected to grow more slowly over the next 12 years than it did during the previous 12-year period. However, even slow population growth will increase the demand for goods and services, causing greater demand for workers in many occupations and industries. The age structure will shift toward relatively fewer children and youth and~a growing proportion of middle-aged and older people well jnto the 21st century. Several things account for thisj.The decline in the proportion of children and youth reflects low birth rates that have prevailed for the past 20 years and that seem likely to continue^the impending large increase in the middle-aged population reflects the maturing of the “baby boom” generation born after World War II; and the very rapid growth in the number of old people is attributable to 3 high birth rates prior to the Great Depression of the 1930’s, together with j>tri_des in medical science that have made it possible for most Americans to survive into old age. Minorities and immigrants will constitute a larger share of the U.S. population in 2000 than they do today. Substantial increases in -the~murribef of Hispanics, Asians, and blacks are anticipated, reflecting high birth rates in these population groups as well as net immigration. Substantial inflows of migrants, both documented and undocumented, are expected to continue. The arrival of immigrants from every comer of the world has significant implications for the labor force because immigrants tend to be of working age but of different educational and occupational backgrounds than the U.S. population as a whole. Population growth varies greatly among geographic regions, which is reflected in differences in the demand for goods and services. Between 1980 and 1988, the population of the Midwest and the Northeast grew by only 1.7 percent and 3 percent, respectively, compared with 12.3 percent in the South and 17.4 percent in the West. These differences reflect the movement of people seeking new jobs or retiring as well as higher birth rates in some areas than in others. Projections by the Bureau of the Census indicate that the West will continue to be the fastest growing region of the country, increasing about 17 percent between 1988 and the year 2000. In the South, the population is expected to increase about 15 percent. The number of people in the Midwest is expected to remain about the same, while the Northeast is projected to increase slightly, by about 2 percent. Geographic shifts in the population alter the demand for and the supply of workers in local job markets. Moreover, many areas are dominated by one or two industries, and local job markets may be extremely sensitive to the economic fortunes of those industries. For 8 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis these and other reasons, local employment opportunities may differ substantially from the projections for the Nation as a whole presented in the Handbook. Sources of information on State and local employment prospects arc identified on page 460. Labor Force Trends Population is the single most important factor governing the size and composition of the labor force, which comprises people who are either working or looking for work. The civilian labor force totaled. 121.7 million in 1988 and is expectedlo reach' 141.1 miliioiTin the year 2000. Ihis projected increase—Ipercent—represents a slowing in both the number added to the labor force and the rate of labor force growth, largely due to slower population growth (chart 1). American workers will be an increasingly diverse group as we approach the year 2000: White non-Hispanic men will make up a smaller share of the labor force, and women and minority group members will make up a larger share. White non-Hispanics have historically been the largest component of the labor force, but their share has been dropping and is expected to fall to about 74 percent by 2000. Blacks, Hispanics, and Asian and other racial groups will account for roughly 33 percent of labor force entrants between 1988 and 2000. Women will continue to join the labor force in growing numbers. In the past, much of the growth in the labor force has been due to dramatic increases in participation by women, who are expected to account for slightly over half of all entrants through the year 2000. Not only do most American women of working age hold jobs, they tend to continue working despite competing demands for their time. By 2000, 4 out of 5 women between the ages of 25 and 54 will be in the labor force, which then will be almost evenly divided in terms of its composition by sex. Women were only 41 percent of the labor Chart 1 Labor force growth will slow in the future due to slowing population growth. Source Bureau of Labor Statistics Tomorrow’s Jobs Chart 2 The age distribution of the labor force is changing. (percent) 15 ■ 55 years and over percent 35 to 54 36 percett 25 to 34 16 to 24 'percent Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics force as recently as 1976; by 2000. they are expected to account for 47 percent.. The changing age structure of the population will directly affect tomorrow’s labor force. As the proportion of young workers declines, the pool of experienced workers will increase (chart 2). __ The number of youths (16 to 24 years of age) in the population will drop until the children of the baby-boom generation enter the labor force during the 1990’s. Among youths, the teenage labor force (16 to 19 years of age) will decline until 1992, then rise over the rest of the decade for a net increase of 800,000 over the 1988-2000 period. However, because the labor force 22 to 24 years of age is projected to decline until 1998, with only a slight recovery by 2000, the total size of the youth labor force should remain the same over the projection period and account for only 16 percent of the entire labor force at the end of the century, compared to 19 percent in 1988 and 24 percent in 1976. Thus colleges, the Armed Forces, eating and drinking places, and other establishments can expect to see a decrease in the population from which they draw students and young workers throughout most of the 1988-2000 period. ^ The scenario should be different for prime-age workers (25 to 54 years of age). These workers, many of whom were bom during the baby-boom years, should account for 72 percent of the labor force in 2000, up from 69 percent in 1988 and 61 percent in 1976. Even more striking is the growing proportion of workers between the ages of 35 and 54. These workers should account for 49 percent of the labor force by the year 2000. a significant increase from 40 percent in 1988 and 36 percent in 1976. Because workers in their mid-thirties to mid-fifties usually have substantial work experience and tend to be more stable and reliable than younger workers, this could result in im proved productivity and a greater pool of experienced applicants from which employers may choose. Contrary to popular belief, the number of older workers (55 years and above) is expected to be only slightly higher in 2000 than in 1988 because the labor force participation of those in this age group is not expected to change appreciably. Older workers should make up 12 percent of the work force in 2000, the same as in 1988 and down from 15 percent in 1976. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 9 In recent years, the educational attainment of the labor force has risen dramatically. Between 1976 and 1988, the proportion of the labor force age 18 to 64 with at least 1 year of college increased from 32 to 42 percent, while the proportion with 4 years of college or more increased from 16 to 22 percent (chart 3). The emphasis on education will continue. Three out of the four fastest growing occupational groups will be the executive, administra tive, and managerial; professional specialty; and technicians and re lated support occupations. These occupations generally require the highest levels of education and skill. In contrast, such factors as office and factory automation, changes in consumer demand, and substitution of imports for domestic products are expected to cause employment to stagnate or decline in many occupations that require little formal education—laborers, assemblers, and machine operators, for example. Opportunities for high school dropouts will be increasingly limited, and workers who cannot read and follow directions may not even be considered for most jobs. Employment Change Employment is expected to increase from 118.1 million in 1988 to 136.2 million in 2000, or 15 percent. This is only about half the rate of increase recorded during the previous 12-year period. The 18.1 million jobs that will be added to the U.S. economy by 2000 will not be evenly distributed across major industry and occupational groups, which means that the structure of employment will change. The following two sections look at projected employment change from both the industry and occupational perspectives. Industrial Profile The shift from goods-producing to service-producing employment is Very well known and not at all recent. (See chart 4.) By 2000, nearly 4 out of 5 jobs will he. in industries that provide services. Expansion of service sector employment is linked to a number of different factors, including changes in consumer tastes and preferences, legal and regula tory changes, advances in science and technology, and changes in the way businesses are organized and managed. Factors responsible for Chart 3 The proportion of workers with a college background has increased substantially since the mid ’70’s. 197fi lll^K A. / / 1 ro 3 years of college allege \ \ 16 percent \ \ I l \ \ 4 years of high school or less 68 percent \\ / A / / \ r Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 20 percent 57 percent / 10 Occupational Outlook Handbook Chart 4 Industries providing services will account for nearly four out of five jobs by the year 2000. Workers 122.1 million million million million Total \ I employment \| Service-producing employment Goods-producing employment 1976 1988 2000 Source Bureau of Labor Statistics varying growth prospects in major industry divisions are noted below. Service-Producing Industries. Services. Services is both the largest and the fastest growing industry division within the serviceproducing sector (chart 5.) This division provided 34.5 million jobs in 1988; employment is expected to rise 28 percent to 44.2 million by 2000, accounting for almost one-half of all new jobs. Jobs will be found in small firms as well as in large corporations, in all levels of government, and in industries as diverse as banking, hospitals, data processing, and management consulting. The two largest industry groups in this division, health services and business services, are projected to continue to grow very fast, and educational services, which has been growing slowly, is projected to have average growth. Health care will continue to be one of the most important groups of industries in the economy in terms of job creation. Employment in the health services industries is projected to grow from 8.2 to 11.3 million. New technology and a growing and aging population will increase the demand for health services. Because of the rapid expansion of health care employment, 7 of the 10 fastest growing occupations between 1988 and 2000 will be health related. Not all of the health industries will grow at the same rate; outpatient care facilities and offices of “other health practitioners,” which includes chiropractors, optome trists, psychologists, and other practitioners will be increasing the fastest. Hospitals, both private and public, will be growing more slowly than all the other health industries, but faster than the average for all industries. Nonetheless, hospitals will continue to employ the most workers among the health care industries. Another important industry group that is expected to generate many jobs is business services. These industries employed 5.6 million work ers in 1988 and are projected to employ 8.3 million in the year 2000. Personnel supply services, which includes temporary help agencies, is the largest industry in this group and will add the most new jobs. Business services also includes the fastest growing industry in the economy—computer and data processing services. This industry is expected to grow five times faster than the average for all industries, due to a rapidly increasing demand from business firms, government agencies, and individuals. A third industry in business services— research, management, and consulting—is expected to have very rapid https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis growth, although not as rapid as computer and personnel supply ser vices. Education, in both the private and public sectors, is expected to add 1.2 million jobs to the 8.9 million employed in 1988. The increase reflects rising enrollments projected for elementary and secondary schools. The elementary school age population (ages 5-13) will rise by over 2 million between 1988 and 2000, and the secondary school age (14-17) by 1.3 million. On the other hand, the traditional college age population (18-24) has been declining and is projected to continue to decline for the next decade; however, rising enrollments of older students, women, foreign students, and part-time students have offset the absolute decline in the 18-24 population. Not all the increase in employment in education will be for teachers; teacher aides, counsel ors, technicians, and administrative staff are also projected to increase. Retail trade. Nearly 3.8 million jobs will be added in retail trade, which will provide22.9 million jobs in 2000, up 20 percent from the 1988 Icvel. Eating and drinking places will employ the most workers in the retail trade division and also will be among the fastest growing industries. Substantial increases in retail employment are also antici pated in grocery stores, department stores, and miscellaneous shopping goods stores. Government. Between 1988 and 2000, government employment, excluding public education and public hospitals, is expected to increase 7 percent, from 9 million to 9.6 million jobs. Most of the growth will be in State and local government; the Federal Government is expected to add only 88,000 jobs. Finance, insurance, and real estate. Employment is expected to increase 16 percent—adding 1.1 million jobs to the 1988 level of 6.7 million. The fastest growing industry within this division is expected to be security and commodity brokers and exchanges, although it will not be growing as fast as in the past. Wholesale trade. Employment in wholesale trade is expected to rise from 6 million to 6.9 million between 1988 and 2000, an increase of 15 percent. Transportation, communications, and public utilities. Overall em ployment in this division is expected to rise 10 percent from the 1988 level of 5.5 million. The three fastest growing industries in this division Chart 5. Some industries will grow more rapidly than others. Percent change in employment, 1988-2000 Service-producing >97 rlV.-Os . O'. O' <Z>Cj (5"m ^ £ O Or f/ff* &J * Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics Goods-producing Tomorrow's Jobs are arrangement of transportation, freight forwarding, and air carriers, each growing at least three times as fast as the division as a whole. Only modest employment growth is expected in the communications industry. Although output will show an increase, new laborsaving technology will result in very little job growth. Goods-Producing Industries. Employment in this sector peaked in the late 1970’s and has not recovered from the recessionary period of the early 1980’s and the trade imbalances that began in the mid1980’s. Although overall employment in goods-producing industries is expected to show little change, growth prospects within the sector vary considerably. Construction . Construction is expected to add 760,000 jobs between 1988 and 2000. Construction employment is expected to increase by f5"percent, from 5.1 to 5.9 million jobs, in response to economic conditions and demographic trends. Manufacturing. Manufacturing employment is expected to decline 2 percent from the 1988 level of 19.4 million. The projected loss of manufacturing jobs reflects productivity gains achieved from increased investment in manufacturing technologies as well as a winnowing out of less efficient operations. The composition of manufacturing employment is expected to shift since most of the jobs that will disappear are production jobs. The number of professional, technical, and managerial positions in manu facturing firms will actually increase. Mining. Mining employment is expected to remain at about the present level of 700,000. Underlying this projection is the assumption that domestic oil production will drop and oil imports will rise sharply. Agriculture. Employment in agriculture has been declining for many decades and this trend is expected to continue—the number of jobs is projected to decline 4 percent, from 3.3 million to 3.1 million. The decline in agricultural jobs reflects a decrease of 225,000 in the number of self-employed workers. Wage and salary positions are projected to increase by 91,000—with especially strong growth in the agricultural services industry. Occupational Profile Continued expansion of the service-producing sector conjures up an image of a work force dominated by cashiers, retail sales workers, and waiters. However, although service sector growth will generate millions of clerical, sales, and service jobs, it will also create jobs for financial managers, engineers, nurses, electrical and electronics technicians, and many other managerial, professional, and technical workers. In fact, the fastest growing occupations will be those that require the most educational preparation. This section furnishes an overview of projected employment in 12 categories or “clusters” of occupations based on the Standard Occupa tional Classification (SOC). The SOC is used by all Federal agencies that collect occupational employment data, and is the organizational framework for grouping statements in the Handbook. In the discussion that follows, projected employment change is described as faster, slower, or the same as the average for all occupa tions. (These phrases are explained on page 2.) While occupations that are growing fast generally offer good opportunities, the numerical change in employment also is important because large occupations, such as retail sales worker, may offer many more new jobs than a small, fast-growing occupation, such as paralegal (chart 6). Technicians and related support occupations. Workers in this group provide technical assistance to engineers, scientists, and other profes sional workers as well as operate and program technical equipment. Employment in this cluster is expected to increase 32 percent, from 3.9 to 5.1 million, making it the fastest growing in the economy (chart 7). It also contains the fastest growing occupation—paralegals. Employment of paralegals is expected to skyrocket due to increased utilization of these workers in the rapidly expanding legal services industry. Professional specialty occupations. Employment in this cluster is expected to grow 24 percent, from 14.6 to 18.1 million jobs. Much of this growth is a result of rising demand for engineers; computer specialists; lawyers; health diagnosing and treating occupations; and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Chart 6 11 Even though an occupation is expected to grow rapidly, it may provide fewer openings than a slower growing larger occupation. percent 19 percent. Percent change in employment, 730 000 workers1 1988-2000 Absolute change in employment, ----------- ; 62,000 workers 1988-2000 Paralegals Retail sales workers Source Bureau of Labor Statistics preschool and elementary and secondary school teachers. Service occupations. This group includes a wide range of workers in protective services, food and beverage preparation, and cleaning and personal services. These occupations are expected to grow 23 percent, from 18.5 to 22.7 million, because a growing population and economy, combined with higher incomes and increased leisure time, will spur demand for all types of services. Executive, administrative, and managerial occupations. Employ ment in this cluster is expected to increase 22 percent, from 12.1 to 14.8 million. Growth will be spurred by the increasing complexity of business operations and by large employment gains in trade and services—industries that employ a higher than average proportion of managers. Employment in management-related occupations tends to be tied to industry growth. Thus jobs for employment interviewers are projected to grow much faster than the average, in line with the expected growth in the personnel supply industry. Hiring requirements in many managerial and administrative jobs are rising. Work experience, specialized training, or graduate study will be increasingly necessary. Familiarity with computers is a “must” in a growing number of firms, due to the widespread use of computerized management information systems. Marketing and sales occupations. Employment in this large cluster is projected to increase 20 percent, from 13.3 to 15.9 million jobs. Demand for real estate brokers, travel agents, and securities and financial services sales workers is expected to grow much faster than the average due to strong growth in the industries that employ them. Many part- and full-time job openings are expected for retail sales workers and cashiers due to the large size, high turnover, and faster than average employment growth in these occupations. The outlook for higher paying sales jobs, however, will tend to be more competitive. Construction trades and extractive occupations. Overall employ ment in this group of occupations is expected to rise from 4.0 to 4.7 million, or 16 percent. Virtually all of the new jobs will be in construction. Employment growth in construction will be spurred by new projects and alterations to existing structures. On the other hand, continued stagnation in the oil and gas industries and low growth in 12 Occupational Outlook Handbook Chart 7. Employment change will vary widely by broad occupational group. Occupational group Percent change in employment, 1988 2000 Total, all occupations Technicians and related support occupations Professional specialty occupations Service occupations Executive, administrative, and managerial occupations Marketing and sales occupations Construction trades and extractive occupations Mechanics, repairers, and installers Administrative support occupations, including clerical Transportation and material moving occupations Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers Production occupations Agriculture, forestry, fishing, and related occupations Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics demand for coal, metal, and other materials will result in little change in the employment of extractive workers. Mechanics, installers, and repairers. These workers adjust, main tain, and repair automobiles, industrial equipment, computers, and many other types of equipment. Overall employment in these occupa tions is expected to grow 13 percent—from 4.8 to 5.5 million—due to increased use of mechanical and electronic equipment. One of the fastest growing occupations in this group is expected to be automotive body repairers, reflecting the growth in the number of lightweight cars that are prone to collision damage. Telephone installers and repairers, in sharp contrast, are expected to record a decline in employment due to laborsaving advances. Administrative support occupations, including clerical is the largest major occupational group. Workers in these occupations perform the wide variety of tasks necessary to keep organizations functioning smoothly. The group as a whole is expected to grow 12 percent, from 21.1 to 23.6 million jobs. However, technological advances are projected to decrease the demand for stenographers and typists, word processors, and data entry keyers. Others, such as receptionists and information clerks, will grow much faster than the average, spurred by rapidly expanding industries such as business services. Moreover, because of their large size and substantial turnover, clerical occupa tions will offer abundant opportunities for qualified jobseekers in the years ahead. Transportation and material moving occupations. Workers in this cluster operate the equipment used to move people and equipment. Employment in this group is expected to increase 12 percent, from 4.6 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis to 5.2 million jobs. Employment of busdrivers and truckdrivers will grow as fast as the average, while employment of material moving equipment operators is expected to grow more slowly due to greater use of automated materials handling equipment in factories and ware houses. Railroad transportation workers and water transportation workers are projected to show a decline in employment. Production occupations. Workers in these occupations set up, in stall, adjust, operate, and tend machinery and equipment and use handtools and hand-held power tools to fabricate and assemble prod ucts. Employment is expected to decline 2 percent, from 12.8 to 12.5 million. More efficient production techniques—such as computeraided manufacturing and industrial robotics—will eliminate some pro duction worker jobs. Many production occupations are sensitive to fluctuations in the business cycle and competition from imports. Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers. Workers in this group assist skilled workers and perform routine, unskilled tasks. Employment is expected to increase only about 2 percent, from 4.9 to 5.0 million jobs as routine tasks are automated. Agriculture, forestry, and fishing occupations. Workers in these occupations cultivate plants, breed and raise animals, and catch fish. Although demand for food, fiber, and wood is expected to increase as the world’s population grows, the use of more productive farming and forestry methods and the consolidation of smaller farms are expected to result in a 5 percent decline in employment, from 3.5 to 3.3 million jobs. Replacement Needs Most jobs through the year 2000 will become available as a result of replacement needs. Thus, even occupations with little or no employ ment growth or slower than average employment growth may still offer many job openings. Replacement openings occur as people leave occupations. Some transfer to other occupations as a step up the career ladder or to change careers. Others stop working in order to return to school, to assume household responsibilities, or to retire. The number of replacement openings and the proportion of job openings made up by replacement needs varies by occupation. Occupa tions with the most replacement openings generally arc large, with low pay and status, low training requirements, and a high proportion of young and part-time workers. Some examples include cashiers, waiters and waitresses, and childcare workers. The occupations with relatively few replacement openings, on the other hand, are those with high pay and status, lengthy training require ments, and a high proportion of prime working age, full-time workers. Among these occupations are education administrators, lawyers, and tool and die makers. Workers in these occupations generally have spent several years acquiring training that often is not applicable to other occupations. Interested in More Detail? Readers interested in more information about projections and detail on the labor force, economic growth, industry and occupational em ployment, or methods and assumptions should consult the November 1989 Monthly Labor Review or Outlook 2000, BLS Bulletin 2352. Information on the limitations inherent in economic projections also can be found in either of these two publications. Additional occupa tional data as well as statistics on educational and training completions can be found in the 1990 edition of Occupational Projections and Training Data, BLS Bulletin 2351. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations Accountants and Auditors (D.O.T. 160 through .167-042, and .267-014) Nature of the Work Managers must have up-to-date financial information to make impor tant decisions. Accountants and auditors prepare, analyze, and verify financial reports that furnish this kind of information to managers in all business, industrial, and government organizations. Four major fields of accounting are public, management, and govern ment accounting and internal auditing. Public accountants have their own businesses or work for accounting firms. Management accountants, also called industrial or private accountants, handle the financial records of their companies. Government accountants and auditors maintain and examine the records of government agencies and audit private busi nesses and individuals whose dealings are subject to government regula tions. Internal auditors verify the accuracy of their organization's finan cial records and check for mismanagement, waste, or fraud. Within each field, accountants often concentrate on one phase of accounting. For example, many public accountants are employed pri marily in auditing (examining a client’s financial records and reports and attesting that they are in conformity with standards of preparation and reporting). Others concentrate on tax matters, such as preparing income tax returns and advising clients of the tax advantages and disadvantages of certain business decisions. Still others concentrate on consulting and offer advice on matters such as the design of companies’ accounting and data processing systems and controls to safeguard assets. They might develop or revise an accounting system to serve the needs of clients more effectively or give advice about how to manage cash resources more profitably. Management accountants, the largest group of accountants and audi tors, provide the financial information executives need to make sound business decisions. They also may prepare financial reports to meet the public disclosure requirements of various stock exchanges, the Securi ties and Exchange Commission, and other regulatory bodies. They may work in areas such as taxation, budgeting, costs, or investments. Internal auditing is rapidly growing in importance as top manage ment must increasingly base its decisions on reports and records rather than personal observation. Internal auditors examine and evaluate their firms’ financial and information systems, management procedures, and internal controls to ensure that records are accurate and controls are adequate to protect against fraud and waste. They also review company operations—evaluating their efficiency, effectiveness, and compliance with corporate policies and procedures, laws, and govern ment regulations. Accountants and auditors also work for Federal, State, and local governments. Government accountants see that revenues are received and expenditures are made in accordance with laws and regulations. Many persons with accounting backgrounds work for the Federal Government as Internal Revenue Service agents or in financial manage ment, financial institution examination, and budget administration. In addition, a small number of persons trained as accountants staff the faculties of business and professional schools as accounting teach ers, researchers, or administrators. Some work part time as accountants or consultants. Computers are increasingly being used in accounting and auditing. With the aid of special computer software systems, accountants sum marize transactions in standard formats for financial records, put the data in special formats that aid in financial or management analysis, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Accountants and auditors are increasingly using computers to reduce hand posting of ledgers and records. and prepare income tax returns. Controls are placed in systems to enable auditors to ensure the reliability of the systems, the integrity of data, and continuity of operations. Software systems used in account ing and auditing generally are easily learned and require few special ized computer skills, but greatly reduce the amount of tedious manual work with figures and records. Newer, less expensive personal comput ers are enabling accountants and auditors in all fields—even those who work independently—to use these special software systems and extract information from large mainframe computers. A growing number of accountants and auditors have extensive computer skills and specialize in correcting problems with software systems or developing special software programs to meet unique data needs. Working Conditions Accountants and auditors work in offices, but public accountants may frequently visit the offices of clients while conducting audits. Selfemployed accountants may be able to do much of their work at home. The majority of accountants and auditors work no more than 40 hours per week, but many work 50 hours per week or more, particular ly if they are self-employed and free to take on the work of as many clients as they choose. Tax specialists often work long hours under heavy pressure during the tax season. Accountants and auditors em ployed by large firms and government agencies may travel frequently to perform audits at clients’ places of business, branches of their firm, or government facilities. Employment Accountants and auditors held about 963,000jobs in 1988. The various States licensed over 300,000 as Certified Public Accountants (CPA) and more than 20,000 as Public Accountants or Registered Public Accountants; the majority were unlicensed management and govern ment accountants and auditors. Many accountants and auditors had voluntarily earned professional designations that certify their profes sional competence in fields of accounting and auditing that are not State regulated; About 15,000 were Certified Internal Auditors, over 8,000 were Certified Management Accountants, about 5,000 were Certified Information Systems Auditors, and about 4,000 held certifi cates of accreditation in accounting or taxation awarded by the Accredi tation Council for Accountancy. Most accountants and auditors work in urban areas where public 13 14 Occupational Outlook Handbook accounting firms and central or regional offices of businesses are concentrated. About 10 percent of all accountants were self-employed and fewer than 10 percent worked part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most public accounting and business firms require applicants for ac countant and internal auditor positions to have at least a bachelor’s degree in accounting or a closely related field. Many employers prefer those with a master’s degree in accounting or a master’s degree in business administration with a concentration in accounting. A growing number of employers prefer applicants who are familiar with comput ers and their applications in accounting and internal auditing. For beginning accounting and auditing positions, the Federal Gov ernment requires 4 years of college (including 24 semester hours in accounting or auditing) or an equivalent combination of education and experience. Previous experience in accounting or auditing can help an applicant get a job. Many colleges offer students an opportunity to gain experi ence through summer or part-time internship programs conducted by public accounting or business firms. Such training is invaluable in gaining permanent employment in the field. ■ Professional recognition through certification or licensure also is extremely valuable. In the majority of States, CPA’s are the only accountants who are licensed and regulated. Anyone working as a CPA must have a certificate and a license, or permit, issued by a State board of accountancy. The vast majority of States require CPA candidates to be college graduates, but a few States substitute a certain number of years of public accounting experience for the educational requirement. Based on recommendations made by the American Insti tute of Certified Public Accountants and the National Association of State Boards of Accountancy, eight States presently require, or plan to introduce in the 1990's as a requirement, that CPA candidates complete 150 semester hours of college education with a major in accounting. This 150-hour rule requires an additional year of college education beyond the usual 4-year bachelor’s degree in accounting— for example, a 5-year bachelor’s degree or a master’s degree in ac counting. This requirement may become more common in the coming years. All States use the four-part Uniform CPA Examination, prepared by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, to help establish eligibility for certification. The 2 1/2-day CPA examination is rigorous, and candidates are not required to pass all four parts at once. However, most States require candidates to pass at least two parts for partial credit. Many States require all sections of the test to be passed within a certain period of time. Most States also require applicants for a CPA certificate to have some public accounting experi ence. For example, bachelor’s degree holders most often need 2 years of experience, while master’s degree holders often need no more than 1 year. The designation Public Accountant (PA), or Registered Public Ac countant (RPA), is also recognized by 38 States. With the dramatic growth in the number of CPA’s, the majority of States are phasing out the PA or RPA designations by not issuing any more new PA or RPA licenses, and others no longer offer them. Accountants who hold PA or RPA designations have similar legal rights, duties, and obligations as CPA’s, but their qualifications for licensure are less stringent. The designation Accounting Practitioner is awarded by four States. It requires less formal training than a CPA license and covers a more limited scope of practice. Professional societies grant other forms of certification on a volun tary basis. Voluntary certification can attest to professional competence in a specialized field of accounting and auditing. It also can certify that a recognized level of professional competence has been achieved by accountants and auditors who acquired their skills at least partially on the job, without the amount of formal education or public account ing work experience needed to meet the rigorous standards required to take the CPA examination. The Institute of Internal Auditors, Inc., confers the designation Certified Internal Auditor upon graduates from accredited colleges https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and universities who have completed 2 years’ experience in internal auditing and who have passed a four-part examination. The EDP Auditors Association confers the designation Certified Information Systems Auditor upon candidates who pass an examination and who have completed 5 years’ experience in auditing electronic data process ing systems. However, auditing or data processing experience and college education may be substituted for up to 3 years. The National Association of Accountants confers the Certificate in Management Accounting upon candidates who pass a series of uniform examinations and meet specific educational and professional standards. The Accreditation Council for Accountancy of the National Society of Public Accountants awards a Certificate of Accreditation in Accoun tancy and a Certificate of Accreditation in Taxation to persons who have passed comprehensive examinations; there are no educational requirements to take these tests. Persons planning a career in accounting should have an aptitude for mathematics, be able to analyze, compare, and interpret facts and figures quickly, and make sound judgments based on this knowledge. They must question how and why things are done and be able to clearly communicate the results of their work, orally and in writing, to clients and management. Accountants and auditors must be patient and able to concentrate for long periods of time. They must be good at working with business systems and computers as well as with people. Accuracy and the ability to handle responsibility with limited supervision are important. Perhaps most important, because millions of financial statement users rely on their services, accountants and auditors should have high standards of integrity. Nearly all States require both CPA’s and PA’s to complete a certain number of hours of continuing professional education before licenses can be renewed. The professional associations representing accoun tants sponsor numerous courses, seminars, group study programs, and other forms of continuing education. Capable accountants and auditors should advance rapidly; those having inadequate academic preparation may be assigned routine jobs and find promotion difficult. Many graduates of junior colleges and business and correspondence schools, as well as outstanding book keepers and accounting clerks who meet the education and experience requirements set by their employers, are successful in landing junior accounting positions and advance to more responsible positions by demonstrating their accounting skills on the job. Beginning public accountants usually start by assisting with auditing work for several clients. They may advance to intermediate positions with more responsibility in 1 or 2 years and to senior positions within another few years. Those who deal successfully with top industry executives often become supervisors, managers, or partners, or trans fer to executive positions in private firms. Some open their own public accounting offices. Beginning management accountants often start as ledger accoun tants, junior internal auditors, or as trainees for technical accounting positions. They may advance to chief plant accountant, chief cost accountant, budget director, or manager of internal auditing. Some become controllers, treasurers, financial vice presidents, or corpora tion presidents. Many senior corporation executives have backgrounds in accounting, internal auditing, and finance. Job Outlook Employment of accountants and auditors is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to the key role these workers play in the management of all types of businesses. Although increased demand will generate many new jobs, most openings will result from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation or retire. While accountants and auditors tend to leave the profession at a lower rate than members of most other occupations, replacement needs will be substantial because the occupation is large. As the economy grows, the number of business establishments increases, requiring more accountants and auditors to set up their books, prepare their taxes, and provide management advice. As these Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations businesses grow, the volume and complexity of information developed by accountants and auditors on costs, expenditures, and taxes will increase as well. Plant expansion, mergers, or foreign investments may depend upon information on the financial condition of the firm, tax implications of the proposed action, and other financial considerations. Also, growing international competition is forcing many businesses to develop more cost information to help make their operations more efficient. Requirements for accountants and auditors may also be affected by changes in legislation related to taxes, financial reporting standards, business investment, mergers, and other financial matters. In addition, increases in investment and lending associated with gen eral economic growth also should spur demand for accountants and auditors. Growth in demand for management advisory services and personal financial planning assistance may also contribute to growth in requirements for public accountants. Opportunities are expected to be favorable for college graduates seeking accounting and auditing jobs. While the demand for accoun tants and auditors is expected to continue to increase, the annual number of graduates with degrees in accounting has been virtually unchanged since the early 1980’s. CPA’s should have a wider range of job opportunities than other accountants. However, competition for jobs with prestigious accounting firms will remain keen; a master’s degree in accounting would be an asset. Opportunities for accountants without a college degree will occur mainly in small businesses and accounting and tax preparation firms. The increasing use of computers in accounting should stimulate the demand for accountants and auditors familiar with their operation. Many employers prefer graduates who have worked part time in a business or accounting firm while in school. In fact, experience has become so important that some employers in business and industry seek persons with 1 or 2 years’ experience for beginning positions. Accountants rarely lose their jobs when other workers are laid off during hard economic times. Financial information must be developed and tax reports prepared regardless of the state of the economy. Earnings According to a 1989 College Placement Council Salary Survey, bache lor’s degree candidates in accounting received starting salary offers averaging $25,300 a year; inexperienced master’s degree candidates, $28,800. Beginning public accountants employed by public accounting firms averaged $22,100 a year in 1988, according to a national survey. The middled(J percent had starting salaries ranging from $20,900 to $23,700. Salaries of junior public accountants who were not owners or partners of their firms averaged $26,600, but some had salaries of more than $38,000. Many owners and partners of firms earned considerably more. The starting salary of management accountants in private industry averaged $22,200 a year in 1988, according to the same survey. The middle 50 percent had starting annual salaries ranging from $20,000 to $24,300. Salaries of nonsupervisory management accountants aver aged $33,500 in 1988, and some of the most experienced had salaries of over $75,000. Chief management accountants who direct the ac counting program of a company or one of its establishments averaged $53,300 a year. Their salaries ranged from over $38,000 to more than $97,000, depending upon the scope of their authority and the size of their professional staff. According to the same survey, beginning trainee internal auditors averaged $23,500 a year in 1988. The middle 50 percent had annual starting salaries ranging from $21,000 to $25,000. Internal auditors averaged $32,900, but some of the most experienced had salaries of more than $47,000. In the Federal Government, the starting annual salary for junior accountants and auditors was about $15,700 in 1989. Candidates who had a superior academic record could begin at about $19,500. Applicants with a master’s degree or 2 years’ professional experience began at $23,900. Accountants and auditors employed by the Federal Government averaged about $36,400 a year in 1988. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 15 Related Occupations Accountants and auditors design internal control systems and analyze financial data. Others for whom training in accounting is invaluable include appraisers, budget officers, loan officers, financial analysts, bank officers, actuaries, underwriters, tax collectors and revenue agents, FBI special agents, securities sales workers, and purchasing agents. Sources of Additional Information Information about careers in certified public accounting and about CPA standards and examinations may be obtained from: (•-American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, 1211 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10036-8775. Information on specialized fields of accounting and auditing is available from: (•-National Association of Accountants, 10 Paragon Dr., Montvale, NJ 07645. (•-National Society of Public Accountants and the Accreditation Council for Accountancy, 1010 North Fairfax St., Alexandria, VA 22314. (•-The Institute of Internal Auditors, 249 Maitland Ave., Altamonte Springs, FL 32701-4201. (•-The EDP Auditors Association, P.O. Box 88180, Carol Stream, IL 60188 0180. For information on accredited accounting programs and educational institutions offering a specialization in accounting or business manage ment, contact: (•-American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business, 605 Old Balias Rd., Suite 220, St. Louis, MO 63141. Administrative Services Managers (D.O.T. 162.117-014; 163.167-026; 169.167-034; 187.117-062; 188.117-122, .167-106; 189.167-022, -030) Nature of the Work Administrative services managers—who work throughout private in dustry and government—coordinate and direct supportive services such as secretarial and correspondence; conference planning and travel; information processing; personnel and financial records processing; communication; mail; materials scheduling and distribution; printing and reproduction; personal property procurement, supply, and dis posal; data processing; library; food; and transportation. They work within the same managerial hierarchy as other managers. Supervisory level administrative services managers report to their mid-level coun terparts who, in turn, report to proprietors or top-level managers— who are included in the Handbook statement on general managers and top executives. Supervisory level managers directly oversee supervisors or staffs involved in supportive services. Mid-level administrative services managers develop overall plans, set goals and deadlines, develop procedures to direct and improve supportive services, define supervi sory level managers’ responsibilities, and delegate authority. They are generally found in larger firms. Administrative services managers often are involved in the hiring and dismissal of employees but gener ally have no role in the formulation of policy. In small firms, one administrative services manager may oversee all supportive services. As the size of the firm increases, however, administrative services managers increasingly specialize in one or more of these activities. In some firms, supportive services may be directed by other managers and supervisors, some of whom are dis cussed in other Handbook statements. For example, administrative services managers may work as office managers, overseeing supervi sors of large clerical staffs. In small firms, clerical supervisors—who are discussed in the Handbook statement on clerical supervisors and managers—perform this function. Administrative services managers also work as contract administrators, directing contract development related to the purchase or sale of equipment, materials, supplies, products, or services. However, procurement functions are generally 16 Occupational Outlook Handbook directed by purchasing agents and managers, discussed in a separate Handbook statement. Property management is divided into the man agement and use of personal property such as materials and supplies, an administrative services management function, and real property management, a function of property and real estate managers—who are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. In small firms, the alloca tion, use, and security of building space also is an administrative services management function, but is often the responsibility of facili ties managers in larger companies. Other administrative services managers are engaged in surplus prop erty disposal, an increasingly important source of revenue, while others oversee unclaimed property disposal. In State government, these activities include locating owners of unclaimed liquid assets— such as stocks, bonds, savings accounts, and the contents of safe deposit boxes—and in local government, locating owners or auction ing off unclaimed personal property—such as motor vehicles. Working Conditions Administrative services managers generally work in comfortable of fices. However, in small firms, these managers may work alongside the supervisors and staffs they oversee, and the office area may be crowded and noisy. Since their duties involve a wide range of activi ties, they must maintain regular contact with personnel in other depart ments. Their work can be stressful, as they attempt to schedule work to meet deadlines. Although the 40-hour week is standard, uncompen sated overtime is often required to resolve problems. Managers in volved in personal property procurement, utilization, and disposal may travel extensively between home offices, branch offices, vendors’ offices, and property sales sites. Employment Administrative services managers held about 217,000 jobs in 1988 and were found in virtually every industry. Industries employing the largest numbers include local government, miscellaneous business services—primarily management consulting firms—educational insti tutions, banks, social services establishments, and hospitals. A few run their own management consulting or management services firms. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most administrative services managers advance through the ranks in an organization, acquiring several years’ work experience in various administrative services before assuming supervisory duties. For exam ple, managers who oversee clerical supervisors should be familiar with office procedures and equipment and have a working knowledge of word processing, communications, data processing, and recordkeep ing. Managers of personal property acquisition and disposal need experience in purchasing and sales and knowledge of a wide variety of supplies, machinery, and equipment. Managers concerned with supply, inventory, and distribution must be experienced in receiving, warehousing, packaging, shipping, transportation, and related opera tions. Contract administrators may have worked as contract specialists, cost analysts, or procurement specialists. Managers of unclaimed prop erty often have experience in claims analysis and records management. For supervisory level administrative services managers of secre tarial, mail room, and related administrative support activities, many employers prefer an associate of arts degree in business or manage ment, although a high school diploma may suffice. For managers of audiovisual, graphics, and other more technical activities, post secondary technical school training is preferred. For managers of highly complex services such as contract administration, a bachelor’s degree, preferably in business administration, is usually required. The curriculum should include courses in office technology, accounting, business mathematics, computer applications, and business law. What ever the administrative services duties, a manager’s educational back ground must be accompanied by work experience reflecting demon strated ability. Persons interested in becoming administrative services managers should be able to communicate and establish effective working rela tionships with many different people—managers, supervisors, profes https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis sionals, clerks, and blue-collar workers. They should be analytical, detail-oriented, flexible, and decisive. The ability to coordinate several activities and to quickly analyze and resolve specific problems is important. Ability to work under stress and cope with deadlines is also important. Advancement is easier in large firms that employ several levels of administrative services managers. A bachelor’s degree enhances a supervisory level manager’s opportunities to advance to a mid-level management position—such as director of administrative services— and eventually to a top-level management position—such as executive vice president for administrative services—in one’s own or a larger firm. Those with the required capital and experience can establish their own management consulting or management services firm. Job Outlook Employment of administrative services managers is expected to in crease faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000, as the number of large firms—where these managers are gener ally found—increases. The need to reduce administrative costs by improving the efficiency of operations should spur demand for these managers. In addition, the increasing emphasis on the sale of surplus property to raise revenue should add to the rapid employment growth of administrative services managers. As in the case of other managerial jobs, the ample supply of compe tent, experienced workers seeking advancement should result in com petition for administrative services management positions. Earnings In 1988, most administrative services managers earned between $20,000 and $70,000, according to the limited data available. Earnings vary substantially depending upon the managerial level, size of firm, and industry. In government, salaries at the Federal and State levels were generally higher than those at the local level. Similar to other managers, administrative services managers typi cally receive a range of fringe benefits such as vacation and sick leave, health and life insurance, and pension plans, among others. Related Occupations Administrative services managers direct and coordinate supportive services and oversee the purchase, use, and disposal of personal prop erty. Occupations with similar functions include administrative assis tants, appraisers, buyers, clerical supervisors, contract specialists, cost estimators, procurement services managers, project directors, property and real estate managers, purchasing managers, and sales managers. Sources of Additional Information Information about careers in administrative and office services man agement is available from: (•-Administrative Management Society, 4622 Street Rd., Trevose, PA 19047. i- A *:-'4 t-i? 'S -■*: The need to reduce costs should spur demand for administrative services managers. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations For information about careers in personal property utilization man agement, contact: w-National Property Management Association, Suite 105, 16418 West Sixth Ave., Boulder, CO 80401. Information about careers in contract administration is available from: w-National Contract Management Associaton, 1912 Woodford Rd., Vienna, VA 22180. For information about careers in facilities management, contact: ^International Facilities Management Association, Summit Tower, Suite 1410, Greenway Plaza, Houston, TX 77046. Budget Analysts D.O.T. Codes (161.117-010 and 161.267-030) Nature of the Work All organizations are limited by the scarcity of resources. As a result, organizations develop budgets to plan, organize, and allocate their limited resources efficiently among alternative uses. Budgets serve as a financial plan for controlling future operations and as a means of analyzing the organization’s allocation of labor, capital, and other resources. Budget analysis is an integral part of the decisionmaking process in most corporations and government agencies. Budget ana lysts play a primary role in the research, analysis, and development of budgets. In smaller firms, budget analysis is sometimes undertaken by ac countants or by controllers. Larger firms often establish a separate budget department which is overseen by the controller. The work performed by analysts in both private industry and the public sector is essentially the same with a few minor variations. In private industry, a budget analyst’s job centers around examining, analyzing, and seeking new ways to improve efficiency and increase profits. While analysts working in government generally are not con cerned with profits, they too are interested in finding the most efficient distribution of funds and resources among various departments and programs. Budget analysts perform a variety of tasks. Their major responsi bility is to provide advice and technical assistance in the preparation of annual budgets. Analysts begin by examining past and current budgets, researching economic developments, and reviewing com pany objectives. This process allows analysts to assess an organiza tion’s position, address policy issues, and establish company goals for the coming year. For instance, a private organization might be concerned with the extent to which expansion will be financed by revenues or debt. Managers and department heads submit proposed operating and financial plans according to established company objectives for the coming year to budget analysts for review. These plans outline ex pected programs, estimated costs and expenses, and capital expendi tures needed to finance these programs. For example, sales managers prepare sales projections and operating plans for various sales activities and advertising campaigns their department expects to pursue in the coming year, along with the financial requirements needed to undertake these projects. Analysts examine the budget estimates for completeness, accuracy, and conformance with procedures and regulations. They must review financial requests by employing cost-benefit analysis, determining program trade-offs, and exploring alternative funding methods. Ana lysts also evaluate financial requests in terms of the agency’s priorities and financial resources. After this review process, budget analysts consolidate the individual department budgets into operating and financial budget summaries. The analyst submits preliminary budgets to the president or top-level managers with comments and recommendations justifying or denying funding requests. By reviewing different departments’ operating plans, analysts gain insight into an organization’s overall operations. This https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 17 generally proves very useful when analysts must interpret and offer technical assistance to officials approving the budget. At this point in the budget process, budget analysts help the president or other top managers analyze the proposed plan and devise possible alterna tives if the projected results are unsatisfactory. The final decisions on the budget, however, are made by either the president or other high-ranking officials in their firm or government agency. Analysts assist in developing procedural guidelines and policies governing the development, formulation, and maintenance of the bud get. If necessary, they conduct training sessions for company personnel on new budget procedures. Throughout the year, analysts periodically monitor the operating budget by reviewing reports and accounting records to determine if allocated funds have been expended as specified. If any deviations appeal' between actual performance and the proposed budget, budget analysts draft a report explaining the causes of the variations along with recommendations for new or revised budget procedures. Analysts recommend periodic adjustments to offset changes in programs, staffing levels, or available funds. They keep program managers and others within their organization informed on the status and availability of funds in different budget accounts and methods to control their distribution. Working Conditions Budget analysts generally work in a normal office setting and adhere to a structured work schedule. However, during the initial development and final review of budgets, they often experience the pressure of deadlines and tight work schedules. The work during these periods is extremely stressful, and analysts are usually required to work more than the routine 40 hours a week. Budget analysts spend the majority of their time working indepen dently on compiling and analyzing data and preparing budget propos als. However, their routine schedule is often interrupted by special budget requests, meetings, and training sessions. They attend meetings to justify budget requests and to keep officials informed on the status and availability of funds in different budget accounts. Some travel to regional offices may be required. Employment Budget analysts held about 62,000 jobs throughout private industry and government in 1988. Federal, State, and local governments ac- SMS L—^ Budget analysts provide technical assistance in the preparation of annual budgets. 18 Occupational Outlook Handbook counted for approximately 32 percent of all budget analyst jobs. The Department of Defense employed over half of the budget analysts working for the Federal Government. The educational services indus try was the next largest employer of budget analysts, accounting for 8 percent of all jobs. Other major employers include hospitals and manufacturers of transportation equipment and electrical and electronic machinery. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most private firms and government agencies require candidates for budget analyst positions to have at least a bachelor’s degree in business administration, accounting, finance, economics, or some closely related field. A growing number of employers prefer that candidates possess a master’s degree, while some large corporations use only certified public accountants to conduct budget analysis. However, experience can often be substituted for an advanced degree when applying for a budget analyst position. Some companies prefer to promote from within; therefore, competent accounting or payroll clerks and other clerical staff who have worked closely with the budget process can often advance to entry level budget analyst positions even if they do not meet the educational requirements. Since developing a budget requires strong analytical skills, courses in mathematics, statistics, and computer science are highly recom mended. In recent years, computers have had the greatest impact on budget analysis, allowing analysts to process and manipulate complex variations of budget data very rapidly. Current studies indicate that most financial analysis performed by organizations is automated. Ac cordingly, a background in computers is particularly important, espe cially a working knowledge of the financial software packages used by most organizations in budget analysis. Those seeking a career as a budget analyst must possess strong interpersonal skills because of the frequent interaction with others in their organization. Analysts must be able to analyze, compare, and interpret data, and be able to make sound judgments and recommenda tions under strict time constraints. They also must have strong oral and written communication skills to prepare and present budget proposals effectively. Entry level budget analysts may receive some formal training when they begin their jobs. However, most employers feel that the best training is obtained by working through one complete budget cycle. During the cycle, analysts become familiar with all the steps involved in the budgeting process. The Federal Government, on the other hand, offers extensive onthe-job and classroom training for entry level analysts. Some of the classes offered include budget execution, budget formulation, Federal budget process, and planning, programming, and budget systems. Analysts are encouraged to participate in the various classes offered throughout their careers. Beginning analysts usually learn their jobs working under a supervisor. Capable entry level analysts can be promoted quickly into intermediate level positions within 1 to 2 years, and then into senior positions within a few more years. Progressing to a higher level means added budgeting responsibility and an increased supervi sory role. In the Federal Government, for example, beginning budget ana lysts compare projected costs with prior expenditures; consolidate and enter data prepared by others; and assist higher grade analysts by doing research on regulations concerning appropriate budget practices. As analysts progress, their responsibilities increase. They develop and formulate budget estimates and justification statements; perform in-depth analyses of budget requests; write statements supporting funding requests; and advise program managers and others on the status and availability of funds in different budget activities. In many instances, analysts are able to capitalize on their close working relationships with top-level managers to advance into manage ment positions within their company. In addition, because financial and analytical skills are vital in any organization, analysts often are able to transfer to a related field in other organizations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of budget analysts is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most job openings, however, should result from the need to replace experienced budget analysts who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Expanding use of automation may make analysts more productive, allowing them to process more data in less time. However, because of the growing complexity of business and the increasing specialization of functions within organizations, more attention is being given to better planning and financial control. Many companies will continue to rely heavily on budget analysts to examine, analyze, and develop budgets to help integrate the fragmented parts of their organization and to allocate labor, capital, and other resources in the most efficient manner. Managers will continue to use budgets as a vehicle to plan, coordinate, control, and evaluate activities within their organizations more effectively. While the demand for budget analysts is increasing, competition for budget analyst jobs should remain keen because of the increasing number of qualified applicants. Job opportunities are usually best for candidates with a college degree, particularly a master’s. In some cases, experience is often more beneficial than a degree and can be used to offset lack of education. People with backgrounds in finance and accounting generally are in a better position than those without these qualifications. A working knowledge of computer financial soft ware packages can also enhance one’s employment opportunities in this field. The financial work performed by budget analysts is an important function in every organization. Financial and budget reports must be completed even during periods of economic slowdowns. Therefore, employment of budget analysts generally is not adversely affected during hard economic times when other workers may be laid off. Earnings Salaries of budget analysts vary widely by experience, education, and employer. According to a 1988 survey of financial and data processing fields conducted by Robert Half International Incorpo rated, average annual starting salaries of budget analysts ranged from $20,500 to $23,000 for those working in medium-size firms, and from $21,000 to $25,000 for those employed by larger organiza tions. Analysts with 1 to 3 years of experience earned from $23,000 to $29,500 a year working in medium-size firms and from $25,000 to $33,000 in larger companies. Senior analysts earned from $28,000 to $35,000 in smaller firms and from $29,000 to $38,500 in larger firms. Earnings of managers in this field ranged from $35,500 to $41,500 in medium-size firms to $38,500 to $55,000 in large organizations. In the Federal Government, budget analysts generally started a $15,800 a year in 1989. Candidates with a master’s degree or 1 year of financial experience began at $19,500. The average salary of all budget analysts employed by the Federal Government was approxi mately $33,000 in 1988. Related Occupations Budget analysts analyze, review, and interpret financial data; make recommendations; and assist in the implementation of new ideas. Workers who use these skills in other occupations include accountants and auditors, credit analysts, economists, financial analysts, financial managers, and loan officers. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities as a budget analyst may be available from your State or local employment service. Persons interested in working as a budget analyst in the Federal Government can obtain information from: wU.S. Office of Personnel Management, 1900 E St. NW., Washington, DC 20415. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations Construction and Building Inspectors (D.O.T. 168.167-030, -034, -038, -046, and -050; .267-010, -102; 182.267; 850.387, .467) Nature of the Work Construction and building inspectors examine the construction, alter ation, or repair of highways, streets, sewer and water systems, dams, bridges, buildings, and other structures to insure compliance with building codes and ordinances, zoning regulations, and contract speci fications. Initial inspections are made during construction, and fol lowup inspections are conducted periodically to monitor continuing compliance with regulations. In areas subject to unusually severe natural hazards—such as earthquakes or hurricanes—inspectors moni tor compliance with additional regulations. Inspectors generally spe cialize in one particular type of construction work. Building inspectors inspect the structural quality of buildings. Some may specialize—for example, in structural steel or reinforced concrete buildings. Before construction, plan examiners determine whether the plans for the building or other structure comply with applicable build ing code regulations and are suited to the engineering and environmen tal demands of the building site. They visit the worksite before the foundation is poured to inspect the soil condition and positioning and depth of the footings. They inspect the foundation after it has been completed. The size and type of structure and the rate of completion « .ItilWIH 1 T ITT mn • TlM'-lZ Construction inspectors insure compliance with building codes, zoning regulations, and contract specifications. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis I 19 determine the number of other visits they must make. Upon completion of the project, they conduct a final comprehensive inspection. In addition, inspectors may determine fire insurance rates by assessing the type of construction, building contents, availability of fire protection equipment, and risks posed by adjoining buildings. Electrical inspectors inspect the installation of electrical systems and equipment to insure that they function properly and comply with electrical codes and standards. They visit worksites to inspect new and existing wiring, lighting, sound and security systems, motors, and generating equipment. They also inspect the installation of the electri cal wiring for heating and air-conditioning systems, appliances, and other components. Elevator inspectors examine lifting and conveying devices such as elevators, escalators, moving sidewalks, personnel lifts and hoists, inclined railways, ski lifts, and various amusement rides. Mechanical inspectors inspect the installation of the mechanical components of commercial kitchen appliances, heating and air-condi tioning equipment, gasoline and butane tanks, gas and oil piping, and gas-fired and oil-fired appliances. Some specialize in inspecting boilers or ventilating equipment. Plumbing inspectors examine plumbing systems, including private disposal systems, water supply and distribution systems, plumbing fixtures and traps, and drain, waste, and vent lines. Public works inspectors insure that Federal, State, and local govern ment construction of water and sewer systems, highways, streets, bridges, and dams conforms to detailed contract specifications. They inspect excavation and fill operations, the placement of forms for concrete, concrete mixing and pouring, asphalt paving, and grading operations. They record the work and materials used so that contract payments can be calculated. Public works inspectors may specialize in highways, reinforced concrete, or ditches. Others specialize in dredging operations required for bridges and dams or for harbors. Home inspectors conduct inspections of newly built homes to ascer tain adherence to regulatory requirements. Some home inspectors are hired by prospective home buyers to inspect and report on the condition of the home’s major systems and components. Home inspectors typi cally are hired either immediately prior to a purchase offer or as a contingency to a sales contract. Construction and building inspectors increasingly use computers to help them monitor the status of construction inspection activities and the issuance of permits. Details about construction projects, building and occupancy permits, and other information can be stored and easily retrieved. Although inspections are primarily visual, inspectors often use tape measures, survey instruments, metering devices, and test equipment such as concrete strength measurers. They often keep a daily log of their work, take photographs, file reports, and, if necessary, act on their findings. For example, construction inspectors notify the con struction contractor, superintendent, or supervisor when they discover a detail of a project that does not comply with the appropriate codes, ordinances, contract specifications, or approved plans. If the deficiency is not corrected within a reasonable or specified period of time, govern ment inspectors have authority to issue a “stop-work” order. Many inspectors also investigate reported incidents of construction or alteration being carried on without proper permits. Violators of permit laws are directed to obtain permits and submit to inspection. Working Conditions Construction and building inspectors usually work alone. However, several may be assigned to a large, complex project. They may spend much of their time in a field office reviewing blueprints, answering letters or telephone calls, writing reports, and scheduling inspections. The rest of their time is spent inspecting construction and building sites. Inspection sites may be dirty and cluttered with tools, materials, or debris. Inspectors may have to climb ladders or many flights of stairs, or may have to crawl beneath buildings. Although the work is not considered hazardous, inspectors often wear “hard hats” for safety. Inspectors normally work regular hours. However, if an accident 20 Occupational Outlook Handbook occurs at a construction site, inspectors must respond immediately and may work irregular hours to complete their report. Employment Construction and building inspectors held about 56,000 jobs in 1988. Over half worked for local governments, primarily municipal or county building departments. Employment of local government inspectors is concentrated in cities and in suburban areas undergoing rapid growth. Local governments employ large inspection staffs, including many inspectors who specialize in structural steel, reinforced concrete, boiler, electrical, and elevator inspection. Almost 20 percent of all construction and building inspectors were employed at the Federal and State levels. Many construction inspectors employed by the Federal Government worked for the Department of Defense, primarily for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Other important Federal employers include the Departments of Agriculture, Housing and Urban Development, and Interior, and the Tennessee Valley Authority. Over one-fourth of all inspectors worked for private industry, includ ing the engineering and architectural services, business services, con struction, and educational services industries. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To become a construction or building inspector, several years of experience as a construction contractor, supervisor, or craft worker are generally required. Most employers also require an applicant to have a high school diploma. High school preparation should include courses in drafting, algebra, geometry, and English. Workers who want to become inspectors should have a thorough knowledge of construction materials and practices in either a general area like structural or heavy construction, or in a specialized area such as electrical or plumbing systems, reinforced concrete, or structural steel. A significant number of construction and building inspectors have recent experience as carpenters, electricians, plumbers, or pipe fitters. Many employers prefer inspectors who have graduated from an apprenticeship program, have studied engineering or architecture for at least 2 years, or have a degree from a community or junior college, with courses in construction technology, blueprint reading, mathemat ics, and building inspection. Construction and building inspectors must be in good physical condition in order to walk and climb about construction sites. They also must have a motor vehicle operator’s license. In addition, Federal, State, and many local governments usually require that inspectors pass a civil service examination. Construction and building inspectors usually receive most of their training on the job. At first, working with an experienced inspector, they learn about inspection techniques; codes, ordinances, and regula tions; contract specifications; and recordkeeping and reporting duties. They begin by inspecting less complex types of construction such as residential buildings. The difficulty of their assignments is gradually increased until they are able to handle complex assignments. An engineering degree is frequently required to advance to supervisory inspector. Since they advise representatives of the construction industry and the general public on building code interpretation, construction prac tices, and technical developments, construction and building inspec tors must keep abreast of new building code developments. Many employers provide formal training programs to broaden inspectors’ knowledge of construction materials, practices, and inspection tech niques. Inspectors who work for small agencies or firms that do not conduct training programs can broaden their knowledge and upgrade their skills by attending State-conducted training programs, by taking college or correspondence courses, or by attending seminars sponsored by the organizations listed under Sources of Additional Information below. Certification enhances construction inspectors’ chances for higher paying, more responsible positions. Some States and cities require certification for employment. Inspectors having substantial experience https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and education can attain certification by passing stringent examinations on construction techniques, materials, and code requirements. The organizations listed below offer many categories of certification for inspectors and plan examiners, including the designation “CBO,” Certified Building Official. Job Outlook Employment of construction and building inspectors is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Increases in both the level of construction activity and the complexity of construction materials and technology, as well as rising concern for public safety and for improvements in the quality of construction, should spur demand for construction and building inspec tors. The trend of government—particularly Federal and State—to contract out construction inspection functions should increase demand for inspectors in the private sector. Most job openings will arise from the need to replace inspectors who retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. Because of the trend toward the establishment of professional standards for inspectors, job prospects should be best for highly experienced craft workers who have some college education or who are certified as inspectors. Employment of construction and building inspectors is not always directly affected by changes in the level of building activity. Unlike most construction occupations, inspectors—particularly those in gov ernment—do not usually experience layoffs when construction activity declines. During these periods, maintenance and renovation—which usually require more frequent inspection than new construction— generally continue, enabling inspectors to continue working full time year round. In an upturn, new jobs for inspectors increase but not to the same degree as construction activity. Earnings The median annual salary of construction and building inspectors was $25,700 in 1988, with the overwhelming majority of inspectors earning between $17,500 and $41,100. Generally, building inspectors, includ ing plan examiners, earn the highest salaries. Salaries in large metro politan areas are substantially higher than those in small local jurisdic tions. Salaries in the North and West tend to be higher than salaries in the South. The average salary of inspectors in the Federal Government was $27,000 in 1988. Similar to other workers, construction and building inspectors typi cally receive a range of fringe benefits that includes vacation and sick leave, health and life insurance, and pension plans, among others. Related Occupations Construction and building inspectors combine a knowledge of con struction principles and law with the ability to coordinate data, diag nose problems, and communicate with people. Workers in other occu pations involving a combination of similar skills are drafters, estimators, industrial engineering technicians, and surveyors. Sources of Additional Information Information about a career and certification as a construction or build ing inspector is available from the following model code organizations: (•-International Conference of Building Officials, 5360 South Workman Mill Rd., Whittier, CA 90601. (•-Building Officials and Code Administrators International, Inc., 4051 West Flossmoor Rd., Country Club Hills, 1L 60478. (•-Southern Building Code Congress International, Inc., 900 Montclair Rd., Birmingham, AL 35213. Information on careers and certification as a home inspector is available from: (•-American Society of Home Inspectors, Inc., Seventh Floor, 3299 K St. NW., Washington, DC 20007. For information on careers and certification as a plumbing or me chanical inspector, contact: (•-International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Inspectors, 20001 South Walnut Dr., Walnut, CA 91789. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations For information about a career as a State or local government construction or building inspector, contact your State or local employ ment service. Persons interested in a career as a construction and building inspector with the Federal Government can obtain information from: 21 'I irU.S, Office of Personnel Management, 1900ESt. NW., Washington, DC 20415. Construction Managers (D.O.T. 182.167 except-022) Nature of the Work Construction managers may assume various levels of responsibility and are known by a wide range of job titles that are often used interchangeably—for example, construction superintendent, construc tor, production manager, project manager, general construction man ager, executive construction manager, contractor, subcontractor, and general contractor. Construction managers may be either salaried em ployees or self-employed workers under contract with the owner, contractor, developer, or management firm overseeing the construction project. In addition, within the construction industry, the term con struction manager is often used to denote the firm—usually a contract construction company or a construction management services firm— involved in the construction activity. This Handbook statement discusses supervisory level salaried and self-employed construction managers who oversee construction super visors and workers. Supervisory level construction managers report to mid-level and top-level construction managers, who are included in the Handbook statement on general managers and top executives. On small constmction projects—for example, remodeling a home— construction managers are usually self-employed construction contrac tors who directly oversee their employees. However, large construc tion projects—for example, an industrial complex—are divided into many segments: Site preparation, including land clearing, sewage systems, landscaping, and road construction; building construction, including excavation, laying foundations, erection of frameworks, and adding floors, walls, and roofs; or installation of building services, including carpentry, electrical, plumbing, air-conditioning, and heat ing. Salaried construction managers plan, direct, and complete their assigned part of the overall construction project. Construction managers determine the appropriate construction methods and schedule all required construction activities in logical, discrete steps, each leading to an intermediate objective. They estimate the time required to complete each step in an effort to meet established budgets and deadlines for particular construction projects. Construc tion managers determine the labor requirements and, if necessary, supervise or monitor the hiring and dismissal of engineers, cost estima tors, clerks, construction supervisors, craft workers, machinery and equipment operators, and other construction workers. Planning, often in collaboration with engineers, architects, and other design profes sionals, may require sophisticated analytical techniques such as the critical path method (CPM)—a standardized presentation of the time sequence of the work showing where construction activities might be disrupted—supplemented by flow charts, bar charts, and other graphic presentation. Computers are used to evaluate various construction methods and determine the most cost-efficient and timesaving plan. On the job, construction managers direct construction supervisors and monitor the progress of construction activities including the deliv ery and use of supplies, tools, machinery, equipment, and vehicles. They are responsible for all necessary permits and licenses and, de pending upon the contractual arrangements, direct or monitor compli ance with safety codes and other labor or union regulations. Construction managers regularly review engineering and architec tural drawings and specifications and confer with construction engi neers to maintain the rate of construction activity. They meet with cost estimators to monitor construction costs and avoid overruns. Based https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ■■ Construction managers review engineering and architectural drawings and specifications. upon direct observation and reports by subordinate supervisors, con struction managers may prepare daily reports of progress and require ments for labor, material, and machinery and equipment at the con struction site. Construction managers meet regularly with owners, other construction managers, and design professionals to monitor and synchronize all phases of the construction project. Working Conditions Construction managers work out of a central office—often spacious and orderly, where the overall construction project is monitored—and the construction site office—usually small and crowded with workers streaming in and out, where management decisions regarding daily construction activities are made. Substantial travel may be required when the construction site is in another State, and overseas projects may entail temporary residence in another country. The standard 40-hour week is rare in this occupation, since construc tion may proceed round-the-clock for days or even weeks to meet dead lines. In addition, construction managers are always “on call” to deal with accidents, delays, or complications caused by bad weather at the site. Although the work generally is not considered dangerous, construc tion managers must be alert while touring construction sites, especially when machinery, equipment, and vehicles are operating. The pace can be hectic, and construction managers must be prepared to answer questions and assign priorities quickly. Employment Construction managers held about 187,000 jobs in 1988. About 9 out of 10 were employed in the contract construction industry, primarily 22 Occupational Outlook Handbook by special trade contractors—for example, plumbing, heating and air conditioning, and electrical—and general building contractors. Other employers included local governments, educational institutions, real estate developers, and engineering, architectural, surveying, and con struction management services firms. In addition, thousands of selfemployed contractors worked as construction managers, primarily in the special trades contract construction industries. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement An increasing proportion of entrants into this occupation acquire a strong academic background. Completion of a bachelor’s degree pro gram in construction science with emphasis on construction manage ment can greatly enhance one’s opportunities in this occupation. In 1988, about 75 colleges and universities offered such programs, which include courses in project control and development, site planning, construction materials, building design, construction methods, value analysis, cost estimating, scheduling, contract administration, building codes and standards, inspection procedures, and electives in engineer ing and architectural sciences, mathematics, statistics, and computer science. Recent college graduates in construction science usually are hired as assistants to construction managers, field engineers, sched ulers, or cost estimators. A growing number of graduates in related fields—engineers, architects, and cost estimators—also enter con struction management, often after having worked as supervisors on construction projects. About 15 colleges and universities also offer a master’s degree program, and one, the University of Florida, offers a doctoral degree program in this field. Master’s degree recipients, especially those with experience, typically become construction managers in very large construction companies. Doctoral degree recipients generally become college teachers. Many construction managers have substantial experience as con struction craft workers—for example, carpenters, masons, plumbers, or electricians—and proven supervisory ability. Many have worked as construction supervisors or small, self-employed contractors over seeing workers in one or more construction activities—for example, structural steel work, roofing, or excavation. Many have also attended training and educational programs sponsored by industry associations, usually in collaboration with postsecondary institutions. In 1988, over 200 2-year colleges offered construction management or construction technology programs. Persons interested in becoming construction managers should be flexible and able to work under stressful conditions. They should be decisive and able to select quickly among alternative courses of action. The ability to coordinate several activities and speedily analyze and resolve specific problems is imperative. The ability to rapidly evaluate engineering, architectural, and other construction drawings is impor tant. Construction managers must be able to establish effective working relationships with many different people—entrepreneurs, managers, professionals, supervisors, and blue-collar workers. They must also be able to assess the character and competency of workers in order to achieve an efficient working group. Advancement depends upon the size of the construction company. In large companies, construction managers may become mid-level and eventually top-level managers. Highly experienced individuals may become consultants; some serve as expert witnesses in court or arbitra tors in disputes. Those with the required capital may establish their own firms and offer construction management services. Others may establish their own general contract construction firms that oversee construction projects from start to finish—including project planning and design, construction, and management. Job Outlook Employment of construction managers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as construction projects increase in size and complexity. Advances in building materials and construction methods and the growing nuinber of multipurpose buildings, electronically operated “smart" buildings. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and energy-efficient structures will require the expertise of more construction managers. In addition, the proliferation of laws setting standards for buildings and construction materials, worker safety, energy efficiency, and environmental pollution has further compli cated the construction manager’s job and should further increase demand for these workers. Many job openings for construction managers will arise in nonresidential construction firms and special trade contractor establishments offering maintenance and repair services for buildings and building equipment. Although employment in residential construction firms is expected to grow more slowly than in other sectors of the construction industry, many openings should result from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation or retire. Demand is expected to be particu larly favorable—especially in the rapidly proliferating construction management services firms—for experienced construction managers with a bachelor’s degree in construction science with emphasis on construction management. Employment of construction managers is sensitive to the short term nature of many construction projects and cyclical fluctuations in construction activity. During periods of diminished construction activity—when many construction workers are laid off—many con struction managers remain employed in their own or other firms plan ning, scheduling, or estimating costs of future construction projects. However, some self-employed contractors may merge operations or dissolve their business and seek salaried employment with other con tractors. Earnings Earnings of salaried construction managers and incomes of self-em ployed contractors vary depending upon the size and nature of the construction project, its geographic location, and economic conditions. Based on limited information, starting salaries of construction manag ers in 1988 were about $20,000 to $30,000; annual earnings of most experienced construction managers ranged from $30,000 to $100,000. Many salaried construction managers receive fringe benefits such as bonuses, liberal motor vehicle allowances, and per diem allowances. The income of self-employed contractors varies even more widely than that of salaried managers. Related Occupations Construction managers participate in the conceptual development of a construction project and organize, schedule, and oversee its implemen tation. Others whose work entails similar functions include architects, builders, civil engineers, construction supervisors, cost engineers, cost estimators, developers, electrical engineers, industrial engineers, landscape architects, and mechanical engineers. Sources of Information Information about construction managers and construction manage ment services firms is available from: •-Construction Management Association of America, Suite 640, 12355 Sunrise Valley Dr., Reston, VA 22091. For information about careers in construction management, contact: •-American Institute of Constructors, 20 S. Front St., Columbus, OH 43215. •-Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. For information about construction management in contract con struction operations, contact: •-Associated General Contractors of America, 1957 E St. NW., Washington, DC 20006. Names of postsecondary institutions offering educational programs in construction management and related fields are available from: •-Associated Schools of Construction, 20 S. Front St., Columbus, OH 43215. Information on construction science and management program ac creditation requirements is available from: •-American Council for Construction Education, Suite 700, 1015 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations Cost Estimators (D.O.T. 160.267-018; 221.362-018, .367-014, .387-022, .482-014, .484-010) Nature of the Work Being able to predict the cost of future projects is vital to the economic survival of any business. Cost estimators develop this information for owners, managers, and government to use in making bids for contracts, in determining if a new product will be profitable, or in determining if the government is getting good value for the taxpayer’s money. Whether in construction, manufacturing, or government, estimators compile and analyze data on all the factors that can influence costs— materials, labor, location, and special machinery, among others. Ac tual job duties vary widely depending upon the type and size of the project. On a new, large construction project, for example, the estimating process begins with the decision to submit a bid. After reviewing the architect’s drawings, specifications, and other bidding documents, the estimator visits the site of the proposed construction to gather information on access to the site and availability of electricity, water, and other services, as well as surface topography and drainage. If the project is a remodeling or renovation job, the estimator might consider the need to control noise and dust and to perform work in such a way that occupants can continue to carry out their activities as normally as possible. The information developed during the site visit generally is recorded in a signed report that is made part of the project estimate. After the site visit is completed, the estimator must determine the quantity of materials and labor that the firm will have to furnish. This process, called the quantity survey or “takeoff,” is completed by filling out standard estimating forms that provide spaces for the entry of dimensions, number of units, and other information. A cost estimator working for a general contractor, for example, will estimate the costs of the items the contractor must provide. Although subcontractors involved will estimate their costs as part of their own bidding process, cost estimators often analyze bids made by subcontractors. Allowances for the waste of materials, inclement weather, shipping delays, and other factors that may increase costs are made as the takeoff proceeds. In large construction organizations with several estimators, it is com mon practice for each person to specialize. For instance, one person may estimate only electrical work, whereas another may concentrate on excavation, concrete, and forms. Also during the takeoff process, the estimator must make decisions concerning equipment needs, se quence of operations, and crew sizes. On completion of the quantity surveys, a total project cost summary is prepared by the chief estimator that includes the cost of labor, Cost estimators make extensive use of quantitative techniques. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 23 equipment, materials, subcontracts, overhead, taxes, insurance, markup, and any other costs that may affect the project. The chief estimator then prepares the bid proposal for submission to the de veloper. In manufacturing and other firms, cost estimators generally are assigned to the engineering or cost department. In manufacturing, their job may begin with a request by top management to estimate the costs associated with a major redesign of an existing product or the development of a new product or production process. For example, to develop a new product, the estimator, working with engineers, first reviews blueprints or concepts to determine the machining operations, tools and gauges, and materials that would be required for the job. The estimator then must prepare a parts list and determine whether it is more efficient to produce or to purchase the parts. To do this, the estimator must initiate inquiries for price information from potential suppliers. The next step is to determine the cost of manufacturing each component of the product. This requires the cost estimator to review records of the cost of manufacturing similar parts in the past. The cost estimator then prepares time-phase charts and learning curves. The former indicate the time required for tool design and fabrication, tool “debugging” (finding and correcting all problems), manufacturing of parts, assembly, and testing. Learning curves repre sent graphically the fact that performance improves with practice, which yields reduced cost. These curves are commonly called “prob lem-elimination” curves because many problems, such as engineering changes, rework, parts shortages, and lack of operator skills, diminish as the number of parts produced increases, resulting in lower unit costs. Using all this information, the estimator then calculates the standard labor hours necessary to produce a predetermined number of units. Standard labor hours are then converted to dollar values, to which are added factors for waste, overhead, and profit to yield the unit cost in dollars. Then the estimator compares the cost of purchasing parts with the firm’s cost of manufacturing them to determine which is cheaper. Computers are widely used since cost estimating may involve com plex mathematical techniques—for example, in parametric analysis. Although computers cannot be used for the entire estimating process, they can relieve estimators of much of the drudgery associated with routine, repetitive, and time-consuming calculations. This leaves esti mators with more time to study and analyze projects and can lead to more accurate estimates. (Details on various cost estimating techniques are available from the organizations listed under Sources of Additional Information below.) Working Conditions Estimators spend most of their time in an office. Nevertheless, con struction estimators must make frequent visits to construction sites that are dirty and cluttered with debris. Likewise, estimators in manufactur ing must spend some time on the factory floor where it can be hot, noisy, and dirty. Cost estimators usually operate under pressure, espe cially when facing deadlines, because inaccurate estimating can cause a firm to lose out on a bid that would have been profitable or to take on a job that proves to be unprofitable. Although estimators usually work a 40-hour week, much overtime is often required. In some industries, frequent travel between the parent firm and its subsidiaries or subcontractors is required. Government and other estimators often visit firms to substantiate bids or prices. Employment Cost estimators held about 169,000jobs in 1988, primarily in construc tion industries. Others worked for manufacturing industries. Some worked for engineering and architectural services firms, business ser vices firms, and a wide range of other industries. Still others worked as self-employed consultants, and for the Federal Government. Con struction analysts in the Department of Housing and Urban Develop ment and operations research, production control, cost, and price analysts in the Departments of Defense and Energy may do significant amounts of cost estimating in the course of their regular duties. (For 24 Occupational Outlook Handbook more information, see the statement on operations research analysts elsewhere in the Handbook.) Cost estimators work in all parts of the country, usually in or near major industrial, commercial, and government centers and in cities and suburban areas undergoing rapid change or development where large amounts of construction are taking place. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Entry requirements vary by industry. In construction, employers prefer applicants with a thorough knowledge of construction materials, costs, and procedures in areas ranging from heavy construction to electrical work, plumbing systems, or masonry work. In fact, most construction estimators have experience as a construction craft worker or as a contractor. Persons who combine this experience with some postsec ondary training in construction estimating or a bachelor's or associate degree in civil engineering, architectural drafting, or building construc tion have the edge in landing jobs. Those with an academic background who lack work experience qualify for some jobs, but are at a distinct disadvantage when competing for jobs with experienced applicants. In manufacturing, employers prefer persons with a degree in engineering, science, operations research, mathematics, or statistics, or in account ing, finance, business, or a related subject. In high-technology indus tries, great emphasis is placed on experience involving quantitative techniques. Computer literacy and, in some cases, programming capa bility are required. For beginning positions in the Federal Government, applicants generally must have a bachelor’s degree with a major in engineering, mathematics, science, operations research, business ad ministration, economics, or a related subject. Regardless of background, estimators receive much training on the job. Working with an experienced estimator, they become familiar with each step in the process. Those with no experience reading construction specifications or blueprints first learn that aspect of the work. Then they may accompany an experienced estimator to the construction site or the shop floor where they may observe the work being done, take measurements, or perform other routine tasks. As they become more knowledgeable, they learn how to tabulate quanti ties and dimensions from drawings and how to select which material prices are to be used. Cost estimating is included as part of the civil engineering, industrial engineering, and construction management curriculums in some col leges and universities. In addition, many technical schools, junior colleges, and universities offer courses and programs in cost estimating techniques and procedures. Master’s degree programs in cost analysis are offered by the Air Force Institute of Technology in Dayton, Ohio, and the University of Toledo in Toledo, Ohio. Organizations that represent cost estimators, such as the American Association of Cost Engineers, the American Society of Professional Estimators, the Na tional Estimating Society, the Institute of Cost Analysis, and the International Society of Parametric Analysts also sponsor educational programs. These programs help students, estimators-in-training, and experienced estimators stay abreast of changes affecting the pro fession. Professional recognition through certification is valuable, because it is a mark of the estimator’s competence and experience. In order to become certified, estimators generally must have between 3 and 7 years of estimating experience and must pass both a written and an oral examination. In addition, certification requirements may include publication of at least one article or paper in the field. Cost estimators should have an aptitude for mathematics, be able to quickly analyze, compare, and interpret detailed and sometimes poorly defined information, and be able to make sound and accurate judgments based on this knowledge. Assertiveness and self-confidence in present ing and supporting their conclusions are important. For most estimators, advancement takes the form of higher pay and prestige. Some move into a management position, such as project manager for a construction firm or manager of the industrial engineer ing department for a manufacturer. Others may go into business for themselves as consultants, providing estimating services for a fee to government or construction and manufacturing firms. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of cost estimators is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most job openings, however, will arise from the need to replace experienced estimators who transfer to another occupation or leave the labor force. Employment is dependent upon the level of construction, manu facturing, and government—primarily defense-related—activity. Residential construction is expected to slow over the 1988-2000 period; the aging of the population—particularly among those of retirement age—will stimulate demand for multiunit housing relative to single units. In contrast, nonresidential construction is expected to expand more rapidly, particularly commercial and industrial buildings and health-related facilities. Other areas within construction also are expected to expand, such as maintenance and repair, commercial and industrial renovations, and hazardous waste cleanup. As more construction projects are planned, more estimators will be needed to predict the costs of these jobs. However, employment growth may be moderated by the growing use of improved computer software packages that significantly increase cost estimators’ effi ciency. Although little or no change in employment is projected in the manufacturing sector, job opportunities for cost estimators should expand as more firms realize the importance of accurate estimating. Demand is expected to rise as competition forces manufacturers to reduce their operating costs. In addition to working on new projects, estimators increasingly will be monitoring operations to uncover hid den costs or other inefficiencies. In construction, job prospects should be best for workers with substantial experience in various phases of construction or those with a degree in construction management, engineering, or architectural drafting. In manufacturing, experienced persons with degrees in engi neering, science, mathematics, business administration, or economics and who have computer expertise should have the best job prospects. Certification is an asset in all instances. Earnings Salaries for cost estimators vary widely by experience, education, size of firm, and industry. According to limited data available, most starting salaries in the construction industry for those with limited training ranged from $14,000 to $18,000 in 1988. College graduates in fields such as engineering or construction management that provide a strong background in cost estimating can start at $30,000 or more. Highly experienced individuals earned $75,000 or more. Starting salaries and annual earnings in the manufacturing sector were somewhat higher, on the average. In the Federal Government, those doing cost estimating had a start ing salary between $15,700 and $23,800 in 1989, depending upon their education, academic achievement, and experience. As is the case for other workers, cost estimators receive a benefit package that includes vacation and sick leave, health and life insur ance, and pension plans, among other benefits. Related Occupations Other workers who quantitatively analyze information based upon relatively imprecise data include appraisers, cost accountants, cost engineers, economists, evaluators, financial analysts, loan officers, operations research analysts, underwriters, and value engineers. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities, certification, schools, and con tinuing education programs in cost estimating in the construction industry may be obtained from: w-American Society of Professional Estimators, Inc., 6911 Richmond Hwy., Suite 230, Alexandria, VA 22306. ••-American Association of Cost Engineers, 308 Monongahela Bldg., Morgan town, WV 26505. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations Similar information about cost estimating in government and manu facturing and other industries is available from: ••-National Estimating Society, 101 S. Whiting St., Suite 313, Alexandria, VA 22304. (•-Institute of Cost Analysis, 101 S. Whiting St., Suite 313, Alexandria, VA 22304. (•-International Society of Parametric Analysts, P.O. Box 1056, Germantown, MD 20874-1056. Education Administrators (D.O.T. 075.117-010, -018; 090.117 except -034, .167; 091.107; 092.137; 094.107, .117-010, -014, .167-010. 096.167-010, -014; 097.167; 099.117 except -022; 169.267-022; 239.137-010) Nature of the Work Smooth operation of an educational institution requires competent administrators. Education administrators provide direction, leader ship, and day-to-day management of educational activities in schools, colleges and universities, businesses, correctional institutions, muse ums, and job training and community service organizations. (For information on college presidents and school superintendents, who are not covered in this statement, see the Handbook statement on general managers and top executives.) Education administrators set educa tional standards and goals and set up policies and procedures to carry them out. They develop academic programs; hire, train, and motivate teachers and other staff; manage guidance and other student services; administer recordkeeping; prepare budgets; handle relations with par ents, prospective students, employers, or others outside of education; and perform numerous other activities. They supervise subordinate managers, management support staff, teachers, counselors, librarians, coaches, and others. In a small organi zation, such as a day care center, there may be one administrator who handles all functions. In a major university or large school system, responsibilities are divided among many administrators, organized according to specific functions. Principals manage elementary and secondary schools. They set the academic tone—high-quality instruction is their most important responsibility. Principals hire and assign teachers and other staff, help them improve their skills, and evaluate them. They confer with them— advising, explaining, or answering procedural questions. They visit classrooms, review instructional objectives, and examine learning materials. They also meet with other administrators, students, parents, and representatives of community organizations. They prepare budgets and reports, keep track of attendance, and see that supplies are requisit ioned and allocated. Assistant principals aid the principal in the overall administration of the school. They are responsible for the scheduling of student classes and coordinating transportation, custodial, cafeteria, and other support services. They usually handle discipline, social and recreational pro grams, and health and safety. They may also counsel students on personal, educational, or vocational matters. Public schools are also managed by administrators in school district central offices. This group includes education supervisors, who direct subject area programs such as English, music, vocational education, special education, and mathematics. They plan, evaluate, and improve curriculums and teaching techniques and help teachers improve their skills and learn about new methods and materials. This group also includes directors of programs such as guidance, school psychology, athletics, curriculum development, and audiovisual materials. In colleges and universities, academic deans, also known as deans of faculty, provosts, or university deans, assist presidents and develop budgets and academic policies and programs. They direct and coordi nate activities of deans and chairpersons of individual colleges and academic departments. College or university department heads or chairpersons are in charge of departments such as English, biological science, or mathematics. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 25 They coordinate schedules of classes and teaching assignments, pro pose budgets, recruit and interview applicants for teaching positions, and perform other administrative duties in addition to teaching. Higher education administrators also provide student services. Deans of students, also known as vice presidents of student affairs or directors of student services, direct and coordinate admissions, foreign student services, and health and counseling services, as well as social, recreation, and related programs. They set and enforce student person nel policies and administer discipline. In a small college, they may counsel students. Registrars are custodians of students’ education records. They prepare student transcripts, evaluate academic records, and analyze registration statistics. Directors of admissions manage the process of admitting students, oversee the preparation of college catalogs, recruit students, and work closely with financial aid directors, who oversee scholarship, fellowship, and loan programs. Directors of student activities plan and arrange social, cultural, and recreational activities, assist student-run organizations, and orient new students. Athletic directors plan and direct intramural and intercollegiate athletic activities, including publicity for athletic events, preparation of bud gets, and supervision of coaches. Working Conditions Education administrators may work alone in offices but also meet with the staffs they supervise, other administrators, students, alumni, and others. Some jobs include travel. Many education administrators work more than 40 hours a week, including some nights and weekends when school activities take place. Unlike teachers, they usually work year round. Employment Education administrators held about 320,000 jobs in 1988. More than 88 percent were in educational services—in elementary, secondary, and technical schools and colleges and universities. The rest worked in child day care centers, religious organizations, job training centers, State departments of education, and businesses and other organizations that provide training activities for their employees. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Education administrator is not usually an entry level job. Most educa tion administrators begin their careers in other related occupations. Because of the diversity of duties and levels of responsibility, their educational backgrounds and experience vary considerably. Princi pals, assistant principals, central office administrators, and academic deans usually have taught or held another related job before moving into administration. Some teachers move directly into principalships; others first gain experience as an assistant principal or in a central office administrative job. In some cases, administrators move up from related staff jobs such as recruiter, residence hall director, or financial aid or admissions officer. To be considered for education administrator positions, workers must first prove themselves in their current jobs. In evaluating candidates, supervisors look for determination, confidence, innovativeness, motivation, and managerial attributes such as ability to make sound decisions, to organize and coordinate work efficiently, and to establish good personal relationships with and motivate others. Knowledge of management principles and practices, gained through work experience and formal education, is important. Principals, assistant principals, and school administrators in central offices generally need a master’s degree or higher in education adminis tration or educational supervision, and a State teaching certificate. Some principals and central office administrators have a doctorate in education administration. Academic deans usually have a doctorate in their specialty. Admis sions, student affairs, and financial aid directors and registrars often start in related staff jobs with bachelor’s degrees—any field is usually acceptable—and get advanced degrees in student counseling and per sonnel services or higher education administration. A Ph.D. or Ed.D. is usually necessary for top student personnel positions. Courses in data processing are an asset in admissions, records, and financial work. Advanced degrees in education administration, educational supervi- 26 Occupational Outlook Handbook level of responsibility and experience, and the size and location of the institution. According to the Educational Research Service, Inc., average sala ries for principals and assistant principals in the school year 1988-89 were as follows: Principals: Senior high school.................................................................. $52,987 Junior high/middle school..................................................... 49,427 Elementary school.................................................................. 45,909 Assistant principals: Senior high school.................................................................. Junior high/middle school..................................................... Elementary school.................................................................. 44,002 42,292 38,360 In 1988-89, according to the College and University Personnel Association, median annual salaries for selected administrators in higher education were as follows: Education administrator positions are not usually entry level jobs. sion, and student counseling and personnel services are offered in many colleges and universities. The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education accredits programs. Education administration degree programs include courses in school management, school law, school finance and budgeting, curriculum development and evaluation, research design and data analysis, community relations, politics in education, and leadership. Educational supervision degree programs include courses in supervision of instruction and curriculum, human relations, curriculum development, research, and advanced pedagogy courses. Education administrators advance by moving up an administrative ladder or transferring to larger schools or systems. They may also become superintendent of a school system or president of an educa tional institution. (See the statement on general managers and top executives elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Employment of education administrators is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most job openings will result from the need to replace administrators who leave the profession. Employment of education administrators will grow as school enroll ments increase, as more services are provided to students, and as efforts to improve the quality of education continue. The number of education administrators employed depends largely on State and local expenditures for education. Pressure from taxpayers to limit spending could result in fewer administrators than anticipated; pressures to increase spending to improve the quality of education could result in more. Substantial competition is expected for jobs as principals, assistant principals, and central office administrators. Many teachers and other staff meet the education and experience requirements for these jobs and seek promotion. However, the number of openings is relatively small, so generally only the most highly qualified are selected. Earnings The median annual salary for education administrators who worked full time was $35,000 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $23,000 and $45,000. Salaries of education administrators vary according to position, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Academic deans: Medicine................................................................................ $143,200 Law......................................................................................... 100,500 Engineering........................................................................... 76,008 Arts and sciences................................................................. 60,732 Education............................................................................... 60,192 Business................................................................................ 60,050 Social sciences..................................................................... 47,549 Mathematics......................................................................... 47,500 Student services directors: Admissions and registrar.................................................... Development and alumni affairs....................................... Student financial aid............................................................ Student activities.................................................................. 44,144 42,350 34,032 28,530 Related Occupations Education administrators apply organizational and leadership skills to provide services to individuals. Related occupations include health services administrators, social service agency administrators, recre ation and park managers, museum directors, library directors, and professional and membership organization executives. Sources of Additional Information For information about careers in school administration, contact: ••-American Association of School Administrators, 1801 North Moore St., Arlington, VA 22209. ••-The National Association of Elementary School Principals, 1615 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22317-3483. "•-The National Association of Secondary School Principals, 1904 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091. ••-Association for the Study of Higher Education, Texas A&M University, Department of Educational Administration, College Station, TX 77843-4426. ••-American Association of University Administrators, University of Alabama, Box 870122, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487. ••-National Association of Student Personnel Administrators. 1700 18th St. NW., Washington, DC 20009-2508. Employment Interviewers (D.O.T. 166.267-010) Nature of the Work Whether you are looking for a job or trying to fill one, you could find yourself turning to an employment interviewer for help. Sometimes called personnel consultants, account representatives, manpower de velopment specialists, employment brokers, or head hunters, employ Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations ment interviewers have two principal duties: They help jobseekers find employment and help employers find qualified staff. Working largely in private personnel consultant firms or State em ployment security offices (also known as Job Service centers), employ ment interviewers act as brokers, putting together the best combination of applicant and job. To accomplish this, they obtain information from employers as well as jobseekers. Being a private industry employment interviewer is a sales job. Counselors pool together a group of qualified applicants and try to sell them to many different companies. Often a consultant will call a company that has never been a client (cold-calling) with the aim of filling its employment needs. Employers generally pay private (but not public) agencies for finding them workers. The employer places a “job order” with the agency describing the opening and listing requirements such as education, licenses or credentials, and experience. Employment interviewers of ten interview employers to determine their exact needs. Jobseekers are asked to fill out forms or present resumes that detail their education, experience, and other qualifications. They may be interviewed or tested and have their background, references, and credentials checked. The employment interviewer then reviews each set of information to determine the best possible match of employer and employee. This process is usually done with a computer data base. Maintaining good relations with employers is an important part of the employment interviewer’s job since this helps assure a steady flow of job orders; being prepared to fill an opening quickly with a qualified applicant is the best way to impress an employer. Besides helping firms fill job openings, employment interviewers help individuals find jobs. The services they provide depend upon the type of agency they work for and the clientele it serves. Employment interviewers in private placement firms are generally called counselors. They usually place job applicants who have the right qualifications for certain positions but lack knowledge of the job market for their desired position. Counselors in private placement firms do, however, offer tips on personal appearance, suggestions on presenting a positive picture of oneself, background on the company with which an interview is scheduled, and recommendations about interviewing techniques. Many private placement firms specialize in placing applicants in particular kinds of jobs—secretarial, word pro cessing, engineering, accounting, law, or health, for example. Coun selors in such firms usually have 3 to 5 years of experience in the field into which they are placing applicants. Some employment interviewers work in temporary help services companies. These companies send out their own employees to firms that need temporary help. Employment interviewers take job orders from client firms and match their requests against a list of available workers. The employment interviewer selects the best qualified worker available and refers him or her to the firm requiring assistance. Regular evaluation of employee job skills is an important part of the job for those interviewers working in temporary help services companies. Initially, interviewers evaluate or test new employees’ skills to determine their abilities and weaknesses. The results, which are kept on file, are referred to when filling job orders. Periodically, the interviewer may reevaluate or retest employees in an effort to identify any new skills they may have developed. The duties of employment interviewers in Job Service centers are somewhat different because applicants may lack marketable skills. In these centers, applicants present resumes and fill out forms that ask for educational attainment, job history, skills, awards, certificates, and licenses. An employment interviewer reviews these forms and asks the applicant about the type of job sought and salary range desired. Applicants sometimes have exaggerated expectations. Employment interviewers must be tactful, but persuasive, if an applicant’s job or salary requests are unreasonable. Applicants may need help identifying the kind of work for which they are best suited. The employment interviewer evaluates the appli cant’s qualifications and either chooses an appropriate occupation or class of occupations, or refers the applicant for vocational testing. Once an appropriate type of job has been identified, the employment https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 27 Employment interviewers help people find jobs. interviewer searches the file of job orders seeking a possible job match, and refers the applicant to the employer if a match is found. If no match is found, the interviewer shows the applicant how to use listings of available jobs. Some applicants are hindered by problems such as poor English language skills, no high school diploma, a history of drug or alcohol dependency, or a prison record. The amount and nature of special help for such applicants vary from State to State. In some States, it is the employment interviewer’s responsibility to counsel hard-to-place applicants and refer them elsewhere for literacy or language instruc tion, vocational training, transportation assistance, childcare, and the like. In other States, specially trained counselors perform this task. Working Conditions Employment interviewers usually work in comfortable, well-lighted offices. Some interviewers may spend much of their time out of their office interviewing clients. Work can be hectic, especially in temporary help service companies which supply clients with immediate help for short periods of time. Some overtime may be required and use of personal transportation may be necessary to make employer visits. The private placement industry is competitive, so there is pressure on counselors to give their client companies the best service. Employment Employment interviewers held about 81,000 jobs in 1988. Three out of five worked for employment firms or temporary help services com panies in the private sector. Most of the rest worked for State employ ment security agencies. Employees of career consulting or outplacement firms are not in cluded in these estimates. Workers in these firms help clients market themselves; they do not act as job brokers, nor do they match individu als with particular vacancies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although most public and private agencies prefer to hire college graduates for interviewer jobs, a degree is not always necessary. Hi; ing requirements in the private sector reflect a firm’s management approach as well as the placements in which it specializes. Firms that place highly trained individuals such as accountants, lawyers, engineers, physicians, or executives prefer their interviewers to have some train ing or experience in the field in which they are placing workers. Thus, 28 Occupational Outlook Handbook a bachelor’s or even a master’s degree may be a prerequisite for interviewers in some firms. Firms placing secretaries, word processing operators, and other clerical personnel do not ordinarily stress educational background for their interviewers. In these positions, qualities such as energy level, telephone voice, and sales ability take precedence over educational attainment. Entry level employment interviewer positions in the public sector are generally filled by college graduates, even though a bachelor’s degree is not always a formal requirement. Some States allow substitu tion of suitable work experience for college education. “Suitable work experience” is generally defined as public contact work or time spent at other jobs (including clerical jobs) in a Job Service office. In States that permit employment interviewers to engage in counseling, course work in counseling may be required. Most States and many large city and county governments use some form of merit system for hiring interviewers. Applicants may take a written exam, undergo a preliminary interview, or submit records of their education and experience for evaluation. Those who meet the standards are placed on a list from which the top-ranked candidates are selected for later interviews. Other desirable qualifications for employment interviewers include good communications skills, a desire to help people, office skills, and adaptability. A friendly, confidence-winning manner is an asset since personal interaction is a large part of this occupation. Advancement as an employment interviewer in the public sector is often based on a system providing regular promotions and salary increases for those meeting established standards. Advancement to supervisory positions is highly competitive. Advancement in personnel consulting firms generally takes the form of greater responsibility and higher income. Successful individuals may form their own businesses. on a commission basis while those in temporary help service companies receive a salary. When workers are paid on a commission basis (or salaty plus commission), total earnings depend on how much business they bring in. This is usually based on the type as well as the number of place ments. Those who place more highly skilled or hard-to-find employees make more. An interviewer or counselor working strictly on a commis sion basis often makes around 30 percent of what he or she bills the client, although this varies from firm to firm. Some work on a salaryplus-commission basis because they fill difficult or highly specialized positions requiring long periods of search. The salary, usually small by normal standards, guarantees these individuals security through slow times while the commission provides the incentive and opportu nity for higher earnings. Some personnel consulting firms employ new workers for a 2- to 3month probationary period during which they draw a regular salary. This is intended to provide new workers time to develop their skills and acquire some clients. At the end of the probationary period, the new employees are evaluated, and are either let go or switched to a commission basis. According to the limited data available, average earnings of inter viewers or counselors in personnel consulting and temporary help services firms ranged from about $17,000 to $25,000 in 1989; some earned considerably more. Salaries for those placing professional workers are usually higher than those placing clerical workers. Starting salaries for employment interviewers in State Job Service centers vary from State to State and ranged from about $10,000 to $22,000 a year in 1989. Related Occupations Employment interviewers serve as intermediaries for jobseekers and employers. Workers in several other occupations do similar jobs. Personnel officers screen and help hire new employees but their major concern is the hiring needs of the firm; they never represent individual jobseekers. Personnel officers may also have additional duties in areas such as payroll or benefits management. College career counselors help students and alumni find jobs, but their primary emphasis is career counseling and decisionmaking, not placement. Counselors in community organizations and vocational rehabilita tion facilities help clients find jobs, but they also provide assistance with drug or alcohol dependencies, housing, transportation, childcare, and other problems that stand in the way of finding and keeping a job. Job Outlook Employment in this occupation is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most new jobs will be in temporary help or personnel consulting firms. Relatively little growth is anticipated in State Job Service offices. Additional job openings will result from replacement needs, which are substantial because of the relatively high turnover in this field. Rapid expansion of firms supplying temporary help will be responsi ble for much of the growth in this occupation. Businesses of all types are turning to temporary help services companies for additional workers during busy periods, for handling short-term assignments or one-time projects, and for launching new programs. Expansion of the personnel consulting industry will also spur job growth. Job orders will increase as the economy expands and new businesses are formed; this is expected to heighten demand for employ ment interviewers. Firms that lack the time or resources to develop their own screening procedures arc likely to turn to personnel firms. It is also possible that businesses that rely on young workers will make greater use of personnel firms in the years ahead because competition for these workers is expected to intensify significantly. While little job growth is foreseen in the State Job Service centers, employment opportunities in private placement firms should be good. Entry to this occupation is relatively easy for college graduates (or people who have had some college courses) except in those positions specializing in placement of lawyers, doctors, and engineers. A rela tively high turnover rate, due to job stress, will provide many opportu nities in addition to those generated by very rapid growth in demand. Employment interviewers may lose their jobs during recessions because employers reduce or eliminate new hiring during downturns in the economy, greatly reducing the need for employment interviewers. Those who place permanent or temporary personnel are more suscepti ble to layoffs than State Job Service employment interviewers. (D.O.T. 003.167-034 and -070; 005.167-010 and 022; 007.167-014; 008.167 010; 010.161-014 and -018; 011.161-010; 012.167-058 and -062; 018.167 022; 019.167-014; 022.161-010; 029.167-014; 162.117-030; 169.167-030; and 189.117-014) Earnings Earnings in private firms vary, in part because the basis for compensa tion varies. Workers in personnel consulting firms generally are paid Nature of the Work Engineering, science, and data processing managers plan, coordinate, and direct technical and scientific activities. They supervise a staff of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as an employment interviewer/counselor and requirements for becoming a Certified Personnel Consultant, contact: ••-National Association of Personnel Consultants, 3133 Mt. Vernon Ave., Alexandria, VA 22305. For information on a career as an employment interviewer in State employment security offices, contact: (•-International Association of Personnel in Employment Security, 1801 Louisville Rd., Frankfort, KY 40601. ••-Interstate Conference of Employment Security Agencies, 444 North Capitol St. NW., Suite 126, Washington, DC 20001. Engineering, Science, and Data Processing Managers Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations engineers, scientists, or data processing workers who perform techni cal tasks. Engineering, science, and data processing managers determine sci entific and technical goals within broad outlines provided by top management. These goals may include the design of a new line of products, improvements in manufacturing processes, or advances in basic scientific research. Managers make detailed plans for the accom plishment of these goals—for example, they may develop the overall concepts of new products or identify promising scientific research areas to investigate. They forecast costs and equipment and personnel needs for projects and programs. They assign scientists, engineers, or computer specialists to carry out specific parts of the projects, supervise their daily work, and review their designs, plans, and reports. Managers coordinate the activities of their unit with other units or organizations. They confer with higher levels of management; with financial, industrial production, marketing, and other managers; and with contractors and equipment suppliers. They establish procedures and policies for those who work for them and cany out procedures and policies set by others. Managers hire, train, and evaluate personnel under them. Engineering managers supervise engineering activities in testing, production, operations, or maintenance, or plan and coordinate the de sign and development of machinery, products, systems, and processes. Many are plant engineers, directing and coordinating the maintenance, operation, design, and construction of equipment and machinery in in dustrial plants. Others manage research and development activities that produce new products and processes or improve existing ones. Natural science managers oversee activities in agricultural science, chemistry, biology, geology, meteorology, or physics. They manage research and development projects and direct and coordinate testing, quality control, and production activities in industrial plants. Electronic data processing managers direct, plan, and coordinate data processing activities. Top level managers direct all computerrelated activities in an organization. Others manage computer opera tions, software development, or data bases. They determine the data processing requirements of their organization and assign, schedule, and review the work of systems analysts, computer programmers, and computer operators. Some engineering, science, and data processing managers head a section of perhaps 5 to 10 or more scientists, engineers, or computer professionals. Above them are heads of divisions composed of a number of sections, with as many as 15 to 50 scientists or engineers. A few are directors of large laboratories or directors of research or data processing. Working Conditions Engineering, science, and data processing managers spend most of their time in an office. Some managers, however, may also work in 29 laboratories or industrial plants, where they may occasionally be ex posed to the same conditions as production workers. Those in construc tion may spend part of their time at construction sites. Most work at least 40 hours a week and may work much longer on occasion to meet project deadlines. Some may experience considerable pressure to meet technical or scientific goals within a short time or within a tight budget. Employment Engineering, science, and data processing managers held about 258,000 jobs in 1988. Although these managers are found in almost all industries, almost half are employed in manufacturing, especially in the electrical and electronic equipment, transportation equipment, and chemicals industries. They also work for engineering, architec tural, and computer and data processing services companies and busi ness and management consulting firms as well as for government, colleges and universities, and nonprofit research organizations. The majority are engineering managers, often managing industrial re search, development, and design projects. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Experience as an engineer, mathematician, natural scientist, or com puter professional is the usual requirement for becoming an engineer ing, science, or data processing manager. Consequently, educational requirements are similar to those for scientists, engineers, and data processing professionals. Engineering managers start as engineers. A bachelor’s degree in engineering from an accredited engineering program is acceptable for beginning engineering jobs, but many engineers increase their chances for promotion to manager by obtaining a master’s degree in engineering or business administration. A degree in business administration or engineering management is especially useful for becoming a general manager. Natural science managers usually start as a chemist, physicist, biologist, or other natural scientist. A large proportion of natural scientists have a Ph.D. degree, especially those engaged in basic research, although some in applied research and other activities have lesser degrees. First level science managers are almost always special ists in the work they supervise. For example, the manager of a group of physicists doing optical research is almost always a physicist who is an expert in optics. Most data processing managers have been systems analysts, al though some may have experience as programmers or in other com puter specialties. There is no universally accepted way of preparing for a job as a systems analyst, but a bachelor’s degree is usually required. A graduate degree often is preferred. Many systems analysts have degrees in computer or information science, computer informa tion systems, or data processing and have experience as computer programmers. A typical career advancement progression in a large organization would be from programmer to programmer/analyst, to systems analyst, and then to project leader or senior analyst. The first real managerial position might be as project manager, programming supervisor, systems supervisor, or software manager. Experienced scientists, engineers, or computer specialists generally must demonstrate above-average technical skills to be considered for promotion to manager. In addition, superiors look for leadership, good communication skills, self-confidence, motivation, decisiveness, and flexibility, as well as managerial attributes such as the ability to make sound decisions, to organize and coordinate work effectively, to estab lish good personal relationships, and to motivate others. Also, a suc cessful manager must have the desire to manage. Many scientists, engineers, and computer specialists want to be promoted but actually prefer doing technical work. Some science and engineering managers become managers in mar keting, personnel, purchasing, or other areas or become general man agers. An engineering manager meets with his staff to discuss the progress of a project. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of engineering and science managers is expected to in crease much faster than the average for all occupations through the 30 Occupational Outlook Handbook year 2000. Employment growth of each type of manager is expected to correspond closely with growth of the occupation they supervise. (See the statements on natural scientists, engineers, computer program mers, and systems analysts elsewhere in the Handbook.) Underlying much of the growth of managers in science and engineer ing is the expected continued growth of research and development as companies update and improve products more frequently. Increasing investment in plants to expand output of goods and services and to increase productivity also will add to employment requirements for science and engineering managers involved in developing, designing, operating, and maintaining production facilities. The development of new technologies such as superconductivity and biotechnology also will add to efforts to develop new products using these technologies. Employment of data processing managers will increase as the economy expands and as advances in technology lead to new applications for computers. Despite this rapid growth in employment, most job openings will result from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Because many engineers, natural scientists, and computer specialists are eligible for management and seek promotion, there usually is substantial competition for these jobs. Earnings Earnings for engineering, science, and data processing managers vary by specialty and level of management. Salaries in 1988 ranged from about $40,000 to over $100,000 for the most senior managers in large organizations. Managers generally earned about 15 to 25 percent more than those they directly supervised. The average salary for Federal science and engineering managers was $54,900 in 1988. In addition, engineering, science, and data processing managers, especially those at higher levels, often are provided more fringe bene fits than nonmanagerial workers in their organizations. Higher level managers often are provided with expense accounts, stock option plans, and bonuses. Related Occupations The work of engineering, science, and data processing managers is closely related to that of engineers, natural scientists, computer person nel, and mathematicians. It is also related to the work of other manag ers, especially general managers and top executives. Sources of Additional Information Contact the sources of additional information on engineers, natural scientists, and systems analysts that are listed in statements on these occupations elsewhere in the Handbook. Financial Managers Highly trained and experienced financial managers head each financial department. Controllers direct the preparation of all finan cial reports—for example, income statements, balance sheets, and special reports such as depreciation schedules. They oversee the accounting, audit, or budget departments. Cash managers monitor and control the flow of cash receipts and disbursements and other financial instruments to meet the business and investment needs of the firm. For example, loans may be obtained to meet a cash shortage, or surplus cash may be invested in interest-bearing instru ments. Risk and insurance managers oversee programs to minimize risks and losses that may arise from financial transactions and business operations undertaken by the institution. Credit card opera tions managers establish credit rating criteria, determine credit ceilings, and monitor their institution’s extension of credit. Reserve officers review their institution’s financial statements and direct the purchase and sale of bonds and other securities to maintain the assetliability ratio required by law. User representatives in international accounting develop integrated international financial and accounting systems for the banking transactions of multinational organizations. A working knowledge of the financial systems of foreign countries is essential. Financial institutions—such as banks, savings and loan associa tions, personal credit institutions, and finance companies—may serve as depositories for cash and financial instruments and offer loans, investment counseling, trust management, and other financial services. Some institutions specialize in specific financial services. Financial managers in these institutions include vice presidents—who may head one or more financial departments—bank branch managers, savings and loan association managers, consumer credit managers, and credit union managers, for example. Financial managers in financial institutions make decisions in accor dance with Federal and State laws and regulations and policy set by the institution's board of directors. They must have detailed knowledge of industries allied to banking—such as insurance, real estate, and securities—and broad knowledge of business and industrial activities. With growing domestic hnd foreign competition, promotion of an expanding and increasingly complex variety of financial services is becoming a more important function of financial managers in banks and related institutions. Besides supervising financial services, they may advise individuals and businesses on financial planning and partic ipate in community projects. 1 9 1® | . (D.O.T. 161.117-018; 186.117-014, -038, -066, -070, -078; .167-022 -026 -054; and 189.117-038) Nature of the Work Practically every firm—whether in manufacturing, communications, finance, education, or health care—has one or more financial manag ers—treasurer, controller, cash manager, and others—who prepare the financial reports required by the firm to conduct its operations and to satisfy tax and regulatory requirements. Financial managers also oversee the flow of cash and financial instruments and develop informa tion to assess the present and future financial status of the firm. In small firms, treasurers’ duties usually include all financial man agement functions. However, in large firms, treasurers or chief finan cial officers oversee all financial management departments. In these instances, treasurers help top managers develop financial and economic policy and establish procedures, delegate authority, and oversee the implementation of these policies. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Controllers direct the preparation offinancial reports. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations Working Conditions Financial managers are provided with comfortable offices close to top managers and to departments which develop the financial data these managers need. Although overtime may sometimes be required, fi nancial managers typically work a 40-hour week. Attendance at meet ings of financial and economic associations and similar activities is often required. In very large corporations, some traveling to subsidiary firms may be necessary. Employment Financial managers held about 673,000 jobs in 1988. Although these managers are found in virtually every industry, about one-third were employed by financial services industries—banks, finance companies, insurance companies, securities dealers, real estate firms, and related institutions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in accounting or finance, or in business administra tion with an emphasis on accounting or finance, is suitable academic preparation for financial managers. A Master of Business Administra tion (MBA) degree in addition to a bachelor’s degree in any field is acceptable to some employers. However, many financial management positions are filled by promoting experienced, technically skilled pro fessional personnel—for example, accountants, budget analysts, credit analysts, insurance analysts, loan officers, and securities analysts—or accounting or related department supervisors in large institutions. In small firms, where the number of positions is limited, advancement to a financial management position may come slowly. In large firms, promotions may occur more quickly. Although experience, ability, and leadership are emphasized for promotion, advancement may be accelerated by special study. Firms often provide opportunities for workers to broaden their knowledge and skills and encourage employees to take courses at local colleges and universities. In addition, financial managment and banking associ ations, often in cooperation with colleges and universities, sponsor numerous national or local training programs. Their schools, located throughout the country, each deal with a different phase of financial management. Persons enrolled prepare extensively at home, then at tend sessions on subjects such as accounting management, budget management, corporate cash management, financial analysis, interna tional banking, and data processing systems procedures and manage ment. Firms also sponsor seminars and conferences and provide text books and other educational materials. Many firms pay all or part of the costs for those who successfully complete courses. Persons interested in becoming financial managers should like to work independently and analyze detailed information. The ability to communicate, both orally and in writing, with top managers is impor tant. They also need tact, good judgment, and the ability to establish effective personal relationships to oversee supervisory and professional staff members. Financial analysis and management have been revolutionized by technological improvements in computers and data processing equip ment. Knowledge of their applications is vital to upgrade managerial skills and to enhance advancement opportunities. Because financial management is critical for efficient business oper ations, well-trained, experienced financial managers may transfer to closely related positions in other industries. Some are promoted to top management positions. Financial managers with extensive experience and sufficient capital may head their own consulting firms. Job Outlook Employment of financial managers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. The growing need for skilled financial management in the face of the increasing variety and complexity of services—including financial planning—offered by financial institutions, more domestic and foreign competition, changing laws regarding taxes and other financial mat ters, and greater emphasis on accurate reporting of financial data should spur demand for financial managers. At the same time, expand https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 31 ing automation—such as use of computers for electronic funds trans mission and for data and information processing—makes financial managers more productive. Most job openings will result from the need to replace those who transfer to other fields, retire, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Because of the increasing number of qualified applicants, competi tion for financial managerial positions is expected to stiffen. Familiar ity with a range of financial services—for example, banking, insur ance, real estate, and securities—and with computers and data processing systems may enhance one’s chances for employment. De veloping expertise in a rapidly growing industry, such as health care, may also prove helpful. Once employed, financial managers are likely to work year round, even during periods of slow economic activity, because cyclical swings in the economy seem to have little immediate effect on financial management activities. Earnings The median annual salary of financial managers was $32,800 in 1988. The lowest 10 percent earned $17,500 or less, while the top 10 percent earned over $52,000. The salary level depends upon the size and location of the organization, and is likely to be higher in large institu tions and cities. Many financial managers in private industry receive additional compensation in the form of bonuses, which also vary substantially by size of firm. Financial managers generally receive fringe benefits typically of fered other managers—vacations, sick leave, health and life insurance, and pensions, for example. Related Occupations Financial managers combine formal education with experience in one or more areas of finance—such as asset management, lending, credit operations, securities investment, or insurance risk and loss control. Workers in other occupations which require similar training and ability include accountants and auditors, budget officers, credit analysts, loan officers, insurance consultants, pension consultants, real estate advisors, securities consultants, and underwriters. Sources of Additional Information For information about financial management careers, contact: w-American Financial Services Association, Fourth Floor, 1101 14th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. (•-Financial Executives Institute, Academic Relations Committee, P.O. Box 1938, Morristown, NJ 07962-1938. (•-National Corporate Cash Management Association, P.O. Box 7001, Newton, CT 06740. For information about financial management careers in banking and related financial institutions, contact: (•-American Bankers Association, Reference Librarian, 1120Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036. For information about financial management careers in savings and loan associations and related financial institutions, contact: (•-Institute of Financial Education and Financial Managers Society, 111 E. Wacker Dr., Chicago, IL 60601. For information about financial management careers in credit unions, contact: (•-Credit Union Executives Society, P.O. Box 14167. Madison, WI 53714. Additional information on careers in credit management is available from: (•-National Association of Credit Management, World Headquarters, 8815 Centre Park Dr., Suite 200, Columbia, MD 21045-2117. For information about financial management careers in the health care industry, contact: (•-Healthcare Financial Management Association, Suite 700, Two Westbrook Corporate Center, Westchester, IL 60154. Information about careers with the Federal Reserve System is avail able from: (•-Board of Governors, The Federal Reserve System, Personnel Division, Washington, DC 20551, or from the personnel department of the Federal Reserve bank serving each geographic area. 32 Occupational Outlook Handbook State bankers’ associations can furnish specific information about job opportunities in their State. Or write directly to a particular bank to inquire about job openings. For the names and addresses of banks and savings and related institutions, as well as the names of their principal officers, consult one of the following directories. m-The American Bank Directory (Norcross, Ga., McFadden Business Publica tions). m-The U.S. Savings and Loan Directory (Chicago, Rand McNally & Co.). m-Rand McNally Credit Union Directory (Chicago, Rand McNally & Co.). M-Polk’s World Bank Directory (Nashville, R.L. Polk & Co.). General Managers and Top Executives (List of D.O.T. codes available upon request. See p. 463.) Nature of the Work Chief executive officer, executive vice president for marketing, depart ment store manager, financial institution president, brokerage office manager, college president, school superintendent, and police chief— these are examples of general managers and top executives who, at the top of the management hierarchy, formulate the policies or direct the operations of the Nation’s private firms or government agencies. (Top executives in public administration who formulate policy are discussed in detail in the Handbook statement on government chief executives and legislators.) The fundamental objective of private organizations is to maintain efficiency and profitability in the face of accelerating technological complexity, economic interdependence, and domestic and foreign competition. Government agencies must effectively implement pro grams subject to budgetary constraints and shifting public preferences. In response to these trends, successful organizations have broadened their activities, grown in size and complexity, and expanded their management hierarchy. An organization’s general goals and policies are established by the chief executive officer in collaboration with other top executives, usually executive vice presidents, and with the board of directors. In a large corporation, a busy chief executive officer may frequently meet with top executives of other corporations, government, or foreign countries to discuss matters affecting the organization’s policies. Al though the chief executive officer retains ultimate authority and respon sibility, the chief operating officer may be delegated the authority to oversee executive vice presidents who direct the activities of various departments and are responsible for implementing the organization’s goals. The responsibilities of executive vice presidents depend greatly upon the size of the organization. In large corporations, their duties may be highly specialized. For example, they may oversee the activi ties of general managers of marketing, sales promotion, purchasing, finance, personnel, training, industrial relations, administrative ser vices, electronic data processing, property management, transporta tion, or legal services. (Some of these and other general managerial occupations are discussed elsewhere in this section of the Handbook.) In smaller firms, an executive vice president might be responsible for a number of these departments. General managers, in turn, direct their individual department’s ac tivities within the framework of the organization’s overall plan. With the help of supervisory managers and their staffs, general managers strive to achieve their department’s goals as rapidly and economically as possible. Working Conditions General managers are provided with offices close to the departments they direct and to the top executives to whom they report. Top execu tives may be provided with spacious offices and may enjoy numerous perquisites, such as executive dining rooms, automobiles, country club memberships, and liberal expense allowances—which may facilitate https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis meetings and negotiations with top executives from other corporations, government, or other nations. Long hours, including evenings and weekends, are the rule, and business discussions may occupy most of their time during social engagements. Substantial travel is often required. General managers may travel between national, regional, and local offices. Top executives may travel to meet with their counterparts in other corporations in the country or overseas. Perquisites such as reimbursement of an accompa nying spouse’s travel expenses help executives cope with frequent or extended periods away from home. Meetings and conferences spon sored by industries and associations occur regularly and provide invalu able opportunities to meet with peers and keep abreast of technological and other developments. In large corporations, job transfers between the parent company and its local offices or subsidiaries, here or abroad, are common. General managers and top executives often work under intense pressure to attain, for example, production and marketing goals. And sometimes they find themselves in situations over which they have limited influence—for example, when meeting with government offi cials, private interest groups, or competitors, or negotiating with for eign governments. Employment General managers and top executives held over 3 million jobs in 1988. Although they are found in every industry, employment is more concentrated in the largest industries—eating and drinking places, grocery stores, and miscellaneous business services, for example. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The educational background of managers and top executives varies as widely as the nature of their diverse responsibilities. Most general managers and top executives have a bachelor’s degree in liberal arts or business administration. Their major often is related to the departments they direct—for example, accounting for a general manager of finance or computer science for a general manager of data processing. Graduate and professional degrees are common. Many managers in administra tive, marketing, financial, and manufacturing activities have a master’s degree in business administration. Managers in highly technical manu facturing and research activities often have a master’s or doctoral degree in an engineering or scientific discipline. A law degree is mandatory for general managers of corporate legal departments, and hospital administrators generally have a master’s degree in health services administration or business administration. (For additional information, see the Handbook statement on health services manag ers.) College presidents and school superintendents generally have a doctorate, often in education administration; some have a law degree. In some industries, such as retail trade, competent individuals without a college degree may become general managers. Most general managers in the public sector have a liberal arts degree in public administration or in one of the social sciences such as economics, psychology, sociology, or urban studies. For others, expe rience is still the primary qualification. City managers usually have a liberal arts degree, although the master’s degree in public administra tion is increasing in importance. For park superintendents, a liberal arts degree also provides a suitable background. Police chiefs are graduates of police academies; in addition, a degree in police science or a related field is increasingly important. Similarly, fire chiefs are graduates of fire academies; in addition, a degree in fire science is gaining in importance. For harbormasters, a high school education and experience as a harbor pilot are sufficient. Most general management and top executive positions are filled by promoting experienced, lower level managers who display the leadership, self-confidence, motivation, decisiveness, and flexibility required by these demanding positions. In small firms, where the number of positions is limited, advancement to a higher management position may come slowly. In large firms, promotions may occur more quickly. Advancement may be accelerated by participation in company train ing programs to broaden knowledge of company policy and operations. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 33 accounting, bookkeeping, and auditing services firms and in some industries concerned with health and welfare such as outpatient clinics and establishments offering individual and family social services. On the other hand, employment of general managers and top executives is expected to increase more slowly in the educational services industry in line with the growth of the school-age population. Little or no change or even a decline in employment is projected in some manufacturing industries. Executive positions demand leadership, self-confidence, motivation, and decisiveness. Attendance at national or local training programs sponsored by numer ous industry and trade associations and continuing education, often at company expense, in colleges and universities can familiarize manag ers with the latest developments in management techniques. Participa tion in interdisciplinary conferences and seminars can expand knowl edge of national and international issues influencing the manager’s firm. Persons interested in becoming general managers and top executives must have highly developed personal skills. A highly analytical mind able to quickly assess large amounts of information and data is very important. The ability to consider and evaluate the interrelationships of numerous factors and to select the best course of action is imperative. In the absence of sufficient information, sound intuitive judgment is crucial to reaching favorable decisions. General managers and top executives also must be able to communicate clearly and persuasively, both orally and in writing. General managers may advance to top executive positions, such as executive or administrative vice president, in their own firm or to a corresponding general management position in a larger firm. Similarly, top-level managers may advance to peak corporate positions—chief operating officer and, finally, chief executive officer. Chief executive officers, upon retirement, may become members of the board of direc tors of one or more firms. Some general managers and top executives with sufficient capital establish their own firms. Job Outlook Employment of general managers and top executives is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as businesses grow in number, size, and complexity. However, in the face of intense competition, many firms are improving operating efficiency by expanding individual managers’ responsibilities—thus moderating employment growth. While many job openings will also occur each year to replace those who transfer to better paying positions, start their own businesses, or retire, competent, experienced lower level managers should expect keen competition for high-paying, presti gious general and top management positions. Outstanding individuals whose accomplishments reflect strong leadership qualities and the ability to improve the efficiency or competitive position of their organi zation will have the best job opportunities. Projected employment growth varies by industry. For example, most services industries will continue to expand rapidly. Employment of general managers and top executives in the computer and data processing services industry is expected to grow much faster than the average as computer use expands. Very rapid employment growth also is expected in firms supplying management, consulting, public relations, personnel supply, and other business services as many firms find it cost-efficient to contract out for these services. Employment of general managers and top executives is expected to grow rapidly in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings The estimated median annual salary of general managers and top executives was around $38,700 in 1988. Many earned well over $52,000. Salary levels vary substantially depending upon the level of managerial responsibility, length of service, and type, size, and loca tion of the firm. Most salaried general managers and top executives in the private sector receive additional compensation in the form of bonuses, stock awards, and cash-equivalent fringe benefits such as company-paid insurance premiums, physical examinations, use of company cars, and paid country club memberships. Similar to their subordinates, general managers and top executives receive other fringe benefits such as paid vacations, sick leave, and pensions. Chief executive officers are the most highly paid top-level managers. A recent survey of top corporations revealed that over 150 chief executive officers received base salaries of $1 million or more and additional compensation—such as fringe benefits and company stock—equivalent, on the average, to nearly half of their base salary. Other surveys of executive salaries reveal the importance of the size of the corporation. A top-level manager in a very large corporation can earn 10 times as much as a counterpart in a small firm. Salaries also vary substantially by industry and geographic location. For example, salaries in manufacturing and finance are generally higher than those for corresponding positions in State and local govern ments. Also, salaries in large metropolitan areas such as New York City are normally higher than those in small cities and towns. Related Occupations General managers and top executives plan, organize, direct, control, and coordinate the operations of an organization and its major depart ments or programs. The members of the board of directors and supervi sory managers are also involved in these activities. Occupations in government with similar functions are governor, mayor, postmaster, commissioner, director, and office chief. Sources of Additional Information For information about careers as general managers and top executives, contact: (•-American Management Association, Management Information Service, 135 West 50th St., New York, NY 10020. (•-National Management Association, 2210 Arbor Blvd., Dayton, OH 45439. Information about general managers and top executives in specific industries may be obtained from organizations listed under a number of headings—for example, administration, administrators, directors, executives, management, managers, and superintendents—in various encyclopedias or directories of associations in public libraries. Government Chief Executives and Legislators Nature of the Work Go to school. Pay your taxes. Register for the draft. Stop at the stop sign. It seems as though the government is always telling us what to do. Who, then, tells the government what to do? Chief executives and legislators at the Federal, State, and local level do the telling. They are elected or appointed officials who strive to meet the needs of their constituents with an effective and efficient government. 34 Occupational Outlook Handbook Chief executives are officials in charge of units of government who carry out and enforce laws. They include the President and Vice President of the United States, State governors and lieutenant gover nors, county commissioners, township supervisors, mayors, and city managers. All except city and county managers are elected; managers are appointed by the city council and the county commission. Government chief executives, like corporation presidents and other chief executives, have overall responsibility for the performance of their organizations. In coordination with legislators, they establish goals and objectives, then organize programs and formulate policies to attain these goals. They appoint people to head departments, such as highways, health, police, recreation, economic development, and finance. Through these department heads, chief executives oversee the work of civil servants, who carry out programs and enforce laws enacted by the legislative bodies. They prepare budgets, which specify how government resources will be used. They insure that resources are being used properly and that programs are carried out as planned by holding staff conferences, requiring work schedules and periodic performance reports, and by conducting personal inspections. Chief executives meet with legislators and constituents to solicit their ideas, discuss programs, and encourage their support, and confer with leaders of other governments to solve mutual problems. They encourage business investment and economic development in their jurisdictions and seek Federal or State funds. Chief executives nomi nate citizens for government boards and commissions—to oversee government activities or examine and help the government solve prob lems such as drug abuse, crime, deteriorating roads, or inadequate public education. They also solicit bids from and select contractors to do work for the government. Chief executives of large jurisdictions rely on a staff of aides and assistants, while those in small ones often do much of the work themselves. Legislators are the elected officials who make laws or amend existing ones in order to remedy problems or to promote certain activities. They include U.S. Senators and Representatives, State senators and representatives (called assemblymen or delegates in some States) and county legislatures and city and town council members (called aidermen or selectmen in some areas). Legislators introduce bills in the legislative body and examine and vote on bills introduced by other legislators. In preparing legislation, they read reports and work with constituents, representatives of interest groups, members of boards and commissions, the chief executive and department heads, consultants, and legislators in other units of government. They also approve budgets and the appointments of department heads and commission members submitted by the chief executive. In some jurisdictions, the legislative body appoints a city or county manager. Many legislators have a staff to help do research and prepare legislation and resolve constituents’ problems. In some units of government, the line between legislative and execu tive functions is not clear. For example, mayors and city managers may draft legislation and conduct council meetings, while council members may oversee the operation of departments. Both chief executives and legislators perform ceremonial duties__ they open new structures and businesses; make proclamations, wel come visitors, and lead celebrations. Working Conditions Working conditions of chief executives and legislators vary depending on the size of the government unit. Those in small jurisdictions may work less than 20 hours a week; others may work 60 or more hours per week. U.S. Senators and Representatives, governors and lieutenant governors, and chief executives and legislators in some large local jurisdictions work full time year round, as do almost all county and city managers. Most State legislators work full time while legislatures are in session—usually for a few months a year and part time the rest of the year. Local elected officials in most jurisdictions usually work part time; however, in some cases, while the job is officially designated part time, incumbents actually work a full-time schedule. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Regardless of their regular schedules, chief executives are generally on call at all hours to handle emergencies. Some jobs require only occasional out-of-town travel, while others involve more frequent travel—generally to attend sessions of the legis lature or to meet with officials of other units of government. Officials in districts covering a large area may drive long distances to perform their regular duties. Employment Chief executives and legislators held about 69,000 jobs in 1988. About 4 of 5 worked in local government; the rest worked in the Federal and State governments. The Federal Government had 535 Senators and Representatives. State legislators totaled approximately 7,500, and city managers, approximately 4,900. Executives and council members for local governments made up the remainder. While chief executives and legislators are found in every government unit, city managers are most commonly found in medium-size and large cities. Officials who do not hold full-time, year-round positions generally work in another occupation as well—commonly the one they held before being elected—are retired from another occupation, or have household responsibilities. Business owner or manager, teacher, and lawyer are the most common other occupation, but there are many others as well. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because most chief executives and legislators are elected, the voters determine whether an individual who meets the minimum age and citizenship requirements of the position is fit to hold it. Therefore, the question is not “How does one become qualified?” but “How does one get elected?” Successful candidates generally have a record of accomplishment in paid and unpaid work. Many have business, teaching, or legal experience, but others come from a wide variety of occupations. In addition, many have served as volunteers on school boards or zoning commissions; with charities, political action groups, and political campaigns; or with religious, fraternal, and similar organizations. Not surprisingly, few young adults enter these jobs. Work experience and public service help develop the planning, organizing, negotiating, motivating, fundraising, bugdeting, public speaking, and problem-solving skills needed to run a political cam paign. Candidates must be decisive, quickly making fair decisions About four out offive government officials work at the local level. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations with little or contradictory information. They must have confidence in themselves and their employees, being able to inspire and motivate their constituents and their staff. They must also be sincere and candid, presenting their views thoughtfully and convincingly. Additionally, they must know how to negotiate and hammer out compromises with colleagues and constituents. National and statewide campaigns also require a good deal of energy and stamina. City managers are appointed by the council while county managers are appointed by the commission. Managers come from a variety of educational backgrounds. A master’s degree in public administra tion—which would include courses such as public financial manage ment and legal issues in public administration—is widely recom mended but not required. Generally, a city manager in a smaller city is required to have some expertise in a wider variety of areas, while those who work for larger cities concentrate on administrative and personnel matters. County managers, on the other hand, must have expertise in a broad range of administrative areas regardless of the size of the jurisdiciton. For all managers, communication skills and the ability to get along with others are essential. Advancement opportunities for most elected public officials are not clearly defined. Because elected positions generally require a period of residency and because local public support is critical, officials can usually advance to other offices only in the jurisdictions where they live. For example, council members may run for mayor or for a position in the State government, and State legislators may run for governor or for Congress. Many officials are not politically ambitious, however, and do not seek advancement. And many lose their bids for reelection or voluntarily leave the occupation. City managers have a more well-defined career path. They generally obtain a master’s degree in public administration, then gain experience as management analysts or assistants in government departments work ing with councils and mayors and learning about planning, budgeting, civil engineering, and other aspects of runnning a city. After several years, they may be hired to manage a town or a small city and may eventually become manager of progressively larger cities. Job outlook Little change in employment of government chief executives and legislators is expected through the year 2000. Few, if any, new govern ments are likely to be formed, and the number of chief executives and legislators in existing governments rarely changes. Some small increase may occur as growing communities become independent cities and towns and elect a chief executive and legislators and, per haps, appoint a town manager. A few new positions may also develop as cities and counties without managers hire them and as unpaid offices—which are not counted as employment—are converted to paid positions. Elections provide the opportunity for newcomers to unseat incum bents or to fill vacated positions. In many elections, there is substantial competition, although the level of competition varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction and from year to year. In general, there is less competi tion in small jurisdictions which have part-time positions with low salaries and little or no staff to help with tedious work. In some cases, an incumbent is unopposed or an incumbent resigns and there is only one candidate. Earnings Earnings of public administrators vary widely, depending on the size of the government unit and on whether the job is part time, full time year round, or full time for only a few months a year. In general, earnings are low. According to the International City Management Association, the median annual salary of full-time council members was $2,400 in 1986. It ranged from $750 in cities with a population of 2,500 and under to $40,000 in cities with a population of 500,000 and above. The average annual salary of mayors was $8,321 in 1988. in cities with a population under 2,500, they averaged $1,645; in cities with a population over 1 million, $55,833. The average annual salary of city managers was $50,536 in 1988. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 35 Salaries ranged from $30,049 in towns with fewer than 2,500 residents to $109,017 in cities with a population of 500,000 to 1 million. According to the Council of State Governments, the average salary for legislators in the 39 States that paid legislators an annual salary was $17,711 in 1987. In 11 States, legislators just received per diem while legislatures were in session. Salaries and per diem were generally higher in the larger States. According to Book of the States 1988-89, gubernatorial annual salaries ranged from $35,000 in Arkansas to $130,000 in New York. In addition to a salary, most governors received perquisites such as transportation and an official residence. Lieutenant governors earned an average salary of $47,292, according to a 1989 survey conducted by the National Conference of Lieutenant Governors. Related occupations Related occupations include managerial positions that require a broad range of skills in addition to administrative expertise. Sources of Additional Information For more information on careers in public administration, consult your elected representatives and local library. Information on county governments can be obtained from: •-The National Association of Counties, 440 First St. NW., Washington, DC 20001. Information on all local government appointed officials can be obtained from: •-International City Management Association, 1120 G St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. Health Services Managers (D.O.T. 074.131; 075.117-014, -022, -026, and -030; 079.117-010, .131, .137, and .167-014; 187.117-010, -018, and -062; and 188.117-082 and .167 058) Nature of the Work Walk into a busy emergency room and the place probably looks chaotic, with staff hurrying from one patient to another. What looks like chaos actually is a highly structured and smoothly running opera tion. The person who ensures that it functions efficiently is the emer gency medical service coordinator, just one of many health services managers who keep hospitals and other health facilities operating smoothly. Health services manager is an inclusive term for individuals in many different positions who plan, organize, coordinate, and supervise the delivery of health care. Health services managers include both general ists—the administrators managing or helping to manage the entire facility—and health specialists—the managers in charge of specific clinical departments or services that are found only in the health industry. The top administrator or chief executive officer (CEO) and the assistant administrators without specific titles are considered health care generalists. Although their titles may vary by type and size of institution, these managers set the overall direction of the facility. They also are concerned with community outreach, planning, policymaking, response to government agencies and regulations, and negotiating. Their range of knowledge is necessarily broad, including developments in the clinical departments as well as in the business arena. The job often includes speaking before civic groups, promoting public participation in health programs, and coordinating the activities of the organization with those of government or community agencies. Institutional planning is an increasingly important responsibility for CEO’s, who must assess the need for services, personnel, facilities, and equipment and recommend such changes as opening a home health service, for example, or closing a burn center. CEO’s need leadership ability as well as technical skills in order to respond effectively to the community’s requirements for health care while, at the same time, 36 Occupational Outlook Handbook satisfying demand for financial viability, cost containment, and public and professional accountability. CEO’s have to be ready for the extensive oversight and scrutiny to which health facilities are subjected. Both past performance and plans for the future are subject to review by a variety of groups and organiza tions, including consumer groups, government agencies, professional oversight bodies, insurance companies and other third-party payers, business coalitions, and even the courts. Preparing for inspection visits by observers from regulatory and accrediting bodies and submitting appropriate records and documentation are generally time consuming as well as technically demanding. Some facilities may have one or more assistant administrators to aid the CEO and to handle day-to-day management decisions. There may be directors responsible for broad clinical areas such as nursing services or medical affairs and for other nonhealth areas such as finance, personnel, and information management. (Because the nonhealth de partments are not directly related to health care, these managers are not included in this statement. For information about these kinds of managers, see the statements on managerial occupations elsewhere in the Handbook). Health specialists provide the day-to-day management of specialized departments like surgery, rehabilitation therapy, nursing, medical re cords, and so on. These managers have more narrowly defined respon sibilities than the generalists to whom they report. Another characteris tic of these specialists is the need to have specific training and/or experience in the field. For example, the director of physical therapy would invariably have been a staff physical therapist who has been promoted; a medical records administrator needs a bachelor’s degree regardless of the amount of experience he or she possesses. These managers establish and implement policies, goals, objectives, and procedures for their departments; evaluate personnel and work; de velop reports and budgets; and coordinate activities with other depart ment heads, the top administration, and professional colleagues. Although there arc many common elements involved in running a health facility, there are significant differences among settings that affect job duties. For example, hospital and nursing home management differ in important respects. The chief hospital administrator works with the governing board in establishing general policies and an opera ting philosophy and provides direction to assistant administrators and department heads who carry out those policies. Nursing home administratiors need many of the same management skills but are much more involved in detailed management decisions than hospital administra tors. Administrative staffs in nursing homes are typically much smaller than those in hospitals—nursing home administrators often have only one or two assistants, sometimes none. Nursing home administrators directly manage personnel, finance, operations, and admissions. They analyze data and make daily management decisions in all of these areas. Because many nursing home residents are long term—staying for months or even years—administrators must try to create an environ ment that nourishes residents’ psychological, social, and spiritual well being, as well as to tend to their health care needs. This long-term residency allows the nursing home administrator to have direct contact with the patients, something that few hospital administrators are able to do unless a problem arises. In the growing field of group practice management, managers need to be able to work effectively with the physicians who own the practice. Specific job duties vary according to the size of the group. While an office manager handles business affairs in very small medical groups, leaving policy decisions to the physicians themselves, larger groups generally employ a full-time administrator to advise on business strate gies and coordinate the day-to-day management of the practice. A small group of 10 or 15 physicians might employ a single adminis trator to oversee personnel matters, billing and collection, budgeting, planning, equipment outlays, advertising, and patient flow, whereas a large practice of 40 or 50 physicians would require a chief administra tor and several business assistants, each responsible for a different functional area of management. In addition to providing overall man agement direction, the chief administrator would be responsible for assuring that the practice maintained or strengthened its competitive https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis position. This is no small task, given the rapidly changing nature of the health care environment. Assuring competitiveness might entail market research to analyze the services the practice currently offers and those it might offer; negotiating contracts with hospitals or other health care providers to gain access to specialized facilities and equip ment; or entering joint ventures for the purchase of an expensive piece of medical equipment such as a magnetic resonance imager. Health services managers in health maintenance organizations (HMO's) per form all of the functions of those in large medical group practices. Working Conditions Health services managers often work long hours. Facilities such as nursing homes and hospitals operate around the clock, and administra tors and managers may be called at all hours to deal with emergencies. The job also may include travel to attend meetings or to inspect satellite health care facilities. Employment Health services managers held about 177,000 jobs in 1988. Half of all jobs were in hospitals. About a quarter of health services managers worked in nursing and personal care facilities and in offices of physi cians. The remainder worked in outpatient care facilities, other health and allied services, medical and dental laboratories, and offices of dentists and other practitioners. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Knowledge of management principles and practices is the essential requirement for a position in this field, and such knowledge often is gained through work experience. Nonetheless, formal educational preparation is important, especially for those who wish to advance in the profession. For many chief administrative positions, a graduate degree in health services administration, nursing administration, or business administration is a decided asset. For all health specialist positions and some generalist positions, employers seek applicants who have had clinical experience (as nurses or therapists, for example) as well as academic preparation in business or health services adminis tration. Many hospitals are setting up separate ventures such as outpatient surgical centers, alcoholism treatment centers, and home health care services. When they operate at a profit, separate companies such as these can funnel needed revenue to the hospital. To operate and manage these subsidiary companies, hospitals look outside the health industry for managers with well-established skills in profit and loss analysis, marketing, and finance. Nonetheless, graduate education in health services administration remains a prerequisite for many upper level administrative positions within hospitals and their subsidiaries. Academic programs in health administration, leading to a bache lor’s, master’s, or doctoral degree, are offered by colleges, universi ties, and schools of public health, allied health, and business adminis tration. The various degree programs provide different levels of career preparation. The master’s degree—in hospital administration, health administration, public health, or business administration—is regarded as the standard credential for many positions in this field. Educational requirements vary with the size of the organization and the amount of responsibility involved. Generally, larger organizations require more specialized academic preparation than smaller ones do. In 1989, 29 colleges and universities offered bachelor’s degree programs in health services administration. Fifty schools had accred ited programs leading to the master’s degree in health services adminis tration, according to the Accrediting Commission on Education for Health Services Administration. To enter graduate programs, applicants must have a bachelor’s degree. Some schools seek students with undergraduate degrees in business or health administration; however, many programs prefer those students with a liberal arts or social science background. Compe tition for entry to these programs is keen, and applicants need above average grades to gain admission. The programs generally last between 2 and 3 years. They include up to 1 year of supervised administrative experience, undertaken after completion of course work in such areas Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations as hospital organization and management, accounting and budget con trol, personnel administration, strategic planning, and management of health information systems. New graduates with master’s degrees in health or hospital adminis tration may be hired by hospitals as assistant administrators. Others may have to start as managers of nonhealth departments and work up to top administrative positions. Postgraduate residencies and fellow ships are offered by hospitals and other health facilities; these are normally staff jobs. Growing numbers of graduates from master’s degree programs are also taking jobs in HMO’s, large group medical practices, multifacility nursing home corporations, and clinics. Students should be aware, however, that mid-level job transfers from one setting to another may be difficult. Employers place a high value on experience in similar settings because some of the management skills are unique to each setting. New recipients of bachelor’s degrees in health administration usu ally begin their careers as administrative assistants or assistant depart ment heads in larger hospitals, or as department heads or assistant administrators in small hospitals or in nursing homes. The Ph.D. degree usually is required for positions in teaching, consulting, or research. Nursing service administrators are usually chosen from among supervisory registered nurses with administrative abilities and advanced education. Licensure is not required in most areas of health services manage ment, except for nursing home or long-term care administration. All States and the District of Columbia require nursing home administra tors to pass a licensing examination, complete a State-approved train ing program, and pursue continuing education. Most States have addi tional specific requirements, so persons interested in nursing home administration should contact the individual agencies of the State in which they wish to work for information. At the time of this writing, the Health Care Financing Administration was developing Medicare guidelines for nursing home administrators, but they had not been released. Health services managers are often responsible for millions of dol lars of facilities and equipment and hundreds of employees. To make effective decisions, they need to be open to different opinions and good at sifting through contradictory information. To motivate subor dinates to implement their decisions, they need strong leadership qualities. Interpersonal skills are important in all settings, but nowhere more so than in medical groups, where success depends on developing a good working relationship with the physician-owners. Tact, diplo macy, and communication skills are essential. Like their counterparts in other kinds of organizations, health ser vices managers need to be self-starters. In order to create an atmosphere favorable to good patient care, they must like people, enjoy working with them, and be able to deal effectively with them. They also should be good at public speaking. Health services managers need strong interpersonal skills. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 37 Health services managers may advance by moving into more respon sible and higher paying positions within their own institution; advance ment occurs with promotion to successively more responsible jobs such as assistant or associate administrator and, finally, CEO. Health services managers sometimes begin their careers in small hospitals in positions with broad responsibilities, such as assistant administrator. Managers also advance by shifting to another health care facility or organization. Job Outlook Employment of health services managers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as health services continue to expand and diversify. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace managers who transfer to another field or stop working. Hospitals will continue to employ the greatest number of health services managers, although the number of jobs will not be growing as fast as in other areas. Opportunities for managers in hospitals should be best in major medical centers as well as hospital subsidiaries that provide such services as ambulatory surgery, alcohol and drug abuse rehabilitation, hospice facilities, or home health care. Opportunities should be poor in small rural hospitals. Employment in offices of physicians and other health practitioners, outpatient care facilities, health and allied services, and nursing and long-term care facilities will be growing the fastest and will provide many job opportunities. Demand in facilities that provide ambulatory or outpatient care will be stimulated primarily by the expansion of HMO’s and medical group practices, but continued growth of such facilities as urgent care centers, cardiac rehabilitation centers, diagnostic imaging centers, and pain clinics will play an important role, too. Ambulatory facilities such as outpatient surgical centers and after-hours clinics are expected to experience very rapid growth due to their convenience and competitive fee structure, generating additional management jobs. With better medical care and healthier lifestyles, Americans are living longer than ever before. Very rapid growth is projected in the number of people 85 years of age and above between now and the year 2000, and this is likely to exert strong pressure for an expansion of long-term care facilities and services—not just nursing homes, but home health care, adult day care programs, life care communities, and assisted living arrangements. Opportunities for managers in the large and rapidly expanding nursing home sector should be highly favorable. Nursing home chains will need more management personnel at the corporate level to plan new facilities, acquire existing ones, and pro mote new services and activities. Health service managers in hospitals will face very keen competition for upper level management jobs, a reflection of the pyramidal manage ment structure characteristic of most large and complex organizations. In nursing homes and other long-term care facilities, where a gradu ate degree in health administration is not ordinarily a requirement, job opportunities for individuals with strong business or management skills will continue to be good. Earnings Median earnings for all health service managers were $30,524 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $22,516 and $41,080. The lowest 10 percent averaged less than $15,704, the highest 10 percent, more than $50,856. The personal standing and performance of the administrator, geographic location, type and size of the facility, and type of ownership are all factors in determining the earnings of admin istrators. For example, median salaries for hospital CEO’s range from $70,000 in hospitals with fewer than 150 beds to $135,000 in hospitals with 500 or more, according to the Hospital and Health Care Report, 13th edition, 1988/89, published by the Executive Compensation Ser vice, a Wyatt Data Services Company, Fort Lee, New Jersey. Management incentive bonuses based on job performance are in creasingly commonplace in executive compensation packages. 38 Occupational Outlook Handbook Related Occupations Health service managers have training or experience in health and in management. Other occupations that require knowledge of both fields are public health directors, social welfare administrators, directors of voluntary health agencies and health professional associations, and underwriters in health insurance companies and HMO’s. Sources of Additional Information Information about health administration and academic programs in this field is available from: (•-American College of Healthcare Executives, 840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60611. ••-Association of University Programs in Health Administration, 1911 Fort Myer Dr., Suite 503, Arlington, VA 22209. Information about health administration and job opportunities in group medical practices is available from: ••-Medical Group Management Association, 1355 South Colorado Blvd., Suite 900, Denver, CO 80222. For information about career opportunities in long-term care, contact: ••-American College of Health Care Administrators, 8120 Woodmont Ave., Suite 200, Bethesda, MD 20814. The American Association of Homes for the Aging maintains a listing of positions available and positions wanted in nonprofit nursing homes, continuing care retirement communities, and housing for the elderly. For details, write: w-Job Mart, AAHA, 1129 20th St. NW„ Suite 400, Washington, DC 20036. Hotel Managers and Assistants (D.O.T. 187.117-038, .167-046, -078, -106, -110, -122; and 320) Nature of the Work Across the Nation, hotels and motels are a welcome haven for weary travelers. For vacationing families and persons whose jobs take them out of town, a comfortable room, good food, and a helpful hotel staff can make being away from home an enjoyable experience. They may be guests overnight at a roadside motel, spend several days at a towering downtown convention hotel, or a week at a large resort complex with tennis courts, a golf course, and a variety of other recreational facilities. At each, hotel managers and assistant managers work to insure that guests’ visits are pleasant. Hotel managers are responsible for the efficient and profitable opera tion of their establishments. In a small hotel, motel, or inn with a limited staff, a single manager may direct all aspects of operations. However, large hotels may employ hundreds of workers, and the manager may be aided by a number of assistant managers assigned among departments responsible for various aspects of operations. The general manager has overall responsibility for the operation of the hotel and sets room rates, allocates funds to departments, approves expenditures, and establishes standards for service to guests, decor, housekeeping, food quality, and banquet operations. (For more infor mation, see the statement on general managers and top executives elsewhere in the Handbook.) Assistant managers must insure that the day-to-day operations of their departments meet the general manager’s standards. Resident managers live in hotels and are on call 24 hours a day to resolve any problems or emergencies. As the most senior assistant manager, they oversee the day-to-day operations of the hotel. In many hotels, the general manager also serves as the resident manager. Executive housekeepers are responsible for insuring that guest rooms, meeting and banquet rooms, and public areas are clean, orderly, and well maintained. They train, schedule, and supervise the work of housekeepers, inspect rooms, and order cleaning supplies. Front office managers coordinate reservations and room assign ments and train and direct the hotel’s front desk staff that deals with the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis public. They insure that guests are handled courteously and efficiently, complaints and problems are resolved, and requests for special services are carried out. Food and beverage managers direct the food services of hotels. They oversee the operation of hotels’ restaurants, cocktail lounges, and banquet facilities. They supervise and schedule food and beverage preparation and service workers, plan menus, estimate costs, and deal with food suppliers. (For more information, see the statement on restaurant and food service managers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Convention services managers coordinate the activities of large hotels’ various departments for meetings, conventions, and other spe cial events. They meet with representatives of groups or organizations to plan the number of rooms to reserve, the desired configuration of hotel meeting space, and any banquet services needed. During the meeting or event, they resolve unexpected problems and monitor activities to check that hotel operations conform to the expectations of the group. Other assistant managers may be specialists responsible for activi ties such as personnel, accounting and office administration, market ing and sales, security, and recreational facilities. (For more informa tion, see the related statements on personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers; financial managers; and market ing, advertising, and public relations managers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Large hotel and motel chains often centralize some activities, such as purchasing or sales, so that individual hotels in the chain may not need managers for these departments. Managers who work for chains may be assigned to organize and staff a newly built hotel, refurbish an older hotel, or reorganize a hotel or motel that is not operating successfully. Working Conditions Since hotels are open around the clock, night and weekend work is common. Many hotel managers work considerably more than 40 hours per week. Managers who live in the hotel usually have regular work schedules, but they may be called for work at any time. Some employ ees of resort hotels are managers during the busy season and have other duties the rest of the year. Hotel managers sometimes experience the pressures of coordinating a wide range of functions. Conventions and large groups of tourists may present unusual problems. Dealing with irate patrons can also be stressful. The job can be particularly hectic for front office managers around checkin and checkout time. Employment Hotel managers and assistant managers held about 96,000 wage and salary jobs in 1988. An additional number—primarily owners of Front office hotel managers oversee the front desk staff and resolve guests' complaints. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations small hotels and motels—were self-employed. Others were employed by companies that manage hotels and motels under contract. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Postsecondary training in hotel or restaurant management is preferred for most hotel management positions, although a college liberal arts degree may be sufficient when coupled with related hotel experience. In the past, most managers were promoted from the ranks of front desk clerks, housekeepers, waiters and chefs, and hotel sales workers. While some persons still advance to hotel management positions with out the benefit of education or training beyond high school, increas ingly, postsecondary education is required and specialized hotel or restaurant training is preferred. Nevertheless, experience working in a hotel—even part time while in school—is an asset to all persons seeking to enter hotel management careers. Restaurant management training or experience is also a good background for entering hotel management because the success of a hotel’s restaurant and cocktail lounge is often of great importance to the profitability of the entire establishment. A bachelor’s degree in hotel and restaurant administration provides particularly strong preparation for a career in hotel management. In 1988, over 150 colleges and universities offered bachelor’s and graduate programs in this field. Over 600 community and junior colleges, technical institutes, vocational and trade schools, and other academic institutions also have programs leading to an associate degree or other formal recognition in hotel or restaurant management. Graduates of hotel or restaurant management programs usually start as trainee assistant managers, or at least advance to such positions more quickly. Hotel management programs usually include instruction in hotel administration, accounting, economics, marketing, housekeeping, food service management and catering, hotel maintenance engineer ing, and data processing—reflecting the widespread use of computers in hotel operations such as reservations, accounting, and housekeeping management. Programs encourage part-time or summer work in hotels and restaurants because the experience gained and the contacts made with employers may benefit students when they seek full-time employ ment after graduation. Hotel managers must be able to get along with all kinds of people, even in stressful situations. They need initiative, self-discipline, and the ability to organize and direct the work of others. They must be able to solve problems and concentrate on details. Sometimes large hotels sponsor specialized on-the-job management training programs which enable trainees to rotate among various de partments and gain a thorough knowledge of the hotel’s operation. Other hotels may help finance the necessary training in hotel manage ment for outstanding employees. Most hotels promote employees who have proven their ability. Newly built hotels, particularly those without well-established onthe-job training programs, often prefer experienced personnel for managerial positions. Large hotel and motel chains may offer better opportunities for advancement than small, independently owned establishments, but relocation every several years often is necessary for advancement. They have more extensive career ladder programs and offer managers the opportunity to transfer to another hotel or motel in the chain or to the central office if an opening occurs. Career advancement can be accelerated by completion of certification programs offered by the associations listed below. These programs generally require a combination of course work, examinations, and experience. Job Outlook Employment of salaried hotel managers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as more hotels and motels are built. Business travel will continue to grow, and in creased domestic and foreign tourism will also create demand for additional hotels and motels. Most openings are expected to occur as experienced managers transfer to other occupations, retire, or stop working for other reasons. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 39 Opportunities to enter hotel management are expected to be vety good for persons who have college degrees in hotel or restaurant management. Earnings Salaries of hotel managers varied greatly according to their responsibil ities and the size of the hotel in which they worked. In 1989, annual salaries of assistant hotel managers averaged about $30,000, based on a survey conducted for the American Hotel and Motel Association. Assistants employed in large hotels with 600 rooms or more averaged over $40,000 in 1989, while those in small hotels with less than 200 rooms averaged about $23,000. Salaries of assistant managers also varied because of differences in duties and responsibilities. For exam ple, food and beverage managers averaged $37,700, according to the same survey, whereas front office managers averaged $22,600. The manager’s level of experience is also an important factor. In 1989, salaries of general managers averaged about $53,000, ranging from an average of about $37,800 in hotels and motels with less than 200 rooms to an average of more than $76,000 in large hotels with 600 rooms or more. Managers may earn bonuses ranging up to 20 percent of their basic salary in some hotels. In addition, they and theirfamilies may be furnished with lodging, meals, parking, laundry, and other services. Most managers and assistants receive 5 to 10 paid holidays a year, paid vacation, sick leave, life insurance, medical benefits, and pension plans. Some hotels offer profit-sharing plans, educational assistance, and other benefits to their employees. Related Occupations Hotel managers and assistants are not the only workers concerned with organizing and directing a business in which pleasing people is very important. Others with similar responsibilities include restaurant man agers, apartment building managers, department store managers, and office managers. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers and scholarships in hotel management, contact: w-The American Hotel and Motel Association (AH&MA), 1201 New York Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20005. For information on certification requirements and educational pro grams in hotel management, write to: (•-The Educational Institute of AH&MA, P.O. Box 1240, East Lansing, MI 48826. Information on careers in housekeeping management may be ob tained from: (•-National Executive Housekeepers Association, Inc., 1001 Eastwind Dr., Suite 301, Westerville, OH 43081. For information on hospitality careers, as well as how to purchase a directory of colleges and other schools offering programs and courses in hotel and restaurant administration, write to: (•-Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, 1200 17th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036-3097. General career information and a directory of accredited private trade and technical schools offering programs in hotel-motel manage ment may be obtained from: (•-National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, P.O. Box 10429, Department BL, Rockville, MD 20850. Industrial Production Managers (D.O.T. 180.167-054; 181.117-010; 182.167-022; 183.117-010, -014, .161 014, .167-010, -014, -018, -022, -026, -034, and-038; and 189.117-042, .167 042, and -046) Nature of the Work Each day we consume products made in factories across the country. Although few of these factories are exactly alike, they all share a 40 Occupational Outlook Handbook similar organizational structure: production workers operate industrial machinery and equipment to produce goods, and blue-collar worker supervisors—first-line supervisors—oversee these workers and handle any minor problems that arise. Directing the work of first-line supervi sors and coordinating all activities related to production are the respon sibility of industrial production managers. Production managers usually report to the plant manager or the vice president for manufacturing. (Information about these workers can be found in the statement on general managers and top executives else where in the Handbook.) In many plants, one production manager is responsible for all production. In large plants with several operations— aircraft assembly, for example—there are managers in charge of each operation, such as machining, assembly, or finishing. Although specific duties may vary from plant to plant, industrial production managers generally have the same major functions regard less of the industry. These include responsibility for production sched uling, staffing, equipment, quality control, inventory control, and coordinating activities with other departments. Based on current and projected customer demand, management determines how much of a good will be produced. Working within budgetary limitations, industrial production managers plan the produc tion schedule. This entails analyzing the plant’s personnel and capital resources and selecting the best way to meet the production quota. They determine which machines will be used, whether overtime or extra shifts are necessary, the sequence of production, and related matters. They also monitor the production run to make sure that it stays on schedule, and, if problems arise, take action to solve them. Another area of responsibility is cost control. In many organizations, the ability to keep production on schedule and within budget is the critical factor in rating the production manager’s performance. Meeting production schedules within budgetary constraints requires an adequate and well-trained work force. At various times, this can mean hiring and training workers, approving overtime, or laying off workers. When employment is cut, industrial production managers may work with other departments in the company to reassign workers or may make suggestions to their workers about finding a new job or selecting a training program. Regardless of whether they are hiring or releasing employees, they must work closely with members of the human re sources department to insure a smooth transition. When manufacturing firms purchase machinery and equipment, production managers are usually involved in their selection and instal lation. For example, they may visit trade shows or meet with manufac turers’ representatives to leam what type of machinery is available. Although they do not make the final decision as to what will be purchased, industrial production managers make recommendations to their superiors based on the equipment’s rated efficiency and cost, training requirements, and other factors. Regardless of the age or type of machinery, the production manager insures that the machinery is well maintained and meets all safety requirements. Industrial production managers also monitor product standards. When quality drops below the established standard, product managers must determine why standards aren’t being maintained and how to improve the product. If the problem is poor workmanship, the manager may implement better training programs, reorganize the manufacturing process, or institute employee suggestion or involvement programs. If the cause is substandard materials, the manager works with the purchasing department to improve the quality of the product’s compo nents. Maintaining the inventory of materials necessary for production ties up the firm’s financial resources. Yet insufficient quantities of materials cause delays in production. Working with the purchasing department, the production manager insures that plant inventories are being main tained at their optimal level. The use of “just-in-time” inventory man agement systems by more and more firms has increased the importance of this job function. “Just-in-time” systems connect manufacturers with their materials suppliers, so that stock is ordered only when it is needed. Because materials are not stockpiled in advance, a breakdown in this system can cause slowdowns and a failure to meet production schedules. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis In addition to their responsibilities on the shop floor, production managers routinely meet with managers of other departments—such as sales, industrial engineering, or traffic—to discuss production goals, policies, procedures, and other areas of mutual concern. Production managers regularly write reports and give presentations summarizing production performance. Working Conditions Most industrial production managers divide their time between the shop floor and their office. While on the floor, they must follow established health and safety practices and wear the required protective clothing and equipment. The time in the office—often located on or near the production floor—is usually spent meeting with subordinates or other department managers, analyzing production data, and writing and reviewing reports. Most industrial production managers work more than 40 hours a week, especially when production deadlines must be met. In facilities that operate around the clock, managers may have to work shifts or may be called at any hour to deal with emergencies. Occasionally, this may mean going to the plant to resolve the problem, regardless of the hour, and staying until the situation is under control. In large corporations with several production facilities, production managers may be transferred between plants. This can often mean relocation to different areas of the country or even abroad, as many U.S. manufacturers have production facilities in other countries. When problems occur, it is the responsibility of the industrial pro duction manager to resolve them with minimal downtime to the produc tion line—no matter what else has to be done. Because they regularly meet with other department managers and may be responsible for personnel matters in their department, they must be able to deal with people diplomatically. These factors, in addition to working under the pressure of production deadlines, can be stressful. Employment Industrial production managers held about 215,000 jobs in 1988. Employed throughout manufacturing, nearly one-quarter were found in plants that manufacture machinery. Other large employers were manufacturers of transportation equipment, fabricated metal products, food products, and chemicals, as well as printers and publishers. Although production managers work in all parts of the country, jobs are most plentiful in areas where manufacturing is concentrated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because of the diversity of manufacturing operations and job require ments, there is no standard preparation for this occupation. Many industrial production managers have a college degree in business administration or industrial engineering. Some have a master’s degree in business administration (MBA). Others are former production line supervisors who have been promoted. Increasingly, however, employ ers—especially large firms—are looking for candidates with a college degree. Although many employers prefer candidates to have a degree in business or engineering, some companies hire liberal arts graduates. As production operations become more and more sophisticated, an increasing number of employers are looking for candidates with MBA’s. This, combined with an undergraduate degree in engineering, is considered particularly good preparation. Those who enter the field directly from college or graduate school often are unfamiliar with the firm’s production process. As a result, they may spend their first few months on the job in the company’s training program. These programs familiarize trainees with the produc tion line, company policies and procedures, and the requirements of the job. In larger companies, they may also include assignments to other departments, such as purchasing and accounting. During this time, trainees also may take company-sponsored courses such as pro duction planning, personnel management, and inventory control. Blue-collar worker supervisors who advance to production manager positions already have an intimate knowledge of the production process and the firm’s organization. To be selected for promotion, these work ers must have demonstrated their leadership ability and often have to Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations 41 some have moved their production facilities overseas, and others have decreased the size of their U.S. operations. As a result, few opportuni ties are expected in these industries. To combat increasing domestic and foreign competition, firms are expected to continue to automate their facilities. Automation often reduces the number of production workers needed, although it is expected to have little impact on production managers. Even in a highly automated factory, production managers are needed to oversee the flow of materials, the capital stock, and quality control. However, because of the increasing sophistication of production technology, opportunities are expected to be best for those with college degrees in business administration or industrial engineering and MBA’s with undergraduate engineering degrees. I____£ A combination of engineering and business education is particularly good preparation for industrial production managers. take company-sponsored courses in management skills and communi cations techniques. Once in their job, industrial production managers must stay abreast of new production technologies and management practices. They may attend trade shows where new equipment is displayed or industry conferences and conventions where changes in production methods and technological advances are discussed. In addition, several times a year they may participate in management workshops and seminars. Although certification in production management and inventory control is not required for most positions, it demonstrates an individu al’s knowledge of the production process and related areas. Certifica tion is available through the American Production and Inventory Con trol Society. To be certified in production and inventory managment, candidates must pass a series of examinations that test their knowledge of inventory management, just-in-time systems, production control, capacity management, and master and materials planning. Industrial production managers must be able to speak and write effectively and be able to work with or supervise people with varying educational backgrounds and experience. Leadership skills and the ability to work well under pressure are also very important. Industrial production managers with a proven record of superior performance may advance to plant manager or vice president for manufacturing. Others transfer to jobs at larger firms with more respon sibilities. Opportunities also exist as consultants. (For more informa tion, see the statement on management analysts and consultants else where in the Handbook.) Earnings Salaries of industrial production managers vary significantly by indus try and plant size. According to the Middle Management Report, 37th edition, 1988/89, published by the Executive Compensation Service, a Wyatt Data Services Company, median salaries ranged from $35,000 to $48,000 a year. In addition, industrial production managers usually receive bonuses based on job performance. Benefits for industrial production managers tend to be similar to those offered most workers: Vacation and sick leave, health and life insurance, and retirement plans. In addition, many of these workers receive bonuses, participate in profit-sharing plans, and may have the use of company equipment, such as automobiles or personal com puters. Related Occupations Industrial production managers oversee production staff and equip ment, insure that production goals and quality standards are being met, and implement company policies. Individuals with similar functions include materials, operations, purchasing, and traffic managers. Other occupations requiring similar training and skills are sales engineer, manufacturers’ sales representative, and industrial engineer. Sources of Additional Information Information on industrial production management can be obtained from: erAmerican Production and Inventory Control Society, 500 West Annandale Rd., Falls Church, VA 22046-4274.' Inspectors and Compliance Officers, Except Construction (List of DOT. codes available upon request. See p. 463.) Job Outlook Employment of industrial production managers is expected to increase as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Employment growth will be fueled by increasing demand for consumer and industrial products. In addition, many openings will occur as these managers advance to become plant managers, transfer to other occupations, or leave the labor force. As the economy expands and more goods are produced, additional production managers will be needed to supervise this increased produc tion. However, some industries will offer better opportunities than others due to changing consumer and industrial demand, industrial reorganization, and foreign competition. For example, as plastics continue to replace steel and other metals in many consumer and industrial products, demand for plastic products is expected to in crease. As output increases, additional managers will be needed. In the steel industry, on the other hand, obsolete plants are expected to close and be replaced by fewer, more productive plants. As the number of plants declines, fewer production management positions will be available. In recent years, many domestic industries have faced fierce competi tion from foreign producers. Some firms have gone out of business, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Inspectors and compliance officers enforce adherence to a wide range of laws, regulations, policies, and procedures that protect the public on matters such as health, safety, food, immigration, licensing, interstate commerce, and international trade. Depending upon their employer, inspectors vary widely in title and responsibilities. Health Inspectors. Health inspectors work with engineers, chemists, microbiologists, health workers, and lawyers to insure compliance with public health and safety regulations governing food, drugs, cosmetics, and other consumer products. They also administer regulations that govern the quarantine of persons and products entering the United States from foreign countries. The major types of health inspectors are consumer safety, food, agricultural quaran tine, and environmental health inspectors. In addition, some inspec tors work in a field closely related to food inspection—agricultural commodity grading. Most consumer safety inspectors specialize in food, feeds and pesti cides, weights and measures, cosmetics, or drugs and medical equip 42 Occupational Outlook Handbook ment. Some are proficient in several areas. Working individually or in teams under a senior or supervisory inspector, they periodically check firms that produce, handle, store, and market food, drugs, and cosmetics. They look for inaccurate product labeling, and for decomposition or chemical or bacteriological contamination that could result in a product becoming harmful to health. They use portable scales, cameras, ultraviolet lights, container sampling devices, ther mometers, chemical testing kits, radiation monitors, and other equip ment to ascertain violations. They send product samples collected as part of their examinations to laboratories for analysis. After completing their inspection, inspectors discuss their observa tions with plant managers or officials and point out areas where correc tive measures are needed. They write reports of their findings and, when necessary, compile evidence that may be used in court if legal action must be taken to enforce the law. Federal and State laws empower food inspectors to inspect meat, poultry, and their byproducts to insure that they are wholesome and safe for public consumption. Working as an onsite team under a veterinarian, they inspect meat and poultry slaughtering, processing, and packaging operations. They also check for correct product labeling and proper sanitation. Agricultural quarantine inspectors protect American agricultural products from the spread of foreign plant pests and animal diseases. To safeguard crops, forests, gardens, and livestock, they inspect ships, aircraft, railroad cars, and motor vehicles entering the United States for restricted or prohibited plant or animal materials. Environmental health inspectors, or sanitarians, who work primarily for State and local governments, insure that food, water, and air meet government standards. They check the cleanliness and safety of food and beverages produced in dairies and processing plants, or served in restaurants, hospitals, and other institutions. They often examine the handling, processing, and serving of food for compliance with sanita tion rules and regulations and oversee the treatment and disposal of sewage, refuse, and garbage. In addition, inspectors examine places where pollution is a danger, test for pollutants, and collect air, water, or waste samples for analysis. They determine the nature and cause of pollution and initiate action to stop it. In large local and State health or agriculture departments, environ mental health inspectors may specialize in milk and dairy products, food sanitation, waste control, air pollution, water pollution, institu tional sanitation, or occupational health. In rural areas and small cities, they may be responsible for a wide range of environmental health activities. Agricultural commodity graders apply quality standards to aid the buying and selling of commodities and to insure that retailers and consumers receive wholesome and reliable products. They generally specialize in an area such as eggs and egg products, meat, poultry, processed or fresh fruits and vegetables, grain, tobacco, cotton, or dairy products. They examine product samples to determine quality and grade, and issue official grading certificates. Graders also may inspect the plant and equipment to maintain sanitation standards. Regulatory Inspectors. Regulatory inspectors insure compliance with laws and regulations that protect the public welfare. Important types of regulatory inspectors include immigration, customs, air safety, railroad, motor vehicle, occupational safety and health, mine, wagehour compliance, and alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors. Immigration inspectors interview and examine people seeking to enter the United States and its territories. They inspect passports to determine whether people are legally eligible to enter and to verify their citizenship status and identity. Immigration inspectors also prepare reports, maintain records, and process applications and petitions for immigration or temporary residence in the United States. Customs inspectors enforce laws governing imports and exports. Stationed at airports, seaports, and border crossing points, they exam ine, count, weigh, gauge, measure, and sample commercial cargoes entering and leaving the United States to determine admissibility and the amount of tax that must be paid. They also inspect baggage and articles worn by passengers and crew members to insure that all https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis merchandise is declared, proper duties are paid, and contraband is not present. Postal inspectors observe the functioning of the postal system and recommend improvements. They investigate criminal activities such as theft and misuse of the mail. In instances of suspected mismanage ment or fraud, inspectors conduct management or financial audits. They also collaborate with other government agencies, such as the Internal Revenue Service, as members of special task forces. Aviation safety inspectors insure that Federal Aviation Administra tion (FAA) regulations which govern the quality and safety of aircraft equipment and personnel are maintained. Aviation safety inspectors may inspect aircraft and equipment manufacturing, maintenance and repair, or flight operations procedures. They usually specialize in either commercial or general aviation aircraft. They also examine and certify aircraft pilots, pilot examiners, flight instructors, schools, and instructional materials. Railroad inspectors verify the compliance of railroad systems and equipment with Federal safety regulations. They investigate accidents and review railroads’ operating practices. Motor vehicle inspectors verify the compliance of automobiles and trucks with State requirements for safe operation and emissions. They inspect truck cargoes to assure compliance with legal limitations on gross weight and hazardous cargoes. Traffic inspectors oversee the scheduled service of streetcar, bus, or railway systems and determine the need for additional vehicles, revised schedules, or other changes to improve service. They also report conditions hazardous to passengers and disruptive to service. Occupational safety and health inspectors visit places of employ ment to detect unsafe machinery and equipment or unhealthy working conditions. They discuss their findings with the employer or plant manager and urge that violations be promptly corrected in accordance with Federal, State, or local government safety standards and regula tions. Mine inspectors work to insure the health and safety of miners. They visit mines and related facilities to obtain information on health and safety conditions and to enforce safety laws and regulations. They discuss their findings with the management of the mine and issue notices describing violations and hazards that must be corrected. Mine inspectors also investigate and report on mine accidents and may direct rescue and firefighting operations when fires or explosions occur. Wage-hour compliance inspectors inspect employers’ time, payroll, _r“f, Customs inspectors enforce laws governing imports and exports. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations and personnel records to insure compliance with Federal laws on such matters as minimum wages, overtime, pay, and employment of minors. They often interview employees to verify the employer’s records and to check for complaints. Equal opportunity representatives ascertain and correct unfair em ployment practices through consultation with and mediation between employers and minority groups. Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors inspect distilleries, win eries, and breweries; cigar and cigarette manufacturing plants; whole sale liquor dealers and importers; firearms and explosives manufactur ers, dealers, and users; and other regulated facilities. They insure compliance with revenue laws and other regulations on operating procedures, unfair competition, and trade practices, and determine that appropriate taxes are paid. Securities and real estate directors implement regulations concern ing securities and real estate transactions. Their departments investi gate applications for registration of securities sales and complaints of irregular securities or real estate transactions, and recommend neces sary legal action. Revenue officers investigate delinquent tax returns and liabilities. They discuss the resolution of tax problems with taxpayers and recom mend penalties and prosecution when necessary. Attendance officers investigate continued absences of pupils from public schools. Dealer compliance representatives inspect franchised establish ments to ascertain compliance with the franchiser’s policies and proce dures. They may suggest changes in financial and other operations. Logging operations inspectors review contract logging operations. They prepare reports and issue remedial instructions for violations of contractual agreements and of fire and safety regulations. Travel accommodations raters inspect hotels, motels, restaurants, campgrounds, and vacation resorts. They evaluate travel and tourist accommodations for travel guide publishers and organizations such as tourism promoters and automobile clubs. Quality control inspectors and coordinators inspect products manu factured or processed by private companies for government use to insure compliance with contract specifications. They may specialize in specific products such as lumber, machinery, petroleum products, paper products, electronic equipment, or furniture. Others coordinate the activities of workers engaged in testing and evaluating pharmaceu ticals in order to control quality of manufacture and insure compliance with legal standards. Other inspectors and compliance officers include coroners, code inspectors, mortician investigators, and construction and building in spectors. (Construction and building inspectors are discussed else where in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Inspectors and compliance officers live an active life; they meet many people and work in a variety of environments. Their jobs often involve considerable fieldwork, and some inspectors travel frequently. They are furnished with an automobile or are reimbursed for travel expenses. At times, inspectors have unfavorable working conditions. For ex ample, mine inspectors often are exposed to the same hazards as miners. Customs inspectors may be threatened by drug smugglers and other criminals. Food and alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors frequently come in contact with strong, unpleasant odors. Many in spectors work long and often irregular hours. Employment Inspectors and compliance officers held 130,000 jobs in 1988. State governments employed 31 percent, the Federal Government—chiefly the Departments of Defense, Treasury, Agriculture, and Justice— employed 30 percent, and local governments employed 20 percent. The remaining 19 percent were employed in the U.S. Postal Service and throughout the private sector—primarily in miscellaneous business services, hospitals, insurance companies, labor unions, and manufac turing firms. The largest single employer of consumer safety inspectors is the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 43 U.S. Food and Drug Administration, but the majority work for State governments. Most food inspectors and agricultural commodity grad ers in processing plants are employed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, as are agricultural quarantine inspectors. Most environ mental health inspectors work for State and local governments. Most Federal regulatory inspectors work in regional and district offices throughout the United States. The Department of Defense employs many quality control inspectors. The Treasury Department employs internal revenue officers, alcohol, tobacco, and firearms in spectors, and customs inspectors. Aviation safety inspectors work for the Federal Aviation Administration. The Environmental Protection Agency employs inspectors to verify compliance with pollution control laws. Department of Labor employs wage-hour compliance officers. Occupational safety and health inspectors and mine inspectors also work for the Department of Labor and for many State governments. Immigration inspectors are employed by the Department of Justice. Like agricultural quarantine inspectors, immigration and customs in spectors work at U.S. airports, seaports, and border crossing points, and at foreign airports and seaports. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because of the diversity of functions, qualifications for inspector and compliance officer jobs differ greatly. Requirements are a combination of education, experience, and a passing grade on a written examina tion. Employers generally prefer applicants with college training, including courses related to the job. Food inspectors must have related experience and pass an examina tion based on specialized knowledge. Aviation safety inspectors must have considerable experience in aviation maintenance and operations and knowledge of the industry and relevant Federal laws. In addition, FAA mechanic or pilot and medical certificates are required. Some also are required to have an FAA flight instructor rating. Many aviation safety inspectors have had flight training and mechanical training in the Armed Forces. No written examination is required. Applicants for mine safety inspector positions generally must have experience in mine safety, management, or supervision, or possess a skill such as that of an electrician (for mine electrical inspectors). In some cases, a general aptitude test may be required. Applicants for internal revenue officer jobs must have a bachelor’s degree or 3 years of business, legal, or investigative work experience that displays strong analytical ability. Some civil service examinations, including those for agricultural quarantine inspectors and agricultural commodity graders, rate appli cants solely on their experience and education and require no written examination. Environmental health inspectors, called sanitarians in many States, sometimes must have a bachelor’s degree in environmental health or in the physical or biological sciences. In most States, they are licensed by examining boards. All inspectors and compliance officers are trained in applicable laws and inspection procedures through a combination of classroom and onthe-job training. In general, people who want to enter this occupation should be able to accept responsibility and like detailed work. They should be neat and personable and able to express themselves well orally and in writing. Federal Government inspectors and compliance officers whose job performance is satisfactory advance through their career ladder to a specified full performance level. For positions above this level (usually supervisory positions), advancement is competitive, based on agency needs and individual merit. Advancement opportunities in State and local governments and the private sector are often similar to those in the Federal Government. Job Outlook Employment of inspectors and compliance officers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Employment growth, particularly in local government, will reflect the expansion of regulatory and compliance programs such as 44 Occupational Outlook Handbook solid and hazardous waste disposal and water pollution. In private industry, employment growth will reflect increasing self-enforcement of government and company regulations and policies, particularly among the rapidly growing number of franchise dealerships in various industries. Most job openings, however, will arise from the need to replace those who transfer to other occupations, or retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. Employment of inspectors and compliance officers is seldom af fected by general economic fluctuations. Most work in programs which enjoy wide public support. As a result, they are less likely to lose their jobs than many other workers when government programs are cut. Earnings The median annual salary of inspectors and compliance officers, except construction, was $26,700 in 1988. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $16,500; the highest 10 percent earned at least $44,100. Most starting Federal salaries were around $15,700 a year in 1989. However, some inspectors and compliance officers—for example, aviation safety officers and postal inspectors—started at $23,800 a year. In the Federal Government, the average annual salary in 1988 varied substantially—from $20,100 to $55,800— depending upon the nature of the inspection or compliance activity. Table 1 presents average salaries for selected inspectors and compliance officers in the Federal Government in 1988. Salaries of inspectors and compliance officers in State and local governments and in private industry are generally lower than those of their Federal counterparts. Most inspectors and compliance officers work for Federal, State, and local governments and in large private firms, all of which generally offer more generous fringe benefits—for example, pension and retire ment plans, health and life insurance plans, and paid vacations—than do smaller firms. Related Occupations Inspectors and compliance officers are responsible for seeing that laws and regulations are obeyed. Revenue agents, construction and building inspectors, fire marshals. State and local police officers, customs patrol Table 1. Average salaries of selected Federal inspectors and com pliance officers, 1988 Type of inspector Patent classification examiners................................................ Postal inspectors........................................................................ Highway safety inspectors....................................................... Aviation safety inspectors......................................................... Consumer safety inspectors...................................................... Securities compliance examiners............................................. Coal mine inspectors................................................................. Equal opportunity compliance officials.................................. Environmental protection specialists...................................... Import specialists....................................................................... Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors............................. Quality assurance inspectors..................................................... Public health quarantine inspectors......................................... Internal revenue officers............................................................ Agricultural commodity warehouse examiners..................... Customs inspectors.................................................................... Agricultural commodity graders............................................. Immigration inspectors............................................................. Food inspectors.......................................................................... Environmental health technicians............................................ Environmental protection assistants........................................ Source: U.S. Office of Personnel Management https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Salary $55,800 51,100 46,700 45,600 42,700 41,100 39,800 37,700 36,900 34,300 33,200 30,400 30,300 30,300 28,200 28,100 27,900 26,100 24,500 20,400 20,100 officers, customs special agents, and fish and game wardens also enforce laws. Sources of Additional Information Information on Federal Government jobs is available from offices of the State employment service, area offices of the U.S. Office of Personnel Management, and Federal Job Information Centers in large cities throughout the country. For information on a career as a specific type of Federal inspector or compliance officer, the Federal department or agency that employs them may also be contacted directly. Information about State and local government jobs is available from State civil service commissions, usually located in each State capital, or from local government offices. Information about jobs in private industry is available from the State employment service, which is listed under “Job Service” or “Employment” in the State government section of local telephone directories. Management Analysts and Consultants (D.O.T. 100.117-014; 161.117-014, .167-010, .267 except -014 and -030; 169.167-074; and 375.267-026) Nature of the Work A rapidly growing small company needs a better system of control over inventories and expenses. An established manufacturing company decides to relocate to another State and needs assistance planning the move. After acquiring a new division, a large company realizes that its corporate structure must be reorganized. A division chief of a government agency wants to know why the division’s contracts are always going over budget. These are just a few of the many organiza tional problems that management analysts, as they are called in govern ment agencies, and management consultants, as business firms refer to them, help solve. Although their job titles may differ, their job duties are essentially the same. The work of management analysts and consultants varies from employer to employer and from project to project. For example, some projects require several consultants to work together, each specializing in one area; at other times, they will work independently. In general, analysts and consultants collect, review, and analyze information; make recommendations; and often assist in the implementation of their proposal. Both public and private organizations use consultants for a variety of reasons. Some don’t have the internal resources needed to handle a project; others need a consultant’s expertise to determine what re sources will be required—or problems encountered—if they pursue a particular course of action; while others want to get outside advice on how to resolve organizational problems that have already been identi fied or to avoid troublesome problems that could arise. Firms providing consulting services range in size from solo prac titioners to large international organizations employing thousands of consultants. These services usually are provided on a contract basis— a company chooses a consulting firm specializing in the area in which it needs assistance and then the two firms determine the conditions of the contract. These conditions include the proposed cost of the project, staffing requirements, and the deadline. Upon getting an assignment or contract, consultants define the nature and extent of the project. During this phase of the job, they may analyze data such as annual revenues, employment, or expenditures; interview employees; or observe the operations of the organizational unit. Next, they use their knowledge of management systems and their expertise in a particular area to develop solutions. In the course of preparing their recommendations, they must take into account the general nature of the business, the relationship the firm has with Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations others in that industry, and the firm’s internal organization, as well as information gained through data collection and analysis. Once they have decided on a course of action, consultants usually report their findings and recommendations to the client, often in writ ing. In addition, they often make informal oral presentations regarding their findings. For some projects, this is all that is required; for others, consultants may assist in the implementation of their suggestions. Management analysts in government agencies use the same skills as their private-sector colleagues to advise managers in government on many types of issues—most of which are similar to the problems faced by private firms. For example, if an agency is planning to purchase several personal computers, it first must determine which type to buy, given its budget and data processing needs. Management analysts would assess the various types of machines available and determine which best meets their department’s needs. Working Conditions Management analysts and consultants usually divide their time be tween their offices and their client’s operation. Although much of their time is spent indoors in clean, well-lighted offices, they may have to visit a client’s production facility where conditions may not be so favorable. They must follow established safety procedures when mak ing field visits to sites where they may encounter potentially hazardous conditions. Typically, analysts and consultants work at least 40 hours a week. Overtime is common, especially when deadlines must be met. In addition, because they must spend a significant portion of their time with clients, they may travel frequently. Self-employed consultants can set their workload and hours and work at home. On the other hand, their livelihood depends on their ability to maintain and expand their clientele, which can be difficult at times. The constant pressure of deadlines and client expectations can be very stressful. Occasionally, consultants may face hostility from em ployees of the client’s organization, especially when a reorganization or reduction in force is being considered. As a result, they must be able to deal with people diplomatically. Employment Management analysts and consultants held about 130,000jobs in 1988. Almost half of these workers were self-employed. Most of the rest worked in management consulting and accounting firms and for Fed eral, State, and local governments. The majority of those working for the Federal Government were found in the Department of Defense. Management analysts and consultants are found throughout the country, but employment is concentrated in metropolitan areas. Most management consultants specialize in a specific area of business or industry. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 45 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are no universal educational requirements for entry level jobs in this field. However, employers prefer to hire those with a master’s degree in business or public administration or those with a bachelor’s degree and several years of appropriate work experience. Most govern ment agencies and some firms hire those with a bachelor’s degree and no work experience as entry level analysts and consultants. In addition, many entrants are career changers who were formerly mid- and upperlevel managers. Many fields of study provide a suitable formal educational back ground for this occupation because of the diversity of problem areas addressed by management analysts and consultants. These include most areas of business and management, as well as computer and information sciences and engineering. Experience in education, com munications, marketing, distribution, architecture, and environmental design may also be sought by some employers. Management analysts and consultants who are hired directly from school often participate in formal company training programs. These programs may include instruction on policies and procedures, com puter systems and software, and management practices and principles. Because of their previous industry experience, most who enter at middle levels do not participate in formal company training programs. However, regardless of background, analysts and consultants routinely attend conferences to keep abreast of current developments in their field. Management analysts and consultants must have strong interper sonal skills and be able to work on a variety of projects. They should be able to analyze and interpret data, draw conclusions, and make sound recommendations based on this knowledge. They also must be able to communicate effectively orally and in writing. In large consulting firms, beginners usually start as a member of a consulting team. The team is responsible for the entire project and each consultant is assigned to a particular area. After 1 or 2 years of experience on a variety of projects, the consultant may be promoted to team leader—overseeing a project and supervising entry level workers. From there, consultants may advance into more senior positions; for example, they may be responsible for several teams of consultants. Those with exceptional skills may eventually become a partner in the firm. Others with entrepreneurial ambition may open their own firm. Job Outlook Employment of management analysts and consultants is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as industry and government increasingly rely on their expertise to improve the performance of their organizations. Growth is expected to be concentrated in larger consulting and accounting firms. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace personnel who transfer to other fields or leave the labor force. Increased foreign competition has caused American industry to take a closer look at its operations. In a more competitive international market, firms cannot afford inefficiency and wasted resources or else they risk losing their share of the market. Management consultants are being increasingly relied upon to help reduce costs and streamline operations. In addition, the trend toward acquisitions and mergers of companies is increasing the need for management consultants to help companies make the best fit after they merge. Federal, State, and local agencies also are expected to expand their use of management analysts. In the era of budget deficits, analysts’ skills at identifying problems and implementing cost reduction mea sures are expected to become increasingly important. Job opportunities are expected to be best for those with a graduate degree or industry expertise. Because many small consulting firms fail each year for lack of managerial expertise and clients, those interested in opening their own firm should have good organizational and market ing skills. Earnings Salaries for management analysts and consultants vary widely by experience, education, and employer. In 1988, those who were wage 46 Occupational Outlook Handbook and salary workers had median annual earnings of about $34,900. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,900 and $51,000. In the Federal Government, management analysts with a bachelor’s degree had a starting salary of $15,738 a year in 1988. Entrants with a superior academic record could begin at $19,493, while those with a master’s degree started at $23,846. The average salary for management analysts working in the Federal Government in 1988 was $34,017. Earnings of self-employed management consultants generally are considerably higher than those of salaried workers. Most self-em ployed management consultants charge a daily rate based on the type of project and its time requirements. Typical benefits for salaried analysts and consultants include health and life insurance, a retirement plan, vacation and sick leave, profit sharing, and bonuses for outstanding work. In addition, all travel expenses usually are reimbursed by their employer. Self-employed consultants usually have to maintain an office and do not receive employer-provided benefits. Related Occupations Management analysts and consultants collect, review, and analyze data; make recommendations; and assist in the implementation of their ideas. Others who utilize similar skills are managers, computer systems analysts, operations research analysts, economists, and financial ana lysts. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities in management consulting is available from: «-The Association of Management Consulting Firms, 230 Park Ave., New York, NY 10169. wThe Institute of Management Consultants, 230 Park Ave., Suite 544, New York, NY 10169. For information about a career as a State or local government management analyst, contact your State or local employment service. Persons interested in a management analyst position in the Federal Government can obtain information from: «*-U.S. Office of Personnel Management, 1900 E St. NW., Washington, DC 20415. Marketing, Advertising, and Public Relations Managers (D.O.T. 141.137; 159.167-022; 163.117-014, -018, -022, -026, .167-010, -018, -022, .267; 164.117-010, -014, -018, .167; 185.117-014, .157-010, -014; 187.167-162; 189.117-018) Nature of the Work The fundamental objective of any firm is to market its products or services profitably. In very small firms, all marketing responsibilities may be assumed by the owner or chief executive officer. In large firms, which may offer numerous products and services nationally or even worldwide, experienced marketing, advertising, and public relations managers coordinate these and related activities. In large firms, the executive vice president for marketing directs the overall marketing policy—including market research, marketing strategy, sales, advertising, sales promotion, pricing, product develop ment, and public relations activities. (This occupation is included in the Handbook statement on general managers and top executives.) These activities are supervised by middle and supervisory managers who oversee staffs of professionals and technicians. Marketing managers develop the firm’s detailed marketing strategy. With the help of subordinates, including product development manag ers and market research managers, they determine the demand for products and services offered by the firm and its competitors and identify potential consumers—for example, business firms, whole salers, retailers, government, or the general public. Mass markets are further categorized according to various factors such as geographic https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis region, age, income, and lifestyle. Marketing managers develop pric ing strategy with an eye towards maximizing the firm’s share of the market and ultimately its profits. In collaboration with sales, product development, and other managers, they monitor trends that indicate the need for new products and services and oversee product development. Marketing managers work with advertising and sales promotion man agers to best promote the firm’s products and services and to attract potential users. Sales managers direct the firm’s sales program. They assign sales territories and goals and establish training programs for their sales representatives. Managers advise their sales representatives on ways to improve their sales performance. In large, multiproduct firms, they oversee regional and local sales managers and their staffs. Sales man agers maintain contact with dealers and distributors. They analyze sales statistics gathered by their staffs to determine sales potential and inventory requirements and monitor the preferences of customers. Such information is vital to develop products and maximize profits. Except in the largest firms, advertising and sales promotion staffs are generally small and serve as a liaison between the firm and the advertising or sales promotion agency to which most advertising or promotional functions are contracted out. Advertising managers over see the account services, creative services, and media services depart ments. The account services department is managed by account execu tives, who assess the need for advertising and, in advertising agencies, maintain the accounts of clients. The creative services department— which develops the subject matter and presentation of advertising—is supervised by a creative director, who oversees the copy chief and art director and their staffs. The media services department is supervised by the media director, who oversees planning groups which select the communication media—for example, radio, television, newspapers, magazines, or outdoor signs—to disseminate the advertising. Sales promotion managers—who supervise staffs of sales promotion specialists—direct sales promotion programs, which combine adver tising with financial incentives to increase sales of products and ser vices. In an effort to establish closer contact with purchasers—dealers, distributors, or consumers—sales promotion programs may involve direct mail, catalogs, exhibits, inserts in newspapers, displays in stores, and special events. Financial incentives may include discounts, samples, gifts, coupons, and contests. Public relations managers—who supervise staffs of public relations specialists—direct publicity programs, using any necessary communi cation media, designed to gain attention for the firm and its activities from various groups such as consumers, stockholders, or the general public. For example, public relations managers may clarify or justify the firm’s point of view on health or environmental issues to commu nity or special interest groups. In large product-oriented firms—such as motor vehicle manufacturers—or in service-oriented firms—such as airlines—they may evaluate advertising and sales promotion pro grams for compatibility with public relations efforts. Public relations managers in effect serve as the eyes and ears of senior management— observing social, economic, and political trends that might ultimately have an impact upon the firm, and making recommendations to enhance the firm’s public image in view of those trends. Public relations manag ers may confer with labor relations managers to produce internal com pany communications—such as news about employee-management re lations—and with financial managers to produce company reports. They may assist company executives in drafting speeches, arranging inter views, and other forms of public contact; oversee company archives; and respond to information requests. In addition, public relations managers may handle special events such as sponsorship of races, parties introduc ing new products, or other activities by which the firm seeks public attention through the press without advertising directly. Working Conditions Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers are provided with offices close to top managers. Long hours, including evenings and weekends, are usual. Working under pressure is unavoidable as schedules change, problems arise, and deadlines and goals must be met. Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers meet fre Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations quently with other managers; some meet with the public and govern ment officials. Substantial travel may be involved. For example, attendance at meetings sponsored by associations or industries is often mandatory. Sales managers travel to national, regional, and local offices and to various dealers and distributors. Advertising and sales promotion managers may travel to meet with clients or representatives of commu nications media. Public relations managers may travel to meet with special interest groups or government officials. Job transfers between headquarters and regional offices are common—particularly among sales managers—and may disrupt family life. Employment Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers held about 406,000 jobs in 1988. These managers are found in virtually every industry. Industries employing them in significant numbers include motor vehicle dealers; management, consulting, and public relations firms; advertising agencies; department stores; computer and data processing services firms; radio and television broadcasting stations; and educational institutions. Training, Advancement, and Other Qualifications A wide range of educational backgrounds are suitable for entry into marketing, advertising, and public relations managerial jobs, but many employers prefer a broad liberal arts background. A bachelor’s degree in sociology, psychology, literature, or philosophy, among other sub jects, is acceptable. However, requirements vary depending upon the particular job. For marketing and sales management positions, some employers prefer a bachelor's or master’s degree in business administration with an emphasis on marketing. Courses in business law, economics, ac counting, finance, mathematics, and statistics are also highly recom mended. In highly technical industries, such as computer and electron ics manufacturing, a bachelor’s degree in engineering or science combined with a master’s degree in business administration may be preferred. For advertising and sales promotion management positions, some employers prefer a bachelor’s degree in advertising or journal ism. The curriculum should include courses in marketing, consumer behavior, market research, sales, communications methods and tech nology , and visual arts courses—for example, art history and photogra phy. For public relations management positions, some employers prefer a bachelor’s or master’s degree in public relations or journalism. The curriculum should include courses in advertising, business admin istration, public affairs, political science, and creative and technical writing. Familiarity with computerized word processing applications is important for many marketing, advertising, and public relations management positions. Most marketing, advertising, and public relations management posi tions are filled by promoting experienced staff or related professional or technical personnel—for example, sales representatives, purchasing agents, buyers, advertising workers, and public relations specialists. In small firms, where the number of positions is limited, advancement to a management position may come slowly. In large firms, promotion may occur quickly. Although experience, ability, and leadership are emphasized for promotion, advancement may be accelerated by participation in man agement training programs conducted by many large firms. Many firms also provide their employees with continuing education opportunities, either in-house or at local colleges and universities, and encourage employee participation in seminars and conferences, often provided by professional societies. In addition, numerous marketing and related associations, often in collaboration with colleges and universities, sponsor national or local management training programs. Courses in these schools include brand and product management, international marketing, sales management evaluation, telemarketing and direct sales, marketing communication, market research, organizational communication, and data processing systems procedures and manage ment. Many firms pay all or part of the cost for those who successfully complete courses. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 47 Persons interested in becoming marketing, advertising, and public relations managers should be mature, creative, highly motivated, resis tant to stress, and flexible, yet decisive. The ability to communicate persuasively, both orally and in writing, with other managers, staff, and the public is vital. Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers also need tact, good judgment, and exceptional ability to establish and maintain effective personal relationships with supervi sory and professional staff members and client firms. Because of the importance and high visibility of their jobs, market ing, advertising, and public relations managers are often prime candi dates for advancement. Well-trained, experienced, successful manag ers may be promoted to higher positions in their own or other firms. Some become top executives. Managers with extensive experience and sufficient capital may open their own businesses. Job Outlook Employment of marketing, advertising, and public relations managers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Increasingly intense domestic and foreign competition in products and services offered consumers—further spurred by deregulation in financial services and other industries— should require greater marketing, sales, and public relations efforts. In addition to faster than average growth, many job openings will occur each year to replace managers who move into top management positions or leave the labor force. As is the case for other manage ment positions, however, the ample supply of experienced profes sional and technical personnel and recent college graduates seeking Because of the importance and high visibility of their jobs, marketing, advertising, and public relations managers are prime candidates for advancement. 48 Occupational Outlook Handbook advancement should result in substantial job competition. College graduates with extensive experience who possess a high level of creativity and strong communications skills should have the best job opportunities. Projected employment growth varies by industry. For example, employment of marketing, advertising, and public relations managers is expected to grow rapidly in the data processing services industry in response to the increasing use of computers. Much faster than average employment growth is also expected in other business services indus tries—including promotion agencies and public relations firms—as increasing numbers of firms find it necessary and cost-efficient to contract out these services. Faster than average growth is expected in the radio and television broadcasting industry as this communication medium is increasingly used, and in motor vehicle dealers due to the increasing demand for cars, vans, and trucks. On the other hand, employment is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations in the educational services industry, while little or no change or a decline in employment is projected in some manufacturing industries. Earnings The median annual salary of marketing, advertising, and public relations managers was $36,500 in 1988. The lowest 10 percent earned $19,200 or less, while the top 10 percent earned well over $52,000. Salaries between $75,000 and $100,000 are not uncom mon. Many cam bonuses equal to 10 percent or more of their salaries. Salary levels vary substantially depending upon the level of managerial responsibility, length of service, and size and location of the firm. For sales managers, the extent of their sales territory is another important factor. Like other managers, marketing, advertising, and public relations managers typically receive a range of fringe benefits that includes health and life insurance, vacation and sick leave, and a pension, among others. Related Occupations Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers supervise the sale of products and services offered by their firms and the communica tion of information about their firms’ activities. Other personnel in volved with marketing, advertising, and public relations include art directors, commercial and graphic artists, copy chiefs, copywriters, editors, lobbyists, market research analysts, public relations special ists, sales promotion specialists, sales representatives, and technical writers. (Some of these occupations are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Personnel, Training, and Labor Relations Specialists and Managers (D.O.T. 079.127; 099.167-010; 166.067, .117, .167 except-046, .257, .267 014 through -046; 169.107, .167-062, .207; 188.117-010, -086, .217) Nature of the Work Attracting the best employees available and matching them to the jobs they can do best is important for the success of any organization. But many enterprises are too large to permit close contact between top management and employees. Instead, personnel and labor relations specialists and managers, also commonly known as human resources specialists and managers, provide this link. In an effort to improve morale and productivity, they help management make effective use of employees’ skills, and help employees find satisfaction in their jobs and working conditions. Although some jobs in this field require only limited contact with people outside the office, most involve frequent contact. Dealing with people is an essential part of the job. In a small organization, one person can handle all aspects of person nel administration. In contrast, in a large corporation, the top human resources executive—usually an executive vice president—develops, implements, and coordinates personnel programs and policies. (Execu tive vice presidents are included in the Handbook statement on general managers and top executives.) These policies are implemented by a director of human resources and a director of industrial relations. The director of human resources, also referred to as personnel manager, oversees several departments—each headed by an experi enced manager—concerned with basic personnel activities—employ ment, compensation, benefits, education and training, and employee welfare. Employment managers oversee the hiring and separation of employ ees. These activities require a range of specialists. Recruiters maintain contacts within the community and may travel extensively—often to college campuses—to search for promising job applicants. Recruiters interview applicants, and recommend those who appear qualified to fill vacancies. They may administer tests and check IS Sources of Additional Information For information about careers in sales and marketing management, contact: •-American Marketing Association, 250 S. Wacker Dr., Chicago, IL 60606. •-Sales and Marketing Executives, International, 458 Statler Office Tower, Cleveland, OH 44115. For information about careers in advertising management, contact: •-American Association of Advertising Agencies, 666 Third Ave., 13th Floor, New York, NY 10017. •-American Advertising Federation, 1400 K St. NW., Suite 1000, Washing ton, DC 20005. Information about careers in sales promotion management is avail able from: •-Council of Sales Promotion Agencies, 750 Summer St., Stamford, CT 06901. •-Promotion Marketing Association of America, Inc., 322 Eighth Ave., Suite 1201, New York, NY 10001. Information about careers in public relations management is avail able from: •-Public Relations Society of America, 33 Irving Place, New York, NY 10003. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Personnel managers plan training and employee relations programs. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations references. These workers need to be thoroughly familiar with the organization and its personnel policies to discuss wages, working conditions, and promotional opportunities with prospective employ ees . They also need to keep informed about equal employment opportu nity (EEO) and affirmative action guidelines. EEO representatives or affirmative action coordinators handle this area in large organizations. They investigate and resolve EEO griev ances, examine corporate practices for possible violations, and compile and submit EEO statistical reports. Employer relations representatives—who usually work in govern ment agencies—maintain working relationships with local employers and promote the use of public employment programs and services. Similarly, employment interviewers—sometimes called account rep resentatives, manpower development specialists, or personnel consul tants—help match jobseekers with employers. (For more information, see the statement on employment interviewers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Establishing and maintaining a firm’s pay system is the principal job of the compensation manager. Assisted by staff specialists, com pensation managers devise ways to ensure fair and equitable pay rates. They may conduct surveys to see how their rates compare with others and to see that the firm’s pay scale complies with laws and regulations. In addition, compensation managers often oversee their firm’s perfor mance evaluation system. Job analysts, sometimes called position classifiers, do very exacting work. They collect and examine detailed information about job duties to prepare job descriptions. These descriptions explain the duties, training, and skills each job requires. Whenever a large organization introduces a new job or reviews existing ones, it calls upon the expert knowledge of the job analyst. Occupational analysts conduct research, generally in large firms. They are concerned with occupational classification systems and study the effects of industry and occupational trends upon worker relation ships. They may serve as technical liaison between the firm and industry, government, and labor unions. Employee benefits managers handle the company’s employee bene fits program, notably its health insurance and pension plans. Expertise in designing and administering benefits programs continues to gain in importance as pension and benefit plans increase in number and complexity. Familiarity with health benefits is a top priority at present, as more and more firms search for ways to respond to the pressures posed by the rising cost of health insurance for employees and retirees. Benefits managers must keep abreast of changing Federal and State regulations affecting employee benefits. In addition to health insurance and pension coverage, many firms offer their employees dental insurance, accidental death and disability insurance, auto insurance, homeowners’ insurance, stock options, profit sharing, and thrift/savings plans. Benefits analysts and benefits administrators handle these programs. Training or, more broadly, human resource development is super vised by education and training managers. Increasingly, management recognizes that training offers a way of developing skills., enhancing productivity, and building loyalty to the firm. Training is widely accepted as a method of improving employee morale, but this is only one of the reasons for its growing importance. Other factors include the complexity of the work environment, the rapid pace of organiza tional and technological change, and the growing number of jobs in fields where new knowledge is constantly generated. In addition, advances in learning theory have provided insights into how adults learn, and how training can be organized to be most effective for adults. Training specialists are responsible for planning, organizing, and directing a wide range of training activities. Trainers conduct orienta tion sessions and arrange on-the-job training for new employees. They help rank-and-file workers maintain and improve their job skills and possibly prepare for jobs requiring greater skill. They help supervisors improve their interpersonal skills and deal effectively with employees. To help employees prepare for future responsibilities, they may set up https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 49 individualized training plans to strengthen existing skills or to teach new skills. Training specialists in some companies set up programs designed to develop executive potential among employees in lower echelon positions. Planning and program development is an important part of the training specialist’s job. In order to identify and assess training needs within the firm, trainers may confer with managers and supervisors or conduct surveys. They also periodically evaluate training effec tiveness. Depending on the size, goals, and nature of the organization, there may be considerable differences in trainers’ responsibilities and in the methods they use. Training methods include on-the-job training; “vestibule” schools, in which shop conditions are duplicated for train ees prior to putting them on the shop floor; apprenticeship training; classroom training; programmed instruction, which may involve inter active videos, videodiscs, and other computer-aided instructional tech nologies; simulators; conferences; and workshops. Employee welfare managers are responsible for a wide array of programs covering occupational safety and health standards and prac tices; health promotion and physical fitness, medical examinations, and minor health treatment, such as first aid; plant security; publica tions; food service and recreation activities; van-pooling; employee suggestion systems; childcare; and counseling services—an area of rapidly growing importance. Counseling—often provided through em ployee assistance programs—may help employees deal with emotional disorders, alcoholism, or marital, family, consumer, legal, and finan cial problems. Career counseling and second career counseling for employees approaching retirement age may also be provided. In large firms, some of these programs—such as security and safety—are in separate departments headed by other managers. The director of industrial relations formulates labor policy, oversees industrial labor relations, negotiates collective bargaining agreements, and coordinates grievance procedures to handle complaints resulting from disputes under the contract for firms with unionized employees. The increased attention to employee benefits has greatly expanded the scope of labor relations activities. The duties of the director of indus trial relations include advising and collaborating with the director of human resources and other managers and members of their staff, since all aspects of personnel policy—such as wages, benefits, pensions, and work practices—may be involved in drawing up a new or revised contract. Industrial labor relations programs are implemented by labor rela tions managers and their staff. When a collective bargaining agreement is up for negotiation, labor relations specialists prepare information for management to use during negotiation, which requires familiarity with economic and wage data as well as extensive knowledge of labor law and collective bargaining trends. The labor relations staff interprets and administers the contract with respect to grievances, wages and salaries, employee welfare, health care, pensions, union and manage ment practices, and other contractual stipulations. Dispute resolution—that is, attaining tacit or contractual agree ments—has become increasingly important as disputants attempt to avoid costly litigation, strikes, or other disruptions. Dispute resolution has also become more complex, involving employees, management, unions, other firms, and government agencies. Specialists involved in dispute resolution must be highly knowledgeable and experienced, and often report to the director of industrial relations. Conciliators, or mediators, advise and counsel labor and management to prevent and, when necessary, resolve disputes over labor agreements or other labor relations issues. Arbitrators, sometimes known as umpires or referees, decide disputes and bind both labor and management to specific terms and conditions of labor contracts. Labor relations specialists who work for unions perform many of the same functions on behalf of the union and its members. Working Conditions Personnel work is office work. Generally, the work setting is clean, pleasant, and comfortable. Personnel and training specialists and man 50 Occupational Outlook Handbook agers usually work a standard 35- to 40-hour workweek. Labor rela tions specialists and managers, however, may work longer hours— particularly when contract agreements are being prepared and nego tiated. Although most personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers work in the office, some travel extensively. For example, recruiters regularly attend professional meetings and visit college cam puses to interview prospective employees. Employment Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers held about 422,000 jobs in 1988. They were employed in virtually every industry. Specialists accounted for 252,000 positions; the rest were managers. About 10,000—mostly specialists—were self-employed, working as consultants to public and private employers. The private sector accounted for nearly 9 out of 10 salaried jobs. Labor unions—the largest employer among specific industries—ac counted for more than 1 out of 10 salaried jobs. Other important employers include management and consulting firms, hospitals, educa tional institutions, banks, department stores, and personnel supply agencies. Federal, State, and local governments employed over 1 out of 10 salaried personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers. They handled recruitment, interviewing, job classification, training, salary administration, benefits, employee relations, media tion, and related matters for the Nation’s millions of public employees concerned with sanitation, police protection, parks, defense, and nu merous other services. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because of the diversity of duties and level of responsibility, the educational backgrounds of personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers vary considerably. In filling entry level jobs, firms generally seek college graduates. Some employers prefer appli cants who have majored in personnel administration or industrial and labor relations, while others look for college graduates with a technical or business background. Still others feel that a well-rounded liberal arts education is best. Many colleges and universities have programs leading to a degree in personnel, human resources, or labor relations. Some offer degree programs in personnel administration or human resource management, training and development, or compensation and benefits. Others, usu ally in collaboration with professional associations, offer accredited programs in personnel, human resources, compensation, and benefits leading to certification. Depending on the school, courses leading to a career in human resource management may be found in departments of business administration, education, instructional technology, orga nizational development, human services, communication, or public administration. Because an interdisciplinary background is appropriate for work in this area, a combination of courses in the social sciences, business, and behavioral sciences is useful. In some industries, a background in engineering or science is recommended. Prospective personnel special ists should take courses in principles of management, organization dynamics, and human relations. Other relevant courses include busi ness administration, public administration, psychology, sociology, political science, economics, and statistics. Courses in labor law, collective bargaining, labor economics, labor history, and industrial psychology provide a valuable background for the prospective labor relations specialist. Graduate study in industrial or labor relations is becoming increas ingly important for those seeking work in labor relations. A law degree seldom is required for entry level jobs, but many people responsible for contract negotiations are lawyers, and a combination of industrial relations courses and law is highly desirable. A background in law is also desirable for employee benefits managers and others who must interpret the growing number of laws and regulations. A degree in dispute resolution provides an excellent background for mediators, arbitrators, and related personnel. A master’s degree is desirable for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis those seeking general and top management positions in all areas of personnel, training, and labor relations. For many specialized jobs in this field, previous experience is an asset; for managerial positions, it is essential. Personnel administration and human resource development require the ability to work with individuals as well as having a commitment to organizational goals. They also demand skills that may be developed outside the field— computer usage, selling, teaching, supervising, and volunteering, among others. In fact, the majority of personnel and labor relations jobs are filled by people previously employed in another occupation. This field offers clerical workers opportunities for advancement to professional positions. However, more responsible positions may be filled by experienced individuals from other fields, including business, government, education, social services administration, and the mil itary. Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers should speak and write effectively and be able to work with or supervise people of all levels of education and experience as part of a team. They must be patient to cope with conflicting points of view and emotionally stable to deal with the unexpected and the unusual. The ability to function under pressure is essential. Integrity, fair- minded ness, and a persuasive, congenial personality are important qualities. Entry level workers usually enter formal or on-the-job training programs, where they learn how to classify jobs, interview applicants, or administer employee benefits. Next, they are assigned to specific areas in the personnel department to gain experience. Later, they may advance to a managerial position, overseeing a major element of the personnel program—compensation or training, for example. Some workers leave for a more responsible job in another organiza tion. Exceptional employees may be promoted to director of personnel or industrial relations, which can eventually lead to a top managerial or executive position. Others may join a consulting firm or open their own business. A Ph.D. is an asset for teaching, writing, or consulting work. Job Outlook The number of personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most job openings, however, will result from replacement needs. The job market is likely to remain competitive in view of the abundant supply of college graduates and experienced workers with suitable qualifications. Most growth will occur in the private sector as employers try to provide effective training and employee relations programs for an expanding work force. For example, very rapid employment growth is expected in management and consulting as well as personnel supply firms as businesses increasingly contract out personnel functions or hire personnel specialists on a contractual basis to meet the increasing cost and complexity of training and development programs. Firms that develop and administer increasingly complex employee benefits and compensation packages for other organizations are also expected to grow rapidly. On the other hand, slower growth is expected in labor unions and organizations, as firms increasingly assume labor relations functions. Unless government programs expand, slower growth is also anticipated in public personnel administration. Corporate recognition of the importance of human resources will spur demand for personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers. Much greater investment in job-specific, employersponsored training and retraining is anticipated in the years ahead— a response to the increasing complexity of many jobs, productivity concerns, the aging of the work force, and technological advances that can suddenly leave large numbers of employees with obsolete skills. Demand for personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers is also governed by the staffing needs of the firms where they work. A rapidly expanding business is likely to hire additional personnel workers—either as permanent employees or consultants— while a business that is reducing its operations will require fewer personnel workers. In any particular firm, the size and the job duties of the human resources staff are determined by a variety of factors, Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations including the firm’s organizational philosophy and goals, the labor intensity and skill profile of the industry, the pace of technological change, government regulations, collective bargaining agreements, standards of professional practice, and labor market conditions. Other factors stimulate demand for personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers. Legislation setting standards in occupational safety and health, equal employment opportunity, and benefits has substantially increased the amount of recordkeeping, anal ysis, and report writing in these areas. Data gathering and analytical activities will increase as employers continue to review and evaluate their personnel policies and programs, but that probably will not generate many additional jobs because of offsetting productivity gains associated with the automation of personnel and payroll information. Earnings The median annual salary of personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers was $29,000 in 1988. The lowest 10 percent earned under $15,700, while the highest 10 percent earned over $52,000. Median earnings of managers were $34,600; for specialists, $26,400. Salaries vary widely and depend upon the size and location of the firm and the nature of its business. In 1988, according to a comprehensive survey conducted by Abbott, Langer, and Associates, the median annual salaries for selected person nel and labor relations occupations were: Labor relations managers, $50,500; training and organizational development managers, $49,400; compensation and benefits managers, $47,300; safety specialists, $33,400; EEO/affirmative action specialists, $33,300; and benefits planning specialists, $31,100. In the Federal Government, starting salaries of personnel, training, and labor relations specialists depended upon education and experi ence. In 1989, persons with a bachelor’s degree or 3 years’ general experience in the personnel field generally started at $15,700 a year. Those with a superior academic record or an additional year of special ized experience started at $ 19,500 a year. Holders of a master’s degree started at $23,800, and those with a doctorate in a personnel field started at $28,900. There are no formal entry level requirements for managerial positions. Applicants must possess a suitable combination of educational attainment, experience, and record of accomplishment. In the Federal Government, the average annual salary of personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers was $36,700 in 1988. Generally, managers and specialists involved in mediation, labor management relations, industrial relations, and related activities had substantially higher salaries than personnel involved in routine activities such as classification, occupational analysis, and staffing. Similar to other workers, personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers receive fringe benefits that typically include vacation and sick leave, health and life insurance, and pension plans, among others. Related Occupations All personnel, training, and labor relations occupations are closely related. Other workers with skills and expertise in interpersonal rela tions include employment, rehabilitation, and college career planning and placement counselors; lawyers; psychologists; sociologists; and teachers. These occupations are described elsewhere in the Handbook. Sources of Additional Information For general information on careers and accreditation in the personnel and human resources field, send a self-addressed, stamped, legal-sized envelope to: ••-American Society for Personnel Administration, 606 N. Washington St., Alexandria, VA 22314. For information about careers in employee training and develop ment, contact: ••-American Society for Training and Development, 1630 Duke St., Box 1443, Alexandria, VA 22313. For information about careers and certification in employee compen sation, contact: ••-American Compensation Association, 14040 Northsight Blvd., Scottsdale, AZFRASER 85260. Digitized for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 51 Information about careers and certification in employee benefits is available from: t»-lntemational Foundation of Employee Benefit Plans, 18700 W. Bluemound Rd., Brookfield, WI 53005. For information about careers in arbitration and other aspects of dispute resolution, contact: ••-American Arbitration Association, 140 West 51st St., New York, NY 10020. For information about academic programs in industrial relations, write to: ••-Industrial Relations Research Association, 7226 Social Science Bldg., 1180 Observatory Dr., Madison, WI 53706. Information about personnel careers in the health care industry is available from: «*-American Society for Healthcare Human Resources Administration, 840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60611. For information about personnel and labor relations careers in gov ernment, contact: ••-International Personnel Management Association, 1617 Duke St., Alexan dria, VA 22314. (•-International Association of Personnel in Employment Security, 1801 Louis ville Rd., Frankfort, Kentucky 40601. Property and Real Estate Managers (D.O.T. 186.117-042, -046, -058, and -062, .167-018, -030, -038, -042, -046, -062, and -066; 187.167-190; 189.157; 191.117-030 and -042 through -050). Nature of the Work Many people own real estate in the form of a home, but, to businesses and investors, real estate is more than simply the roof over one’s head and the ground under one’s feet. Real estate is a valuable asset— land and structures, such as office buildings, shopping centers, and apartment complexes—that can produce income and appreciate in value over time if well managed. Real estate can be a source of income when its use is leased to others, but a substantial business expense when it must be leased from others. Property managers control incomeproducing commercial and residential properties and manage the com munal property and services of condominium and community associa tions. Real estate managers plan and direct the purchase, development, and disposal of real estate for businesses. The majority of property and real estate managers work in the field of property management. When owners of apartments, office buildings, retail and industrial properties, or condominiums lack the time or expertise to assume the day-to-day management of their real estate investments, they often hire a property manager, or contract for one’s services with a real estate management company. Most property managers handle several properties simultaneously. Property managers act as the owners’ agent and adviser for the property. They market vacant space to prospective tenants, through the use of a leasing agent, advertising, or by other means, and establish rental rates in light of prevailing local rates. They negotiate and prepare lease or rental agreements with tenants and collect their rent payments and other fees. Property managers direct the bookkeeping for the property, crediting the owners’ accounts for rent received and disbursing checks for mortgage payments, taxes, insurance premium payments, payroll, and upkeep and maintenance costs. They also direct the preparation of financial statements and periodically report to the owners on the status of the property, occupancy rates, dates of lease expirations, and other matters. Property managers negotiate contracts for janitorial, security, groundskeeping, trash removal, and other services. When contracts are awarded competitively, managers must solicit bids from several contractors and recommend to the owners which bid should be ac cepted. They monitor the performance of the contractors, and investi gate and resolve complaints from tenants. Managers also purchase all supplies and equipment needed for the property, and arrange for 52 Occupational Outlook Handbook specialists to be brought in to perform any repairs that cannot be handled by the maintenance staff employed at the property. Property managers hire and, when necessary, discharge the mainte nance, stationary engineering, and on-site management personnel em ployed at the property. At smaller properties, the property manager might employ only a building engineer who maintains the building’s heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning systems and performs other routine maintenance and repair tasks. Larger properties require a siz able maintenance staff supervised by a full-time on-site or resident manager, who works under the direction of the property manager. Although some on-site managers oversee large office buildings or shopping centers, most manage apartments. They train, supervise, and assign duties to the maintenance staff at a property. Routinely, on-site managers inspect the grounds, facilities, and equipment, determine what repairs and maintenance are needed, and assign workers to perform them. Occasionally, outside contractors are required, and the on-site manager may obtain bids for the work and submit them to the property manager. On-site managers schedule routine service of the heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning systems and insure that the work of the maintenance staff and contract workers is up to standards or contract specifications. They also keep records of labor and materials costs for operating the property and submit regular cost reports to the property manager or owners. They also may recruit candidates for vacant maintenance staff positions, interview the job applicants, and recommend a qualified candidate for employment to the property manager. Dealing with tenants is an important part of the work of on-site managers, particularly apartment managers. Apartment managers han dle tenants’ requests for service or repairs and try to resolve complaints concerning other tenants or visitors. They show apartments available for rent to prospective tenants and explain the occupancy terms. They also are responsible for enforcing rules and lease restrictions, such as limitations on tenants’ ownership of pets or use of parking areas. Property and on-site managers employed by condominium and homeowner associations must be particularly adept at dealing with people. Instead of tenants, they must deal on a daily basis with homeowners—members of the community association that employs the manager. Hired by the volunteer board of directors of the association, the community association manager administers its daily affairs and oversees the maintenance of property and facilities that the homeown ers own and use jointly through the association. Many community associations are small and do not require professional management, but managers of the larger condominiums have many of the same responsibilities as the managers of large apartment complexes. Some homeowner associations encompass thousands of homes, and, in addi tion to administering the associations’ financial records, their managers may be responsible for the operation of community pools, golf courses, community centers, and the maintenance of landscaping, parking ar eas, and streets. Property managers negotiate leases with tenants. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Real estate managers are employed by businesses to locate, acquire, and develop real estate needed for their operations and to dispose of property no longer suited to their uses. Real estate managers employed by corporations that operate chains of restaurants, apparel and grocery stores, and gasoline service stations locate sites well suited for these types of establishments, and arrange to purchase or lease the property from the owners. They select a site based on their assessment of factors such as property values, zoning, likely patterns of population growth, and traffic volume and patterns. They negotiate contracts for the purchase or lease of the property, bargaining to secure the most benefi cial terms for their company. Real estate managers periodically review their company’s real estate holdings, identifying properties which have become less desirable locations for their type of business due to community development or changes in the composition of the popula tion. They negotiate the sale or termination of the lease of properties selected for disposal. Real estate managers who work for land development companies acquire land and plan the construction of shopping centers, houses and apartments, office buildings, or industrial parks. They negotiate with representatives of local government, other businesses, community and public interest groups, and public utilities to eliminate obstacles to the development of the land and gain support for the planned project. It sometimes takes managers years to win approval for a project, and in the process they may modify the plans for the project many times. Once they are free to proceed with a project, managers negotiate short term loans to finance the construction of the project, and later negotiate long-term permanent mortgage loans. They then contract with architec tural firms to draw up detailed plans, and with construction companies to build the project. Real estate managers also work as land and permit agents for compa nies engaged in mining and quarrying, oil exploration, and construct ing pipe and utility lines. They search public records to determine the owners of land which their companies have identified as being likely to contain oil, coal, or other mineral deposits, or which lie in the path of the planned pipe or utility line. They contact the landowners and negotiate the purchase of the land, or agreements such as leases, options, rights-of-way, or royalty contracts that permit use of the land. They also may settle claims by landowners for damage resulting from the activities of their company. Working Conditions Property and real estate managers work in clean, well-lighted offices, but they usually spend a major portion of their time away from their desks. Property managers frequently visit the properties that they oversee, sometimes nearly on a daily basis when contractors are per forming important repair or renovation work. On-site apartment man agers may spend a substantial portion of their workday away from their office visiting the building engineer in the boiler room, checking up on the janitorial and maintenance staff, or investigating a problem reported by a tenant. Many real estate managers spend the majority of their time away from home, traveling to company real estate holdings or searching for properties that might be acquired. Property and real estate managers often must attend meetings in the evening with property owners, community association boards of directors, or civic groups with an interest in property planned for development. Many apartment managers are required to live in the apartments where they work so that they are available to handle any emergency that occurs while they are normally off duty. They usually receive compensatory time off, however, for working at night or on weekends. Many apartment managers receive time off during the week so that they are available on weekends to show apartments to prospective tenants. Employment Property and real estate managers held about 225,000 jobs in 1988. Most worked for real estate operators and lessors or for property management firms. Others worked for real estate development compa nies, banks, government agencies that manage public buildings, corpo rations with extensive holdings of retail properties, real estate invest Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations ors, and mining and oil companies. Many were self-employed developers, apartment owner-managers, or owners of property man agement or full-service real estate brokerage firms that manage as well as sell real estate for clients. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer to hire college graduates for property and real estate management positions. Degrees in business administration, finance, real estate, public administration, or related fields are pre ferred, but persons with degrees in the liberal arts are often accepted. Good speaking and writing skills and an ability to deal tactfully with people are essential. Most persons enter property and real estate man agement as on-site apartment or community association managers, or as assistants to property managers. Previous employment as a real estate agent is an asset to apartment managers because it provides experience useful in showing apartments and dealing with people, as well as an understanding that an attractive, well-maintained property can command higher rental rates and result in less turnover among tenants. In the past, many persons with backgrounds in stationary engineering and building maintenance have advanced to apartment manager positions on the strength of their knowledge of building mechanical systems, but this is becoming uncommon as employers are placing greater emphasis on administrative and communication abilities for manager jobs. On-site managers usually begin at a smaller apartment complex, condominium, or community association, or as an assistant manager at a large property or association. As they acquire experience working under the direction of a property manager, they may advance by transferring to positions with greater responsibility at larger properties. Persons who excel as on-site managers often transfer to assistant property manager positions where they can acquire experience handling a broader range of property management responsibilities. Although persons often advance to assistant property manager posi tions on the strength of on-site management experience, employers are increasingly hiring inexperienced college graduates with bachelor’s or master’s degrees in business administration, finance, or real estate for these jobs. Assistants work closely with a property manager and acquire experience performing a variety of management tasks, such as preparing financial statements, analyzing insurance coverage and risk options, marketing the property to prospective tenants, and collect ing overdue rent payments. In time, many assistants advance to prop erty manager positions. The responsibilities and compensation of property managers in crease as they manage larger properties. Most property managers are responsible for several properties at a time, and as their careers advance they are gradually entrusted with properties that are larger or whose management is more complex. Many specialize in the management of one type of property, such as apartments, office buildings, condominiums and homeowner associations, or retail properties. Managers who excel at marketing properties to tenants may specialize in managing new properties, while those who are particularly knowledgeable about buildings and their mechanical systems might specialize in the management of older properties that require renovation or more frequent repairs. Some experienced property and real estate managers open their own property manage ment or real estate firms. Persons most commonly enter real estate manager jobs by transfer ring from positions as property managers or real estate brokers. Real estate managers must be good negotiators, adept at persuading and handling people, and good at analyzing data to assess the fair value of property or its development potential. Resourcefulness and creativity in arranging financing are essential for managers who specialize in land development. Real estate managers may be required to hold a real estate broker’s license. Many property and real estate managers attend short-term formal training programs conducted by various professional and trade associa tions active in the real estate field. Employers send many managers to these programs to improve their management skills and expand their https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 53 knowledge of specialized subjects, such as the operation and mainte nance of building mechanical systems, insurance and risk manage ment, business and real estate law, and accounting and financial con cepts. Many managers also participate in these programs to prepare themselves to advance to positions of greater responsibility in property and real estate management. In many cases, completion of these programs, together with meeting job experience standards and achiev ing a satisfactory score on a written examination, leads to certification, or the formal award of a professional designation, by the sponsoring association. Managers of public housing subsidized by the Federal Government are required to be certified, but many property and real estate managers voluntarily earn a formal professional designation because it represents formal recognition of their achievements and status in the occupation. A number of organizations have such programs. The Institute of Real Estate Management awards the designations Accredited Residential Manager and Certified Property Manager, while the National Associa tion of Home Builders awards the designation Registered Apartment Manager. The National Apartment Association confers the designa tions Certified Apartment Manager and Certified Apartment Property Supervisor. The Community Associations Institute bestows the desig nation Professional Community Association Manager, while the Build ing Owners and Managers Institute International awards the designa tions Real Property Administrator and Facilities Management Administrator. The International Association of Corporate Real Estate Executives confers the designations Associate of Corporate Real Estate and Master of Corporate Real Estate. Job Outlook Employment of property and real estate managers is projected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. However, the majority of job openings are expected to occur as experienced managers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Opportunities are expected to be best for persons with college degrees in business administration and related fields. The projected pattern of employment growth in the economy indicates growth in the demand for office buildings, retail establishments, and apartments, and consequently growth in requirements for property and real estate managers. A large proportion of the new jobs created over the 1988-2000 period are expected to be in wholesale and retail trade, finance, insurance, real estate, and the various service industries. Since establishments in these industries are the primary tenants of commercial properties, growth of these industries is expected to require growth in the Nation’s supply of office and retail space. In addition, the expected employment growth in retail trade should require growing numbers of real estate managers to acquire and develop properties for expanding restaurant, grocery, apparel, and specialized merchandise chains. Growth in the Nation’s stock of apartments and houses should also require more property and real estate managers. Although the rate of new household formation is expected to decline somewhat over the 1988-2000 period as fewer young workers enter the labor force, the high cost of purchasing a home is expected to force a growing proportion of new households to delay leaving rental housing. In addition, develop ments of new houses are increasingly being organized with community or homeowner associations that provide community services and over see jointly owned common areas, requiring professional management. A growing proportion of commercial and multiunit residential prop erty owners are expected to entrust the management of their properties to a professional manager. Recent changes to income tax laws have greatly limited the tax benefits that property owners and investors can derive from unprofitable apartments and commercial properties. To help properties become more profitable, more owners are expected to place their investments in the hands of property and real estate managers. Earnings Earnings of property and real estate managers vary greatly according to the level of their responsibility. A survey conducted by Huntress Real Estate Executive Search Inc. found that the middle third of the 54 Occupational Outlook Handbook on-site apartment managers surveyed had annual salaries averaging $28,000 in 1988, while the lowest third averaged $18,800 a year and the highest third, $38,500 annually. Property managers had considerably higher earnings than on-site managers, according to the same survey. The middle third of property managers responsible for multiple apartment properties averaged $55,100 a year in 1988, while the lowest third averaged $45,400 and the highest third, $64,000 annually. Of property managers responsible for shopping centers, the middle third earned $60,800; the lowest third, $50,100; and the highest third, $68,800 annually. Of those who managed office buildings, the middle third earned $67,100; the lowest third, $47,200; and the highest third, $75,200 annually. Earnings of corporate real estate managers were generally compara ble to those of property managers, according to the same survey. Among those employed by fast-food and restaurant chains, the middle third of the lease negotiators and site selection representatives averaged $55,200 annually in 1988, while the lowest third averaged $45,000 and the highest third, $67,300 annually. The middle third of real estate directors earned $68,800 a year, while the lowest third earned $51,200 and the highest third, $78,800 annually. Among real estate managers employed by retail apparel chains, the middle third of the lease negotia tors and site selection representatives averaged $57,600 a year; the lowest third, $44,500; and the highest third, $70,000. The middle third of real estate directors for retail apparel chains had an average annual salary of $65,900, while the lowest third earned $54,600 and the highest third, $82,100 annually. Community association managers received compensation compara ble to on-site and property managers employed by other types of properties. Property and real estate managers usually receive medical and health insurance paid by their employer. Many resident apartment managers receive the use of an apartment as part of their compensation package. Property and real estate managers often are given the use of a company automobile, and managers employed in land development often receive a small percentage of ownership in projects that they develop. Related Occupations Property and real estate managers plan, organize, staff, and control the real estate operations of businesses. Workers who perform similar functions in other fields include restaurant and food service managers, hotel and resort managers and assistants, health services managers, education administrators, and city managers. Sources of Additional Information General information about careers in property and real estate manage ment and programs leading to the award of a professional designation in the field is available from; •-Apartment Owners and Managers Association of America, 65 Cherry Plaza, Watertown, CT 06795-0238. •-Building Owners and Managers Institute International, 1521 Ritchie Hwy., Arnold, MD 21012. •-Community Associations Institute, Suite 7, 1423 Powhatan St., Alexandria, VA 22314. •-Institute of Real Estate Management, 430 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago IL 60611. ••-International Association of Corporate Real Estate Executives, Suite 8, 471 Spencer Dr. South, West Palm Beach, FL 33409. •-National Apartment Association, Suite 900, 1111 14th St. NW., Washing ton, DC 20005. •-National Association of Home Builders, 15th & M Sts. NW., Washington, DC 20005. Purchasing Agents and Managers (D.O.T. 162.117-018; .157-030, -034, and-038, . 167-022 and-030, 163.117 010; 169.167-054; 184.117-078; and 185.167-034) Nature of the Work Purchasing agents and managers, sometimes called contract managers, procurement officers, or industrial buyers, purchase the goods, materi https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis als, supplies, and services that are required by their organization; for example, raw materials, machinery, office supplies, airline tickets, or television air time. They insure that products are of suitable quality and sufficient quantity, secured at the right price, and available when needed. This is important because the flow of work—or even the entire production process—could be slowed or halted if the right materials, supplies, or equipment are not on hand when needed. Changing business practices have changed the role of purchasing managers and agents and have placed greater importance on their function. Increasingly, they are helping with the design of new prod ucts and the improvement of existing ones. Many companies are recognizing the importance of purchasing specialists at the design stage of a product; by consulting the purchasing agent in the early stages of product development, potential problems with the supply of materials can be avoided, thus saving time and money. The nature of the work may differ according to the size and objective of the organization as well as its purchasing policy. In large organiza tions, a distinction is often drawn between the work of a purchasing agent and that of a purchasing manager. Purchasing agents typically focus on routine purchasing tasks, often specializing in a commodity or group of related commodities—for example, steel, lumber, cotton, or petroleum products. This often requires a buyer to track such things as market conditions, wholesale price indexes, or futures markets. Purchasing managers usually perform more complex purchasing tasks and may supervise a group of purchasing agents handling a number of related goods and services. Purchasing agents and managers often work with other departments to determine what supplies are needed, when they are needed, and the best way to buy them. Organizations have increasingly centralized their buying, placing more responsibilities on their purchasing depart ments. For example, a purchasing department may buy chemicals for a company’s production processes or arrange employee travel for the whole company. Computer technology plays a significant role in purchasing. Pur chasing agents and managers use computers to obtain up-to-date prod uct and price listings, to keep track of inventory levels, to process routine orders, and to help determine when to make purchases. Com puters are also used to maintain bidders’ lists, to record the history of supplier performance, and to issue purchase orders. Perhaps the most significant role that computers play is that they do many previously time-consuming tasks, thereby allowing the purchasing professional to concentrate on products and suppliers. The trend in the private sector toward single-source, or, more accu rately, limited-source contracting, reduces the number of vendors with whom an agent or manager deals. With limited-source contracting, an agent or manager develops fewer but longer relationships with a company’s suppliers, which makes the selection of the suppliers more critical. Increasingly, the agent’s or manager’s main job is to select the supplier who offers the best combination of quality, service, and price. Purchasing agents and managers must have a thorough understand ing of the items that are to be purchased. They must also be able to articulate their company’s needs to suppliers and to evaluate and choose between suppliers. Many agents and managers also need techni cal knowledge of the items they purchase. Purchasing agents and managers use a variety of means to choose suppliers. They compare listings in catalogs, directories, and trade journals. They meet with salespersons to discuss items to be purchased, examine samples, and attend demonstrations of products and equip ment. Frequently, they determine vendor qualifications and invite suppliers to bid on large orders. They then negotiate prices and contract terms or select the lowest bidder from among those who meet purchas ing and delivery date requirements. Successful purchasing agents and managers develop good business relationships with suppliers in order to attain the necessary materials and maintain a long-term relationship with them. This can be particu larly important if a company uses a limited number of sources. They also work closely with employees in their own organization. For example, they may discuss design of custom-made products with Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations Purchasing professionals are becoming more specialized. company engineers, defects in purchased goods with quality control technicians, or shipment problems with workers in the shipping de partment. The Federal Government distinguishes between purchasing agents and the more highly skilled contract specialist. The work of govern ment purchasing agents and contract specialists can be very different from that of other purchasing agents and managers. Although the goal of those who work in the public sector is the same as in the private sector, government purchasing agents and managers must follow laws, statutes, and strict regulations in their work. These laws and regulations are continually being changed, so the job also requires keeping in formed about the latest regulations and their applications. Generally, Federal purchasing agents use simplified purchasing methods to pro cure items under $25,000; Federal contract specialists use sealed bid ding and negotiated agreements for more expensive or complex items. Working Conditions Purchasing agents and managers generally work a standard 35- to 40hour week in offices, although overtime work is common. On average, about 10 to 15 percent of their time is spent traveling to suppliers, seminars, or trade shows. Employment Purchasing agents and managers held about 458,000 jobs in 1988. More than one-fourth of all jobs were located in manufacturing indus tries. Government agencies, primarily in the Federal sector, provided almost 20 percent of the jobs. Because of its complex and extensive purchasing requirements, the Department of Defense employs the greatest number of purchasing agents and managers in the Federal Government. Other important Federal employers are the Departments of Agriculture, Interior, and Transportation, the General Services Administration, and the Veterans Administration. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although there are no universal educational requirements for entry level jobs, most organizations prefer or require a college degree. A degree is almost essential to advance to higher positions. A master’s degree in business may be required for higher level jobs. It is also important to have strong analytical and communication skills. Educational requirements vary by industry. The Federal Govern ment seeks applicants with a college degree or 3 years of work experi ence. Companies that manufacture machinery or chemicals may prefer applicants with a technical background, such as engineering or science. Other companies hire business administration majors as trainees. Re gardless of the field, familiarity with computers is desirable. Many colleges and vocational-technical institutes offer courses or degrees in purchasing. Many small companies require a bachelor’s degree; some, however, hire graduates of associate degree and vocational education programs https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 55 in purchasing for entry level jobs. They also may promote clerks or technicians in the purchasing department. Whatever their educational background, beginning purchasing agents are often enrolled in company training programs and spend considerable time learning about company operations and purchasing procedures. They work with experienced agents to team about com modities, prices, suppliers, and negotiating techniques. They may be assigned to production planning to learn about the purchasing system, inventory records, and storage facilities. Purchasing agents and managers must be able to analyze the techni cal data in suppliers’ proposals, make buying decisions, and spend large amounts of money responsibly. The job requires the ability to work independently and a good memory for details. In addition, purchasing agents and managers must be able to get along well with people to balance the needs of personnel in the organization with budgetary constraints. They may work with lawyers, contract adminis trators, and engineers and scientists when involved in complex pro curements. A qualified purchasing agent may become an assistant purchasing manager in charge of a group of purchasing agents before advancing to purchasing manager, director or vice president of purchasing, or director or manager of materials management. At the top levels, duties may overlap into other management functions such as production, planning, and marketing. This occupation is becoming increasingly professionalized and spe cialized. Continuing education is essential for advancement. Many purchasing agents and managers participate in seminars offered by professional societies and take college courses in purchasing. Although no national standard exists, certification is becoming increasingly important. In private industry, the recognized mark of experience and profes sional competence is the designation Certified Purchasing Manager. It is conferred by the National Association of Purchasing Management, Inc. (NAPM), upon candidates who pass four examinations and meet educational and experience requirements. Educational background is evaluated on degrees held and courses and seminars attended. Experi ence is evaluated by years of work experience and contributions made to the field such as articles published or offices held in the NAPM. In State and local government, the indications of professional competence are the designations Professional Public Buyer (PPB) and Certified Public Purchasing Officer (CPPO), conferred by the National Institute of Governmental Purchasing, Inc. The PPB is earned by passing a two-part written examination. In addition, candidates must have 4 years of purchasing experience, 2 of which must be in public purchas ing. To earn the CPPO, a candidate must have 6 years of purchasing experience, of which 4 years must be in a public purchasing, manage ment-level position; pass a three-part written exam; and pass an oral interview assessment. As more purchasing is conducted on a long-term basis, both private and public purchasing agents are specializing in contractual aspects of purchasing. The National Contract Management Association confers the designations Certified Associate Contract Manager (CACM) or Certified Professional Contract Manager (CPCM). Candidates for the CPCM usually must have a bachelor’s degree and 2 years of on-the-job contracting experience. They must also complete certain procurement courses and pass a 6-hour exam. A candidate for the CACM must have 60 hours of college credit, complete certain procurement courses, have 1 year of related work experience, and pass the CACM test. These designations primarily apply to contract managers in the Federal Government and its suppliers. Job Outlook Employment of purchasing agents and managers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Computerization has changed the nature of the work but has not eliminated jobs. Computers allow agents and managers to concentrate on buying decisions instead of routine paperwork. In addition, companies are placing larger responsibilities on purchasing departments, which increases the need for qualified personnel. As 56 Occupational Outlook Handbook in the past, however, most job openings will arise from the need to replace workers who leave their jobs. Some purchasing agents and managers transfer to or from other occupations, often sales or managerial positions. Persons who have a master’s degree in business administration or a bachelor’s degree should have the best opportunities. Graduates of 2year programs in purchasing should continue to find good opportuni ties, especially in small firms. Earnings Median annual earnings for purchasing agents were about $25,896 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,500 and $34,736. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $12,116, and the top 10 percent earned more than $47,268. The middle 50 percent of purchasing managers earned between $25,896 and $49,712 in 1988. The median starting salary for purchasing agents in the private sector was $21,268 annually in 1988. Experienced workers earned between $27,456 and $35,516, and senior agents averaged $42,484. In the Federal Government, beginning purchasing agents who had college degrees earned $15,738 or $19,493 in 1989, depending on scholastic achievement and experience. Purchasing agents in the Fed eral Government averaged $18,999 in 1989 and contract specialists averaged $33,060. Related Occupations Other workers who negotiate and contract to purchase equipment, supplies, or other merchandise include retail and wholesale buyers, procurement services managers, and traffic managers. Other related occupations include sales workers, especially manufacturers’ sales workers, because buying and selling are closely related. Sources of Additional Information Further information about careers in purchasing and certification is available from: w-National Association of Purchasing Management, Inc., P.O. Box 22160, Tempe, AZ 85285 •-National Institute of Governmental Purchasing, Inc., 115 Hillwood Ave., Falls Church, VA 22046. •-National Contract Management Association, 1912 Woodford Rd., Vienna, VA 22182. For information concerning career opportunities in the Federal Gov ernment, contact: •-Federal Acquisition Institute (VF), General Services Administration, 18th and F Sts. NW„ Washington, DC 20405. Restaurant and Food Service Managers (D.O.T. 185.137; 187.161-010 and .167-026, -106, -126, -206, and -210; 319.137-014 and -018) Nature of the Work Food is consumed outside the home in a variety of settings. Eating places range from restaurants that serve fast food or that emphasize elegant dining, to institutional dining in school and employee cafete rias, hospitals, and nursing facilities. The cuisine offered, its price, and the setting in which it is consumed vary greatly, but the managers of these diverse dining facilities have many responsibilities in com mon. Efficient and profitable operation of restaurants and institutional food service facilities requires that managers and assistant managers select and appropriately price interesting menu items, efficiently use food and other supplies, achieve consistent quality in food preparation and service, recruit and train adequate numbers of workers and super vise their work, and painstakingly attend to the various administrative aspects of the business. In most restaurants and institutional food service facilities, the manager is assisted by one or more assistant managers, depending on the size and business hours of the establishment. In large establish https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ments, as well as in many others that offer fine dining, the management team consists of a general manager, one or more assistant managers, and an executive chef. The executive chef is responsible for the operation of the kitchen, while the assistant managers oversee service in the dining room and other areas of the operation. In some smaller restaurants, the executive chef may also be the general manager, and sometimes an owner. In fast-food restaurants and other food service facilities that operate long hours, 7 days a week, the manager is aided by several assistant managers, each of whom supervises a shift of workers. (For additional information, see the Handbook statements on general managers and top executives and chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers.) Many restaurants change their menu only rarely, but other eating establishments change it frequently. Institutional food service facilities and some restaurants offer a new menu every day. Managers or execu tive chefs select menu items, taking into account the likely number of customers, the past popularity of various dishes, and considerations such as food left over from prior meals that should not be wasted, the need for variety on the menu, and the availability of foods due to seasonal and other factors. They analyze the recipes of the dishes to determine food, labor, and overhead costs and assign prices to the menu items. Menus must be developed far enough in advance that needed supplies may be received in time. Ordering supplies and dealing with suppliers are important aspects of the work of restaurant and food service managers. On a daily basis, managers estimate food consumption, place orders with suppliers, and schedule the delivery of fresh food and beverages. They receive and check the content of deliveries, evaluating the quality of meats, poul try, fish, fruits, vegetables, and baked goods. Managers meet or talk with sales representatives of restaurant suppliers to place orders to replenish stocks of tableware, linens, paper, cleaning supplies, cook ing utensils, and furniture and fixtures. They also arrange for equip ment maintenance and repairs, and for a variety of services such as waste removal and pest control. Managers interview, hire, and, when necessary, discharge workers. They familiarize newly hired workers with the establishment’s policies and practices and oversee their training. Managers schedule the work hours of employees, insuring that there are adequate numbers of workers present during busy periods, but not too many during slow periods. Restaurant and food service managers supervise the kitchen and the dining room. They oversee food preparation and cooking, checking the quality of the food and the sizes of portions to insure that dishes are prepared and garnished correctly and in a timely manner. They also investigate and resolve customers’ complaints about food quality or service. During busy periods, managers may roll up their sleeves and help with the cooking, clearing of tables, or other tasks. They direct the cleaning of the kitchen and dining areas and the washing of tableware, kitchen utensils, and equipment to maintain company and government sanitation standards. They monitor workers and observe patrons on a continual basis to insure compliance with health and safety standards and local liquor regulations. Managers have a variety of administrative responsibilities. In larger establishments, much of this work is delegated to a bookkeeper, but in others, managers must keep accurate records of the hours and wages of employees, prepare the payroll, and do paperwork to comply with licensing laws and reporting requirements of tax, wage and hour, unemployment compensation, and Social Security laws. They also must maintain records of the costs of supplies and equipment purchased and insure that accounts with suppliers are paid on a regular basis. In addition, managers record the number, type, and cost of items sold to weed out dishes that are unpopular or less profitable. Many managers are able to ease the burden of recordkeeping and paperwork through the use of computers. Managers are among the first to arrive and the last to leave at night. At the conclusion of each day, or sometimes each shift, managers must tally the cash received and charge receipts and balance them against the record of sales. They are responsible for depositing the day’s income at the bank, or securing it in a safe place. Managers are Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations "' , Restaurant and food service managers check to see that food is prepared correctly and health and sanitation standards are maintained. also responsible for locking up and checking that ovens, grills, and lights are off and alarm systems switched on. Working Conditions Since evenings and weekends are popular dining periods, night and weekend work is common. However, many managers of institutional food service facilities work more conventional hours because factory and office cafeterias are often open only on weekdays for breakfast and lunch. Many restaurant and food service managers work 50 hours or more per week. Managers often experience the pressure of simultaneously coordi nating a wide range of activities. When problems occur, it is the responsibility of the manager to resolve them with minimal disruption to customers. The job can be hectic during peak dining hours, and dealing with irate customers or uncooperative employees can be partic ularly stressful. Employment Restaurant and food service managers held about 524,000 jobs in 1988. Most worked in restaurants or for contract institutional food service companies, but small numbers also were employed by educa tional institutions, hospitals, nursing and personal care facilities, de partment stores, and civic, social, and fraternal organizations. Nearly half were self-employed. Jobs are located throughout the country, but are most plentiful in large cities and tourist areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many restaurant and food service manager positions are filled by promoting experienced food and beverage preparation and service workers. Waiters, waitresses, chefs, and fast-food workers who have demonstrated their potential for handling increased responsibility sometimes advance to assistant manager or management trainee jobs when openings occur. Executive chefs need extensive experience working as a chef, and general managers need experience working as assistant manager. However, most food service management compa nies and national or regional restaurant chains also recruit management trainees from among the graduates of 2-year and 4-year college pro grams. Food service and restaurant chains prefer to hire persons with degrees in restaurant and institutional food service management, but https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 57 they often hire graduates with degrees in other fields who have demon strated interest and aptitude. A bachelor’s degree in restaurant and food service management provides a particularly strong preparation for a career in this occupa tion. In 1988, more than 130 colleges and universities offered 4-year programs in restaurant and hotel management or institutional food service management. For persons who do not want to pursue a 4-year degree, a good alternative is provided by the more than 370 community and junior colleges, technical institutes, and other institutions that offer programs in these fields leading to an associate degree or other formal award below the baccalaureate. Both 2-year and 4-year pro grams provide instruction in subjects such as accounting, business law and management, food planning and preparation, and nutrition. Some programs combine classroom and laboratory study with internships that provide on-the-job experience. In addition, more than 150 educa tional institutions offer culinary programs that provide food preparation training which can lead to a career as a cook or chef and provide a foundation for advancement to an executive chef position. Most employers emphasize personal qualities. Restaurant and food service management can be demanding, so good health and stamina are important. Self-discipline, initiative, and leadership ability are essential. Managers must be able to solve problems and concentrate on details. They need good communication skills to deal with custom ers and suppliers, as well as to motivate and direct their subordinates. A neat and clean appearance is also required since managers are often in close personal contact with the public. Most restaurant chains and food service management companies have rigorous training programs for persons hired for management jobs. Through a combination of classroom and on-the-job training, trainees receive instruction and gain work experience in all aspects of the operations of a restaurant or institutional food service facility— food preparation, sanitation, security, company policies and proce dures, personnel management, recordkeeping, and preparation of re ports. Usually after 6 months or a year, trainees receive their first permanent assignment as an assistant manager. Willingness to relocate often is essential for advancement to posi tions with greater responsibility. Managers advance to larger establish ments, or regional management positions with restaurant chains. Some managers eventually open their own eating and drinking establish ments. Others transfer to hotel management positions, since their restaurant or institutional food service management experience is a good background for food and beverage manager jobs at hotels and resorts. Job Outlook Employment of restaurant and food service managers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. In addition to growth in demand for these managers, the need to replace managers who transfer to other occupations or stop working for a variety of reasons will create many new jobs. Job opportunities are expected to be best for persons with bachelor’s or associate degrees in restaurant and institutional food service management. Employment will increase with growth in the number of eating and drinking establishments. Population growth, rising personal incomes, and increased leisure time will continue to produce growth in the number of meals consumed outside the home. Also, continued growth in the number of families in which both spouses work should make dining out a more frequent and affordable convenience. Projected employment growth, however, varies by industry. For example, little change is expected in the employment of managers in school and college cafeterias due to increased contracting-out of cafete ria operations to institutional food service companies. However, the growth in the number of elderly people is expected to result in rapid growth of food service manager jobs in nursing homes, residential care facilities, and other health care institutions. Employment in eating and drinking establishments is not very sensi tive to changes in economic conditions, so restaurant and food service managers are rarely laid off during hard times. However, competition 58 Occupational Outlook Handbook among restaurants is always intense, and many restaurants do not survive. Earnings Earnings of restaurant and food service managers vary greatly accord ing to the type and size of establishment. Based on a survey conducted for the National Restaurant Association, their median base salary was $24,000 a year in 1987, but managers of the largest restaurants and institutional food service facilities often had annual salaries in excess of $40,000. Managers of fast-food restaurants had a median base salary of $21,000 a year; managers of full-menu restaurants with table service, $26,000; and managers of commercial and institutional cafeterias, $25,000 a year in 1987. Besides a salary, most managers received an annual bonus or incentive payment based on their perfor mance. In 1987, most of these payments ranged between $2,000 and $7,000 a year. Executive chefs had a median base salary of $30,400 a year in 1987, but those employed in the largest restaurants and institutional food service facilities often had base salaries over $40,000. Annual bonus or incentive payments of most executive chefs ranged between $1,400 and $5,000 a year. The median base salary of assistant managers was $18,000 a year in 1987, but ranged from $16,200 in fast-food restaurants to over $24,000 in some of the largest restaurants and food service facilities. Annual bonus or incentive payments of most assistant managers ranged between $1,000 and $3,500 a year. Manager trainees had a median base salary of $15,600 a year in 1987, but had salaries of more than $21,000 in some of the largest restaurants and food service facilities. Annual bonus or incentive payments of most trainees ranged between $800 and $3,000 a year. Most salaried restaurant and food service managers received free meals, sick leave, health and life insurance, and 1 to 3 weeks of paid vacation a year, depending on length of service. Related Occupations Restaurant and food service managers direct the activities of business establishments that provide a service to customers. Other managers in businesses that sell goods or services to the general public include hotel managers and assistants, health services administrators, retail store managers, and bank managers. The underwriter must analyze information in insurance applications, reports from loss control consultants, medical reports, and actuarial studies (reports that describe the probability of insured loss) and then decide whether to issue a policy. An insurance company may lose business to competitors if the underwriter appraises risks too conserva tively, or it may have to pay more claims if the underwriting actions are too liberal. (The term “life underwriter” is increasingly used in referring to insurance sales workers; see the statement on insurance sales workers elsewhere in the Handbook for a discussion of that occupation.) When deciding that an applicant is an acceptable risk, an underwriter may outline the terms of the contract, including the amount of the premium. Underwriters frequently correspond with policyholders, agents, and managers about policy cancellations or other matters. On rare occasions, they accompany sales workers on appointments with prospective customers. Most underwriters specialize in one of three major categories of insurance: Life, property and liability, or health. They further special ize in group or individual policies. The property and liability under writer specializes by type of risk insured, such as fire, homeowner, automobile, marine, property, or workers’ compensation. In cases where casualty companies insure in a single “package” policy, cover ing various types of risks, the underwriter must be familiar with different lines of insurance. Some underwriters, called commercial account underwriters, handle business insurance exclusively. They often evaluate a firm’s entire operation in appraising its insurance application. An increasing proportion of insurance sales are being made through group contracts. A standard group policy insures all persons in a specified group through a single contract at uniform premium rates, generally for life or health insurance protection. The group underwriter analyzes the overall composition of the group to be sure that the total risk is not excessive. Another type of group policy provides members of a group—a labor union, for example—with individual policies reflecting their individual needs. These generally are casualty policies, such as those covering automobiles. The casualty underwriter analyzes the application of each group member and makes individual appraisals. Some group underwriters meet with union or employer representatives to discuss the types of policies available to their group. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local em ployers and local offices of the State employment service. Career information about restaurant and food service managers and directories of 2- and 4-year college programs in restaurant and food service management are available from: •-The Educational Foundation of the National Restaurant Association, Suite 1400, 250 South Wacker Dr., Chicago, IL 60606. General information on hospitality careers may be obtained from: •-Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, 1200 17th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20036-3097. For general career information and a directory of accredited private trade and technical schools offering programs in restaurant and food service management, write to: •-National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, P.O. Box 10429, Department BL, Rockville, MD 20850. Underwriters (D.O.T. 169.167-058) Nature of the Work Insurance companies assume billions of dollars in risks each year by transferring the risk of loss from their policyholders to themselves. Underwriters appraise and select the risks their company will insure. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Underwriters appraise and select the risks their company will insure. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations Working Conditions Underwriters have desk jobs that require no unusual physical activity. Their offices generally are comfortable and pleasant. Although some overtime may be required, the normal workweek is 35-40 hours. Underwriters occasionally may attend meetings away from home for several days. Construction and marine underwriters often travel to inspect the work site and assess the risk. Employment Insurance underwriters held about 103,000jobs in 1988. The following tabulation presents the percent distribution of wage and salary jobs by industry. Percent Total...................................................................................... 100 Insurance industries................................................................ 93 Insurance agents, brokers, and services......................... Fire, marine, and casualty insurance.............................. Life insurance..................................................................... Accident and health insurance, medical service plans.. Pension funds and insurance, not elsewhere classified. 39 36 13 3 Banks and credit agencies..................................................... 5 Real estate and related industries........................................ 1 Security and commodity brokers and exchanges, holding and investment offices, and Federal Government........ 1 2 Underwriters worked throughout the country in independent agen cies—firms which represent one or more insurance companies—and brokers—firms which may deal with any insurance company but repre sent none. Small numbers of underwriters worked for credit agencies and other financial institutions and in government. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For beginning underwriting jobs, many large insurance companies prefer college graduates who have a degree in business administration with an accounting background. However, a liberal arts degree in almost any field plus courses in business law and accounting provide a good general background. Some small companies hire persons with out a college degree for underwriter trainee positions. In addition, some high school graduates who begin as underwriting clerks may be trained as underwriters after they demonstrate an aptitude for the work. Underwriter trainees begin by evaluating routine applications under the close supervision of an experienced risk appraiser. They study claim files to become familiar with factors associated with certain types of losses. As they develop the necessary judgment, they are assigned policy applications that are more complex and have a greater face value. These often require the use of computers for more efficient processing. Consequently, computer literacy is becoming necessary. Continuing education is necessary for the underwriter to advance. Insurance companies generally pay tuition for underwriting courses that their trainees successfully complete; some also offer salary in creases. Experienced life insurance underwriters who pass a series of examinations and complete a paper on a topic in the underwriting field can qualify as a “fellow” of the Academy of Life Underwriters, the educational arm of the Home Office Life Underwriters Association and the Institute of Home Office Underwriters. Designation as a fellow is recognized as a mark of achievement and is increasingly sought by employers in the life underwriting field. Independent study programs for experienced property and casualty underwriters are also available. In collaboration with the Society of Chartered Property and Casualty Underwriters, the Insurance Institute of America offers the designation “associate in underwriting,” and the American Institute for Property and Liability Underwriters offers the prestigious designation "CPCU”—chartered property casualty underwriter. Underwriting can be a satisfying career for persons who like working https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 59 with detail and enjoy evaluating information. In addition, underwriters must be able to make prompt decisions and communicate effectively. They must also be imaginative and aggressive, especially when they have to obtain information from outside sources. Experienced underwriters who complete courses of study may ad vance to chief underwriter or underwriting manager. Some underwrit ing managers are promoted to senior managerial jobs. Job Outlook Employment of underwriters is expected to rise faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as insurance sales continue to expand. Most job openings, however, are expected to result from the need to replace underwriters who transfer to other occupations or stop working altogether. A number of factors underlie the expected growth in the volume and complexity of insurance and the resulting need for underwriters. Shifts in the age distribution of the population will result in a large increase in the number of people who assume career and family responsibilities. People in this group have the greatest need for life and health insurance. A growing demand for insurance coverage for working women also is expected. In addition, expanding long-term healthcare and pension benefits for retirees—an increasing proportion of the population—will increase underwriting requirements. Growing security and liability consciousness should contribute to demand for more insurance protection for homes, automobiles, pleasure craft, and other valuables. New or expanding businesses will need protection for new plants and equipment, product liability, and insurance for work ers’ compensation and employee benefits. In addition, competition among insurance companies and changes in regulations affecting in vestment profits are expected to increase the need for underwriters. Since insurance is usually regarded as a necessity regardless of economic conditions, underwriters are unlikely to be laid off during a recession. Earnings The following tabulation presents the median salaries of casualty and property underwriters in 1988, according to a survey by the Alliance of American Insurers in collaboration with the American Insurance Association and the National Association of Independent Insurers. Type of underwriter Manager, commercial lines .. Manager, personal lines....... Supervisor, personal lines.... Supervisor, commercial lines Senior commercial lines....... Senior personal lines............. Commercial lines.................. Personal lines.......................... $49,000 48,100 40,500 40,200 33,000 30,700 25,900 23,400 Most insurance companies have liberal vacation policies and other employee benefits. Almost all insurance companies provide employerfinanced group life and retirement plans. Related Occupations Underwriters make decisions on the basis of financial data. Other workers with the same type of responsibility include auditors, budget analysts, financial advisors, loan officers, credit managers, real estate appraisers, and risk managers. Sources of Additional Information General information about a career as an insurance underwriter is available from the home offices of many life insurance and property and liability insurance companies. Information about the insurance 60 Occupational Outlook Handbook business in general and the underwriting function in particular also may be obtained from: "■Society of Chartered Property and Casualty Underwriters, Kahler Hall, CB#9, 720 Providence Rd., Malvern, PA 19355. Wholesale and Retail Buyers (D.O.T. 162.157-018 and -022) Nature of the Work Imagine shopping for a living! Wholesale and retail buyers do just that. Working for wholesalers and retailers, buyers purchase merchan dise for resale. Regardless of what they are buying—from clothing to machinery—they seek the best available merchandise at the lowest possible price. Working with sales and marketing managers, they also determine how the merchandise will be distributed and marketed. Wholesale and retail buyers are an integral part of a complex system of production, distribution, and merchandising that caters to the vast variety of consumer needs and desires. Buyers working for large and medium-sized firms usually specialize in acquiring one or two lines of merchandise. However, buyers working for small stores may purchase their complete stock of merchandise. Wholesale buyers purchase goods directly from manufacturers or from other wholesale firms for resale to retail firms or to commercial establishments and other institutions. Retail buyers purchase goods from wholesale firms or directly from manufacturers for resale to the public. (Information about purchasing agents—buyers who purchase goods and services for their firm’s inter nal use—can be found elsewhere in the Handbook.) The success of any wholesale or retail firm depends on its ability to sell merchandise. Because buyers determine which products the establishment will sell, it is essential that they be knowledgeable about the products they are buying and know what will appeal to consumers. These skills usually are developed through several years of experience as an assistant buyer—observing and learning how buyers determine what to buy. In order to purchase the best selection of goods, buyers must be familiar with the merchandise, its domestic and foreign manufacturers and distributors, and its sales record. As a result, they must keep informed about changes in existing products and the development of new ones. To learn about merchandise, buyers read industry periodi cals, attend trade shows and conferences, and visit manufacturers’ showrooms. Many consult catalogs and computerized directories to determine where goods can be purchased. Traditionally, buyers have relied on sales staff and inventory counts to determine which products were selling. However, computerized systems have changed this. For example, cash registers connected to computers, known as point-of-sale terminals, allow retail chains to maintain centralized, up-to-date sales and inventory records. These can be used to produce weekly sales reports that reflect the types of products in demand. With the data generated by these systems, buyers can spend less time collecting information and more time analyzing it. In addition to monitoring their company’s sales, buyers follow ads in newspapers and other media to check competitors’ sales activities and watch general economic conditions to anticipate consumer buying patterns. Once buyers decide what to purchase, they determine from whom to purchase it. They base their decision on price, availability, reliability of the supplier, and selection. Buyers must be able to assess the resale value of goods after a brief inspection and make purchase decisions quickly. They also must be aware of their company’s profit margin and try to select merchandise that will sell quickly at well above the original cost. Because most buyers work within a limited budget, they must plan their purchases to keep needed items always in stock, but also allow for unexpected purchases when a “good buy” presents itself. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The actual ordering process varies by firm. Many orders are placed during buying trips, but they are also made when wholesale and manufacturers’ sales workers call on buyers to display their merchan dise. Some firms are linked with manufacturers or wholesalers by electronic purchasing systems. These systems speed selection and ordering and provide information on availability and shipment. Often, assistant buyers are responsible for placing orders and checking ship ments. Wholesalers distribute products to thousands of retailers and institu tional buyers, and many retailers have several stores to which merchan dise must be dispersed. Buyers may play an integral role in this distribution process. They examine a variety of factors, including demographic characteristics, sales data, and store size to determine how merchandise will be distributed. Many buyers assist in the planning and implementation of sales promotion programs. Working with merchandising executives, they determine the nature of the sale and buy accordingly. They also work with advertising personnel to create the ad campaign. For example, they may determine the media in which the advertisement will be placed—newspapers, direct mail, radio, or television, or some combi nation of these. Before the sale, they may meet with sales workers to give instructions. In addition, retail buyers often visit the selling floor to insure that the goods are being displayed properly. Buyers usually have very busy schedules and deal with many differ ent people in the course of a day. On a typical day, they may meet with vendors’ sales representatives, discuss merchandising problems with wholesale buyers and store executives, and confer with advertis ing personnel about sales promotions. In addition, they often consult Buyers base decisions on price, availability, and reliability of the supplier. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations with assistant buyers and sales personnel about how merchandise is selling. Most buyers direct assistants who handle many of the clerical duties associated with buying. Both wholesalers and retailers are continuing to expand their use of computers and other business equipment. This has simplified many of the routine buying functions and improved efficiency. For example, computers give wholesale buyers instant access to the specifications of thousands of commodities, their inventory records, and their retailers’ purchase records. Working Conditions Buyers often operate under great pressure since wholesale and retail trade establishments are highly competitive. Because both retail and wholesale establishments are solely dependent on sales, those who repeatedly buy products that sell poorly are quickly relieved of their duties. Buyers work in comfortable, well-lighted offices at stores or in corporate headquarters. They frequently work more than a 40-hour week because of special sales and conferences. Also, they may have to work evenings and weekends to complete work on time. For those working in retail trade, this is especially true during holiday seasons. In addition, many retail firms discourage the use of vacation time from Thanksgiving until early January. Substantial traveling usually is required, and most buyers spend at least several days a month on the road. However, this is almost always at their employers’ expense. Employment Wholesale and retail buyers held about 207,000 jobs in 1988. Nearly all were in full-time positions. About two-thirds of all buyers were employed in retail establishments, such as department stores, super markets and groceries, and clothing stores. The remainder worked for wholesalers of groceries; machinery; electrical goods; hardware, plumbing, and heating equipment; and other durable and nondurable goods. Although buyers work in all parts of the country, many are located in major metropolitan areas, where wholesale-distributors and retail stores are concentrated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement This is not an entry level job. Firms prefer to hire applicants who are familiar with the merchandise they sell as well as with wholesaling and retailing practices. There are many ways to develop these skills, and preferences vary from company to company. Some firms promote qualified employees to assistant buyer positions; others recruit and train college graduates and other applicants who have completed post secondary programs in marketing or business administration. Most employers use a combination of methods. Educational requirements for entry level buying positions tend to vary with the size of the organization. The largest stores and distribu tors seek applicants who have completed associate or bachelor’s degree programs in marketing and purchasing. Nonetheless, most firms that have buyer trainee programs accept college graduates from any field of study. Trainee programs combine classroom instruction in merchan dising and purchasing with short rotations to jobs in areas such as sales, accounts receivable, and the stockroom. This training introduces the new worker to retail or wholesale trade operations and the policies fundamental to merchandising and management. Although training periods vary in length, most last several years. Most trainees begin by selling merchandise, supervising sales workers, checking invoices on material received, and keeping track of stock on hand, although widespread use of computers in both wholesale and retail trade has simplified some of these tasks. As they progress, trainees are given more buying-related responsibilities until manage ment feels they are qualified to become buyers. In order to maintain their effectiveness, buyers must constantly be aware of what their customers want. To stay abreast of new develop ments and products, they take courses in merchandising techniques, attend trade shows and conferences, and read industry periodicals. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 61 Persons who wish to become buyers should be good at planning and decisionmaking and have an interest in merchandising. Anticipating consumer preferences and ensuring that goods are in stock when they are needed require resourcefulness, good judgment, and self confidence. They must be able to make decisions quickly and take risks. Marketing skills and the ability to identify products that will sell are also very important. Employers often look for leadership ability and communication skills because buyers spend a large portion of their time supervising assistant buyers and dealing with manufacturers’ representatives and store executives. In addition, buyers need physical stamina and emotional stability to keep up with the fast-paced nature of their work. Experienced buyers may advance to merchandise managers; some advance to executive jobs such as general merchandise manager for distributors, department stores, or chain stores. Others “jump to the other side of the fence” and go to work in sales for a manufacturer. Job Outlook Employment of buyers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Although sales volume will continue to increase with population growth, demand for buyers will slow because of the changes taking place in wholesale and retail trade. Most job openings, therefore, will result from replacement needs, which occur as experienced buyers transfer to other occupations in sales or management or leave the labor force. Over the past few years, the organizational structure of wholesale and retail trade industries has been changing. Many firms have pur chased or merged with other firms. Each of these companies previously employed a staff of buyers. However, when buying functions are centralized by the new organization, fewer buyers are needed. Another factor that will influence demand for buyers is the trend by retailers to ship “big ticket” items, such as major appliances, directly from the manufacturer to the consumer. This reduces the amount of stock on hand and consequently reduces demand for buyers to purchase this merchandise. Because merchandising attracts many college graduates, the number of qualified jobseekers should continue to exceed the number of open ings. Prospects are likely to be best for those with previous wholesale or retail experience, a degree in business administration or a related field, and the ability to work well under pressure. Earnings Median annual earnings of buyers were $24,700 in 1988. Most buyers earned between $17,420 and $35,412 a year. The lowest 10 percent averaged less than $13,052, while the top 10 percent earned more than $45,500. A buyer’s income depends upon the amount and type of product purchased, the employer’s sales volume and, to some extent, the buyer’s seniority. Buyers for large wholesale distributors and for mass merchandisers such as discount or large chain department stores are among the most highly paid. Buyers receive a variety of benefits. In addition to paid vacations and life and health insurance, buyers often earn cash bonuses based on their performance and may receive discounts on merchandise bought from the employer. Some firms also have incentive plans, such as profit sharing and stock options. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who need a knowledge of marketing and the ability to assess demand are purchasing agents, retail sales workers, sales managers, comparison shoppers, manufacturers’ sales represen tatives, insurance sales agents, wholesale trade sales representatives, and travel agents. Sources of Additional Information General information about a career in retailing is available from; ••-National Retail Merchants Association, 100 West 31st St., New York, NY 10001. Professional Specialty Occupations Engineers Nature of the Work Engineers apply the theories and principles of science and mathematics to the economical solution of practical technical problems. Often their work is the link between a scientific discovery and its application. Engineers design machineiy, products, systems, and processes for efficient and economical performance. They develop electric power, water supply, and waste disposal systems. They design industrial machinery and equipment for manufacturing goods, and heating, air-conditioning, and ventilation equipment for more comfortable living. Engineers also develop equipment to probe outer space and the ocean depths; design defense and weapons systems for the Armed Forces; and design, plan, and supervise the construction of buildings, highways, and rapid transit systems. They also design and develop consumer products such as automobiles, home appliances, electronic home entertainment equipment, and systems for control and automation of manufacturing, business, and management pro cesses. Engineers do a variety of tasks in developing a new product. For example, in developing an industrial robot, they determine the general way it will work; design and test components; fit them together in an integrated plan; and evaluate the design’s overall effectiveness, cost, reliability, and safety. This process applies to products as different as lawnmowers, computers, military weapons, and toys. In addition to design and development, many engineers work in testing, production, operations, or maintenance. They supervise pro duction in factories, determine the causes of breakdowns, and test manufactured products to maintain quality. They also estimate the time and cost to complete projects. Some work in engineering adminis tration and management or in sales, where an engineering background enables them to discuss the technical aspects of a product and assist in planning its installation or use. (See the statement on manufacturers’ sales workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most engineers specialize; more than 25 major specialties are recog nized by professional societies. Within the major branches are numer ous subdivisions. Structural, environmental, and transportation engi neering, for example, are subdivisions of civil engineering. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as motor vehicles, or in one field of technology, such as propulsion or guidance systems. This section, which contains an overall discussion of engineering, is fol lowed by separate statements on 10 branches of the profession— aerospace; chemical; civil; electrical and electronics; industrial; me chanical; metallurgical, ceramic, and materials; mining; nuclear; and petroleum engineering. Engineers in each branch apply their knowledge to many fields. Electrical and electronics engineers, for example, work in the medical, computer, missile guidance, or power distribution fields. Because complex problems cut across traditional fields, engineers in one field often work closely with specialists in scientific, other engineering, and business occupations. Engineers often use computers to solve mathematical equations which describe how a machine, structure, or system operates. Many engineers also use computer-aided design systems to produce and analyze designs. They also spend a great deal of time writing re ports and consulting with other engineers. Complex projects require many engineers, each working with a small part of the job. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects. Working Conditions Many engineers work in an office almost all of the time but others work in laboratories, industrial plants, or construction sites, where 62 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Chart 1. Almost one-third of all engineers are electrical engineers. Employment, 1988 / / / ^ CC ’Includes ceramic and materials engineers. Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics they inspect, supervise, or solve on-site problems. Engineers in branches such as civil engineering may work outdoors part of the time. A few engineers travel extensively to plants or construction sites. Many engineers work a standard 40-hour week. However, in some jobs there may be great pressure to meet deadlines or design standards. Engineers in these jobs may work long hours and experience consider able stress. Employment In 1988, engineers held almost 1,411,000 jobs. Over one-half of all engineering jobs were located in manufacturing industries—mostly in electrical and electronic equipment, aircraft and parts, machinery, scientific instruments, chemicals, motor vehicles, fabricated metal products, and primary metals industries. In 1988, 511,000 jobs were in nonmanufacturing industries, primarily in engineering and architec tural services and business and management consulting services, where firms designed construction projects or did other engineering work on a contract basis for organizations in other parts of the economy. Engineers also worked in the communications, utilities, and construc tion industries. Federal, State, and local governments employed about 185,000 engineers. Two-thirds were in the Federal Government, mainly in the Departments of Defense, Transportation, Agriculture, Interior, and Energy, and in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Most engineers in State and local government agencies worked in highway and public works departments. Some engineers are selfemployed consultants. Professional Specialty Occupations Engineers are employed in every State, in small and large cities, and in rural areas. Some branches of engineering are concentrated in particular industries and geographic areas, as discussed in statements later in this chapter. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in engineering from an accredited engineering program is generally acceptable for beginning engineering jobs. Col lege graduates with a degree in science or mathematics may occasion ally qualify for some engineering jobs, especially in engineering spe cialties in high demand. Most engineering degrees are granted in branches such as electrical, mechanical, or civil engineering. How ever, engineers trained in one particular branch may work in another. This flexibility allows employers to meet staffing needs in new techno logies and specialties in short supply. It also allows engineers to shift to fields with better employment prospects, or ones that match their interests more closely. Many 2- or 4-year college programs in engineering technology prepare students for practical design and production work rather than for jobs that require more theoretical scientific and mathematical knowledge. Graduates of 4-year technology programs may get jobs similar to those obtained by graduates with a bachelor’s degree in engineering. However, some employers regard them as having skills between those of a technician and an engineer. Graduate training is essential for engineering faculty positions but is not required for the majority of entry level engineering jobs. Many engineers obtain a master’s degree to learn new technology, to broaden their education, and to enhance promotion opportunities. Nearly 260 colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree in engineering, and nearly 100 colleges offer a bachelor’s degree in engineering technology. Although most institutions offer programs in the larger branches of engineering, only a few offer some of the smaller specialties. Also, programs of the same title may vary in content. For example, some emphasize industrial practices, preparing students for a job in industry, while others are more theoretical and are better for students preparing to take graduate work. Therefore, students should Chart 2. The number of degrees granted in engineering has declined recently. Bachelor’s degrees 1978-88 80,000 70,000 50,000 40.000 30,000 20,000 10,000 Source: Engineering Manpower Commission https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 63 investigate curriculums carefully before selecting a college. Admis sions requirements for undergraduate engineering schools include courses in advanced high school mathematics and the physical sci ences. In a typical 4-year college curriculum, the first 2 years are spent studying basic sciences—mathematics, physics, chemistry—introduc tory engineering, and the humanities, social sciences, and English. In the last 2 years, most courses are in engineering, usually with a concentration in one branch. Some programs offer a general engineer ing curriculum; students then specialize in graduate school or on the job. A few engineering schools and 2-year colleges have agreements whereby the 2-year college provides the initial engineering education and the engineering school automatically admits students for their last 2 years. In addition, a few engineering schools have arrangements whereby a student spends 3 years in a liberal arts college studying preengineering subjects and 2 years in the engineering school and receives a bachelor’s degree from each. Some colleges and universities offer 5-year master’s degree programs. Some 5- or even 6-year cooperative plans combine classroom study and practical work experience permitting students to finance part of their education. All 50 States and the District of Columbia require registration for engineers whose work may affect life, health, or property, or who offer their services to the public. In 1988, nearly 500,000 engineers were registered. Registration generally requires a degree from an engineering program accredited by the Accreditation Board for EngiY neering and Technology (ABET), 4 years of relevant work experience, and passing a State examination. Some States will not register those with degrees in engineering technology. Beginning engineering graduates usually do routine work under the close supervision of experienced engineers and, in larger compa nies, may also receive formal classroom or seminar-type training. As they gain knowledge and experience, they are assigned more difficult tasks with greater independence to develop designs, solve problems, and make decisions. Engineers may become technical specialists or may supervise a staff or team of engineers and technicians. Some eventually become engineering managers or enter other managerial, management support, or sales jobs. (See the statements under executive, administrative, and managerial occupa tions; under sales occupations; and on computer systems analysts elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some engineers obtain graduate degrees in business administration to improve advancement opportunities; others obtain law degrees and become patent attorneys. Many high level executives in government and industry began their careers as engineers. Engineers should be able to work as part of a team and should have creativity, an analytical mind, and a capacity for detail. In addition, engineers should be able to express themselves well—both orally and in writing. Job Outlook Employment opportunities in engineering have been good for a number of years. They are expected to continue to be good through the year 2000 because employment is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations while the number of degrees granted in engineering is likely to decline. Employers will need more engineers as they increase investment in plants and equipment in order to expand output of goods and services and to increase productivity. In addition, competitive pressures and advancing technology will force companies to improve and update product designs more frequently. Finally, more engineers will be needed to improve roads, bridges, and other public facili ties. Freshman engineering enrollments began declining in 1983, and the number of bachelor’s degrees in engineering began declining in 1987. Although it is difficult to project engineering enrollments, this decline is expected to continue, at least through the early 1990’s, because the proportion of students interested in engineering 64 Occupational Outlook Handbook careers has declined as prospects for college graduates in other fields have improved. Furthermore, the total college age population is projected to decline. One sign that engineering graduates have good prospects is that they have starting salaries substantially higher than those of most other graduates. Another is that most have received at least one job offer before graduation, which has not been the case for many other grad uates. Although employers generally prefer engineering graduates, there should continue to be opportunities in engineering for graduates in science and other related fields. Although only a relatively small proportion of engineers leave the profession each year, most job openings will arise from replacement needs. Most replacement openings are created by engineers who trans fer to management, sales, or other professional occupations rather than by engineers who leave the labor force. Most industries are less likely to lay off engineers than other work ers. Many engineers work on long-term research and development projects or in other activities which often continue even during reces sions. However, in industries such as electronics and aerospace, large cutbacks in defense or research and development may result in layoffs for engineers. New computer-aided design systems enable engineers to produce or modify designs much more rapidly than previously. This increased productivity might have resulted in fewer engineering jobs, but this has not happened. Instead, engineers have used these systems to improve the design process. They now produce and analyze many more design variations before selecting a final one. Therefore, this technology is not expected to limit employment growth signifi cantly. It is important for engineers to continue their education throughout their careers because their value to their employer depends on their knowledge of the latest technology. The pace of technological change varies by engineering specialty and industry. Engineers in high-technology areas such as advanced electronics or aerospace may find that their knowledge becomes obsolete rapidly. Even those who continue their education are vulnerable to obsolescence if the particular technology or product they have specialized in becomes obsolete. Engineers whom employers consider not to have kept up may find themselves passed over for promotions and are particularly vulnerable to layoffs. On the other hand, it is often these hightechnology areas that offer the greatest challenges, the most interest ing work, and the highest salaries. Therefore, the choice of engineer ing specialty and employer involves an assessment not only of the potential rewards but also of the risk of technological obsolescence. (The outlook for 10 branches of engineering is discussed in separate statements.) Earnings Starting salaries for engineers with the bachelor’s degree are signifi cantly higher than starting salaries of college graduates in other fields. According to the College Placement Council, engineering graduates with a bachelor’s degree averaged about $29,200 a year in private industry in 1988; those with a master’s degree and no experience, $34,600 a year; and those with a Ph.D., $46,600. Starting offers for those with the bachelor’s degree vary by branch, as shown in the following tabulation. Petroleum engineering.............................................................. Chemical engineering................................................................ Electrical engineering................................................................ Metallurgical engineering......................................................... Mechanical engineering........................................................... Nuclear engineering.................................................................. Industrial engineering................................................................ Mining engineering.................................................................... Aeronautical engineering.......................................................... Civil engineering....................................................................... https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis $32,016 30,996 29,736 29,448 29 388 28.740 28,476 28 440 28,176 25,596 As shown in the following tabulation, engineers in private industry in 1988 averaged $29,592 at the most junior level, and $87,914 at senior managerial levels. Experienced midlevel engineers with no supervisory responsibilities averaged $45,777. Percent of all engineers Engineers Engineers Engineers Engineers Engineers Engineers Engineers Engineers 1............................................................ II........................................................... III......................................................... IV......................................................... V........................................................... VI......................................................... VII........................................................ VIII...................................................... 6.1 13.4 24.8 27.6 18.4 7.5 19 3 Average salary $29,592 33,278 38,353 45,777 55,194 65,710 75 594 87*914 The average salary for engineers in the Federal Government was about $42,300 in 1988. Related Occupations Engineers apply the principles of physical science and mathematics in their work. Other workers who use scientific and mathematical princi ples include physical scientists, life scientists, mathematicians, engi neering and science technicians, and architects. Sources of Additional Information A number of engineering-related organizations provide information on engineering careers. JETS-Guidance, at 1420 King St., Suite 405, Alexandria, VA 22314, serves as a central distribution point for infor mation from most of these organizations. To receive information, write JETS-Guidance for an order form. Enclose a stamped, selfaddressed business-size envelope to obtain the order form. Societies representing many of the individual branches of engineer ing are listed in this chapter. Each can provide information about careers in the particular branch. Aerospace Engineers (D.O.T. 002.061 and .167) Nature of the Work Aerospace engineers design, develop, test, and help produce commer cial and military aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft. They develop new technologies in commercial aviation, defense systems, and space ex ploration, often specializing in areas like structural design, guidance, navigation and control, instrumentation and communication, or pro duction methods. They also may specialize in one type of aerospace product, such as passenger planes, helicopters, spacecraft, or rockets. Employment Aerospace engineers held about 78,000 jobs in 1988. Two-thirds were in the aircraft and parts and guided missile and space vehicle manufacturing industries. Federal Government agencies, primarily the Department of Defense and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, provided over 1 out of 10 jobs. Business and engineer ing consulting firms and communications equipment manufacturing firms accounted for most of the remainder. California, Washington, and Texas, States with large aerospace manufacturers, have the most aerospace engineers. Job Outlook Employment of aerospace engineers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Although Defense Department expenditures for military aircraft, missiles, and Professional Specialty Occupations 65 Many aerospace engineers specialize in one type of product, such as commercial transports, helicopters, or spacecraft. A chemical engineer at the control board of a research facility pilot plant. other aerospace systems are not expected to grow much, faster growth is expected in the civilian sector. Much of the present fleet of airliners will be replaced with quieter and more fuel-efficient aircraft, and there will be increased demand for spacecraft, helicopters, and business aircraft. Future growth of aerospace engineer employment could be limited because a higher proportion of engineers in aerospace manufac turing may be materials, mechanical, or electrical engineers. Most job openings will result from the need to replace aerospace engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Since a large proportion of aerospace engineering jobs are defense related, cutbacks in defense spending can result in layoffs of aerospace engineers. work on a contract basis, or worked for government agencies or as independent consultants. Sources of Additional Information For information on aerospace careers, send $2 to: w-American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., AIAA Student Programs, The Aerospace Center, 370 L’Enfant Promenade SW., Washington, DC 20024. (See introductory section of this chapter for information on training requirements and earnings.) Chemical Engineers (D.O.T. 008.061 except .030) Nature of the Work Chemical engineers work in many phases of the production of chemi cals and chemical products. They design equipment and plants, deter mine and test methods of manufacturing the products, and supervise production. Chemical engineers also work in industries other than chemical manufacturing such as electronics or aircraft manufacturing. Because the duties of chemical engineers cut across many fields, they apply principles of chemistry, physics, mathematics, and mechanical and electrical engineering. They frequently specialize in a particular operation such as oxidation or polymerization. Others specialize in a particular area such as pollution control or the production of a specific product like plastics or rubber. Employment Chemical engineers held about 49,000 jobs in 1988. Three-quarters were in manufacturing industries, primarily in the chemical, petroleum refining, and related industries. Most of the rest worked for engineering services or consulting firms that design chemical plants or do other https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of chemical engineers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most openings, however, will result from the need to replace chemical engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment in the chemical industry, where many chemical engi neers are employed, is expected to expand due to increased output and increased research and development expenditures. Areas relating to pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and materials science may provide better opportunities than other portions of the chemical industry. How ever, much of the projected growth in employment will be in nonmanu facturing industries, especially service industries. Low oil prices have reduced opportunities for chemical engineers in petroleum refining and energy-related industries as well as for chemical engineers working in research on alternative energy sources and energy conservation. Opportunities for chemical engineers in these areas will be limited until the price of oil increases. Sources of Additional Information (•-American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 345 East 47th St., New York, NY 10017. «r-American Chemical Society, Career Services, 115.'* 16th St. NW., Washing ton, DC 20036. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and eamings.) Civil Engineers (D.O.T. 005.061, .167-014 and -018; and 019.167-018) Nature of the Work Civil engineers, who work in the oldest branch of engineering, design and supervise the construction of roads, airports, tunnels, bridges, water supply and sewage systems, and buildings. Major specialties within civil engineering are structural, water resources, environmental, construction, transportation, and geotechnical engineering. Many civil engineers hold supervisory or administrative positions, ranging from supervisor of a construction site to city engineer. Others work as independent consultants. 66 Occupational Outlook Handbook equipment includes power generating and transmission equipment used by electric utilities, and electric motors, machinery controls, and lighting and wiring in buildings, automobiles, and aircraft. Electronic equipment includes radar, computers, communications equipment, and TV sets. The specialties of electrical and electronics engineers include several major areas—such as power distributing equipment, integrated cir cuits, computers, electrical equipment manufacturing, or communica tions—or a subdivision of these areas—industrial robot control sys tems or aviation electronics, for example. Electrical and electronics engineers design new products, write performance requirements, and develop maintenance schedules. They also test equipment, solve op erating problems, and estimate the time and cost of engineering projects. v... '•9? A civil engineer reviews street plans for a new subdivision. Employment Civil engineers held about 186,000 jobs in 1988. Over 40 percent of the jobs were in Federal, State, and local government agencies. Over one-third were in firms that provide engineering consulting services, primarily developing designs for new construction projects. The con struction industry, public utilities, railroads, and manufacturing indus tries accounted for most of the rest. Civil engineers usually are found in or near major industrial and commercial centers, often working at construction sites. Some projects are situated in remote areas or in foreign countries. In some jobs, civil engineers move from place to place to work on different projects. Job Outlook Employment of civil engineers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace civil engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. A growing population and an expanding economy will result in a need for more civil engineers to design and construct transportation systems, water resource and disposal systems, large buildings, and other structures. More civil engineers also will be needed to repair or replace existing roads, bridges, and other public structures. Because construction and related industries—including those pro viding design services—employ many civil engineers, employment opportunities will vary by geographic area and may decrease during economic slowdowns, when construction often is curtailed. Employment Electrical and electronics engineers held about 439,000 jobs in 1988, making it the largest branch of engineering. Most jobs were in firms that manufacture electrical and electronic equipment, business ma chines, professional and scientific equipment, and aircraft and parts. Computer and data processing services firms, engineering and business consulting firms, public utilities, and government agencies accounted for most of the remaining jobs. Job Outlook Employment opportunities for electrical and electronics engineers are expected to be good through the year 2000 because employment is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations. Despite rapid growth, however, the majority of job openings will result from the need to replace electrical and electronics engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Although increased demand by businesses and government for com puters, communications equipment, and military electronics is ex pected to account for much of the projected employment growth, consumer demand for electrical and electronic goods and increased research and development on computers, robots, and other types of automation should create additional jobs. Since many electrical engineering jobs are defense related, cutbacks in defense spending could result in layoffs of electrical engineers. Furthermore, engineers who fail to keep up with the rapid changes in technology in some specialties risk technological obsolescence, which makes them more susceptible to layoffs or, at a minimum, likely to be passed over for advancement. Sources of Additional Information wlnstitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers/United States Activities Board, 1828 L St., NW., Suite 1202, Washington, DC 20036. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.) Sources of Additional Information ^-American Society of Civil Engineers, 345 E. 47th St., New York, NY 10017. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.) Electrical and Electronics Engineers (D.O.T. 003.061, .167 except -034, -062, and -070, and .187) Nature of the Work Electrical and electronics engineers design, develop, test, and super vise the manufacture of electrical and electronic equipment. Electrical https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Electrical engineering is the largest branch of engineering. Professional Specialty Occupations Industrial Engineers (D.O.T. 005.167-026; 012.061-018, .067, .167 except -022, -026, -034, -058, -062, and -066, and .187) Nature of the Work Industrial engineers determine the most effective ways for an organiza tion to use the basic factors of production—people, machines, materi als, information, and energy. They bridge the gap between manage ment and operations, and are more concerned with people and methods of business organization than are engineers in other specialties, who generally work more with products or processes. To solve organizational, production, and related problems most efficiently, industrial engineers design data processing systems and apply mathematical analysis such as operations research. They also develop management control systems to aid in financial planning and cost analysis, design production planning and control systems to coor dinate activities and control product quality, and design or improve systems for the physical distribution of goods and services. Industrial engineers conduct surveys to find plant locations with the best combi nation of raw materials, transportation, and taxes. They also develop wage and salary administration systems and job evaluation programs. Many industrial engineers move into management positions because the work is closely related. Employment Industrial engineers held about 132,000 jobs in 1988; about 4 out of 5 jobs were in manufacturing industries. Because their skills can be used in almost any type of organization, industrial engineers are more widely distributed among industries than other engineers. For example, some even work for insurance companies, banks, hospitals, and retail organizations. Some work for government agencies or are independent consultants. Job Outlook Employment opportunities for industrial engineers are expected to be good; their employment is expected to grow about as fast as the 67 average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace industrial engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Industrial growth, more complex business operations, and the greater use of automation in factories and in offices underlie the projected employment growth. Jobs also will be created as firms seek to reduce costs and increase productivity through scientific manage ment and safety engineering. Sources of Additional Information •-Institute of Industrial Engineers, Inc., 25 Technology Park/Atlanta, Norcross, GA 30092. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.) Mechanical Engineers (D.O.T. 007.061, .161-022, -034, and -038, and .267) Nature of the Work Mechanical engineers are concerned with the production, transmis sion, and use of mechanical power and heat. They design and develop power-producing machines such as internal combustion engines, steam and gas turbines, and jet and rocket engines. They also design and develop power-using machines such as refrigeration and air-condition ing equipment, robots, machine tools, materials handling systems, and industrial production equipment. The work of mechanical engineers varies by industry and function. Specialties include motor vehicles; energy conversion systems; heat ing, ventilating, and air-conditioning; instrumentation; and special machinery for industries such as petroleum, rubber, plastics, and construction. Some mechanical engineers work in production operations, mainte nance, and technical sales. Many are administrators or managers. Employment Mechanical engineers held about 225,000 jobs in 1988. Over 3 out of 5 jobs were in manufacturing—of these, most were in the machinery, transportation equipment, electrical equipment, and fabricated metal products industries. Business and engineering consulting services and government agencies provided most of the remaining jobs. Job Outlook Employment opportunities for mechanical engineers are expected to be good. Their employment is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as the demand L’- i Employment opportunities for industrial engineers are expected to be good. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A mechanical engineer reviews the design of an electric power plant. 68 Occupational Outlook Handbook for machinery and machine tools grows and industrial machinery and processes become increasingly complex. Despite this expected employment growth, however, most job openings will result from the need to replace mechanical engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Sources of Additional Information ••"The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 345 E. 47th St., New York, NY 10017. ••-American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engi neers, Inc., 1791 Tullie Circle NE., Atlanta, GA 30329. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.) Metallurgical, Ceramic, and Materials Engineers (D O T. 006.061; 011.061 and .261-018; and 019.061-014) Nature of the Work Metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers develop new types of metals and other materials which meet special requirements—for example, materials that are heat resistant, or strong but light in weight. Most metallurgical engineers work in one of the three main branches of metallurgy—extractive or chemical, physical, and mechanical or process. Extractive metallurgists are concerned with removing metals from ores and refining and alloying them to obtain useful metal. Physical metallurgists study the nature, structure, and physical proper ties of metals and their alloys, and methods of converting refined metals into final products. Mechanical metallurgists develop and im prove metalworking processes such as casting, forging, rolling, and drawing. Ceramic engineers develop new ceramic materials and methods for making ceramic materials into useful products. Ceramics include all nonmetallic, inorganic materials which require the use of high tempera ture in their processing. Ceramic engineers work on products as diverse as glassware, electronic components, automobile and aircraft engine components, brick, and tile. Materials engineers evaluate technical and economic factors to de termine which of the many metals, plastics, ceramics, or other materi als available is best for each application. Materials engineers also test and evaluate materials and develop new materials, such as the composite materials now being used in advanced aircraft. Employment Metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers held over 19,000 jobs in 1988. Almost one-fifth worked in metal-producing industries. They also worked in industries that manufacture aircraft and parts, machin ery, and electrical equipment, and in business and engineering consult ing firms and government agencies. Job Outlook Employment of metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. More metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers will be needed by the metalworking and other industries to develop new metals and alloys as well as to adapt current ones to new applications. For exam ple, jet engines require metals that can withstand extreme heat. As the supply of high-grade ores diminishes, more metallurgical engineers will be required to develop new ways of recycling solid waste materials and processing low-grade ores now regarded as unprofitable to mine. More ceramic and materials engineers will be needed to develop improved materials and products, for example, ceramic automobile engines, which are more fuel efficient than metal engines. Sources of Additional Information "■The Minerals, Metals, & Materials Society, 420 Commonwealth Dr., Warrendale, PA 15086. "-ASM International, Metals Park, OH 44073. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and eamings.) Mining Engineers (D.O.T. 010.061 except -018) Nature of the Work Mining engineers find, extract, and prepare minerals for manufacturing industries to use. They design open pit and underground mines, super vise the construction of mine shafts and tunnels in underground opera tions, and devise methods for transporting minerals to processing plants. Mining engineers are responsible for the safe and economical operation of mines, including ventilation, water supply, power, com munications, and equipment maintenance. Some mining engineers work with geologists and metallurgical engineers to locate and appraise new ore deposits. Others develop new mining equipment or direct mineral processing operations to separate minerals from the dirt, rock, and other materials they are mixed with. Mining engineers frequently specialize in the mining of one mineral, such as coal or copper. With increased emphasis on protecting the environment, many min ing engineers have been working to solve problems related to land reclamation and water and air pollution. Employment Mining engineers held about 5,300 jobs in 1988. Over half worked in the mining industry. Other jobs were located in engineering consulting firms, government agencies, or in manufacturing industries. Mining engineers are usually employed at the location of mineral deposits, often near small communities. However, those in research and development, management, consulting, or sales often are located in metropolitan areas. A materials engineer measures heat conductivity in plastics. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of mining engineers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to expected low growth in demand for coal, metals, and other minerals. Most job openings will result from the need to replace the large proportion of mining engineers who transfer to other occupations each year. In the mid-1980’s, mining engineers experienced poor employment Professional Specialty Occupations 69 ,m . Mining engineers may spend most of their time in an office. A nuclear engineer reviews plans for a nuclear power plant. opportunities because low prices for oil and metals reduced coal, metal, and other mining. However, the prices of these commodities, metals in particular, have increased to a level sufficient to increase output and employment opportunities. Increased demand for coal and, consequently, for mining engineers in the coal industry will depend, to a great extent, on the availability and price of other energy sources such as petroleum, natural gas, and nuclear energy as well as the price of coal in other countries. More technologically advanced mining systems and further enforcement of mine health and safety regulations may also increase the need for mining engineers. As easily mined deposits are depleted, engineers must devise more efficient methods for mining and processing low-grade ores. Employment opportunities also may rise as new alloys and new uses for minerals and metals increase the demand for less widely used ores. engineers were civilian employees of the Navy, about one-third worked for the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, and most of the rest worked for the Department of Energy or the Tennessee Valley Authority. Most nonfederally employed nuclear engineers worked for public utilities or engineering consulting companies. Some worked for defense manu facturers or manufacturers of nuclear power equipment. Sources of Additional Information ••-The Society of Mining Engineers, Inc., P.O. Box 625002, Littleton, CO 80127-5002. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.) Job Outlook Employment of nuclear engineers is expected to change little through the year 2000. Almost all job openings will result from the need to replace nuclear engineers who retire or leave the occupation. Despite the expected absence of growth, there should be good opportunities for nuclear engineers because the number of new graduates with degrees in nuclear engineering is small and has been decl ining recently. Because of concerns over the safety of nuclear power, few or no nuclear power plants are likely to be started before the year 2000. However, nuclear engineers will be needed to operate plants presently under construction. In addition, nuclear engineers will be needed to work in defense-related areas and to improve and enforce safety standards. Sources of Additional Information Nuclear Engineers ••-American Nuclear Society, 555 North Kensington Ave., LaGrange Park, IL 60525. (D.O.T. 008.061-030; 015.061, .067, .137, and .167) (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.) Nature of the Work Nuclear engineers design, develop, monitor, and operate nuclear power plants used to generate electricity and power Navy ships. They also conduct research on nuclear energy and radiation. For example, they may work on the nuclear fuel cycle—the production, handling, and use of nuclear fuel and the safe disposal of waste produced by nuclear energy—or on breeder reactors or fusion energy. Some special ize in the development of nuclear weapons; others develop industrial and medical uses for radioactive materials. Employment Nuclear engineers held about 15,000 jobs in 1988; one-fifth were in the Federal Government. Nearly half of all federally employed nuclear https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Petroleum Engineers (D.O.T. 010.061 except -014 and -026, .161-010, and .167-010 and -014) Nature of the Work Most petroleum engineers explore and drill for oil and gas. Many petroleum engineers plan and supervise drilling operations. If the drilling is successful, petroleum engineers work to achieve the maxi mum profitable recovery of oil and gas from a petroleum reservoir by determining and developing the most efficient production methods. Since only a small proportion of the oil and gas in a reservoir will 70 Occupational Outlook Handbook * 4r Petroleum engineers work to increase efficiency in the recovery of oil and gas from a petroleum reservoir. flow out under natural forces, petroleum engineers develop and use various enhanced recovery methods, such as flooding the oil field with water to force more of the oil out of the reservoir. The best methods in use today recover only about half the oil in a reservoir. Petroleum engineers work to find ways to increase this proportion. Employment Petroleum engineers held almost 17,000 jobs in 1988, mostly in the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis petroleum industry and closely allied fields. Employers include major oil companies and hundreds of smaller, independent oil exploration, production, and service companies. Engineering consulting firms, government agencies, oil field services, and equipment suppliers also employ petroleum engineers. Others work as independent consultants. Most petroleum engineers work where oil and gas are found. Large numbers are employed in Texas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, and Califor nia, including offshore sites. Also, many American petroleum engi neers work overseas in oil-producing countries. Job Outlook Employment of petroleum engineers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Because of low oil prices, domestic petroleum companies have sharply curtailed exploration and production activities, resulting in poor employment opportunities for recent petroleum engineering graduates. In the long run, however, it appears likely that the price of oil will increase to a level sufficient to increase exploration and production, which would imply improved employment prospects for petroleum engineers. De spite this expected employment growth, most job openings will result from the need to replace petroleum engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Sources of Additional Information wSociety of Petroleum Engineers, P.O. Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083 3836. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.) Architects and Surveyors Architects 'U ' (D.O.T. 001.061-010 and .167-010) Nature of the Work The design of a building involves far more than its appearance. Build ings must also be functional, safe, and economical and must suit the needs of the people who use them. Architects take all these things into consideration when they design buildings. Architects provide a wide variety of professional services to individ uals and organizations planning a building project. They may be involved in all phases of development, from the initial discussion of general ideas with the client through construction. Their duties require a variety of skills—design, engineering, managerial, and supervisory. The architect and client first discuss the purposes, requirements, and cost of a project. Based on the discussions, the architect prepares a program—a report specifying the requirements the design must meet. The architect then prepares drawings presenting ideas for meeting the client’s needs. After the initial proposals are discussed and accepted, the architect develops final construction documents. These documents show the building’s appearance and details of its construction. Accompanying these are drawings of the structural system; air-conditioning, heating, and ventilating systems; electrical systems; plumbing; and possibly landscape plans. Architects also specify the building materials and, in some cases, the interior furnishings. In developing designs, architects follow building codes, zoning laws, fire regulations, and other ordi nances, such as those that require easy access by handicapped persons. Throughout the planning stage, the architect makes necessary changes. The architect may also assist the client in obtaining construction bids, selecting a contractor, and negotiating the construction contract. As construction proceeds, the architect may be employed by the client to visit the building site to ensure that the contractor is following the design, using the specified materials, and meeting the specified standards for the quality of work. The job is not complete until all construction is finished, required tests are made, and construction costs are paid. Architects design a wide variety of buildings, such as office and apartment buildings, schools, churches, factories, hospitals, houses, and airport terminals. They also design multibuilding complexes such as urban centers, college campuses, industrial parks, and entire com munities. In addition to designing buildings, architects may advise on the selection of building sites, prepare cost and land-use studies, and do long-range planning for land development. Architects sometimes specialize in one phase of the work. Some specialize in the design of one type of building—for example, hospi tals, schools, or housing. Others specialize in construction manage ment or the management of their firm and do little design work. Architects often work with engineers, urban planners, interior design ers, landscape architects, and others. Working Conditions Architects generally work in a comfortable environment. Most of their time is spent in offices advising clients, developing reports and drawings, and working with other architects and engineers. However, they also often work at construction sites reviewing the progress of projects. Architects may be under great stress, working nights and weekends to meet deadlines. Employment Architects held almost 86,000jobs in 1988. Most jobs were in architec tural firms—many of which employ fewer than five workers. Over https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Architects are increasingly using computer-aided design systems to produce and modify building designs. one-quarter of all architects were self-employed. They practiced as partners in architectural firms or on their own. A few worked for builders, real estate developers, and for government agencies responsi ble for housing, planning, or community development such as the Departments of Defense, Interior, Housing and Urban Development, and the General Services Administration. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require individuals to be licensed (registered) before they may call themselves architects or contract to provide architectural services. Many architecture school graduates work in the field even though they are not licensed. However, a licensed architect is required to take legal responsibility for all work. Three requirements generally must be met for licensure: a “first professional degree" in architecture, a period of practical training or internship (usually for 3 years), and passage of all sections of the Architect Registration Examination. In most States, the first professional degree in architecture must be from one of the 94 schools of architecture accredited by the National Architectural Accrediting Board in 1989. There are four types of first professional degrees in architecture. Over half of all architecture degrees are from 5-year Bachelor of Architecture programs intended for students entering from high school. Another type of Bachelor of Architecture program, for students with a prior degree in another discipline, requires 3 or 4 years. Two-year Master of Architecture programs are for students with pre-professional undergraduate degrees in architecture or a related area, although some programs offer options for students with a prior degree in another discipline. The fourth type is a 3- or 4-year Master of Architecture program, for students with a degree in another discipline. In addition, there are many combinations and variations. Prospective architecture students should carefully con sider the available options before committing to a program. For exam ple, although the 5-year Bachelor of Architecture degree offers the fastest route to the first professional degree, courses are specialized and, if the student does not complete the program, moving to a non architecture program may be difficult. A typical program includes courses in architectural history and theory, building design, including its technical and legal aspects, and science and liberal arts. Many architecture schools also offer graduate education for those who al ready have a bachelor’s or master’s degree in architecture or other areas. Although graduate education beyond the first professional de gree is not essential for practicing architects, it is desirable for research, teaching, and certain specialties. Artistic and drawing ability is helpful because architects must be 72 Occupational Outlook Handbook able to visually communicate their ideas to clients and others. Archi tects also need mathematical ability and the ability to visualize spatial relationships and solve technical problems. Architects must be pre pared to work in a competitive environment where leadership and ability to work with others are important. Students who work for architects during summer vacations can gain useful experience. New graduates usually begin in architectural firms, where they assist in preparing architectural documents or drawings. They also may do research on building codes and materials; or write specifications for building materials, the method of installation, the quality of finishes, and many other related details. Graduates with degrees in architecture also enter related fields such as graphic, interior, or industrial design; urban planning; real estate development; civil engineering; or construc tion management. In large firms, architects may advance to supervisory or managerial positions. Some architects become partners in established firms; others set up their own firm. Job Outlook Employment opportunities for architects are expected to be good through the year 2000 because employment is expected to rise faster than the average for all occupations and the number of degrees granted in architecture is not expected to increase significantly. However, demand for architects is highly dependent upon the local level of construction, particularly of nonresidential structures such as office buildings and shopping centers. Although growth in this area is ex pected, construction is sensitive to cyclical changes in the economy. During recessions or periods of slow growth, architects will face competition for job openings or clients, and layoffs may occur. Even in good times, there may be areas of the country with poor opportunities. Regardless of economic conditions, there will continue to be compe tition for jobs in the most prestigious firms, which offer good potential for career advancement. Although the increasing use of computeraided design increases efficiency, employment is not expected to be adversely affected because computer technologies are used to improve the quality of building designs rather than reduce the need for archi tects. Although employment is expected to rise faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000, most job openings are expected to arise as architects transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Earnings The median annual earnings for salaried architects who worked full time were about $32,000 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $25,300 and $42,200. The top 10 percent earned more than $51,700 and the lowest 10 percent, less than $19,500. Architects who are partners in well-established architectural firms or solo practitioners generally earn much more than their salaried employees, but their income may fluctuate due to changing business conditions. Architects may have difficulty getting established in their own practices and may go through a period when their expenses are greater than their income. In 1988, the average salary for architects working in the Federal Government was about $39,500. Related Occupations Architects are concerned with the design and construction of buildings and related structures. Others who engage in similar work are land scape architects, building contractors, civil engineers, urban planners, interior designers, industrial designers, drafters, and surveyors. Sources of Additional Information Information about education and careers in architecture can be obtained from: ••-Director, Education Programs, The American Institute of Architects, 1735 New York Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20006. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Landscape Architects (D.O.T. 001.061-018) Nature of the Work Everyone enjoys attractively designed residential areas, public parks, college campuses, shopping centers, golf courses, parkways, and industrial parks. Landscape architects design these areas so that they are not only functional but beautiful and environmentally appropriate as well. They may plan the location of buildings, roads, and walkways and the arrangement of flowers, shrubs, and trees and other features of open space. They also may redesign streets to limit automobile traffic and to improve pedestrian access and safety. Natural resource conservation and historic preservation are other important objectives to which landscape architects may apply their knowledge of the envi ronment as well as their design and artistic talents. Landscape architects are hired by many types of organizations— from real estate development firms starting new projects to municipali ties constructing airports or parks. They are often involved with the development of a site from its conception. Working with architects and engineers, they help determine the best arrangement of roads and buildings. Once these decisions are made, landscape architects create detailed plans indicating new topography, vegetation, walkways, and landscape amenities. In planning a site, landscape architects first consider the nature and purpose of the project and the funds available. They analyze the natural elements of the site, such as the climate, soil, slope of the land, drainage, and vegetation. They observe where sunlight falls on the site at different times of the day and examine the site from various angles. They assess the effect of existing buildings, roads, walkways, and utilities on the project. After studying and analyzing the site, they prepare a preliminary design. To account for the needs of the client as well as the conditions at the site, they may have to make many changes before a final design is approved. An increasing number of landscape architects are using computer-aided design systems to assist them in preparing their de signs. Throughout all phases of the design, landscape architects consult with other professionals involved in the project. Once the design is complete, they prepare a proposal for the client. They draw up detailed plans of the site which include written reports, sketches, models, photographs, land-use studies, and cost estimates. If the plans are approved, landscape architects prepare working drawings showing all existing and proposed features. They also outline in detail the methods of construction and draw up a list of necessary materials. Although many landscape architects supervise the installation of their design, some are involved in the construction of the site. How ever, this usually is done by the developer or contractor. Some landscape architects work on a wide variety of projects. Others specialize in a particular area, such as residential development, historic landscape restoration, waterfront improvement projects, parks and playgrounds, or shopping centers. Still others work in regional plan ning and resource management; feasibility, environmental impact, and cost studies; or site construction. Relatively few landscape architects specialize in landscape design for individual homeowners because most residential landscape design projects are too small to provide suitable income compared with larger commercial or multiunit residential projects. Some nurseries offer residential landscape design services, but these services often are performed by lesser qualified landscape designers or others with train ing and experience in related areas. Landscape architects who work for government agencies do similar work at national parks, government buildings, and other governmentowned facilities. In addition, they may prepare environmental impact statements and studies on environmental issues such as land-use planning. Professional Specialty Occupations Working Conditions Landscape architects spend much of their time in offices preparing drawings, models, and cost estimates and discussing projects with clients. Time in the office is balanced by time spent outdoors, studying and planning sites and supervising landscape projects. Salaried employees in both government and landscape architectural firms usually work regular hours, although they may work overtime to meet a project deadline. Hours of self-employed landscape architects may vary. Employment Landscape architects held about 19,000 jobs in 1988. Almost twothirds worked for firms that provide landscape architecture services. Most of the rest were employed by architectural firms. The Federal Government also employs these workers; most were found in the Departments of Agriculture, Defense, and Interior. About 1 of every 10 landscape architects was self-employed. Although they are found throughout the country, landscape archi tects are concentrated in areas with favorable weather conditions such as Florida, California, and Texas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in landscape architecture, which takes 4 to 5 years, usually is the minimum educational requirement for entering the profession. Over the last few years, however, an increasing number have been entering the field with a master’s degree. In 1988, 47 colleges and universities offered 61 undergraduate and graduate programs in landscape architecture that were accredited by the American Society of Landscape Architects. College courses in this field include technical subjects such as surveying, landscape design and construction, computer techniques, structural design, and city and regional planning. Other courses include history of landscape architecture, plant and soil science, geology, design and color theory, and general management. In addition, most students at the undergraduate level take a year of prerequisite courses such as English, mathematics, and social science. Increasingly, stu dents are participating in cooperative work/study programs that com bine academic credit with practical work experience. Forty-one States require landscape architects to be licensed. Licens ing is based on the Uniform National Examination, and admission to the exam usually requires a degree from an accredited school plus 1 to 4 years of work experience. Over a 3-day period, examinees are tested on all aspects of landscape architecture. In the Federal Government, candidates for entry positions should have a bachelor’s or master’s degree in landscape architecture. The Federal Government does not require its landscape architects to be licensed. Persons planning a career in landscape architecture should appreciIf S Landscape architects prepare detailed plans showing locations of trees and gardens as well as buildings, roads, and walkways. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 73 ate nature, be creative, and have artistic talent. They should take high school courses in mechanical or geometric drawing, art, botany, and mathematics. Good written and oral communication skills are impor tant, because these workers must be able to convey their ideas to other professionals and their clients and make presentations before large groups. Those interested in starting their own firm should be skilled in small business management. New graduates usually begin by preparing project drawings and doing other simple drafting work. After gaining experience, they help prepare specifications and construction details and handle other aspects of project design. After 2 or 3 years, they usually can carry a design through all stages of development. After several years, they may become associates, and eventually they may become partners or open their own offices. Job Outlook Employment of landscape architects is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Despite this growth, most job openings are expected to result from the need to replace experienced landscape architects who transfer to other occupa tions or leave the labor force. The level of new construction plays an important role in determining demand for landscape architects. Anticipated growth in construction is expected to increase demand for landscape architectural services over the long run. Employment should increase faster than construction activity because an increasing proportion of office and other commer cial and industrial development will occur outside cities. These projects typically have a large area of surrounding land which needs to be designed, in contrast to urban development, which often includes little or no surrounding land. Also, as the cost of land increases, the desirability of good landscape design increases. Increased concern for the environment also should stimulate employment growth because of the need to design development projects which best fit in with the surrounding environment. Other factors expected to contribute to the growth of demand for landscape architects are the need to refurbish existing sites and in creased city and environmental planning and historic preservation. Although landscape architects are increasingly using computeraided design, employment is not expected to be affected because this technology will be used to create more and better designs rather than reduce the demand for landscape architects. Earnings According to the American Society of Landscape Architects, graduates with a bachelor’s degree in landscape architecture usually started at about $18,000 in 1989; those with a master’s degree at about $27,000. Although salaries for experienced landscape architects varied by loca tion and experience, the median salary for all landscape architects was about $37,000 in 1989, according to the American Society of Landscape Architects. Those who are partners in well-established firms may earn much more than their salaried employees, but their incomes may fluctuate with changing business conditions. In 1988, the average annual salary for all landscape architects in the Federal Government was about $39,300. Because many work for small firms or are self-employed, benefits tend to be less generous than those of other workers with similar skills who work for large organizations. With the exception of those who are self-employed, however, most landscape architects receive health insurance, paid vacations, and sick leave. Related Occupations Landscape architects use their knowledge of design theory and landuse planning to develop a landscape project. Others whose work requires similar skills are architects, interior and industrial designers, civil engineers, and urban and regional planners. Landscape architects also know how to grow and use plants in the landscape; others who study plants are botanists, who study plants in general, and horticultur ists, who study ornamental plants as well as fruit, vegetable, green house, and nursery crops. 74 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information Additional information, including a list of colleges and universities offering accredited programs in landscape architecture, is available from: •-American Society of Landscape Architects, 4401 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20008. Surveyors (D.O.T. 018.131, .167 except -022, .261, .262, .281; 024.061-014; and 184.167-026) Nature of the Work This statement covers three groups of workers who measure and map the earth’s surface. Land surveyors establish official land and water boundaries, write descriptions of land for deeds, leases, and other legal documents, and measure construction and mineral sites. They are assisted by survey technicians, who operate surveying instruments and collect information. Mapping scientists and other surveyors collect information for and prepare maps and charts. Land surveyors manage one or more survey parties who measure distances, directions, and angles between points and elevations of points, lines, and contours on the earth’s surface. They plan the fieldwork, select survey reference points, and determine the precise location of all important features of the survey area. They research legal records and look for evidence of previous boundaries. They record the results of the survey, verify the accuracy of data, and prepare plats, maps, and reports. Surveyors who establish official boundaries must be licensed by the State in which they work. The information needed by the land surveyor is gathered by a survey party. A typical survey party is made up of a party chief and several survey technicians and helpers. The party chief, who may be either a land surveyor or a senior survey technician, leads the day-to-day work activities. The party chief is assisted by survey technicians, who adjust and operate surveying instruments such as the theodolite (used to measure horizontal and vertical angles) and electronic distance-mea suring equipment. Survey technicians or helpers hold the vertical rods that the theodolite operator sights on to measure angles, distances, or elevations. They may also hold measuring tapes and chains if electronic distance-measuring equipment is not used. Survey technicians also compile notes, make sketches, and enter the data obtained from these instruments into computers. Some survey parties include laborers or helpers to clear brush from sight lines, pound stakes, carry equipment, and perform other less skilled duties. New technology is changing the nature of the work of surveyors and survey technicians. For larger surveying projects, surveyors are increasingly using Global Positioning Systems (GPS), electronic sys tems which precisely locate points on the earth using information from satellites. When all the planned satellites are placed in orbit and as the cost of the electronic equipment is reduced, much more surveying work will be done by GPS. Mapping scientists, like land surveyors, measure, map, and chart the earth’s surface but generally cover much larger areas. Unlike land surveyors, however, mapping scientists work mainly in offices and may seldom or never visit the sites they are mapping. Mapping scien tists include workers in several occupations. Cartographers prepare maps using information provided by geodetic surveys, aerial photo graphs, and satellite data. Photogrammetrists prepare maps and draw ings by measuring and interpreting aerial photographs, using analytical processes and mathematical formulas. Photogrammetrists make de tailed maps of areas that are inaccessible or difficult to survey by other methods. Map editors develop and verify map contents from aerial photographs and other reference sources. Some surveyors perform specialized functions which are closer to mapping science than traditional surveying. Geodetic surveyors use high-accuracy techniques, including satellite observations, to measure https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ' mEh S . W&i'ml A surveyor talks to his assistant by radio at a construction site. large areas of the earth’s surface. Geophysical prospecting surveyors mark sites for subsurface exploration, usually petroleum related. Ma rine surveyors survey harbors, rivers, and other bodies of water to determine shorelines, topography of the bottom, water depth, and other features. The work of mapping scientists is also changing due to new techno logies. The technologies include GPS, computerized data banks of spatial data, new earth resources data satellites, and improved aerial photography. The older specialties of photogrammetrist and cartogra pher are becoming a new one, geographic information specialist. Further, many observe that the functions of mapping science and surveying are merging into a broader field, that of the collection and analysis of geographic spatial information. Working Conditions Surveyors usually work an 8-hour day 5 days a week. Sometimes they work longer hours during the summer, when weather and light conditions are most suitable for fieldwork. Land surveyors and technicians do active and sometimes strenuous work. They often stand for long periods, walk long distances, and climb hills with heavy packs of instruments and equipment. They also are exposed to all types of weather. Occasionally, they may commute long distances or temporarily relocate near a survey site. They also spend considerable time in an office, planning surveys and preparing reports, computations, and maps. Most computations and map drafting are done at a computer. Mapping scientists spend almost all their time in offices. Professional Specialty Occupations Employment Surveyors held about 100,000jobs in 1988. Engineering, architectural, and surveying firms employ over three-fifths of all surveyors. Federal, State, and local government agencies employ about one-fourth. Major Federal Government employers are the U.S. Geological Survey, the Bureau of Land Management, the Army Corps of Engineers, the Forest Service, the National Ocean Survey, and the Defense Mapping Agency. Most surveyors in State and local government work for highway departments and urban planning and redevelopment agencies. Construction firms, mining and oil and gas extraction companies, and public utilities also employ surveyors. About 8,000 surveyors were self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most persons prepare for surveying work by combining postsecondary school courses in surveying with extensive on-the-job training. Junior and community colleges, technical institutes, and vocational schools offer 1-, 2-, and 3-year programs in both surveying and surveying technology. High school students interested in surveying should take courses in algebra, geometry, trigonometry, drafting, mechanical drawing, and computer science. All 50 States license land surveyors. In the past, many surveyors started as members of survey crews and worked their way up to licensed surveyor with little formal training in surveying. However, due to changing technology and an increase in licensing standards, more formal education is now required. Most States at the present time require some formal post-high school education courses and 5 to 12 years of surveying experience to gain licensure. However, require ments vary among the States. Generally, the quickest route is a combi nation of 4 years of college, 2 to 4 years of experience (a few States do not require any), and passing the State licensing examination. An increasing number of States require a bachelor’s degree in surveying or in a closely related field such as civil engineering or forestry with courses in surveying. By the year 2000, most or all States may require a bachelor's degree. High school graduates with no formal training in surveying usually start as helpers. Beginners with postsecondary school training in sur veying can generally start as technicians. With on-the-job experience and formal training in surveying—either in an institutional program or from a correspondence school—workers may advance to senior survey technician, then to party chief, and finally, in some cases, to licensed surveyor (depending on State licensing requirements). Cartographers and photogrammetrists usually have a bachelor’s degree in engineering or a physical science, although it is possible to enter these jobs through experience as a photogrammetric or carto graphic technician. Most cartographic and photogrammetric techni cians have had some specialized postsecondary school training. Some mapping scientists have education and experience in computers. Surveyors should have the ability to visualize objects, distances, sizes, and other abstract forms and to work precisely and accurately because mistakes can be very costly. Leadership qualities are important for party chief and other supervisors. Members of a survey party must be in good physical condition to work outdoors and carry equipment over difficult terrain. They also need good eyesight, coordination, and hearing to communicate by hand or voice signals. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 75 Job Outlook Employment of surveyors is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. In addition to openings arising from growth in demand for surveyors, many will result from the need to replace those who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The anticipated growth in construction should create jobs for survey ors who lay out streets, shopping centers, housing developments, factories, office buildings, and recreation areas. Road and highway construction and improvement also should create new surveying posi tions. However, employment may fluctuate from year to year along with construction activity. Some growth in employment of mapping scientists and other survey ors may occur in private firms; little or no growth is expected in the Federal Government. Higher levels of technology, upgraded licensing requirements, and the increased demand for geographic spatial data (as opposed to tradi tional surveying services) mean that opportunities will be best for surveyors and mapping scientists who have at least a bachelor’s degree. New technology such as GPS may increase productivity for larger projects and may reduce employment opportunities for surveyors and survey technicians who do not have the educational background to use it. Earnings In 1988, the median annual earnings for survey technicians who worked full time year round were about $21,800. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 16,400 and $31,700 a year; 10 percent earned less than $13,200 a year; and 10 percent earned more than $41,600. In 1989, high school graduates with little or no training or experience earned about $11,484 annually at entry level jobs on survey crews with the Federal Government. Those with 1 year of related postsecondary training earned $12,531. Those with an associate degree that included courses in surveying generally started as instrument assistants with an annual salary of $14,067. The average annual salary for Federal surveying technicians in 1988 was $19,535. In 1989, persons starting as land surveyors or cartographers with the Federal Government earned $15,738 or $19,493 a year, depending on their qualifications. The average annual salary for Federal land surveyors in 1988 was $32,082 and, for cartographers, $33,880. Related Occupations Surveying is related to the work of civil engineers and architects, since an accurate survey is the first step in a construction project. Mapping science and geodetic surveying are related to the work of geologists and geophysicists, who study the earth’s internal composition, surface, and atmosphere. Mapping science is also related to the work of geogra phers and urban planners, who study how the earth’s surface is used. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities, licensure requirements, and schools that offer training in surveying is available from: •-American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, 210 Little Falls St., Falls Church, VA 22046. General information on careers in photogrammetry is available from: •-American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 210 Little Falls St., Falls Church, VA 22046. Computer, Mathematical, and Operations Research Occupations Actuaries (D.O.T. 020.167-010) Nature of the Work Why do young drivers pay more for automobile insurance than older drivers? How much should an insurance policy cost? How much should an organization contribute each year to its pension fund? Answers to these and similar questions are provided by actuaries, who design insurance and pension plans and keep informed on their operation to make sure that they are maintained on a sound financial basis. Actuaries assemble and analyze statistics to calculate probabilities of death, sickness, injury, disability, unemployment, retirement, and property loss from accident, theft, fire, and other hazards. They use this information to determine the expected insured loss. For example, they may calculate how many persons who are 21 years old today can be expected to die before age 65—the probability that an insured person might die during this period is a risk to the company. They must make sure that the price charged for the insurance will enable the company to pay all claims and expenses as they occur. Finally, this price must be profitable and yet be competitive with other insurance companies. In a similar manner, the actuary calculates premium rates and determines policy contract provisions for each type of insurance offered. Most actuaries specialize in either life and health insurance or property and liability (casualty) insurance; others specialize in pension plans. The increasing use of computers has enabled actuaries to develop more comprehensive policies. To perform their duties effectively, actuaries must keep informed about general economic and social trends and legislative, health, and other developments that may affect insurance practices. Because of their broad knowledge of insurance, company actuaries may work in investment, group underwriting, or pension planning departments. Actuaries in executive positions help determine company policy. In that role, they may be called upon to explain complex technical matters to company executives, government officials, policyholders, and the public. They may testify before public agencies on proposed legislation affecting the insurance business, for example, or explain intended changes in premium rates or contract provisions. They also may help companies develop plans to enter new lines of business. The small number of actuaries who work for the Federal Government Actuaries calculate the probabilities of death, sickness, injury, disability, and property loss. Digitized76 for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis usually deal with a particular insurance or pension program, such as Social Security or life insurance for veterans and members of the Armed Forces. Actuaries in State government are usually employed by State insurance departments that regulate insurance companies, oversee the operations of State retirement or pension systems, handle unemployment insurance or workers’ compensation problems, and assess the impact of proposed legislation. They might determine whether the rates charged by an insurance company are proper or whether an employee benefit plan is financially sound. Consulting actuaries provide advice for a fee to various clients including insurance companies, corporations, hospitals, labor unions, government agencies, and attorneys. Consulting actuaries set up pen sion and welfare plans, calculate future benefits, and determine the amount of employer contributions. They may be called upon to testify in court regarding the value of potential lifetime earnings lost by a person who has been disabled or killed in an accident, the current value of future pension benefits in divorce cases, or the calculation of automobile insurance rates. Actuaries who are enrolled under the provisions of the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA) evaluate these pension plans and report on their financial soundness. Working Conditions Actuaries have desk jobs that require no unusual physical activity; their offices generally are comfortable and pleasant. They generally work at least 40 hours a week. Some actuaries, particularly consulting actuaries, often travel to meet with clients. Employment Actuaries held about 16,000 jobs in 1988. Some actuaries were selfemployed. Many actuaries worked in insurance company headquarters in cities such as New York, Hartford, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Boston. Most worked for life insurance companies; others worked for property and liability (casualty) companies. The number of actuaries employed by an insurance company depends on its volume of business and the types of insurance policies it offers. Large companies may employ over 100 actuaries; others, generally smaller companies, may rely instead on consulting firms or rating bureaus (associations that supply actuarial data to member companies). Other actuaries work for private organizations administering health benefits and welfare plans, account ing firms, or government agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A good educational background for a beginning job in a large life or casualty company is a bachelor’s degree with a major in mathematics or statistics; a degree in actuarial science is even better. Some compa nies hire applicants with a major in engineering, economics, or busi ness administration, provided the applicant has a working knowledge of mathematics, including calculus, probability, and statistics. Courses in accounting, computer science, and insurance also are useful. Com panies increasingly prefer well-rounded individuals who, in addition to a strong technical background, have training in liberal arts and business and good communication skills. Although only about 30 colleges and universities offer a degree in actuarial science, hundreds of schools offer a degree in mathematics or statistics. A strong background in mathematics is essential for persons inter ested in a career as an actuary. It is an advantage to pass, while still in school, one or more of the examinations offered by professional actuarial societies. Three societies sponsor programs leading to full professional status in their specialty. The Society of Actuaries gives 10 actuarial examinations for the life and health insurance and pension field; the Casualty Actuarial Society gives 10 examinations for the Professional Specialty Occupations property and liability field. Because the first parts of the examination series of each society cover similar materials, students need not commit themselves to a specialty until they have taken three examinations. These test competence in subjects such as linear algebra, probability, calculus, statistics, numerical methods, and operations research. These first few examinations help students evaluate their potential as actu aries, and those who pass usually have better opportunities for employ ment and higher starting salaries. The American Society of Pension Actuaries gives seven examina tions covering the pension field. Membership status requires the pas sage of two actuarial exams. Fellowship status requires the passage of three additional actuarial and two advanced consulting exams. Actuaries are encouraged to complete the entire series of examina tions as soon as possible; completion generally takes from 5 to 10 years. Many students pass two or more actuarial examinations before graduating from college. Examinations are given twice each year. Extensive home study is required to pass the advanced examinations; many actuaries study for several months to prepare for an examination. Actuaries who complete five examinations in either the life insurance series or the pension series or seven examinations in the casualty series are awarded “associate” membership in their society. Those who pass an entire series receive full membership and the title “fellow.” Consulting pension actuaries who service private pension plans and certify their solvency must be enrolled and licensed by the Joint Board for the Enrollment of Actuaries. Applicants for enrollment must meet certain experience, education, and examination requirements as stipu lated by the Joint Board. Beginning actuaries often rotate among jobs to leam various actuar ial operations and different phases of insurance work. At first, they prepare tabulations for actuarial tables or perform other simple tasks. As they gain experience, they may supervise clerks, prepare correspon dence and reports, and do research. Advancement to more responsible work as assistant, associate, and chief actuary depends largely on job performance and the number of actuarial examinations passed. Actuaries with a broad knowledge of the insurance, pension, and employee benefits fields often advance to administrative and executive positions in underwriting, accounting, or data processing departments. Actuaries with a business background and supervisory ability may advance to management positions involv ing marketing, advertising, or planning. 77 creating their own actuarial departments or using the services of con sulting actuaries. The liability of companies for damage resulting from their products has received much attention in recent years. Actuaries will continue to be involved in the development of product liability insurance, medical malpractice and workers ’ compensation coverage, and self-insurance— internal trust funds being established by some large corporations. Insurance coverage is considered a necessity by most individuals and businesses, regardless of economic conditions. Therefore, actu aries are unlikely to be laid off during a recession. Earnings In 1989, new college graduates entering the actuarial field without having passed any actuarial exams averaged about $22,000-$26,000, according to estimates by the Society of Actuaries. Beginners who had completed the first exam received between $24,000 and $28,000, and those who had passed the second exam averaged between $26,000 and $30,000, depending on geographic location. Insurance companies and consulting firms give merit increases to actuaries as they gain experience and pass examinations. Actuaries who became associates in 1989 averaged between $35,000 and $48,000 a year; actuaries who became fellows during that year aver aged between $47,000 and $57,000. Fellows with additional years of experience can earn substantially more—top actuarial executives received salaries of $55,000-$ 100,000 a year and higher. Actuaries typically receive various fringe benefits including vacation and sick leave, health and life insurance, and pension plans, among others. Related Occupations Actuaries determine the probability of income or loss from various risk factors. Other workers whose jobs involve related skills include accountants, economists, financial analysts, mathematicians, rate ana lysts, rate engineers, risk managers, statisticians, and value engineers. Sources of Additional Information For facts about actuarial careers, contact: ••-American Academy of Actuaries, 1720 I St. NW., 7th Floor, Washington, DC 20006. (■-Society of Actuaries, 475 N. Martingale Rd., Schaumburg, IL 60173. For information about actuarial careers in casualty insurance, contact: Job Outlook Employment of actuaries is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. In addition to growth in the demand for actuarial services, job openings are expected to arise each year to replace actuaries who transfer to other occupations, retire, or stop working for other reasons. Job opportunities should be favorable for college graduates who have passed at least two actuarial examinations while still in school and have a strong mathematical and statistical background. Employment growth will be spurred by the increasing volume and complexity of insurance policies and pension plans. Shifts in the age distribution of the population will result in a large increase in the number of people with established careers and family responsibilities. This is the group that traditionally has accounted for the bulk of private insurance sales. As people live longer, they draw health and pension benefits for a longer period, and more actuaries are needed to recalculate the probabilities of such factors as death, sickness, and length of retire ment. As insurance companies branch out into several types of insur ance coverage—for example, dental, legal, and kidnap insurance— more actuaries will be needed to establish rates. The increase in the number of mergers and acquisitions and the passage of legislation on tax reform should spur demand for actuaries to evaluate the financial condition and investment portfolios of firms. Continuing amendments to the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 should also add to the demand for actuarial services. In addition, many companies that previously relied on rating bureaus for actuarial data are now https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ••-Casualty Actuarial Society, One Penn Plaza, 250 West 34th St., New York, NY 10119. Career information on actuaries specializing in pensions is available from: ••-American Society of Pension Actuaries, 2029 K St. NW., 4th Floor, Wash ington, DC 20006. For information about a career as a consulting actuary, contact: ••-Conference of Actuaries in Public Practice, 475 N. Martingale Rd., Schaum burg, IL 60173. Computer Systems Analysts (D.O.T. 012.167-066; 020.062-010, .067-010, and .224-010; and 109.067 010) Nature of the Work Systems analysts plan and develop new computer systems or devise ways to apply existing systems to processes still completed manually or by some less efficient method. They may design whole new systems, including hardware and software, or add a single new software applica tion to harness more of the computer’s power. Analysts begin an assignment by discussing the data processing problem with managers and users to determine the exact nature of the problem. Much time is devoted to clearly defining the goals of the system so that it can be broken down into separate programmable 78 Occupational Outlook Handbook and office workers. Occasionally, however, evening or weekend work may be necessary to meet deadlines. , o - Systems analysts improve business operations by harnessing the computer's potential. procedures. Analysts then use techniques such as mathematical model building, sampling, and cost accounting to plan the system. Once the design has been developed, systems analysts prepare charts and diagrams that describe it in terms that managers and other users can understand. They also may prepare a cost-benefit and retum-on-investment analysis to help management decide whether the proposed system will be satisfactory. If the system is accepted, systems analysts may determine what computer hardware and software will be needed to set up the system. They also prepare specifications for computer programmers to follow and work with them to “debug,” or eliminate errors from the system. Some organizations do not employ programmers; instead, a single worker called a programmer-analyst is responsible for both systems analysis and programming. (The work of programmers is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) The analyst also would design any forms required to collect data from sources outside the organization so that it can be easily entered into the data base. One of the biggest obstacles to wider computer utilization is the inability of different computers to communicate with each other. Many systems analysts are involved with connecting all the computers in an individual office, department, or establishment. This “networking” has many variations; they may be called local area networks, wide area networks, or multiuser systems. A primary goal of networking is to allow users of microcomputers (also known as personal computers or PC’s) to retrieve data from a mainframe computer and use it on their machine. This connection also allows data to be entered into the mainframe from the PC. If a manufacturer wishes to improve customer service by utilizing a just-in-time order, production, and delivery process, for example, a systems analyst would determine what data are needed, how it will be organized, and what pathways need to be opened so that data are accessible to all those using the system. Similarly, electronic mail requires open pathways to send messages, documents, and data from one computer “mailbox” to another across different equipment and program lines. The analyst must design the gates in the hardware and software that allow free exchange of data, custom applications, and the computer power to process it all. They study the seemingly incom patible pieces and create ways to link them so that any user can access any data from any terminal location. Because the possible uses of computers are so varied and complex, analysts usually specialize in either business, scientific, or engineering applications. Previous experience or training in a particular area usu ally dictates the field in which they are most qualified to develop computer systems. Working Conditions Systems analysts work in offices in comfortable surroundings. They usually work about 40 hours a week—the same as other professional https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment Systems analysts held about 403,000 jobs in 1988. Most systems analysts work in urban areas for data processing service firms, govern ment agencies, insurance companies, banks, and firms that manufac ture durable goods. A small but growing number of systems analysts are employed on a temporary basis. For example, a company installing a new computer system may need the services of several systems analysts just to get the system running. Because not all of them would be needed once the system is functioning, the company might contract either directly with the systems analysts themselves or with a temporary help agency. The company would contract for their services for the duration of the contract; temporary jobs usually are for several months at least, and some last up to 2 years or more. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There is no universally accepted way to prepare for a job as a systems analyst because employers’ preferences depend on the work being done. Prior work experience is very important. Many persons entering this occupation transfer from another occupation, such as computer programmer or engineer. For example, a lead programmer in an engi neering firm may become a systems analyst specializing in engineering applications. College graduates almost always are sought for systems analyst positions, and, for some of the more complex jobs, persons with graduate degrees are preferred. Employers usually want analysts with a background in business management or a closely related field for work in a business environment, while a background in the physical sciences, applied mathematics, or engineering is preferred for work in scientifically oriented organizations. Many employers seek applicants who have a degree in computer science, information science, computer information systems, or data processing. Regardless of college major, employers look for people who are familiar with programming lan guages and have a broad knowledge of computer systems. Courses in computer concepts, systems analysis, and data base management systems offer good preparation for a job in this field. Systems analysts must be able to think logically, have good commu nication skills, and like working with ideas and people. They often deal with a number of tasks simultaneously. The ability to concentrate and pay close attention to detail also is important. Although systems analysts often work independently, they also work in teams on large projects. They must be able to communicate effectively with technical personnel, such as programmers and managers, as well as with people who have no computer background. Technological advances come so rapidly in the computer field that continuous study is necessary to keep skills up to date. Training usually takes the form of 1- and 2-week courses offered by employers and software vendors. Additional training may come from professional development seminars offered by professional computing societies. Certification is an indication of experience and professional compe tence . The designations Certified Data Processor and Certified Systems Professional are conferred by the Institute for Certification of Computer Professionals upon candidates who have 5 years of experience and who have passed a core examination plus exams in 2 specialty areas. Systems analysts may be promoted to senior or lead systems analysts after several years of experience. Those who show leadership ability also can advance to jobs as manager of information systems or chief information officer. Systems analysts with several years of experience may start their own computer consulting firms. Job Outlook Employment of systems analysts is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. The demand for systems analysts is expected to rise as advances in technology lead to new applications for computers. Office and factory automation, telecommunications technology, and scientific research are areas Professional Specialty Occupations where the use of computer systems will expand dramatically in the years ahead. More systems analysts will be needed to implement these changes in new or existing systems. As users develop a more sophisticated knowledge of computers, they become more aware of the machine’s potential and better able to suggest operations that will increase their own productivity and that of the organization. In addition, falling prices of computer hardware and software are inducing more small businesses to computerize their operations, further stimulating demand for systems analysts. Despite this rapid growth in employment, most job openings will result from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation— although a smaller proportion of systems analysts than of all profes sional workers leave their occupation each year. Most of the systems analysts who leave the occupation transfer to other jobs such as man ager or senior administrator. College graduates who have had courses in computer programming, systems analysis, and other data processing areas as well as training or experience in an applied field should enjoy good prospects for employment. Persons without a college degree and college graduates unfamiliar with data processing will face keen competition from the large number of experienced workers seeking jobs as systems analysts. Earnings Median annual earnings of systems analysts who worked full time in 1988 were about $35,800. The middle 50 percent earned between $27,100 and $45,400 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $19,900; the highest tenth, more than $51,600. In the Federal Government, the entrance salary for recent college graduates with a bachelor’s degree was about $15,700 a year in 1989. Systems analysts working in the Northeast had the highest earnings; those in the Midwest, the lowest. Salaries tend to be highest in mining and public utilities and lowest in finance, insurance, and real estate. Related Occupations Other workers who use logic and reasoning ability to solve problems are programmers, financial analysts, urban planners, engineers, mathe maticians, operations research analysts, scientists, and actuaries. Sources of Additional Information Further information about the occupation of systems analyst is avail able from: Applied mathematicians use mathematics to develop theories and techniques, such as mathematical modeling, to solve practical prob lems in business, government, engineering, and the natural and social sciences. For example, they may analyze the mathematical aspects of launching communications satellites, the effects of new drugs on disease, the aerodynamic characteristics of objects, and the distribution costs of businesses. Mathematicians use computers extensively in all phases of their work—analyzing relationships among variables, solving complex problems, and processing large amounts of data. Much work in applied mathematics, however, is carried on by persons other than mathematicians. In fact, the number of workers using mathematical techniques is many times greater than the number actually designated as mathematicians. Working Conditions Mathematicians working for government agencies and private firms have structured work schedules. They may work alone with only computers, calculators, and mathematical formulas as company, or be an integral part of a research team that includes engineers, computer scientists, and others. Deadlines, overtime work, special requests for information, and travel to attend seminars or conferences may be part of their jobs. Mathematics faculty have flexible work schedules, dividing their time among teaching, research, consulting, and administrative respon sibilities. Employment Mathematicians held about 16,000 jobs in 1988. In addition, an esti mated 33,000 persons held mathematics faculty positions in colleges and universities. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most mathematicians worked in the government and in service and manufacturing industries. The Department of Defense is the primary Federal employer of mathematicians. Smaller numbers work for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the Department of Commerce. Major employers within the services sector included educational services; computer and data processing services; noncom mercial educational and research organizations; and engineering, ar chitectural, and surveying services. Within manufacturing, the aircraft (•-Association for Systems Management, 24587 Bagley Rd., Cleveland, OH 44138. hhhss Information about certification as a computer professional is avail able from: (•-Institute for the Certification of Computer Professionals, 2200 East Devon Ave. Suite 268, Des Plaines, IL 60018. ,v ■ Mathematicians (D.O.T. 020.067-014, .187-018; 199.267-014) Nature of the Work Mathematics is one of the oldest and most basic sciences. Mathemati cians today are engaged in a wide variety of activities, ranging from the creation of new theories and techniques to the translation of economic, scientific, and managerial problems into mathematical terms. Mathematical work falls into two broad classes: Theoretical (pure) mathematics; and applied mathematics. However, these classes are not sharply defined and often overlap. Theoretical mathematicians advance mathematical science by devel oping new principles and new relationships between existing principles of mathematics. Although they seek to increase basic knowledge without necessarily considering its practical use, this pure and abstract knowledge has been instrumental in producing many scientific and engineering achievements. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 79 Mathematicians work on both theoretical and applied problems. 80 Occupational Outlook Handbook and chemicals industries were key employers. Some mathematicians also worked for banks, insurance companies, and public utilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement An advanced degree is the preferred requirement for beginning teach ing jobs, as well as for most research positions. However, in most 4year colleges and universities, the Ph.D. degree is necessary for full faculty status. The master’s degree is generally the minimum require ment for teaching jobs in 2-year and some small 4-year colleges. A bachelor’s degree is considered adequate preparation for some jobs in private industry and government. Individuals with this back ground usually assist senior mathematicians by performing computa tions and solving less advanced problems in applied mathematics. The majority of bachelor’s degree holders work in related fields such as computer science, where employment opportunities are rapidly expanding. However, an advanced degree is a prerequisite for the more responsible positions. Many research positions require the doctorate. A bachelor’s degree in mathematics is offered by most colleges and universities. Mathematics courses usually required for this degree are analytical geometry, calculus, differential equations, linear algebra, probability theory and statistics, mathematical analysis, numerical analysis, modem algebra, and mathematical logic. Many colleges and universities urge or even require students majoring in mathematics to take several courses in a field that uses or is closely related to mathemat ics, such as computer science, engineering, operations research, a physical science, statistics, or economics. A double major in mathe matics and computer science or mathematics and statistics is particu larly desirable. A prospective college mathematics student should take as many mathematics courses as possible while in high school. Nearly 500 colleges and universities offer a master's degree in mathematics; about 220 also offer a Ph.D. In graduate school, students conduct research and take advanced courses, usually in a specific field of mathematics such as algebra, mathematical analysis, or geometry. For work in applied mathematics, training in the field in which the mathematics will be used is very important. Fields in which applied mathematics is used extensively include physics, actuarial science, engineering, and operations research; of increasing importance are computer and information science, business and industrial manage ment, economics, statistics, chemistry and life sciences, and the behav ioral sciences. Mathematicians should have substantial knowledge of computer programming since most complex mathematical computation is done by computer. Mathematicians need good reasoning ability, persistence, and the ability to apply basic principles to new types of problems. They must be able to communicate well since they often need to discuss the problem to be solved with nonmathematicians. Job Outlook Employment of mathematicians is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most job openings, however, will arise from the need to replace experienced mathematicians who transfer to other occupations, or retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. The shortage of Ph.D.’s in mathematics is expected to continue, resulting in favorable employment opportunities. In industry, holders of the doctorate in applied mathematics have better employment pros pects than their theoretically oriented colleagues. Holders of a doctor ate in theoretical mathematics should continue to have excellent oppor tunities for teaching and research jobs in colleges and universities. Industry and government agencies will need mathematicians for work in operations research, mathematical modeling, aerodynamics, numerical analysis, computer systems design and programming, infor mation and data processing, applied mathematical physics, robotics, market research, commercial surveys, and as consultants in industrial laboratories. Holders of a master’s degree in mathematics may face some compe tition for jobs in college teaching or theoretical research. However, there will be many openings in applied mathematics and related areas https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis such as computer science and data processing in industry and gov ernment. Bachelor’s degree holders in mathematics with a strong back ground—preferably a second major—in computer science should have very good opportunities in computerized data processing activities in industry and government. Those who meet State certification require ments may become high school mathematics teachers. (For additional information, see the statement on secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Earnings According to a 1988 College Placement Council Survey, starting salary offers for mathematics graduates with a bachelor’s degree averaged about $27,500 a year; for those with a master’s degree, $29,600; and for new graduates having the Ph.D., $40,700. Starting salaries were generally higher in industry than in government or educational institu tions. In the Federal Government in 1989, the average starting salary for mathematicians having the bachelor’s degree and no experience was either $15,800 or $19,500 a year, depending on their college records. Those with the master’s degree averaged $23,100 or $28,900; and persons having the Ph.D. degree started at either $28,900 or $34,600. The average salary for all mathematicians in the Federal Government was about $40,100 in 1988. According to the Professional and Scientific Personnel Report, 15th edition, 1988/89, from the Executive Compensation Service, a Wyatt Data Service Company, experienced mathematicians averaged from $35,300 to $64,900 a year. According to a 1987 survey by the National Science Foundation, the median annual salary of mathematicians with a doctoral degree was $46,600; in business and industry, $55,100; in educational institutions, $45,400; and in the Federal Government, $56,400. Fringe benefits for mathematicians tend to be similiar to those offered to most professionals who work in office settings: Vacation and sick leave, health and life insurance, and retirement plans, among others. Related Occupations A degree in mathematics generally qualifies one to enter related occu pations such as actuary, statistician, computer programmer, systems analyst, and operations research analyst. In addition, a strong back ground in mathematics facilitates employment in fields such as engi neering, economics, finance, and genetics. Sources of Additional Information Several brochures are available that give facts about the field of mathe matics, including career opportunities, professional training, and col leges and universities with degree programs. Seeking Employment in the Mathematical Sciences is available for $4 from: •-American Mathematical Society, P.O. Box 6248, Providence, RI 02940. Professional Opportunities in Mathematics is available for $2 from: •■Mathematical Association of America, 1529 18th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. For specific information on careers in applied mathematics, contact: •-Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 1400 Architects Building, 117 S. 17th St., Philadelphia, PA 19103. For information on a career as a mathematical statistician, contact: •-Institute of Mathematical Statistics, 3401 Investment Blvd., No. 7, Hayward, CA 94545. Information on Federal job opportunities is available from area offices of the State employment service and the U.S. Office of Person nel Management’s Federal Job Information Centers located in various large cities throughout the country. For information about careers in noncollegiate academic institu tions, contact: •-National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1906 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091. Professional Specialty Occupations 81 Operations Research Analysts (D.O.T. 020.067-018) Nature of the Work Organizations develop’their own ways of making and carrying out plans. Unfortunately, these processes are not always the best way in light of the organization’s overall goals. Operations research analysts help organizations plan and operate in the most efficient and effective manner. They accomplish this by applying the scientific method and mathematical principles to organizational problems so that managers can evaluate alternatives and choose the course of action that best suits the organization. Operations research analysts are problem solvers. The problems they tackle are for the most part those encountered in large business organizations: Business strategy, forecasting, resource allocation, facilities layout, inventory control, personnel schedules, and distribu tion systems. The method they use generally revolves about a mathematical model or set of equations that explains how things happen within the organiza tion. Models are simplified representations that enable the analyst to break down systems into their component parts, assign numerical values to each component, and examine the mathematical relationships between them. These values can be altered to determine what will happen to the system under different sets of circumstances. Different types of models include simulation, linear programming, and game theory models. Because many of these techniques have been computer ized, analysts need to be able to write computer programs or use existing ones. The type of problem they usually handle varies by industry. For example, an analyst in a bank might deal with branch location, check processing, and personnel schedules, while an analyst employed by a hospital would concentrate on a different set of problems—scheduling admissions, managing patient flow, assigning shifts, monitoring use of pharmacy and laboratory services, or forecasting demand for new hospital services. The role of the operations research analyst varies according to the structure and management philosophy of the firm. Some firms centralize operations research in one department; others disperse opera tions research personnel throughout all divisions of the firm. Moreover, some operations research analysts specialize in one type of application; others are generalists. The degree of supervision also varies by organizational structure. In some organizations, analysts have a great deal of professional autonomy; in others, analysts are more closely supervised. Operations research analysts work closely with managers, who have a wide variety of support needs. Analysts must adapt their work to reflect these requirements. Regardless of the industry or structure of the organization, opera tions research entails a similar set of procedures. Managers begin the process by describing the symptoms of a problem to the analyst. The analyst then defines the problem, which sometimes is general in nature and at other times specific. For example, an operations research analyst for an auto manufacturer may want to determine the best inventory level for each of the materials for a new production process or, more specifically, to determine just how much steel should be stocked. After analysts define the problem, they learn everything they can about it. They research the problem, then break it into its component parts. Then they gather information about each of these parts. Usually this involves consulting a wide variety of personnel. To determine the most efficient amount of steel to be kept on hand, for example, operations research analysts might talk with engineers about produc tion levels; discuss purchasing arrangements with industrial buyers; and examine data on storage costs provided by the accounting de partment. With this information in hand, the operations research analyst is https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Operations research analysts work to improve productivity and performance. ready to select the most appropriate analytical technique. There may be several techniques that could be used, or there may be one standard model or technique that is used in all instances. In a few cases, the analyst must construct an original model to examine and explain the system. In almost all cases, the selected model must be modified to reflect the specific circumstances of the situation. A model for the inventory of steel, for example, might take into account the amount of steel required to produce a unit of output, several projected levels of output, varying costs of steel, and storage costs. The analyst chooses the values for these variables, enters them into the computer, which has already been programmed to make the calculations required, and runs the program to produce the best inventory level consistent with several sets of assumptions. The analyst would probably design a model that would take into account wide variations in the different variables. At this point, the operations research analyst presents the final work to management along with recommendations based on the results of the analysis. The manager, who is the decisionmaker, may request additional runs based on different assumptions to help in making the final decision. Managers assume responsibility for the final decision, but once a decision has been reached, the analyst works with the staff to ensure its successful implementation. Working Conditions Operations research analysts generally work regular hours in an office environment. Usually they work on projects that are of immediate interest to management. In these circumstances, analysts often are under pressure to meet deadlines and may work more than a 40-hour week. The work is sedentary in nature, and very little physical strength or stamina is required. Employment Operations research analysts held about 55,000 jobs in 1988. They are employed in most industries. Major employers include manufacturers of chemicals, machinery, and transportation equipment; firms provid ing transportation and telecommunications services; public utilities; banks; insurance agencies; and government agencies at all levels. Some analysts work for management consulting agencies that develop operations research applications for firms that do not have an in-house operations research staff. Most analysts in the Federal Government work for the Armed Forces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers look for college graduates who have a strong background in quantitative methods with exposure to computer programming. Employers prefer applicants with a graduate degree in operations 82 Occupational Outlook Handbook research or management science, mathematics, statistics, business administration, computer science, or other quantitative disciplines. Regardless of educational background or prior work experience, the employer usually plays a large role in the training process. New workers typically participate in on-the-job training programs, working closely with experienced workers until they become proficient. Gener ally, they help senior analysts gather information and run computer programs. The organization also sponsors skill-improvement training for experienced workers, helping them keep up with new developments in operations research techniques as well as advances in computer science. Some analysts attend college and university classes on these subjects. Operations research analysts must be able to think logically and work well with people. Thus, employers prefer workers with good oral and written communication skills. The computer is an increasingly important tool for quantitative analysis, and programming experience is a must. Beginning analysts usually do routine work under the close supervi sion of experienced analysts. As they gain knowledge and experience, they are assigned more complex tasks, with greater autonomy to design models and solve problems. Operations research analysts advance by assuming positions as technical specialists or supervisors. The skills acquired by operations research analysts are useful for upper level jobs in an organization, and experienced analysts with leadership potential often leave the field altogether to assume nontechnical managerial or administrative positions. Job Outlook Employment of operations research analysts is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to the increasing importance of quantitative analysis in decisionmak ing. In addition to jobs arising from the increased demand for these workers, many openings will occur each year as workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force altogether. More and more organizations are using operations research tech niques to improve productivity and reduce costs. This reflects growing acceptance of a systematic approach to decisionmaking as well as more affordable computers, which give even small firms access to operations research applications. The interplay of these two trends should greatly stimulate demand for these workers in the years ahead. Much of the job growth is expected to occur in the trade and services sectors. Firms in these sectors recognize that quantitative analysis can achieve dramatic improvements in operating efficiency and profitabil ity. More retailers, for example, are using operations research to design store layouts, select the best store location, analyze customer characteristics, and control inventory, among other things. Motel chains are beginning to utilize operations research analysis to improve their efficiency. For example, they analyze automobile traffic patterns and customer attitudes to determine location, size, and style of new motels. Like other management support functions, operations research is spread by its own success. When one firm in an industry increases productivity by adopting a new procedure, its competitors usually follow. This competitive pressure will contribute to demand for opera tions research analysts. Demand also should be strong in the manufacturing sector as firms expand existing operations research staffs in the face of growing foreign competition. More and more manufacturers are using mathe matical models to study parts of the organization for the first time. For example, analysts will be needed to determine the best way to distribute finished products and to find out where sales offices should be based. In addition, increasing factory automation will require more operations research analysts to alter existing models or develop new ones for production layout, robotics installation, work schedules, and inventory control. Little change is expected in the number of operations research analysts working for the Federal Government. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings Median annual earnings for operations research analysts were about $35,000 a year in 1988; the middle 50 percent earned between $25,000 and $42,000 annually. The top 10 percent earned over $51,000; the bottom 10 percent earned less than $20,000 a year. In the Federal Government, the starting annual salary for operations research analysts was about $16,000 in 1989. Candidates with a supe rior academic record could begin at $19,000. Operations research analysts employed by the Federal Government averaged about $45,000 a year in 1986. Related Occupations Operations research analysts apply mathematical principles to organi zational problems. Workers in other occupations that stress quantita tive analysis include computer scientists, applied mathematicians, statisticians, and economists. Sources of Additional Information Information on career opportunities for operations research analysts are available from: wThe Operations Research Society of America, 428 East Preston St., Balti more, MD 21202. wThe Institute for Management Science, 290 Westminster St., Providence, RI 02903. For information on careers in the Armed Forces and Department of Defense, contact: •-Military Operations Research Society, 101 South Whiting St., Suite 202, Alexandria, VA 22304. Statisticians (D.O.T. 020.067-022, .167-026) Nature of the Work Statistics deals with the collection, analysis, and presentation of nu merical data. Statisticians design, carry out, and interpret the numerical results of surveys and experiments. In doing so, they apply their knowledge of statistical methods to a particular subject area, such as biology, economics, engineering, medicine, or psychology. They use statistical techniques to predict population growth or economic condi tions, develop quality control tests for manufactured products, assess the nature of environmental problems, analyze legal and social prob lems, or help business managers and government officials make deci sions and evaluate the results of new programs. Often statisticians are able to obtain accurate information about a group of people or things by surveying a small portion, called a sample, of the group. For example, to determine the size of the total audience, television rating services ask only a few thousand families, rather than all viewers, what programs they watch. Statisticians decide where and how to gather the data, determine the type and size of the sample group, and develop the survey questionnaire or reporting form. They also prepare instructions for workers who will collect and tabulate the data. Statisticians use computers extensively to process large amounts of data for statistical modeling and graphic analysis. Since statistics are used in so many areas, it sometimes is difficult to distinguish statisticians from specialists in other fields who use statistics. For example, a statistician working with data on economic conditions may have the title of economist. Working Conditions Statisticians usually work regular hours in offices. Some statisticians may travel occasionally to supervise or set up a survey, or to gather statistical data. Some may have fairly repetitive tasks, while others may have a variety of tasks, such as in designing experiments. Professional Specialty Occupations Computers help statisticians analyze large amounts of data quickly. Employment Statisticians held about 15,000 jobs in 1988. Most of these jobs were in industry, primarily in manufacturing, finance, and insurance compa nies and in business service establishments such as consultants’ offices. The remaining jobs were in government, primarily at the Federal level. Federally employed statisticians were concentrated in the Departments of Commerce, Agriculture, Health and Human Services, Defense, and Labor. Others worked in hospitals, colleges and universities, and nonprofit organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in statistics or mathematics is the minimum educational requirement for many beginning jobs in statis tics. For other entry level statistical jobs, a bachelor’s degree with a major in an applied field such as economics or a life science and a minor in statistics is preferable. Teaching and research positions in institutions of higher education and some positions in private industry require a graduate degree, often a doctorate, in statistics. Over 60 colleges and universities offered bachelor’s degrees in statistics in 1988. Many other schools also offered degrees in mathe matics, operations research, psychology, and other fields which in cluded a sufficient number of courses in statistics to qualify graduates for beginning positions. Required subjects for statistics majors include mathematics through differential and integral calculus, statistical meth ods, mathematical modeling, and probability theory. Due to the use of computers for statistical applications, a strong background in computer science is highly recommended; a double major in statistics and com puter science is particularly desirable. For positions involving quality control, training in engineering or physical science is desirable. A background in biological or health science is useful in positions involv ing the preparation and testing of pharmaceutical products. For many market research, business analysis, and forecasting jobs, courses in economics and business administration are helpful. In 1988, over 100 universities offered a master’s degree program in statistics, and about 85 offered a doctoral degree program. Many other schools also offered graduate level courses in applied statistics for students majoring in biology, business, economics, education, engi neering, psychology, and other fields. Acceptance into graduate statis tics programs does not require an undergraduate degree in statistics although a good mathematics background is essential. Beginning statisticians who have only the bachelor’s degree often spend much of their time doing routine work supervised by an experi enced statistician. With experience, they may advance to positions of greater technical and supervisory responsibility. However, opportuni ties for promotion are best for those with advanced degrees. Job Outlook Employment opportunities for persons who combine training in statis tics with knowledge of computer science or a field of application— https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 83 such as biology, economics, or engineering—generally are expected to be favorable through the year 2000. Demand is particularly strong for those with advanced degrees in statistics. Employment of statisti cians is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations. Most openings are expected to result from the need to replace experi enced statisticians who transfer to other occupations, or retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. Private industry, in the face of increasing competition and strong government regulation, will require increasing numbers of statisticians to monitor productivity and quality in the manufacture of various products including pharmaceuticals, motor vehicles, chemicals, and food products. For example, pharmaceutical firms will need more statisticians to assess the safety and effectiveness of the rapidly expand ing number of drugs. In an effort to meet growing competition, motor vehicle manufacturers will need more statisticians to monitor the qual ity of automobiles, trucks, and their components. Statisticians with knowledge of engineering and the physical sciences will find jobs working with scientists and engineers in research and development. Business firms will rely more heavily than in the past on statisticians to forecast sales, analyze business conditions, modernize accounting procedures, and help solve management problems. In addition, sophis ticated statistical services will increasingly be contracted out to consult ing firms. Federal, State, and local government agencies will need statisticians in fields such as agriculture, demography, consumer and producer surveys, transportation, Social Security, health, education, energy conservation, and environmental quality control. Among graduates with a bachelor’s degree in statistics, those with a strong background in mathematics and computer science should have the best prospects of finding jobs related to their field of study in private industry or government. Those who meet State certification requirements may become high school statistics teachers, a newly emerging field. (For additional information, see the statement on secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Master’s degree holders in statistics with a strong background in computer science should have very good employment opportunities as statisticians in computerized data processing activities and in research, particularly in private industry. Some may find teaching positions in junior colleges and small 4-year colleges. Ph.D.’s in statistics have excellent employment prospects, espe cially in large corporations and in colleges and universities—which increasingly are establishing separate departments of statistics or ex panding them. Earnings In the Federal Government in 1989, the average starting salary of statisticians who had the bachelor’s degree and no experience was $15,700 or $19,500 a year, depending on their college grades. Begin ning statisticians with the master’s degree averaged $23,800 or $28,900. Those with the Ph.D. began at $28,900 or $34,600. The average annual salary for statisticians in the Federal Government was about $41,300 in 1988. According to a 1987 survey by the National Science Foundation, the median annual salary of statisticians with a doctoral degree was about $46,700; in business and industry, $55,500; in educational institutions, $45,000; and in the Federal Government, $50,000. Fringe benefits for statisticians tend to be similar to those offered most professionals who work in an office setting: Vacation and sick leave, health and life insurance, and retirement plans, among others. Related Occupations People in numerous occupations work with statistics. Among them are actuaries, computer programmers, computer systems analysts, educators, engineers, environmental scientists, financial analysts, health scientists, information scientists, life scientists, mathemati cians, operations researchers, physical scientists, and social scien tists. 84 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information For information about career opportunities in statistics, contact: •-American Statistical Association, 1429 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314. For information on a career as a mathematical statistician, contact: •-Institute of Mathematical Statistics, 3401 Investment Blvd, No. 7, Hayward, CA 94545. Information on Federal job opportunities is available from area https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis offices of the State employment service and the U.S. Office of Person nel Management or from Federal Job Information Centers located in various large cities throughout the country. For information about careers in noncollegiate academic institu tions, contact: •-National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1906 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091. Life Scientists Agricultural Scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-010, -014, -018, -038, -042, and -058; 041.061-014, -018, -046, and -082; and 041.081) Nature of the Work The work done by agricultural scientists has played an important part in the Nation’s sharply rising agricultural productivity. Agricultural scientists study farm crops and animals and develop ways of improving their quantity and quality. They look for ways to improve crop yield and quality with less labor, control pests and weeds more safely and effectively, and conserve soil and water. Agricultural science is closely related to biological science, and agricultural scientists use the principles of biology and other sciences to solve problems in agriculture. They often work with biological scientists on basic biological research and in applying to agriculture the advances in knowledge brought about by biotechnology. Many agricultural scientists manage or administer research and development programs or manage marketing or production operations in companies that produce food products or agricultural chemicals, supplies, and machinery. Many do research and development. Some agricultural scientists are consultants to business firms or to gov ernment. Agricultural scientists usually specialize in one of the following areas. Agronomists (D.O.T. 040.061-010) study how field crops such as corn, wheat, and cotton grow. They improve their quality and yield by developing new growth methods and by controlling diseases, pests, and weeds. Some agronomists specialize in one crop or crop problem. Animal scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-014) do research on the selec tion, breeding, feeding, management, and health of domestic farm animals. Dairy scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-018) and poultry scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-042) conduct research on the selection, breeding, feeding, and management of dairy cattle and poultry. Food technologists (D.O.T. 041.081 -010) study the chemical, phys ical, and biological nature of food to learn how to safely process, preserve, package, distribute, and store it. Some develop new products and others insure quality standards. Horticulturists (D.O.T. 040.061-038) work with fruit, vegetable, greenhouse, and nursery crops and ornamental plants. They seek improved quality, yield, resistance to disease, and adaptability. Soil scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-058) study soil characteristics, map soil types, and determine the best types of crops for each soil. They study the chemical and physical characteristics of soils and their re sponses to fertilizers, tillage practices, and crop rotation. Animal breeders (D.O.T. 041.061-014) and plant breeders (D.O.T. 041.061-082) select and breed animals and plants to develop and improve their economic or esthetic characteristics. Entomologists (D.O.T. 041.061-046) study insects and their rela tionship to humans and plant and animal life. Apiculturists (D.O.T. 041.061-018) study the culture and breeding of bees. Working Conditions Agricultural scientists generally work regular hours in offices and laboratories. Some spend much time outdoors conducting research on farms or agricultural research stations. Employment Agricultural scientists held over 25,000 jobs in 1988. In addition, about 18,000 persons held agricultural science faculty positions in colleges and universities. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis An agricultural scientist measures plant growth under conditions which simulate ozone depletion. Over two-fifths of all nonfaculty agricultural scientists work for Federal, State, or local governments. Over 3 out of 10 worked for the Federal Government in 1988, mostly in the Department of Agriculture. In addition, large numbers worked for State governments at State agricultural colleges or agricultural research stations. Some worked for agricultural service companies; others for commercial research and development laboratories, seed companies, wholesale distributors, and food products companies. About 3,000 agricultural scientists were self-employed in 1988, mainly as consultants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for agricultural scientists depend on the spe cialty and the type of work performed. Sales, production management, inspection, regulatory, and other nonresearch jobs require a bachelor’s or master’s degree in agricultural science. A Ph.D. degree in agricul tural science or a related life science specialty is usually required for college teaching, for independent research, and for advancement to administrative research positions. A master’s degree is sufficient for some jobs in applied research. Degrees in related sciences such as biology, chemistry, or physics or in related engineering specialties also may be acceptable for some agricultural science jobs. A degree in agricultural science is helpful in becoming a farm operator. All States have at least one land-grant college which offers agricul tural science degrees. Many other colleges and universities also offer 85 86 Occupational Outlook Handbook some agricultural science courses. However, not every school offers all specialties. Advanced degree programs include classroom and fieldwork, laboratory research, and a thesis based on independent research. Agricultural scientists should be able to work independently or as part of a team and be able to communicate clearly and concisely, both orally and in writing. Agricultural scientists who have advanced degrees usually begin in research or teaching. With experience, they may advance to jobs such as supervisors of research programs or managers of other agriculturerelated activities. Job Outlook Employment opportunities for agricultural scientists are expected to be good through the year 2000 because enrollments in agricultural science curriculums have dropped considerably over the past few years and because employment is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations. Probably much of the decreased enrollment in agricultural science stems from the mistaken belief that reduced oppor tunities in agricultural science have resulted from the widely publicized problems of farm operators. In addition to jobs arising from growth in demand for these workers, many openings will occur as workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment in Federal agencies is not expected to grow much, but employment of agricultural scientists in private industry may grow rapidly as advances in biotechnology, such as recombinant DNA, are applied to agriculture. Employment opportunities as an agricultural scientist are limited for those with only a bachelor’s degree. However, a bachelor’s degree in agricultural science is useful for managerial jobs in businesses that deal with ranchers and farmers such as feed, fertilizer, seed, and farm equipment manufacturers, retailers or wholesalers, and farm credit institutions or for occupations such as farmer or farm manager, cooper ative extension service agent, agricultural products inspector, techni cian, landscape architect, or purchasing or sales agent for agricultural commodities or farm supplies. Earnings According to the College Placement Council, beginning salary offers for agricultural scientists with a bachelor’s degree averaged $20,220 a year in 1988. In the Federal Government in 1989, agricultural scientists with a bachelor’s degree could start at $15,738 or $19,493 a year, depending on their college records. Those having a master’s degree could start at $19,493 or $23,846, depending on their academic records or work experience; and those with a Ph.D. degree could begin at $28,852 or $34,580 a year. Agricultural scientists in the Federal Government averaged about $37,100 a year in 1988. Related Occupations The work of agricultural scientists is closely related to that of biologists and other natural scientists such as chemists and physicists. It is also related to agricultural production occupations such as fanner and farm manager and cooperative extension service agent as well as to the work of foresters and conservation scientists. Certain specialties of agricultural science are also related to other occupations. For example, the work of animal scientists is related to that of veterinarians; horticul turists, to landscape architects; and soil scientists, to soil conserva tionists. Source of Additional Information Information on careers in agricultural science is available from: ••-Office of Higher Education Programs, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Administration Bldg., 14th St. and Independence Ave. SW., Washington, DC 20250. ••-American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Soil Science Society of America, 677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, WI 53711. ••-Council for Agricultural Science and Technology, 137 Lynn Ave., Ames IA 50010. ••-Food and Agricultural Careers for Tomorrow, Purdue University, 127 Ag ricultural Administration Bldg., West Lafayette, IN 47907. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis For information on careers in food technology, write to: ••-Institute of Food Technologists, Suite 300, 221 N. LaSalle St., Chicago IL 60601. For information on careers in horticultural science, send a stamped, self-addressed envelope to: ••-American Society for Horticultural Science, 701 North Saint Asaph St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Information on Federal job opportunities is available from local offices of State employment security agencies or offices of the U.S. Office of Personnel Management, located in major metropolitan areas. Biological Scientists (D.O.T. 022.081-010; 041.061, except -010, -014, -018, -046, -054, -070, -074, and -082) Nature of the Work Biological scientists study living organisms and their relationship to their environment. Most specialize in some area such as ornithology (the study of birds) or microbiology (the study of microscopic or ganisms). About two-fifths of all biological scientists work in research and development. Some conduct basic research to increase knowledge of living organisms. Others, in applied research, use knowledge provided by basic research to develop new medicines, increase crop yields, and improve the environment. Biological scientists may work in laboratories and use laboratory animals or greenhouse plants, electron microscopes, computers, electronic instruments, or a wide variety of other equipment to conduct their research. A good deal of research, however, is performed outside of laboratories. For example, a botanist may do research in the volcanic valleys of Alaska to see what plants grow there, or an ecologist may study how a forest area recovers after a fire. Other biological scientists work in management or administration. They may plan and administer programs for testing foods and drugs, for example, or direct activities at zoos or botanical gardens. Some work as consultants to business firms or to government, while others test and inspect foods, drugs, and other products or write for technical publications. Some work in sales and service jobs for companies manufacturing chemicals or other technical products. (See the state ments on manufacturers’ sales representatives and wholesale trade sales workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Advances in basic biological knowledge, especially at the genetic level, have resulted in a new technology called biotechnology. Biolo gists using this rapidly developing technology recombine the genetic material of animals or plants, making organisms more productive or disease resistant. The first application of this technology has been in the medical and pharmaceutical area. The human gene that codes for the production of insulin has been inserted into bacteria, causing them to produce human insulin. This insulin, used by diabetics, is much purer than insulin from animals, the only previous source. Many other substances not previously available in large quantities are starting to be produced by biotechnological means; some may be useful in treating cancer and other diseases. Advances in biotechnology have opened up research opportunities in almost all areas of biology, including commercial applications in agriculture and the food and chemical industries. Most biological scientists who come under the broad category of biologist (D.O.T. 041.061-030) are further classified by the type of organism they study or by the specific activity they perform, although recent advances in the understanding of basic life processes at the molecular and cellular level have blurred some traditional classifica tions. Aquatic biologists (D.O.T. 041.061-022) study plants and animals living in water. Marine biologists study salt water organisms and limnologists study fresh water organisms. Marine biologists are some times called oceanographers, but oceanography usually refers to the Professional Specialty Occupations 87 dures are not followed. Many biological scientists such as botanists, ecologists, and zoologists take field trips which involve strenuous physical activity and primitive living conditions. Employment Biological scientists held about 57,000 jobs in 1988. In addition, about 50,000 held biology faculty positions in colleges and universities. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) About 40 percent of nonfaculty biological scientists were employed by Federal, State, and local governments. Federal biological scientists worked mainly in the Departments of Agriculture, Interior, and De fense, and in the National Institutes of Health. Most of the rest worked in the pharmaceutical industry, hospitals, or commercial or nonprofit research and development laboratories. A few were self-employed. Although many biologists work in laboratories, some work in offices, classrooms, and outdoors. study of the physical characteristics of oceans and the ocean floor. (See the statement on geologists and geophysicists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Biochemists (D.O.T. 041.061-026) study the chemical composition of living things. They try to understand the complex chemical combina tions and reactions involved in metabolism, reproduction, growth, and heredity. Much of the work in biotechnology is done by biochemists because this technology involves understanding the complex chemistry of life. Botanists (D.O.T. 041.061 -038) study plants and their environment. Some study all aspects of plant life, while others specialize in areas such as identification and classification of plants, the structure and function of plant parts, the biochemistry of plant processes, or the causes and cures of plant diseases. Microbiologists (D.O.T. 041.061-058) investigate the growth and characteristics of microscopic organisms such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi. Medical microbiologists study the relationship between organisms and disease or the effect of antibiotics on microorganisms. Other microbiologists may specialize in environmental, food, agricul tural, or industrial microbiology, virology (the study of viruses), or immunology (the study of mechanisms that fight infections). Many microbiologists are using biotechnology to advance knowledge of cell reproduction and human disease. Physiologists (D.O.T. 041.061-078) study life functions of plants and animals, both in the whole organism and at the cellular or molecu lar level, under normal and abnormal conditions. Physiologists may specialize in functions such as growth, reproduction, photosynthesis, respiration, or movement, or in the physiology of a certain area or system of the body. Zoologists (D.O.T. 041.061-090) study animals—their origin, be havior, diseases, and life processes. Some experiments are with live animals in controlled or natural surroundings while others involve dissecting dead animals to study their structure. Zoologists are usually identified by the animal group studied—ornithologists (birds), mammalogists (mammals), herpetologists (reptiles), and ichthyologists (fish). Ecologists study the relationship among organisms and between organisms and their environments and the effects of influences such as pollutants, rainfall, temperature, and altitude on organisms. Agricultural scientists, who may also be classified as biological scientists, are included in a separate statement elsewhere in the Handbook. Working Conditions Biological scientists generally work regular hours in offices, labora tories, or classrooms and usually are not exposed to unsafe or unhealthy conditions. However, some work with dangerous organisms or toxic substances in the laboratory. They could be exposed if safety proce https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The Ph.D. degree generally is required for college teaching, indepen dent research, and for advancement to administrative positions. A master’s degree is sufficient for some jobs in applied research and for jobs in management, inspection, sales, and service. The bachelor’s degree is adequate for some nonresearch jobs. Some graduates with a bachelor’s degree start as biological scientists in testing and inspection, or get jobs related to biological science such as technical sales or service representatives. Others become biological technicians, medical laboratory technologists or, with courses in education, high school biology teachers. (See the statements on clinical laboratory technolo gists and technicians, science technicians, and secondary school teach ers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Many with a bachelor’s degree in biology enter medical, dental, veterinary, or other health profession schools. Some enter a wide range of occupations with little or no connection to biology. Most colleges and universities offer bachelor’s degrees in biological science and many offer advanced degrees. Curriculums for advanced degrees often emphasize a subfield such as microbiology or botany but not all universities offer all curriculums. However, specialization on one life form is being deemphasized in favor of study of basic biochemical and genetic life processes. Advanced degree programs include classroom and field work, laboratory research, and a thesis or dissertation. Biological scientists who have advanced degrees usually begin in research or teaching. With experience, they may become managers or administrators within biology; others leave biology for nontechnical managerial, administrative, and sales jobs. Biological scientists should be able to work independently or as part of a team and be able to communicate clearly and concisely, both orally and in writing. Those doing field research in remote areas must have physical stamina. Job Outlook Employment of biological scientists is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most growth will be in private industry. Many more biological scientists will con duct genetic and biotechnical research and help develop and produce products developed by new biological methods. In addition, efforts to clean up and preserve the environment will continue to add to growth. More biological scientists will be needed to determine the environmen tal impacts of industry and government actions and to correct past environmental problems. Anticipated increases in health-related re search should also result in growth. Employment of biologists is expected to grow slowly in government. In addition to jobs arising from growth in demand for biologists, openings will occur as biological scientists transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Many persons with a bachelor’s degree in biological science find jobs as science or engineering technicians or health technologists and technicians. Some become high school biology teachers. However, they are usually regarded as teachers rather than biologists. Those with a doctorate in biological science may become college and university faculty. (See statements on science and engineering technicians, health 88 Occupational Outlook Handbook technologists and technicians, high school teachers, and college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Biological scientists are less likely to lose their jobs during reces sions than those in many other occupations since most are employed on long-term research projects or in agricultural research, activities which are not much affected by economic fluctuations. Earnings According to the College Placement Council, beginning salary offers in private industry in 1988 averaged $20,400 a year for bachelor’s degree recipients in biological science. In the Federal Government in 1989, biological scientists having a bachelor’s degree could begin at $15,738 or $19,493 a year, depending on their college records. Those having the master’s degree could start at $19,493 or $23,846, depending on their academic records or work experience; those having the Ph.D. degree could begin at $28,352 or $34,580 a year. Biological scientists in the Federal Government averaged $38,700 a year in 1988. Related Occupations Many other occupations deal with living organisms. These include the conservation occupations of forester, forestry technician, range manager, and soil conservationist, as well as agricultural scientist, soil scientist, and life science technician. The wide array of health occupations are all related to those in the biological sciences, as are occupations dealing with raising plants and animals such as farmer and farm manager, animal breeder, landscape contractor, florist, nursery manager, and greenskeeper. Sources of Additional Information General information on careers in biological science is available from: ••-American Institute of Biological Sciences, Office of Career Service, 730 11th St. NW., Washington, DC 20001-4584. it American Society of Zoologists, 104 Sirius Circle, Thousand Oaks, CA 91360. For information on careers in physiology, contact: •-American Physiological Society, Membership Services Dept., 9650 Rock ville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20814. For information on careers in biochemistry, contact: •-American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20814. grounds, parks, and grazing lands; and do research. Foresters in exten sion work provide information to forest owners and to the general public. Range managers, also called range conservationists, range ecolo gists, or range scientists, manage, improve, and protect rangelands to maximize their use without damaging the environment. Rangelands cover about 1 billion acres of the United States, mostly in the Western States and Alaska. They contain many natural resources, including grass and shmbs for animal grazing, wildlife habitats, water from vast watersheds, recreation facilities, and valuable mineral and energy resources. Rangelands also serve as areas for scientific study of the environment. Range managers help ranchers attain optimum livestock production by determining the number and kind of animals to graze, the grazing system to use, and the best season for grazing. At the same time, however, they maintain soil stability, hydrologic values, and vegetation for other uses such as wildlife habitats and outdoor recre ation. Soil conservationists provide technical assistance to farmers, ranchers, and others concerned with the conservation of soil, water, and related natural resources. They develop programs that are designed to get the most productive use of land without damaging it. Soil conservationists do most of their work in the field. Conservationists visit areas with erosion problems, find the source of the problem, and help land owners and managers develop management practices to combat it. Foresters and conservation scientists often specialize in one area of work, such as timber management, outdoor recreation, urban forestry, or forest economics. Working Conditions Working conditions for foresters and conservation scientists vary con siderably. Their image as solitary horseback riders singlehandedly protecting large areas of land far from civilization no longer holds true. Modem foresters and conservation scientists spend a great deal of time working with people. They deal regularly with land owners, loggers, forestry technicians and aides, farmers, ranchers, government officials, special interest groups, and the public in general. The work can still be physically demanding, though. Many foresters and conservation scientists often work outdoors in all kinds of weather, sometimes in remote areas. To get to these areas, they use airplanes, For information on careers in botany, contact: •-Dr. Gregory Anderson, Secretary, Botanical Society of America, Dept, of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, U-43, 75 North Eagleville Rd., Storrs, CT 06269-3043. X ^ m-v * : For information on careers in microbiology, contact: •-American Society for Microbiology, Office of Education and Professional Recognition, 1913 I St. NW., Washington, DC 20006. Information on Federal job opportunities is available from local offices of State employment services or offices of the U.S. Office of Personnel Management, located in major metropolitan areas. Foresters and Conservation Scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-030, -034, -046, -050, -054, -062; 049.127) Nature of the Work Forests and rangelands serve a variety of needs: They supply wood products, livestock forage, minerals, and water; serve as sites for recreational activities; and provide habitats for wildlife. Foresters and conservation scientists manage, develop, and help protect these and other natural resources. Foresters plan and supervise the growing, protection, and harvesting of trees. They map forest areas, estimate the amount of standing timber and future growth, and manage timber sales. Foresters also protect the trees from fire, harmful insects, and disease. Some foresters also protect wildlife and manage watersheds; develop and supervise camp https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis t f 1 / Foresters map forest areas and estimate the amount of standing timber. Professional Specialty Occupations helicopters, four-wheel drive vehicles, and horses, or walk. Foresters and conservation scientists also may work long hours fighting fires or in other emergencies. Employment Foresters and conservation scientists held about 27,000 jobs in 1988. Nearly half of the salaried workers were in the Federal Government, primarily in the Department of Agriculture’s Forest Service and Soil Conservation Service and in the Department of Interior’s Bureau of Land Management; 20 percent worked for State governments; and 6 percent worked for local governments. The remainder worked in pri vate industry, mainly in the forestry industry. Other significant em ployers included logging and lumber companies and sawmills. Some were self-employed either as consultants—primarily for large land owners—or forest owners. Most soil conservationists work for the Department of Agriculture’s Soil Conservation Service. Others are employed by State and local governments in their soil conservation districts. Although foresters and conservation scientists work in every State, employment is concentrated in the Western and Southeastern States, where many national and private forests and parks are located, and where most of the lumber and pulpwood producing forests are located. Range managers work almost entirely in the Western States, where most of the rangeland is located. Soil conservationists, on the other hand, are employed in almost every county in the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in forestry is the minimum educational require ment for professional careers in forestry. However, due to keen job competition and the increasingly complex nature of the forester’s work, many employers prefer graduates with some work experience and an advanced degree, especially for teaching and research positions. In addition, continuing education is increasingly expected. In 1989, 50 colleges and universities offered bachelor’s or higher degrees in forestry; 46 of these were accredited by the Society of American Foresters. Curriculums stress liberal arts, communications skills, and computer science, as well as technical forestry subjects. Courses in forest economics and business administration supplement the student’s scientific and technical knowledge. Many colleges require students to complete a field session in a camp operated by the college. All schools encourage summer jobs that provide experience in forestry or conservation work. A bachelor’s degree in range management or range science is the usual minimum educational requirement for range managers. Graduate degrees in range management generally are required for teaching and research positions and may be helpful for advancement in other jobs. In 1989, 35 colleges and universities offered degrees in range manage ment or range science. A number of other schools offered some courses in range management. Specialized range management courses combine plant, animal, and soil sciences with principles of ecology and resource management. Desirable electives include economics, forestry, hydrol ogy, agronomy, wildlife, animal husbandry, computer science, and recreation. Very few colleges and universities offer degrees in soil conservation. Most soil conservationists have degrees in agronomy, agricultural education, or general agriculture; a few have degrees in related fields such as wildlife biology, forestry, and range management. Programs of study generally include 30 semester hours in natural resources or agriculture, including at least 3 hours in soil science. In addition to meeting the demands of forestry and conservation research and analysis, foresters and conservation scientists must enjoy working outdoors, be physically hardy, and be willing to move—often to remote places. They must also be able to work well with people and have good communication skills. Decisiveness, firmness, and tact are important in disputes involving rights and uses of land and other natural resources. Recent forestry and range management graduates usually work un der the supervision of experienced foresters or range managers. After gaining experience, they may advance to more responsible positions. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 89 In the Federal Government, an experienced forester may supervise an entire forest area, and may advance to regional forest supervisor or to a top administrative position. In private industry, foresters start by learning the practical and administrative aspects of the business. Many foresters work their way up to top managerial positions within their companies. Soil conservationists usually begin working within one county or conservation district and with experience may advance to the area, State, regional, or national level. Also, soil conservationists can trans fer to related occupations such as farm or ranch management advisor or land appraiser. Job Outlook Job opportunities for foresters and conservation scientists should be more favorable than in the past due to an expected wave of retire ments—creating many job openings—and to recent declines in the number of graduates in forestry and related fields—reducing competi tion for those openings. However, employment of foresters and conser vation scientists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to budgetary constraints in government, where employment is highly concentrated. More foresters and range managers should be needed in private industry to improve forest, logging, and range management practices and increase output and profitability. Also, private owners of timberland, rangeland, and grazing land may employ more soil conservation scientists due to the need for better environmental protection and water quality mainte nance. Earnings Most graduates entering the Federal Government as foresters, range managers, or soil conservationists with a bachelor’s degree started at $15,700 a year, in 1989. Those with a master’s degree could start at $23,800. Holders of doctorates could start at $28,900 or, in research positions, at $34,600. In 1988, the average Federal salary for foresters was $34,600; for range conservationists, $30,000; and for soil conser vationists, $30,000. Salaries in State and local government and in private industry were generally lower. Most foresters and conservation scientists work for Federal, State, and local governments and large private firms, which generally offer more generous fringe benefits—for example, pension and retirement plans, health and life insurance, and paid vacations—than smaller firms. Related Occupations Foresters and conservation scientists are not the only workers con cerned with managing, developing, and protecting natural resources. Other workers with similar responsibilities include agricultural scien tists, agricultural engineers, biological scientists, farmers, farm man agers, forest fire officers and aides, ranchers, ranch managers, soil scientists and soil conservation technicians, and wildlife managers. Sources of Additional Information General information about the forestry profession and lists of schools offering education in forestry are available from: ••-Society of American Foresters, 5400 Grosvenor Lane, Bethesda, MD 20814. ••-American Forestry Association, P.O. Box 2000, Washington, DC 20013. Information about a career as a range manager as well as a list of schools offering training are available from: ••-Society for Range Management, 1839 York St., Denver, CO 80206. Information about careers in soil conservation is available from: ••-National Association of Conservation Districts, 509 Capitol Court NE., Washington, DC 20002. For information about career opportunities in the Federal Govern ment, contact: ••-Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Department of the Interior, Room 3619, Washington, DC 20240. ••-U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, P.O. Box 96090, Washington, DC 20090-6090. wSoil Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Room 6155, P.O. Box 2890, Washington, DC 20013. Physical Scientists Chemists CD.O.T. 022.061-010, -014, and .137-010) Nature of the Work Chemists search for and put to practical use new knowledge about chemicals. Although chemicals are often thought of as artificial or toxic substances, all physical things, both natural and manmade, are composed of chemicals. Chemists have developed a tremendous vari ety of new and improved synthetic fibers, paints, adhesives, drugs, electronic components, lubricants, and other products. They also de velop processes which save energy and reduce pollution, such as improved oil refining methods. Research on the chemistry of living things provides the basis for advances in medicine, agriculture, and other areas. Many chemists work in research and development. Much research is performed in laboratories, but research chemists also work in offices when they do theoretical research or plan, record, and report on their research. Some chemical research laboratories resemble high school chemical labs, but others are large and may incorporate prototype chemical manufacturing facilities as well as advanced equipment. Chemists may also do some of their research in a chemical plant or outdoors—while gathering samples of pollutants, for example. In basic research, chemists investigate the properties, composition, and structure of matter and the laws that govern the combination of elements and reactions of substances. In applied research and develop ment, they create new products or improve existing ones, often using knowledge gained from basic research. For example, synthetic rubber and plastics resulted from research on small molecules uniting to form large ones (polymerization). Chemists also work in production and inspection in chemical manu facturing plants. They prepare instructions for plant workers which specify ingredients, mixing times, and temperatures for each stage in the process. They also monitor automated processes to ensure proper product yield, and test samples to insure they meet industry and government standards. Chemists also record and report on test results. Others are marketing or sales representatives who sell and provide technical information on chemical products. Chemists often specialize in a subfield. Analytical chemists deter mine the structure, composition, and nature of substances and develop analytical techniques. They also identify the presence of chemical pollutants in air, water, and soil. Organic chemists study the chemistry of the vast number of carbon compounds. Many commercial products, such as drugs, plastics, and fertilizers, have been developed by organic chemists. Inorganic chemists study compounds consisting mainly of elements other than carbon, such as those in electronic components. Physical chemists study the physical characteristics of atoms and molecules and investigate how chemical reactions work. Their research may result in new and better energy sources. Biochemists, whose work encompasses both biology and chemistry, are included under biological scientists elsewhere in the Handbook. Working Conditions Chemists usually work regular hours in offices and laboratories. Some are exposed to health or safety hazards when handling certain chemi cals, but there is little risk if proper procedures are followed. Employment Chemists held about 80,000 jobs in 1988. Over five-eighths of all chemists work for manufacturing firms—over three-fifths of these are in the chemical manufacturing industry; the rest are scattered throughout other manufacturing industries. Chemists also work for 90 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ryvfej;* 5 A chemist analyzes a pesticide by use of gas chromatography. State and local governments, primarily in health and agriculture, and for Federal agencies, chiefly the Departments of Defense, Health and Human Services, and Agriculture. Some work for nonprofit research organizations. In addition, about 19,000 persons held chemistry fac ulty positions in colleges and universities. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Chemists are employed in all parts of the country, but they are concentrated in large industrial areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in chemistry or a related discipline is sufficient for some beginning jobs as a chemist. However, graduate training is required for most research jobs, and most college teaching jobs require a Ph.D. degree. Beginning chemists should have a broad background in chemistry, with good laboratory skills. Many colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree program in chemistry. About 580 are approved by the American Chemical Society. In addition to required courses in analytical, inorganic, or ganic, and physical chemistry, undergraduates usually study biology, mathematics, physics, and liberal arts. Several hundred colleges and universities award advanced degrees in chemistry. Graduate students generally specialize in a subfield of chemistry. Requirements for a master’s and doctor’s degree usually include a thesis based on independent research. Students planning careers as chemists should enjoy studying science and mathematics, and should like working with their hands building scientific apparatus and performing experiments. Perseverance, curios ity, and the ability to concentrate on detail and to work independently are essential. In government or industry, beginning chemists with a bachelor’s degree analyze or test products, work in technical sales or services, or assist senior chemists in research and development laboratories. Employers may have training and orientation programs which pro vide special knowledge needed for the employer’s type of work. Some chemists become science managers. (See the statement on engineering, science, and data processing managers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Beginning chemists with a master’s degree can usually teach in a 2-year college or go into applied research in government or private industry. A Ph.D. generally is required for basic research, for 4-year college faculty positions, and for advancement to many administrative positions. Many people with a bachelor’s degree in chemistry enter other occupations in which a chemistry background is helpful, such as technical writers and manufacturers’ sales representatives and whole Professional Specialty Occupations sale trade sales workers in chemical marketing. Some enter medical, dental, veterinary, or other health profession schools. Others enter a wide range of occupations with little or no connection to chemistry. Chemistry graduates may become high school teachers. However, they usually arc then regarded as science teachers rather than chemists. Others may qualify as engineers, especially if they have taken some courses in engineering. Those with a doctorate in chemistry may become college and university faculty members. (See statements on secondary school teachers, engineers, and college and university (ac uity elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Chemists arc expected to have very good employment opportunities through the year 2000 because employment is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations and the number of degrees granted in chemistry is not expected to increase enough to meet future demand. Employment is expected to grow because of expanded re search and development—for new products and more efficient produc tion processes, and because more will be needed in environmental protection efforts. Also, the chemical industry, which faced many problems in the early 1980's, is now much healthier. Areas relating to pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and environmental protection should provide especially good opportunities. Despite the expected growth, most openings will result as chemists transfer to other occupations or leave the occupation for other reasons. Earnings According to the College Placement Council, chemists with a bache lor’s degree were offered starting salaries averaging $26,000 a year in 1988; those with a master's degree, $31,600; and those with a Ph.D., $41,300. According to the American Chemical Society, median salaries of their members with a bachelor's degree were $35,400 a year in 1988; with a master’s degree, $41,000; with a Ph.D., $50,000. In a Bureau of Labor Statistics survey, chemists in manufacturing, transportation, and utilities averaged $26,600 a year in 1988 at the most junior level. Experienced midlevel chemists with no supervisory responsibilities averaged $45,800and senior, nonsupervisory chemists averaged $55,000. Chemists who become managers often earn much more. Depending on a person's college record, the annual starting salary in the Federal Government in early 1989 for an inexperienced chemist with a bachelor's degree was either $15,738 or $19,493. Those who had 2 years of graduate study began at $23,846 a year, and with a Ph D. degree, $28,852 or $34,580. The average salary for all chemists in the Federal Government in 1988 was $40,500 a year. Related Occupations The work of chemical engineers, occupational safety and health work ers, agricultural scientists, biological scientists, and chemical techni cians is closely related to the work done by chemists. The work of other physical and life science occupations may also be similar to that of chemists. Sources of Additional Information General information on career opportunities and earnings for chemists is available from: ••-American Chemical Society, Career Services, 1155 16th St. NW., Washing ton, DC 20036. Information on Federal job opportunities is available from local offices of State employment services or offices of the U.S. Office of Personnel Management, located in major metropolitan areas. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 91 Geologists and Geophysicists (D.O.T. 024.061 except -014, .161, and .167) Nature of the Work Geologists and geophysicists study the physical aspects and history of the earth. They identify and examine surface rocks and buried rocks recovered by drilling; study information collected by satellites, conduct geological surveys, construct maps, and use instruments to measure the earth’s gravity and magnetic held. They also analyze information collected through seismic prospecting, which involves bouncing sound waves off deeply buried rock layers. Many geologists search for oil, natural gas, minerals, and underground water. Geologists and geophysicists play an increasingly important role in studying, monitoring, and cleaning up the environment. For example, they monitor groundwater quality, manage and clean up toxic waste, and investigate the potential increase in the earth’s temperature due to increased amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (the greenhouse effect). Geologists and geophysicists examine chemical and physical proper ties of specimens in laboratories under controlled temperature and pressure. They may study fossil remains of animal and plant life or experiment with the flow of water and oil through rocks. Laboratory instruments used include X-ray diffractometers, which determine the crystal structure of minerals, and petrographic microscopes, for study of rock and sediment samples. Earthquakes are located using seismo graphs, which measure movements of the earth. Geologists and geophysicists also apply geological knowledge to engineering problems in constructing large buildings, dams, tunnels, and highways. Some administer and manage research and exploration programs and others become general managers in petroleum and min ing companies. Geology and geophysics are closely related fields, but there are some major differences. Geologists study the composition, structure, and history of the earth’s crust. They try to find out how rocks were formed and what has happened to them since their formation. Geophys icists use the principles of physics and mathematics to study not only the earth’s surface but its internal composition, fresh water, atmosphere, and oceans as well as its magnetic, electrical, and gravita tional forces. Geologists and geophysicists usually specialize. Geological ocean ographers study the ocean floor. They collect information using remote sensing devices aboard surface ships or underwater research craft. Physical oceanographers study the physical aspects of oceans such as currents and the interaction of the surface of the sea with the atmosphere. Geochemical oceanographers study the chemical composition, dissolved elements, and nutrients of oceans. Although biological scientists who study ocean life are also called oceanogra phers (as well as marine biologists), the work they do and the training they need are related to biology rather than geology or geophysics. (See the statement on biological scientists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Hydrologists study the distribution, circulation, and physical properties of underground and surface waters. They study the form and intensity of precipitation, its rate of infiltration into the soil, and its return to the ocean and atmosphere. Mineralogists analyze and classify minerals and precious stones according to composition and structure. Paleontologists study fossils found in geological formations to trace the evolution of plant and animal life and the geologic history of the earth. Seismologists interpret data from seismographs and other instruments to locate earthquakes and earthquake faults. Stratigraphers study the distribution and arrangement of sedimentary rock layers by examining their fossil and mineral content. Meteorologists sometimes are classified as geophysical scientists. (See (he statement on meteorologists else where in the Handbook.) 92 Occupational Outlook Handbook Working Conditions Most geologists and geophysicists divide their time between lieldwork and office or laboratory work. Geologists often travel to remote field sites by helicopter or jeep and cover large areas by foot. Exploration geologists and geophysicists often work overseas or in remote areas, and geological and physical oceanographers may spend considerable time at sea. Employment Geologists and geophysicists held over 42,(XX) jobs in 1988. In addi tion, about 8,500 persons held geology, geophysics, and oceanography faculty positions in colleges and universities. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere-,in Ihe Handbook.) About 4 in 10 were in oil and gas companies or oil and gas field service firms, many of which explore for oil and gas. Many other geologists worked for business service and consulting firms, which often provide services to oil and gas companies. About I geologist in 10 was self-employed; most were consultants to industry or gov ernment. The Federal Government employed about 6,500 geologists, geo physicists, oceanographers, and hydrologists in 1988. Three-fifths worked for the Department of the Interior in the U.S. Geological Survey, the Bureau of Mines, and the Bureau of Reclamation. Others worked for the Departments of Defense, Agriculture, and Commerce. Some worked for State agencies such as State geological surveys and State departments of conservation. Geologists and geophysicists also worked for nonprofit research institutions. Some were employed by American firms overseas for varying periods of time. ** * . m-*- •’*'■1 *,» * , Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in geology or geophysics is adequate for entry into some lower level geology jobs, but better jobs with good advancement potential usually require at least a master’s degree in geology 0r geophysics. Persons with strong backgrounds in physics, mathematics, or computer science also may qualify for some geophysics jobs. A Ph D. degree is essential for most research positions. Over 500 colleges and universities offer a bachelor's degree in geology or geophysics. Other programs offering training for beginning geophysicists include geophysical technology, geophysical engineer ing, geophysical prospecting, engineering geology, petroleum geol ogy, and geodesy. In addition, more than 270 universities award advanced degrees in geology or geophysics. Geologists and geophysicists need to be able to work as part of a team. They should be curious, analytical, and able to communicate effectively. Those involved in fieldwork must have physical stamina. Geologists and geophysicists usually begin their careers in field exploration or as research assistants in laboratories. They are given more difficult assignments as they gain experience. Eventually they may be promoted to project leader, program manager, or other manage ment and research positions. Job Outlook Employment of geologists and geophysicists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. In the past, most jobs for geologists and geophysicists were in or related to the petroleum industry, particularly in the exploration for oil and gas. This industry is subject to cyclical fluctuations. In recent years, low oil prices have caused exploration activities to be greatly curtailed— resulting in layoffs of many geologists and geophysicists. As a result of generally poor job prospects, the number of students enrolling in geology and geophysics has dropped considerably. However, since new sources of oil and gas must be found, exploration activities will increase eventually. When this occurs, geologists and geophysicists should have excellent employment opportunities because many experi enced geologists and geophysicists have left the occupation and the number of degrees granted in geology is likely to be so low that even a small increase in openings in the oil industry will be greater than the number of geologists and geophysicists available to fill them. Although it probably will never offer the number of jobs available in the oil industry, environmental protection is becoming an important field of work for geologists and geophysicists with the appropriate training. Examples of jobs in environmental protection are groundwa ter quality monitoring, toxic waste management and cleanup, and geophysical research on the interaction of the atmosphere, oceans, and land and how human activities affect them. Many of these jobs require training in geophysics, hydrology, oceanography, or other areas re lated to the broad area of earth science as opposed to traditional training in geology with its emphasis on oil and mineral exploration. i-L-n **.*<■■■*■ A geologist examines a mineral sample with a mu rostope. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings Surveys by the College Placement Council indicate that graduates with bachelor's degrees in physical and earth sciences received an average starting offer of $21,2(K) a year in 1988. According to a 1986 American Geological Institute survey, geolo gists, geochemists, and other earth scientists earned about $50,000. and geophysicists, $53,000 a year. However, this survey includes a high proportion of managers; nonsupervisory geologists and geophysi cists earn somewhat less. In the Federal Government in 1989, geologists and geophysicists having a bachelor’s degree could begin at $15,738 or $19,493 ayear, depending on their college records. Those having a master’s degree could start at $19,493 or $23,846 a year; those having the Ph Ddegree, at $28,852 or $34,580. In 1988, the average salary for geolo gists in the Federal Government was about $40,200 a year, and for geophysicists, about $43,9(X) a year. Professional Specialty Occupations Related Occupations Many geologists and geophysicists work in the petroleum and natural gas industry . This industry also employs many other workers in the scientilie and technical aspects of petroleum and natural gas explora tion and extraction, including drafters, engineering technicians, sci ence technicians, petroleum engineers, and surveyors. Also, some physicists, chemists, and meteorologists, as well as mathematicians, computer scientists, and cartographers, do related work. Sources of Additional Information Information on training and career opportunities for geologists and a directory of college and university geoscience departments are avail able from: (■-American Geological Institute, 4220 King St., Alexandria, VA 22302. Information on training and career opportunities for geologists is available from: (•-Geological Society of America, I’.O. Box 9140, 3300 Penrose PI.. Boulder, CO 80301. Information on training and career opportunities for geophysicists is available from: ir-American Geophysical Union, 2000 Florida Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20009. (■-Society of Exploration Geophysicists. P.O. Box 70240. Tulsa, OK 74170. A directory of college and university eurriculums in oceanography is available from: (•-Marine Technology Society, 1825 K St. NW, Second Floor, Washington, DC 20006. Information on Federal job opportunities is available from local offices of State employment services or offices of the U.S. Office of Personnel Management located in major metropolitan areas. Meteorologists (D.O.T. 025.062-010) Nature of the Work Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere, the air that surrounds the earth. Meteorologists study the atmosphere’s physical characteristics, motions, and processes, and the way the atmosphere affects the rest of our environment. The best-known application of this knowledge is in forecasting the weather. However, weather information and meteo rological research also are applied in air-pollution control, agriculture, air and sea transportation, and the study of trends in the earth’s climate such as global warming or ozone depletion. Meteorologists who forecast the weather, known professionally as operational or synoptic meteorologists, are the largest group of special ists. They study information on air pressure, temperature, humidity, and wind velocity, and apply physical and mathematical relationships to make short- and long-range weather forecasts. Their information comes from weather satellites, weather radar, and front remote sensors and observers in many parts of the world. Meteorologists use sophisti cated computer models of the world's atmosphere to help forecast the weather and interpret the results of these models to make long-term, short-term, and local-area forecasts. Some meteorologists engage in research. Physical meteorologists, for example, study the atmosphere’s chemical and physical properties, fte transmission of light, sound, and radio waves, and the transfer of in the atmosphere. They also study factors affecting formation °f clouds, rain, snow, and other weather phenomena. Climatologists analyze past records of wind, rainfall, sunshine, and temperature in specific areas or regions. Their studies are used to plan heating and Pooling systems, design buildings, and aid in effective land utilization. uch meteorological research is centered on improving wealher fore casting, mainly through building better computer models of the atmo sphere, including interactions with land and water surfaces. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 93 Working Conditions Jobs in weather stations, most ot which operate around the clock 7 days a week, often involve night work and rotating shifts. Weather stations are at airports, m or near cities, and in isolated and remote areas. Meteorologists in smaller weather offices generally work alone; in larger ones, they work as part of a team. Meteorologists not doing forecasting work regular hours, usually in offices. (Employment Meteorologists held about 6,200jobs in 1988. In addition, about I ,(XX) persons held meteorology faculty positions in colleges and universities. (Sec the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) The largest employer of civilian meteorologists is the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), which employs about 1,8(X) meteorologists. About two-thirds of NOAA’s meteorolo gists work in the National Weather Service at stations in all parts of the United States. The remainder of NOAA’s meteorologists work mainly in research. I'he Department of Defense employs about 275 civilian meteorologists. Others work for private weather consultants, engineering services firms, and nonprofit organizations. In addition to civilian meteorologists, thousands of members of the Armed Forces do forecasting and other meteorological work. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor's degree with a major in meteorology is the usual minimum requirement for beginning jobs in weather forecasting. However, many employers prefer to hire those with an advanced degree, and an ad vanced degree is increasingly necessary for promotion. Jobs with the National Weather Service require a bachelor’s de gree—not necessarily in meteorology—with 20 semester hours in meteorology, including 6 hours in weather analysis and forecasting (synoptic meteorology) and 6 hours in dynamic meteorology. Six hours of differential and integral calculus and 6 hours of college physics also are required, For research and college teaching, an advanced degree, preferably a Ph.D. in meteorology, is essential. People with graduate degrees in other sciences also may qualify if they have advanced courses in meteorology, physics, mathematics, and chemistry. Because meteorology is a small field, relatively few colleges and universities offer degrees in meteorology, although many departments of physics, earth science, and geophysics offer atmospheric science and related courses. Prospective students should make certain that courses required by the National Weather Service and other employers are offered at the college they are considering. Many programs com bine the study of meteorology with another field, such as agriculture, engineering, or physics. A National Weather Service meteorologist records a weather forecast for a radio broadcast. 94 Occupational Outlook Handbook Beginning meteorologists often do routine data collection, computa tion, or analysis and are given more difficult assignments as they gain experience. Experienced meteorologists may advance to various supervisory or administrative jobs. A few meteorologists establish their own weather consulting services. Job Outlook Employment of meteorologists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. The National Weather Service, which employs many meteorologists, plans to in crease its employment of meteorologists, mainly in its field offices, to improve short-term and local-area weather forecasts. Although some of these additional jobs will be filled internally through the upgrading of meteorological technicians, there still should be many more open ings in the National Weather Service in the next 5 to 10 years than there have been in the past. Employment of meteorologists in other parts of the Federal Government is not expected to increase. However, many new jobs will be created in private industry with the increased use of private weather forecasting and meteorological services by farmers, commodity investors, transportation and construction firms, and radio and TV stations. For people in these and other areas, even a slight improvement in the detail and accuracy of weather information and forecasts over the standard information provided by the National Weather Service can be a significant benefit. Despite the projected faster-than-average growth, most of the job openings in this very small occupation will arise from the need to replace those who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Earnings The average salary for meteorologists employed by the Federal Gov ernment was $40,800 in 1989. In 1989, meteorologists in the Federal Government with a bachelor’s degree and no experience received starting salaries of $15,738 or $19,493 a year, depending on their college grades. Those with a master's degree could start at $19,493 or $23,846; those with the Ph.D. degree, at $28,852 or $34,580. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations concerned with the physical environment include oceanographers, geologists and geophysicists, and environ mental engineers. fundamental nature of the universe and the sun. moon, planets, stars, and galaxies. They apply their knowledge to problems in navigation and space (light. Most physicists work in research and development. Some do basic research to increase scientific knowledge. For example, they investi gate the structure of the atom or the nature of gravity. Practical applications of basic research discoveries are made by physicists who conduct applied research and work to develop new devices, products, and processes. For instance, basic research in solidstate physics led to the development of transistors and then to the integrated circuits used in computers. Physicists also design research equipment. Ibis equipment often has additional unanticipated uses. For example, lasers (devices that amplify light and emit it in a highly directional, intense beam) are used in surgery; microwave devices are used for ovens; and measuring instruments can analyze blood or the chemical content of foods. A small number work in inspection, testing, quality control, and other production-related jobs in industry. Some physics research is done in small or medium-sized labora tories. However, many experiments in nuclear, particle, and some other areas of physics require extremely large, expensive equipment such as particle accelerators. Physicists in these sublields often work in large teams. Although physics research may require extensive experimentation, most research physicists spend much of their time in offices planning, recording, analyzing, and reporting on research. Almost all astronomers do research. They analyze large quantities of data and write scientific papers on their findings. Most astronomers spend only a few weeks each year making observations with tele scopes, radio telescopes, and other instruments. Contrary to the popu lar image, astronomers almost never make observations by looking through a telescope because photographic and electronic radiation detecting equipment is more effective than the human eye. Most physicists specialize in one subfield—elementary particle physics; nuclear physics; atomic and molecular physics; physics of condensed matter (solid-state physics); optics; acoustics: health phys ics; plasma physics; or the physics of fluids. Some specialize in a subdivision of one of these subfields; for example, within solid-state physics specialties include superconductivity, crystallography, and semiconductors. However, since all physics involves the same funda- Sources of Additional Information Information on career opportunities in meteorology is available from: ar-American Meteorological Society. 45 Beacon St., Boston, MA 02108. Physicists and Astronomers (D O T. 021.067-010, 023.061-010, -014, and 067) Nature of the Work Physicists attempt to discover basic principles governing the structure and behavior of matter, the generation and transfer of energy, and the interaction of matter and energy. Some physicists use these principles in theoretical areas, such as the nature of time and the origin of the universe, while others work in practical areas such as the development of advanced materials, electronic devices, and medical equipment. Physicists design and perform experiments with lasers, cyclotrons, telescopes, mass spectrometers, and other equipment. Based on obser vations and analysis, they formulate theories and laws to describe the forces of nature, such as gravity, electromagnetism, and nuclear interactions. They also find ways to apply these laws and theories to problems in nuclear energy, electronics, materials, communications, aerospace technology, and medical instrumentation. Astronomy is sometimes considered a subfield of physics. Astrono mers use the principles of physics and mathematics to learn about the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Physieists attempt to discover the haste prim t/>lcs of nuttier and energy. Professional Specialty Occupations lental principles, specialties may overlap, and physicists may switch from one subfield to another. Growing numbers of physicists work in combined fields such as biophysics, chemical physics, and geophysics. Furthermore, the prac tical applications of physicists’ work increasingly have merged with engineering. Working Conditions Physicists usually work regular hours in laboratories and offices. Most do not encounter unusual hazards in their work. Some physicists work away from home temporarily at national or international facilities with unique equipment such as particle accelerators. Astronomers who make observations may travel to observatories, which are usually in remote locations, and frequently work at night. Employment Physicists and astronomers held over 18,000 jobs in 1988. In addition, about 14,000 persons held physics faculty positions in colleges and universities. (See the statement on college and university faculty else where in the Handbook.) About one-third of all nonfaculty physicists worked for independent research and development laboratories. The Federal Government employed over one-fifth, mostly in the Depart ments of Defense and Commerce and in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Others worked in colleges and universities in nonfaculty positions and for aerospace firms, noncommercial research laboratories, electrical equipment manufacturers, engineering services firms, and the automobile industry. Although physicists are employed in all parts of the country, most are in areas that have heavy industrial concentrations and large research and development laboratories. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A doctoral degree in physics or a closely related field is almost essential for most jobs in physics. The doctorate usually is required for full faculty status at colleges and universities. A doctorate is also the usual requirement for a job in astronomy. Those having master’s degrees may qualify for some research jobs in private industry and in the Federal Government <. "as for teaching jobs in 2-year colleges. Those having bachelor’s degrees may qualify for a few applied research and development jobs. Many become engineers or go into other scientific fields. (See statements on engi neers, geologists and geophysicists, computer programmers, and com puter systems analysts elsewhere in the Handbook.) About 750 colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree in physics. The undergraduate program provides a broad background in the natural sciences and mathematics. Typical physics courses include mechanics, electromagnetism, optics, thermodynamics, and atomic and molecular physics. About 250 colleges and universities offer advanced degrees in phys ics. Graduate students usually concentrate in a subfield of physics. Many begin studying for their doctorates immediately after their bache lor’s degree without obtaining a master’s degree. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 95 About 40 universities offer the Ph.D. degree in astronomy. Students take courses in astronomy, physics, and mathematics and, in some schools, work at an observatory. Students planning a career in physics should have an inquisitive mind, mathematical ability, imagination, and the ability to work on their own. Beginning physicists, especially those without a Ph.D., often do routine work under the close supervision of more senior workers. After some experience, they are assigned more complex tasks and given more independence. Physicists who develop new products or processes sometimes form their own companies or join new firms to exploit their own ideas. Job Outlook Physicists and astronomers with the Ph.D. should experience very good employment opportunities in the 1990’s. The employment of physicists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Employment opportunities are expected to improve as retirements increase. Many physicists and college and university physics faculty were hired during the 1960’s, and they will begin retiring in the late 1990’s. Furthermore, the number of Ph.D.’s granted to U.S. citizens in physics and astronomy is not expected to increase much by the year 2000. A large proportion of physicists are employed on defense-related projects. Changes in defense expenditures, especially for research— on the Strategic Defense Initiative, for example—could have a major impact on the growth of jobs. Persons with only a bachelor’s degree in physics are not qualified to enter most physicist jobs. However, many find jobs as engineers, technicians, computer specialists, or high school physics teachers. (See the statements on these occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.) Earnings Starting salaries for physicists averaged about $42,500 a year in 1988 for those with a Ph.D. and $34,700 for those with a master’s degree, according to the College Placement Council. Average earnings for all physicists in the Federal Government in 1988 were $48,600 a year. Related Occupations Physics is closely related to other scientific occupations such as chemis try, geology, and geophysics. Engineers and engineering and science technicians also use the principles of physics in their work. Sources of Additional Information General information on career opportunities in physics is available from: ••-American Institute of Physics, 335 East 45th St., New York, NY 10017. ••-American Physical Society, 335 East 45th St., New York, NY 10017. For a pamphlet containing information on careers in astronomy and on schools offering training in the field, send 35 cents to: «*-Dr. Charles R. Tolbert, Education Officer, American Astronomical Society, Box 3818 University Station, Charlottesville, VA 22903. Lawyers and Judges (DOT. 110; 111; 119.107, .117, .167-010, .267-014; 169.267-010) Laws affect every aspect of our society. They regulate the entire spectrum of relationships among individuals, groups, businesses, and governments. They define rights as well as restrictions, covering such diverse activities as judging and punishing criminals, granting patents, drawing up business contracts, paying taxes, settling labor disputes, constructing buildings, and administering wills. Because social needs and attitudes are continually changing, the legal system that regulates our social, political, and economic relationships also changes. Lawyers and judges link the legal system and society. To perform this role, they must understand the world around them and be sensitive to the numerous aspects of society that the law touches. They must comprehend not only the words of a particular statute, but the human circumstances it addresses as well. As our laws grow more complex, the work of lawyers takes on broader significance. Laws affect our lives in a variety of ways as the legal system performs regulatory tasks in areas such as transportation, energy conservation, consumer protection, the environment, and social welfare. Lawyers interpret these laws, rulings, and regulations for individuals and businesses, and serve as their advocates in resolving disputes. When disputes must be settled in court, judges hear each side of the disputes and administer resolutions. Nature of the Work Lawyers. Lawyers, also called attorneys, act as both advocates and advisors in our society. As advocates, they represent one of the oppos ing parties in criminal and civil trials by presenting arguments that support the client in court. As advisors, lawyers counsel their clients as to their legal rights and obligations and suggest particular courses of action in business and personal matters. Whether acting as advocates or advisors, nearly all attorneys have certain activities in common. Probably the most fundamental activities are the interpretation of the law and its application to a specific situa tion. This requires in-depth research into the purposes behind the applicable laws and into judicial decisions that have been applied to those laws under circumstances similar to those currently faced by the client. Based on this research, attorneys advise clients what actions would best serve their interests. A growing number of lawyers are using computers in legal research. While all lawyers continue to make use of law libraries to prepare cases, some supplement their search of the conventional printed sources with computer software packages that automatically search the legal literature and identify legal texts that may be relevant to a specific subject. In litigation that involves many supporting documents, lawyers may also use computers to organize and index the material. Tax lawyers are also increasingly using computers to make tax computations and explore alternative tax strategies for clients. Lawyers must deal with people in a courteous, efficient manner and not disclose matters discussed in confidence with clients. They hold positions of great responsibility, and are obligated to adhere to strict rules of ethics. Finally, most lawyers write reports or briefs which must communi cate clearly and precisely. The more detailed aspects of a lawyer’s job depend upon his or her field of specialization and position. While all lawyers are allowed to represent parties in court, some appear in court more frequently than others. Some lawyers specialize in trial work. These lawyers need an exceptional ability to think quickly and speak with ease and authority, and must be thoroughly familiar with courtroom rules and strategy. Trial lawyers still spend most of their time outside the courtroom conducting research, interviewing clients and witnesses, and handling other details in preparation for trial. 96 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Although most lawyers deal with many different areas of the law, a significant number concentrate on one branch of law, such as admiralty, probate, or international law. Communications lawyers, for example, may represent radio and television stations in court and in their dealings with the Federal Communications Commission. They help established stations prepare and file license renewal applications, employment reports, and other documents required by the FCC on a regular basis. They also keep their clients informed of changes in FCC regulations. Communications lawyers help individuals or corporations buy or sell a station or establish a new one. Lawyers who represent public utilities before the Federal En ergy Regulatory Commission and other Federal and State regula tory agencies handle matters involving utility rates. They develop strategy, arguments, and testimony; prepare cases for presenta tion; and argue the case. These lawyers also inform clients about changes in regulations and give advice about the legality of their actions. Still other lawyers advise insurance companies about the legality of insurance transactions. They write insurance policies to conform with the law and to protect companies from unwarranted claims. They review claims filed against insurance companies and represent the companies in court. Lawyers in private practice may concentrate on civil law, areas such as litigation, wills, trusts, contracts, mortgages, titles, and leases. Some manage a person’s property as trustee or, as executor, see that provisions of a client’s will are carried out. Others handle only public interest cases—civil or criminal—which have a potential impact ex tending well beyond the individual client. A lawyer may be employed full time by a single client. If the client is a corporation, the lawyer is known as house counsel and usually advises a company about legal questions that arise from its business activities. These questions might involve patents, govern ment regulations, a business contract with another company, a property interest, or a collective bargaining agreement with a union. Attorneys employed at the various levels of government constitute still another category. These lawyers are an important part of the criminal justice system and may work for a State attorney general, a prosecutor or public defender, or a court. At the Federal level, attor neys may investigate cases for the Department of Justice or other agencies. Also, lawyers at every government level help develop laws and programs, draft and interpret legislation, establish enforcement procedures, and argue cases. Other lawyers work for legal aid societies—private .nonprofit corpo rations established to serve disadvantaged people. These lawyers gen erally handle civil rather than criminal cases. A relatively small number of trained attorneys work in law schools. Most are faculty members who specialize in one or more subjects, while others serve as administrators. Some work full time in nonaca demic settings and teach part time. (For additional information, see the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Hand book.) Some lawyers become judges, although not all judges have practiced law. Judges. Judges oversee the legal process that in courts of law resolves civil disputes and determines guilt in criminal cases according to Federal and State laws and those of local jurisdictions. They are responsible for insuring that trials and hearings are conducted fairly and justice is administered in a manner that safeguards the legal rights of all parties involved. Judges preside over trials or hearings and listen as attorneys representing the parties present and argue their cases. They rule on the admissibility of evidence and methods of conducting testimony, and settle disputes between the opposing attorneys. They insure that rules and procedures are followed, and if unusual circum stances arise for which standard procedures have not been established, Professional Specialty Occupations judges direct how the trial will proceed based on their knowledge of the law. Judges often hold pretrial hearings for cases. They listen to allegations and, based on the evidence presented, determine whether they have enough merit for a trial to be held. In criminal cases, judges may decide that persons charged with crimes should be held in jail pending their trial, or may set conditions for temporary release. In civil cases, judges may impose restrictions upon the parties until a trial is held. When trials are held, juries are often selected to decide cases. However, judges decide cases when the law does not require a jury trial, or when the parties waive their right to a jury. Judges instruct juries on applicable laws, direct them to deduce the facts from the evidence presented, and hear their verdict. Judges sentence those convicted in criminal cases in many States. They also award relief to litigants including, where appropriate, compensation for damages in civil cases. Judges’ duties vary according to the extent of their jurisdictions and powers. Trial court judges of the Federal and State court systems have general jurisdiction over any case in their system. They generally try civil cases that transcend the jurisdiction of lower courts, and all cases involving felony offenses. Federal and State appellate court judges, although few in number, have the greatest power and prestige. They review cases handled by lower courts and administrative agencies, and, if they determine that errors were made in a case or if legal precedent does not support the judgment of the lower court, they may nullify the verdict of that court. The majority of State court judges preside in courts whose jurisdic tion is limited by law to certain types of cases. A variety of titles are assigned to these judges, but among the most common are municipal court judge, county court judge, magistrate, or justice of the peace. Traffic violations, misdemeanors, small claims cases, and pretrial hearings constitute the bulk of the work of these judges, but some States allow them to handle cases involving domestic relations, pro bate, contracts, and selected other areas of the law. Administrative law judges or hearing officers are employed by government agencies to rule on appeals of agency administrative decisions regarding such things as persons’ eligibility for various social insurance benefits or worker’s compensation, protection of the environment, enforcement &.• v • ' i * Judges preside over trials and ensure that attorneys follow rules i and procedures in the admission of evidence and the conduct of ' testimony. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 97 of health and safety regulations, and compliance with economic regula tory requirements. Working Conditions Lawyers and judges do most of their work in offices, law libraries, and courtrooms. Lawyers sometimes meet in clients’ homes or places of business and, when necessary, in hospitals or prisons. They fre quently travel to attend meetings; to gather evidence; and to appear before courts, legislative bodies, and other authorities. Salaried lawyers in government and private corporations generally have structured work schedules. Lawyers in private practice may work irregular hours while conducting research, conferring with clients, or preparing briefs during nonoffice hours. Lawyers often work long hours, and about half regularly work 50 hours or more per week. They are under particularly heavy pressure, for example, when a case is being tried. Preparation for court includes keeping abreast of the latest laws and judicial decisions. The majority of judges work a standard 40-hour week, but the caseload of some judges requires that they work over 50 hours per week. Many judges spend as many hours outside of court preparing for trials, researching points of law, and preparing rulings and judge ments as they do on the bench. Some judges with limited jurisdiction are employed part time and divide their time between their judicial responsibilities and other careers. Although work generally is not seasonal, the work of tax lawyers and other specialists may be an exception. Since lawyers in private practice can often determine their own workload and when they will retire, many stay in practice well beyond the usual retirement age. Employment Lawyers and judges held about 622,000 jobs in 1988. About fourfifths of the 582,000 lawyers practiced privately, either in law firms or in solo practices. Most of the remaining lawyers held positions in government, the majority at the local level. In the Federal Government, lawyers are concentrated in the Departments of Justice, Treasury, and Defense, but they work for other Federal agencies as well. Other lawyers are employed as house counsel by public utilities, banks, insurance companies, real estate agencies, manufacturing firms, wel fare and religious organizations, and other business firms and nonprofit organizations. Some salaried lawyers also have part-time independent practices; others work as lawyers part time while working full time in another occupation. Judges held 40,000 jobs in 1988. All worked for Federal, State, or local governments, with about half holding positions in State govern ment. Most of the remainder were employed at the local level. Many people trained as lawyers are not employed as lawyers or judges; they work as law clerks, law school professors, managers and administrators, and in a variety of other occupations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To practice law in the courts of any State or other jurisdiction, a person must be licensed, or admitted to its bar, under rules established by the jurisdiction’s highest court. Nearly all require that applicants for admission to the bar pass a written bar examination. Most jurisdictions also require applicants to pass a separate written ethics examination. Lawyers who have been admitted to the bar in one jurisdiction occa sionally may be admitted to the bar in another without taking an examination if they meet that jurisdiction’s standards of good moral character and have a specified period of legal experience. Federal courts and agencies set their own qualifications for those practicing before them. To qualify for the bar examination in most States, an applicant must complete at least 3 years of college and graduate from a law school approved by the American Bar Association (ABA) or the proper State authorities. (ABA approval signifies that the law school—particularly its library and faculty—meets certain standards developed by the association to promote quality legal education.) In 1988, the American Bar Association approved 175 law schools. Others were approved by State authorities only. With certain exceptions, graduates of schools 98 Occupational Outlook Handbook not approved by the ABA generally are restricted to taking the bar examination and practicing in the State or other jurisdiction in which the school is located; most of these schools are in California. Seven States accept the study of law in a law office or in combination with study in a law school; only California accepts the study of law by correspondence as qualifying for taking the bar examination. Several States require registration and approval of students by the State Board of Law Examiners, either before they enter law school or during the early years of legal study. Although there is no nationwide bar examination, 46 States, the District of Columbia, Guam, Saipan, and the Virgin Islands require the 6-hour Multistate Bar Examination (MBE) as part of the bar examination; the MBE is not required in Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, and Washington. The MBE, covering issues of broad interest, is given in addition to a locally prepared 6-hour State bar examination. The 3hour Multistate Essay Examination (MSEE) is used as part of the State bar examination in eight States. States vary in their use of MBE and MSEE scores. The required college and law school education usually takes 7 years of full-time study after high school—4 years of undergraduate study followed by 3 years in law school. Although some law schools accept a very small number of students after 3 years of college, most require applicants to have a bachelor’s degree. To meet the needs of students who can attend only part time, a number of law schools have night or part-time divisions which usually require 4 years of study. In 1987, about one-eighth of all graduates of ABA-approved schools were part time students. Preparation for a career as a lawyer really begins in college. Al though there is no recommended “prelaw” major, the choice of an undergraduate program is important. Certain courses and activities are desirable because they give the student the skills needed to succeed both in law school and in the profession. Essential skills—proficiency yn writing, reading and analyzing, thinking logically, and communicat ing verbally—are learned during high school and college. An under graduate program that cultivates these skills while broadening the student’s view of the world is desirable. Majors in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities all are suitable, although a student should not specialize too narrowly. Regardless of one’s major, courses in English, a foreign language, public speaking, government, philoso phy, history, economics, mathematics, and computer science, among others, are useful. Students interested in a particular aspect of law may find related courses helpful; for example, engineering and science courses for the prospective patent attorney, and accounting for the future tax lawyer. In addition, word processing is advisable simply for convenience in law school and on the job. Acceptance by most law schools depends on the applicant’s ability to demonstrate an aptitude for the study of law, usually through good undergraduate grades, the college admission test, the Law School Admission Test (LSAT), the quality of the applicant’s undergraduate school, any prior work experience, and sometimes a personal inter view. However, law schools vary in the weight that they place on each of these factors. Nearly all law schools require that applicants take the LSAT and submit a Law School Data Assembly Service Report, which contains certified copies of the applicant’s LSAT scores and undergraduate college transcript. Both are administered by the Law School Admis sions Service. Competition for admission to many law schools is intense. Enroll ments rose very rapidly during the 1970’s, with applicants far outnum bering available seats. Since then, law school enrollments have re mained relatively unchanged and the number of applicants has declined slightly, but applicants to many law schools still greatly exceed the number that can be admitted. Enrollments are expected to remain at about their present level through the year 2000, and competition for admission to some law schools is expected to ease somewhat. How ever, competition for admission to the more prestigious law schools will remain keen. During the first year or year and a half of law school, students https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis generally study fundamental courses such as constitutional law, con tracts, property law, torts, judicial procedures, and legal writing. In the remaining time, they may elect specialized courses in fields such as tax, labor, or corporation law. Practical experience often is acquired by participation in school-sponsored legal aid or legal clinic activities, in the school’s moot court competitions in which students conduct appellate arguments, in practice trials under the supervision of experi enced lawyers and judges, and through research and writing on legal issues for the school’s law journal. In 1988, law students in 38 States and other jurisdiction were required to pass the Multistate Professional Responsibility Examina tion (MPRE), which tests their knowledge of the ABA codes on professional responsibility and judicial conduct. In some States, the MPRE may be taken during law school, usually after completing a course on legal ethics. A number of law schools have clinical programs where students gain legal experience through practice trials and law school projects under the supervision of practicing lawyers and law school faculty. Law school clinical programs might include work in legal aid clinics, for example, or on the staff of legislative committees. Part-time or summer clerkships in law firms, government agencies, and corporate legal departments also provide experience that can be extremely valu able later on. Such training can provide references or lead directly to a job after graduation, and can help students decide what kind of practice best suits them. Clerkships also may be an important source of financial aid. Graduates receive the degree of juris doctor (J.D.) or bachelor of law (LL.B.) as the first professional degree. Advanced law degrees may be desirable for those planning to specialize, do research, or teach. Some law students pursue joint degree programs, which gener ally require an additional year. Joint degree programs are offered in a number of areas, including law and business administration and law and public administration. After graduation, lawyers must keep informed about legal and nonlegal developments that affect their practice. An attorney representing electronics manufacturers, for example, must follow trade journals and the latest Federal regulations. Attorneys in the Department of State must remain well versed in current events and international law, while divorce lawyers read about the changing role of the family in modem society. Many law schools and State and local bar associations provide continuing education courses that help lawyers stay abreast of recent developments. The practice of law involves a great deal of responsibility. Persons planning careers in law should like to work with people and be able to win the respect and confidence of their clients, associates, and the vpublic. Integrity and honesty are vital personal qualities. Perseverance and reasoning ability are essential to analyze complex cases and reach sound conclusions. Lawyers also need creativity when handling new and unique legal problems. Most beginning lawyers start in salaried positions. Newly hired salaried attorneys usually act as research assistants to experienced lawyers or judges. After several years of progressively more responsi ble salaried employment, many lawyers are admitted to partnership in their firm, or go into practice for themselves. Some lawyers, after years of practice, become full-time law school faculty or administrators; a growing number have advanced degrees in other fields as well. Some persons use their legal training in administrative or managerial positions in various departments of large corporations. A transfer from a corporation’s legal department to another department often is viewed as a way to gain administrative experience and rise in the ranks of management. Experience in the practice of law is required, or at least strongly preferred, for most judgeships. All Federal judges and State trial and appellate court judges are required to be lawyers or “learned in law.” Some judges with limited jurisdiction are not required to be lawyers, but nonlawyers are being phased out in many States, or the positions are being eliminated. Federal administrative law judges must be law yers and pass a competitive examination administered by the U.S. | Office of Personnel Management. Many State administrative law * Professional Specialty Occupations judges and other hearing officials are not required to be lawyers, but law degrees are preferred for most positions. Federal judges are appointed for life by the President, with the consent of the Senate. Federal administrative law judges are appointed by the various Federal agencies with virtually lifetime tenure. About half of all State judges are appointed, while the remainder are elected in partisan or nonpartisan State elections. Most State and local judges serve fixed terms, which range from 4 or 6 years for most limited jurisdiction judgeships to as long as 14 years for some appellate court judges. Judicial nominating commissions, composed of members of the bar and the public, are used to screen candidates for judgeships in many States, as well as for Federal judgeships. Job Outlook Persons seeking positions as lawyers or judges should encounter com petition through the year 2000, although the degree of competition for lawyer positions is expected to gradually ease. The prestige associated with serving as a judge should insure continued intense competition for openings on the bench. Although judges work in government, where employment is generally expected to increase slowly, public concerns about crime, safety, and efficient administration of justice should cause employment of judges to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Employment of lawyers has grown very rapidly since the early 1970’s, and is expected to continue to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Increased popula tion and growing business activity will help sustain the strong growth in demand for lawyers. This demand also will be spurred by growth of legal action in such areas as employee benefits, consumer protection, the environment, and safety, and an anticipated increase in the use of legal services by middle-income groups through legal clinics and prepaid legal service programs. Rapid growth in the Nation’s requirements for lawyers is expected to bring job openings into rough balance with the relatively stable number of law school graduates each year, which will gradually ease competition for jobs through the year 2000. During the 1970’s, the annual number of law school graduates more than doubled, even outpacing the rapid growth of jobs. Growth in the yearly number of law school graduates tapered off during the 1980’s, but, nevertheless, the number remains at a level high enough to tax the economy’s capacity to absorb them. Although graduates with superior academic records from well-regarded law schools will continue to enjoy excellent opportunities, most graduates will encounter keen competition for jobs. Turnover among lawyers and judges is low because they are gener ally well paid, enjoy considerable social status, and have made a substantial educational investment for entry into the field. Neverthe less, the majority of job openings will stem from the need to replace lawyers and judges who transfer to other occupations or retire or stop working for other reasons. Employment growth of lawyers will continue to be concentrated in salaried jobs, as businesses and all levels of government employ a growing number of staff attorneys, and as employment in the legal services industry is increasingly concentrated in larger law firms. The number of self-employed lawyers is expected to continue to increase slowly, reflecting the difficulty of establishing a profitable new practice in the face of competition from larger, established law firms. Also, the growing complexity of law—which encourages specialization— and the cost of maintaining up-to-date legal research materials both favor larger firms. Large national and regional law firms will continue to be selective in hiring new lawyers for associate positions that offer the potential for partnership status. Graduates of prestigious law schools and those who rank high in their classes should have the best opportunities for such positions. Graduates of less prominent schools and those with lower scholastic ratings may experience difficulty in securing associate positions with partnership potential but should experience an easing of competition for positions with smaller law firms, and for salaried jobs on the legal staffs of corporations and government agencies. As https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 99 in the past, some graduates may continue to be forced to accept positions for which they are overqualifed or in areas outside their field of interest. They may have to enter fields where legal training is an asset but not normally a requirement. For example, banks, insurance firms, real estate companies, government agencies, and other organiza tions seek law graduates to fill many administrative, managerial, and business positions. Due to the competition for jobs, a law graduate’s geographic mobil ity and work experience assume greater importance. The willingness to relocate may be an advantage in getting a job, but to be licensed in a new State, a lawyer may have to take an additional State bar examination. In addition, employers increasingly seek graduates who have advanced law degrees and experience in a particular field such as tax, patent, or admiralty law. Establishing a new practice probably will continue to be easiest in small towns and expanding suburban areas, as long as an active market for legal services already exists. In such communities, competition from larger established law firms is likely to be less than in big cities, and new lawyers may find it easier to become known to potential clients; also, rent and other business costs are somewhat lower. Never theless, starting a new practice will remain an expensive and risky undertaking that should be weighed carefully. Most salaried positions will remain in urban areas where government agencies, law firms, and big corporations are concentrated. Some lawyers are adversely affected by cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, the demand for some discretionary legal services, such as planning estates, drafting wills, and handling real estate transactions, declines. Also, corporations are less likely to litigate cases when declining sales and profits result in budgetary restrictions. Although few lawyers actually lose their jobs during these times, earnings may decline for many. Some corporations and law firms will not hire new attorneys until business improves. Several factors, however, mitigate the overall impact of recessions on lawyers. During recessions, individuals and corporations face other legal prob lems, such as bankruptcies, foreclosures, and divorces, that require legal action. Furthermore, new laws and legal interpretations will create new opportunities for lawyers. Earnings Annual salaries of beginning lawyers in private industry averaged about $34,000 in 1988, but top graduates from the Nation’s best law schools started in some cases at over $80,000 a year. In the Federal Government, annual starting salaries for attorneys in 1989 were about $23,800 or $28,900, depending upon academic and personal qualifica tions. Factors affecting the salaries offered to new graduates include: Academic record; type, size, and location of employer; and the desired specialized educational background. The field of law makes a differ ence, too. Patent lawyers, for example, generally are among the highest paid attorneys. Salaries of experienced attorneys also vary widely according to the type, size, and location of their employer. The average salary of the most experienced lawyers in private industry in 1988 was over $110,000, but some senior lawyers who were partners in the Nation’s top law firms earned over $1 million. General attorneys in the Federal Government averaged around $48,500 a year in 1988; the relatively small number of patent attorneys in the Federal Government averaged around $56,600. Lawyers on salary receive increases as they assume greater responsi bility. Lawyers starting their own practice may need to work part time in other occupations during the first years to supplement their income. Their incomes usually grow as their practices develop. Lawyers who are partners in law firms generally earn more than those who practice alone. < Federal trial court judges had salaries of $89,000 in 1989, while appellate court judges earned $95,000 a year. Federal judges with limited jurisdiction, such as magistrates and bankruptcy court judges, had salaries of $82,300 in 1989. Full-time Federal administrative law judges had average salaries of $67,900 in 1988. Annual salaries of State trial court judges averaged $69,400 in 1989, 100 Occupational Outlook Handbook according to a survey by the National Center for State Courts, and ranged from $49,200 to $95,000. Salaries of State appellate court judges averaged $76,700, but ranged from $59,100 to $102,500. Salaries of State judges with limited jurisdiction varied widely; some part-time judges were paid as little as $600 a year in 1989, while some who worked full-time earned as much as $95,000 annually. Most salaried lawyers and judges were provided health and life insurance, and contributions were made on their behalf to retirement plans. Lawyers who practiced independently were only covered by such benefits if they arranged and paid for them themselves. Education in the United States, which provides detailed information on each of the 175 law schools approved by the ABA, State require ments for admission to legal practice, a directory of State bar examina tion administrators, and other information on legal education. Single copies are free from the ABA, but there is a fee for multiple copies. Free information on the bar examination, financial aid for law students, and law as a career may also be obtained from: Related Occupations Legal training is useful in many other occupations. Some of these are legal assistant, arbitrator, journalist, patent agent, title examiner, legislative assistant, lobbyist, FBI special agent, political office holder, and corporate executive. (•-Association of American Law Schools, 1 Dupont Circle NW., Suite 370, Washington, DC 20036. Sources of Additional Information The American Bar Association annually publishes A Review of Legal https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis (•-Information Services. American Bar Association, 750 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60611. Information on legal education and applying to law school is avail able from: Information on the LSAT, the Law School Data Assembly Service, and financial aid for law students may be obtained from: (•-Law School Admissions Service, Box 2000, Newtown, PA 18940. The specific requirements for admission to the bar in a particular State or other jurisdiction may also be obtained at the State capital from the clerk of the Supreme Court or the administrator of the State Board of Bar Examiners. Social Scientists and Urban Planners Nature of the Work Social scientists study all aspects of human society—from the distribu tion of products and services to newly formed religious groups or plans for modem mass transportation systems. Social science research provides insights that help us understand the many different ways in which individuals and groups make decisions, exercise power, or respond to change. Through their studies and analyses, social scientists and urban planners assist educators, government officials, business leaders, and others in solving social, economic, and environmental problems. Research is a basic activity for many social scientists. They use established or newly discovered methods to assemble a body of fact and theory that contributes to human knowledge. Applied research usually is designed to produce information that will enable people to make better decisions or manage their affairs more effectively. Interviews and surveys are widely used to collect facts, opinions, or other information. Data collection takes many other forms, however, including living and working among the people studied; archeological and other field investigations; the analysis of historical records and documents; experiments with human subjects or animals in a psycho logical laboratory; the administration of standardized tests and ques tionnaires; and the preparation and interpretation of maps and graphic materials. Social sciences are interdisciplinary in nature. Specialists in one field often find that the research they are performing overlaps work that is being conducted in another social science discipline. Regardless of their field of specialization, social scientists are concerned with some aspect of society, culture, or personality. Anthropologists seek to discover principles of human behavior that are applicable to all communities. They study the way of life, remains, language, and physical characteristics of people in all parts of the world; they compare the customs, values, and social patterns of different cultures. Anthropologists generally concentrate in one of four subfields: Cultural anthropology, archeology, linguis tics, or physical anthropology. Most anthropologists specialize in cultural anthropology, studying the customs, cultures, and social lives of groups in a wide range of settings from nonindustrialized societies to modem urban cultures. Archeologists determine the characteristics and history of cultures from the study of artifacts and other buried remains. Linguistic anthropologists study the role of language in various cultures. Physical anthropologists study the evolution of the human body and look for the earliest evidences of human life. Economists, who account for nearly 1 out of 5 social scientists, study the way we allocate our resources to produce a wide variety of goods and services. They conduct surveys and analyze data to deter mine public preferences for these goods and services. Most economists are concerned with the practical applications of economic policy in a particular area, such as finance, labor, agriculture, transportation, energy, or health. Others develop theories to explain economic phe nomena such as unemployment or inflation. Geographers study the distribution of both physical and cultural phenomena over an area. Geographers specialize, as a rule. Economic geographers deal with the geographic distribution of an area’s re sources and economic activities. Political geographers are concerned with the relationship of geography to political phenomena—local, national, and international. Physical geographers study the distribution of climates, vegetation, soil, and land forms. Urban and transportation geographers study cities and metropolitan areas, while regional geogra phers study the physical, climatic, economic, political, and cultural characteristics of a particular region or area, which may range in size from a river basin to a State, country, or continent. Medical geographers study health care delivery systems, epidemiology, and the effect of the environment on health. Geographic Information Systems https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis (GIS)—a newly emerging specialty—combines computer graphics, artificial intelligence, and high-speed communication to store, retrieve, manipulate, and map geographic data. GIS can be applied to many specialties such as weather forecasting, emergency management, or resource management. (Some occupational classification systems in clude geographers under physical scientists rather than social scien tists.) Historians research and analyze the past. Historians usually specialize in a specific country or geographic region; in a particular time period; or in a particular field, such as social, intellectual, political, or diplomatic history. Biographers collect detailed informa tion on individuals. Genealogists trace family histories. Other histori ans help study and preserve archives, artifacts, and historic buildings and sites. Political scientists investigate the ways in which political power is organized, distributed, and used. They study a wide range of subjects such as Soviet-American relations, the beliefs and institutions of na tions in Asia and Africa, the politics of a New England town or a major metropolis, and the decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court. Studying topics such as public opinion, political decisionmaking, and ideology, they analyze the structure and operation of governments as well as informal political entities. Depending on the topic under study, a political scientist might conduct a public opinion survey, analyze election results, or analyze public documents. Psychologists, who constitute over half of all social scientists, study human behavior and use their expertise to counsel or advise individuals or groups. Their research also assists advertisers, politicians, and others interested in influencing or motivating people. While clinical psychology is the largest specialty, psychologists specialize in many other fields such as counseling, experimental, social, or industrial psychology. Sociologists analyze the behavior of groups or social systems such as families, neighborhoods, or clubs. Sociologists may specialize in a particular field such as criminology, rural sociology, or medical sociology. Urban and regional planners develop comprehensive plans and programs for the use of land for industrial and public sites. Planners prepare for situations that are likely to develop as a result of population growth or social and economic change. Working Conditions Most social scientists have regular hours. While working alone behind a desk, they read and write research reports. Many experience the pressures of deadlines and tight schedules, and sometimes must work overtime. Their routine may be interrupted by telephone calls, letters to answer, special requests for information, meetings, or conferences. Travel may be necessary to collect information or attend meetings. Social scientists on foreign assignment must adjust to unfamiliar cul tures and climates. Some social scientists do fieldwork. For example, anthropologists, archeologists, and geographers often must travel to remote areas to live among the people they study or stay for long periods at the site of their investigations. Employment Social scientists held about 194,000 jobs in 1988. They worked for a wide range of employers, including government agencies; research organizations and consulting firms; international organizations; associ ations; museums; historical societies; securities and commodities deal ers; social service agencies; hospitals and other health facilities; and business firms. About 1 out of 4 social scientists is self-employed and involved in counseling, consulting, research, and related activities. In addition, 101 102 Occupational Outlook Handbook many persons with graduate training in a social science discipline, usually a doctoral degree, are employed by colleges and universities, where they characteristically combine teaching with research and con sulting. (For more information, see the Handbook statement on college and university faculty.) As a source of employment, the academic world is more important for graduates in anthropology, sociology, or political science than for graduates in urban and regional planning or psychology. science subjects in secondary schools is strengthening the demand for social science teachers. (For additional information, see the statement on secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Other considerations that affect employment opportunities in these occupations include specific skills and technical expertise; desired work setting; salary requirements; and geographic mobility. In addi tion, experience acquired through internships can prove invaluable later in obtaining a full-time position in a social science field. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Educational attainment among social scientists is significantly higher than for most other occupations. The Ph.D. or equivalent degree is a minimum requirement for most positions in colleges and universities and is important for advancement to many top-level nonacademic research and administrative posts. Graduates with master’s degrees have more limited professional opportunities, although the situation varies a great deal by field. For example, job prospects for master’s degree holders in urban and regional planning are brighter than for master’s degree holders in sociology. Graduates with a master’s degree in a social science discipline qualify for teaching positions in junior colleges. Bachelor’s degree holders have very limited opportunities and in most social science occupations do not qualify for “professional” positions. The bachelor’s degree does, however, provide a suitable background for many different kinds of “junior professional” jobs, such as research assistant, administrative aide, or management trainee. Training in statistics and mathematics is essential for most social scientists. Mathematical and other quantitative research methods are increasingly used in economics, geography, political science, experi mental psychology, and other fields. The ability to use computers for research purposes is a “must” in many disciplines. Depending on their jobs, social scientists and urban planners may need a wide range of personal characteristics. Because they constantly seek new information about people, things, and ideas, intellectual curiosity and creativity are two fundamental personal traits. The ability to think logically and methodically is important to a political scientist comparing the merits of various forms of government. The ability to analyze data is important to an economist studying proposals to reduce Federal budget deficits. Objectivity, openmindedness, and systematic work habits are important in all kinds of social science research. Perseverance is essential for an anthropologist, who might spend years accumulating artifacts from an ancient civilization. Emotional stability and sensitivity are vital to a clinical psychologist working with mental patients. And, of course, written and oral communication skills are essential to all these workers. Earnings Median annual earnings of all social scientists were about $31,000 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $22,600 and $40,600 annually. The lowest 10 percent earned under $15,500, while the highest 10 percent earned over $51,500. According to the College Placement Council, persons with a bache lor’s degree in a social science field received starting offers averaging about $24,000 a year in 1988. According to a 1987 National Science Foundation survey, the me dian annual salary of doctoral social scientists ranged from $41,700 to $50,800. In the Federal Government, social scientists with a bachelor’s degree and no experience could start at $15,700 or $19,500 a year in 1989, depending on their college records. Those with a master’s degree could start at $23,800, and those having a Ph.D. degree could begin at $28,900, while some individuals could start at $34,600. The average salary of all social scientists working for the Federal Government in 1988 was about $39,600. Like many professional occupations, social scientists often receive a fringe benefit package which includes vacation and sick leave, health and life insurance, and pension plans. For those entering academic careers, benefits may include summer research money, computer ac cess, housing, and secretarial support. Job Outlook Employment of social scientists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000, spurred primarily by rapid growth among psychologists and economists—the largest social science occupations. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace social scientists who transfer to other occupa tions or stop working altogether. Opportunities are best for those with advanced degrees. Social scientists currently face competition for academic positions, with top graduates of leading universities having a decided advantage in com peting for jobs. However, competition may ease in the future as more college faculty reach retirement age. Prospects are generally better in disciplines such as economics, psychology, and urban and regional planning, which offer many oppor tunities in nonacademic settings. However, graduates in all other social science fields are expected to find enhanced job opportunities in applied fields due to the excellent research, organizational, and quantitative skills they develop in school. For example, the growing number of historical societies has renewed demand for historians as curators, directors, and archivists. Rising concern over environmental and eco logical issues is spurring demand for geographers, anthropologists, archeologists, and other social scientists. Increased emphasis on social https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations A number of fields that require training and personal qualities similar to those of the various social science fields are covered elsewhere in the Handbook. These include lawyers, statisticians, mathematicians, computer programmers, computer systems analysts, reporters and cor respondents, social workers, religious workers, college and university faculty, and counselors. Sources of Additional Information For general information concerning the social sciences, contact: (•-Consortium of Social Science Associations, 1625 I St. NW., Suite 911, Washington, DC 20006. More detailed information about economists, psychologists, sociol ogists, and urban and regional planners is presented in the Handbook statements that follow this introductory statement. Anthropology For information about careers, job openings, grants and fellowships, and schools that offer training in anthropology, and for a copy of Getting a Job Outside the Academy (special publication no. 14), contact: e*-The American Anthropological Association, 1703 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20009. Archeology For information about careers in archaeology, contact: (•-Society for American Archaeology, 808 17th St. NW., Suite 200, Washing ton, DC 20006. (•-Archaeological Institute of America, P.O. Box 1901, Kenmore Station, Boston, MA 02215. Geography Two pamphlets that provide information on careers and job openings for geographers—Geography-Tomorrow’s Career and Careers in Ge ography—and the annual publication listing schools offering various Professional Specialty Occupations programs in geography—A Guide to Departments of Geography in the U.S. and Canada—may be obtained from: (•-Association of American Geographers, 1710 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20009. History Information on careers and job openings for historians is available from: ••-American Historical Association, 400 A St. SE., Washington, DC 20003. General information on careers for historians is available from: (•-Organization of American Historians, 112 North Bryan St., Bloomington, IN 47408. For additional information on careers for historians, send a selfaddressed, stamped envelope to: (•-American Association for State and Local History, 172 Second Ave. N., Nashville, TN 37201. Political Science Careers and the Study ofPolitical Science: A Guidefor Undergradu ates is available for $2, with bulk rates for multiple copies, from: (•-American Political Science Association, 1527 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Programs in Public Affairs and Administration, a biennial directory that contains data on the academic content of programs, the student body, the format of instruction, and other information, may be pur chased from: (•-National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration, 1120 G St. NW., Suite 520, Washington, DC 20005. Economists and Market Research Analysts (D.O.T. 050.067) Nature of the Work Economists. Economists study the ways a society uses scarce re sources such as land, labor, raw materials, and machinery to produce goods and services. They analyze the costs and benefits of distributing and consuming these goods and services. Their research might focus on topics such as energy costs, inflation, interest rates, farm prices, or imports. Economists who are primarily theoreticians may use mathematical models to develop theories on the causes of business cycles and inflation or the effects of unemployment and tax policy. Other econo mists, however, are concerned with practical applications of economic policy in a particular area, such as finance, labor, agriculture, transpor tation, energy, or health. They use their understanding of economic relationships to advise business firms, insurance companies, banks, securities firms, industry associations, labor unions, government agen cies, and others. Depending on the topic under study, economists devise methods and procedures for obtaining data they need. For example, sampling techniques may be used to conduct a survey, and econometric modeling techniques may be used to develop projections. Preparing reports usually is an important part of the economist’s job. He or she may be called upon to review and analyze all the relevant data, prepare tables and charts, and write up the results in clear, concise language. Being able to present economic and statistical concepts in a meaningful way is particularly important for economists whose research is policy directed. Economists who work for government agencies assess economic conditions in the United States and abroad and estimate the economic impact of specific changes in legislation or public policy. For example, they may study how changes in the minimum wage affect teenage unemployment. Most government economists are in the fields of agri culture, business, finance, labor, transportation, utilities, urban eco https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 103 nomics, or international trade. Economists in the U.S. Department of Commerce, study domestic production, distribution, and consumption of commodities or services; those in the Federal Trade Commission prepare industry analyses to assist in enforcing Federal statutes de signed to eliminate unfair, deceptive, or monopolistic practices in interstate commerce; and those in the Bureau of Labor Statistics ana lyze data on prices, wages, employment, and productivity. Market Research Analysts. Market research analysts are concerned with the design, promotion, price, and distribution of a product or service. Like economists, market research analysts devise methods and procedures for obtaining data they need. Market research analysts often design surveys and questionnaires; conduct telephone, personal, or mail interviews; and sometimes offer product samples to assess consumer preferences and indicate current trends. Once the data are compiled, market research analysts code, tabulate, and evaluate the data. They then make recommendations to management based upon their findings and suggest a course of action. They may provide management with information to make decisions on the promotion, distribution, design, and pricing of company products or services; determining the advisability of adding new lines of merchandise, opening new branches, or diversifying the company’s operations; or analyzing the effect of changes in the tax laws on future operations. Market research analysts employed by large organizations often work with statisticians who help them select a group of people to be interviewed who will accurately represent the prospective customers. Under an experienced market research analyst’s direction, trained interviewers conduct surveys and office workers tabulate the results. Working Conditions Economists and market research analysts working for government agencies and private firms have structured work schedules. They may work alone writing reports, preparing statistical charts, and using computers and calculators. Or they may be an integral part of a research team. Most work under pressure of deadlines and tight schedules, and sometimes must work overtime. Their routine may be interrupted by special requests for data, letters, meetings, or conferences. Travel may be necessary to collect data or attend conferences. Economics and marketing faculty have flexible work schedules, dividing their time among teaching, research, consulting, and admin istrative responsibilities. Employment Economists and market research analysts held about 36,000 jobs in 1988. Private industry—particularly economic and market research firms, management consulting firms, advertising firms, banks, and securities, investment, and insurance companies—employed over Labor economists analyze data on employment, productivity, prices, and wages. 104 Occupational Outlook Handbook three-fifths of all salaried workers. The remainder, primarily econo mists, were employed by a wide range of government agencies, primar ily in the Federal Government. The Departments of State, Labor, Agriculture, and Commerce are the largest Federal employers of econ omists . A number of economists and market research analysts combine a full-time job in government or business with part-time or consulting work in another setting. Employment of economists and market research analysts is concen trated in large cities. The greatest number work in New York City, Washington, D.C., and Chicago. Some economists work abroad for companies with major international operations; for the Department of State and other U.S. Government agencies; and for international organizations. Besides the jobs described above, many economists and market research analysts held economics and marketing faculty positions in colleges and universities. (For information about this occupation, see the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in economics or marketing is suffi cient for many beginning research, administrative, management trainee, and sales jobs. The undergraduate curriculum for economics majors includes courses in microeconomics, macroeconomics, busi ness cycles, economic and business history, economic development of selected areas, money and banking, international economics, public finance, industrial organization, labor economics, comparative eco nomic systems, economics of national planning, and urban economic problems. For marketing majors, courses in business, marketing, and consumer behavior are recommended. Courses in related disciplines, such as political science, psychology, organizational behavior, sociol ogy, finance, business law, and international relations, are suggested. Because of the importance of quantitative skills to economists and market researchers, courses in mathematics, statistics, sampling the ory, and survey design, and computer science are highly recom mended. Aspiring market research analysts should gain experience conduct ing interviews or surveys while in college. This experience can prove invaluable later in obtaining a full-time position in the field since much of their work in the beginning centers around conducting interviews and writing reports on findings. Beginning analysts also do consider able clerical work such as copying data, editing and coding questions, and tabulating survey results. With further experience, market research analysts are eventually assigned their own research projects. Graduate training increasingly is required for most economist and some market research analyst jobs and for advancement to more re sponsible positions. Areas of specialization at the graduate level for economists include advanced economic theory, mathematical econom ics, econometrics, history of economic thought, and comparative eco nomic systems and planning. Other areas include economic history, economic development, environmental and natural resource econom ics, industrial organization, marketing, decision theory, institutional economics, international economics, labor economics, monetary eco nomics, public finance, regional and urban economics, and social policy. Students should select graduate schools strong in specialties in which they are interested. Market research analysts may earn a master’s degree in business administration or some related discipline. Some schools help graduate students find internships or part-time employ ment in government agencies, economic consulting firms, financial institutions, or market research firms. Work experience and contacts can be useful in testing career preferences and learning about the job market for economists and market research analysts. In the Federal Government, candidates for beginning economist positions generally need a college degree with a minimum of 21 semester hours of economics and 3 hours of statistics, accounting, or calculus. However, because competition is keen, additional education or experience may be required. For a job as a college instructor in many junior colleges and small 4-year schools, a master’s degree generally is the minimum require https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ment. In some colleges and universities, however, a Ph.D. is necessary for appointment as an instructor. The Ph.D. and extensive publication are required for a professorship and for tenure, which are increasingly difficult to obtain. In government, industry, research organizations, and consulting firms, economists and market research analysts who have a graduate degree usually can qualify for more responsible research and adminis trative positions. A Ph.D. is necessary for top positions in many organizations. Many corporation and government executives have a strong background in economics or marketing. Over 1,200 colleges and universities offer bachelor’s degree pro grams in economics and marketing; over 600 offer master’s degrees; and about 130 have doctoral programs. Persons considering careers as economists or market research ana lysts should be able to work accurately with detail since much time is spent on data analysis. Patience and persistence are necessary qualities for economists and market research analysts since they may spend long hours on independent study and problem solving. At the same time, they must be able to work well with others. Economists and market research analysts must be objective and systematic in their work and be able to present their findings, both orally and in writing, in a clear, meaningful way. Creativity and intellectual curiosity are essential for success in these fields, just as they are in other areas of scientific endeavor. Job Outlook Employment of economists and market research analysts is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations, or retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. Opportunities for economists should be best in manufacturing, fi nancial services, advertising agencies, research organizations, and consulting firms, reflecting the complexity of the domestic and interna tional economies and increased reliance on quantitative methods of analyzing business trends, forecasting sales, and planning of purchas ing and production. The continued need for economic analyses by lawyers, accountants, engineers, health service administrators, urban and regional planners, environmental scientists, and others also will increase the number of jobs for economists. Other employment oppor tunities for economists exist in nonprofit organizations and trade asso ciations. Little or no change is expected in the employment of econo mists in the Federal Government—in line with the rate of growth projected for the Federal work force as a whole. Employment of economists in State and local government is expected to grow more slowly than the average. A strong background in economic theory, statistics, and economet rics provides the tools for acquiring any specialty within the field. Those skilled in quantitative techniques and their application to eco nomic modeling and forecasting and market research, including the use of computers, should have the best job opportunities. Persons who graduate with a bachelor’s degree in economics through the year 2000 should face very keen competition for the limited number of economist positions for which they qualify. However, many will find employment in government, industry, and business as manage ment or sales trainees, or as research or administrative assistants. Those with strong backgrounds in mathematics, statistics, survey de sign, and computer science may be hired by private firms for market research work. Those who meet State certification requirements may become high school economics teachers. The demand for secondary school economics teachers is expected to grow as more States make economics a required course. (For additional information, see the statement on secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Candidates who hold a master’s degree in economics face very strong competition, particularly for teaching positions in colleges and universities. However, some may gain positions in junior and commu nity colleges. Those with a strong background in marketing and finance may have the best prospects in business, banking, advertising, and management consulting firms. Professional Specialty Occupations Ph.D. graduates may face some competition for academic positions, although top graduates from leading universities should have little difficulty in acquiring teaching jobs at the larger and higher paying institutions. Other graduates will accept jobs at smaller and lower paying institutions. Ph.D. graduates should have favorable opportuni ties to work as economists in government, industry, educational and research organizations, and consulting firms. Demand for market research analysts should be strong due to in creasing competition in business and industry. As companies seek to expand their market and consumers become better informed, the need for marketing professionals is increasing. Opportunities for market research analysts should be good in a wide range of employment settings including research firms, financial organizations, health care institutions, and insurance companies. Like economists, graduates with an advanced degree in marketing or a closely related business field should have the best job opportunities. Earnings Median annual earnings of full-time economists and market research analysts were about $35,000 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $26,000 and $47,000. The lowest 10 percent earned under $21,000, while the top 10 percent earned over $52,000. According to a 1988 salary survey by the College Placement Coun cil, persons with a bachelor’s degree in economics received an average starting salary of about $24,400 a year; in marketing and distribution, about $21,500. The median base salary of business economists in 1988 was $56,000, according to a survey by the National Association of Business Economists. Ninety percent of the respondents held advanced degrees. The highest salaries were reported by those who had a Ph.D., with a median salary of $65,000. Over one-fourth of those responding also had income from secondary employment. Economists in general ad ministration and international economics commanded the highest sala ries; those in market research and econometrics, the lowest. The highest paid business economists were in the securities and investment, retail and wholesale trade, and nondurable manufacturing industries; the lowest paid were in education, nonprofit research organizations, and communications and utilities. The Federal Government recognizes education and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions. In general, the entrance salary for economists having a bachelor’s degree averaged about $15,800 a year in 1989; however, those with superior academic records could begin at about $19,500. Those having a master’s degree could qualify for positions at an annual salary of about $23,800. Those with a Ph.D. could begin at about $28,900, while some individuals with experience could start at $34,600. Economists in the Federal Govern ment averaged around $43,600 a year in 1988. As in many other professional occupations, economists and market research analysts often receive a basic benefit package which includes vacation and sick leave, health and life insurance, and a pension plan. For those entering academic careers, benefits may include summer research money, computer access, housing, and secretarial support. Related Occupations Economists are concerned with understanding and interpreting finan cial matters, among other subjects. Others with jobs in this area include financial managers, financial analysts, accountants and auditors, un derwriters, actuaries, securities and financial services sales workers, credit analysts, loan officers, and budget officers. Market research analysts are involved in social research, including the planning, implementation, and analysis of surveys to determine people’s needs and preferences. Other jobs using these skills include social welfare research workers, employment research and planning directors, sociologists, and urban and regional planners. Sources of Additional Information For information on schools offering graduate training in economics, contact: •■American Economic Association, 1313 21st Ave. South, Nashville, TN 37212. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 105 For information on careers in business economics, contact: (•"National Association of Business Economists, 28349 Chagrin Blvd., Suite 201, Cleveland, OH 44122. For information about careers and salaries in market research, contact: (•American Marketing Association, 250 South Wacker Dr., Chicago, IL 60606. w-Marketing Research Association, 111 East Wacker Dr., Suite 600, Chicago, IL 60601. For information about careers in noncollegiate academic institu tions, contact: (•Joint Council on Economic Education, 432 Park Ave. South, New York, NY 10016. Psychologists (D.O.T. 045.061, .067, .107-022, -026, -030, -034, and -046) Nature of the Work Psychologists study human behavior and mental processes to under stand, explain, and change people’s behavior. Some research psychol ogists investigate the physical, cognitive, emotional, or social aspects of human behavior. Other psychologists in applied fields counsel and conduct training programs; do market research; or provide mental health services in hospitals, clinics, or private settings. Like other social scientists, psychologists formulate hypotheses and collect data to test their validity. Research methods depend on the topic under study. Psychologists may gather information through controlled laboratory experiments; personality, performance, aptitude, and intel ligence tests; observation, interviews, and questionnaires; clinical studies; or surveys. Computers are widely used to record and analyze this information. Psychologists usually specialize. Experimental psychologists study behavior processes and work with human beings and animals such as rats, monkeys, and pigeons. Prominent areas of experimental research include motivation, thinking, learning and retention, sensory and per ceptual processes, and genetic and neurological factors in behavior. Developmental psychologists study the patterns and causes of behav ioral change as people progress through life. Some concern themselves with behavior during infancy, childhood, and adolescence, while oth ers study changes that take place during maturity and old age. Person ality psychologists study human nature, individual differences, and the ways in which those differences develop. Social psychologists examine people’s interactions with others and with the social environ ment. Prominent areas of study include group behavior, leadership, attitudes, and interpersonal perception. Comparative psychologists study the behavior of humans and animals. Physiological psychologists study the relationship of behavior to the biological and neurological functions of the body. Psychologists in the field of psychometrics develop and apply procedures for measuring psychological variables such as intelligence and concepts of personality. Clinical psychologists—who constitute the largest specialty—gen erally work in hospitals or clinics, or maintain their own practices. They help the mentally or emotionally disturbed adjust to life. They interview patients; give diagnostic tests; provide individual^ family, and group psychotherapy; and design and implement behavior modifi cation programs. Clinical psychologists may collaborate with physi cians and other specialists in developing treatment programs. Some clinical psychologists work in universities, where they train graduate students in the delivery of mental health services. Others administer community mental health programs. Counseling psychologists use several techniques, including interviewing and testing, to advise peo ple on how to deal with problems of everyday living—personal, social, educational, or vocational. (Also see the statements on counselors and social workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Educational psychologists design, develop, and evaluate educational programs. School psycholo gists work with teachers, parents, and administrators to resolve stu- 106 Occupational Outlook Handbook Compared to other academic fields, a much larger proportion of recipients of doctoral degrees in psychology enter professional services. percent Psychology degrees All academic fields Professional services Teaching Research and development Administration Other i-t® Source: National Research Council dents’ learning and behavior problems. Industrial and organizational psychologists apply psychological techniques to personnel administra tion, management, and marketing problems. They are involved in policy planning, applicant screening, training and development, psy chological test research, counseling, and organizational development and analysis, among other activities. For example, an industrial psy chologist may work with management to develop better training pro grams and to reorganize the work setting to improve worker productiv ity. Engineering psychologists, often employed in factories and plants, develop and improve industrial products and human-machine systems. An engineering psychologist might study the psychological and physi ological effects on military personnel of using various weapons, the impact on pilots and astronauts of operating aircraft and space vehicles equipped with complex equipment, or the effect on workers of continu ously operating and programming computers. Community psychologists apply psychological knowledge to prob lems of urban and rural life. Consumer psychologists study the psycho logical factors that determine an individual’s behavior as a consumer of goods and services. Health psychologists counsel the public in health maintenance to help people avoid serious emotional or physical illness and do research on the psychological aspects of medical prob lems. Cognitive psychologists deal with the brain’s role in memory, thinking, and perceptions; some are involved with research related to computer programming and artificial intelligence. Other areas of specialization include clinical neuropsychology, environmental psy chology, forensic psychology, population psychology, psychology and the arts, history of psychology, psychopharmacology, and military and rehabilitation psychology. Working Conditions A psychologist’s specialty and place of employment determine work ing conditions. For example, clinical, school, and counseling psychol ogists in private practice have pleasant, comfortable offices and set their own hours. However, they often have evening hours to accommo date their clients. Some employed in hospitals, nursing homes, and other health facilities often work evenings and weekends, while others https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis in schools and clinics work regular hours. Psychologists employed by academic institutions divide their time among teaching, research, and administrative responsibilities. Some maintain part-time consulting practices as well. In contrast to the many psychologists who have flexible work schedules, some in government and private industry have more structured schedules. Reading and writing research reports, they often work alone behind a desk. Many experience the pressures of deadlines, tight schedules, and overtime work. Their routine may be interrupted frequently. Travel may be required to attend conferences or conduct research. Employment Psychologists held about 104,000 jobs in 1988. Educational institu tions—primarily elementary and secondary schools—employed more than one-third of all salaried psychologists in positions involving counseling, testing, special education, research, and administration; hospitals, clinics, rehabilitation centers, nursing homes, and other health facilities employed one-third; while government agencies at the Federal, State, and local levels employed one-fifth. The Veterans Administration, the Department of Defense, and the Public Health Service employ the overwhelming majority of psychologists employed by Federal agencies. Psychologists also work in social service organi zations, research organizations, management consulting firms, market research firms, and other businesses. After several years of experience, some psychologists enter private practice or set up their own research or consulting firms. About twofifths of all psychologists are self-employed. Besides the jobs described above, approximately 19,000 persons held psychology faculty positions at colleges and universities. (For information about this occupation, see the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A doctoral degree is generally required for employment as a psycholo gist, particularly in the academic world. Psychologists with doctorates (Ph.D or Psy.D.—Doctor of Psychology) qualify for a wide range of responsible research, clinical, and counseling positions in universities, private industry, school settings, and government. Persons with a master’s degree in psychology can administer and interpret tests as psychological assistants. Under the supervision of psychologists, they can conduct research in laboratories, conduct psy chological evaluations, counsel patients, or perform administrative duties. They may teach in 2-year colleges or work as school psycholo gists or counselors. A bachelor’s degree in psychology qualifies a person to assist psy chologists and other professionals in community mental health centers, vocational rehabilitation offices, and correctional programs; to work as research or administrative assistants; and to take jobs as trainees in government or business. However, without additional academic training, their advancement opportunities are limited. In the Federal Government, candidates having at least 24 semester hours in psychology and one course in statistics qualify for entry level positions. Competition for these jobs is keen, however. Clinical psychologists generally must have completed the Ph.D. or Psy.D. requirements and have served an internship; vocational and guidance counselors usually need 2 years of graduate study in counseling and 1 year of counseling experience. At least 1 year of full-time graduate study is needed to earn a master’s degree in psychology. Requirements usually include practical experience in an applied setting or a master’s thesis based on a research project. For example, a master’s degree in school psychology requires 2 years of course work and a 1-year internship. Three to five years of graduate work usually are required for a doctoral degree. The Ph.D. degree culminates in a dissertation based on original research. Courses in quantitative research methods, which include the use of computers, are an integral part of graduate study and usually necessary to complete the dissertation. The Psy.D., based on practical work and examinations rather than a dissertation, prepares students for clinical and other applied positions. In clinical or counsel- Professional Specialty Occupations 107 Table 1. Percent of doctoral degrees awarded in psychology by subfield, 1988 Subfield ||;V /“ A doctoral degree is often required for employment as a psychologist. Percent Total.................................................................................................. 100 Clinical................................................................................................. Counseling........................................................................................... General................................................................................................. Developmental..................................................................................... Social.................................................................................................... Experimental........................................................................................ Industrial/organizational .................................................................... School.................................................................................................... Educational............................................................................. Physiological........................................................................................ Cognitive.............................................................................................. Other..................................................................................................... 36 16 12 6 5 4 4 4 3 3 3 4 Source: National Research Council ing psychology, the requirements for the doctoral degree generally include an additional year or more of internship or supervised expe rience. Competition for admission into graduate programs is keen. Some universities require an undergraduate major in psychology. Others prefer only basic psychology with courses in the biological, physical, and social sciences, statistics, and mathematics. Over 3,000 colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree pro gram in psychology; about 400, a master’s; about 300, a Ph.D. In addition, about 30 professional schools of psychology—some affili ated with colleges or universities—offer the Psy.D. The American Psychological Association (APA) presently accredits Ph.D. training programs in clinical, counseling, and school psychology as well as Psy.D. programs. In 1988, 155 colleges and universities offered fully approved programs in clinical psychology (including 13 Psy.D. pro grams); 51 in counseling psychology; and 38 in school psychology (including 3 Psy.D. programs). The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, with the assistance of the National Association of School Psychologists, is also involved in the accreditation of ad vanced degree programs in school psychology. APA also has accred ited about 310 institutions that provide internships for doctoral students in school, clinical, and counseling psychology. Although financial aid is difficult to obtain, some universities award fellowships or scholarships or arrange for part-time employment. The Veterans Administration (VA) offers predoctoral traineeships to in terns in VA hospitals, clinics, and related training agencies. The National Science Foundation, the Department of Health and Human Services, the Armed Forces, and many other organizations also provide financial aid. Psychologists who want to enter independent practice must meet certification or licensing requirements. All States and the District of Columbia have such requirements. Licensing laws vary by State, but generally require a doctorate in psychology and 1 to 2 years of professional experience. In addition, most States require that appli cants pass an examination. Most State boards administer a standardized test and, in many instances, additional oral or essay examinations. Very few States certify those with master’s level training as psycholog ical assistants or associates. Some States require continuing education for relicensure. Most States require that licensed or certified psychologists limit their practice to those areas in which they have developed professional competence through training and experience. The American Board of Professional Psychology recognizes profes sional achievement by awarding diplomas primarily in clinical psy chology, clinical neuropsychology, and counseling, forensic, indus trial and organizational, and school psychology. Candidates need a doctorate in psychology, 5 years of experience, and professional en dorsements; they also must pass an examination. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Even more so than in other occupations, persons pursuing a career in psychology must be emotionally stable, mature, and able to deal effectively with people. Sensitivity, compassion, and the ability to lead and inspire others are particularly important for clinical work and counseling. Research psychologists should be able to do detailed work independently and as part of a team. Verbal and writing skills are necessary to communicate treatment and research findings. Patience and perseverance are vital qualities because results from psychological treatment of patients or research often are long in coming. Job Outlook Employment of psychologists is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Largely because of the substantial investment in training required to enter this specialized field, psychologists have a strong attachment to their occupation— only a relatively small proportion leave the profession each year. Nevertheless, most job openings are expected to result from replace ment needs. Several factors may help maintain the demand for psychologists: Increased emphasis on mental health maintenance in conjunction with the treatment of physical illness; public concern for the development of human resources, including the growing elderly population; and increased testing and counseling of children. Changes in the level of government funding of these services could affect the demand for psychologists. Some openings are likely to occur as psychologists study the effec tiveness of changes in health, education, military, law enforcement, and consumer protection programs. Psychologists also are increasingly studying the effects on people of technological advances in areas such as agriculture, energy, the conservation and use of natural resources, and industrial automation. Opportunities are best for candidates with a doctoral degree. Persons holding doctorates from leading universities in applied areas such as school, clinical, counseling, health, industrial, and engineering psychology should have particularly good prospects for both academic and nonacademic jobs. Psychologists with extensive training in quanti tative research methods and computer science will have a competitive edge over applicants without this background. Most graduates with only a master’s degree in psychology may encounter competition for the limited number of jobs for which they qualify. Graduates of master’s degree programs in school psychology should have the best job prospects, as schools are expected to increase student counseling and mental health services. Some master’s degree holders may find jobs as psychological assistants in community mental health centers or in other jobs involving data collection and analysis. Bachelor’s degree holders can expect very few opportunities in this 108 Occupational Outlook Handbook field. Some may find jobs as assistants in rehabilitation centers or in other jobs involving data collection and analysis. Those who meet State certification requirements may become high school psychology teachers. (For more information, see the statement on secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Earnings According to a 1987 survey by the National Science Foundation, the median annual salary of psychologists with a doctoral degree was about $44,000. In educational institutions, the median was about $42,100; in State and local government, about $40,000; in hospitals and clinics, about $38,700; in other nonprofit organizations, about $34,500; and in business and industry (including self-employed), about $60,100. Ph.D. or Psy.D. psychologists in private practice and in applied specialties generally have higher earnings than other psycholo gists. The Federal Government recognizes education and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions. In general, the average starting salary for psychologists having a bachelor’s degree was about $15,700 a year in 1989; those with superior academic records could begin at $ 19,500. Counseling and school psychologists with a master’s degree and 1 year of counseling experience could start at $23,800. Clinical psychologists having a Ph.D. or Psy.D. degree and 1 year of internship could start at $28,900; some individuals could start at $34,600. The average salary for psychologists in the Federal Govern ment was about $44,800 a year in 1988. Psychologists receive a variety of fringe benefits including paid vacations, sick leave, health insurance, and pensions. In addition, many employers also offer tuition reimbursement. Related Occupations Psychologists are trained to evaluate, counsel, and advise individuals and groups. Others who do this kind of work are psychiatrists, social workers, clergy, special education teachers, and counselors. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers, educational requirements, financial assis tance, and licensing in all fields of psychology, contact: (•-American Psychological Association, Educational Affairs Office, 1200 17th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. For information on careers, educational requirements, and licensing of school psychologists, contact: (•-National Association of School Psychologists, 808 17th St. NW., Suite 200, Washington, DC 20006. Information about State licensing requirements is available from: w-The American Association of State Psychology Boards, P.O. Box 4389, Montgomery, AL 36103. Information on traineeships and fellowships also is available from colleges and universities that have graduate departments of psy chology. Sociologists (D.O.T. 054) Nature of the Work Sociologists study human society and social behavior by examining the groups and social institutions that people form. These include families, tribes, communities, and governments, as well as a variety of social, religious, political, business, and other organizations. Soci ologists study the behavior and interaction of groups, trace their origin and growth, and analyze the influence of group activities on individual members. Some sociologists are concerned primarily with the charac teristics of social groups, organizations, and institutions. Others are more interested in the ways individuals are affected by the groups to which they belong. The numerous areas of specialization available to sociologists reflect https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis the interdisciplinary nature of this field. These include social organiza tion, stratification, and mobility; racial and ethnic relations; social psychology; urban, rural, political, industrial, and comparative sociol ogy; and sociological practice. Other specialties include medical soci ology—the study of social factors that affect mental and public health; gerontology—the study of aging and the special problems of aged persons; environmental sociology—the study of the effects of the physical environment and technology on people; and clinical sociol ogy—therapy and intervention in social systems for assessment and change. Increasingly important areas of study such as demography— the study of the size, characteristics, and movement of populations— and criminology—the study of factors producing deviance from ac cepted legal and cultural norms—have emerged as independent spe cialties. Household and family matters have always been areas of interest for sociologists; however, these subjects recently have been attracting more attention due to the increase in the number of divorces and changes in living arrangements. Sociological research, like other kinds of social science research, involves collecting data, assessing its validity, and analyzing the re sults . Sociologists usually conduct surveys or engage in direct observa tion to gather data. For example, after providing for controlled condi tions, an organizational sociologist might test the effects of different styles of leadership on individuals in a small work group. A medical sociologist might study the effects of terminal illness on family interac tion. Sociological researchers also evaluate the efficacy of different kinds of social programs. They might examine and evaluate particular programs of income assistance, job training, or remedial education. Increasingly, sociologists use statistical and computer techniques in their research. The results of sociological research aid educators, lawmakers, administrators, and others interested in resolving social problems and formulating public policy. For example, in recent years sociologists have devoted more time to studying issues related to AIDS disease and to the homeless. Sociologists often work closely with community groups and members of other professions, including psy chologists, physicians, economists, statisticians, urban and regional planners, political scientists, anthropologists, law enforcement and criminal administration officials, and social workers. Some sociologists are primarily administrators. They apply their professional knowledge in areas as diverse as intergroup relations, family counseling, public opinion analysis, law enforcement, educa tion, personnel administration, public relations, regional and commu nity planning, and health services planning. They may, for example, administer social service programs in family and child welfare agencies or develop social policies and programs for government, community, youth, or religious organizations. A number of sociologists are employed as consultants. Using their expertise and research skills, they advise on such diverse problems as halfway houses and foster care for the mentally ill; ways of counseling ex-offenders; or how to improve efficiency and flexibility in large corporations. Sociologists in business consult on the management of complex organizations and conduct market research for advertisers and manufacturers. Increasingly, sociologists are involved in the eval- ' uation of social and welfare programs. Sociologists are often confused with social workers, and in fact they do contribute to one another’s disciplines. However, while sociologists conduct research on organizations, groups, and individuals, social workers directly help people who are unable to cope with their circum stances. (For more information, see the statement on social workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions The work of sociologists generally includes much reading, research, and report writing. Sociologists working in government agencies and private firms have structured work schedules, and many experience the pressures of deadlines, tight schedules, heavy workloads, and overtime. Their routine may be interrupted by numerous telephone calls, letters, requests for information, and meetings. Travel may be required to collect data for research projects or to attend professional Professional Specialty Occupations Sociologists study social groups and institutions. conferences. Sociologists in private practice may work evenings and weekends to accommodate clients. Sociology faculty have more flexible work schedules, dividing their time between teaching, research, consulting, and administrative re sponsibilities. Employment Sociologists held several thousand jobs in 1988. Government agencies employ a significant proportion of sociologists to deal with such sub jects as poverty, crime, public assistance, population growth, educa tion, social rehabilitation, community development, mental health, racial and ethnic relations, and environmental impact studies. Sociolo gists in the Federal Government work primarily for the Departments of Health and Human Services, Agriculture, Interior, and Defense. Sociologists specializing in demography work for international organi zations such as the World Bank, the United Nations, and the World Health Organization and Federal agencies such as the Bureau of the Census. Sociologists specializing in criminology work primarily for law enforcement agencies in State and local government. Sociologists also hold managerial, research, and planning positions in research firms, consulting firms, educational institutions, corporations, profes sional and trade associations, hospitals, and welfare or other nonprofit organizations. Some sociologists have private practices in counseling, research, or consulting. Besides the jobs described above, other persons held sociology faculty positions in colleges and universities. (For more information about this occupation, see the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 109 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The Ph.D. degree is required for appointment to permanent teaching and research positions in colleges and universities and is essential for many senior level positions in research institutes, consulting firms, corporations, and government agencies. A Ph.D. will be increasingly required for virtually all academic and professional sociologist posi tions. Sociologists with master’s degrees can qualify for administrative and research positions in public agencies and private businesses. Train ing in research, statistical, and computer methods is an advantage in obtaining such positions. Advancement opportunities are more limited for master’s degree holders than for Ph.D.’s. Sociologists with mas ter’s degrees may qualify for teaching positions in junior colleges and for some college instructorships. Bachelor’s degree holders in sociology often get jobs in related fields. Many work as social workers, counselors, or recreation workers in public and private welfare agencies. Others are employed as inter viewers or as administrative or research assistants. Sociology majors with sufficient training in statistical and survey methods may qualify for positions as junior analysts or statisticians in business or research firms or government agencies. Regardless of a sociologist’s level of educational attainment, completion of an internship while in school can prove invaluable in finding a position in this field. In the Federal Government, candidates generally need a college degree with 24 semester hours in sociology, including course work in theory and methods of social research. However, since competition for the limited number of positions is keen, advanced study in the field is highly recommended. Over 180 colleges and universities offer doctoral degree programs in sociology; most of these also offer a master’s degree. In over 160 schools, the master’s is the highest degree offered; about 850 schools have bachelor’s degree programs. Sociology departments offer a wide variety of courses, including sociological theory, field methods, social statistics and quantitative methods, crime and deviance, social psy chology, family and society, sex roles, population, social stratification, social control, small group analysis, urban sociology, rural sociology, social organizations, and sociology of religion, law, the arts, peace and war, politics, education, work and occupations, mental health, and science and technology. Some departments of sociology have highly structured programs, while others are relatively unstructured and leave most course selection up to the individual student. Departments have different requirements regarding foreign language skills, courses in statistics, internships, and completion of a thesis for the master’s degree. The choice of a graduate school is important for people who want to become sociologists. Students should select a school that has adequate research facilities and offers appropriate areas of specialization such as theory, demography, clinical sociology, or quantitative methods. Opportunities to gain practical experience also may be available, and sociology departments may help place students in business or research firms and government agencies. The American Sociological Association sponsors a master’s level certification program in applied social research. Certification by the Sociological Practice Association (SPA) is necessary for some clinical sociology positions. Certification requirements generally include at least 1 year of experience that demonstrates competence in clinical sociology, a doctorate or a master’s degree from an accredited school, and successful demonstration of competency at SPA-sponsored train ing workshops or conferences. The ability to work independently is important for sociologists. Intellectual curiosity is an essential trait; researchers must have an inquiring mind and a desire to find explanations for the phenomena they observe. Like other social scientists, sociologists must be objective in gathering information about social institutions and behavior; they need analytical skills in order to organize data effectively and reach valid conclusions; and they must be careful and systematic in their work. Because communicating their findings to other people is an important part of the job, sociologists must be able to speak well and to write clearly and concisely. . 110 Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Outlook Demand for sociologists should be spurred by research in various fields such as demography, criminology, and gerontology and by the need to evaluate and administer programs designed to cope with social and welfare problems. Most job openings, however, are expected to result from the need to replace sociologists who transfer to other occupations, or retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. The number of persons who graduate with advanced degrees in sociology through the year 2000 is likely to exceed the available job openings. Ph.D. ’s will continue to face keen competition for academic positions; Ph.D.’s from the most outstanding institutions will have an advantage in securing teaching jobs. An increasing proportion of Ph.D.’s will enter nonacademic careers. Some may take research and administrative positions in government, research organizations, and business firms. Those well-trained in quan titative research methods—including survey techniques, advanced sta tistics, and computer science—will have the widest choice of jobs. For example, private firms that contract with the government to evalu ate social programs and conduct other research increasingly seek soci ologists with strong quantitative skills. Demand is expected to be much stronger for sociologists with training in practice areas—such as clinical sociology, criminology, environmental sociology, medical sociology, gerontology, evaluation research, and demography—than for specialists in sociological theory. For example, additional demog raphers may be sought to help businesses plan marketing and advertis ing programs and to help developing countries analyze censuses, prepare population projections, and formulate long-range public plan ning programs. More criminologists may be sought to help reduce deviance from legally and socially accepted behavior in our society. More gerontologists may be needed to help formulate programs for our expanding elderly population. Sociologists with training in other applied disciplines—such as public policy, public administration, and business administration—will be attractive to employers seeking man agerial and administrative personnel. Persons with a master’s degree will find few, if any, academic positions, even in junior and community colleges. They may also face competition for nonacademic positions. Some may find employment in Federal, State, and local governments as planners, demographers, or social researchers. Others may find research and administrative jobs in research firms, business, and government. For example, sociologists with backgrounds in business and quantitative research methods may find opportunities as management analysts or market researchers. Bachelor’s degree holders will find fewer opportunities for jobs as professional sociologists. As in the past, many graduates will take positions as trainees and assistants in business, industry, and govern ment. As with advanced degree holders, extensive training in quantita tive research methods provides these graduates with the most market able skills. Some may find positions in social welfare agencies. For those planning careers in law, journalism, business, social work, recreation, counseling, and other related disciplines, sociology pro vides an excellent background. Those who meet State certification requirements may become high school sociology teachers. (For more information, see the statement on secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Earnings According to a 1987 survey of doctoral scientists and engineers by the National Science Foundation, the median annual salary of sociologists and anthropologists combined was $41,700. For those in educational institutions, it was $41,900, in business and industry, $41,200; and in nonprofit organizations, $34,800. The Federal Government recognizes education and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions. In general, the average entrance salary for sociologists with a bachelor's degree was about $15,800 or $19,400 a year in 1989, depending upon the applicant’s academic record. The starting salary for those with a master’s degree was about $23,900 a year, and for those with a Ph.D., about $28,900, while some individuals could start at $34,600. Sociologists in the Federal Government averaged around $42,900 a year in 1988. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis In general, sociologists with the Ph.D. degree earn substantially higher salaries than those without the doctoral degree. Some sociolo gists supplement their regular salaries with earnings from other sources, such as consulting, counseling work, or publishing articles and books. Like other professional workers, sociologists receive a variety of fringe benefits including paid vacations, sick leave, health insurance, and a pension plan. Related Occupations Sociologists are not the only people whose jobs require an understand ing of social processes and institutions. Others whose work demands such expertise include anthropologists, economists, geographers, his torians, political scientists, psychologists, urban and regional planners, reporters and correspondents, and social workers. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on careers and graduate departments of sociol ogy is available from: •-The American Sociological Association, 1722 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. For information about careers in demography, contact: •-Population Association of America, 1429 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314 3402. For information about careers in clinical and applied sociology, contact: •-Sociological Practice Association, Institute of Criminal Justice and Criminol ogy, University of Maryland, 2220 LaFrak, College Park, MD 20742. For information about careers in rural sociology, contact: •-Rural Sociology Society, Department of Sociology, Montana State Univer sity, Bozeman, MT 59717. Urban and Regional Planners (D.O.T. 188.167-110 and 199.167-014) Nature of the Work Urban and regional planners, often called community or city planners, develop programs to provide for growth and revitalization of urban, suburban, and rural communities and their regions. Planners help local officials make decisions on social, economic, and environmental problems. Planners usually devise plans outlining the best use of a community's land—where residential, commercial, recreational, and other human services should take place. Planners also are involved in various other planning activities, including social services, transportation, and re source development. They address such issues as central city redevel opment, traffic congestion, and the impact of growth and change on an area. They formulate capital improvement plans to construct new school buildings, public housing, and sewage systems. Planners are becoming more involved in social issues such as sheltering the home less, premises for drug treatment centers, and needs of an aging population. Planners examine community facilities such as health clinics and schools to be sure these facilities can meet the demands placed upon them. They keep abreast of the economic and legal issues involved in community development or redevelopment and changes in housing and building codes or environmental regulations. Because suburban growth has increased the need for traveling between suburbs and the urban center, the planner’s job often includes designing new transpor tation systems and parking facilities. As an alternative, planners may develop transportation management plans which are designed to con trol the traffic, not accommodate it. For example, developers may be required to provide public transportation facilities or cities are required to set up van pool transportation systems. Urban and regional planners prepare for situations that are likely to Professional Specialty Occupations develop as a result of population growth or social and economic change. They estimate, for example, the community’s long-range needs for housing, transportation, and business and industrial sites. Working within a framework set by the community government, they analyze and propose alternative ways to achieve more efficient and attractive urban areas. Before preparing plans for long-range community development, urban and regional planners prepare detailed studies that show the current use of land for residential, business, and community purposes. These reports include such information as the location of streets, highways, water and sewer lines, schools, libraries, and cultural and recreational sites. They also provide information on the types of indus tries in the community, characteristics of the population, and employ ment and economic trends. With this information, urban and regional planners propose ways of using undeveloped or underutilized land and design the layout of recommended buildings and other facilities such as subway lines and stations. They also prepare materials that show how their programs can be carried out and what they will cost. As in many other fields, planners increasingly use computers to record and analyze information. Urban and regional planners often confer with land developers, civic leaders, and other public planning officials. They often function as mediators in community disputes by presenting alternatives that are acceptable to opposing parties. Planners may prepare materials for community relations programs, speak at civic meetings, and appear before legislative committees to explain their proposals. In large organizations, planners usually specialize in areas such as physical design, public transportation, community relations, and the renovation or reconstruction of rundown business districts. In small organizations, planners must be able to do several kinds of work. Working Conditions Urban and regional planners spend most of their time in offices. To be familiar with areas that they are developing, however, they occasionally spend time outdoors examining the features of the land under consideration for development, its current use, and the types of structures on it. Although most planners have a scheduled 40-hour workweek, they frequently attend evening or weekend meetings or public hearings with citizens’ groups. Employment Urban and regional planners held about 20,000 jobs in 1988. Local government planning agencies—city, county, or regional—employed 7 out of 10. An increasing proportion of public agency planners work in small jurisdictions with fewer than 50,000 inhabitants. Many are employed in State agencies that deal with housing, transportation, or environmental protection. The largest Federal employers are the Departments of Defense, Housing and Urban Development, and Trans portation. mwsvfteik Ha Mi mem I » ■i Urban planners consulting over a transportation map. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 111 Many planners do consulting work, either part time in addition to a regular job, or full time for a firm that provides services to private developers or government agencies. Other employers include architec tural and surveying firms, educational institutions, banks and mortgage companies, large land developers, or law firms specializing in land use. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers often seek workers who have advanced training in urban or regional planning. Most entry jobs in Federal, State, and local government agencies require 2 years of graduate study in urban or regional planning, or the equivalent in work experience. Although the master’s degree in planning is the usual requirement at the entry level, person’s having a bachelor’s degree in city planning, architecture, or engineering may qualify for beginning positions. Courses in related disciplines such as demography, economics, finance, health adminis tration, location theory, and management are highly recommended. In addition, familiarity with statistical techniques and computer usage is highly desirable. In 1988, about 80 colleges and universities offered a master’s degree program in urban or regional planning. Most of these programs have been accredited by the Planning Accreditation Board, which consists of representatives of the American Planning Association (APA), the American Institute of Certified Planners, and the Association of Colle giate Schools of Planning. Most graduate programs in planning require 2 years. Graduate students spend considerable time in studios, work shops, or laboratory courses learning to analyze and solve urban and regional planning problems and often are required to work in a planning office part time or during the summer. The American Institute of Certified Planners (AICP), a branch of the APA, grants certification to individuals with the appropriate combi nation of education and professional experience who pass an examina tion. Data on AICP membership indicate that certified urban planners tend to hold the more responsible, better paying positions in their field. Planners must be able to think in terms of spatial relationships and visualize the effects of their plans and designs. They should be flexible and able to reconcile different viewpoints to make constructive policy recommendations. The ability to write clearly and effectively is im portant. After a few years’ experience, urban and regional planners may advance to assignments requiring a high degree of independent judg ment such as designing the physical layout of a large development or recommending policy, program, and budget options. Some are promoted to jobs as planning directors and spend a great deal of time meeting with officials in other organizations, speaking to civic groups, and supervising other professionals. Further advancement occurs through a transfer to a large city with more complex problems and greater responsibilities. Job Outlook Employment of urban and regional planners is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most job openings will arise from the need to replace experienced planners who transfer to other occupations, or retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. Demand will be spurred primarily by the continuing importance of environmental, economic, transportation, and energy production planning. Other factors contributing to the demand for urban and regional planners include interest in zoning and land-use planning in undeveloped and nonmetropolitan areas, including coastal areas; the need to replace old public facilities such as bridges, highways, and sewers; historic preservation and rehabilitation activities; central city redevelopment; and commercial development to support suburban areas with rapidly growing populations. Demand for urban and regional planners varies by region. Demand is currently strong in States which have mandated planning, such as Florida and Maine, and in rapidly growing areas such as, California and northern Virginia. lob growth is also expected to occur in smaller 112 Occupational Outlook Handbook cities and towns in older areas—for example, in the Northeast— undergoing preservation and redevelopment. Graduates of leading institutions with accredited planning programs should have very good job prospects. For other jobseekers, geographic mobility and the willingness to work in small towns or rural areas may be necessary. Federal service as interns at yearly salaries of about $15,700 or $19,400. Salaries of urban and regional planners employed by the Federal Government averaged $42,600 a year in 1988. Like many professional occupations, urban and regional planners receive a basic fringe benefit package which includes vacation and sick leave, health and life insurance, and a pension plan. Earnings Related Occupations Urban and regional planners develop plans for the orderly growth of urban and rural communities. Others whose work is related to the work of planners include architects, landscape architects, city manag ers, civil engineers, environmental engineers, geographers, and urban designers. According to a 1987 survey by the APA, urban and regional planners earned a median annual salary of about $36,000. The median annual salary of planners in city governments was $34,700; in county govern ments, $31,000; in joint city/county governments, $31,500; in State governments, $38,000; in private consulting firms, $42,000; in busi ness, $47,000; and in nonprofit foundations, $35,000. For planners with over 10 years’ experience, county and joint city/county agencies paid about $41,000 annually, while private businesses and consulting firms paid about $50,000. Directors of public planning agencies earned as much as $10,600 more than staff members at comparable levels of experience. Salaries of planners in large jurisdictions may be as much as $6,000 a year higher than their counterparts in small jurisdictions. Planners with a master’s degree were hired by the Federal Govern ment at a starting average salary of $23,800 a year in 1989. In some cases, persons having less than 2 years of graduate work could enter https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information Additional information on careers and salaries in urban and regional planning, a list of schools offering training, and job referrals are available from; ••-American Planning Association, 1776 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washing ton, DC 20036. Information on schools offering training in urban and regional plan ning is also available from; ••-Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning, Department of Urban Plan ning, University of Wisconsin, P.O. Box 413, Milwaukee, WI 53201. Social and Recreation Workers Human Services Workers (D.O.T. 195.267-014 and .367 except -026 and -030) Nature of the Work “Human services worker” is a generic term for people who hold professional and paraprofessional jobs in such diverse settings as group homes and halfway houses; correctional, mental retardation, and com munity mental health centers; family, child, and youth service agen cies; and programs concerned with alcoholism, drug abuse, family violence, and aging. Depending on the employment setting and the kinds of clients served there, job titles and duties vary a great deal. Examples of job titles are: Social service technician, case management aide, social work assistant, residential counselor, alcoholism or drug abuse counselor, mental health technician, child abuse worker, com munity outreach worker, and gerontology aide. Despite differences in what they are called and what they do, human services workers generally perform under the direction of professional staff. Those employed in mental health settings, for example, may be assigned to assist a treatment team made up of social workers, psychologists, and other human services professionals. The amount of responsibility these workers assume and the degree of supervision they receive vary a great deal. Some workers are on their own most of the time and have little direct supervision; others work under close direction. Human services workers in community, residential care, or institu tional settings provide direct services such as leading a group, organiz ing an activity, or offering individual counseling. They may handle some administrative support tasks, too. Specific job duties reflect organizational policy and staffing patterns, as well as the worker’s educational preparation and experience. Some human services workers help clients through the red tape that surrounds many social welfare programs. First of all, this involves interviewing clients, assessing their needs, and establishing their eligi bility for services that are available in the community. Recordkeeping is another important part of the job. Regardless of whether a manual or computerized system is used, client and agency files must be kept up to date and in order. Social work assistants often handle eligibility determination, a com plex job. The assistant usually examines financial documents such as / '-VW Id Recordkeeping is an important part of human services work. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis rent receipts and tax returns to determine whether the client is eligible for food stamps, Medicaid, or other welfare programs. Social work assistants also provide information on how to obtain needed services; arrange for transportation and escort service, if necessary ; and provide emotional and psychological support. Case aides may transport or accompany clients to group meal sites, adult day care programs, or doctors’ offices. Aides also telephone or visit clients’ homes, checking to be sure that needed services are being received. Some aides serve tenants of public housing projects. They provide information about regulations and services, and may at times help resolve disagreements between tenants and landlords. Interest in alternatives to institutional care for people who are frail, severely handicapped, mentally ill, or mentally retarded has brought forth a variety of community-based facilities and programs. These include neighborhood clinics, mental health centers, emergency shel ters, “drop-in” centers for drug abusers and the mentally ill, and group homes and halfway houses. Human services workers play a variety of roles in community settings such as these. They may organize and lead group activities, for example; assist clients in need of counseling or crisis intervention; or administer a food bank or emergency fuel program. Job duties vary, depending on the particular group of people receiv ing services. In a mental health setting, be it a mental hospital, a halfway house, or an outpatient psychiatric clinic, mental health tech nicians work directly with individual clients. They may help them master practical aspects of everyday living, for example, or teach them how to communicate more effectively and get along better with others. Technicians assist with a number of different treatment approaches, including music, art, and dance therapy, together with individual and group counseling. In addition to the personal contact with clients, human services workers in mental health settings are responsible for keeping records and informing and updating the professional staff about the clients’ condition. Monitoring progress is a typical job duty in all types of programs, whether for senior citizens, the mentally ill, or the disabled. Halfway houses and group homes serve adults who need some supervision or assistance on a day-to-day basis. These homes were orginally set up to give people with mental or physical impairments a chance to live in the community instead of in an institution. Currently, group homes for elderly persons are being launched in some communi ties. Activity programs at nearby community centers give residents a place to go during the day to meet people and participate in educational and rehabilitative activities. In the evening, residents return to the group homes, where they live in a family-like setting with supervision and support from counselors and aides. Residential counselors take a close interest in each member of the group home. They have access to and may consult confidential records, confer with medical personnel, and talk with the client’s family in order to gain better insight into the client’s history and needs. These interviews are conducted under the supervision of professional social workers or psychologists. Counselors in group homes follow the instructions of professional staff when dealing with clients. The social worker, for example, may instruct residential staff to teach members of the group home how to prepare their own meals. It may be up to the counselor to decide how to involve every resident in all the necessary steps, from menu planning and grocery shopping through cooking and cleanup. The amount of freedom the worker has in implementing instructions depends on the worker’s experience and the policy of the organization. In one home, the counselor may operate with relatively few guidelines, while in another a step-by-step plan must be adhered to. Residential counselors are responsible for keeping clients’ records 113 114 Occupational Outlook Handbook up to date and reporting changes in behavior to the supervisor. The counselor must prepare oral and written reports on the condition and progress of each member of the residence. Residential counselors may also be responsible for the financial management of the household, including documenting all household expenditures. Working Conditions Working conditions vary. Human services workers in social service agencies generally spend part of the time in the office and the rest of the time in the field. Most work a 40-hour week. Some evening and weekend work may be necessary, but compensatory time off is usually granted. Human services workers in community-based settings move around a great deal in the course of a workweek. They may be inside one day and outdoors on a field visit the next. They, too, work a standard 40hour week. Human services workers in residential settings generally work in shifts. Because residents of group homes need supervision in the evening and at night, 7 days a week, evening and weekend hours are required. The work, while satisfying, can be emotionally draining. Under staffing and lack of equipment add to the pressure. Turnover is reported to be high, especially among workers without academic preparation for this field. Employment Human services workers held about 118,000 jobs in 1988. About onefourth were employed by State and local governments, primarily in hospitals and outpatient mental health centers, facilities for the men tally retarded and developmentally disabled, and public welfare agen cies. Another fourth worked in agencies offering adult day care, group meals, crisis intervention, counseling, and other social services. Some supervised residents of group homes and halfway houses. Human services workers also held jobs in clinics, community mental health centers, and private psychiatric hospitals. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Human services workers have a wide range of educational back grounds. However, the kind of work they do and the amount of responsibility entrusted to them often depend on their level of formal education. Workers with a high school education or less are likely to perform clerical duties. Those with a college degree might be assigned to do direct counseling, coordinate program activities, or manage a group home. While some employers hire high school graduates, most prefer applicants with some college preparation in human services, social work, or one of the social or behavioral sciences. Some human services workers transfer from other occupations or enter the field on the basis of course work in psychology, sociology, rehabilitation, or special education. A strong desire to help others is an important consideration for a job as a human services worker. Individuals who show patience, understanding, and caring in their dealings with others are highly valued by employers. Other important personal traits include commu nication skills, a strong sense of responsibility, and the ability to manage time effectively. Hiring requirements in group homes tend to be more stringent than in other settings. In 1988, approximately 400 certificate and associate degree pro grams in human services or mental health were offered at community and junior colleges, vocational-technical institutes, and other postsec ondary institutions. In addition, about 200 programs offered a bache lor’s degree in human services. A small number of programs leading to master’s degrees in human services administration were offered as well. Generally speaking, academic programs in this field educate stu dents for particular kinds of roles—an associate degree program might specialize in preparing students to work with developmentally disabled adults, for example. As is also the case in social work, rehabilitation counseling, and other practice-oriented disciplines, educators maintain https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis continuing contact with local employers to keep up with their changing needs. Students are exposed early and often to the kinds of situations they may encounter on the job. Undergraduate and graduate programs typically include courses in psychology, sociology, crisis intervention, family dynamics, therapeutic interviewing, rehabilitation, and gerontology. Through classroom simulation and required internships, students develop skills in interviewing, observing, and recording behavior; learn techniques of individual and group counseling; and are introduced to program planning. Formal education is almost always necessary for career advance ment. In group homes, completion of a 1-year certificate in human services along with several years of experience may suffice for promo tion to a supervisory position. In general, however, career advance ment requires a bachelor’s or master’s degree in counseling, rehabilita tion, social work, or a related field. Most employers encourage workers to further their education, and some are willing to pay part of the cost. In addition, many employers provide in-service training such as seminars and workshops. Job Outlook Employment of human services workers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Opportunities for qualified applicants are expected to be excellent, not only because of projected rapid growth in the occupation, but because of substantial replacement needs. Turnover among counselors in group homes is reported to be especially high. Employment prospects should be favorable in facilities and pro grams that serve the elderly, mentally impaired, or developmentally disabled. Adult day care, a relatively new concept, is expected to expand significantly due to very rapid growth in the number of people of advanced age, together with growing awareness of the value of day programs for adults in need of care and supervision. While projected growth in the elderly population is the dominant factor in the anticipated expansion of adult day care, public response to the needs of people who are handicapped or mentally ill underlies anticipated employment growth in group homes and residential care facilities. As more and more mentally retarded or developmentally disabled individuals reach the age of 21 and thereby lose their eligibility for programs and services offered by the public schools, the need for community-based alternatives can be expected to grow. Pressures to respond to the needs of the chronically mentally ill can also be expected to persist. For many years, as deinstitutionalization has proceeded, chronic mental patients have been left to their own devices. If the movement to help the homeless and chronically mentally ill gains momentum, more community-based programs and group residences will be established, and demand for human services workers will increase accordingly. Job prospects in public agencies are not as bright as they once were, due to anticipated budget constraints that may reduce the use of paraprofessionals for outreach, eligibility determination, information and referral, and similar tasks. State and local govern ments will remain a major employer of human services workers, however, and replacement needs alone will generate many job openings in the public sector. Because so many human services jobs involve direct contact with people who are impaired and therefore vulnerable to exploitation, employers try to be selective in hiring. Applicants are screened for appropriate personal qualifications. Relevant academic preparation is generally required, and volunteer or work experience is preferred. Inasmuch as this is responsible and emotionally draining work which pays relatively poorly, qualified applicants should have little difficulty finding employment. Earnings According to limited data available, starting salaries for human ser vices workers ranged from $12,000 to $18,000 a year in 1988. Experi enced workers earned up to about $23,000 annually, depending on the amount of experience and the employer. Professional Specialty Occupations Related Occupations Workers in other occupations that require skills similar to those of human services workers include social workers, community outreach workers, religious workers, occupational therapy assistants, physical therapy assistants and aides, psychiatric aides, and activity leaders. Sources of Additional Information Information on academic programs in human services may be found in most directories of 2- and 4-year colleges, available at libraries or career counseling centers. For information on programs and careers in human services, contact: (•-National Organization for Human Service Education, P.O. Box 6257, Fitch burg State College, Fitchburg, MA 01420. •-Council for Standards in Human Service Education, Montgomery Commu nity College, 340 Dekalb Pike, Blue Bell, PA 19422. Information on job openings may be available from State employ ment service offices or directly from city, county, or State departments of health, mental health and mental retardation, and human resources. Social Workers (D.O.T. 189.267-010, 195.107-010 through-046, .137-010, .164-010, .167 010, -014, -030, and -034, .267-018, .367-018 and -026) Nature of the Work Social workers help individuals, families, and groups cope with prob lems of every description. Mostly, however, they aid people who are having difficulties dealing with circumstances in their lives—the homeless, the unemployed, the seriously ill, the bereaved, and the handicapped. Among the major helping professions, social work is distinguished by a tradition of concern for the poor, the disadvantaged, and those too young or too old to fend for themselves. Through direct counseling and referral to other services, social workers help people overcome the problems they face. Through policy making and advocacy, they help make society more responsive to people’s changing needs. Major areas of social work practice include child welfare and family services, mental health, medical social work, school social work, community organization, planning and policy development, and social welfare administration. Social workers in child welfare or family services provide a wide array of services, depending on the client’s needs and resources. Improving the well-being of children and youth is the traditional role of child welfare workers. They may advise parents on the care of handicapped infants, counsel children and youth who have difficulties in social adjustment, or arrange homemaker service during a parent’s illness. If children have serious problems in school, child welfare workers may consult with parents, teachers, and counselors to identify underlying problems. Some social workers assist single parents, coun sel couples about adoption, and help find homes for neglected or abandoned children. Child welfare workers also work in residential institutions for children and adolescents. A growing number of social workers specialize in child or adult protective services. Those in child protective services investigate re ported cases of abuse and neglect and intervene if necessary. They sometimes institute legal action to remove the child from the home, placing the child, temporarily, in an emergency shelter or with a foster family. Social workers who specialize in adult protective services take similar steps on behalf of adults, typically battered wives, neglected or abused elderly, or mentally impaired individuals. Whenever a social worker helps an individual or a family in crisis, direct counseling is a major part of the job. This requires effective listening skills and facility in creating a climate of openness and trust. Several meetings with the client and others familiar with the situation may be necessary in order to establish all the relevant facts. Using their training in human behavior, personality theory, group relations, and casework, social workers engaged in direct counseling help clients bring their real concerns into the open and consider possible solutions. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 115 Often, the social worker provides concrete information in areas that are unfamiliar or bewildering to the client: Where to go for debt counseling; how to word a help-wanted ad for childcare or eldercare; how to apply for public assistance, disability benefits, or child support; where to report suspected cases of abuse; how to get an alcoholic admitted to a rehabilitation program. Case management and other coordinating activities represent an increasingly important job duty. Case management is directed at identi fying and pulling together the most appropriate package of services in consultation with the client and then following through to assure that needed services—transportation, housing, or a sheltered workshop placement for a mentally retarded adult, for example—are actually provided. Once having determined what services would benefit the client, case managers may review eligibility requirements, fill out forms and applications, arrange for transportation or escort service, visit the client on a regular basis, and step in during emergencies. The mental health field attracts many social workers. Much effort has gone into developing community residential facilities and an array of supportive services for the mentally disabled—services such as outreach, crisis intervention, social rehabilitation, and training in skills of everyday living, to name a few. Social workers provide these services in community mental health centers, outpatient psychiatric clinics, emergency shelters, and “drop-in” centers. Psychiatric social workers are also employed in State mental hospitals. Veterans Admin istration hospitals, for-profit psychiatric hospitals, substance abuse treatment facilities, and psychiatric units of general hospitals. Provid ing individual and group therapy for psychiatric patients is one of their principal job duties. In addition, some social workers help plan for supportive services to ease patients’ return to the community. (Also see the statement on counselors and psychologists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Social workers employed in hospitals and other health care establish ments are often called medical social workers. They are trained to help patients and their families cope with devastating illnesses and handle problems that may stand in the way of recovery or rehabilitation. Most medical social workers employed by hospitals handle patient counseling or discharge planning. Those who work in nursing homes may help with the admissions process and direct the activities program in addition to counseling residents and their families. Patient counseling—working with children suffering from a termi nal illness, for example—is handled differently from one hospital to the next. Generally, however, it is the responsibility of the social work department. This traditional role has expanded as technology has made it possible for very sick people to survive months or even years longer than they used to. In addition, the increasingly popular practice of assisting family caregivers has created new roles for hospital social workers, who have taken the lead in organizing support groups for families of patients suffering from cancer, Alzheimer’s disease, or other illnesses that impose a heavy burden on families. Discharge planning is an important part of the hospital social work er’s job. This has come about because hospitals are under financial pressure to release patients as soon as possible. Discharge planners arrange for the various services—from meals-on-wheels to oxygen equipment—that make it possible to send patients home as soon as their medical condition warrants it. Other medical social work roles are evolving. In some hospitals, social workers undertake primary care functions in departments of pediatrics or obstetrics. A few specialize in organ transplant procure ments. Others work on interdisciplinary teams that specialize in evalu ating certain kinds of patients—geriatric or transplant patients, for example. Social workers are also involved in hospitals’ efforts to bring in business by offering new programs and services. Examples are adult day care, respite care, hospice care, health screening and education, worksite wellness, and employee assistance programs. School social workers help students and teachers alike. Chiefly concerned with supporting children in trouble and integrating handi capped students into the general school population, school social workers diagnose problems and arrange needed services. A school social worker might arrange transportation for a disabled child one 116 Occupational Outlook Handbook hour, then spend the next hour helping a pregnant teenager think about childcare arrangements. The primary goal is to encourage students and help them overcome obstacles that stand in the way of learning. Often, a school social worker is called in when a student skips class on a regular basis or acts totally out of character. The social worker interviews the student, the family, and the teacher to try get at the source of the problem. If it appears that family matters are the root of the problem, the social worker might provide short-term counseling or refer the family to a community agency. The social worker might even accompany the family for the first few visits, just to be sure that needed services are being used. At times the social worker will be called in by the teacher to observe a particular student in an effort to determine whether a student is in fact experiencing difficulties. Other times teachers ask for advice on dealing with a particular student’s behavior, or with a classroom situation that arises during the course of the day. Some social workers specialize in the field of criminal justice. They work with criminal offenders, providing direct services for inmates of penal or correctional institutions. They counsel on the social problems that arise on returning to family and community life,/and also may help secure necessary education, training, employment, or community services. Juvenile and adult probation officers provide similar services to individuals sentenced by the court to probation as an alternative to prison. Industrial or occupational social workers are employed by business firms to run employee assistance programs, for the most part. They generally are located in the personnel department or health unit, and offer direct counseling to employees and their families, develop educa tion programs, and provide information about community resources. These social workers typically counsel employees whose performance at work is affected by alcoholism, drug abuse, or emotional problems. In a few companies, employee assistance programs focus on other sources of stress; social workers may help employees investigate child care or eldercare arrangements, for example. A growing number of social workers are in private practice. Most of these are clinical social workers who offer psychotherapy or counsel ing to individuals, families, and groups. They might work with families of troubled adolescents, help couples deal with marital difficulties, assist individuals experiencing job-related stress, or set up support groups for people coping with similar situations. Some private practitioners specialize in organizational consulting, and contract with business firms to counsel employees during plant closings, workforce reductions, or other stressful changes in the work environment. Still others serve as consultants to trade unions and develop educational, recreational, and service programs for active and retired members. A small but growing number of private practice social workers specialize in gerontological services. Some run support groups for family caretakers or for the adult children of aging parents. Others provide geriatric case management services on a fee-for-service basis. They assess service needs and then advise elderly people or family members about the choices open to them in such areas as housing, transportation, and long-term care. They coordinate and may monitor services, providing as much or as little assistance as the client desires. In addition to their work with individual clients, gerontological social workers often serve as consultants for government agencies, commu nity organizations, and business firms. They might evaluate existing programs for the elderly, for example, and advise on new programs and services. Working Conditions Most social workers have a 5-day, 35- to 40-hour week. However, some, particularly in voluntary nonprofit agencies, work part time. Many work evenings and weekends to meet with clients, attend com munity meetings, and handle emergencies. Extra leave is generally granted for overtime. Because social workers often must visit clients or attend meetings, some travel may be necessary. The work, while satisfying, can be emotionally draining. Under staffing and large caseloads add to the pressure in some agencies. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis .of Ld/mjC Social work, while satisfying, can be emotionally draining. Employment Social workers held about 385,000 jobs in 1988. About 2 out of 5 jobs were in State, county, or municipal government agencies; relatively few were in the Federal Government. Social workers in the public sector are employed primarily in departments of human resources, social services, mental health, health, housing, education, and correc tions. Those in the private sector work mostly for voluntary social service agencies, community and religious organizations, hospitals, nursing homes, and home health agencies. Although employment is concentrated in urban areas, many social workers work with rural families. A small number of American social workers serve in other parts of the world under the auspices of the Federal Government, the United Nations, or one of the voluntary international social service agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree is the minimum requirement for most professional positions in this field. Besides the bachelor’s in social work (BSW), undergraduate majors in psychology, sociology, and related fields satisfy hiring requirements in many agencies, especially small commu nity agencies. A master’s degree in social work (MSW) is generally necessary for professional social work positions in health and mental health settings. Jobs in public agencies may require an MSW as well. A master’s degree in social work is almost always necessary for supervisory, administrative, or research positions. A doctorate in so cial work usually is required for teaching and is desirable for some research and administrative jobs. In 1987, there were 370 accredited BSW programs and nearly 100 MSW programs. BSW programs prepare graduates for direct service Professional Specialty Occupations positions such as caseworker or group worker. Classroom instruction is offered in social work practice, social welfare policies, human behavior and the social environment, and social research methods. All accredited BSW programs require 400 hours of supervised field experience. An MSW degree prepares graduates to perform assessments, serve as case managers, and advance to supervisory or administrative posi tions. Two years of specialized study, including 900 hours of super vised field instruction, or internship, are required to earn a master’s degree in social work. Field placement affords an opportunity to test one’s suitability for social work practice. At the same time, the student may develop expertise in a specialized area and make personal contacts that later are helpful in securing a permanent job. Previous training in social work is not required for entry into an MSW program, but courses such as psychology, sociology, economics, political science, history, social anthropology, and urban studies, as well as social work, are recommended. Some graduate schools offer accelerated MSW pro grams for qualified applicants who have earned BSW degrees. A limited number of scholarships and fellowships are available for graduate education. A few social welfare agencies grant workers educational leave to obtain graduate education. Career advancement usually takes the form of promotion to supervi sor, administrator, or director, although some social workers go into teaching, research, or consulting. In addition to experience, which is essential, advancement generally requires additional graduate educa tion. Some schools of social work offer advanced practice certificate programs in specialized fields of practice like family counseling. More than 50 schools offer Ph. D. or DSW (Doctor of Social Work) programs for individuals interested in careers in research, teaching, policy analy sis, private practice, or consulting. Social workers seeking to broaden their career options are also pursuing graduate studies in related fields including human services administration, public administration, business administration, health services administration, education, and law. A number of colleges and universities offer joint degree programs. Private practice offers variety, prestige, and the potential for much higher pay than most agency jobs. Social workers who wish to advance professionally without taking the supervisory or administrative route often consider private practice. Ordinarily, this means clinical prac tice—counseling individuals or groups—although some private prac titioners specialize in organizational consulting. Others set up private case management agencies. An MSW as well as sufficiently varied work experience to develop a network of contacts for referral purposes is usually a prerequisite for a career as a private practitioner. Entrepre neurial ability is important for success in this rapidly developing but highly competitive field. In 1988, 46 States had licensing or registration laws regarding social work practice and the use of professional titles. Voluntary certification is offered by the National Association of Social Workers (NASW), which grants the title ACSW (Academy of Certified Social Workers) to those who qualify. For clinical social workers, professional credentials include listing in the NASW Register of Clinical Social Workers or in the Registry of Health Care Providers in Clinical Social Work. These credentials are particularly important for social workers in private practice; some health insurance providers require them for reim bursement. Social workers should be emotionally mature, objective, and sensi tive, and should possess a basic concern for people and their problems. They must be able to handle responsibility, work independently, and maintain good working relationships with clients and coworkers. Vol unteer, part-time, or summer jobs as a social work aide offer ways of testing one’s interest in pursuing a career in this field. Job Outlook Employment of social workers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 in response to the needs of a growing and aging population. The need to replace social workers who leave the occupation or stop working is expected to be the principal source of jobs, however. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 117 Demand for social workers is governed not only by the need for services, but also by the availability of funds to pay for these services. Due to anticipated budget constraints, prospects in public agencies are not as bright as they once were. Some public programs are likely to expand—notably child protective services, services for the elderly, and community-based services for the mentally retarded and chronically mentally ill. Others, however, may contract in the face of budgetary limitations. Programs most likely to be cut are public assistance, State mental hospitals, and training schools for the mentally retarded. Job growth in public agencies will continue to be subject to consider able regional variation, reflecting differences in economic conditions, budget priorities, and the tradition of public support for social welfare services. Among the States, some have a long history of commitment to publicly funded human services, while others have had a more limited view of social welfare spending. Despite regional variations, State and local governments are expected to retain their importance as a leading employer of social workers. Replacement needs alone will generate many openings in this large sector. Substantial growth is projected for social work jobs in voluntary agencies as well as in the small for-profit sector. These will be case work counseling and case management jobs, for the most part. Pro jected employment growth in this sector reflects the rapidly increasing number of older persons, on the one hand, and stepped-up spending for child protective services, on the other. Older people’s needs for social work services cut across distinctions of income and social class. Death of a spouse, poor eyesight, a broken hip, or other characteristic losses of old age can overwhelm affluent people as well as those who are poor. Nonetheless, certain groups of older people may require the services of a social worker more than others. This is particularly true for people living alone, predominantly widows of advanced age, who frequently are in poor health and living on very low incomes. Exceptionally rapid growth is projected in the number of Americans over the age of 85 in the years immediately ahead. This is expected to produce a sharp increase in social service needs and substantial growth in the number of social work personnel involved in assisting the elderly and their adult children. The demand for services provided by social workers will not be limited to the elderly, however. Changes in society, the family, and the role of religion have made it more acceptable to turn to mental health professionals instead of clergy or close family members for advice and emotional support. Social workers who provide mental health counseling work either in agency settings or as private prac titioners. Demand in both areas is projected to grow rapidly. Opportunities for social workers in private practice will expand, not only because of growing acceptance of private practice by the profession and by the public at large, but because of the anticipated availability of funding from health insurance, from public sector con tracts, and from an increasingly affluent population willing to pay for professional help in dealing with personal problems. The growing popularity of employee assistance programs is also expected to spur demand for private practitioners, some of whom provide social work services to corporations on a contract basis. Entry into private practice does not guarantee success. Private prac titioners must be able to market themselves to prospective purchasers of their services such as schools, health care providers, corporations, or individuals. Moreover, they must be prepared to deal with competition from psychologists, psychiatric nurses, counselors, and other mental health providers. Prospects for hospital social workers should be favorable through the year 2000, largely because of greatly increased emphasis on discharge planning, which facilitates early discharge of hospital patients by assuring that the necessary medical services and social supports are in place. The pivotal role of social workers in discharge planning is expected to sustain strong demand for hospital social workers. Home health is gaining importance as an area of social work prac tice, not only because hospitals are moving to release patients more quickly, but because a large and growing number of people have 118 Occupational Outlook Handbook impairments or disabilities that make it difficult to live at home without some form of assistance. Social workers determine what kind of assistance is most appropriate, establish the client’s eligibility for publicly funded in-home services, and supervise the aides who provide direct care. Demand for social workers is also expected to grow in health maintenance organizations (HMO’s), medical group practices, and rehabilitation facilities that minister to alcoholics and drug abusers. Services provided by social workers in HMO’s include counseling on teenage pregnancy, stress management, substance abuse, family planning, crisis intervention for cases of spouse or child abuse, assis tance for the elderly, and case management. The overall outlook for school social workers is good, especially for persons with training or experience in this area. Growing awareness that scholastic achievement depends upon the child’s ability to concen trate on school is among the factors likely to heighten demand. School authorities’ efforts to respond to the adjustment problems of newly arrived immigrants, children from broken families, and others in diffi cult situations will contribute to job growth. Moreover, continued emphasis on integrating handicapped childreninto the general school population—a requirement under the Education for All Handicapped Children Act—will probably lead to more jobs as school officials take steps to expand and strengthen the services they offer. The availability of State and local funding will dictate the actual increase in jobs in this setting, however. Job prospects for social workers vary a great deal. Opportunities differ depending upon academic credentials, experience, and field of practice. Geographic location is a consideration, too. Competition is stronger in cities where training programs for social workers abound. At the same time, population growth in the Sunbelt States is spurring expansion of social service programs there, and some isolated rural areas are finding it difficult to attract and retain qualified staff. Trends in the number of individuals obtaining degrees in social work may affect job prospects. While the number of individuals earn ing BSW and MSW degrees from accredited programs appears to be on the upswing, the number of new social work graduates is not likely to return to the peak levels attained in the late 1970’s. In light of the impending decrease in the college-age population, the supply of formally prepared social workers is not likely to keep pace with anticipated growth in social work positions. This does not imply a shortage of social workers, in view of the abundant supply of new college graduates, career changers, and reen trants who have the requisite education or experience. However, it does indicate that a larger proportion of social service positions will be filled by people without professional preparation. Competition for entry level human service jobs, which historically has been keen, should abate somewhat. As in the past, competition will be strongest for social work positions offering the most favorable pay and benefits. Earnings Salaries for social workers at all levels vary greatly by type of agency (private or public; Federal, State, or local) and geographic region, but generally are highest in large cities and in States with sizable urban populations. Private practitioners, administrators, teachers, and re searchers often earn considerably more than other types of social workers. Median earnings for full-time social workers were $22,000 a year in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $18,000 and $28,600 per year. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $ 12,600 a year while the top 10 percent earned over $38,480 a year. MSW’s generally earn more. In 1986, the average salary for social workers with an MSW was $27,700 a year, according to a membership survey conducted by the National Association of Social Work. The average annual starting salary for social workers in hospitals and medical centers (positions requiring an MSW) was about $22,212 in 1988, according to a survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Experienced hospital social workers were paid about $30,768 a year, according to the same survey. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations Through direct counseling or referral to other services, social workers help people solve a range of personal problems. Workers in occupa tions with similar duties include the clergy, counselors, counseling psychologists, and vocational rehabilitation counselors. Sources of Additional Information For information about career opportunities in social work, contact: w-National Association of Social Workers, 7981 Eastern Ave., Silver Spring, MD 20910. The Council on Social Work Education publishes an annual Direc tory of Accredited BSW and MSW Programs. Price and ordering information for this and other CSWE publications is available from: ••-Council on Social Work Education, 1744 R St. NW., Washington, DC 20009. For information on doctoral programs in social work, contact: ••Group for the Advancement of Doctoral Education in Social Work, c/o Dr. Richard Estes, Ph D., ACSW, School of Social Work, 3701 Locust Walk Dr., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104. Recreation Workers (D.O.T. 153.137-010; 159.124-010; 187.137-010; 195.227-010 and-014; and 352.167-010) Nature of the Work As leisure time in our lives increases, opportunities for organized recreation become more important. Recreation workers plan, organize, and direct activities that help people enjoy and benefit from leisure hours. They should not be confused with recreational therapists, who help individuals recover or adjust to illness, disability, or specific social problems. (The work of recreational therapists is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) Recreation programs, whether institutionally or community based, are as diverse as the people they serve and the people who mn them. Employment settings range from pristine wilderness areas to health clubs in the city center. At local playgrounds and community centers, for example, recreation personnel organize and conduct a variety of ’:C, ^ Recreation workers instruct young people in the basics of sports and hobbies. Professional Specialty Occupations leisure activities, including arts, crafts, fitness, and sports. Recreation workers are also employed by theme parks, tourist attractions, and firms that offer “getaway” vacations or adventure trips. Other employment settings include parks, campgrounds, and recre ational areas; schools, churches, and synagogues; retirement commu nities, senior centers, and adult day care programs; military bases; correctional institutions; and corporations. Recreation personnel in industry organize and direct leisure activi ties and athletic programs for employees and their families such as bowling and softball leagues, social functions, travel programs, dis count services, and, to an increasing extent, exercise and fitness pro grams. These activities are generally for adults. Camp counselors lead and instruct campers in nature-oriented forms of recreation such as swimming, hiking, and horseback riding as well as outdoor education. In addition, they provide campers with specialized instruction in a particular area such as music, drama, gymnastics, tennis, or computers. In resident camps, the staff also provides guidance and supervision in daily living tasks and general socialization. Recreation workers occupy a variety of positions at different levels of responsibility. Recreation leaders provide direction and are respon sible for a recreation program’s daily operation. They may give instruc tion in dance, drama, crafts, games, and sports; keep records; and maintain recreation facilities. Those who provide instruction in special ties such as art, music, drama, swimming, or tennis may be called activity specialists. They often conduct classes and coach teams in the activity in which they specialize. Recreation leaders and activity specialists usually work under a supervisor. Recreation supervisors plan programs to meet the needs of the population they serve; supervise recreation leaders, sometimes over a large region; and direct specialized activities. In order to accomplish these tasks more efficiently, a growing number of supervisors are using computers in their work. Working Conditions While the average workweek for recreation workers is 35 to 40 hours, people entering this field should expect some night work, weekend work, and irregular hours. Work can be physically tiring. Recreation workers often spend much of their time outdoors and may work under a variety of weather conditions. Recreation supervisors may spend most of their time in an office. Since full-time recreation workers are spending more time acting as managers instead of hands-on activities leaders, they are engaged in less physical activity. However, as is the case for anyone engaged in physical activity, recreation workers risk physical injuries. The work setting for recreation workers may be anywhere from a vacation cruise ship to a woodland recreational park. Generally, employment follows overall population patterns; most jobs are in urban and suburban areas, where the majority of Americans live. Jobs in camping, while often set in rural or wilderness areas, also follow general population patterns, with more camps in heavily populated States. Employment Recreation workers held about 186,000 jobs in 1988. (This estimate does not include many summer workers.) More than half of these jobs were in government agencies, primarily in park and recreation departments at the municipal and county levels. State park systems employ some recreation workers, and the Federal Government em ploys a small number of recreation specialists, sports specialists, out door recreation planners, and recreation assistants and aides for pro grams run by the Veterans Administration and the Departments of Defense and Interior. About 15 percent of the jobs were in membership organizations with a civic, social, fraternal, or religious orientation—the Boy Scouts, the YWCA, and Red Cross, for example. Approximately 12 percent were in programs run by social service organizations (senior centers and adult day care programs, for example) or in residential care facilities https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 119 such as halfway houses, group homes, and institutions for delinquent youth. Other employers include commercial recreation establishments, amusement parks, sports and entertainment centers, wilderness and survival enterprises, tourist attractions, vacation excursions, hotels and other resorts, camps, health spas, athletic clubs, apartment com plexes, and other settings. The recreation field is characterized by an unusually large number of part-time, seasonal, and volunteer jobs. The largest number of paid employees in the recreation field are part-time or seasonal workers. Typical jobs include summer camp counselors and playground leaders, lifeguards, craft specialists, and after-school and weekend recreation program leaders. Many jobs are filled by teachers and college students. The vast majority of volunteers serve as activity leaders at local playgrounds, or in youth organizations, camps, nursing homes, hospi tals, senior centers, YMCA’s, and other settings. Some volunteers serve on local park and recreation boards and commissions. Part-time work during school and volunteer experience may lead to a full-time job. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Educational requirements for jobs in this field range from a high school diploma or less for many summer jobs to graduate education for administrative positions in large public systems. Many applicants for full-time career positions are college graduates with majors in parks and recreation, or leisure studies, but a bachelor’s degree in any liberal arts field may be sufficient in the private sector. Some jobs require specialized training in a particular field, such as art, music, drama, or athletics, and some require special certification, such as holding a certificate in lifesaving. According to the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA), about 70 percent of students receiving bachelor’s degrees in parks and recreation obtain jobs in their field within a year. However, a bache lor’s degree is not always necessary. Some recreation positions are filled by high school graduates, while others are filled by graduates of associate degree programs in parks and recreation, social work, and other human services disciplines. A number of jobs in this field are held by college students who work part time while earning a degree. Most supervisors have a bachelor’s degree and experience. Persons with academic preparation in parks and recreation, leisure studies, physical education, fitness management, and related fields generally have better prospects for career advancement, although this varies from one employer to another. In some organizations, the top of the career ladder can be reached without a college education, but usually more slowly than with one. A bachelor’s degree and experience are considered minimum re quirements for administrators. However, increasing numbers are ob taining master’s degrees in parks and recreation as well as in related disciplines. Many persons in other disciplines, including social work, forestry, and resource management, pursue graduate degrees in recre ation. In industrial recreation, or “employee services” as this field is more commonly called, companies prefer applicants with a bachelor’s de gree in recreation and a strong background in business administration. In recent years, demand has increased dramatically for college graduates having expertise in commercial recreation and tourism. Many colleges are starting to offer specializations in these areas to meet this growing demand. In 1987, about 200 community and junior colleges offered park and recreation programs leading to an associate degree, and 300 colleges and universities offered programs leading to a bachelor’s, master’s, or Ph.D. degree. In 1989, 84 parks and recreation curriculums at the bachelor’s degree level were accredited by the Council on Accreditation, spon sored by the NRPA. Accredited programs provide broad exposure to the history, theory, and philosophy of park and recreation manage ment. Courses are offered in community organization; supervision and administration; recreational needs of special populations such as older adults or the disabled; and supervised fieldwork. Students have an 120 Occupational Outlook Handbook opportunity to specialize in areas such as therapeutic recreation, park management, outdoor recreation, industrial or commercial recreation, and camp management. The American Camping Association has developed a curriculum for camp director education. Many national youth associations offer training courses for camp directors at the local and regional levels. Persons planning recreation careers should be outgoing, good at motivating people, and sensitive to the needs of others. Good health and physical stamina are required. Activity planning calls for creativity and resourcefulness. Willingness to accept responsibility and the abil ity to exercise judgment are important qualities since recreation person nel often work alone. To increase their leadership skills and under standing of people, students are advised to obtain related work experience in high school and college. Such experience may help students decide whether their interests really point to a human services career. Students also should talk to local park and recreation profes sionals, school guidance counselors, and others. Individuals contemplating careers in recreation at the supervisory or administrative level should develop managerial skills. College courses in management, business administration, accounting, and per sonnel management are likely to be useful. Certification for this field is offered by the NRPA and the American Camping Association. In 1989, 38 States had adopted NRPA standards for leisure service technicians and leisure service professionals. The Arperican Camping Association certifies individuals who meet their standards of professional competence, and so does the National Em ployee Services and Recreation Association. Certification is not usually required for employment or advancement in this field. However, employers faced with an abundance of qualified applicants are likely to give preference to those with professional credentials, experience, or both. Job Outlook Employment of recreation workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Factors pointing to future expansion of this field include a growing number of people with both leisure time and the money to purchase leisure services; increased interest in fitness and health; rising demand for recreational opportunities for older adults in senior centers and retire ment communities; and more activity programs for persons with disa bilities. As is generally the case, however, most job openings will result from replacement needs. Employment opportunities will be more favorable in some settings than others, a reflection of divergent prospects for industry growth. Job growth will occur in the rapidly growing commercial recreation industry, composed of amusement parks, athletic clubs, camps, sports clinics, and the like. Hiring practices in commercial recreation vary a great deal, and employer preference for applicants with formal training in recreation, physical education, and related fields has not been clearly established, although it is steadily moving in that direction. Demand for recreation workers is also expected in the fast-growing social services industry. Recreation workers will be needed to develop and lead activity programs in such settings as senior centers, halfway houses, children’s homes, and day care programs for the mentally retarded or developmentally disabled. Hiring practices in social service agencies vary, too. Some jobs require course work or degrees in recreation, rehabilitation, or other human services fields, while others require only suitable personal qualifications and work experience. Overall job growth in local government is expected to be slow due to budget constraints, and local park and recreation departments are expected to do less hiring for permanent, full-time positions than in the past. As a result, this sector’s share of recreation worker employ ment will shrink by the end of the century. Nonetheless, opportunities will vary widely by region, since resources as well as priorities for public services differ from one community to another. Thus, hiring https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis prospects for recreation personnel will be much better in some park and recreation departments than overall projections would suggest. Because the field is open to all college graduates regardless of major, applications for career positions in recreation greatly exceed the number of job openings. Keen competition for jobs is expected to continue. Individuals with both experience and formal training in recreation are expected to have the best opportunities for staff posi tions. Those with graduate degrees should have the best opportunities for supervisory or administrative positions. While the market for full-time career positions is expected to remain competitive, prospects are much better for the very large number of temporary seasonal jobs. These positions, typically filled by high school or college-age individuals, do not generally require formal education in recreation or leisure studies, although swimming, lifeguarding, skiing, and similar skills may be necessary. Demand for seasonal workers is great, and job opportunities should be plentiful. Employers are competing for their share of the vacationing student labor market, and salaries in recreation are not always competitive with those in other fields. Earnings Median annual earnings of recreation workers who worked full time in 1988 were about $14,300. The middle 50 percent earned between about $10,000 and $20,000. The lowest 10 percent earned about $7,400 or less, while the top 10 percent earned about $27,300 or more. According to the American Camping Association, the average salary for camp directors was about $380 a week in 1988. Seasonally em ployed camp personnel earned between about $95 and $175 a week. Room and board, however, were usually provided free of charge. The starting salary for recreation workers in the Federal Government was about $15,700 a year in 1989. Most public and private recreation agencies provide full-time recre ation workers with vacation and other fringe benefits such as sick leave and hospital insurance. Part-time workers receive few, if any, fringe benefits. Related Occupations Recreation workers must exhibit leadership and sensitivity in dealing with people. Other occupations that require similar personal qualities include recreational therapists, social workers, parole officers, human relations counselors, school counselors, clinical and counseling psy chologists, and teachers. Sources of Additional Information For information on local government jobs in recreation, contact the nearest department of parks and recreation. Ordering information for materials describing careers and academic programs in recreation is available from: ••-National Recreation and Park Association, Division of Professional Services, 3101 Park Center Dr., Alexandria, VA 22302. The NRPA also publishes a bulletin of job openings twice monthly. The American Association for Leisure and Recreation publishes information sheets on 25 separate careers in parks and recreation. For price and ordering information, contact: ••-AALR, 1900 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091. AALR also can provide a free list of job opportunities in the park and recreation field. For information on careers in employee services and recreation, contact: ••-National Employee Services and Recreation Association, 2400 South Down ing St., Westchester, IL 60154. For information on careers in camping and summer counselor oppor tunities, send request and postpaid return envelope to: ••-American Camping Association, Bradford Woods, 5000 State Rd., 67 N, Martinsville, IN 46151. For information on careers with the YMCA, contact: w-YMCA National Office, 101 North Wacker Dr., Chicago, IL 60606. Religious Workers Protestant Ministers (D.O.T. 120.007) Nature of the Work Protestant ministers lead their congregations in worship services and administer the various rites of the church, such as baptism, confirma tion, and Holy Communion. They prepare and deliver sermons and give religious instruction. They also perform marriages; conduct funer als; counsel individuals who seek guidance; visit the sick, aged, and handicapped at home and in the hospital; comfort the bereaved; and serve church members in other ways. Many Protestant ministers write articles for publication, give speeches, and engage in interfaith, com munity, civic, educational, and recreational activities sponsored by or related to the interests of the church. Some ministers teach in semi naries, colleges and universities, and church-affiliated preparatory or high schools. The services that ministers conduct differ among Protestant denomi nations and also among congregations within a denomination. In many denominations, ministers follow a traditional order of worship; in others, they adapt the services to the needs of youth and other groups within the congregation. Most services include Bible reading, hymn singing, prayers, and a sermon. In some denominations, Bible reading by a member of the congregation and individual testimonials may constitute a large part of the service. Ministers serving small congregations generally work personally with parishioners. Those serving large congregations have greater administrative responsibilities and spend considerable time working with committees, church officers, and staff, besides other duties. They may share specific aspects of the ministry with one or more associates or assistants, such as a minister of education who assists in educational programs for different age groups, or a minister of music. Working Conditions Ministers are “on call” for any serious troubles or emergencies that involve or affect members of their churches. They also may work long and irregular hours in administrative, educational, and community service activities. Many of the ministers’ duties are sedentary, such as reading or doing research in a study or a library to prepare sermons or write articles. In some denominations, ministers are reassigned by a central body to a new pastorate every few years. Employment In 1988, there were an estimated 429,000 Protestant ministers, of whom about 260,000 served individual congregations. Others worked in closely related fields such as chaplains in hospitals, the Armed Forces, universities, and correctional institutions. While there are numerous denominations, most ministers are employed by the five largest Protestant bodies—Baptist, Episcopalian, Lutheran, Method ist, and Presbyterian. All cities and most towns in the United States have at least one Protestant church with a full-time minister. Although most ministers are located in urban areas, many serve two or more small congregations in less densely populated areas. Some small churches increasingly are employing part-time ministers who are seminary students, retired ministers, or holders of secular jobs. Unpaid pastors serve other churches with tight budgets. Some churches employ specially trained members of the laity to conduct nonliturgical functions. Training and Other Qualifications Educational requirements for entry into the Protestant ministry vary greatly. Some denominations have no formal educational require https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Ml Ministers administer various rites of the church. ments, and others ordain persons having various types of training in Bible colleges, Bible institutes, or liberal arts colleges. Many denomi nations now allow women to be ordained, but a woman should verify this with her particular denomination before deciding on a career as a minister. In 1988, over 200 American Protestant theological schools were accredited by the Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada. These admit only students who have received a bachelor’s degree or its equivalent in liberal arts from an accredited college. Many denominations require a 3-year course of professional study in one of these accredited schools or seminaries after college graduation for the degree of master of divinity. Recommended preseminary or undergraduate college courses in clude English, history, philosophy, natural sciences, social sciences, fine arts, music, religion, and foreign languages. These courses pro vide a knowledge of modem social, cultural, and scientific institutions and problems. However, students considering theological study should contact, at the earliest possible date, their denominations and the schools to which they intend to apply, to learn how to prepare for the program they hope to enter. The standard curriculum for accredited theological schools consists of four major categories: Biblical, historical, theological, and practi cal. Courses of a practical nature include pastoral care, preaching, religious education, and administration. Many accredited schools re quire that students work under the supervision of a faculty member or experienced minister. Some institutions offer doctor of ministry de grees to students who have completed additional study, usually 2 or more years, and served at least 2 years as a minister. Scholarships and loans are available for students of theological institutions. In general, each large denomination has its own school or schools of theology that reflect its particular doctrine, interests, and needs. However, many of these schools are open to students from other denominations. Several interdenominational schools associated with universities give both undergraduate and graduate training covering a wide range of theological points of view. Persons who have denominational qualifications for the ministry usually are ordained after graduation from a seminary or after serving 121 122 Occupational Outlook Handbook a probationary pastoral period. Denominations that do not require seminary training ordain clergy at various appointed times. For exam ple, some evangelical churches may ordain ministers with only a high school education. Men and women entering the clergy often begin their careers as pastors of small congregations or as assistant pastors in large churches. Job Outlook The increasing cost of operating churches is expected to result in limited growth in the demand for ministers through the year 2000. However, enrollments in seminaries are expected to stabilize in the coming years. As a result, new graduates of theological schools are expected to face less competition for jobs than in the past. The supplydemand situation will vary among denominations and geographic re gions. Ministers will still face stiff competition for more responsible positions serving large, urban congregations. Relatively favorable prospects are expected for ministers in evangelical churches. Ministers willing to work part time or for smaller, rural congregations also should have relatively favorable opportunities. Most of the openings for ministers through the year 2000 will arise from the need to replace retirees and, to a lesser extent, those who die or leave the ministry. Employment alternatives for newly ordained Protestant ministers who are unable to find positions in parishes include working in youth counseling, family relations, and welfare organizations; teaching in religious educational institutions; and serving as chaplains in the Armed Forces, hospitals, universities, and correctional institutions. Earnings Salaries of Protestant clergy vary substantially, depending on age, experience, denomination, size and wealth of congregation, and geo graphic location. Based on limited information, the estimated average annual income of Protestant ministers was about $23,000 in 1988. The average salary, including fringe benefits such as housing, insurance, and transportation, was an estimated $38,000.-- In large, wealthier denominations, ministers often earned significantly higher salaries. Increasingly, ministers with modest salaries earn additional income from employment in secular occupations. Related Occupations Protestant ministers advise and counsel individuals and groups regard ing their religious as well as personal, social, and vocational develop ment. Other occupations involved in this type of work include social workers, clinical and counseling psychologists, teachers, and coun selors. Sources of Additional Information Persons who are interested in entering the Protestant ministry should seek the counsel of a minister or church guidance worker. Each theo logical school can supply information on admission requirements. Prospective ministers also should contact the ordination supervision body of their particular denomination for information on special re quirements for ordination. Occupational information about the Protestant ministry can also be obtained from; ••-National Council of Churches, Professional Church Leadership, Room 770, 475 Riverside Dr., New York, NY 10115. Rabbis (D.O.T. 120.007) Nature of the Work Rabbis are the spiritual leaders of their congregations, and teachers and interpreters of Jewish law and tradition. They conduct religious services and deliver sermons on the Sabbath and on Jewish holidays. Like other clergy, rabbis conduct weddings and funeral services, visit https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis the sick, help the poor, comfort the bereaved, supervise religious education programs, engage in interfaith activities, and involve them selves in community affairs. Rabbis serving large congregations may spend considerable time in administrative duties, working with their staffs and committees. Large congregations frequently have an associate or assistant rabbi. Many assistant rabbis serve as educational directors. Rabbis serve either Orthodox, Conservative, Reform, or Recon structionist congregations. Regardless of their particular point of view, all Jewish congregations preserve the substance of Jewish religious worship. Congregations differ in the extent to which they follow the traditional form of worship—for example, in the wearing of head coverings, the use of Hebrew as the language of prayer, or the use of instrumental music or a choir. The format of the worship service and, therefore, the ritual that the rabbi uses may vary even among congregations belonging to the same branch of Judaism. Rabbis also may write for religious and lay publications and teach in theological seminaries, colleges, and universities. Working Conditions Rabbis work long hours and are “on call” to visit the sick, comfort the bereaved, and counsel those who seek it. Community and educational activities may also require long or irregular hours. Some of their duties are intellectual and sedentary, such as studying religious texts, researching and writing sermons and articles for publi cation, and preparing lectures for adult education. Rabbis have a good deal of independent authority, since they have no formal hierarchy. They are responsible only to the board of trustees of the congregations they serve. Employment In 1988, approximately 850 Orthodox rabbis served congregations, many of them relatively small. In addition, 800 Conservative, 800 Reform, and 65 Reconstructionist rabbis served congregations. Many rabbis functioned in other settings. Some taught in Jewish Studies programs at colleges and universities. Others served as chaplains in the military services, in hospitals, in college settings, and other institutions, or in one of the many Jewish community service agencies. Although rabbis serve Jewish communities throughout the nation, they are concentrated in major metropolitan areas with large Jewish populations. Training and Other Qualifications To become eligible for ordination as a rabbi, a student must complete a course of study in a seminary. Entrance requirements and the curricu lum depend upon the branch of Judaism with which the seminary is associated. About 35 seminaries educate and ordain Orthodox rabbis. The Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary and the Beth Medrash Govoha Seminary are representative of the two basic kinds of Orthodox semi naries. The former requires a bachelor’s degree for entry and has a formal 3-year ordination program. The latter has no formal admission requirements but may require more years of study for ordination. The training is rigorous. When students have become sufficiently learned in the Talmud, the Bible, and other religious studies, they may be ordained with the approval of an authorized rabbi, acting either inde pendently or as a representative of a rabbinical seminary. The Jewish Theological Seminary of America educates rabbis for the Conservative branch. The Hebrew Union College—Jewish Institute of Religion educates rabbis for the Reform branch. Both seminaries require the completion of a 4-year college course, as well as earlier preparation in Jewish studies, for admission to the rabbinical program leading to ordination. A student with a strong background in Jewish studies can complete the course at the Conservative seminary in 4 years; for other enrollees, the course may take as long as 6 years. Normally, 5 years of study are required to complete the rabbinical course at the Reform seminary, including 1 year of preparatory study in Jerusalem. Exceptionally well-prepared students can shorten this 5year period to a minimum of 3 years. Professional Specialty Occupations 123 Related Occupations Rabbis advise and counsel individuals and groups regarding their religious, personal, social, and vocational development. Others in volved in this type of work include social workers, clinical and counsel ing psychologists, teachers, and counselors. Sources of Additional Information Persons who are interested in becoming rabbis should discuss their plans for a vocation with a practicing rabbi. Information on the work of rabbis and allied occupations can be obtained from: Ordination as a rabbi requires many years of study. The Reconstructionist Rabbinical College educates rabbis in the newest branch of Judaism. A bachelor’s degree is required for admis sion. The rabbinical program is based on a 5-year course of study which emphasizes, in each year, a period in the history of Jewish civilization. A preliminary preparatory year is required for students without sufficient grounding in Hebrew and Jewish studies. Graduates are awarded the title “Rabbi” and the Master of Arts in Hebrew Letters and, with special study, can earn the Doctor of Hebrew Letters degree. In general, the curriculums of Jewish theological seminaries provide students with a comprehensive knowledge of the Bible, Talmud, Rab binic literature, Jewish history, theology, and courses in education, pastoral psychology, and public speaking. Students get extensive prac tical training in dealing with social problems in the community. Train ing for alternatives to the pulpit, such as leadership in community services and religious education, is increasingly stressed. Some seminaries grant advanced academic degrees in such fields as Biblical and Talmudic research. All Jewish theological seminaries make scholarships and loans available. Newly ordained rabbis usually begin as spiritual leaders of small congregations, assistants to experi enced rabbis, directors of Hillel Foundations on college campuses, teachers in educational institutions, or chaplains in the Armed Forces. As a rule, experienced rabbis fill the pulpits of large and well-estab lished Jewish congregations. ••-The Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary, 2540 Amsterdam Ave., New York, NY 10033. (Orthodox) ••-Beth Medrash Govoha Seminary, 626 Seventh St., Lakewood, NJ 08701. (Orthodox) ••-The Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 3080 Broadway, New York, NY 10027. (Conservative) ••-Hebrew Union College—Jewish Institute of Religion, Director of Admis sions, at any one of three campuses: 1 W. 4th St., New York, NY 10012; 3101 Clifton Ave., Cincinnati, OH 45220; 3077 University Mall, Los Angeles, CA 90007. (Reform) ••-Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, Church Rd. and Greenwood Ave., Wyncote, PA 19095. Roman Catholic Priests (D.O.T. 120.007) Nature of the Work Roman Catholic priests attend to the spiritual, pastoral, moral, and educational needs of the members of their church. They deliver ser mons, administer the sacraments, and preside at liturgical functions such as funeral services. They also comfort the sick, console and counsel those in need of guidance, and assist the poor. In recent years, some priests have paid increasing attention to nonliturgical concerns such as human rights and social welfare. A priest’s day usually begins with morning meditation and mass and may end with an individual counseling session or an evening visit to a hospital or home. Many priests direct and serve on church Job Outlook The job outlook for rabbis is generally favorable in the four major branches of Judaism. Since most rabbis prefer to serve in large, urban areas, employment opportunities generally are best in nonmetropolitan areas, particularly in smaller communities in the South, Midwest, and Northwest. Graduates of Orthodox seminaries who seek pulpits should have good opportunities as growth in enrollments slows and as many gradu ates choose not to seek pulpits. Orthodox rabbis willing to work in small communities should have particularly good prospects. Conservative and Reform rabbis are expected to have good employ ment opportunities throughout the country. Reconstructionist rabbis are expected to have very good employment opportunities since membership is expanding rapidly. ' Earnings Income varies widely, depending on the size and financial status of the congregation, as well as its denominational branch and geographic location. Rabbis may earn additional income from gifts or fees for officiating at ceremonies such as bar mitzvahs and weddings. Based on limited information, annual average earnings of rabbis generally ranged from $30,000 to $80,000 in 1988, including fringe benefits. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A priest gives communion during Mass. 124 Occupational Outlook Handbook committees, work in civic and charitable organizations, and assist in community projects. The two main classifications of priests—diocesan (secular) and religious—have the same powers, acquired through ordination by a bishop. The differences lie in their way of life, their type of work, and the church authority to whom they are immediately subject. Diocesan priests generally work in parishes assigned by the bishop of their diocese. Religious priests generally work as part of a religious order, such as the Jesuits, Dominicans, or Franciscans. They may engage in specialized activities, such as teaching or missionary work, assigned by superiors of their order. Both religious and diocesan priests hold teaching and administrative posts in Catholic seminaries, colleges and universities, and high schools. Priests attached to religious orders staff a large proportion of the church’s institutions of higher education and many high schools, whereas diocesan priests are usually concerned with the parochial schools attached to parish churches and with diocesan high schools. The members of religious orders do most of the missionary work conducted by the Catholic Church in this country and abroad. Working Conditions Priests spend long and irregular hours working for the church and the community. Religious priests are assigned duties by their superiors in their particular orders. Some religious priests serve as missionaries in for eign countries, where they may live under difficult and primitive conditions. Some live a communal life in monasteries, where they devote themselves to prayer, study, and assigned work. Diocesan priests are “on call” at all hours to serve their parishioners in emergencies. They also have many intellectual duties, including study of the scriptures and keeping abreast of current religious and secular events in order to prepare sermons. Diocesan priests are respon sible to the bishop of the diocese. Employment There were approximately 54,000 priests in 1988, according to the Official Catholic Directory. Over 18,000—primarily diocesan priests—served congregations as pastors. There are priests in nearly every city and town and in many rural communities. The majority are in metropolitan areas, where most Catholics reside. Large numbers of priests are located in communities near Catholic educational and other institutions. Training and Other Qualifications Preparation for the priesthood generally requires 8 years of study beyond high school in one of about 230 seminaries. Preparatory study may begin in the first year of high school, at the college level, or in theological seminaries after college graduation. High school seminaries provide a college preparatory program that emphasizes English grammar, speech, literature, and social studies. Latin may be required and modem languages are encouraged. In Hispanic communities, knowledge of Spanish is mandatory. The semi nary college offers a liberal arts program stressing philosophy and religion, the study of man through the behavioral sciences and history, and the natural sciences and mathematics. In many college seminaries, a student may concentrate in any one of these fields. The remaining 4 years of preparation include sacred scripture; dog matic, moral, and pastoral theology; homiletics (art of preaching); church history; liturgy (mass); and canon law. Fieldwork experience usually is required; in recent years, this aspect of a priest’s training has been emphasized. Diocesan and religious priests attend different major seminaries, where slight variations in the training reflect the differences in their duties. Priests commit themselves to celibacy. Postgraduate work in theology is offered at a number of American Catholic universities or at ecclesiastical universities around the world, particularly in Rome. Also, many priests do graduate work in fields unrelated to theology. Priests are encouraged by the Catholic Church https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis to continue their studies, at least informally, after ordination. In recent years, continuing education for ordained priests has stressed social sciences, such as sociology and psychology. Young men never are denied entry into seminaries because of lack of funds. In seminaries for secular priests, scholarships or loans are available. Those in religious seminaries are financed by contributions of benefactors. A newly ordained secular priest usually works as an assistant pastor or curate. Newly ordained priests of religious orders are assigned to the specialized duties for which they are trained. Depending on the talents, interests, and experience of the individual, many opportunities for greater responsibility exist within the church. Job Outlook More priests will be needed in the years ahead to provide for the spiritual, educational, and social needs of the increasing number of Catholics. In recent years, the number of ordained priests has been insufficient to fill the needs of newly established parishes and other Catholic institutions, and to replace priests who retire, die, or leave the priesthood. This situation is likely to intensify if, as expected, seminary enrollments continue to decline and an increasing proportion of priests retire. In response to the shortage of priests, certain traditional functions increasingly are being performed by lay deacons and by teams of clergy and laity. Presently about 8,500 lay deacons have been ordained to preach and perform liturgical functions such as baptisms, distribut ing Holy Communion, and reading the gospel at the mass. The only services a deacon cannot perform are saying mass and hearing confes sions. Teams of clergy and laity undertake nonliturgical functions such as hospital visits and meetings. Priests will continue to offer mass, administer sacraments, and hear confession, but may be less involved in teaching and administrative work. Earnings Diocesan priests’ salaries vary from diocese to diocese. Based on limited information, in 1988 most salaries ranged from about $6,000 to $9,000 a year. The diocesan priest also may receive a car allowance, free room and board in the parish rectory, and fringe benefits such as group insurance and retirement benefits. Religious priests take a vow of poverty and are supported by their religious order. Priests who do special work related to the church, such as teaching, usually receive a partial salary which is less than a lay person in the same position would receive. The difference between the usual salary for these jobs and the salary that the priest receives is called “contrib uted service. ” In some of these situations, housing and related expenses may be provided; in other cases, the priest must make his own arrange ments. Some priests doing special work receive the same compensation that a lay person would receive. Related Occupations Roman Catholic priests advise and counsel individuals and groups regarding their religious as well as personal, social, and vocational development. Other occupations involved in this type of work include social workers, clinical and counseling psychologists, teachers, and counselors. Sources of Additional Information Young men interested in entering the priesthood should seek the guidance and counsel of their parish priests. For information regarding the different religious orders and the secular priesthood, as well as a list of the seminaries which prepare students for the priesthood, contact the diocesan Director of Vocations through the office of the local pastor or bishop. Occupational information about the Roman Catholic priesthood can also be obtained from: w-National Conference of Diocesan Vocation Directors, 1307 S. Wabash Ave., Chicago, IL 60605. Teachers, Librarians, and Counselors Adult and Vocational Education Teachers (D.O.T. 075.127-010; 090.222; 097.227-010 and -014; 099.223, .227-014, -018, -026, and-030; 149.021; 150.027-014; 151.027-014; 152.021; 153.227 014; 159.227; 166.227; 239.227; 621.221; 683.222; 689.222; 715.221; 740.221; 789.222; 806.227; and 919.223) Nature of the Work Adults participate in vocational and adult education not only to learn job skills, but also for personal enrichment. Some adult and vocational education programs prepare people who have graduated or left school for occupations that do not require a college degree, such as welder, word processor, dental assistant, and cosmetologist, or help people upgrade current skills. Others offer courses not specifically intended to prepare for an occupation, such as basic education for school dropouts, cooking, dancing, exercise and physical fitness, photogra phy, and the stock market. Adult and vocational education teachers may lecture in classrooms and also give students hands-on experience—much like secondary school shop and home economics teachers. Generally, they demon strate techniques, have students apply them, and provide criticism so students can learn from mistakes. For example, welding instructors show students various welding techniques, including the use of tools and equipment. Similarly, teachers of music, tennis, or sewing demon strate the techniques before having students apply them. Some instruct in adult basic education programs. Teachers may work with students who do not speak English; teach adults reading, writing, and mathematics up to the eighth grade level; or teach adults through a twelfth grade level in preparation for the General Educational Development Examination (GED). The GED offers the equivalent of a high school diploma. Teachers in this program deal with students at different levels of development who may lack proper study habits and self-confidence, and who may require more attention and patience than other students. These teachers may refer students for counseling or job placement. Because many people who need adult basic education are reluctant to seek it out, teachers may also recruit participants. Adult and vocational education teachers also prepare lessons and assignments, grade papers and do related paperwork, attend faculty and professional meetings, and stay abreast of developments in their field. Working Conditions Teaching involves extended periods of standing and talking, and can be both physically and mentally tiring. Teachers may face frustration with students who have difficulty learning, but they also can experience satisfaction when students succeed. Many adult and vocational education teachers teach part time. Adult basic education teachers are more likely to work full time than other adult and vocational education teachers. Many courses are offered at night or on weekends and range from 1-day minisessions to semesterlong courses. Employment Adult and vocational education teachers held about 466,500 jobs in 1988. About half taught part time, a larger proportion than for other teachers, and many taught only intermittently. However, many of them also held other jobs, in many cases doing work related to the subject they taught. Adult and vocational teachers are employed by automotive repair, bartending, business, computer, electronics, medical technology, and similar schools and institutes; public school systems; community and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis f' •>« Adult and vocational education teachers may conduct activities outside of the classroom. junior colleges; dance studios; health clubs; businesses that provide formal training for their employees; job training centers; labor unions; and religious organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements vary widely by State and by subject. In general, teachers need work or other experience in their field, and a license or certificate in fields where these are usually required for full professional status. In some cases, a bachelor’s, master’s, or doctoral degree or other credential is required and in others, an acceptable portfolio of work. Most States and the District of Columbia require adult basic educa tion teachers to have a bachelor’s degree from an approved teacher training program, and some require teacher certification. (See state ments on elementary and secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Adult and vocational education teachers should communicate and relate well with students, enjoy working with them, and be able to motivate them. Adult basic education instructors, in particular, must be patient, understanding, and supportive to make students comfortable, develop trust, and help them better understand their needs and aims. Some teachers advance to administrative positions in departments of education, colleges and universities, and corporate training depart ments. Such positions may require advanced degrees. (See statement on education administrators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Employment of adult and vocational education teachers is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as the demand for adult and vocational education programs continues to rise. An increasing number of adults are taking courses for career advancement, skills upgrading, and personal enrichment. Enrollments in adult basic education programs are increasing rapidly because of changes in immigration policy that require basic competency in English and civics, and an increased awareness of the difficulty in finding a good job without basic academic skills. Employment of vocational education teachers will not grow as fast as that of adult education teachers because the number of people 16 to 34 years old—the age group traditionally most likely to enroll in a vocational program—will decline through the year 2000. However, vocational education teachers will still be needed to train young adults for entry level jobs and to upgrade the skills of experienced workers who want to advance or switch fields or whose jobs have been elimi nated due to changing technology or business reorganization. 125 126 Occupational Outlook Handbook Most job openings for adult and vocational education teachers will stem from the need to replace persons who leave the occupation. Because many teach part time, their attachment to the occupation is weak and turnover is higher than that for most other teaching occupa tions. Opportunities will be best in fields such as computer technology, automotive mechanics, and medical technology which offer very at tractive job opportunities outside of teaching. Earnings In 1988, salaried adult and vocational education teachers who usually worked full time averaged about $470 a week. The middle 50 percent earned between $330 and $670. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $210, while the top 10 percent earned more than $815. Earnings varied widely by subject, academic credentials, experience, and region of the country. Part-timers generally earned between $8 and $20 per hour of teaching and did not receive benefits or pay for preparation time outside of class. Related Occupations Adult and vocational education teaching requires a wide variety of skills and aptitudes, including organizational, administrative, and communication skills; the power to influence, motivate, and train others; and creativity. Workers in other occupations that require these aptitudes are other teachers, counselors, school administrators, public relations specialists, and employee development specialists. Sources of Additional Information Information on adult basic education programs and certification re quirements is available from State departments of education. For information about vocational education teaching positions, con tact State departments of vocational education. For information on adult education teaching positions, contact de partments of local government, State adult education departments, schools, colleges and universities, and organizations such as the YMCA and YWCA. General information on adult and vocational education is available from: wAmerican Association for Adult and Continuing Education, 1112 16th St. NW„ Suite 420, Washington, DC 20036. •-American Vocational Association, 1410 King St., Alexandria, VA 22314. blueprints, audiovisual materials, and other items also are stored. Archivists often specialize in an area of history or technology so they can properly determine what should become part of the archives. Archivists may also work with specialized types of records—for exam ple, machine-readable records, photographs, cartographic records, motion pictures, and sound recordings. Curators manage collections in museums, zoos, aquariums, botanic gardens, and historic sites. They acquire items through purchases, gifts, field exploration, intermuseum loans, or, in the case of plants and animals, breeding. They may restore objects (such as works of art or historic items) that have deteriorated or been damaged. Curators also plan and prepare exhibits. Most curators specialize in fields such as zoology, art, or history. Those working in large institutions may be highly specialized. A large natural history museum, for example, would have specialists in birds, fishes, mammals, and dinosaurs. Furthermore, in large institutions, most curators specialize in functions. Some restore or maintain the collection, while others perform administrative tasks. Registrars, for example, are responsible for keeping track of and moving objects in the collection. In small institutions, with only one or a few curators, they are responsible for almost everything from maintaining collections to directing the affairs of museums. Conservators coordinate the activities of workers engaged in the examination, repair, and conservation of art objects. This may require substantial historical and archeological research. They use X-rays, radiographs, special lights, and other laboratory equipment in examin ing objects to determine their condition, the need for repair, and the method of preservation. Archivists and curators are increasingly using computers to catalog and organize collections. Working Conditions The working conditions of archivists and curators vary. Some spend most of their time working with the public, providing reference assis tance and educational services. Others work primarily on processing records, which may require meticulous attention to detail, and perhaps work alone or in offices with only one or two other persons. Those who restore and install exhibits or work with bulky, heavy record containers may climb, stretch, or lift, and those in zoos, botanical gardens, and other outdoor museums or historic sites walk a lot. Archivists and Curators (D.O.T. 101; 102 except .261-014 and .367-010; 109 except .067-010 and .137-010) Nature of the Work Archivists, curators, museum technicians, conservators, and restorers search for, acquire, analyze, describe, catalog, restore, preserve, ex hibit, maintain, and store items of lasting value. These may consist of historical documents, audiovisual materials, corporate records, art, coins, stamps, minerals, clothing, maps, live and preserved plants and animals, buildings, or historic sites. Archivists and curators plan and oversee the work of maintaining collections. They may also, along with technicians and restorers, work directly on collections. Archivists and curators may coordinate educational and public service programs, such as tours, workshops, lectures, and classes, and may work with the boards of institutions to administer plans and policies. Archivists determine what portion of the vast amount of information produced by government agencies, corporations, educational institu tions, and other organizations should be made part of a historical record or put on exhibit. They organize and describe records so they can be located easily, and determine whether records should be stored as original documents, on microfilm, or on computers. Archives may be part of a library or museum or may be a separate unit. Most items in archives are textual documents, but photographs, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Archivists and curators prepare, maintain, and store items of lasting value. Professional Specialty Occupations Curators in large, heavily endowed museums may travel extensively to evaluate potential additions to the collection and to organize exhibi tions. Those in museums with very limited budgets may travel only occasionally. Employment Archivists and curators held about 16,000 jobs in 1988. About onefourth were employed in museums, botanical gardens, and zoos, and one-fifth were in public and private education, particularly in college and university libraries. About 1 in 3 worked in Federal, State, and local government. Most Federal archivists work in the National Ar chives and Records Administration; others manage military archives in the Department of Defense. Most Federal Government curators work at the Smithsonian Institution, in the military museums of the Department of Defense, and in archeological and other museums managed by the Department of Interior. All State governments have archival or historical records sections employing archivists. State and local governments have numerous historical museums, parks, li braries, and zoos employing curators. Some large corporations have archival or records centers, employing archivists to manage the growing volume of historical records required by law or necessary to the firms’ operations. Religious and fraternal organizations, professional associations, and research firms also em ploy archivists and curators. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employment as an archivist or curator generally requires graduate training and substantial practical or work experience. Many archivists and curators work in archives or museums while completing their formal education, in order to gain the experience that many employers look for when hiring. Employers generally look for archivists with undergraduate and graduate degrees in history or related fields, with courses in archival or library science. An increasing number of archivists have a master’s degree, a doctorate, or a second master’s degree. Approximately 65 colleges and universities offer courses or practical training in archival science; some also offer master’s and doctoral degrees. Archivists need analytical ability to understand the content of docu ments and to decipher deteriorated or poor quality printed matter, handwritten manuscripts, or photographs and films. Archivists also must be able to organize large amounts of information and write clear instructions for its retrieval and use. Many archival units are very small, with limited promotion opportu nities. Advancement generally is through transferring to a larger unit with supervisory positions. Where an archives is part of a library or a museum, archivists may become librarians, manuscript curators, or managers of these organizations. The minimum requirements for employment as a curator are a bachelor’s degree in an appropriate discipline of the museum’s spe cialty—for example, art, history, or archeology—and experience in museum work or museum studies training. In most museums, a mas ter’s degree in a related field is generally required, but employers prefer a doctorate. For some positions, an internship of full-time museum work supplemented by courses in museum practices is needed. Students interested in museum work may take courses or obtain a bachelor’s or master’s degree in museum studies (museology). Col leges and universities throughout the country offer bachelor’s and master’s degrees in museum studies. However, many employers feel that, while museum studies are helpful, a thorough knowledge of the museum’s specialty and museum work experience are more important. Curatorial positions often require knowledge in a number of fields. For historic and artistic conservation, courses in chemistry, physics, and in painting and crafts are desirable. Since curators—particularly those in small museums—may have administrative and managerial responsibilities, courses in business administration and public relations also are recommended. Curators must be flexible because of their wide variety of duties. They need an aesthetic sense to design and present exhibits, and, in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 127 small museums, manual dexterity is needed to erect exhibits or restore objects. Leadership ability is important for museum directors, while public relations skills are valuable in increasing museum attendance and fundraising. In large museums, curators may advance through several levels of responsibility, eventually to museum director. Curators in smaller museums often advance to larger ones. Individual research and publi cations are important for advancement. Continuing education for archivists, curators, museum technicians, and restorers is available through meetings, conferences, and work shops sponsored by archival, historical, and curatorial associations. Continuing education enables these workers to keep up with develop ments in the field. Job Outlook Employment of archivists and curators is expected to increase as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Federal Government archival activities are expected to grow slowly, but those in other areas, such as educational services and State and local govern ment, are expected to grow faster. Archival jobs will also become available as institutions put more emphasis on establishing archives and organizing records and information. Museums and botanical and zoological gardens, where curators are concentrated, are expected to grow in response to increased public interest in science, art, history, technology, and culture. Despite the anticipated increase in the employment of curators, competition for jobs is expected to be keen. A job as a curator is attractive to many people, and many have the necessary subject knowl edge; yet there are only a few openings. Consequently, candidates may have to work part time, or as an intern, or even as a volunteer assistant curator or research associate after completing their formal education, and substantial work experience in collection management, exhibit design, or restoration will be necessary for permanent status. Archivists can improve their job opportunities by taking courses in library or information science. Some employment opportunities will arise in related occupations such as librarian, records manager, collec tion manager, public historian, and information scientist. Job prospects will be better in small museums and archives, particu larly those in cities or less desirable geographic locations. Earnings Earnings of archivists and curators vary considerably by type and size of employer. Average salaries in the Federal Government, for example, are much higher than those in religious organizations. Sala ries of curators in large, well-funded museums may be several times higher than those in small ones. Salaries in the Federal Government depend upon education and experience. In early 1989, inexperienced archivists and curators with a bachelor’s degree started at $ 15,738, while those with some experience started at $19,493. Those with a master’s degree started at $23,846, and with a doctorate, $28,852 or $34,580. In 1988, archivists em ployed by the Federal Government averaged $37,210 a year, while curators in the Federal Government averaged $38,303. Related Occupations Archivists' and curators’ interests in preservation and display are shared by anthropologists, arborists, archeologists, artifacts conserva tors, botanists, ethnologists, folklorists, genealogists, historians, horti culturists, information specialists, librarians, paintings restorers, re cords managers, and zoologists. Sources of Additional Information For information about certification for archivists and schools offering courses in archival science, contact: ••-Society of American Archivists, 600 South Federal St., Suite 504, Chicago, IL 60605. For general information about careers as a curator and schools offering courses in curatorial science, contact; •-American Association of Museums, 12251 St. NW., Suite 200, Washington, DC 20005. 128 Occupational Outlook Handbook For information about curatorial careers and internships in botanical gardens, contact: (•-American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta, P.O. Box 206, Swarthmore, PA 19081. For information about conservation and preservation careers, contact: (•-American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, 1400 16th St. NW., Suite 340, Washington, DC 20036. College and University Faculty (D.O.T. 090.227-010) Nature of the Work College and university faculty teach and advise over 12 million full time and part-time college students and perform a significant part of our Nation’s research. They also study and meet with colleagues to keep up with developments in their field and consult with government, business, nonprofit, and community organizations. Faculty are generally organized into departments, based on subject or field. They usually teach several different courses in their depart ment—algebra, calculus, and differential equations, for example. They may instruct undergraduates, graduate students, or both. College and university faculty may give lectures to several hundred students in large halls, lead small seminars, and supervise students in laboratories. They also prepare lectures, exercises, and laboratory experiments, grade exams and papers, and advise and work with students individually. In universities, they also counsel graduate stu dents doing research. They may use closed-circuit and cable television, computers, and other teaching aids. Faculty keep up with developments in their field by reading current literature, talking with colleagues, and participating in professional conferences. They also do their own research to expand knowledge in their field. They experiment, collect and analyze data, and examine original documents, literature, and other source material. From this, they develop hypotheses, arrive at conclusions, and write about their findings in scholarly journals and books. Many faculty members serve on academic or administrative commit tees which deal with the policies of their institution, budgets, equip ment purchases, and hiring. Some work with student organizations. Department heads generally have heavier administrative responsibil ities. The amount of time spent on each of these activities varies by individual circumstance and type of institution. Faculty members at universities generally spend a significant part of their time doing research; those in 4-ycar colleges, somewhat less; and those in 2-year colleges, relatively little. However, the teaching load usually is heavier in 2-year colleges. Working Conditions College faculty generally have flexible schedules. They must be pres ent for classes, usually 12 to 16 hours a week, and for faculty meetings. Most establish regular office hours for student consultations, usually 3 to 6 hours per week. Otherwise, they are relatively free to decide when and where they will work, and how much time to devote to course preparation, study, research, and other activities. They may work staggered hours and teach classes at night and on weekends. They have even greater flexibility during the summer and school holidays, when they may teach or do research, travel, or pursue nonacademic interests. Faculty generally work more than 40 hours a week during the school year, less during the summer. College faculty have the opportunity to develop and share ideas with colleagues and students, teach and do research in their chosen field, and guide and counsel students—activities most find very attractive. On the other hand, budget constraints and the prospect of declining enrollments are making career advancement difficult, are leading to https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis College and university faculty retirements will increase by the year 2000. the replacement of full-time and permanent positions with part-time and temporary ones, and are limiting research facilities and support services. In addition, faculty may experience a conflict between their responsibilities to teach students and the pressure to do research— “publish or perish.” This may be a particular problem for young faculty seeking advancement. Employment College and university faculty held about 846,000 jobs in 1988. Over 70 percent were in public institutions. About one-third of college and university faculty work part time. Some part-timers, known as “adjunct faculty,” have primary jobs outside of academia—in government, private industry, or in non profit research—and teach “on the side.” Others want full-time jobs but can’t find them. Some of them work part time in more than one institution. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most full-time college and university faculty are in four academic ranks: Professors, associate professors, assistant professors, and in structors. A small number are lecturers. Most faculty members are hired as instructors or assistant professors. Four-year colleges and universities generally hire doctoral degree holders for full-time long-term positions, but may hire master’s degree holders or doctoral candidates for part-time and temporary jobs. How ever, in some departments, such as art, music, and law, other qualifi cations may be appropriate. Doctoral programs usually take 4 to 7 years of full-time study beyond the bachelor’s degree. Candidates usually specialize in a subfield of a discipline, for example, organic chemistry, counseling psychology, or European history, but also take courses covering the whole discipline. Programs include 20 or more increasingly special ized courses and seminars plus comprehensive examinations on all major areas of the field. They also include a dissertation. This is a report on original research to answer some significant question in the field; it sets forth an original hypothesis or proposes a model and tests it. Students in the natural sciences and engineering usually do laboratory work; in the humanities, they study original documents and other published material. The dissertation, done under the guidance of a faculty advisor, usually takes 1 or 2 years of full time work. In some fields, particularly the natural sciences, it is common to spend an additional 2 years on postdoctoral research and study before taking a faculty position. Advancement through the academic ranks in universities and 4year colleges usually requires a doctorate plus teaching experience, research, and publication. In 2-year colleges, a doctorate is helpful Professional Specialty Occupations but is not generally required, and research and publication are less important. A major step in the traditional academic career is attaining tenure. Newly hired faculty serve a certain period (usually 7 years) under temporary contracts. Then, their record of teaching, research, and overall contribution to the institution is reviewed; tenure is granted if the review is favorable and positions are available. With tenure, a professor cannot be fired without just cause and due process. Those denied tenure usually must leave. Tenure protects the faculty’s aca demic freedom—the ability to teach and conduct research without fear of being fired for advocating unpopular ideas. It also gives both faculty and institutions the stability needed for effective research and teaching. About two-thirds of full-time faculty are tenured, and many others are in the probationary period. Budget constraints and the prospect of declining enrollments have made tenure more difficult to obtain. Some full-time faculty are hired in non-tenure-track positions, often filling in for tenured faculty members on leave, and are not even considered for tenure. College faculty need intelligence, inquiring and analytical minds, and a strong desire to pursue and disseminate knowledge. They should be able to communicate clearly and logically, both orally and in writing. They need to be able to establish rapport with students and, as models for them, to be dedicated to the principles of academic integrity and intellectual honesty. Finally, they need to be able to work in an environment where they receive little direct supervision. Job Outlook Employment of college and university faculty is expected to experience little or no change through the year 2000. Most openings will arise as faculty members retire or transfer to other occupations. Employment of faculty depends primarily on enrollments—which depend largely on the size of the traditonal college-age (18-24) popula tion and the proportion who attend college. Enrollments were expected to decline in the early and mid-1980’s along with the decline in the traditional college-age population. However, they did not because a The college age population will begin to increase In the late 1990’s. Population 18 to 24 years of age (millions) 31 ---------------------------------------------------------- 129 higher proportion of this declining population attended college. The college-age population will continue to shrink through 1996, and, unless the proportion attending college continues to increase sharply, enrollments will drop. The number of students age 25 or over may increase, but may not compensate for the decline in enrollment of the traditional college population. Almost all faculty job openings will result from replacement needs. However, by the late 1990’s, when today’s college freshmen and sophmores who pursue a doctorate begin to graduate, conditions should improve. The leading edge of the babyboom “echo” generation will reach college age and enrollments will begin to increase. Also, at about this time, faculty retirements should increase significantly as the large number of faculty now in their late 40’s and 50’s approach retirement age. The keen competition for faculty jobs that existed in many fields during the 1970’s and 1980’s will likely continue through the mid1990’s. However, once enrollments and retirements increase in the late 1990’s, opportunities for faculty should be better. In the past two decades, many applicants accepted part-time or short-term academic appointments that offered little hope of tenure. Some had to seek nonacademic positions which did not require a master’s degree or a doctorate. However, as competition for jobs lessens in the late 1990’s, fewer college and university faculty will have to take part-time or short-term appointments. Job prospects will continue to be better in certain fields—business, engineering, computer science, physical sciences, and mathematics, for example—largely because very attractive nonacademic jobs will be available for many potential faculty. Employment of college faculty is also related to the nonacademic job market through an “echo effect.” Good job prospects in a field—for example, engineering during the late 1970’sand early 1980’s—cause more students to enroll, increasing faculty needs in that field. On the other hand, a bad job market—for teachers during the 1970’s, for example—discourages students and reduces demand for faculty. Earnings Earnings vary according to faculty rank and type of institution and, in some cases, by field. Faculty in 4-year institutions earn higher salaries, on the average, than those in 2-year schools. According to a 1988-89 survey by the American Association of University Professors, salaries for full-time faculty on 9-month contracts averaged $39,410. By rank, the average for professors was $50,420; associate professors, $37,530; assistant professors, $31,160; and instructors, $23,660. Those on 11or 12-month contracts obviously earned more. In fields where there are high-paying nonacademic alternatives, notably medicine and law but also engineering and business, earnings exceed these averages. In others, the liberal arts, for example, they are lower. Many faculty have added earnings, both during the academic year and the summer, from consulting, teaching additional courses, re search, writing for publication, or other employment. Most college and university faculty enjoy some unique benefits, including access to campus facilities and tuition waivers for depen dents, housing and travel allowances, and paid sabbatical leaves. Related Occupations College and university faculty function both as teachers and research ers. They communicate information and ideas. Related occupations include elementary and secondary school teachers, librarians, writers, consultants, lobbyists, trainers and employee development specialists, and policy analysts. Faculty research activities are often similar to those of their colleagues in industry, government, and nonprofit re search organizations. 1975 1980 Source: Bureau of Census https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1985 1990 1995 2000 Sources of Additional Information Professional societies generally provide information on employment opportunities in their fields. Names and addresses of these societies appear in the statements elsewhere in the Handbook. 130 Occupational Outlook Handbook I Counselors (D.O.T. 045.107-010, -014, -018, -038, -042, .117-010; 090.107-010; and 169.267.026) Nature of the Work Counselors help people evaluate their interests and abilities and advise and assist them with personal, social, educational, and career problems and concerns. Their duties depend on the individuals they serve and the settings in which they work. School and college counselors use interviews, counseling sessions, tests, or other tools to help students understand their abilities, interests, talents, and personality characteristics. They help translate these into realistic academic and career options. They may run career information centers and career education programs. High school counselors advise on college admission requirements, entrance exams, and financial aid, and on trade, technical school, and apprenticeship programs. They help students develop jobfinding skills for part-time and summer work and, for those who are not going to college, full-time jobs. They also help students understand and deal with their social, behavioral, and personal problems. They work with students individually, in small groups, or with entire classes. In classrooms, counselors may work with students in developing interpersonal, decisionmaking, problem solving, and other related skills. Counselors consult and work with parents, teachers, school psychologists, school nurses, and social workers. Elementary school counselors do more social and personal counseling, and less vocational and academic counseling than second ary school counselors. They observe younger children during class room and play activities and confer with their teachers and parents to evaluate their strengths, problems, or special needs. College career planning and placement counselors help students and alumni plan careers and locate jobs. Rehabilitation counselors help persons deal with the personal and vocational impact of their disabilities. The counselor’s goal is to help persons who are disabled become more self-sufficient and productive. They evaluate clients’ disabilities and potential for employment, and arrange for medical care, vocational training, and job placement. They interview the individuals with disabilities and their families, evaluate school and medical reports, and confer and plan with physicians, psychologists, occupational therapists, employers, and others. They then recommend and carry out a rehabilitation program which may include training to help the person become more independent and employable. They also work toward increasing the client’s capacity to adjust and live independently. Employment counselors help individuals make wise career deci sions. They help clients explore and evaluate their education, training, work history, interests, skills, personal traits, and physical capacities, and may arrange for aptitude and achievement tests. They also work with individuals in developing jobseeking skills, such as resume writ ing and interviewing, and assist clients in locating and applying for jobs. Mental health counselors work with individuals and groups to pro mote optimum mental health. They help individuals deal with such concerns as addictions and substance abuse, family, parenting, and marital problems, suicide, stress management, problems with self esteem, issues associated with aging, job and career concerns, educa tional decisions, and issues of mental and emotional health. Mental health counselors work closely with other mental health specialists, including psychiatrists, psychologists, clinical social workers, and psychiatric nurses. Working Conditions Most school counselors work the traditional 9- to 10-month school year with a 2- to 3-month vacation, although an increasing number are employed on 10 1/2- or 11-month contracts. They generally have the same hours as teachers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis : "■ ' Counselors assist people with educational, career, and social problems. Rehabilitation and employment counselors generally work a stan dard 40-hour week. Self-employed counselors and those working in mental health and community agencies often work evenings to counsel clients who work during the day. College career planning and place ment counselors may work long and irregular hours during recruiting periods. Since privacy is essential for confidential and frank discussions with clients, counselors usually have private offices. Employment Counselors held about 124,000 jobs in 1988. More than 2 out of 3 were in educational services. Most of these worked in secondary schools; the rest worked in elementary schools and colleges and univer sities. Outside education settings, counselors worked in a wide variety of public and private establishments, including community mental health centers, job training and vocational rehabilitation centers, social agen cies, or in nonprofit organizations like Goodwill Industries and Light house for the Blind. Some worked in correctional institutions and residential care facilities, such as halfway houses for criminal offenders and group homes for children, the aged, and the disabled. Others worked in hospitals and other health care facilities, such as hospice programs. Counselors also worked in organizations engaged in com munity improvement and social change, as well as drug and alcohol rehabilitation programs and State and local government agencies. A growing number of counselors are in private practice, health mainte nance organizations, and group practice. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Generally, a master’s degree in college student personnel counseling, elementary or secondary school counseling, rehabilitation counseling, agency or community counseling, mental health counseling, counsel ing psychology, career counseling, or a related field is required. In some cases, individuals with a bachelor’s degree in psychology, sociol ogy, counseling, or rehabilitation services qualify for employment, particularly if they have had experience in social work, teaching, interviewing, job placement, psychology, or personnel. These individ uals may not be eligible for certification or licensure, however. Graduate level counselor education programs are available in nearly 500 colleges and universities, usually in departments of education or psychology. Courses include counseling theory and techniques, assessment and evaluation, individual and group counseling, career development information, and community resources. Up to 2 years of graduate study, including a period of supervised experience in counseling, are usually required for a master’s degree. Fifty-seven graduate institutions offering one or more programs in counseling are currently accredited by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs. Professional Specialty Occupations Thirty-two States require that counselors in private practice have a State license. Requirements vary from State to State. Many counselors are voluntarily certified by the National Board for Certified Counselors, which grants the credential “National Certified Counselor.” In order to be certified, a counselor must hold a master’s degree in counseling, have at least 2 years of professional counseling experience, and pass NBCC’s National Counselor Examination. Most States require public school counselors to have both counseling and teaching certificates. Depending on the State, a master’s degree in counseling and 2 to 5 years of teaching experience may be required for a counseling certificate. State departments of education can provide specific information. Vocational and related rehabilitation agencies generally require a master’s degree in rehabilitation counseling, counseling and guidance, or counseling psychology for rehabilitation counselor jobs. Some, however, may accept applicants with a bachelor’s degree in rehabilita tion services, counseling, psychology, or related fields. Experience in employment counseling, job development, psychology, education, or social work may be helpful. In 1988, the Council on Rehabilitation Education accredited 73 graduate programs in rehabilitation counseling. Usually, 2 years of study—including a period of supervised clinical experience—are re quired for the master’s degree. Some colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree in rehabilitation services education. In most State vocational rehabilitation agencies, applicants must pass a written examination and be evaluated by a board of examiners. Many employers require rehabilitation counselors to be certified. To become certified, counselors must meet educational and experience standards established by the Commission on Rehabilitation Counselor Certification, and pass a written examination. They are then designated as “Certified Rehabilitation Counselors.” Some States require counselors in public employment offices to have a master’s degree; others accept a bachelor’s degree with appropriate counseling courses. Mental health counselors generally have a master’s degree or doctor ate in mental health counseling, another area of counseling, or in psychology or social work. They are voluntarily certified by the Na tional Academy of Certified Clinical Mental Health Counselors. Gen erally, to receive this certification, a counselor must have a master’s degree in counseling, 2 years of post-master’s experience, a period of supervised clinical experience, a taped sample of clinical work, and a passing grade on a written examination. Some employers provide training for newly hired counselors. Many have work-study programs so that employed counselors can earn grad uate degrees. Counselors must participate in graduate studies, work shops, institutes, and personal studies to maintain their certificates and licenses. Persons interested in counseling should have a strong interest in helping others and the ability to inspire respect, trust, and confidence. They should be able to work independently or as part of a team. Prospects for advancement vary by counseling field. School counsel ors may move to a larger school; become directors or supervisors of counseling or pupil personnel services; or, with further graduate education, become counseling psychologists or school administrators. (See statements on psychologists and education administrators else where in the Handbook.) Rehabilitation, mental health, and employment counselors may be come supervisors or administrators in their agencies. Some counselors move into research, consulting, or college teaching, or go into private practice. Job Outlook Overall employment of counselors is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. In addition, replacement needs will increase significantly by the end of the decade as the large number of counselors now in their 40’s reach retirement age. Employment of school counselors—the largest specialty area—is expected to grow faster than average because of increasing secondary https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 131 school enrollments, State legislation requiring counselors in elemen tary schools, and the expanded responsibilties of counselors. Counsel ors are increasingly becoming involved in crisis and preventive coun seling, helping students deal with issues ranging from drug and alcohol abuse to death and suicide. Faster than average growth is also expected for rehabilitation and mental health counselors. Insurance companies are increasingly allow ing for reimbursement of counselors, enabling many counselors to move from government agencies to private practice. The number of people who need rehabilitation services will rise as advances in medical technology continue to save lives that only a few years ago would have been lost. In addition, more rehabilitation and mental health counselors will be needed as society focuses on ways of developing mental well-being, such as controlling job and family-related stress, with the help of counselors. The number of employment counselors, who work primarily for State and local governments, is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations. The number of counselors in private practice is expected to grow faster than those not in private practice. Earnings The average salary of school counselors in the 1988-89 academic year was $34,244, according to the Educational Research Service. Salaries were lowest in the Southeast and highest in the Far West. Some school counselors earn additional income working summers in the school system or in other jobs. Wage and salary earnings of rehabilitation, mental health, and employment counselors are usually somewhat lower than those of school counselors. Self-employed counselors who have well-estab lished practices have the highest earnings. Related Occupations Counselors help people evaluate their interests, abilities, and disabili ties, and deal with personal, social, academic, and career problems. Others who help people in similar ways include college and student personnel workers, teachers, personnel workers and managers, social workers, psychologists, psychiatrists, members of the clergy, occupa tional and physical therapists, training and employee development specialists, and equal employment opportunity/affirmative action spe cialists. Sources of Additional Information For general information about counselors, contact: w-American Association for Counseling and Development, 5999 Stevenson Ave., Alexandria, VA 22304. For information on training programs accredited by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs, contact; ••-Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs, American Association for Counseling and Development, 5999 Stevenson Ave., Alexandria, VA 22304. For information on national certification requirements and proce dures, contact: ••-National Board for Certified Counselors, 5999 Stevenson Ave., Suite 402, Alexandria, VA 22304. State departments of education can supply information on colleges and universities that offer approved guidance and counseling training for State certification and licensure requirements. State employment service offices have information about their job opportunities and entrance requirements. For information about rehabilitation counseling, contact: ••-National Rehabilitation Counseling Association, 633 So. Washington St., Alexandria, VA 22314. ••-National Council on Rehabilitation Education, 1213 29th St. NW., Washing ton, DC 20007. A list of accredited graduate programs in rehabilitation counseling may be obtained from: ••-Council on Rehabilitation Education, 185 North Wabash St., Room 1617, Chicago, IL 60601. 132 Occupational Outlook Handbook For a list of federally funded programs offering training in rehabilita tion counseling, contact: ••-Division of Resource Development, Rehabilitation Services Administration, U.S. Department of Education, 330 C St. SW., Washington, DC 20202-2649. For information on certification requirements for rehabilitation counselors, contact: ••-Commission on Rehabilitation Counselor Certification, 1156 Shure Dr., Suite 350, Arlington Heights, IL 60004. For information on certification requirements for clinical mental health counselors, contact: ••-National Academy of Certified Clinical Mental Health Counselors, 5999 Stevenson Ave., Alexandria, VA 22304. For general information about mental health counselors, contact: ••-American Mental Health Counselors Association, 5999 Stevenson Ave., Alexandria, VA 22304. For general information about school counselors, contact: ••-American School Counselor Association, 5999 Stevenson Ave., Alexandria, VA 22304. Kindergarten and Elementary School Teachers (D.O.T. 092.227-010, -014; 094.224-010, .227-010 through -022; 099.224 010) Nature of the Work Kindergarten and elementary school teachers play a vital role in the development of children. What is learned and experienced during the early years can shape children’s views of themselves and the world, and affect later success or failure in school and work. Kindergarten and elementary school teachers introduce children to numbers, language, science, and social studies. Teachers lecture and demonstrate to an entire class, and also provide individual attention as much as possible. Kindergarten and elementary school teachers may use games, music, artwork, films, slides, and computers to teach basic skills. They assign lessons, give tests, hear oral presentations, and oversee special projects. They maintain order in the classroom and instill good study habits and an appreciation for learning. Teachers observe and evaluate students’ performance and potential, keep track of their social development and health, and discuss problems or progress with parents. They may also counsel pupils with academic or personal problems. Most elementary school teachers instruct one class of children in several subjects. In some schools, two or more teachers team teach and are jointly responsible for a group of students in at least one subject. In other schools, a teacher may teach one special subject— usually music, art, reading, science, arithmetic, or physical educa tion—to a number of classes. In addition to classroom activities, teachers plan lessons, prepare tests, grade papers, prepare report cards, meet with parents, attend faculty meetings, and supervise extracurricular activities after school. Working Conditions Kindergarten and elementary school teachers spend most of their time moving about the classroom, often bending and kneeling to be at eye level with children. Introducing children to the joy of learning and seeing them gain new skills can be very rewarding. However, teachers may have to deal with disruptive children. Including activities outside the classroom, many teachers work more than 40 hours per week. Most elementary school teachers work a traditional 2-semester, 9- to 10-month school year with a 2- to 3-month vacation. Teachers on a 9- to 10-month schedule may teach in the summer session or take other jobs. Many enroll in college courses or workshops. Some teachers in year-round schools work 8-week ses sions, are off 1 week between sessions, and have a long midwinter break. Most States have tenure laws that prevent teachers from being fired https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis without just cause and due process. Teachers may obtain tenure after they have satisfactorily completed a probationary period of teaching, usually 3 years. Tenure is not a guarantee of a job, but it does provide some security. Employment Kindergarten and elementary school teachers held about 1,359,000 jobs in 1988. More than 8 out of 10 worked in public schools. Most were in schools that have students in kindergarten through grade six; however, some taught in middle schools, where students are between the upper elementary and lower high school grades. In addition, most of the 275,000 special education teachers—those who work with children who are mentally retarded, emotionally disturbed, learning disabled, mobility impaired, speech and hearing' impaired, or very bright or “gifted” children—taught in elementary schools. Kindergarten and elementary school teachers are distributed geo graphically much the same as the population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require public elementary school teachers to be certified. Usually certification is granted by the State board of education, the State superintendent of education, or a certification advisory committee. Teachers may be certified to teach the early childhood grades (usu ally nursery school through the third grade); the elementary grades (grades one through six or eight); or a special subject, such as reading, music, or bilingual education. A special certificate is required for special education teachers. Requirements for regular certification vary by State. Generally, however, they include a bachelor’s degree from a 4-year program and completion of an approved teacher education program. Some 5-year programs exist, and these generally lead to a master’s degree as well as teacher certification. Training programs for kindergarten and ele mentary school teachers include courses—designed specifically for those preparing to teach—in mathematics, science, social science, music, art, and literature, as well as prescribed professional education courses, such as philosophy of education, psychology of learning, and teaching methods. Future teachers acquire teaching skills through supervised practice teaching in an elementary school for about 1 semester. Many States require a specific grade point average in the course work. Under other certification programs, college graduates who do not meet certification requirements take only those courses that they lack, and then become certified. This may take from 1 to 2 semesters of full-time study. Some programs grant a second bachelor’s degree in education; however, this method of certification is the least common. States also issue emergency certificates to individuals who do not wm Kindergarten and elementary school teachers in public schools must be certified. Professional Specialty Occupations meet all requirements for a regular certificate when schools cannot hire enough teachers with regular certificates. Almost all States require applicants for certification to be tested for competency in basic skills, teaching skills, or subject matter. Almost all require additional education for renewal of a teacher’s certificate— many require a master’s degree. Information on certification is avail able from State departments of education or superintendents of schools. Many States have reciprocity agreements that make it easier for teachers who are certified in one State to become certified in another. Kindergarten and elementary school teachers should be organized, creative, dependable, and patient. They should be able to communicate with students and understand their educational and emotional needs. Teachers may become supervisors or administrators, although the number of these positions is limited. In some school systems, wellqualified experienced teachers can be appointed senior or mentor teachers, with higher pay and additional responsibilities. They guide and assist less experienced teachers while retaining most of their teaching responsibilities. Job Outlook Employment of kindergarten and elementary school teachers is ex pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as enrollments increase and class size declines. Rising enrollments reflect the increase in births beginning in the mid-1970’s. Largely because of migration to the South and West, employment of teachers is expected to increase more in those regions and less in others. Job openings for elementary school teachers are expected to remain at current levels through the early and mid-1990’s. Enrollments are expected to level off in the mid- 1990’s and then drop slightly, reflecting a leveling off and then a drop in births some years earlier. Despite this drop in enrollments, the number of job openings should increase substantially from the mid- 1990’s to the year 2000 as the large number of teachers now in their 40’s reach retirement age. In addition, the supply of teachers is likely to increase in response to reports of im proved job opportunities, greater public interest in education, and higher salaries. In fact, enrollments in teacher education programs have already increased, and it appears that more former teachers have returned to teaching. Some central cities and rural areas have difficulty attracting teachers. Job prospects should continue to be better in these areas than in suburban districts. The number of teachers employed depends on State and local expen ditures for education. The job outlook presented here assumes moder ate increases in these expenditures. Pressure from taxpayers to limit spending could result in fewer teachers than projected; pressures to increase spending to improve the quality of education could result in more. Earnings According to the National Education Association, public elementary school teachers averaged about $28,900 a year in 1988-89. Generally, salaries were higher in the Mid-Atlantic and far western States. Earn ings in private schools generally were lower. Some teachers earn extra income during the summer working in the school system or in other jobs. Most public school teachers belong to unions that bargain with school systems over wages, hours, and the terms and conditions of employment. Related Occupations Kindergarten and elementary school teaching requires a wide variety of skills and aptitudes, including organizational and administrative abilities; a talent for working with children; communication skills; the power to influence, motivate, and train others; creativity; and patience. Workers in other occupations that require some of these aptitudes include childcare attendants, trainers and employee development spe cialists, employment interviewers, librarians, personnel specialists, public relations specialists, social workers, and counselors. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 133 The elementary school age population will continue to increase in the first half of the 1990’s and then will decline through the year 2000. Population 5 to 13 years of age (millions) 34 Source Bureau of Census Sources of Additional Information Information on certification requirements is available from local school systems and State departments of education. Information on teachers’ unions and education-related issues can be obtained from; w-American Federation of Teachers, 555 New Jersey Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001. •-National Education Association, 1201 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. A list of colleges and universities with teacher education programs accredited by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Educa tion can be obtained from: •-National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, 2039 K St. NW., Suite 500, Washington, DC 20006. Librarians (D.O.T. 100 except 100.167-010 and .367-018) Nature of the Work Librarians make information available to people. They collect, orga nize, and lend books, periodicals, films, records, videotapes, computer tapes, and cassettes to all types of users. Library work is divided into two basic functions: User services and technical services. Librarians in user services—for example, reference and children’s librarians—work directly with users to help them find the information they need. Librarians in technical services such as acquisitions librarians and catalogers acquire and prepare materials for use and generally don’t deal with the public. In small libraries or information centers, librarians generally handle all aspects of the work. They select, purchase, and process materials; publicize services; provide reference help; supervise the support staff; prepare the budget; and oversee other administrative matters. In large libraries, librarians specialize in a single area, such as acquisitions, 134 Occupational Outlook Handbook cataloging, bibliography, reference, special collections, circulation, or administration. Or they may handle special collections. Building and maintaining a strong collection are essential activities in any library. Acquisitions librarians (D.O.T. 100.267-010) select and order books, periodicals, films, and other materials. They read book reviews and study publishers’ announcements and catalogs to keep up with current literature. They deal with publishers and whole salers of new books as well as with distributors of records, films, and other materials. Other librarians prepare new material for use. Classifiers (D.O.T. 100.367-014) classify materials by subject matter. They skim through book reviews, encyclopedias, and technical publications to determine the subject matter and assign classification numbers and descriptive headings. Catalogers (D.O.T. 100.387-010) describe books and other library materials in a way that users can easily find them. They super vise assistants who prepare cards, computer records, or other access tools that indicate the title, author, subject, publisher, date of publica tion, and location in the library. Bibliographers (D.O.T. 100.367-010), who usually work in re search libraries, compile lists of books, periodicals, articles, and audio visual materials on particular subjects. They also recommend materials to be acquired. Special collections librarians (D.O.T. 100.267-014) collect and organize books, pamphlets, manuscripts, and other materi als in a specific field, such as rare books, genealogy, or music. They may prepare reports and exhibits about important additions. Librarians are also classified according to the type of library in which they work: Public libraries, school library/media centers, academic libraries, and special libraries. Public librarians serve people of all ages and from all walks of life, including persons who, because of physical handicaps, cannot use conventional print materials. The professional staff of a large public library system includes the chief librarian, an assistant chief, and division heads who plan and coordinate the work of the entire system. The system also may include librarians who supervise branch libraries and specialists in acquisitions, cataloging, special collections, and user services. Some public librarians work with specific groups of readers. Chil dren’s librarians (D.O.T. 100.167-018) find materials children will enjoy and show children how to use the library. They may plan and conduct special programs such as story hours or film programs and work with school and community organizations. Adult services librari ans handle materials suited for adults and may conduct education programs. Young adult librarians (D.O.T. 100.167-034) help junior and senior high school students select and use books and other materi als. They may organize programs of interest to young adults, such as book or film discussions, concerts of recorded music, or computer clubs. They also may coordinate the library’s work with school pro grams. Community outreach librarians and bookmobile librarians (D.O.T. 100.167-014) develop library services to meet the needs of underserved groups such as residents of rural areas, migrant labor camps, inner-city housing projects, and nursing homes. School librarians (D.O.T. 100.167-030) teach students how to use the school library/media center. They show them how to find, evaluate, and use materials and help them with assignments and projects. They prepare lists of materials on certain subjects and help select materials for school programs. They also select, order, and organize library materials. Librarians help teachers develop curricula, acquire materials for classroom instruction, and sometimes team teach. They are often responsible for computer libraries. Academic librarians serve students, faculty members, and research ers in colleges and universities. They work closely with faculty mem bers to ensure the library has reference materials required for their courses, help students and faculty search data bases, and maintain research collections. Special librarians (D.O.T. 100.167-026) work in information cen ters or libraries maintained by government agencies and corporations, as well as by law firms, advertising agencies, museums, professional associations, medical centers, and research laboratories. They build and arrange the organization’s information resources, usually limited https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis to subjects of special interest to the organization. Special librarians may conduct literature searches, compile bibliographies, or prepare abstracts. Many libraries are tied into remote data bases through their computer terminals and some also maintain their own computerized data bases. These libraries may employ automated systems librarians who plan and operate these systems, and information scientists (D.O.T. 109.067-010) who design information storage and retrieval systems and develop procedures for collecting, organizing, interpreting, and classifying information. (See statement on computer systems analysts elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Working conditions in user services are different from those in techni cal services. In user services, the work may be busy, demanding, even stressful. Contact with people, which often is a major part of the job, can be taxing. Physically, the job may require much standing, stooping, bending, and reaching. In technical services, librarians may sit at desks or at computer terminals all day. Extended work at video display terminals may cause eyestrain and headaches. They may also have their performance monitored for errors or for quantity of tasks completed each hour or day. Librarians typically work a 5-day, 35- to 40-hour week, although 1 in 4 works part time. Public and college librarians may work some weekends and evenings. School librarians generally have the same workday schedule as classroom teachers and similar vacation sched ules. Special librarians usually work normal business hours. Employment Librarians held about 143,000 jobs in 1988. Most were in school and academic libraries; the rest were in public libraries and special libraries. A small number of librarians were consultants or administered State and Federal library programs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A master’s degree in library science (M.L.S.) is necessary for positions in most public, academic, and special libraries, and in some school libraries. In the Federal Government, an M.L.S. or the equivalent in education and experience is needed. Many colleges and universities offer M.L.S. programs, but most employers prefer graduates of the 61 schools accredited by the American Library Association. Most M.L.S. programs require a bachelor’s degree; any liberal arts major is appropriate. Some programs take 1 year to complete; others take 2. A typical graduate program includes courses in the foundations of library and information science, including the history of books and printing, intel lectual freedom and censorship, and the role of libraries and informa tion in society. Other basic courses cover material selection and pro cessing; the organization of information; reference tools and strategies; and user services. Course options include resources for children or young adults; classification, cataloging, indexing, and abstracting; library administration; and library automation. The M.L.S. provides a general, all-round preparation for library work, but some people specialize in a particular area such as archives, media, or library automation. A Ph.D. degree in library and informa tion science is advantageous for college teaching or for a top adminis trative post, particularly in a college or university library or in a large library system. In special libraries, a knowledge of the subject specialization, or a master’s degree, doctorate, or professional degree in the subject is highly desirable. Subject specializations include medicine, law, busi ness, engineering, and the natural and social sciences. In some jobs, knowledge of a foreign language is needed. State certification requirements for public school librarians vary widely. Most States require that school librarians— often called library media specialists— be certified as teachers and have courses in library science. In some cases, an M.L.S., perhaps with a library media specialization, or a master's in education with a specialty in library Professional Specialty Occupations school media or educational media is needed. State departments of education can provide information about specific requirements. Some States require certification of public librarians employed in municipal, county, or regional library systems. State library agencies can provide information. Experienced librarians may advance to administrative positions, such as department head or library director. Job Outlook Employment of librarians is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Slow employment growth in school libraries reflects the slow growth of enrollments. Public library employment will also grow slowly, due to slow popula tion growth and limited budgets. Little growth is likely in colleges and universities, since college enrollments will decline. Employment in special libraries is expected to grow faster than average, as the number of managerial and professional specialty workers they serve grows rapidly. Most job openings will result from the need to replace librari ans who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. There have been reports of librarian shortages. If individuals respond to this and library schools start producing more graduates, as is likely, shortages may not last. Employment of library school graduates outside traditional library settings is expected to grow. Nontraditional library settings include bibliographic cooperatives, regional information networks, and infor mation search services. These settings employ systems analysts, data base specialists, managers, and researchers. Some of these jobs require a knowledge of both libraries and computers; others, only a knowledge of libraries. Information management outside the traditional library setting, a rapidly developing field, is also expected to offer many employment opportunities for library school graduates with backgrounds in infor mation science and library automation. Employers include private corporations, consulting firms, and information brokers. Earnings Salaries of librarians vary by the individual’s qualifications and the type, size, and location of the library. Starting salaries of graduates of library school master’s degree programs accredited by the American Library Association averaged 135 $23,491 in 1988, and ranged from $21,531 in public libraries to $25,183 in school libraries. In college and university libraries, they averaged $22,454, and in special libraries, they averaged $25,190. According to the Educational Research Service, experienced school librarians averaged $31,645 during the 1988-89 school year. According to the Special Libraries Association, salaries for special librarians with 1 to 5 years of library experience averaged $27,576 in 1988, and salaries for special library managers averaged $38,000. Librarians in the Federal Government averaged $34,282 in 1988. Related Occupations Librarians play an important role in the transfer of knowledge and ideas by providing people with access to the information they need and want. Jobs requiring similar analytical, organizational, and com municative skills include archivists, information scientists, museum curators, publishers’ representatives, research analysts, information brokers, and records managers. School librarians have many duties similar to those of school teachers. Sources of Additional Information Information on librarianship, including a listing of accredited educa tion programs and information on scholarships or loans, may be ob tained from: (•-American Library Association, 50 East Huron St., Chicago, IL 60611. For information on a career as a special librarian, write to: wSpecial Libraries Association, 1700 18th St. NW., Washington, DC 20009. Material about a career in information science may be obtained from: •-American Society for Information Science, 1424 16th St. NW., Suite 404, Washington, DC 20036. Information on graduate schools of library and information science can be obtained from: ••Association for Library and Information Science Education, 5633 Palm Aire Dr., Sarasota, FL 34243. Information on Federal financial assistance for library training is available from: ••-Office of Educational Research and Improvement, Library Programs, Library Development Staff, U.S. Department of Education, 555 New Jersey Ave. NW., Room 402, Washington, DC 20202-1430. Those interested in a position as a librarian in the Federal service should write to: ••-Office of Personnel Management. 1900 E St. NW., Washington, DC 20415. Information concerning requirements and application procedures for positions in the Library of Congress may be obtained directly from: aSst5" ••Personnel Office, Library of Congress, Washington, DC 20540. [tNtl i» »|tWP. State library agencies can furnish information on scholarships avail able through their offices, requirements for certification, and general information about career prospects in the State. Several of these agen cies maintain job “hotlines” which report openings for librarians. State boards of education can furnish information on certification requirements and job opportunities for school librarians. Secondary School Teachers (D.O.T. 091.221-010, .227-010; 094.224-010, .227-010 through -022; 099.244-010, and .227-022) Employment of special librarians is expected to grow faster than employment of other librarians. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Secondary school teachers help students move from childhood to adulthood. They help them delve more deeply into subjects introduced in elementary school and learn more about the world and about them selves. Secondary school teachers specialize in a specific subject, such as English, Spanish, mathematics, history, or biology, in junior high or high school. They may teach a variety of related courses, for example, American history, contemporary American problems, and world geog raphy. Special education teachers work with students who are mentally 136 Occupational Outlook Handbook retarded, emotionally disturbed, learning disabled, or speech and hear ing impaired. Others work with very bright or “gifted” students. Teachers lecture and demonstrate to students, and may use films, slides, overhead projectors, and computers. They design their class room presentations to meet student needs and abilities. They may also work with students individually. Teachers also assign lessons, give tests, and maintain classroom discipline. Science teachers supervise laboratory work, and vocational educa tion teachers give students “hands-on” experience with instruments, tools, and machinery. In addition to classroom activities, secondary school teachers plan lessons, prepare tests, grade papers, prepare report cards, oversee study halls and homerooms, supervise extracurricular activities, and meet with parents and school staff. They also may help students deal with academic or personal problems and in their choice of courses, colleges, and careers. Teachers also participate in education confer ences and workshops. Working Conditions Seeing students develop and gain an appreciation of the joy of learning can be very rewarding. However, teaching involves long periods of standing and talking and may be stressful for those who deal with unmotivated and disrespectful students. Including school duties performed outside the classroom, many teachers work more than 40 hours a week. Most teachers work the traditional 9- to 10-month school year with a 2- to 3-month vacation. Teachers on a 9- to 10-month schedule may teach in summer sessions or take other jobs. Many enroll in college courses or workshops. Teachers in districts with a year-round schedule work 8 weeks, are on vacation for 1 week, and have a 5-week midwinter break. Most States have tenure laws that prevent teachers from being fired without just cause and due process. Teachers may obtain tenure after they have satisfactorily completed a probationary period of teaching, normally 3 years. Tenure is not a guarantee of a job, but it does provide some security. board of education, the State superintendent of education, or a certifi cation advisory committee. Requirements for regular certificates vary by State. However, all States require a bachelor’s degree and completion of an approved teacher training program with a prescribed number of subject and education credits and supervised practice teaching in a secondary school. Aspiring teachers either major in the subject they plan to teach while also taking education courses, or major in education and take subject courses. A number of States require specific grade point aver ages for teacher certification. Many States offer alternative teacher certification programs for people who have college training in the subject they will teach but do not have the necessary education courses required for a regular certificate. Alternative certification programs are designed to ease teacher shortages in certain subjects or to attract more capable people into teaching. In such programs, individuals begin teaching immedi ately under provisional certification. After working under the close supervision of experienced educators for 1 or 2 years while taking education courses outside school hours, they receive regular certifica tion if they have progressed satisfactorily. Under other programs, college graduates who do not meet certification requirements take only those courses that they lack, and then become certified. This may take from 1 to 2 semesters of full-time study. They also have the option of obtaining a second bachelor’s degree with an education major, but since this takes more time than taking only those courses required for certification, it is less common. Aspiring teachers who need certifica tion may also enter programs that grant a master’s degree in education, as well as certification. States also issue emergency certificates to individuals who do not meet all requirements for a regular certificate when schools cannot hire enough teachers with regular certificates. Almost all States require applicants for teacher certification to be tested for competency in basic skills, teaching skills, or subject matter proficiency. Almost all require additional education for renewal of the teacher’s certificate—many require a graduate degree. Information on certification is available from State departments of education or school superintendents. Many States have reciprocity Employment Secondary school teachers held about 1,164,000 jobs in 1988; more than 90 percent were in public schools. In addition, some of the 275,000 special education teachers worked in secondary schools. Em ployment is distributed geographically much the same as the popu lation. The high school age population will increase from 1990 to the year 2000. Population 14 to 17 years of age (millions) 18 ------------------------------------------------------------ Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Columbia require public secondary school teachers to be certified. Certification is generally for one or several related subjects. Usually certification is granted by the State Secondary school teachers may use laboratory exercises, videos, and computers to supplement their lectures. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Source: Bureau of Census Professional Specialty Occupations agreements that make it easier for teachers certified in one State to become certified in another. Secondary school teachers should be knowledgeable in their subject and able to communicate with and motivate students. With additional preparation and certification, teachers may move into positions as school librarians, reading specialists, curriculum specialists, or guid ance counselors. Teachers may become administrators or supervisors, although the number of positions is limited. In some systems, wellqualified experienced teachers can become senior or mentor teachers, with higher pay and additional responsibilities. They guide and assist less experienced teachers while keeping most of their teaching respon sibilities. Job Outlook Employment of secondary school teachers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as high school enrollments grow. Largely because of migration to the South and West, employment of teachers is expected to increase more in those regions and less in others. Job openings for secondary school teachers are expected to increase through the year 2000 as enrollments rise. In addition, job openings should increase substantially by the end of the decade as the large number of teachers now in their 40’s reach retirement age. The supply of secondary school teachers is also expected to increase in response to reports of job opportunities, greater public interest in education, and higher salaries. In fact, enrollments in teacher training programs have already increased. More teachers should also be available from the pool of those certified but not now teaching, and from recently instituted alternative certification programs, which are creating oppor tunities for knowledgeable people without education courses to enter the occupation. Some central cities and rural areas have difficulty attracting enough teachers, so job prospects should continue to be better in these areas than in suburban districts. The number of teachers employed depends on State and local expen ditures for education. The job outlook presented here assumes moder ate increases in these expenditures. Pressures from taxpayers to limit spending could result in fewer teachers than projected; pressures to spend more to improve the quality of education could mean more. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 137 Earnings According to the National Education Association, public secondary school teachers averaged about $30,300 a year in 1988-89. Generally, salaries were higher in the Mid-Atlantic and far western States. Earn ings in private schools generally were lower. Most public school teachers belong to unions that bargain with school systems over wages, hours, and the terms and conditions of employment. In some schools, teachers receive extra pay for coaching sports and working with students in extracurricular activities. Some teachers earn extra income during the summer working in the school system or in other jobs. Related Occupations Secondary school teaching requires a wide variety of skills and aptitudes, including organizational, administrative, and recordkeep ing abilities; research and communication skills; the power to influence, motivate, and train others; and creativity. Workers in other occupations requiring some of these aptitudes include school administrators, college and university faculty, counselors, trainers and employee development specialists, employment interviewers, librarians, public relations representatives, sales representatives, and social workers. Sources of Additional Information Information on certification requirements and approved teacher train ing institutions is available from State departments of education. Information on teachers’ unions and education-related issues may be obtained from: (•-American Federation of Teachers, 555 New Jersey Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001. w-National Education Association, 1201 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. A list of colleges and universities with teacher education programs accredited by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Educa tion can be obtained from: ••-National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, 2039 K St. NW., Suite 500, Washington, DC 20006. Health Diagnosing Occupations Chiropractors (D.O.T. 079.101-010) Nature of the Work Chiropractors are health practitioners who primarily treat patients whose health problems are associated with the body’s structural and neurological systems, especially the spine. Interference with these systems is believed to impair normal functions and lower resistance to disease. Chiropractors hold that misalignment or compression of the spinal nerves, for example, can alter many important body functions by affecting the neurological system. The chiropractic approach to health care reflects a holistic view, which stresses the patient’s overall well-being. It recognizes that many factors affect health, including exercise, diet, rest, environment, and heredity. In keeping with the holistic tradition, chiropractors encourage the use of natural, nondrug, nonsurgical health treatments. In cases where chiropractic care is inappropriate, chiropractors refer patients to other health practitioners. They also recommend lifestyle changes— in eating and sleeping habits—to their patients. Like other health practitioners, chiropractors follow a standard rou tine to secure the information needed for diagnosis and treatment: They take the patient’s medical history, conduct physical, neurological, and orthopedic examinations, order laboratory tests, and take X-rays, if needed. They also employ a postural and spinal analysis unique to chiropractic diagnosis. The treatment depends on the diagnosis. In cases where difficulties can be traced to weakness of the musculoskeletal structure, chiroprac tors will treat patients by manually manipulating or adjusting the spinal column. In addition, chiropractors utilize physiological therapeutics such as water, light, massage, ultrasound, electric, and heat therapy. In addition, straps, tapes, braces, and other support mechanisms may be used. Counseling about nutrition, exercise, stress management, and other matters is offered as necessary. Some chiropractors specialize in areas related to athletic injuries, diseases and disorders of children, or mental and nervous disorders. Others specialize in taking and interpreting X-rays or in orthopedics. Chiropractors, like other health professionals, are subject to State laws and regulations that specify the types of services they may or may not provide. All States, for example, prohibit chiropractors from prescribing drugs and performing surgery. Almost all chiropractors are solo or group practitioners. Depending on practice size, they may have administrative and financial responsi bilities in addition to treating patients. In larger offices, chiropractors delegate these tasks to office managers. Working Conditions Chiropractors work in offices that are clean and comfortable. The average workweek is about 42 hours. Chiropractors who work for themselves, as many do, are free to set their own hours. Since they must accommodate their patients, however, this sometimes means working in the evening and weekends. Since X-rays are an important diagnostic tool, chiropractors must take appropriate precautions against the dangers of repeated exposure to radiation. Employment In 1988, an estimated 36,000 persons practiced chiropractic. About 70 percent of active chiropractors are in solo practice. The remainder are in group practice or work for other chiropractors. A small number teach and conduct research at chiropractic colleges. Digitized138 for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Chiropractors manipulate the spine to relieve pain. Chiropractors differ from other health practitioners in their propen sity to locate in small communities; half work in cities of 50,000 inhabitants or less. There are also geographic imbalances in the distri bution of chiropractors, in part because many of them establish their practices in areas close to colleges of chiropractic. Large numbers of chiropractors work in California, for example, where 5 of the Nation’s 14 accredited chiropractic schools are located. Although California has a large number of chiropractors, other areas have higher concentrations relative to the population. Portions of the country with concentrations higher than the national average include the West and the Southwest, including Oregon, Colorado, Wyoming, Arizona, and New Mexico. Relative to population, the fewest chiropractors practice in the Middle Atlantic and Southeastern States of Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Columbia regulate the practice of chiropractic and grant licenses to chiropractors who meet educational requirements and pass a State board examination. Many States have reciprocity agreements that permit chiropractors already licensed in another State to obtain a license without taking an examination. The scope of the practice permitted and the educational requirements for a license vary considerably from one State to another, but in general, State licensing boards require successful completion of a 4year chiropractic college course following 2 years (or 60 semester hours) of undergraduate education. Most State boards recognize only academic training in chiropractic colleges accredited by the Council on Chiropractic Education. Several States require that chiropractors pass a basic science examination, similar to that required for other health practitioners. All States require a licensure exam. Most State boards recognize either all or part of the three-part test administered by the National Board of Chiropractic Examiners. State examinations may supplement the National Board tests, depending on State requirements. To maintain licensure, 44 States require completion of a specified Professional Specialty Occupations number of hours of continuing education each year to remain current in the field. Continuing education programs are offered by chiropractic colleges, the American Chiropractic Association (ACA), International Chiropractors Association, and State chiropractic associations. Special councils within the ACA also offer programs leading to certification, called "diplomate status,” in the areas of orthopedics, nutrition, and radiology and internal disorders. In 1989, 14 of the 17 chiropractic colleges in the United States were fully accredited by the Council on Chiropractic Education. All chiropractic colleges require applicants to have at least 2 years of undergraduate study, including courses in English, the social sci ences, organic and inorganic chemistry, biology, physics, and psychology. Chiropractic colleges emphasize courses in skeletal manipulation and spinal adjustments. All, however, offer a broader curriculum consisting of the basic and clinical sciences in addition to the chiroprac tic courses. During the first 2 years, most chiropractic colleges empha size classroom and laboratory work in basic science subjects such as anatomy, public health, microbiology, pathology, physiology, and biochemistry. The last 2 years stress physical and laboratory diagnosis, neurology, orthopedics, geriatrics, physiotherapy, nutrition, in addi tion to adjustment techniques and clinical experience. Students com pleting chiropractic education earn the degree of Doctor of Chiropractic (DC.). Chiropractic requires keen observation to detect physical abnormali ties and considerable hand dexterity but not unusual strength or endur ance. Persons desiring to become chiropractors should be able to work independently and handle responsibility. The ability to work with detail is important. As in other health-related occupations, sympathy, understanding, and the desire to help others are desirable qualities for dealing effectively with patients. Newly licensed chiropractors have a number of options upon gradua tion: They can apply for a residency program, set up a new practice, purchase an established one, enter into partnership with an established practitioner, or take a salaried position with an established chiropractor to acquire the experience and the funds needed to open and equip an office. Job Outlook Demand for chiropractic is related to the ability of patients to pay, either directly or through health insurance, and to public acceptance of the profession, which appears to be growing. At present, newly graduated chiropractors enter practice with little difficulty. However, the number of graduates from chiropractic col leges has increased fourfold since the early 1970’s, and, as more students graduate, new chiropractors may encounter competition. This will be especially true for chiropractors trying to establish a practice in areas where other practitioners already are located. Earnings In 1987, the median income for experienced chiropractors was about $64,000, after expenses, according to the American Chiropractic Asso ciation. In chiropractic, as in other types of independent practice, earnings are relatively low in the beginning. As in most other health professions, earnings are influenced by the characteristics and qualifications of the practitioner, the number of years in practice, and geographic location. Self-employed chiropractors must provide for their own health insur ance and retirement. Related Occupations Chiropractors diagnose, treat, and work to prevent diseases, disorders, and injuries. They emphasize the importance of the nervous system for good health. Other professions requiring similar skills include physicians, dentists, optometrists, podiatrists, veterinarians, occupa tional therapists, and physical therapists. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 139 Sources of Additional Information General information on chiropractic as a career is available from: (•-American Chiropractic Association, 1701 Clarendon Blvd., Arlington, VA 22209. •-International Chiropractors Association, 1110 North Glebe Rd., Suite 1000, Arlington, VA 22201. For a list of chiropractic colleges, as well as general information on chiropractic as a career, contact: •-Council on Chiropractic Education, 4401 Westown Parkway, Suite 120, West Des Moines, IA 50265. For information on State education and licensure requirements, contact: •-Federation of State Licensing Boards, 501 East California Ave., Glendale, CA 91206. For information on requirements for admission to a specific chiro practic college, as well as scholarship and loan information, contact the admissions office. Dentists (D.O.T. 072, except .117) Nature of the Work Dentists diagnose and treat problems of the teeth and tissues of the mouth. They take X-rays, place protective plastic sealants on chil drens’ teeth, fill cavities, straighten teeth, repair fractured teeth, and treat gum disease. Dentists remove teeth only when necessary and provide dentures to replace missing teeth. They also perform corrective surgery of the gums and supporting bones. Increasingly, dentists are concerned with preventing dental problems. In addition to cleaning teeth, dentists may provide instruction in diet, flossing, the use of fluorides, and other aspects of dental care. Dentists may devote some time to laboratory work such as making dentures and crowns. More commonly, they send specifications for dentures and crowns to dental laboratories. Some dentists employ dental hygienists to clean patients’ teeth and provide instruction for patient self-care. Dentists may also employ other assistants to perform office work, assist in “chairside” duties, and provide therapeutic ser vices under their supervision. (The work of dental hygienists, dental assistants, and dental laboratory technicians is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) The practice of dentistry is changing as a result of changes in the dental care needs of the population, greater use of support personnel, and technological advances that affect the materials and techniques dentists employ. A growing percentage of young dentists are preparing for specialty practice. Despite the trend toward specialization, most dentists are general practitioners who handle a wide variety of dental needs. Such timehonored tasks as cleaning teeth and filling cavities no longer fill the general practitioner’s day, however. Fluoridation of community water supplies and improved dental hygiene have dramatically improved the dental health of the population. Dental caries among all age groups— children, in particular—have declined. As a result, dental services are shifting from children to the elderly, who generally require more complex dental procedures such as endodontic services, fixed bridges, and partial dentures. In 1987, about 20 percent of all dentists practiced in one of the eight specialty areas recognized by the American Dental Association. The largest group of specialists are orthodontists, who straighten teeth. The next largest group, oral and maxillofacial surgeons, operate on the mouth and jaws. The remainder specialize in pediatric dentistry (dentistry for children); periodontics (treating the gums); prosthodontics (making artificial teeth or dentures); endodontics (root canal ther apy); public health dentistry (community dental health); and oral pa thology (diseases of the mouth). Since most dentists are in private practice, they must handle the business aspects of running an office in addition to diagnosing and 140 Occupational Outlook Handbook treating dental disease. Dentists typically oversee a wide variety of administrative tasks, ranging from keeping the books to negotiating a lease for office space to buying new equipment. Sometimes they perform these tasks themselves, but often they delegate them to a member of the staff or hire an office manager to make day-to-day decisions about staff, supplies, workflow, and the lease. Working Conditions Most dental offices are open 5 days a week. Some dentists work evenings and weekends to meet their patients' needs. Most dentists work about 40 hours a week, although some work more. Younger dentists may work fewer hours as they build up their practice, while established dentists often work fewer hours as they grow older. A considerable number continue in part-time practice well beyond the usual retirement age. Employment Dentists held about 167,000 jobs in 1988. Because some dentists hold more than one job, the number of jobs exceeds the number of professionally active civilian dentists—about 142,000 in 1988, according to the U.S. Public Health Service. Almost 9 out of 10 dentists are in private practice. Private practice, however, includes a wide variety of work settings and payment sys tems. Some dentists work in shopping malls; others contract with individual companies to provide dental services to a firm’s employees. Of the dentists outside of private practice, about half do research, teach, or hold positions in dental schools. Others work in hospitals and clinics, or are dental interns, residents, or other advanced education .. Dentists wear protective clothing to guard against infection. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis students. About 2,000 civilian dentists work for the Federal Govern ment, predominantly in the hospitals and clinics of the Veterans Ad ministration and the U.S. Public Health Service. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Columbia require dentists to be licensed. To qualify for a license in most States, a candidate must graduate from a dental school approved by the Commission on Dental Accreditation and pass written and practical examinations. In 1988, candidates in 49 States and the District of Columbia could fulfill part of the State licensing requirements by passing a written examination given by the National Board of Dental Examiners. Most State licenses permit dentists to engage in both general and specialized practice. Currently, about 15 States require dentists to obtain a specialty license before practicing as a specialist. Requirements include 2 to 4 years of graduate education and, in some cases, completion of a special State examination. Extra education also is necessary in the other States, but the dental profession, not the State licensing authority, regulates the specialist’s practice. To practice in a different State, a licensed dentist usually must pass that State’s examination. However, about 20 States grant licenses to dentists from other States on the basis of their credentials. Dentists who want to teach or do research usually spend an additional 2 to 4 years in advanced dental training in programs operated by dental schools, other institutions of higher education, and hospitals. Dental schools require a minimum of 3 to 4 years of college-level predental education. In fact, the overwhelming majority of dental students are college graduates. Three out of four of the students entering dental schools in 1987 had a bachelor’s or master’s degree. Predental education must include courses in both the sciences and humanities. All dental schools participate in a nationwide testing program, and, in selecting students, they consider scores earned on these tests along with the applicants’ overall grade point average (GPA), science course GPA, and information gathered through recommendations and inter views. Many State-supported dental schools give preference to resi dents of the State. Dental school generally lasts 4 academic years, although one institu tion condenses the program into 3 calendar years, and another program lasts 5 years. Studies begin with classroom instruction and laboratory work in basic sciences including anatomy, microbiology, biochemis try, and physiology. Courses in preclinical technique and beginning courses in clinical sciences also are provided at this time. During the last 2 years, the student gains practical experience by treating patients, usually in dental clinics. Most dental schools award the degree of Doctor of Dental Surgery (D.D.S). An equivalent degree, Doctor of Dental Medicine (D.M.D.), is conferred by the rest. Earning a dental degree is a costly process, but financial aid is available from the Federal and State governments, health-related orga nizations, industry, and dental schools. Many dental students rely on student loans to finance their professional training. Dentistry requires both manual skills and a high level of diagnostic ability. Dentists should have good visual memory, excellent judgment of space and shape, and a high degree of manual dexterity, as well as scientific ability. Good business sense, self-discipline, and the ability to instill confidence are helpful for success in private practice. High school students who want to become dentists are advised to take courses in biology, chemistry, health, and mathematics. Dental school graduates may launch their careers by working for established dentists on an associate basis for a year or two. This enables them to gain experience and save money to equip an office of their own. Most dental school graduates, however, purchase an established practice or open a new practice immediately after graduation. A growing number of new graduates—currently about one-third— enroll in postgraduate training programs in approved hospitals or dental schools. Dentists who enter the Armed Forces are commissioned as captains Professional Specialty Occupations in the Army and Air Force and as lieutenants in the Navy. Graduates of recognized dental schools are eligible for positions in the Federal civil service and for commissions (equivalent to lieutenants in the Navy) in the U.S. Public Health Service. Job Outlook Employment of dentists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as changes in population size and structure boost demand for preventive and restorative dentistry. As members of the baby-boom generation advance into middle age, a large number will be candidates for intensive dental care. Unlike younger people, who have benefited from advances in preventive dental care, people born before the 1950’s tend to have intricate dental work that will require complicated maintenance as they grow older. Moreover, elderly people, an increasing proportion of the population, are more likely to retain their teeth than in the past and will increase demand for maintenance and preventive care and treatment of oral diseases and other abnormalities. Also contributing to job growth for dentists are growing public awareness that regular dental care helps prevent and control dental disease, and fairly widespread dental insurance, which makes it easier for people to purchase dental care. The private practice of dentistry is expected to remain competitive, though less so than in recent years. Keen competition for patients during much of the decade of the 1980’s is attributable to the influx of new dental graduates that resulted from a Federal decision to support expansion of the Nation’s dental schools during the 1960’s. New graduates eventually found that some communities already had enough dentists; setting up a practice in those places proved difficult. More over, demand for dental care drops during economic downturns. Dental school enrollments have declined over the past decade (see chart), and no upturn is foreseen before the end of the century. More over, the increasing propensity of dental school graduates to pursue specialty training delays their entry into practice by several years. Together, these trends portend a reduced supply of new practitioners, which means that opportunities for young dentists will improve. Although competition among dentists is likely to abate, a poorly managed practice is unlikely to succeed. Weekend and evening hours, a competitive fee structure, acceptance of dental insurance, and expan sion of services are business practices that may help a dental practice thrive. Replacement needs create relatively few job openings for dentists. Once having completed their training and entered practice, dentists tend to remain in the profession. Some dentists reduce their hours of work because of ill health or desire for leisure, but very few individuals leave dentistry to take up other careers. Earnings During the first year or two of practice, dentists often earn less than they do after they develop their practice. Specialists generally earn considerably more than general practitioners. The net median income of dentists in general practice was about SjjJ&rQQO^a year in 1988, according to the American Dental Association. Net median income of those in specialty practices was about $100,000 a year. A relatively large proportion of dentists are self-employed. Like other business owners, these dentists must provide their own health insurance, life insurance, and retirement benefits. The location of the dental practice has a large influence on the dentist’s earnings. For example, in high-income urban areas, dental services are in great demand. However, a practice can be developed most quickly in small towns, where new dentists can become known easily and where they may face less competition from established practitioners. Although income in small towns may rise rapidly at first, over the long run, the level of earnings, like the cost of living, may be lower than it is in larger communities. Except for emergencies, dental work generally can be postponed. During periods of high unemployment and economic hardship, there fore, dentists tend to experience a reduction in the volume of work https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 141 The decline of dental school enrollments points to better opportunities for young practitioners. First-year enrollments Source American Dental Association and lower earnings. However, dental insurance coverage somewhat dampens the impact of economic downturns on the demand for dental care. Related Occupations Dentists examine, diagnose, and treat various oral diseases and abnor malities. Others whose work involves personal contact and requires a long and rigorous period of scientific training include psychologists, optometrists, physicians, veterinarians, and podiatrists. Sources of Additional Information For information on dentistry as a career and a list of accredited dental schools, contact: (•-American Dental Association, Council on Dental Education, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, IL 60611. (•-American Association of Dental Schools, 1625 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036. The American Dental Association also will furnish a list of State boards of dental examiners. Persons interested in practicing dentistry should obtain the requirements for licensure from the board of dental examiners of the State where they plan to work. Prospective dental students should contact the office of student financial aid at the schools to which they apply for information on scholarships, grants, and loans, including Federal financial aid. Optometrists (D.O.T. 079.101-018) Nature of the Work Over half the people in the United States wear glasses or contact lenses. Optometrists (doctors of optometry, also known as O.D.’s) provide most of the primary vision care these people need. 142 Occupational Outlook Handbook Optometrists should not be confused with either ophthalmologists or dispensing opticians. Ophthalmologists are physicians who special ize in medical diagnosis and treatment of eye and vision disorders, especially diseases and injuries to the eye. Ophthalmologists may perform eye surgery and prescribe drugs or other eye treatment, includ ing corrective lenses. Dispensing opticians fit and adjust eyeglasses and in some States may fit contact lenses according to prescriptions written by ophthalmologists or optometrists, but they do not examine eyes or prescribe treatment. (See statements on physicians and dispens ing opticians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Optometrists are primary eye care providers who examine people’s eyes to diagnose and treat vision problems and, in some cases, eye disease. They also test to insure that the patient has proper depth and color perception and the ability to focus and coordinate the eyes. Optometrists prescribe eyeglasses, contact lenses, vision therapy, and low-vision aids. Optometrists may use drugs for diagnosis and, as of 1988, they may use drugs to treat eye diseases in 23 States. When optometrists diagnose conditions requiring treatment beyond the optometric scope of practice, they arrange for consultation with the appro priate health care practitioners. Although most optometrists are in general practice, some specialize in work with the elderly or with children. Others work with partially sighted persons, who use microscopic or telescopic lenses. Still others concentrate on contact lenses, sports vision aids, or vision therapy. Optometrists teach, do research, consult, and serve on health advisory committees of various kinds. The majority of optometrists are private practitioners and, therefore, must handle or oversee the business aspects of running an office as well as treating patients. Although they may hire an office manager to handle day-to-day duties, optometrists in private practice are ultimately responsible for such administrative tasks as developing a clientele, promoting the practice, negotiating for office space, keeping the books, paying salaries, arranging for employee benefits, keeping tax records, and ordering equipment and supplies. Office management and market ing duties are also part of the job for optometrists who buy optical store franchises and operate as independent business owners. Opportu nities for optometrists in nontraditional modes of practice such as retail optical stores have grown rapidly in recent years. Working Conditions Optometrists work in places—usually their own offices—that are clean, well lighted, and comfortable. The work requires attention to detail. Optometrists who are self-employed have considerable flexibil ity in setting their hours of work, and many practitioners choose to work over 40 hours a week. Saturday and evening hours, to suit the needs of patients, are not uncommon. Employment Optometrists held about 37,000 jobs in 1988. The number of jobs is greater than the number of practicing optometrists because some .. An optometrist prepares to test a patient’s eyesight. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis optometrists hold two or more jobs. For example, an optometrist may have a private practice and also work all or part of a day each week in another practice, clinic, or vision care center. Although many optometrists are in solo practice, a growing number are in partnership or group practices, largely because young optome trists often have to pay off educational loans and because setting up a practice is expensive. For the same reasons, some optometrists work as salaried employees in the offices of established practitioners, health maintenance organizations (HMO’s), optical stores, opthalmologists, and the Veterans Administration. Some optometrists act as consultants to industrial safety programs, insurance companies, manufacturers of ophthalmic products, HMO’s, and others. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require that optometrists be licensed. Applicants for a license must have a Doctor of Optometry degree from an accredited optometric school or college and pass a State board examination. In some States, applicants can substitute the examination of the National Board of Examiners in Optometry, usually taken in the third year of optometric school, for part or all of the written State examination. Some States allow applicants to be licensed without lengthy examination if they have a license in another State. In 47 States and the District of Columbia, optometrists must earn a certain number of continuing education credits to renew their licenses. Licenses are renewed either annually or biennially. The Doctor of Optometry degree requires completion of a 4-year professional degree program at an accredited optometric school pre ceded by at least 2 or 3 years of preoptometric study at an accredited college or university (most optometry students hold a bachelor’s de gree). In 1989, 16 U.S. schools and colleges of optometry were accredited by the Council on Optometric Education of the American Optometric Association. Requirements for admission to schools of optometry include courses in English, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology or zoology. A few schools require or recommend courses in psychology, social studies, literature, philosophy, and foreign languages. All applicants must take the Optometric Admissions Test (OAT). Competition for admission is keen. Business ability, self-discipline, and the ability to deal tactfully with patients are important for success. Optometrists wishing to teach or perform research may study for a master’s or Ph.D. degree in visual science, physiological optics, neurophysiology, public health, health administration, health informa tion and communication, or health education. One-year postgraduate clinical residency programs are available for optometrists who wish to specialize in certain aspects of optometry, including family practice optometry, pediatric optometry, geriatric optometry, low-vision reha bilitation, vision training, contact lenses, hospital-based optometry, and primary care optometry. Job Outlook Employment of optometrists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 in response to the vision care needs of a growing and aging population. Of central importance is the maturing of the large baby-boom generation, together with rapid growth in the elderly population in the years immediately ahead. Visits to both optometrists and ophthalmologists are more frequent for persons over the age of 45, reflecting the onset of vision problems in middle age and the increased likelihood of cataracts, glaucoma, diabetes, and hypertension in old age. Demand for optometric services is likely to grow due to greater recognition of the importance of vision care on the part of the popula tion and improved ability to pay. Rising personal incomes, growth in employee vision care plans, and a recent change in the Medicare law should all heighten demand for optometric services. Medicare now pays for certain eye care services provided by optometrists, a change that is expected to produce increased business from persons aged 65 Professional Specialty Occupations and above. However, optometrists will face competition as ophthal mologists try to regain their share of the elderly market. Employment of optometrists would grow even more rapidly were it not for the anticipated productivity gains. Greater use of optometric aides and other support personnel, and introduction of new kinds of equipment are expected to allow optometrists to handle more visits, thereby constraining demand for additional practitioners. Replacement needs will produce some job openings in the years ahead. In this occupation, replacement needs arise almost entirely from retirements and deaths. Optometrists, like other health prac titioners, have a strong attachment to their profession and generally remain in practice until they leave the labor force; few transfer to other occupations. Because one-fourth of all active optometrists are now over 50 years of age, it is likely that a large number of experienced practitioners will need to be replaced by the year 2000. which uses sound waves to pulverize kidney stones, are replacing traditional treatment methods. High-technology medicine requires much skill and training. Its dominant role in American medical care underlies the system of spe cialty medicine. In fact, most M.D.’s are specialists. Medical special ties for which there is training include internal medicine, general surgery, obstetrics and gynecology, psychiatry, pediatrics, radiology, anesthesiology, ophthalmology, pathology, and orthopedic surgery. While most M.D’s specialize, D.O.’s tend to be primary care providers such as family practitioners. Table 1. Distribution of M.D.’s by specialty, 1986 Percent Total................................................................................................ Earnings According to the American Optometric Association, net earnings of new optometry graduates in their first full year of practice averaged about $40,000 in 1988. Experienced optometrists averaged about $65,000 annually. Incomes vary greatly, depending upon location, specialization, and other factors. Optometrists who start out by working on a salaried basis tend to earn more money initially than optometrists who set up their own independent practice. However, in the long ran, those in private practice generally earn more than those employed by others. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who do similar work or apply logical thinking and scientific knowledge to prevent, diagnose, and treat disease, disorders, or injuries in humans or animals are chiropractors, dentists, physicians, podiatrists, veterinarians, ophthalmologists, and opticians. Sources of Additional Information For information on optometry as a career, write to: ••-American Optometric Association, Educational Services, 243 North Lind bergh Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63141. Additional career information and a listing of accredited optometric educational institutions, as well as required preoptometry courses and admission information, can be obtained from: •-Association of Schools and Colleges of Optometry, 6110 Executive Blvd., Suite 514, Rockville, MD 20852. The Board of Optometry in the capital of each State can supply information on licensing requirements. For information on specific admission requirements and sources of financial aid, contact individual optometry schools. 143 100 General and family practice............................................................. 11.9 Medical specialties: Cardiovascular specialist.............................................................. 2.5 Dermatology................................. ,.............................................. 1.2 Gastroenterology.......... ......... ...................................................... 1.1 Internal medicine........................................................................... 16.0 Pediatrics........................................................................................ 6.4 Pulmonary disease........................................................................ 1.0 Surgical specialties: General surgery............................................................................. 6.5 Neurological surgery............................................................................7 Obstetrics/gynecology.................................................................. 5.5 Ophthalmology.............................................................................. 2.7 Orthopedic surgery....................................................................... 3.1 Otorlary ngology............................................................................. 1.3 Plastic surgery....................................................................................... 7 Urological surgery........................................................................ 1.6 Other specialties: Anesthesiology.............................................................................. 4.1 Child psychiatry.................................................................................... 7 Diagnostic radiology.................................................................... 2.4 Emergency medicine.................................................................... 2.2 Neurology...................................................................................... 1.5 Occupational medicine.........................................................................5 Pathology........................................................................................ 2.7 Physical and rehabilitation medicine ................................................ 6 Psychiatry...................................................................................... 5.7 Public health.......................................................................................... 5 Radiology...................................................................................... 1.5 Other............................................................................................... 15.3 Source; American Medical Association Physicians (D.O.T. 070 and 071) Nature of the Work Physicians perform medical examinations, diagnose illnesses, and treat people suffering from injury or disease. They also advise patients on good health practices. There are two types of physicians: The M.D.—Doctor of Medicine—and the D.O.—Doctor of Osteopathy. While M.D.’s and D.O.’s may use all accepted methods of treatment, including drugs and surgery, D.O.’s place special emphasis on the body’s musculoskeletal system. They believe that good health requires proper alignment of bones, muscles, ligaments, and nerves. In recent years, advances in medical technology have been many and dramatic. Some have resulted in entirely new medical treatments, such as liver and kidney transplants and ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging. Others, such as laser surgery and lithotripsy, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The shift from fee-for-service medicine to “managed care” is begin ning to alter the practice environment as well. Managed care refers to the effort to cut costs by setting guidelines for medical practice, such as the type and number of tests a physician can order, based on each patient’s symptoms. Examples of managed care systems are the popular health maintenance organizations (HMO’s) and preferred provider organizations (PPO’s). Working Conditions Physicians often work long, irregular hours. While one-fourth gener ally work a 40-hour week, almost half work more than 60 hours a week. Most specialists work fewer hours each week than general and family practitioners. As doctors approach retirement age, they may accept fewer new patients and tend to work shorter hours. Physicians in salaried positions, such as those in HMO’s or group practice, generally have shorter and more regular hours, consult more with peers, and have more flexible work schedules than solo prac titioners. 144 Occupational Outlook Handbook Some physicians specialize in obstetrics. Unlike salaried physicians or those in group practice, solo prac titioners are responsible for the business aspect of a practice. This includes handling all administrative tasks such as keeping track of inventory, ordering supplies, paying bills, and hiring support per sonnel. Employment Physicians (M.D.’s and D.O.’s) held about 535,000 jobs in 1988. About 2 out of 3 were in office-based practice; about one-fifth were employed in hospitals; and most of the remainder practiced in HMO’s, urgent care centers, surgicenters, public health clinics, and the Federal Government. While some physicians are solo practitioners, a growing number are partners or salaried employees of group practices. Sometimes organized as clinics and sometimes as a group of physicians, medical groups can afford expensive medical equipment and realize other business advantages. For this reason, and because such practices have the flexibility to adapt to changes in the health care environment, group practice is becoming more prevalent. The Northeast has the highest ratio of physicians to population; the South, the lowest. More than half of all D.O.’s practice in small cities and towns and in rural areas. M.D. ’s, on the other hand, tend to locate in urban areas, close to hospital and educational centers. Some rural areas remain underserved, although the situation is changing some what. Currently, more medical students are being exposed to practice in rural communities with the direct support of educational centers and hospitals in more populous areas. Osteopathic physicians are located chiefly in those States that have osteopathic hospitals. In 1986, three-fifths of all D.O.’s were in Flor ida, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Texas, and Missouri. Fifteen States and the District of Columbia each had fewer than 50 D.O.’s in 1986. Training and Other Qualifications The minimum educational requirement for entry to a medical or osteo pathic school is 3 years of college; most applicants, however, have at least a bachelor’s degree, and many have advanced degrees. A few medical schools offer a combined college and medical school program that lasts 6 years instead of the customary 8. Required premedical study includes undergraduate work in English, physics, biology, and inorganic and organic chemistry. Students should also take courses in the humanities, mathematics, and the social sciences to acquire a broad general education. Medicine is a popular career, and most applicants to medical school compete with other students who generally have excelled in preprofes sional education. Application to medical school is much like applica tion to college. Applicants must submit transcripts, their scores from the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT), and letters of recom mendation. An interview with an admissions officer may also be https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis necessary. Character, personality, leadership qualities, and participa tion in extracurricular activities also play a role in the selection process. Students spend the first 2 years of medical school primarily in laboratories and classrooms taking basic medical courses such as anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, microbiology, pa thology, medical ethics, and laws governing medicine. They also learn how to take case histories, perform examinations, and recognize symptoms. Some schools provide students with clinical experience during this time. During the last 2 years, students work under supervi sion in hospitals and clinics to learn acute, chronic, preventive, and rehabilitative care. Through rotations in internal medicine, obstetrics and gynecology, pediatrics, psychiatry, and surgery, they gain experi ence in the diagnosis and treatment of illness. While in school, most medical school students must take an exam given by the National Board of Medical Examiners (NBME); most osteopathy students must take an exam given by the National Board of Osteopathic Medical Examiners (NBOME). Following medical school, almost all M.D.’s go on to 3 years of graduate medical education (residency). After graduation, all D.O.’s must serve a 12-month rotating internship which includes experience in surgery, pediatrics, internal medicine, and other specialties. M.D.’s and D.O.’s seeking board certification in a specialty may spend up to 5 years—depending on the specialty—in residency train ing. For those training in a subspecialty, another 1 to 2 years of residency is usual. A final examination immediately after residency, or after 1 or 2 years of practice, is also necessary for certification. All States, the District of Columbia, and U.S. territories require physicians to be licensed. Licensure requirements for both D.O.’s and M.D.’s include graduation from an accredited professional school, completion of a licensing examination, and, in most States, between 1 and 6 years of supervised practice in an accredited graduate medical education program (intemship/residency). Graduates of foreign medical schools can generally begin practice in the United States after completing a U.S. hospital residency training program. To enter an approved residency, graduates of foreign medical schools must pass an examination administered by the Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates and be certified by that organization. After 1 year of work in an approved residency, foreign medical graduates, as well as graduates of U.S. medical schools who have not taken the NBME or NBOME test, must take the Federation Licensing Examination (FLEX) that all jurisdictions accept. Although physicians licensed in one State can usually get a license to practice in another without further examination, some States limit reciprocity. Of the 127 accredited schools in the United States in which students can study for the M.D. degree, 126 award the degree of Doctor of Medicine (M.D.). One school offers a 2-year program in the basic medical sciences to students who transfer to another medical school for the last 2 years of study. Fifteen schools of osteopathic medicine in the U.S. award the degree of Doctor of Osteopathy (D.O.). To teach or do research, physicians may acquire a master’s or Ph.D. in such fields as biochemistry or microbiology. They may otherwise spend 1 year or more in research or in an advanced clinical training fellowship. A physician’s training is costly. In 1986-87, the annual expense for in-State residents in medical schools of public institutions was approximately $12,300; for students in private medical schools it was approximately $23,000. While education costs have increased, student financial assistance has not. Scholarships, while still available, have become harder to find. Loans are available, but subsidies to reduce interest rates are limited. Persons who wish to become physicians must have a desire to serve the sick and injured, be self-motivated, and be able to survive the pressures of premedical and medical education. The workload associ ated with internship/residency that follows medical school is very heavy, with residents often working 24-hour shifts and 80 hours a week or more. Efforts, however, are being made to limit the hours a resident can work without a break. Prospective physicians must also be willing to study throughout their career in order to keep up with advances in medical science. Physicians should have a good bedside Professional Specialty Occupations manner, be emotionally stable, and be able to make decisions in emergencies. Job Outlook Employment of physicians is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to continued expansion of the health industry. Population growth and aging; continued intro duction of new treatments and procedures; and the widespread ability to pay for services through private insurance, Medicare, and Medicaid will underlie future growth in demand for physicians. Tending to constrain what would otherwise be faster growth, however, are man aged care arrangements such as HMO’s which place greater reliance on physician assistants and nurse practitioners to provide services. The need to replace physicians is low because almost all physicians remain in the profession until they retire. The number of medical school graduates rose substantially during the 1970’s—a deliberate, publicly subsidized response to the perceived shortage of medical personnel. If the number of medical school gradu ates remains at current high levels, the supply of physicians is expected to exceed demand. The surplus of physicians will continue to affect patient load, earn ings, geographic location, specialty choice, and practice setting. Some communities may have too many physicians—leading to fewer patient visits per physician and correspondingly lower earnings. There is already some evidence that the oversupply of physicians in large metropolitan areas has encouraged some to relocate to historically underserved areas. However, areas that are too sparsely populated, or too poor, are not likely to attract doctors. Despite prospects of a general oversupply of physicians, there may not be a surplus of primary care physicians, specifically general/family practitioners and internists, or of specialists in geriatric and preventive medicine. On the other hand, some medical specialties will experience even greater competition in the future. These specialties include many of the surgical subspecialties, such as neurosurgery and orthopedic sur gery, as well as ophthalmology, pathology, and radiology. The spe 145 cialty imbalances mentioned above assume that specialty choices will not change markedly in the future. Decisions about the specialty to pursue are governed by factors such as lifestyle and faculty role models as well as by economic considerations. Unlike their predecessors, newly trained physicians face radically different choices of where and how to practice. Many new physicians are likely to avoid solo practice and take salaried jobs in group medical practices, clinics, and HMO’s in order to have regular work hours and the opportunity for peer consultation. Others will take salaried positions simply because they cannot afford the high costs associated with establishing a private practice while paying off student loans. Graduates of foreign medical schools have long been a source of physicians in the United States, It seems unlikely, however, that they will continue to augment the supply of U.S.-trained physicians to the extent they have had in the past. This is due to such factors as lower foreign medical school enrollments, more difficult qualifying entrance exams for foreign-trained students seeking U.S. residencies, and keener competition for a residency once having passed the exams. Earnings Physicians have among the highest average annual earnings of any occupation. According to the American Medical Association’s Center for Health Policy Research, average income, after expenses, for all physicians was about $132,300 in 1987; those under 36 years of age averaged $96,100. Earnings vary according to specialty; the number of years in practice; geographic region; hours worked; and the physician’s skill, personality, and professional reputation. Self-employed physi cians—those who own or are part owners of their medical practice— had an average income of $146,200, while those who were employed by others earned an average of $99,600 a year. As shown in the following table of physician income in 1987, average income after expenses varies by specialty. Table 2. Average income of M.D.’s after expenses, 1987 Income The increase in medical degrees granted has contributed to the competitive outlook for physicians. 18,000 16,000 14,000 Source: American Medical Association 12,000 Stipends of medical school graduates serving as residents in hospi tals vary according to the type of residency, year of residency, geo graphic area, and size of the hospital, but allowances of $24,000 to $31,000 a year are common. Many hospitals also provide full or partial room and board and other maintenance allowances to residents. Salaries in the Veterans Administration vary according to experi ence, specialty, board certification, and supervisory level. In 1989, the minimum salary for full-time physicians in the VA was about $54,100; the maximum salary was about $94,100. Newly qualified physicians who establish their own practice must make a sizable financial investment to equip a modem office. During the first year or two of independent practice, physicians probably earn little more than the minimum needed to pay expenses. As a rule, however, their earnings rise rapidly as their practice develops. 10,000 19851989 Source: U.S. Department of Education, the American Osteopathic Association https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Surgeons..................................................................................... $187,900 Radiologists............................................................................... 180,700 Obstetricians/gynecologists..................................................... 163,200 Anesthesiologists....................................................................... 163,100 Pathologists............................................................................... 124,600 Internists..................................................................................... 121,800 Psychiatrists............................................................................... 102,700 General/family practitioners.................................................... 91,500 Pediatricians.............................................................................. 85,300 Related Occupations Physicians work to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, disorders, and injuries. Professionals in other occupations that require similar kinds of skill and critical judgment include audiologists, chiropractors, 146 Occupational Outlook Handbook dentists, optometrists, podiatrists, speech pathologists, and veteri narians. maintenance organizations (HMO’s), or clinics may work nights and weekends and be on call. Sources of Additional Information For a list of AMA-approved medical schools, as well as general information on premedical education, financial aid, and medicine as a career, contact: Employment Podiatrists held about 17,000 jobs in 1988. The vast majority of podiatrists are in private practice. Traditionally, podiatrists have been solo practitioners and most still are. Recently, however, other practice arrangements such as partnerships and group practices have begun to emerge. Some podiatrists are employed by hospitals, nursing homes, clinics, HMO’s, and podiatric medical colleges. The Veterans Admin istration and public health departments employ podiatrists, too. Geographic imbalances are pronounced in podiatric medicine. This reflects the fact that most podiatry graduates establish their practices in or near one of the seven States that have colleges of podatric medicine. This has left large areas of the country—particularly the South, the Southwest, and nonmetropolitan areas—with few podia trists. In these areas, foot care is typically provided by primary care physicians and orthopedists. ••-American Medical Association, 535 N. Dearborn St., Chicago, IL 60610. •-Association of American Medical Colleges, Publications Department, One Dupont Circle NW., Suite 200, Washington, DC 20036. For general information on osteopathic medicine as a career, contact: •-American Osteopathic Association, Department of Public Relations, 142 East Ontario St., Chicago, IL 60611. •-American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine, 6110 Executive Blvd., Suite 405, Rockville, MD 20852. Information on Federal scholarships and loans is available from the directors of student financial aid at schools of medicine and osteopathic medicine. Persons who wish to practice medicine or osteopathic medicine in a particular State should inquire about licensure requirements directly from the board of examiners of that State. Podiatrists (D.O.T. 079.101-022) Nature of the Work Dancing, walking, and jogging can be enjoyable and healthy activities, but if your feet hurt, even the thought of standing can make you miserable. Being unable to stand or move about easily is an inconve nience at the very least, but if the disability is permanent, it can be a crushing blow. Podiatrists, also known as doctors of podiatric medicine (DPM’s), diagnose and treat disorders and diseases of the foot and lower leg. Podiatrists treat the major foot conditions: Corns and calluses, in grown toenails, and bunions. Other conditions treated by podiatrists include hammertoes, ankle and foot injuries, and foot complaints associated with diseases such as diabetes. For example, diabetics are prone to ulcers and infections due to their poor circulation. In diagnosing a foot problem, podiatrists may order X-rays and laboratory tests. If the podiatrist determines that the problem is improp erly fitting shoes, he or she may use a new instrument, the force plate, to help design custom-made shoes. A patient walks across the plate that is hooked up to a computer, which “reads” the patient’s feet. From the computer readout, properly fitted shoes can be designed. Depending on the diagnosis, they also fit corrective inserts called orthotics, prescribe drugs, order physical therapy, or perform surgery. Corrective surgery—performed in hospitals, outpatient surgery cen ters, clinics, or podiatrists’ offices—is an increasingly important part of podiatric practice. Some practioners specialize in surgery. Other specialties are ortho pedics and public health. Besides these three recognized specialties, podiatrists may choose subspecialty areas such as elderly care, sports medicine, and diabetic foot care. One of the biggest subspecialty areas is primary podiatric medicine, which is considered the family medicine of foot care. Going to a podiatrist for treatment of a foot problem may be the entry point into the health care system for some patients since clinical signs of diseases such as arthritis, diabetes, and heart disease may first appear in the foot. Podiatrists are trained to spot these and other systemic diseases, and refer patients to other medical specialists when appropriate. Working Conditions Podiatrists usually work independently in their own offices. They work over 38 hours a week, on the average. Podiatrists with solo practices set their own hours. Podiatrists who are employed in hospitals, health https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require a license for the practice of podiatric medicine. Each State and jurisdiction defines its own licensing requirements. Generally, however, the applicant mfist be a graduate of an accredited college of podiatric medicine and pass written and oral examinations. Many States also require applicants to have completed an accredited residency program. Some States permit appli cants to substitute the examination of the National Board of Podiatric Examiners, given in the second and fourth years of podiatric medical college, for part or all of the written State examination. Certain States grant reciprocity to podiatrists who are licensed in another State. The seven colleges of podiatric medicine are located in California, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. Prerequi sites for admission include the completion of at least 90 semester hours of undergraduate study, an acceptable grade point average, and suitable scores on the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT). Certain undergraduate courses are required: Eight semester hours each of biology, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, and physics and 6 hours of English. Most entrants surpass the minimum qualifications. Although not mandated, 9 of every 10 recent podiatric students pos sessed a bachelor’s degree. Colleges of podiatric medicine offer a 4-year program whose core curriculum is similar to that in other schools of medicine. Classroom instruction in basic sciences, including anatomy, chemistry, pathol ogy, and pharmacology, is given during the first 2 years. Thirdand fourth-year students have clinical rotations in different practice settings, including private practice, hospitals, and clinics. During these rotations, they acquire clinical skills—learning how to take general and podiatric histories, to perform routine physical examinations, to interpret tests and findings, to make diagnoses, and to perform The majority of podiatrists are in private practice. Professional Specialty Occupations therapeutic procedures. Graduates are awarded the degree of doctor of podiatric medicine, DPM. Most graduates complete a 1- to 3-year residency after receiving the DPM degree. Competition for admission to residency programs is keen. Since 13 States have licensure provisions that require completion of at least 1 year of postgraduate education, failure to secure a residency may restrict a new DPM's choice of practice location. Residency programs are hospital based. The first-year resident re ceives advanced training in podiatric medicine and surgery and serves clinical rotations in anesthesiology, internal medicine, pathology, radi ology, emergency medicine, and orthopedic and general surgery. Sec ond- and third-year residencies provide more extensive training in one of the three specialty areas. There are three recognized certifying boards for the specialty areas: The American Board of Podiatric Surgery, the American Board of Podiatric Orthopedics, and the American Board of Podiatric Public Health. Certification means that the DPM meets higher standards than those required for licensure. Each board has specific requirements, including advanced training, successful completion of written and oral examinations, and experience as a practicing podiatrist. Persons planning a career in podiatry should have scientific aptitude, manual dexterity, and interpersonal skills. They must be able to acquire scientific knowledge and stay abreast of new developments in the field of medicine; develop the motor functions and professional skills needed for clinical practice; and develop personal rapport and empathy with patients. A good business sense and congeniality are assets, as in any medical profession. Most podiatrists are in private practice, which means that they are in fact running a small business. Depending upon the size of the practice, podiatrists may handle administrative and managerial duties personally, or delegate decisionmaking in these areas to an office manager. Job Outlook ./ Employment of podiatrists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as more people tum to podiatrists for foot care. The growing population of the elderly and increased enthusiam for sports will spur demand. The elderly have accumulated more wear and tear on their feet and lower legs than most younger people, so they are prone to fobt ailments. In addition, the growing popularity of jogging, tennis, racquetball, and other sports is expected to result in more podiatric injuries that require medical attention. Even less strenuous activities, like low-impact aerobics, are likely to add to the demand for podiatric care. Because health insurance helps people pay for podiatric care, wide spread access to health insurance will contribute to increased demand in the years ahead—provided current benefit patterns are not altered substantially. Generally speaking, Medicare and most private health insurance programs cover acute medical and surgical foot services as well as diagnostic X-rays, fracture casts, and leg braces. Routine foot care—including the removal of corns and calluses—is not ordinarily paid for by health insurance. Health maintenance organizations and other prepaid plans may provide routine foot care, however. In addition to opportunities created by rapid growth in employment, many openings will result from the need to replace podiatrists who retire or stop working for other reasons. Opportunities for graduates to establish new practices, as well as to enter salaried positions in group practices and special foot clinics, such as diabetic foot centers, should be excellent. include chiropractors, dentists, optometrists, physicians, and veteri narians. Sources of Additional Information For information on podiatric medicine as a career, contact: •-American Podiatric Medical Association, 9312 Old Georgetown Rd., Bethesda, MD 20814-1621. Information on colleges of podiatric medicine, entrance require ments, curriculums, and student financial aid is available from: ••-American Association of Colleges of Podiatric Medicine, 6110 Executive Blvd., Suite 204, Rockville, MD 20852. Veterinarians (D.O.T. 073. except .361-010) Nature of the Work Records of veterinary medicine date back to the pharaohs. Veterinari ans were held in high esteem in ancient Egypt. They still perform a vital role in modem society, caring for pets and livestock, treating sporting animals, and protecting the public from exposure to animal diseases. Typically, veterinarians diagnose medical problems in their animal patients, perform surgery, and prescribe and administer medi cines and drugs. Most veterinarians engage in private practice. The majority treat small companion animals such as dogs, cats, and birds. Others concen trate on larger animals or have a mixed practice of both large and small animals. Companion animal medicine encompasses the prevention, diagno sis, and treatment of pet diseases—typically found in dogs and cats. Veterinarians in this field provide these services in animal hospitals or clinics. There are about 16,000 such facilities in the United States; 80 of these only treat cats and some specialize in treating birds. Veterinarians for large animals specialize in the health care needs of cattle, horses, sheep, and swine. They provide preventive care by advising ranchers and farmers on the proper care and management of livestock. Others specialize in treating fish and poultry. The type of practice varies by geographic region. Veterinarians in Earnings According to a survey conducted by Podiatry Management, the median net income of podiatrists was about $90,000 in 1988. Newly licensed podiatrists with less than 5 years of experience earned less. Income generally rises significantly as the practice grows. Related Occupations Podiatrists work to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, disorders, and injuries. Workers in other occupations that require similar skills https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 147 Most veterinarians treat small companion animals like dogs. 148 Occupational Outlook Handbook rural areas are more likely to work with livestock and horses than those in metropolitan centers. Because pets are found everywhere, however, very few veterinarians work exclusively with large animals. A number of veterinarians engage in research, food safety inspec tion, or education. It is not generally understood that veterinarians contribute to human as well as animal health care. Veterinarians may join physicians and scientists in carrying out research at an academic medical center, for example, and explore such topics as cancer treatment. Some veterinarians are in regulatory medicine or public health. They inspect food, investigate outbreaks of disease, and work in scientific laboratories. Veterinarians help prevent the outbreak and spread of animal diseases, some of which—like rabies—can be trans mitted to humans. Protection of the population from environmental hazards is a major concern of the small but significant number of veterinarians who specialize in epidemiology or animal pathology. Although there have been impressive successes in controlling diseases transmitted through food animals, changing technology and more complex methods of food production present new threats to food safety. Residues from herbicides, pesticides, and antibiotics used in food production pose a particular problem. Scientific advances in livestock production have, paradoxically, created a need for veterinarians capable of dealing with contamination of the food chain by toxic chemicals. Some veterinarians teach in veterinary colleges, work in zoos or animal laboratories, or engage in a combination of clinical and research activities. Working Conditions Veterinarians usually treat pet animals in hospitals and clinics. Often these facilities are noisy. Those in large animal practice usually work out of well-equipped mobile clinics and drive considerable distances between farms and ranches to care for their animal patients. Through their interaction with diseased animals, veterinarians can be exposed to injury, disease, and infection if precautions are not exercised. Veterinarians may have to perform unpleasant duties like putting an animal to death. Those in private practice often work long hours, and large animal veterinarians may work outdoors in all kinds of weather. Self-em ployed veterinarians set their own schedules and may work nights and weekends. Employment Veterinarians held about 46,000 jobs in 1988. Most were in private practice. The Federal Government employed about 2,000 veterinarians in civilian jobs, chiefly in the U.S. Departments of Agriculture, Health and Human Services, and the Interior. An additional 600 veterinarians served in the military. Other important employers of veterinarians are State and local governments, international health agencies, colleges of veterinary medicine, medical schools, research laboratories, livestock farms, animal food companies, and pharmaceutical companies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require that veterinarians be licensed. To obtain a license, applicants must have a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (D.V.M. or V.M.D.) degree from an accredited college of veterinary medicine and pass State board proficiency exami nations that last 2 days. Some States issue licenses without further examination to veterinarians already licensed by another State. For veterinarians seeking positions in research and teaching, a mas ter’s or Ph.D. degree usually is required. Increasingly, academic positions require specialty board certification as well. Veterinarians who seek specialty board certification in a field such as pathology, preventive medicine, toxicology, or laboratory animal medicine must complete an approved residency program, pass the board’s examina tion, and meet any other board requirements. The D.V.M. degree requires a minimum of 6 years of college consisting of at least 2 years of preveterinary study that emphasizes the physical and biological sciences and a 4-year professional degree https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis program. Most successful applicants have completed 4 years of col lege. In addition to rigorous academic instruction, professional training includes considerable practical experience in diagnosing and treating animal diseases, performing surgery, and performing laboratory work in anatomy, biochemistry, and other scientific and medical subjects. In 1989, all 27 colleges of veterinary medicine in the United States were accredited by the Council on Education of the American Veteri nary Medical Association (AVMA). Admission to these schools is highly competitive. Although the number of applicants has decreased in recent years, there are about two qualified applicants for every available position. Applicants usually need grades of “B” or better, especially in science courses; and some programs require applicants to take either the Veterinary Aptitude Test, Medical College Admission Test, or the Graduate Record Examination. Experience in part-time or summer jobs working with animals is extremely advantageous. Col leges usually give preference to residents of the State in which the college is located, because these schools are largely State supported. Some schools have regional educational plans that permit cooperating States without veterinary schools to send students to designated re gional schools. In other areas, colleges that accept out-of-State students give priority to applicants from nearby States that do not have veteri nary schools. A small number of veterinarians receive their training in another country. To meet State licensure requirements, foreign-trained veteri narians must fulfill the English language and clinical evaluation re quirements of the Educational Commission for Foreign Veterinary Graduates. Most veterinarians begin as employees or partners in established practices. Those who can afford the substantial investment needed for drugs, instruments, and other startup costs may set up their own practices. An even greater investment is needed to open an animal hospital or purchase an established practice. Veterinarians may specialize in a particular species, birds, for exam ple, or in a part of the body, such as the eyes. Specialization requires 2 to 3 years of internship or residency beyond the D.V.M. Newly trained veterinarians may qualify for civilian jobs with the U.S. Government as meat and poultry inspectors, disease-control workers, epidemiologists, research assistants, or commissioned offi cers in the U.S. Public Health Service. Depending on the agency, a license from any State may be required. Job Outlook Employment of veterinarians is expected to grow faster than the aver age for all occupations through the year 2000. Growth in the animal population, emphasis on scientific methods of breeding and raising livestock and poultry, and continued support for public health and disease control programs will contribute to the demand for veterinari ans. In addition, many jobs will be created by the need to replace those who stop working. The outlook is extremely good for veterinarians with specialty train ing, which generally involves at least 2 years of formal education beyond the basic veterinary medicine degree. Demand for specialists in toxicology, laboratory animal medicine, and pathology is expected to remain strong, as is the demand for faculty at colleges of veterinary medicine. Most jobs for specialists will be in metropolitan areas. Employment opportunities for other veterinarians should be favor able. However, new veterinary school graduates are expected to en counter keen competition as they set out to establish a clinical practice. Establishing a large animal practice will be very difficult in some places because growth in the food animal population will be unevenly distributed. In fact, demand for food animal veterinarians is expected to decline in some regions. Earnings Newly graduated veterinarians working in the private practices of established veterinarians had an average salary of $23,000 in 1988, according to the American Veterinary Medical Association. After several years, salaries generally range between $40,000 and $60,000. Newly graduated veterinarians employed by the Federal Govern Professional Specialty Occupations ment started at $28,852 a year in 1989. The average annual salary of all veterinarians in the Federal Government was $41,300 in 1987. Related Occupations Veterinarians use their professional training to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, disorders, and injuries. Workers in other occupations who require similar skills are audiologists, chiropractors, dentists, optometrists, physicians, podiatrists, and speech pathologists. Other occupations that involve working with animals include zoologists, marine biologists, naturalists, and veterinary technicians. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 149 Sources of Additional Information For more information on careers in veterinary medicine, write to: (•-American Veterinary Medical Association, 930 N. Meacham Rd., Schaum burg, IL 60196. For information on scholarships, grants, and loans, contact the financial aid officer at the veterinary schools to which you wish to apply. For information on veterinary education, write to: (•-American Association of VeterinSfy Medicine Colleges, 1023 15th St. NW., Third Floor, Washington, DC 20005. Health Assessment and Treating Occupations Dietitians and Nutritionists (D.O.T. 077 except .121-010) Nature of the Work Dietitians and nutritionists use their knowledge of the principles of nutrition to help people develop healthy eating habits. Unlike the faddists who promise miraculous weight loss or improved health, professionals trained in the science of nutrition can scientifically evalu ate an individual’s diet. They may suggest modifications such as instructing a client with high blood pressure to avoid salty foods, for example, or help an overweight person identify sources of fats and sugars. Dietitians also counsel groups; set up and supervise food service systems for institutions such as hospitals, prisons, and schools; and promote sound eating habits through education and research. Major areas of practice are clinical, community, and management dietetics. Dietitians also work as educators, researchers, and private prac titioners. Clinical dietitians provide nutritional services for patients in hospi tals, nursing homes, clinics, or doctors’ offices. They assess patients’ nutritional needs, develop and implement nutrition programs, and evaluate and report the results. Clinical dietitians confer with doctors and other health care professionals about each patient in order to coordinate nutritional intake with other treatments—medications in particular. These dietitians are sometimes called therapeutic dietitians, a term that identifies them as being chiefly concerned with treating the sick. Expanding knowledge in medical science has led some clinical dietitians to concentrate their practice in the management of obese patients, care of the critically ill, or care of renal and diabetic patients. Those caring for critically ill patients oversee the preparation of cus tom-mixed, high-nutrition formulas for patients requiring tube or intra venous feedings. Dietitians practicing in renal dietetics treat dialysis patients and other individuals with kidney problems; those working with diabetics establish long-term nutritional care programs and a system for close monitoring. Aside from assessing nutritional needs and developing treatment plans for individual patients, clinical dietitians may also have adminis trative and managerial duties. The dietitian in a nursing home or small hospital, for instance, may ran the food service department, and manage other dietitians. Community dietitians counsel individuals and groups on nutritional practices designed to prevent disease and to promote good health. They are employed in such places as public health clinics, home health agencies, health maintenance organizations, and human service agencies that provide group and home-delivered meals. Their job is to evaluate individual needs, establish nutritional care plans, and commu nicate the principles of good nutrition in a way individuals and their families can understand. An example of this is the concept of eating something from each of the four basic food groups each day, or avoiding saturated fat and cholesterol. In addition to evaluating clients, dietitians working in a home health setting may provide informal instruction on nutrition, grocery shop ping, or preparation of special infant formulas. Dietitians in health maintenance organizations provide nutritional counseling on a range of topics, from weight control to menu planning for diabetics. Dieti tians may also collaborate with other HMO staff in conducting informa tion sessions on such subjects as alcoholism, smoking, or hyper tension. Practice opportunities for clinical and community dietitians are becoming more diverse due to increased public interest in nutrition and fitness. This new awareness has led to opportunities for private 150 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis practitioners to work as either consultants or as full-time employees in areas such as food manufacturing, advertising, and marketing. Dietitians who work for food manufacturers or grocery store chains may analyze the nutritional content of foods for labeling purposes or marketing efforts. They may also prepare literature for distribution to customers, students, or other interested parties. Dietitians employed by magazines may determine the nutritional content of new recipes, analyze and report on the effectiveness of new diets, or report on topics in nutrition such as the importance of dietary fiber or the value of vitamin supplements. Management dietitians are responsible for large-scale meal planning and preparation in such places as hospitals, nursing homes, company cafeterias, prisons, elementary and secondary schools, and colleges and universities. They supervise the planning, preparation, and service of meals; select, train, and direct other dietitians and food service supervisors and workers; budget for and purchase food, equipment, and supplies; enforce sanitary and safety regulations; and prepare records and reports. Increasingly, dietitians use computer programs to plan meals that satisfy nutritional requirements and are economical at the same time. Dietitians who direct dietetic departments also decide on departmental policy; coordinate dietetic services with the activities of other departments; and are responsible for the dietetic department budget, which in large organizations may amount to millions of dollars annually. Research dietitians are usually employed in academic medical cen ters or educational institutions, although some work in community health programs. Using established research methods and analytical techniques, they conduct studies in areas that range from basic science to practical applications. Research dietitians may explore changes in the way the body uses food over the course of a lifetime, for example, or study the interaction of drugs and diet. They may investigate nutri tional needs of persons with particular diseases, behavior modification as it relates to diet and nutrition, or applied topics such as food service systems and equipment. Often, research dietitians collaborate with life scientists, physicians, nurses, biomedical engineers, and researchers from other disciplines. Working Conditions Most dietitians work 40 hours a week, although some of the time may be spent working on weekends or doing shift work. Part-time work is more prevalent in dietetics than in professional occupations in general (1 dietitian in 5 works part time). Dietitians and nutritionists spend much of their time in clean, welllighted, and well-ventilated areas such as research laboratories, class rooms, or offices near food preparation areas. However, they may also work in hot, steamy kitchens and serving areas, where some light lifting may be required. Dietitians and nutritionists in management and clinical settings may be on their feet for most of the workday. Those involved in consulting spend a significant amount of time trav eling. Employment Dietitians and nutritionists held about 40,000 jobs in 1988. Hospitals and nursing homes are a major source of employment in this field, accounting for just over half of all jobs in 1988. Firms that provide food services for hospital patients on a contract basis employ a small but growing number of dietitians and nutritionists. State and local health departments and schools, colleges, and univer sities provide over 20 percent of dietitian jobs. Other jobs for dietitians are found in prison systems, hotel and restaurant chains, and companies that provide food service for their employees. Many dietitians work as consultants, either full time or part time. In addition to serving on the staff of a hospital, for example, a dietitian may be a consultant for another health care facility. Nursing homes Professional Specialty Occupations necessary to become teachers or researchers; public health nutritionists usually must hold a graduate degree as well. Some advanced clinical positions also require a graduate degree. Graduate study in institutional or business administration is valuable to those interested in administra tive dietetics. Persons who plan to become dietitians or nutritionists should have organizational and administrative skills, as well as scientific aptitude, and should be able to work well with people. Among the courses recommended for high school students interested in careers as dietitians are biology, chemistry, health, home economics, mathematics, busi ness, and communications. Computer courses are valuable since dieti tians use computers for planning meals, keeping inventory, and analyz ing the nutritional content of proposed diets. Not all advancement opportunities require additional education. Experienced dietitians may advance to assistant, associate, or director of a dietetic department. Clinical specialization offers another path to career advancement. Specialty areas for clinical dietitians include kidney disease, diabetes, cancer, heart disease, critical care, pediat rics, and gerontology. Experienced dietitians may also become consul tants. Other dietitians may leave the occupation but remain in the field by opting for a career in management or business, such as a sales representative for an equipment manufacturer or a food vendor. * ‘0*$ A f 1 C Dietitians design individual nutrition programs. use consultants or part-time dietitians to provide much of their dietetic supervision. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in foods and nutrition or institution management is the basic educational requirement for this field. This degree can usually be earned in college and university departments of home economics or food and nutrition sciences. In addition to basic educational requirements, required college courses include foods, nu trition, institution management, chemistry, microbiology, and physiol ogy. Other important courses are mathematics, statistics, computer science, psychology, sociology, and economics. To qualify for professional credentials as a Registered Dietitian, the American Dietetic Association requires successful completion of both an academic and clinical education component as a prerequisite for taking the registration exam. As of 1989, the academic requirement could be filled at 258 college and university programs, while the clinical component could be acquired in one of three ways. The first would be in any of 62 coordinated undergraduate programs that com bine academic and clinical experience in a 4-year program. The other two options both require completion of 900 hours of clinical experi ence—either in an accredited internship (there are 97 of these) or in an approved preprofessional practice program, of which there are 8. Internships are full-time programs that require 9 to 12 months to complete, while preprofessional practice programs can be pursued on a part- time basis over a 2-year period or on a full-time basis for 6 months. There are at least 130 graduate programs for those wishing to go beyond the bachelor’s degree level and earn the graduate degree https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 151 Job Outlook Employment of dietitians is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 to meet the demand for meals and nutritional counseling in settings as diverse as hospitals, schools, prisons, and health clubs. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace experienced workers who stop working or change occupations. The factors that underlie anticipated rapid expansion of the health services industry—population growth and aging, emphasis on health education and promotion of prudent lifestyles, and widespread ability to pay for care through public and private health insurance—will increase demand for dietitians and nutritionists. Demand is also ex pected to grow in commercial settings, such as catering firms, restau rant chains, and medical supply firms. In addition, dietitians and nutritionists will be needed to staff community health programs, to provide nutritional counseling for employer-sponsored wellness and fitness programs, and to conduct research in food and nutrition. Some opportunities will arise as grocery store chains, health clubs, and magazines hire consultants or staff dietitians to help them develop programs that emphasize good nutrition. Opportunities for part-time employment should remain favorable. This will be especially true in nursing homes and home health care, where dietetic services are frequently provided for only a few hours each week. Hospitals, too, use a substantial number of part-time dietitians in order to maintain staffing flexibility, raising or lowering the number of hours worked with fluctuations in the number of patients. Earnings Entry level salaries of dietitians in hospitals averaged about $21,800 a year in 1988, according to a national survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. The maximum salaries for dieti tians in hospitals averaged about $29,500 a year. Salaries may vary by region. The starting salary in the Federal Government for those with a bachelor’s degree was about $15,738 in 1989. The average Federal salary for dietitians was about $31,200 in 1988. Dietitians employed by others usually receive benefits such as paid vacations, sick leave, holidays, health insurance, and retirement bene fits. Self-employed dietitians must provide their own benefits. Related Occupations Dietitians and nutritionists apply the principles of nutrition in a variety of situations. Workers with duties similar to those of administrative dietitians include home economists, dietetic technicians, and food service managers. Nurses and health educators often provide services related to those of community dietitians. 152 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information For a list of academic programs, scholarships, and other information about preparing for a professional career in dietetics, contact: ••-The American Dietetic Association, 216 West Jackson Blvd., Suite 800, Chicago, IL 60606-6995, The U.S. Office of Personnel Management, Washington, DC 20415, has information on hiring requirements for dietitians in Federal hospitals and for public health nutritionists and dietitians in the U.S. Public Health Service. The Veterans Administration (VA) employs dietitians and maintains a list of eligible applicants. Graduates interested in VA positions may obtain application forms by calling, toll free, 1-800-368-6008. Residents of Virginia should call 1-800-552-3045. Those interested in a VA career as a dietitian are encouraged to visit the personnel office of any VA medical center. Occupational Therapists (D.O.T. 076.121-010) Nature of the Work Occupational therapists help mentally, physically, developmentally, or emotionally disabled individuals develop, recover, or maintain daily living and work skills. They help patients improve their basic motor functions and reasoning abilities, as well as help them learn to dress, bathe, cook, or operate machinery. Occupational therapists also help permanently disabled patients cope with the physical and emotional effects of being disabled. With support and direction, patients learn (or relearn) many of the day-to-day skills necessary to establish an independent, productive, and satisfying lifestyle. Occupational therapists use activities of all kinds to treat patients. With children, occupational therapists often use toys or games. Ther apy for adults may range from using a computer to cooking. In addition to being useful skills, they also improve memory, sequencing, and coordination—all of which are important for independent living. Woodworking or leatherworking may help increase strength, endur ance, and dexterity, while “word find” games can help improve visual acuity and the ability to discern patterns. A patient suffering short term memory loss, for instance, might be encouraged to make lists to aid recall. One with coordination problems might be given extra tasks to improve eye-hand coordination. Computer programs have been designed to help patients improve decisionmaking, abstract reasoning, problem solving, and perceptual skills such as peripheral vision and discrimination of letters, colors, and shapes. During each therapy session, the therapist assesses each activity’s effectiveness and the patient’s progress. These assessments are used to modify goals and procedures. For permanently disabled patients, such as accident victims with spinal cord injuries or those with cerebral palsy or muscular dystrophy, therapists provide such adaptive equipment as wheelchairs, splints, and aids for eating and dressing. They also design or make special equipment needed at home or at work. Some occupational therapists work with rehabilitation engineers to develop computer-aided adaptive equipment. Examples are micro processing devices that permit paralyzed patients to communicate, walk, or operate telephones and television sets. Occupational therapists tend to work with individuals in a particular age group or with particular disabilities. In home health care, for instance, referrals often involve elderly patients; in schools, young children. A growing number of therapists work in the wellness and health promotion areas. Occupational therapists in schools evaluate handicapped children’s abilities, recommend therapy, modify classroom equipment, and in general, help them participate as fully as possible in school programs and activities. Their goal is to enable the child to learn, not to rehabili tate. If such therapy is required, it is usually received elsewhere. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Occupational therapists in mental health settings treat mentally ill, mentally retarded, or emotionally disturbed individuals. Emotional disorders may include alcoholism, drug abuse, depression, eating disorders, and stress-related disorders. To treat these problems, thera pists develop activities that help people learn to cope with daily stresses. These activities may emphasize time management skills, budgeting, shopping, homemaking, and use of community resources such as public transportation. Therapists also work to improve a patient’s attitude and self-esteem. Concrete assistance might mean helping an accident victim regain a driver’s license or encouraging a socially withdrawn person to interact with people. Keeping notes is an important part of an occupational therapist’s job. Records are always kept for purposes of evaluating the patient, reporting to the physician, and billing. Working Conditions Although occupational therapists generally work a 40-hour week, they may work evenings or weekends. Occupational therapists in schools work regular school hours and participate in meetings and other activi ties. In large rehabilitation centers, therapists may work in spacious rooms equipped with machines, handtools, and other devices that often generate noise. Therapists may work in a kitchen when using food preparation as therapy. The job can be physically tiring because thera pists are on their feet much of the time. Those delivering home health care may spend several hours a day driving from appointment to appointment. Therapists also face hazards such as backstrain from lifting and moving patients and equipment. Employment Occupational therapists held about 33,000 jobs in 1988. The largest number of jobs were in hospitals, including a substantial number in rehabilitation and psychiatric hospitals. School systems are the second largest employer of occupational therapists. Other major employers include nursing homes, community mental health centers, adult day care programs, outpatient clinics, and residential care facilities. A small but rapidly growing number of occupational therapists are in private practice. Some are solo practitioners, while others are in group practices. They see patients referred to them by physicians or other health professionals, or provide contract or consulting services to nursing homes, adult day care programs, and home health agencies. An occupational therapist measures a patient for a splint. Professional Specialty Occupations Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in occupational therapy is the minimal requirement for entry into this field. In addition, 34 States, Puerto Rico, and the District of Columbia require a license to practice occupational therapy. To obtain a license, applicants must have a degree or a post-baccalaure ate certificate from an accredited educational program and pass a national certification examination given by the American Occupational Therapy Certification Board. Those who pass the test are awarded the title of registered occupational therapist (OTR). In 1989, entry level education was offered in 63 bachelor’s degree programs; 11 post-baccalaureate certificate programs, for students with a degree other than occupational therapy; and 15 entry level master’s degree programs. Most schools have full-time programs, although a growing number offer weekend, self-paced, or part-time programs. Occupational therapy coursework includes physical, biological, and behavioral sciences and the application of occupational therapy theory and skills. Successful completion of a minimum of 6 months of super vised clinical internship is also required. Persons considering this profession should take courses in biology, anatomy, psychology, and other high school science courses. In addi tion to the physical sciences, high school students are advised to take courses in health, art, and the social sciences. College admissions offices also look with favor on applicants who have job or volunteer experience in the health care field. They know that exposure to the health care field, especially occupational therapy, helps prevent any misconceptions a student might have about the occupation. Warmth and patience are needed to inspire both trust and respect. Ingenuity and imagination in adapting activities to individual needs are assets. Individuals working in home health care must be able to adapt to a variety of settings. 153 Earnings According to a national survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch, the median annual starting salary for occupational therapists in hospitals was about $24,000 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $22,000 and $25,900. The median salary for experienced occupational therapists in hospitals was about $31,800. Some States classify occupational therapists employed in public schools as teachers and pay accordingly. According to the National Education Association, elementary school teachers earned an average of $28,900 during the 1988-89 school year, and secondary school teachers earned an average of $30,300. Related Occupations Occupational therapists use specialized knowledge to help individuals return to their normal activities and achieve maximum independence. Other workers performing similar duties include orthotists, prosthe tists, physical therapists, speech pathologists and audiologists, rehabil itation counselors, recreational therapists, art therapists, music thera pists, and dance therapists. Sources of Additional Information For more information on occupational therapy as a career, a list of education programs, and requirements for certification, write to: (•-American Occupational Therapy Association, P.O. Box 1725, 1383 Piccard Dr., Rockville, MD 20850-4375. Pharmacists (D.O.T. 074.161-010 and -014) Job Outlook Employment of occupational therapists is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to anticipated growth in demand for rehabilitation and long-term care services. Several factors are increasing the need for rehabilitative services. For instance, medical advances that are now saving more lives are at the same time creating a need for more therapy. Also, there is the anticipated demand generated by the baby-boom generation’s move into middle age, a period when the incidence of heart attack and stroke increases. Additional services will be demanded by the population 75 years of age and above, a rapidly growing age group that suffers from a very high incidence of disabling conditions. Finally, additional therapists will be needed to help prepare handicapped children to enter special education programs in public schools or private clinics, as required by recent Federal legislation. Due to rapid industry growth and more intensive care, hospitals will continue to employ the largest number of occupational therapists. Hospitals will also need occupational therapists to staff their expansion into home health care, rehabilitation programs, and outpatient clinics. Schools will remain the second largest employer of occupational therapists. Moderate growth will result from expansion of the schoolage population and extended services for handicapped students. The field of private practice will continue to provide a large number of new opportunities for occupational therapists willing to provide follow-up and long-term services to patients recently released from the hospital. Encouraging movement into private practice is a legislative change permitting occupational therapists to bill Medicare directly for services provided. Previously, such billings were submitted through a Medicare-approved facility such as a hospital or home health agency. Private practitioners will also find opportunities working as a contractor or consultant to hospitals, nursing homes, rehabilitation centers, group homes, and industrial settings. The home health field is expected to experience very rapid growth. Encouraging this growth will be the rapidly growing number of people age 75 and older who are more likely to need home health care and the greater number of procedures and lifesaving technologies which require at-home followup. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Pharmacists advise the public on the proper selection and use of medicines. They also advise physicians and other health professionals. The special knowledge of the pharmacist is needed because of the complexity and potential side effects of the large and growing number of pharmaceutical products on the market. In addition to providing information, pharmacists dispense drugs and medicines prescribed by health practitioners, such as physicians, podiatrists, and dentists. Pharmacists must understand the use, compo sition, and effects of drugs and how they are tested for purity and strength. Compounding—the actual mixing of ingredients to form powders, tablets, capsules, ointments, and solutions—is now only a small part of a pharmacist’s practice, because most medicines are produced by pharmaceutical companies in the dosage and form used by the patient. Pharmacists practicing in community pharmacies may have other duties. Besides dispensing medicines, many pharmacists—especially those who are small-business owners—buy and sell nonhealth-related merchandise, hire and supervise personnel, and oversee the general operation of the pharmacy. Increasingly, pharmacists give advice about and provide durable medical equipment and home health care supplies. Pharmacists also answer questions about over-the-counter drugs and make recommendations after asking a series of health ques tions, such as whether the customer is on any other medication. Community pharmacists may suggest that the customer see a physician if they feel medical attention is' warranted. Widespread use of computers in retail stores allows pharmacists to create medication profiles for their customers. A medication profile is a computerized record of the patient’s drug therapy. Pharmacists use these profiles to insure that harmful drug interactions do not occur and to monitor patient compliance with the doctor’s instructions—by comparing, when a refill is ordered, how long it took the patient to finish the drug versus the prescribed dosage. Pharmacists in hospitals and clinics dispense medications and advise the medical staff on the selection and effects of drugs. They may make sterile solutions, buy medical supplies, teach health professions 154 Occupational Outlook Handbook students, and perform administrative duties. They also may be in volved in patient education, monitoring of drug regimens, and drug use evaluation. In addition, pharmacists work as consultants to the medical team on drug therapy and patient care. Pharmacists may specialize in pharmacotherapy. These pharmacists determine drug therapy and work closely with physicians. In some hospitals, they make hospital rounds with physicians—talking to pa tients and monitoring pharmaceutical use. Their role is crucial to safe, efficient, and proper therapeutic care. Other pharmacists prepare and dispense radioactive pharmaceuti cals. Called radiopharmacists or nuclear pharmacists, they apply the principles and practices of pharmacy and radiochemistry to produce radioactive drugs that are used for patient diagnosis and therapy. Still other pharmacists specialize in nutritional support pharmacy and help determine and prepare druges needed for nutrition. Although not currently recognized as separate specialties, oncology (cancer) and psychiatric drug treatment are other areas of education and practice for many pharmacists. Working Conditions Pharmacists usually work in a clean, well-lighted, and well-ventilated area that resembles a small laboratory. Shelves are lined with hundreds of different drug products. In addition, some items are refrigerated and many substances (narcotics, depressants, and stimulants) are kept under lock and key. Pharmacists spend most of their time on their feet. When working with potentially dangerous or sterile pharmaceutical products, pharmacists must take the proper precautions, such as wear ing gloves and masks and working with special protective equipment. Because pharmacies in many communities and hospitals are open around the clock, pharmacists in those settings may have to work evenings, nights, weekends, and holidays. Employment Pharmacists held about 162,000 jobs in 1988. The majority of pharma cists practice in community pharmacies, which can be independently owned, part of a national drug store chain, or even part of a grocery or department store. Hospitals are the second largest employer of pharmacists. Health maintenance organizations (HMO’s), home health agencies, and clin ics provide a relatively small but rapidly growing number of jobs. Pharmacists usually work in areas resembling small laboratories. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Pharmacy services in nursing homes generally are provided on a consultant or contract basis rather than by staff pharmacists. Some pharmacists hold more than one job. They may work a stan dard week in their primary work setting and work several hours a week in a secondary setting, as a part-time community pharmacist, for example. Although most rural areas and small towns have at least one phar macy, most pharmacists practice in or near cities that have the largest populations. All States require a licensed pharmacist to be in atten dance during pharmacy hours. Self-employed pharmacists usually work more hours per week than those in salaried positions because of the additional responsibility of managing a business. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license to practice pharmacy is required in all States, the District of Columbia, and U.S. territories. To obtain a license, one must graduate from an accredited college of pharmacy (a few States allow graduation from certain foreign pharmacy programs), pass a State board examina tion, be over 21, demonstrate good character, and—in all States— have a specified amount of practical experience or serve an internship under the supervision of a licensed pharmacist. Internships generally are served in a community or hospital pharmacy. In 1989, all States except California and Florida granted a license without reexamination to qualified pharmacists already licensed by another State. Many phar macists are licensed to practice in more than one State. Several States require continuing education for license renewal. At least 5 years of study beyond high school are required to graduate from programs accredited by the American Council on Pharmaceutical Education in the 74 colleges of pharmacy. Five years are needed to obtain a Bachelor of Science (B.S.) or a Bachelor of Pharmacy (B.Pharm.) degree, the degrees received by most graduates. A Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.) degree normally requires 6 years, during which an intervening baccalaureate degree is not awarded. Students who already hold the baccalaureate degree may be admitted to Pharm.D. programs, but the combined period of study is usually longer than 6 years. Of the 74 colleges of pharmacy, 41 offer only the baccalaureate degree, and 22 schools offer the professional doctorate degree and the baccalaureate degree; 11 schools offer only the Doctor of Pharmacy degree. The Pharm.D. degree as well as the B.S. and B.Pharm. degrees may serve as the entry degree for licensure as a pharmacist. Requirements for admission to colleges of pharmacy vary. A few colleges admit students directly from high school. Some schools re quire the applicant to have taken the Pharmacy College Admissions Test (P-CAT). Most colleges of pharmacy, however, require entrants to have completed 1 or 2 years of prepharmacy education in an accred ited junior college, college, or university. A prepharmacy curriculum usually emphasizes mathematics and basic sciences, such as chemistry, biology, and physics, but also includes courses in the humanities, social sciences, and business administration. Because entry require ments vary among colleges of pharmacy, prepharmacy students should acquaint themselves with the requirements of the school they wish to attend. The bachelor’s degree in pharmacy is the minimum educational qualification for most positions in the profession. An increasing num ber of students are enrolled in advanced professional programs leading to the Pharm.D. degree. The Pharm.D. degree, which may be either an entry level or graduate one, is increasingly important for clinical pharmacy work. A master’s or Ph.D. degree in pharmacy or a related field usually is required for research, and a Pharm.D., master’s, or Ph.D. usually is necessary for administrative or faculty positions. Fifty-six colleges of pharmacy offer the Master of Science degree and 52 offer the Ph.D. degree. Although a number of pharmacy graduates interested in further training pursue an advanced degree in pharmacy, there are other options. Some enter 1- or 2-year residency programs or fellowships. A pharmacy residency is an organized, di rected, postgraduate training program in a defined area of pharmacy practice. A pharmacy fellowship is a directed, highly individualized Professional Specialty Occupations program designed to prepare the participant to become an independent researcher. Areas of graduate study include pharmaceutics and pharmaceutical chemistry (physical and chemical properties of drugs and dosage forms), pharmacology (effects of drugs on the body), pharmacognosy (drugs derived from plant or animal sources), and pharmacy adminis tration. Courses in pharmacy administration are particularly helpful to pharmacists in developing the skills needed to manage a community or institutional pharmacy. All colleges of pharmacy offer courses in pharmacy practice, de signed to teach students the skills involved in compounding and dis pensing prescriptions, and to strengthen their understanding of profes sional ethics and responsibilities. In many cases, professional training increasingly emphasizes direct patient care as well as consultative services to other health professionals. Colleges of pharmacy also instruct students in the use of computers in the pharmacy. Computers are used to create patient medication profiles, to file and record prescriptions, and for inventory control, billing, and other administrative tasks. Pharmaceutical manufacturers, chain drug stores, State and national pharmacy associations, colleges of pharmacy, and other organizations award scholarships annually to students studying full time toward a degree in pharmacy. Prospective pharmacists should be orderly and accurate and have the ability to gain the confidence of clients and patients. In community pharmacies, pharmacists often begin as employees. After they gain experience and secure the necessary capital, they may become owners or part owners of pharmacies. A pharmacist with experience in a chain drug store may be promoted to store manager or chief supervisory registered pharmacist, and later to a higher executive position within the company. Hospital pharmacists who have the necessary training and experience may advance to director of pharmacy services or to other administrative positions. Pharmacists in industry often have opportunities for advancement in management, sales, re search, quality control, advertising, production, packaging, and other areas. Job Outlook Employment of pharmacists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000, mainly due to the increased pharmaceutical needs of a larger and older population. The increased number of middle-aged and older people will spur demand in all practice settings. Projected rapid growth in the elderly population is especially important because the number of prescriptions influences demand for pharmacists, and people over the age of 65 use twice as many prescription drugs, on the average, as younger people. Other factors likely to increase demand for pharmacists through the year 2000 include the likelihood of scientific advances that will make more drug products available for the prevention, diagnosis, and treat ment of diseases; new developments in administering medication; and well-informed consumers, increasingly sophisticated about health care and avid for detailed information about drugs and their consequences. The number of pharmacists in hospitals is expected to grow as pharmacists perform more consultations and have more direct contact with patients. The increased severity of the typical hospital patient’s illness, together with rapid strides in drug therapy, is likely to heighten demand for clinical pharmacists in hospitals, HMO’s, and other health care settings. Pharmacists will also be needed to staff community pharmacies in order to provide services to a growing and aging population. However, growth in this setting will not be as fast as in previous years due to the increased use of pharmacist assistants. The job outlook for pharmacists is expected to be excellent. If current supply-demand trends persist, shortages are likely in some communities and practice settings. Shortages may develop in States with large concentrations of the elderly, for example. Small employers unable to offer competitive salaries may experience continued diffi culty attracting and retaining clinical pharmacists. As in other occupations, most job openings will result from the need https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 155 to replace pharmacists who leave the profession. In pharmacy, this generally means retirement, for pharmacists—like physicians and den tists—tend to remain in the field until they retire. Relatively few transfer to other lines of work. Earnings Salaries of pharmacists are influenced by the location, size, and type of employer; the education and professional attributes of the pharma cist; and the duties and responsibilities of the position. Median annual earnings of full-time, salaried pharmacists were $37,336 in 1988. Most earned between $31,688 and $43,264. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,804 and the top 10 percent more than $49,088. Pharmacists working in chain drug stores had an average base salary of $41,800 per year, while pharmacists working in independent drug stores averaged $38,200 and hospital pharmacists averaged $42,600, according to a survey by Drug Topics magazine published by Medical Economics Company, Inc. The same survey showed that pharmacists employed by chain drug stores and hospitals receive a higher level of fringe benefits than those working in independent drug stores. How ever, most pharmacists receive health and life insurance. According to a national survey by the University of Texas Medical Branch, in 1988 the average starting salary for pharmacists working in hospitals, medical schools, and medical centers was about $30,312 a year; experienced pharmacists in these workplaces averaged about $40,476 a year. Pharmacists who do secondary work, such as consult ing, in addition to their primary job may have total earnings consider ably higher than this. Experienced pharmacists, particularly owners or managers of pharmacies, often earn considerably more. Related Occupations Pharmacists dispense the drugs prescribed by physicians, dentists, and other health practitioners and are responsible for selecting, compound ing, dispensing, and preserving drugs. Workers in other professions requiring similar educational training and who work with pharmaceuti cal compounds or perform related duties include scientists, pharmaceu tical chemists, and pharmacologists. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on pharmacy as a career, preprofessional and professional requirements, programs offered by all the colleges of pharmacy, and student financial aid is available from: **-American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy, 1426 Prince St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Information about hospital pharmacy can be obtained from: ••-American Society of Hospital Pharmacists, 4630 Montgomery Ave., Bethesda, MD 20814. Information on requirements for licensure in a particular State is available from the Board of Pharmacy of the State or from: ••-National Association of Boards of Pharmacy, 1300 Higgins Rd., Suite 103, Park Ridge, IL 60068. Information on specific college entrance requirements, curriculums, and financial aid is available from the dean of any college of pharmacy. Physical Therapists (D.O.T. 076.121-014) Nature of the Work Physical therapists work to improve the mobility, relieve the pain, and prevent or limit the permanent disability of patients suffering from injuries or disease. Their patients include accident victims or handi capped individuals with such conditions as multiple sclerosis, cerebral palsy, nerve injuries, amputations, head injuries, fractures, low back pain, arthritis, and heart disease. Patients range in age from the new born to the elderly. Some physical therapists treat a wide variety of problems; others 156 Occupational Outlook Handbook specialize in such areas as pediatrics, orthopedics, sports physical therapy, neurology, and cardiopulmonary physical therapy. As the first steps in treatment, therapists assess the patient’s personal background and medical history and gain the patient’s trust and confi dence. It is at this time that therapists need to be supportive, because patients at the outset of treatment—particularly those who are newly disabled—are likely to be experiencing emotional and physical stress. Next, the physical therapist evaluates the patient by performing tests and taking measurements that determine a patient’s strengths, weaknesses, and ability to function. Each evaluation, and the time required to conduct one, depends upon the nature of the injury or impairment. For instance, football players with knee injuries usually require considerably less time than automobile accident victims with broken bones and head injuries. After reviewing the patient’s medical history and completing the evaluation, the physical therapist decides whether to refer the patient to another practitioner or to treat the patient. If the decision is to treat the patient, the therapist develops a treatment plan. Treatment plans, include the treatments to be provided, each treatment’s purpose, and their anticipated outcomes and goals. The goals include helping pa tients attain maximum functional independence, improved muscle strength, and physical skills while helping them adapt to what may be permanent changes in their physical abilities. The plan of treatment may include exercise for patients who suffer from a lack of flexibility that often results from being immobilized for long periods of time. The physical therapist may first use a tilt table to help the patient who has been bedridden readjust to a vertical position. Using a technique known as passive exercise, the therapist increases the patient’s range of motion by stretching and manipulating stiff joints according to the patient’s tolerance. Physical therapists also use heat, electricity, or ultrasound to relieve pain or improve the condition of muscles or related tissues. Cold and water may be used in other treatments, including the reduction of swelling and the treat ment of bums. Other therapeutic techniques are designed to improve strength, en durance, and coordination. These include the use of weights to strengthen muscles or gymnastic exercises to improve balance and coordination. Therapists also teach physically impaired patients how to use assistive devices in order to perform day-to-day activities and instruct them in therapies to do at home. Physical therapists continually observe and assess their patients as treatment progresses. These observations, along with periodic evalua tions, help the therapist to decide whether to continue, modify, or end a course of treatment. Physical therapists maintain documentation of initial evaluations, daily progress, medical team conferences, and reports to physicians and insurance companies. Documentation is used to track the patient’s progress, to identify areas requiring more or less attention, and to justify billings. Records are also kept for legal purposes; physical therapists are legally responsible for their actions whenever they evalu ate a patient, plan a physical therapy program, and carry it out. Working Conditions The working environment of physical therapists varies from specially equipped facilities in hospitals or clinics to schools, private offices, and private homes where furniture may need to be moved to provide room for treatment. Thus, a physical therapist must be adaptable. Evening and weekend hours may be required, especially for those in private practice or home care, who must be available at times convenient for their patients. The job can be physically demanding because therapists often have to stoop, kneel, crouch, and stand for long periods of time. In addition, therapists must move equipment and lift patients or help them turn, stand, or walk. Physical therapy can be emotionally demanding, and frustration can result from seeing little or no improvement in their patients over time. Employment Physical therapists held about 68,000 jobs in 1988; about 1 in 5 worked part time. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis \® \ I Many physical therapists work in hospitals helping patients recover from an illness or injury. Hospitals were the largest employer of physical therapists, providing 2 out of 5 salaried jobs in 1988. Many other jobs were in private clinics, physicians’ offices, home health agencies, nursing homes, and outpatient care facilities. Therapists also worked in residential facilities for handicapped children, school systems, and health maintenance organizations. About 1 physical therapist in 10 was in private practice. Some private practitioners provided physical therapy services on a contract or consultant basis to hospitals, rehabilitation centers, nursing homes, home health agencies, adult day care programs, and public schools. Other physical therapists taught in academic institutions and conducted clinical and basic research. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In order to practice physical therapy, all States require that applicants have a degree or certificate from an accredited physical therapy educa tional program and pass a licensure examination. Two types of programs provide educational preparation for entry into physical therapy: Baccalaureate degree programs and entry level master’s degree programs. In 1989, entry level training was offered in 96 bachelor’s degree programs and 27 master’s degree programs. While a bachelor’s degree is the minimum educational requirement for entry into the profession, some experts feel an expanded curriculum has become necessary to teach the rapidly growing body of knowledge. As a result, most schools are changing their baccalaureate program to a master’s degree level. The physical therapy curriculum includes basic science courses such as anatomy, physiology, neuroanatomy, and neurophysiology; it also includes specialized courses such as biomechanics, human growth and development, manifestations of disease and trauma, evaluation and assessment techniques, and therapeutic procedures. Besides classroom and laboratory instruction, students receive supervised clinical experi ence in hospitals and other clinical environments. Competition for entry to physical therapy programs is keen. Conse quently, students interested in becoming physical therapists must attain superior grades in high school and college, especially in science courses. High school and college courses useful when applying to physical therapy programs include health, biology, chemistry, social science, mathematics, and physics. Individuals who want to know more about physical therapy before making a commitment are advised to volunteer for summer or part-time work in the physical therapy Professional Specialty Occupations department of a hospital or clinic. Indeed, such experience is required for admission to most education programs. Physical therapists need such personal traits as patience, tact, per suasiveness, resourcefulness, and emotional stability to help patients and their families understand the treatments and adjust to their handi caps. Physical therapists should also have manual dexterity and physi cal stamina. Physical therapists should expect to continue to develop profession ally by participating in continuing education courses, workshops, and symposia from time to time throughout their careers. A number of States require continuing education for maintaining licensure. Whether in solo practice, group practice, or associated with a con sulting group, private practitioners commonly treat patients referred to them by physicians. (In 23 States, physical therapists may treat patients without a physician referral.) In turn, when faced with a condition beyond their scope of practice, physical therapists refer patients to the appropriate practitioner. Job Outlook Employment of physical therapists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 in response to the rapidly growing need for rehabilitation and long-term care services. Advances in rehabilitation and therapeutic techniques are likely to create more employment, as will the expansion of physical therapy’s role from primarily rehabilitation to health maintenance and disease prevention as well. Other openings will result from replace ment needs. Many new positions for physical therapists will result from advances in medical science and technology which permit more disabling condi tions to be treated, thereby increasing the need for rehabilitative ser vices. For example, the technology which made arthritic hip and knee replacements possible has created extra demand for rehabilitative services. In addition, the quantity of services is projected to increase as the number of people requiring rehabilitation grows. Among these will be the rapidly growing elderly population, subject to such disa bling conditions as heart attack and stroke. As the baby-boom generation ages and the risk of heart disease and stroke increases, the need for cardiac rehabilitation programs is expected to rise. More young individuals will also need physical therapy. Advances in medicine now save lives that a few years ago would have been lost: Children with severe birth defects, for example, and car accident victims, a disproportionate number of whom are teenagers and young adults. Future biomedical developments will permit even more trauma victims to survive, creating a need for more rehabilitative care. The growth of sports medicine and widespread interest in health promotion should also spur demand for physical therapy services. As more people exercise, the number of injuries requiring physical therapy treatment should also grow. On the other hand, the growing number of industrial health programs will use physical therapists to evaluate worksites, develop exercise programs, and teach safe work habits in the hope of reducing injuries. The increasing willingness of insurance companies to pay for ser vices provided by a physical therapist will contribute to very rapid growth in the number of physical therapists in private practice. More contracting by hospitals, nursing homes, and home health agencies should also spur growth of private practitioners. Home health is an increasingly important area of practice, not only because hospitals discharge people more quickly, but because of disabilities among older persons who are physically unable to travel to a health care facility for services. The home health field is expected to experience spectacular growth by the year 2000. There have been shortages of physical therapists in recent years. This situation should ease somewhat as the number of graduates of physical therapy programs continues to expand—particularly those from entry level master’s degree programs. Earnings According to a national salary survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch, starting salaries for physical therapists in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 157 hospitals averaged about $25,000 a year in 1988; experienced individu als averaged about $33,400. Related Occupations Physical therapists treat and rehabilitate persons with physical or men tal disabilities or disorders. They may use general or specialized exercises, massage, heat, water, electricity, and various therapeutic devices to help their patients gain independence. Others who work in the rehabilitation field include occupational therapists, speech patholo gists and audiologists, orthotists, prosthetists, respiratory therapists, chiropractors, and athletic trainers. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on a career as a physical therapist and a list of accredited educational programs in physical therapy are available from: ••-American Physical Therapy Association, 1111 North Fairfax St., Alexan dria, VA 22314. Physician Assistants (D.O.T. 079.364-018) Nature of the Work The occupation of physician assistant (PA) came into being during the mid-1960’s in response to a shortage of primary care physicians. PA’s are trained to perform many of the essential but time-consuming tasks involved in patient care. They take medical histories, perform physical examinations, order laboratory tests, make preliminary diagnoses, prescribe appropriate treatments, and recommend medications and drug therapies. In a growing number of States, physician assistants prescribe certain medications. They also treat minor problems such as lacerations, abrasions, and bums. Some physician assistants provide pre- and post-operative care and work as first or second assistants during major surgery. Physician assistants always work under the supervision of a licensed physician. Alternative titles sometimes used are MEDEX, surgeon’s assistant, child health associate, and physician associate. PA’s assist physicians in a variety of practice settings and specialty areas. The most important practice setting is physicians’ offices. They also work in hospitals and clinics. Specialties using PA’s are family practice, internal medicine, general and thoracic surgery, emergency medicine, pediatrics, and various medical subspecialties. Some work in rural or inner city clinics, where a physician may be available just 1 or 2 days each week. For the rest of the week, a PA working with one or more nurses, technicians, or medical assistants independently provides all health care services. This is done, however, only after consulting with the supervising physician by telephone. Working Conditions Although PA’s generally work in a climate-controlled, well-lighted environment, those in surgery often stand for long periods, and others do considerable walking. The workweek and schedule vary according to practice setting and are often comparable to the hours of their supervising physician. A few emergency room PA’s work 24-hour shifts twice weekly, and others work three 12-hour shifts each week. The workweek of PA’s in physicians’ offices may include weekends, night hours, or early morning hospital rounds to visit patients. PA’s in clinics usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week. Employment Physician assistants held about 48,000 jobs in 1988. PA’s most com monly work in office-based medical practices; others work in hospitals. A small but growing number work for health maintenance organiza tions (HMO’s), public health clinics, and institutions such as prisons, 158 Occupational Outlook Handbook and regulations; therefore, aspiring PA’s should investigate the laws and regulations in the States where they wish to practice. Individuals interested in becoming a physician assistant should ex hibit leadership, self-confidence, and emotional stability. They should also be conscientious and willing to continue studying throughout their career to keep up with medical advances. Some PA’s pursue additional education to practice in a specialty area such as surgery, neonatology, or emergency medicine. Others— as they attain greater clinical knowledge and experience—advance to added responsibilities and higher earnings. However, by the very nature of the profession, individual PA’s are always supervised by physicians. Physician assistants relieve M.D.’s of routine tasks. rehabilitation centers, nursing homes, and facilities for the mentally retarded or disabled. An estimated 40 percent of all PA’s provide health care to communi ties having fewer than 50,000 residents and where physicians may be in limited supply. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Almost all States require that new PA’s complete an accredited, formal education program. In 1988, there were 52 such educational programs for physician assistants, including three programs for surgeon assis tants. Thirty-nine of these programs offered a baccalaureate degree or a degree option. The remainder offered either a certificate, an associate degree, or a master’s degree. Admission requirements vary, but many programs require 2 years of college and some work experience in the health care field. A growing number of programs, however, have no work experience requirement for admission. About half of all applicants hold a bachelor’s or master’s degree. PA programs are generally 2 years in length. Most are located in medical schools, schools of allied health, or 4-year colleges; a few are sponsored by community colleges or are hospital based. Many accredited PA programs have clinical teaching affiliations with medical schools or medical school faculties. PA education includes classroom instruction in biochemistry, nutri tion, human anatomy, physiology, microbiology, clinical pharmacol ogy, clinical medicine, geriatric and home health care, disease preven tion, and medical ethics. During the final 9 to 15 months of PA training, students obtain supervised experience in clinical practice. Clinical training, which may be given completely within the first 6 to 12 months or integrated throughout the 24 months of instruction, is given in several areas. These areas include family medicine, inpatient and ambulatory medicine, general surgery, obstetrics and gynecology, geriatrics, emergency medicine, internal medicine, ambulatory psychi atry, and pediatrics. Sometimes, one or more of these “rotations” are served under the supervision of a physician who is seeking to hire a PA. This learning experience often leads to a permanent position. PA postgraduate residency training programs, as yet unaccredited, are available in emergency medicine, surgery, pediatrics, neonatology, and occupational medicine. Candidates must be graduates of an accred ited program and be certified by the National Commission on Certifica tion of Physician Assistants. As of 1989, 48 States, the District of Columbia, and Guam had legislation governing the qualifications or practice of physician assis tants. Mississippi and New Jersey did not. Forty States required physi cian assistants to pass a certifying exam that is only open to graduates of an accredited educational program. In some States, the duties of a physician assistant are determined by the supervising physician; in other States, they are determined by the State’s regulatory agency. There is variation in State practice laws https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of PA’s is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to anticipated expansion of the health services industry and greater reliance on PA’s to provide primary care and assist with medical and surgical procedures. Pros pects for newly trained PA’s appear excellent since educational pro grams are not expected to produce enough PA’s to fill all job openings. Public acceptance of PA’s, the high quality of PA services, and cost savings that result from physicians’ ability to delegate routine tasks should contribute to employment growth. Additional growth is pro jected as the PA’s role expands further into institutional settings such as hospitals, academic medical centers, and rural health clinics and prisons. The growth of HMO’s and group medical practices should also lead to more jobs since PA’s are used in these settings. Employment opportunities may also be enhanced by a change in Medicare which allows physicians to bill Medicare for services provided by their PA’s to hospital and nursing home patients. This change is expected to foster use of PA’s by physicians’ offices and hospitals. Hospitals will also employ more PA’s to assist at surgery, perform diagnostic procedures and comprehensive patient assessments, and aid in clinical research. For a number of years, use of PA’s has been constrained by barriers to reimbursement by insurers, State laws restricting the kind of services they may perform, and physicians’ reluctance to alter customary prac tice patterns. The situation has changed a great deal, although some State laws regulating PA practice remain a constraint. Reimbursement barriers have begun to come down, however, and physicians’ attitudes have become more supportive. Earnings In 1988, the median starting salary for physician assistants working in hospitals was about $26,800, according to a national survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch in Galveston. The middle 50 percent earned between $23,700 and $26,800 a year. Experienced physician assistants averaged about $35,700. According to the American Academy of Physician Assistants, the average starting salary for physician assistants in 1988 was about $26,500. The average salary for all physician assistants was about $34,000 during the same time period. Related Occupations Other health workers who provide direct patient care that requires a similar level of skill and training include nurse practitioners, physical therapists, occupational therapists, clinical psychologists, and speech and hearing clinicians. Sources of Additional Information For more information about the profession, send for the brochure, Physician Assistants, PArtners in Health Care, available free from: •■-American Academy of Physician Assistants, 950 North Washington St., Alexandria, VA 22314. For a list of programs accredited by the Committee of Allied Health Education and Accreditation, contact: wAMA/DAHEA, 535 N. Dearborn St., Chicago, IL 60610. Professional Specialty Occupations For a catalog of individual PA training programs, contact: ••-Association of Physician Assistant Programs, 950 North Washington St., Alexandria, VA 22313. The publication, entitled National Directory of Physician Assistant Programs, lists educational programs and describes each program’s accreditation status, admission procedures and requirements, and cost. Information on certification requirements is also given. Contact the association for price and ordering information. For eligibility requirements and a description of the Physician Assis tant National Certifying Examination, write to: ••-National Commission on Certification of Physician Assistants, Inc., 2845 Henderson Mill Rd. NE., Atlanta, GA 30341. Recreational Therapists (D.O.T. 076.124-014) Nature of the Work Recreational therapists, also known as therapeutic recreation special ists, employ activities to treat mentally, physically, or emotionally disabled individuals. By using various activities as a form of goaldirected treatment, therapists attempt to minimize symptoms and im prove the physical, mental, and emotional well-being of their patients. Recreational therapists should not be confused with recreation work ers, who organize recreational activities solely for the purpose of enjoyment. (Recreation workers are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Recreational therapy activities are based not only on the interests and abilities of the people they serve, but on the role of the facility they are delivered in. In hospitals, for instance, where the goal is treatment and rehabilitation, recreation therapists provide a form of active treatment. In a nonclinical setting such as a community recre ation department, recreation therapists may use leisure activities to improve the client’s general health and well-being. Recreational therapy is a relatively new field. Closely related to occupational therapy, it also recognizes the importance of ordinary activities in putting disabled persons on the road to improvement or full recovery. Toward this end, therapists use such activities as athletic events, dances, arts and crafts, musical activities, movies, and field trips. Recreational therapy goals include helping patients improve their physical strength and coordination, build confidence and self-esteem through assertiveness training, manage stress through relaxing activi ties, and leant how to express feelings in positive and effective ways. The specifics of each recreational therapist’s job vary with the employment setting and capacities of the patients or clients served. In most clinical settings, recreational therapists usually work in the rehabilitation or therapy department with other therapists from such disciplines as music, dance, art, and occupational therapy. Working as a team, they evaluate each patient, develop a coordinated treatment plan, and monitor progress. In order to set realistic goals and recommend suitable activities, recreational therapists first gather information on the mental, physical, and emotional status of each patient. With additional information gathered from relatives and the patients themselves, the therapist then meets with other members of the staff to develop appropriate therapeu tic activities consistent with the patient’s enthusiasms, hobbies, and interests and desired goals. A patient having trouble socializing may express an interest in chess but be overwhelmed by the prospect of actually playing since that involves interaction with another person. In such a case, the therapist may simply encourage the patient to observe a game or games. Later, the therapist might serve as a chess partner for as long as it takes to instill the patient with the confidence to seek out other patients as partners. Recreational therapists carefully observe patients’ participation and reactions to the activities in which they are involved. These observa https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 159 tions provide the basis for a periodic review of each patient’s activity program. The program is apt to be modified as the patient’s condition changes. Recreational therapists keep a variety of records, including progress notes, staff notes, and discharge notes. These records are used to monitor progress, to justify changes in the treatment plan, and for billing purposes. In nursing homes, therapy is often more group oriented than in hospitals. Without stimulating or interesting events, the daily routine of a nursing home can be monotonous and depressing, leading residents to deteriorate. The goal of the therapist, often called an activities director, is to heighten residents’ enjoyment of life through such recreational and group activities as field trips, exercise classes, and craft lessons. Community-based recreational therapists work in such programs as local park and recreation departments, special education school programs, adult day care for the elderly, or county-operated programs for persons with disabilities. Recreational therapists in community settings may face the added logistical challenge of having to arrange transportation and escort services for prospective participants. Devel oping community-based therapeutic recreation programs also requires a large measure of organizational ability, flexibility, and ingenuity. Working Conditions Working conditions vary according to the employment setting, facili ties, and activities being implemented. In hospitals, recreational thera pists might work on a unit or in a specially equipped activities room. In community settings, recreational therapists will likely be in several different places during the course of a day or a week. Planning of events may take place in an office, while actual activities might be in a gymnasium, outdoors, or in a swimming pool. In general, recreational therapists work in well-lighted, well-venti lated areas. The job may be tiring because it might include physical participation in activities as well as lifting and carrying equipment. The job can be demanding because therapists often work with persons with special needs. Recreational therapists generally work a standard 40-hour week, although weekend and evening hours are occasionally required. Employment Recreational therapists held about 26,000 jobs in 1988. Nursing homes and hospitals each employed more than one-third of recreational thera pists. Other employers include community mental health centers, adult day care programs, correctional facilities, residential facilities for the mentally retarded, a variety of community programs for people with disabilities, and substance abuse centers. A small number of therapists are self-employed, generally contract- 1 W A recreational therapist uses arts and crafts to help a patient regain his fine motor coordination. 160 Occupational Outlook Handbook ing with one or more nursing homes or community programs to develop and oversee specialized programs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Hiring requirements vary. A degree in therapeutic recreation (or in recreation with an emphasis on therapeutic recreation) is the usual requirement for clinical positions usually found in hospitals, mental health settings, rehabilitation facilities, and nursing homes with strong therapeutic programs. Many recreational therapists working in nursing homes work as activities directors. Since the position of activities director often has a recreational rather than a clinical focus, an associate degree or qualifying work experience often satisfies hiring requirements. A few States regulate this profession through either licensure, certi fication, or regulation of titles. Applicants for licensure must have a degree from a regionally accredited program in either therapeutic recreation or recreation with an emphasis on therapeutic recreation. They must also undergo a supervised internship and pass the State licensure exam. The National Council for Therapeutic Recreation Certification certifies therapeutic recreation specialists and therapeutic recreation assistants. Some employers require individuals to be certi fied; others prefer it. There are more than 170 programs in recreational therapy. As of 1989, 59 of these programs were accredited by the National Council on Accreditation. Most offer bachelor’s degrees, although some offer associate or master’s degrees. Although a bachelor’s degree is the usual entry level requirement for a job as a recreational therapist, a graduate degree is generally required for teaching, research, and administrative positions. In addition to therapeutic recreation courses in clinical practice skills, helping skills, program design, management, and professional issues, students must develop an understanding of human anatomy, physiology, abnormal psychology, medical and psychiatric terminol ogy, characteristics of illnesses and disabilities, and the concepts of mainstreaming and normalization. Additional courses teach students such practical information as professional ethics, assessment and refer ral procedures, and the use of adaptive and medical equipment. In addition, 360 hours of internship under the supervision of a certified therapeutic recreation specialist are required. Warmth, patience, and a desire to help the disabled are needed by recreational therapists. Ingenuity and imagination are also needed in adapting activities to individual needs. Good physical coordination is necessary when demonstrating or participating in recreational activ ities. Job prospects are expected to be favorable for those with a strong clinical background who have also graduated from an accredited pro gram. Currently, there are reports of a shortage of qualified recreational therapists in some areas, rural areas in particular. Competition for the higher paying hospital jobs is keen. Earnings Salaries of recreational therapists vary according to employment set ting, educational background, work experience, and region of the country. According to a Radford University survey, however, the median annual salary of full-time recreational therapists in 1988 was $23,500. The middle 50 percent earned between $20,500 and $29,000. In nursing homes, recreational therapists are often classified as activities directors. According to limited data from a survey conducted by the National Association of Activity Professionals, the average salary of activities directors in nursing homes was between $15,000 and $25,000 a year in 1989. According to a survey by the University of Texas Medical Branch, recreational therapists employed by hospitals had a median starting salary of about $20,300 a year in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $18,000 and $22,900. The median salary for experienced therapists was about $27,600. The starting salary for therapeutic recreation specialists in Veterans Administration facilities was $ 15,738 a year in 1989 for those who had not completed their clinical training, and $17,542 for those who had. Related Occupations Recreational therapists design activities to help people with disabilities lead more fulfilling and independent lives. Other workers who have similar jobs are orientation therapists for the blind, art therapists, drama therapists, dance therapists, music therapists, occupational ther apists, and rehabilitation counselors. Sources of Additional Information For information on how to order materials describing careers and academic programs in recreational therapy, write: (•-National Therapeutic Recreation Society, a branch of the National Recreation and Park Association, 3101 Park Center Dr., Alexandria, VA 22302. (•-American Therapeutic Recreation Association, C.O. Associated Manage ment Systems, P.O. Box 15215, Hattiesburg, MS 39403. The American Association for Leisure and Recreation publishes information sheets on 25 separate careers in parks and recreation. For price and ordering information, contact: wAALR, 1900 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091 Certification information may be obtained from: Job Outlook Employment of recreational therapists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000, chiefly because of anticipated expansion in the need for long-term care, physi cal and psychiatric rehabilitation, and services for the mentally and emotionally disabled. Hospitals will provide a large number of recreational therapy jobs through the year 2000. A growing number of these will be in hospitalbased adult day care programs, or in units offering short-term mental health services to individuals suffering from alcohol or drug abuse, eating disorders, depression, and similar conditions. Long-term reha bilitation and psychiatric hospitals will provide additional jobs. Public and private response to the needs of older people is expected to spur job growth for activities directors in nursing homes, retirement communities, adult day care programs, and social service agencies. Such expansion is anticipated because of a rapidly growing number of people 75 years of age and older. In the areas of mental health and mental retardation, continued support is expected for community residential facilities as well as day care programs for the physically and mentally disabled. Community programs for special populations are expected to continue growing through the year 2000. In recreational therapy, as in other human services fields, internships and volunteer work provide contacts that may prove invaluable in finding a job. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis (•-National Council for Therapeutic Recreation Certification, 49 South Main St,, Suite 005, Spring Valley, NY 10977, For a pamphlet on careers in nursing homes, write: (•-American Health Care Association, 1201 L St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. Information about employment opportunities in Veterans Adminis tration medical centers is available from local VA medical centers. Registered Nurses (D.O.T. 075.124-010 and -014, .127-014, -018, -022, -026, and -030, .137 010, .264-010 and -014, .371-010, .374-010, -014, -018, and -022) Nature of the Work Registered nurses (R.N.’s) care for the sick and help people stay well. Typically concerned with the “whole person,” registered nurses provide for the physical, mental, and emotional needs of their patients. They observe, assess, and record symptoms, reactions, and progress; administer medications; assist in convalescence and rehabilitation; instruct patients and their families in proper care; and help individuals and groups take steps to improve or maintain their health. While State laws govern the tasks R.N.’s are allowed to perform, it is usually the Professional Specialty Occupations 161 in general need physical stamina because they spend considerable time walking and standing. Emotional stability is also required to cope with human suffering, frequent emergencies, and other stresses. Nurses work closely with but subordinate to physicians. Because patients in hospitals and nursing homes require care at all times, staff nurses in these institutions may work nights, weekends, and holidays. Nursing has its hazards, especially in hospital work where nurses may care for individuals with infectious diseases such as hepatitis and AIDS. Nurses must observe rigid guidelines to guard against these and other dangers such as radiation, chemicals used for sterilization of instruments, and gases used for anesthesia. In addition, nurses must take precautions to avoid back injury, shocks from electrical equip ment, and hazards posed by compressed gases. ? ■ Employment Registered nurses held about 1,577,000 jobs in 1988. As the following tabulation shows, two out of three jobs were in hospitals. Percent Total.................................................................................................. 100 More R.N.’s will be needed to provide home health care. work setting—together with the nurse’s educational preparation and experience—that determines day-to-day job duties. Hospital nurses constitute the largest group of nurses. Most are staff nurses, who provide bedside nursing care and carry out the medical regimen prescribed by physicians. They may also supervise licensed practical nurses, aides, and orderlies. Hospital nurses usually work with groups of patients who require the same type of care, for instance, those recovering from surgery, acutely ill children, trauma victims, or cancer patients. Nursing home nurses manage nursing care for residents with condi tions ranging from a fracture to Alzheimer’s disease. Although they generally spend most of their time on administrative and supervisory tasks, R.N.’s also assess residents’ needs, develop treatment plans, supervise licensed practical nurses and nursing aides, and perform complex treatments such as starting intravenous fluids. Public health nurses care for patients in clinics, schools, retirement and life care communities, and other community settings. They instruct community groups in proper nutrition and exercise and arrange for immunizations, blood pressure testing, and other health screening measures. These nurses work with community leaders, teachers, par ents, and physicians in community health education. Some public health nurses work in schools. A growing number provide, oversee, or manage home health care, where they instruct patients and families in the home and provide periodic services prescribed by a physician. Private duty nurses provide nursing services to patients needing constant attention. They either work directly for a family on a contract basis or for a nursing or temporary help agency which assigns them to patients. They may alternate between work in a home, hospital, nursing home, or rehabilitation center. Office nurses assist physicians in private practice, clinics, and health maintenance organizations. Some perform routine laboratory and of fice work in addition to nursing duties. Occupational health or industrial nurses provide nursing care to employees in industry and government. They treat minor injuries and illnesses at work, provide emergency care, arrange for further care if necessary, and offer health counseling. They also may assist with health examinations and inoculations. Working Conditions Nurses generally work indoors in well-lighted, comfortable buildings. Public health nurses travel to patients in all types of weather. Nurses https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Hospitals............................................................................................... Physicians’ offices.............................................................................. Nursing homes.................................................................................... Temporary help agencies.................................................................. Schools................................................................................................. Federal Government........................................................................... Other..................................................................................................... 67 7 6 4 3 3 10 About one-fourth of all R.N.’s worked part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In order to obtain the license needed to practice as a registered nurse, a person must graduate from an approved school of nursing and pass a national examination administered by each State. Nurses may be licensed in more than one State, either by examination or endorsement of a license issued by another State. Licenses must be periodically renewed, and, in some States, continuing education is a requirement for renewal. In 1988, 1,442 programs offered preparation for initial R.N. li censure. For those interested in nursing, there are three major educational paths: Associate degree (A.D.N.), diploma, and bachelor of science degree in nursing (B.S.N.). A.D.N. programs are offered by community and junior colleges and take about 2 years; diploma programs are given in hospitals and last 2 to 3 years; B.S.N. programs are offered by colleges and universities and require 4 or 5 years. With relatively few exceptions, graduates of any of the three program types qualify for entry level positions as staff nurses once they are licensed. Prospective nursing students should be aware of recent attempts to raise the educational requirements for R.N. licensure to the baccalaure ate level. However, proposals to upgrade entry requirements and, possibly, create new job titles for registered nurses have been around for years. It remains to be seen just how quickly this will occur. The process is likely to be slow since it necessitates legislative or regulatory action in each State and the District of Columbia. Changes in licensure requirements would not affect currently li censed R.N. ’s, who would be “grandfathered” in, no matter what their educational preparation. However, individuals considering a future in nursing should carefully weigh the pros and cons of enrolling in a B.S.N. program since advancement opportunities are broader for those who have B.S.N. degrees than for those who do not. In fact, some career paths are open only to nurses with bachelor’s or advanced degrees. While nursing home nurses may advance to the position of director of nursing on the basis of A.D.N. or diploma preparation, baccalaure ate preparation is generally necessary for supervisory or administrative positions in hospitals, and for positions in community nursing and 162 Occupational Outlook Handbook home health care. Moreover, the B.S.N. is a prerequisite for admission to graduate nursing programs. Since most research, consulting, teach ing, administrative, and clinical specializations in nursing require graduate degrees, individuals considering these areas should consider starting out in a B.S.N. program since it is the quickest path to graduate school. A growing number of R.N. ’s trained in diploma or associate degree programs subsequently enter baccalaureate programs to prepare for a broader scope of nursing practice. And, since many hospitals now have tuition reimbursement programs, individuals with limited re sources can get a 2-year degree, find a hospital position, and let the employer finance a B.S.N. degree. All nursing education programs include classroom instruction and supervised training in hospitals and other health facilities. Students take courses in anatomy, physiology, microbiology, chemistry, nutrition, psychology and other behavioral sciences, and nursing. Increasingly, nursing students learn how to use computers to enter or retrieve test results and medication orders, and to develop work schedules. Nursing students receive supervised clinical experience in various hospital departments such as pediatrics and surgery. An increasing number of programs include clinical practice in nursing homes and courses in gerontological nursing. Students in bachelor’s degree and some other programs are assigned to public health departments, visit ing nurse associations, and other community agencies to learn how to care for patients in clinics and in patients’ homes. Persons wanting to pursue a nursing career should have a strong desire to assist people and be sympathetic to their needs. Nurses must be able to accept responsibility and direct or supervise others; they must have initiative and, in appropriate situations, be able to follow orders precisely or determine whether additional consultation is re quired. Good judgment is essential. From staff positions in hospitals and nursing homes, promotion to increasingly responsible jobs is possible through experience and good performance. Nurses who choose a career in management can advance to a position as assistant head nurse or head nurse. From there, ad vancement to assistant director, director, and vice president positions is possible. Increasingly, management level nursing positions require a graduate degree in nursing or health services administration and require good business judgment and strong negotiation skills. Graduate programs preparing executive level nurses usually last 1 to 2 years. Applicants must be R.N.’s, preferably with some experience in begin ning management. For nurses who prefer close contact with patients, career advance ment may mean becoming a clinical nurse specialist, nurse prac titioner, nurse clinician, or nurse anesthetist. Graduate level prepara tion is necessary to reach these positions, all of which require the ability to exercise a high degree of independent judgment in assessing problems and determining priorities. The required education, which is offered in hospitals and universities, normally lasts 1 to 2 years, and leads to a certificate or master’s degree. Applicants must be R.N.’s, and may need up to 2 years of nursing experience in a relevant specialty. Nurse anesthetists complete a certificate program allowing them to administer anesthesia under the direction of a physician. Nurse practitioners and nurse midwives have graduate training in how to diagnose and assess patients, enabling them to perform certain duties normally performed by a physician. Clinical nurse specialists and nurse clinicians have expertise in a clinical area such as pediatrics or gerontology/geriatrics which usually is obtained in a master's degree program. A growing number of nurses are moving into the business side of health care. Their nursing expertise and preparation for work as mem bers of a health care team equip them for management positions in fields such as ambulatory, acute, and chronic care services. Some are employed by large health care corporations in areas like health planning and development, marketing, and quality assurance. Others run their own businesses, such as home health care agencies. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Job prospects in nursing should be excellent for some time, perhaps through the year 2000. Hospitals in many parts of the country are currently reporting shortages of R.N.’s. In addition, R.N. recruitment has long been a problem in rural areas, in some big city hospitals, and in specialty areas including intensive care, medical-surgical nursing, rehabilitation, geriatrics, and long-term care. Whether the current shortage of nurses will persist through the year 2000 is difficult to say. Despite a need for more new nurses, enroll ments in nursing schools may not rise much—if at all. Reasons for this include the decline in the college-age population, shifts in young women’s career aspirations, expanding opportunities for women in traditionally male-dominated occupations, and the profession’s inabil ity to attract more men. However, efforts by employers to fill vacan cies—raising salaries and improving working conditions—could at tract more people to nursing and eventually create a balance between jobseekers and openings. Employment of registered nurses is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Driving this growth will be technological advances in patient care, which involve a greater number of increasingly complex services, coupled with a growing and aging population. A large and growing proportion of patients being admitted into hospitals are very sick and in need of constant monitoring and highly skilled care. Partly because minor procedures are now performed on an outpatient basis, and partly because of incentives in the reimbursement system, only the gravely ill or those needing major surgery are admitted into the hospital. Furthermore, many patients are hospitalized only for the most acute portion of their illness, the period when high-technology procedures are performed and sophisticated equipment is used. It takes not one, but several, highly skilled nurses to provide the care such patients require. Thanks largely to advances in technology, the number of sophisti cated procedures performed in physicians’ offices and clinics is ex pected to grow. An example is outpatient treatment of cataracts. Very rapid expansion is foreseen in the outpatient or “ambulatory” care sector, which comprises physicians’ offices, medical group practices, walk-in clinics, surgicenters, diagnostic imaging centers, cardiac reha bilitation clinics, and health maintenance organizations (HMO’s). Such facilities bear little resemblance to the conventional doctor’s office and offer a wide range of sophisticated health care services that provide new career opportunities for registered nurses. HMO’s, medical group practices, and other outpatient settings are expected to offer very attractive employment prospects for R.N. ’s through the year 2000. Home health care is also becoming an increasingly important source of employment. This is in response to the prevalence of functional disabilities among older persons, consumer preference for care in the home, and technological advances which make it possible to bring increasingly complex treatments into the home. Employment in nursing homes is expected to grow very fast due to the projected increase in the number of people in their eighties and nineties, many of whom will require long-term care. In addition, the financial pressure on hospitals to release patients as soon as possible should produce more nursing home admissions for posthospital care. People recovering from surgery, stroke, or other major episodes will stay in nursing homes for a relatively brief time but will continue to require the services of an R.N. to provide such intensive services as intravenous therapy and respirator support. Earnings Starting salaries of staff nurses employed in hospitals averaged about $23,100 a year in 1988, according to a national survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Experienced staff R.N.’s averaged about $32,100, while experienced head nurses averaged $40,800. Beginning nurse anesthetists averaged $35,500; those with experience, $52,700. R.N. staff nurses in nursing homes had a median annual salary of Professional Specialty Occupations 163 approximately $21,300 in 1987, according to a survey by the Hospital Compensation Service, Hawthorne, NJ. In 1989, the Veterans Administration paid inexperienced nurses who had a diploma or an associate degree a starting salary of $17,542 a year; those with a bachelor’s degree, $20,521. Registered nurses working for agencies that provide temporary ser vices to hospitals, nursing homes, and the like earned about $31,200 a year in 1987. Hospitals and other employers faced with a shortage of nurses are responding with flexible work schedules, child care, educational benefits, bonuses, higher pay, shared decisionmaking, and other incen tives designed to retain existing staff and to attract licensed nurses who are currently inactive. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations with responsibilities and duties related to those of registered nurses include occupational therapists, paramedics, physical therapists, physician assistants, and respiratory therapists. Sources of Additional Information The National League for Nursing (NLN) publishes a variety of materi als about nursing and nursing education, including a list of approved schools of nursing and information on student financial aid. One brochure describes master’s degree programs to prepare nurse prac titioners, clinical specialists, and nurse educators. For a complete list of NLN publications, write for a career information brochure. Send your request to: ••-Communications Department, National League for Nursing, 350 Hudson St., New York, NY 10014. For a brochure entitled Is Nursing for You?, send $1 to: ••-National Student Nurses’ Association, 555 West 57th St., New York, NY 10019. Information on career opportunities as a registered nurse is available from: ••-American Nurses’ Association, 2420 Pershing Rd., Kansas City, MO 64108. Information about employment opportunities in Veterans Adminis tration medical centers is available from local Veterans Administration medical centers and also from: ••-Title 38 Employment Division (054D), Veterans Administration, 810 Ver mont Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20420. For information on nursing careers in hospitals, contact: ••-American Hospital Association, Division of Nursing, 840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, 1L 60611. For a copy of Health Careers in Long-Term Care, write: ••-American Health Care Association, 1201 L St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. Respiratory Therapists (D.O.T. 079.361) Nature of the Work A person may live without water for a few days and without food for a few weeks. But if someone stops breathing for more than a few minutes, serious brain damage occurs. If oxygen is cut off for more than 9 minutes, death usually results. Respiratory therapists, also known as respiratory care practitioners, specialize in the evaluation, treatment, and care of patients with breathing disorders. Whenever the breath of life is at risk, the respiratory therapist is called upon to intervene. Most respiratory therapists work with hospital patients in three distinct phases of care: Diagnosis, treatment, and patient management. In the area of diagnosis, therapists test the capacity of the lungs and analyze the oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration and potential of hydrogen (pH), a measure of the acidity or alkalinity level of the blood. To measure lung capacity, the therapist has the patient breathe https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Respiratory therapists measure lung capacity. into a tube connected to an instrument that measures the volume and flow of air during inhalation and exhalation. By comparing the reading with the norm for the patient’s age, height, weight, and sex, the respiratory therapist can determine whether lung deficiencies exist. To analyze oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH levels, therapists need an arterial blood sample, which they generally draw themselves. The procedure for drawing arterial blood requires more skill than is the case for routine tests, where blood is drawn from a vein. Inserting a needle into a patient’s artery and drawing blood must be done with great care; any slip can damage the artery and interrupt the flow of oxygen-rich blood to the tissues. The respiratory therapist places the sample in a blood gas analyzer, and the results are relayed to the physician. Treatment of patients, be they premature infants whose lungs are not fully developed or elderly people whose lungs are diseased, is another important job duty. Treatment may range from giving tempo rary relief to patients with chronic asthma or emphysema to emergency care for heart failure, stroke, drowning, or shock. The three most common treatments are oxygen or oxygen mixtures, chest physiother apy, and aerosol medications. Respiratory therapists use various kinds of equipment to administer oxygen and oxygen mixtures. In one case, a patient may need an increased concentration of oxygen. The therapist simply places an oxygen delivery device, such as a mask or a nasal cannula, on the patient, and sets the oxygen flow at the level prescribed by the physi cian. In the case of patients who cannot breathe on their own— someone who has undergone heart surgery, for example—the therapist would connect the patient to a ventilator, a machine which delivers pressurized air into the lungs. The therapist inserts a tube into the patient’s trachea, or windpipe; connects the tube to the ventilator; and sets the rate, volume, and oxygen concentration of the air entering the patient’s lungs. Chest physiotherapy is performed on patients who need help with removing mucus from their lungs. For example, during surgery, anes thesia depresses respiration, so this treatment may be prescribed to help get the patient’s lungs back to their level of function before surgery and prevent the lungs from becoming congested. Chest physio therapy also is used on patients suffering from lung diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, that cause increased amounts of sticky mucus to collect in the lungs. Chest physiotherapy helps remove the mucus, making it easier for the patient to breathe. In chest physiotherapy, the patient is placed in a position to help drain mucus from the lungs. The therapist thumps and vibrates the patient’s rib cage, after which the patient is instructed to cough. This procedure not only stimulates the lungs to expand, but also helps clear lungs of congestion. This process helps prevent respiratory illnesses which could complicate recovery. Respiratory therapists also administer aerosols—generally liquid medications suspended in a gas that forms a mist which is inhaled. 164 Occupational Outlook Handbook Therapists may either administer the medicine themselves or teach patients how to do so. In either case, the therapist must instruct the patient in how to inhale the aerosol properly. If the medicine is improperly inhaled, it will be ineffective. Monitoring patients who are using oxygen and ventilators occupies a good portion of the therapist’s day. Patients and equipment must be checked regularly. If the patient appears to be having difficulty or if the oxygen, carbon dioxide, or pH level of the blood is abnormal, the ventilator setting must be changed. The therapist alerts the doctor and adjusts the ventilator according to the physician’s order. In addition, therapists continually check equipment to ensure that there arc no mechanical complications and that the equipment is in working con dition. Providing respiratory care at home is a rapidly expanding area of practice. Respiratory therapists have long administered oxygen to patients in their homes. Increasingly, however, mechanical ventilators and other sophisticated life support systems are being used in the home. Therapists teach patients and their families how to use the equipment. Many of the people who receive home respiratory care will need it for the rest of their lives. They are taught how to operate complex equipment themselves, with several visits a month from respiratory therapists to inspect or clean the equipment and ensure its proper use. Therapists also serve as troubleshooters, making emer gency visits if equipment problems arise. Respiratory care is moving into new areas. A growing number of respiratory therapists are being trained to assist in the specialized treatment and rehabilitation of cardiopulmonary patients. Others are acquiring additional skills in order to specialize in respiratory care for newborn and premature infants. Other duties include keeping records of the cost of materials and charges to patients, and maintaining and making minor repairs to equipment. Some therapists teach or supervise other respiratory ther apy personnel. Working Conditions Respiratory therapists generally work a 40-hour week. Because hospi tals operate around the clock, therapists may be required to work evenings, nights, or weekends. Respiratory therapists spend long peri ods standing and walking between patients’ rooms. In an emergency, they work under a great deal of stress. Gases used by respiratory therapists are potentially hazardous because they are used and stored underpressure. However, adherence to safety precautions and regular maintenance and testing of equipment minimize the risk of injury. As with many health occupations, respiratory therapists who perform blood gas analysis run a risk of catching an infectious disease, such as AIDS, from accidental pricking of a needle. Careful adherence to proper procedures minimizes the risk. Employment Respiratory therapists held about 56,000 jobs in 1988. About 9 out of 10 jobs were located in hospitals in departments of respiratory care, anesthesiology, or pulmonary medicine. Durable medical equipment rental companies, home health agencies, and nursing homes accounted for most of the remaining jobs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Formal training is necessary for entry to this field. Training for a career in respiratory care is offered at the postsecondary level by hospitals, medical schools, colleges and universities, trade schools, vocationaltechnical institutes, and the Armed Forces. Some programs prepare graduates for jobs as respiratory therapists; other, shorter programs lead to jobs as respiratory therapy technicians. About 255 programs for respiratory therapists were accredited by the Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation (CAHEA) of the American Medi cal Association in 1988. Another 162 programs offered CAHEA accredited preparation for respiratory therapy technicians. Formal training programs vary in length and in the credential or degree awarded. Most of the CAHEA-accredited therapist programs last 2 years and lead to an associate degree. Some, however, are https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 4-year programs that lead to a bachelor’s degree. Technician pro grams last about 1 year, and graduates are awarded certificates. Areas of study for respiratory therapist programs include human anatomy and physiology, chemistry, physics, microbiology, and mathematics. Technical courses deal with procedures, equipment, and clinical tests. People who want to enter this field should enjoy working with people and should be sensitive to patients’ physical and psychological needs. Respiratory care workers must pay attention to detail, follow instructions, and work as part of a team. Operating complicated respi ratory therapy equipment requires mechanical ability and manual dex terity. High school students interested in a career in respiratory care are encouraged to take courses in health, biology, mathematics, chemistry, and physics. A working knowledge of science and mathematics is essential. Respiratory care involves basic mathematical problem-solv ing—an ability to use percentages, fractions, logarithms, exponents, and algebraic equations, and a knowledge of the English and metric systems of measuring. Calculus is not required but is helpful. An understanding of chemical and physical principles such as general gas laws, the states of matter, chemical reactions at the atomic level, and the periodic table is also important. Computing medication dosages and calculating gas concentrations are just two examples of the need for knowledge of science and mathematics. Licensure, certification, and registration are methods used to assure the skill and competence of health personnel. Licensure refers to the process by which a government agency authorizes individuals to en gage in a given occupation or use a particular job title. In the 21 States and Puerto Rico that license respiratory personnel, licensure is a hiring prerequisite. Certification and registration are voluntary processes in which a nongovernmental organization—in this instance, the National Board for Respiratory Care—attests that an individual’s clinical skills and knowledge of the field meet professional standards. Two credentials are awarded to respiratory care practitioners who satisfy the require ments: Certified Respiratory Therapy Technician (CRTT) and Regis tered Respiratory Therapist (RRT). A distinctive feature of the credentialling process in respiratory care is the fact that everyone who aspires to an entry level job starts out by becoming a CRTT. Graduates of 2- and 4-year programs in respiratory therapy, as well as graduates of 1-year technician programs, begin by taking the CRTT examination. Regardless of the type of program, it must have CAHEA accreditation. A separate examination, open only to CRTT’s who meet the education and experience requirements, leads to the award of the RRT. Most employers require that applicants for entry level or generalist positions hold the CRTT or be CRTT-eligible, that is, eligible to take the certification examination. Positions in intensive care specialties, and those that involve supervisory duties, almost always require the RRT (or RRT eligibility). Respiratory therapists advance in clinical practice by moving from care of “general” to “critical” patients. Additional knowledge and skills are needed to provide respiratory care for patients with significant problems in other organ systems such as the heart or kidneys. Sometimes such specialization means a new job title. Respiratory therapists may fill positions as cardiopulmonary technologists after gaining experience in arterial blood pressure monitoring, electrocar diograph (EKG), and related procedures. Therapists may also advance to supervisory or managerial positions. With additional education or experience, promotion to the position of director of the respiratory therapy department is a possibility. Respira tory therapists in home care and equipment rental firms may become branch managers. The field of education also offers opportunities for career develop ment. Jobs for hospital in-service educators are available for therapists with teaching skills. Many therapists have found careers as instructors in respiratory therapy education programs; with additional academic preparation, they are eligible to advance to the position of professor or program director. Other therapists leave the field to work as sales Professional Specialty Occupations representatives or as equipment designers for equipment manufac turers. Job Outlook Employment of respiratory therapists is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 because of substantial growth of the middle-aged and elderly popula tion, a development that is virtually certain to heighten the incidence of cardiopulmonary disease. The elderly are the most common sufferers from respiratory ailments and cardiopulmonary diseases such as pneumonia, chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and heart disease. As their numbers increase, the need for respiratory therapists to care for them will increase as well. In addition, advances in treating victims of heart attacks, accident vic tims, and premature infants (many of whom may be dependent on a ventilator during part of their treatment) will require the services of respiratory care practitioners. Projected rapid growth in the number of patients with AIDS will also boost demand for respiratory care since lung disease so often accompanies AIDS. Developments within the profession will affect the kinds of skills in greatest demand. Neonatal care and cardiopulmonary care have . already emerged as distinct specialties, and opportunities appear to be highly favorable for respiratory therapists with the requisite skills. In academic medical centers and other hospitals that provide advanced specialty care, occupations such as critical care therapist are beginning to emerge. The outlook for respiratory therapists will also be affected by reim bursement policy, that is, by the rules that Medicare, Medicaid, insur ance companies, and other third-party payers use to determine what services they will pay for. A tightening of the rules governing payment for respiratory care would probably mean less rapid job growth than currently anticipated, while an easing of the rules would mean faster growth. The likelihood of either change is hard to predict. Home health care is a bright spot on the horizon due to technological advances that permit complex care to be administered at home. Oppor tunities in respiratory care should be favorable through the year 2000 in home health agencies, equipment rental companies, and firms that provide respiratory care on a contract basis. Hospital-based home health programs will provide excellent job prospects, too. Because of reimbursement policies, especially strong growth is expected in dura ble medical equipment (DME) firms which rent respiratory equipment. However, it is important to bear in mind that the very rapidly growing field of home health care accounts for a relatively small share of respiratory therapy jobs. As in other occupations, most job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other jobs or stop working altogether. Earnings The starting salary of respiratory therapists employed in hospitals averaged about $19,632 a year in 1988, according to a survey by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Experienced respiratory thera pists in hospitals earned an average salary of $25,764 a year. Respiratory therapy workers in hospitals receive the same benefits as other hospital personnel, including health insurance, retirement benefits, vacations, and sick leave. Some employers provide tuition assistance and other educational benefits, uniforms, and parking. Related Occupations Respiratory therapy workers, under the supervision of a physician, administer respiratory care and life support to patients with heart and lung difficulties. Other workers who care for, treat, or train people to improve their physical condition include dialysis technicians, regis tered nurses, occupational therapists, physical therapists, and radiation therapy technologists. Sources of Additional Information Information concerning a career in respiratory care is available from: irr-American Association for Respiratory Care, 11030 Abies Lane, Dallas, TX 75229. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 165 Information on gaining credentials as a respiratory therapy prac titioner can be obtained from: w-'l'he National Board for Respiratory Care, Inc., 11015 West 75th Terrace, Shawnee Mission, KS 66214. For the current list of CAHEA-accredited educational programs for respiratory therapy occupations, write: av-Joint Review Committee for Respiratory Therapy Education, 1701 W. Euless Blvd., Suite 200, Euless, TX 76040. Speech-Language Pathologists and Audiologists (D.O.T. 076.101, .104, and .107) Nature of the Work Speech-language pathologists identify, assess, and treat persons with speech and language disorders while audiologists assess and treat hearing impaired individuals. Because both occupations are concerned with communication, individuals competent in one area must be famil iar with the other. Speech-language pathologists identify and treat speech, language, and swallowing disorders resulting from conditions such as total or partial hearing loss, brain injury, cerebral palsy, cleft palate, voice pathology, mental retardation, faulty learning, emotional problems, or foreign dialect. They also counsel patients and families about com munication disorders and how to cope with the stress and misunder standing that often accompany a communication disorder. Counseling may involve little more than reassuring the client that the problem is not unique, or it may involve working with the entire family to recog nize and change behavior patterns that impede communication and treatment. Counseling may also include giving the family therapeutic techniques to use at home. Speech-language pathologists use a variety of tools, including audio visual equipment and computers, to treat speech and language prob lems. Tape recorders and spectographs, for instance, are sometimes used to record and analyze speech irregularities. Clients unable to hear their own speech or voice problems can often detect them when listening to a recording of their own voice. For individuals with little or no speech, speech pathologists are also involved in selecting and teaching the use of devices and techniques designed to help them communicate. Such devices include gesture communications boards, electronic automated systems, sign language, and gesture systems. Audiologists identify, assess, treat, and work to prevent hearing problems. In one of the basic tests, audiologists use an audiometer to measure the loudness at which sound at various frequencies becomes audible to the patient. After instructing the individual being tested to signal whenever a sound is heard, the audiologist adjusts the audiome ter to emit sounds at various intensities and pitch levels. The results are assessed and then used to render a diagnosis and determine a course of treatment. This may include the fitting of a hearing aid, providing instruction in speech reading, or recommending the use of telephone and television amplifiers, among others. The duties of speech-language pathologists and audiologists vary. Most, however, provide direct clinical services to individuals with communication disorders. In speech, language, and hearing clinics, they may independently develop and implement a treatment program. In private medical centers and other facilities, they may be part of a team that cooperatively develops and executes a treatment plan. Speech-language pathology and audiology personnel in schools may also help administrators develop individual or group programs, counsel parents on prevention, and assist teacher's with classroom activities. Speech-language pathologists and audiologists also do some adminis trative work, such as record keeping on the initial evaluation, progress, and discharge of each client. Such documentation is used to pinpoint problems, track client progress, and justify the cost of each treatment when applying for reimbursement. 166 Occupational Outlook Handbook Working Conditions Speech-language pathologists and audiologists spend most of their time at a desk or table in clean comfortable surroundings. The job is not physically demanding, but the attention to detail and intense concentration needed can be mentally exhausting. Speech-language pathologists and audiologists who work on a con tract basis may serve several facilities, requiring considerable travel time to deliver services in such settings as nursing homes, home health agencies, or widely scattered schools. From a personal standpoint, a great amount of satisfaction can be gained from seeing a client improve; lack of progress, on the other hand, can be very frustrating. Employment Speech-language pathologists and audiologists held about 53,000 jobs in 1988. Almost one-half were in elementary and secondary schools and colleges and universities. The remainder were in speech, language, and hearing centers, hospitals, nursing homes, offices of physicians, and outpatient care facilities. Some were in private practice, working either as solo practitioners or in a group practice with other types of professionals such as physical and occupational therapists. Sometimes an experienced speech-language pathologist or audiolo gist works as a full- or part-time contractor providing a wide variety of clinical services to nursing home residents or home health clients. Others work as consultants to industry. They conduct workshops, test noise levels, do research, or act as advisers to manufacturers of equipment used by individuals suffering from hearing or speech and language disorders. Those with a master’s degree can acquire the Certificate of Clinical Competence (CCC) offered by the American Speech-Language-Hear ing Association. To earn the CCC, a person must have a master’s degree, complete a 9-month internship, and pass a national written examination. Along with the necessary academic and clinical requirements needed to become a speech-language pathologist or audiologist, individuals should be able to effectively communicate test results, diagnoses, and proposed treatment in a manner easily understood by their clients. Speech-language pathologists and audiologists need to approach problems objectively and to advocate for the needs of their clients and their families. Considerable patience and compassion are also needed since a client’s progress may be slow. With experience, some speech-language pathologists and audiolo gists move into solo practice; others become directors or administrators of services in schools, hospitals, health departments, and clinics. Still others focus on research. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A master’s degree in speech-language pathology or audiology is the standard credential in this field. Of the 37 States that license speechlanguage pathologists and audiologists, all require a master’s degree plus 300 hours of clinical experience. In addition, all 50 States require a master’s degree plus 300 hours of clinical experience to qualify for reimbursement from Medicaid, Medicare, or private insurers. Individuals with bachelor’s degrees are sometimes allowed to pro vide services in public schools. These individuals must receive a practice certificate from the State educational agency and are usually classified as special education teachers rather than speech-language pathologists or audiologists. About 240 colleges and universities offered master’s programs in speech-language pathology and audiology in 1989. Courses include anatomy and physiology of the areas involved in hearing, speech, and language; acoustics; psychological aspects of communication; and how sounds and words are produced and how people hear. Graduate students also learn how to evaluate and treat speech, language, and hearing disorders and receive supervised clinical training in communi cation disorders. Job Outlook Employment of speech-language pathologists and audiologists is ex pected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Their employment in the health care industry is pro jected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations, while in education it is expected to grow only as fast as the average. Demand in the health care industry will increase as a result of several factors. Because hearing loss is strongly associated with older age, the very rapid growth in the population age 75 and over will cause the number of hearing-impaired persons to grow very rapidly. In addition, baby boomers are now entering middle age, when the possibility of neurological disorders, which may have associated hearing, speech, and language impairments, increases. Speech and hearing clinics, physicians’ offices, and outpatient care facilities are expected to provide many new jobs, largely due to antici pated expansion of rehabilitation programs to treat individuals suffer ing from such conditions as stroke or head injuries. Demand for speech-language pathologists and audiologists is also expected to rise in nursing homes and home health agencies, in response to the needs of the aged. The number of speech-language pathologists and audiologists in private practice, though small, is likely to rise sharply by the year 2000. Encouraging this growth is the increasing use of contract services by hospitals, schools, and nursing homes. Contract services provide these industries the flexibility of purchasing services on an as-needed basis. Growing demand in educational institutions will result from a mod est increase in elementary and secondary school enrollments and the needs of a growing number of multicultural and multilingual students, as well as a recent amendment to legislation guaranteeing an education to all handicapped children. Many speech-language pathologists work in school systems. Earnings According to a 1988 survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch, the average starting salary for speech-language pa thologists and audiologists in hospitals was approximately $25,000; for audiologists it was almost $25,800. Experienced speech-language pathologists in hospitals averaged almost $33,000, while experienced audiologists averaged close to $37,000. According to a 1989 survey conducted by the American SpeechLanguage-Hearing Association, the median salary for speech-language pathologists with 1 to 3 years experience was $23,400 annually; for audiologists, it was $24,000. Experienced speech-language patholo gists, with 16 years or more experience, earned a median of $35,000 annually; experienced audiologists earned a median of $42,000. Most speech-language pathologists and audiologists working in pub lic schools are classified as teachers or special education teachers, and are paid accordingly. According to the National Education Associa tion, elementary school teachers earned an average of $28,900 during the 1988-89 school year, and secondary school teachers earned an average of $30,300. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional Specialty Occupations Related Occupations Speech-language pathologists and audiologists specialize in the pre vention, diagnosis, and treatment of speech, language, and hearing problems. Workers in other rehabilitation occupations include occupa tional therapists, physical therapists, recreational therapists, and reha bilitation counselors. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 167 Sources of Additional Information State departments of education can supply information on certification requirements for those who wish to work in public schools. General information on speech-language pathology and audiology is available from: ••-American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 10801 Rockville Pike, Rockville, MD 20852. Communications Occupations Public Relations Specialists (D.O.T. 165.017-010, .067-010, and .167-010) Nature of the Work An organization’s public reputation, profitability, and even its contin ued existence can depend on how successfully it presents its goals and policies to the public. Public relations specialists help businesses, governments, universities, hospitals, schools, and other organizations build and maintain positive relationships with the public. Public relations specialists handle such functions as press, commu nity, consumer, and governmental relations; political campaigns; inter est-group representation; fundraising; or employee relations. Public relations is not only “telling the organization’s story,” however. Under standing the attitudes and concerns of customers, employees, and various other “publics”—and communicating this information to man agement to help formulate sound policy—is also an important part of the job. To improve communications, public relations workers estab lish and maintain cooperative relationships with representives of com munity, consumer, and public interest groups and those in print and broadcast journalism. Public relations workers put together information that keeps the general public, interest groups, and stockholders aware of an organiza tion’s policies, activities, and accomplishments, and that keeps man agement aware of public attitudes and concerns of many groups and organizations with which it must deal. They may contact people in the media who might print or broadcast their material. Many radio or television special reports, newspaper stories, and magazine articles start at the desks of public relations workers. Sometimes the subject is an organization and its policies towards its employees or its role in the community. Often the subject is a public issue, such as health, nutrition, energy, or the environment. Public relations workers arrange and conduct programs for contact between organization representatives and the public. For example, they set up speaking engagements and often prepare the speeches for company officials. These workers also represent employers at community projects; make film, slide, or other visual presentations at school assemblies; plan conventions; and manage fundraising cam paigns. In government, public relations specialists—sometimes called press secretaries, information officers, public affairs specialists, or commu nications specialists—keep the public informed about the activities I Public relations specialists may set up speaking engagements and prepare speeches for company officials. Digitized 168 for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis of government agencies and officials. For example, public affairs specialists in the Department of Energy might keep the public informed about the proposed lease of offshore land for oil exploration. In large organizations, the director of public relations, who is often a vice president, may develop overall plans and policies with other executives. In addition, public relations departments employ public relations workers to write, do research, prepare materials, and maintain contacts. People who handle publicity for an individual or who direct public relations for a small organization may deal with all aspects of the job. They contact people, plan and do research, and prepare material for distribution. They may also handle advertising or sales promotion work to support marketing. Working Conditions Although public relations staffs generally work a standard 35- to 40hour week, schedules often have to be rearranged to meet deadlines, deliver speeches, attend meetings and community activities, and travel out of town. Occasionally they may have to be at the job or on call around the clock, especially if there is an emergency or crisis. Employment Public relations workers held about 91,000 jobs in 1988. Manufactur ing firms, public utilities, transportation companies, hospitals, adver tising agencies, insurance companies, and trade and professional asso ciations employed many of them. A sizable number worked for government agencies, colleges, museums, and other educational, reli gious, and human service organizations. About 10 percent were em ployed by public relations firms that serve clients for a fee, and 10 percent were self-employed. Public relations workers are concentrated in large cities where press services and other communications facilities are readily available, and where many businesses and trade associations have their headquarters. Many public relations consulting firms, for example, are in New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Washington, D.C. There is a trend, however, for public relations jobs to be dispersed throughout the Nation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A college education combined with public relations experience, usu ally gained through an internship, is excellent preparation for public relations work. The ability to write well is essential. Although most beginners have a college major in public relations, journalism, or communications, some employers may prefer training or experience in a field related to the firm’s business—science, engineering, or finance, for example. Some firms seek college graduates who have worked in electronic or print journalism. Others prefer workers with sales, engineering, or other experience that prepares them to deal knowledgeably with the organization’s products or services. In 1988, more than 150 colleges and 35 graduate schools offered degree programs or special curriculums in public relations, usually in a journalism or communications department. In addition, about 300 colleges offered at least one course in this field. Typical courses include public relations theory and techniques, organizational communication, and public relations management and administration. Specialties are offered in business, government, or nonprofit organization public relations. Courses in advertising, journalism, business administration, political science, communications, psychology, sociology, and cre ative writing also are helpful, as is familiarity with word processing and other computer applications. Writing for a school publication or television or radio station pro vides valuable experience. Many colleges help students gain part time or summer internships in public relations that provide valuable training. The Armed Forces also can be an excellent place to gain training and experience. Membership in the Public Relations Student Professional Specialty Occupations Society of America provides an opportunity for students to exchange views with public relations workers and to make professional contacts that may help them find a job in the field. A portfolio of published articles, television or radio programs, slide presentations, and other work is an asset in finding a job. Creativity, initiative, and the ability to express one’s thoughts clearly and simply are important. People who choose public relations as a career need an outgoing personality, self-confidence, an understanding of human psychology, and an enthusiasm for motivating people. They should be competitive and yet able to function as part of a team. Some organizations—particularly those with large public relations staffs—have formal training programs for new employees. In others, new employees work under the guidance of experienced staff mem bers. Beginners often maintain files of material about company activi ties, scan newspapers and magazines for appropriate articles to clip, and assemble information for speeches and pamphlets. After gaining experience, they may write press releases, speeches and articles for publication, or design and carry out public relations programs. In some firms, workers get all-round experience whereas in other firms they specialize. The Public Relations Society of America accredits public relations workers who have at least 5 years’ experience in the field and have passed a comprehensive 6-hour examination (5 hours written, 1 hour oral). Employers consider professional recognition through such ac creditation a sign of competence in this field. Promotion to supervisory jobs may come as workers show they can handle more demanding and creative assignments. In public relations firms, a beginner may be hired as a research assistant or account assistant and be promoted to account executive, account supervisor, vice president, and eventually senior vice president. A similar career path is followed in corporate public relations. Some experienced public relations workers start their own consulting firms. Job Outlook Employment of public relations workers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. New jobs will result from growth in demand for these workers from corporations, associations, health facilities, and other large organiza tions. The trend toward the use of public relations specialists by smaller organizations and professional groups also should stimulate employment growth. The vast majority of job openings, however, will result from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Experience in public relations is good preparation for management and other closely related jobs, and there is a lot of movement into and out of this occupation. Competition is expected to remain keen for persons without the appropriate educational background or for those who do not have relevant work experience. Earnings Median annual earnings for salaried public relations specialists who usually worked full-time were $26,100 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,200 and $40,900 annually; the lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,600; and the top 10 percent earned more than $51,800. Salaries of experienced workers generally are highest in large orga nizations with extensive public relations programs. According to a 1988 survey conducted by the PR Reporter, the median annual salary of public relations workers including public relations managers was $45,000. Median annual salaries ranged from about $32,000 in social services and nonprofit organizations to $60,000 in industrial organiza tions. In the Federal Government, persons with a bachelor’s degree gener ally started at $19,500 a year in 1989; those with a master’s degree generally started at $23,800 a year. Public information specialists in the Federal Government averaged about $36,300 a year in 1988. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 169 Related Occupations Public relations workers develop and distribute persuasive material in order to create favorable public attitudes. Other workers with similar jobs include fundraisers, account executives, lobbyists, promotion managers, advertising managers, and police officers involved in com munity relations. Sources of Additional Information A list of schools offering degree programs or a sequence of study in public relations is available for $1 from: wPublic Relations Society of America, Inc., 33 Irving Place, New York, NY 10003. Current information on the public relations field, salaries, and other items is available from: w-PR Reporter, P.O. Box 600, Exeter, NH 03833. Additional information on job opportunities and the public relations field in general may be obtained for $1 from: ••-Service Department, Public Relations News, 127 East 80th St., New York, NY 10021. Career information on public relations in hospitals/health care is available from: ••-The American Society for Hospital Marketing and Public Relations, Ameri can Hospital Association, 840 N. Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60611. Radio and Television Announcers and Newscasters (D.O.T 131.067-010, and -018, .267-010; 159.147-010, and -014) Nature of the Work Announcers and newscasters are well-known personalities to radio and television audiences. Radio announcers, often called disk jockeys, select and introduce recorded music; present news, sports, weather, and commercials; interview guests; and report on community activities and other matters of interest to their audience. If a written script is required, they may do the research and writing. They often “ad-lib” much of the commentary. They also may operate the control board, sell commercial time to advertisers, and write commercial and news copy. Announcers at large stations usually specialize in sports or weather, or in general news, and may be called newscasters or anchors. Some are news analysts. In small stations, one announcer may do everything. News anchors, or a pair of co-anchors, present news stories and introduce in-depth videotaped news or live transmissions from onthe-scene reporters. (See statement on reporters and correspondents elsewhere in the Handbook.) Weathercasters, also called weather re porters or meteorologists, report and forecast weather conditions. They gather information from national satellite weather services, wire ser vices, and other local and regional weather bureaus. Sportscasters select, write, and deliver the sports news. This may include interviews with sports personalities and live coverage of games played. Broadcast news analysts, called commentators, present news stories and also interpret them and discuss how they may affect the Nation or listeners personally. Announcers frequently participate in community activities. Sports announcers, for example, are masters of ceremonies at touchdown club banquets or are on hand to greet customers at openings of sporting goods stores. Working Conditions Announcers and newscasters usually work in well-lighted, air-condi tioned, soundproof studios. The broadcast day is long for radio and TV stations—some are on the air 24 hours a day—so announcers can expect to work unusual hours. Many announcers present early morning shows, when many 170 Occupational Outlook Handbook 14 Radio and television announcers often "ad-lib." people are getting ready for work or commuting, or do late night newscasts. Working within a tight schedule requires split-second timing, and the resulting stress can be physically and mentally tiring. For many announcers, the intangible rewards—creative work, many personal contacts, and the satisfaction of becoming widely known—far out weigh the disadvantages of irregular and often unpredictable hours, work pressures, and disrupted personal lives. Employment Radio and television announcers and newscasters held about 57,000 jobs in 1988. Nearly all were staff announcers, but some were freelance announcers who sold their services for individual assignments to net works and stations, or to advertising agencies and other independent producers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Entry to this occupation is highly competitive. While formal training in broadcast journalism from a college or technical school (private broadcasting school) is valuable, station officials pay particular atten tion to taped auditions that show an applicant’s delivery and—in television—appearance and style on commercials, news, interviews, and other copy. Those hired by television stations usually start out as production secretaries, production assistants, researchers, or reporters and are given a chance to move into announcing if they show an aptitude for “on-air” work. Newcomers to TV broadcasting also may begin as news camera operators. (See the statment on photographers and camera operators elsewhere in the Handbook.) A beginner’s chance of landing an on-air newscasting job is remote, except possibly https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis for a small radio station. In radio, newcomers generally start out taping interviews and operating equipment. Announcers usually begin at a station in a small community and, if qualified, may then move to a better paying job in a large city. Announcers also may advance by hosting a regular program as a disc jockey, sportscaster, or other specialist. In the national networks, competition for jobs is particularly intense, and employers look for college graduates with at least several years of successful announcing experience. Announcers must have a pleasant and well-controlled voice, good timing, excellent pronunciation, and correct English usage. Television announcers need a neat, pleasing appearance as well. Knowledge of theater, sports, music, business, politics, and other subjects likely to be covered in broadcasts improves chances for success. In addition, announcers should be able to “ad-lib” all or part of a show and to work under tight deadlines. The most successful announcers attract a large audience by combining a pleasing personality and voice with an appeal ing style. High school courses in English, public speaking, drama, foreign languages, and electronics arc valuable, and hobbies such as sports and music are additional assets. Students may gain valuable experience at campus radio or TV facilities and at commercial stations. Some stations and cable systems offer financial assistance and on-the-job training in the form of internships, apprentice programs, co-op work programs, scholarships, or fellowships. Persons considering enrolling in a broadcasting school should con tact personnel managers of radio and television stations as well as broadcasting trade organizations to determine the school’s reputation for producing suitably trained candidates. Announcers in small radio stations may also operate transmitters, so they may obtain a Federal Communications Commission (FCC) restricted radiotelephone operator permit. (For additional information on FCC requirements, see the statement on broadcast technicians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Employment of announcers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as new radio and television stations are licensed and the number of cable television systems continues to grow. Although announcers are rather strongly attached to their occupation, most openings in this relatively small field will arise from the need to replace those who transfer to other kinds of work or leave the labor force. Competition for jobs as announcers will be very keen because the broadcasting field typically attracts many more jobseekers than there are jobs. Radio stations are more inclined to hire beginners. Many of these jobs will be in small stations, however, where the pay is low. Because competition for ratings is so intense in major metropolitan areas, large stations will continue to seek highly experienced announc ers and newscasters who have proven that they can attract and retain a large audience. Newscasters who are knowledgeable in such areas as business, consumer, and health news may have an advantage over other job applicants. While specialization is more common at larger stations and the networks, many smaller stations encourage it. Employment in this occupation is not significantly affected by down turns in the economy. If recessions cause advertising revenues to fall, stations tend to cut “behind-the-scenes” workers rather than announc ers and broadcasters. Earnings Salaries in broadcasting vary widely. They are higher in television than in radio, higher in larger markets than in small ones, and higher in commercial than in public broadcasting. According to a survey conducted by the National Association of Broadcasters and the Broadcast Financial Management Association, salaries for experienced radio announcers averaged about $20,000 a year in 1988. They ranged from an average of about $11,000 in the Professional Specialty Occupations smallest markets to $51,000 for on-air personalities, $45,000 for sports reporters, and $39,000 for news announcers in the largest. In network affiliated stations, TV news anchors averaged $56,000, ranging from $22,000 in the smallest to $204,000 in the largest mar kets. Weathercasters averaged $43,000, ranging from $21,000 to $135,000. Sportscasters averaged $40,000, ranging from $19,000 to $149,000. Earnings in independent stations were substantially lower. Related Occupations The success of announcers and news broadcasters depends upon how well they speak to their audiences. Others for whom oral communica tion skills are vital are interpreters, sales workers, public relations specialists, teachers, and actors. Sources of Additional Information For a list of schools that offer programs and courses in broadcasting, contact: (•-Broadcast Education Association, 1771 N St. NW„ Washington, DC 20036. 171 Working Conditions The work of reporters and correspondents is usually hectic. They are under great pressure to meet deadlines. Some reporters work in comfortable, private offices; others work in noisy rooms filled with the sound of keyboards and computer printers as well as the voices of other reporters tracking down information over the telephone. When reporting from the scene, radio and television reporters may be dis tracted by curious onlookers or police or other emergency workers. Assignments covering wars, political uprisings, fires, floods, and other events may be dangerous. Working hours vary. Reporters on morning papers usually work from late afternoon until midnight. Those on afternoon or evening papers generally work from early morning until early or midaftemoon. Radio and television reporters generally are assigned to a day or evening shift. Magazine reporters generally work during the day. Reporters may have to change their work hours to meet a deadline or to follow late-breaking developments. Their work may demand long hours, irregular schedules, and some travel. Foreign correspondents often work late at night to meet schedules back home. For information on FCC licenses, write to: •-Federal Communications Commission, 1919 M St. NW., Washington, DC 20552. General information on the broadcasting industry is available from: ••-National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. For information on careers in broadcast news, contact: ••-Radio-Television News Directors Association, 1717 K St. NW., Suite 615, Washington, DC 20006. Reporters and Correspondents (D.O.T. 131.267-018) Nature of the Work Reporters and correspondents play a key role in our society. They gather information and prepare stories that inform us about local, State, national, and international events; present points of view on current issues; and monitor the actions of public officials, corporate executives, special interest groups, and others who exercise power. In covering a story, they investigate leads and news tips, look at docu ments, observe on the scene, and interview people. Reporters take notes or use a tape recorder while collecting facts. At their office, they organize the material, determine their focus or emphasis, and write their stories. In order to meet deadlines, however, many use portable computers to enter the story, which is then sent by telephone modem directly to the newspaper’s computer system. Reporters in radio and television broadcasting often compose their story and report “live” from the scene of a newsworthy event. Later, they may do commentary for a taped report in the studio and appear on camera to introduce it. General assignment reporters write up local news as assigned, such as a political rally or a local company going out of business. Large newspapers and radio and television stations assign reporters to gather news originating in specific locations or “beats,” such as police stations or courts. Many have reporters covering specialized fields such as health, politics, foreign affairs, sports, fashion, art, theater, consumer affairs, social events, science, education, business, and religion. In vestigative reporters cover stories that take many days or weeks of information gathering. Many news correspondents are stationed in large U.S. cities as well as in other countries to prepare stories on major news events occurring in these locations. Reporters on small newspapers cover all aspects of local news, and also may take photographs, write headlines, lay out pages, edit wire service copy, and write editorials. On some small weeklies, they also may solicit advertisements, sell subscriptions, and perform general office work. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment Reporters and correspondents held about 70,000 jobs in 1988. About 7 of every 10 worked for newspapers, either large city dailies or suburban and small town dailies or weeklies. Almost 2 in 10 worked in radio and television broadcasting, and others worked for magazines and wire services. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer college graduates who have a degree in journal ism. They also look for experience on school newspapers or broadcast ing stations and internships with news organizations. Some large city newspapers and stations prefer candidates who also have a degree in a subject-matter specialty helpful to specific beats such as economics, political science, or business. Bachelor’s degree programs in journalism are available in over 300 colleges. About three-fourths of the courses in a typical undergraduate journalism curriculum are in liberal arts; the remainder are required journalism courses. These journalism courses include introductory mass media, basic reporting and copy editing, history of journalism, and press law and ethics. In addition, students planning a career in broadcasting take courses in radio and television newscasting and production. Those planning to work on newspapers or magazines usually specialize in news-editorial journalism. Over 350 community and junior colleges offer journalism courses or programs. Some credits earned at these schools may be transferable to 4-year colleges. A master’s degree in journalism was offered by over 100 schools in 1988; about 20 schools offered a Ph.D. degree. Some graduate pro grams are intended primarily as preparation for news careers, while others concentrate on preparing journalism teachers, researchers and theorists, and advertising and public relations workers. High school courses in English, journalism, social studies, and typing provide a good foundation. Useful college liberal arts courses include English with an emphasis on writing, sociology, political science, economics, history, and psychology. Courses in computer science, business, and speech are useful as well. Fluency in a foreign language is necessary in some jobs. Reporters need good typing and word processing skills, and short hand skills are useful. A knowledge of news photography is valuable, because many entry level positions are combination reporter/camera operator or reporter/photographer jobs. Experience in a part-time or summer job or an internship with a news organization is important. The Dow Jones Newspaper Fund and newspapers, magazines, and broadcast news organizations offer summer reporting and editing internships. Work on high school and college newspapers and broadcasting stations, community newsletters, and Armed Forces publications also provides helpful experience. In addition, more than 3,000 journalism scholarships, fellowships, and 172 Occupational Outlook Handbook assistantships were awarded to college journalism students by universi ties, newspapers, foundations, and professional organizations in 1988. Experience as a “stringer”—a part-time reporter who is paid only for stories printed—is also helpful. Reporters should be dedicated to serving the public’s need for accurate and impartial news. Although reporters work as part of a team, they have an opportunity for self-expression. The ability to present facts objectively and succinctly is essential. Accuracy is impor tant because, among other reasons, untrue or libelous statements can lead to costly lawsuits. Important personal characteristics include a "nose for news,” curios ity, persistence, initiative, poise, resourcefulness, a good memory, and the physical stamina and emotional stability to deal with pressing deadlines, irregular hours, and sometimes dangerous assignments. Being at ease on camera or in front of a microphone is essential for broadcast reporters. Those working in unfamiliar places must be adaptable and feel at ease with a variety of people. Most beginners start with small publications or stations as general assignment reporters or copy editors. Large employers generally re quire several years of reporting experience. Only a few outstanding journalism graduates are hired by large city papers or stations and national magazines. Beginning reporters arc assigned routine duties such as reporting on civic and club meetings, summarizing speeches, writing obituaries, and covering court proceedings. As they gain experience, they may report more difficult assignments, cover an assigned “beat,” or special ize in a particular field. Reporters may advance by moving to larger papers or stations. Some experienced reporters become correspondents, writers, announcers, or public relations specialists. Others become editors in print journalism or program managers in broadcast journalism, supervising reporters. Some eventually become broadcasting or publications industry man agers. Job Outlook Employment of reporters and correspondents is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. This growth will come about primarily because of an anticipated increase in the number of small town and suburban daily and weekly newspa pers. Little or no increase is expected in the number of big city dailies, although some of them may increase the size of their reporting staffs. Some growth also is expected in radio and TV stations. The need to replace reporters and correspondents who leave the occupation will create most job openings. Turnover is relatively high in this occupa tion—some find the work stressful and hectic. Some people decide they don’t like the lifestyle and transfer to other occupations where their skills are valuable, especially public relations and advertising work. Competition for reporting jobs on large metropolitan newspapers and broadcast stations and on national magazines will continue to be keen. Most editors prefer to hire the top graduates of accredited programs. Newspapers in small towns and suburban areas are expected to continue to offer better opportunities for beginning reporters. Many openings arise on small publications as reporters become editors or transfer to reporting jobs on larger publications. Talented writers who can handle highly specialized scientific or technical subjects will be at an advantage in the job market. Reporters and correspondents generally are not laid off during reces sions, but cuts in advertising revenues may result in no new hiring. Journalism graduates also have the background for work in such closely related fields as advertising and public relations. Every year, a substantial number of journalism graduates take jobs in these fields. Other graduates accept sales, managerial, and other nonmedia posi tions, in many cases because it is difficult to find media jobs. Earnings Reporters working for daily newspapers having contracts negotiated by The Newspaper Guild had starting salaries ranging, with a few exceptions, from about $13,000 to about $26,000 a year in 1989. For experienced reporters, the minimums ranged, with a few exceptions, from about $20,800 to about $41,600. Annual salaries of radio reporters ranged from about $12,000 in the smallest stations to about $30,000 in the largest stations in 1988, according to a survey conducted by the National Association of Broad casters. For all stations, they averaged about $17,000. Salaries of TV reporters ranged from about $15,000 in the smallest stations to about $67,400 in the largest ones. For all stations, they averaged about $26,000. Most reporters usually work a 5-day, 35- or 40-hour week and may receive extra pay for overtime work. Related Occupations Reporters and correspondents must write clearly and effectively to succeed in their profession. Others for whom writing ability is essential include technical writers, advertising copy writers, public relations workers, educational writers, fiction writers, biographers, screen writ ers, and editors. Sources of Additional Information Career information, including pamphlets entitled Newspaper .What’s In It For Me? and Facts About Newspapers, is available from: (■-American Newspaper Publishers Association Foundation, The Newspaper Center, Box 17407, Dulles International Airport, Washington, DC 20041. Information on careers in journalism, colleges and universities that offer degree programs in journalism or communications, and journal ism scholarships and internships may be obtained without charge from: «-The Dow Jones Newspaper Fund, Inc., P.O. Box 300, Princeton, NJ 08543 0300. For a list of junior and community colleges offering programs in journalism, contact: •■-Community College Journalism Association, County College of Morris, Route 10 and Center Grove Rd., Randolph, NJ 07869. Information on union wage rates for newspaper and magazine report ers is available from: «*-The Newspaper Guild, Research and Information Department, 8611 2nd St. NW., Silver Spring, Md. 20910. ■ fHI For a list of schools with accredited programs in their journalism departments, send a stamped, self-addressed envelope to: (■-Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications, University of Kansas School of Journalism, Stauffer-Flint Hall, Lawrence, KS 66045. For general information about careers in journalism, contact: Reporters and correspondents must write clearly and effectively. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis (■-Association For Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Univer sity of South Carolina College of Journalism, 1621 College St., Columbia, SC 29208. A pamphlet titled A Career in Newspapers, can be obtained from: •■-National Newspaper Association, 1627 K St. NW., Suite 400, Washington, DC 20006. Professional Specialty Occupations 173 Names and locations of newspapers and a list of schools and depart ments of journalism are published in the Editor and Publisher Interna tional Year Book, available in most public libraries and newspaper offices. Writers and Editors (D.O.T. 131 except .267-010 and -018; and 132 except .067-030) Nature of the Work Writers and editors communicate through the written word. Writers develop original fiction and nonfiction for books, magazines, trade journals, newspapers, technical studies and reports, company news letters, radio and television broadcasts, and advertisements. Editors supervise writers and select and prepare material for publication or broadcasting. Writers start by selecting a topic or being assigned one by an editor. They then gather information through personal observation, library research, and interviews. Sometimes, the information gathered may cause writers to change the focus to a related topic that is more interesting. They select and organize the material and put it into words that will convey it to the reader with the desired effect. Writers often revise or rewrite sections, searching for the best organization of the material or just the right phrasing. Newswriters write news items for newspapers or news broadcasts, based on information supplied by reporters or wire services. Columnists analyze news and write columns or commentaries, based on personal knowledge and experience. Edito rial writers write comments to stimulate or mold public opinion, in accordance with their publication’s viewpoint. Reporters and corre spondents, who may also write articles or copy for broadcast, are described elsewhere in this section of the Handbook. Technical writers put scientific and technical information into readily understandable language. They prepare repair manuals, cata logs, parts lists, operating instructions, sales promotion materials, and project proposals and edit technical reports. Copy writers write advertising copy for use by publication or broad cast media to promote the sale of goods and services. Established writers may work on a freelance basis, where they sell their work to publishers or publication units, manufacturing firms, and public relations and advertising departments or agencies. They sometimes are hired to complete specific assignments such as writing about a new product or technique. Editors frequently do some writing and almost always do much rewriting and editing, but their primary duties are to plan the contents of books, magazines, or newspapers and to supervise their preparation. They decide what will appeal to readers, assign topics to reporters and writers, and oversee the production of the publications. In small organizations, a single editor may have full responsibility for the entire publication. In larger ones, an executive editor oversees associate or assistant editors who have responsibility for particular subjects, such as fiction, local news, international news, or sports. Editors hire and fire writers, reporters, and other employees, plan budgets, and negoti ate contracts with freelance writers. In broadcasting companies, pro gram directors have responsibilities comparable to those of editors. Editors and program directors often are helped by assistants, who may have the title of assistant editor, editorial assistant, copy editor, or production assistant. Many of these assistants hold entry level jobs. They review copy for errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling. They check manuscripts for readability, style, and agreement with editorial policy. They add and rearrange sentences to improve clarity or delete incorrect and unnecessary material. Editorial assistants do research for writers and verify facts, dates, and statistics. Assistants also may arrange page layouts of articles, photographs, and advertising or plan the use of tapes. They also may compose headlines, prepare copy for printing, and proofread printer’s galleys. Some editorial assistants read and evaluate manuscripts submitted by freelance writers https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Editors supervise writers. or answer letters about published or broadcast material. Production assistants on small papers or in radio stations clip stories that come over the wire services’ printers, answer phones, and make photocopies. Most writers and editors now have daily “hands-on” interaction with desktop or electronic publishing systems. Working Conditions Working conditions for writers and editors vary with the kind of publication they work on and the kind of articles they produce. Some work in comfortable, private offices; others work in noisy rooms filled with the sound of keyboards and computer printers as well as the voices of other writers tracking down information over the telephone. The search for information sometimes requires travel and visits to diverse workplaces, such as factories, offices, laboratories, the ball park, or the theater, but many have to be content with telephone interviews and the library. The workweek usually runs 35 to 40 hours. Night and weekend work is required of those who prepare morning or weekend publications and broadcasts. Some work overtime to meet deadlines or to cover a latedeveloping story. The more frequently the publication is issued, the more frequent the deadlines and the pressure to meet them. Employment Writers and editors held about 219,000 jobs in 1988. Nearly 40 percent of salaried writers and editors work for newspapers, magazines, and book publishers. Substantial numbers also work on journals and news letters published by business and nonprofit organizations, such as professional associations, labor unions, and religious organizations. Others write and edit advertising and public relations materials for advertising agencies, public relations firms, and large corporations. Some also work in radio and television broadcasting; others develop publications for government agencies. Many technical writers work for firms manufacturing aircraft, chem icals, pharmaceuticals, and computer and other electronic equipments, and for firms in the telecommunications and computer software fields. Jobs with major book publishers, magazines, broadcasting compa nies, advertising agencies and public relations firms, and the Federal Government are concentrated in New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Boston, Philadelphia, San Francisco, and Washington, D.C. More widely dispersed throughout the country, on the other hand, are those with newspapers; corporations; and professional, religious, business, technical, and trade union magazines or journals. Technical writers are employed throughout the country but the largest concentrations are in the Northeast, Texas, and California. Thousands of other persons work as freelancers—earning some income from their articles, books, and, less commonly, television and movie scripts. Most support themselves primarily with income from other sources. 174 Occupational Outlook Handbook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A college degree generally is required. Although some employers look for a broad liberal arts background, most prefer to hire people with degrees in communications, journalism, or English. Technical writing requires a degree in or some knowledge about a specialized field—engineering, business, or one of the sciences, for example. In many cases, people with good writing skills can pick up specialized knowledge on the job. Some transfer from jobs as technicians, scientists, or engineers. Some begin as research assistants, editorial assistants, or trainees in a company’s technical information or advertising department. In time, these people may assume writing duties and develop technical communication skills. All writers and editors must be able to express ideas clearly and logically. Creativity, intellectual curiosity, a broad range of knowl edge, self-motivation, and perseverance are also valuable. For some jobs, the ability to concentrate amid confusion and to produce under pressure is essential. Familiarity with word processing, electronic publishing, graphics, and video production equipment is useful. Be cause writing requires research, writers must be familiar with research techniques. Editors must have good judgment in deciding what mate rial to accept and what to reject. They need tact and the ability to guide and encourage others in their work. All prospective writers need practical writing experience. High school and college newspapers, literary magazines, and community newspapers and radio and television stations all provide valuable— but sometimes unpaid—experience. Many magazines, newspapers, and broadcast stations have summer internships in which students can learn about the publishing and broadcasting business. Interns write short pieces and conduct some research and interviews. In small firms, beginning writers and editors may do a little bit of everything, not only working as editorial or production assistants but also writing or editing material right away. They often advance by moving to other firms, so turnover among beginning writers and editors is high. In larger firms, jobs usually are structured more formally. Beginners generally do research, fact checking, or copy editing. They take on full-scale writing or editing duties less rapidly than do the employees of small companies. Advancement comes as they are as signed more important articles to write or edit. Job Outlook Employment of writers and editors is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Employment of salaried writers and editors by newspapers, periodicals, book pub lishers, and nonprofit organizations is expected to increase with grow ing demand for their publications. Growth of advertising and public relations agencies should also be a source of new jobs. Demand for technical writers is expected to increase because of the continuing expansion of scientific and technical information and the continued need to communicate it. Many job openings will also occur as experi enced workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Through the year 2000, the outlook for most writing and editing jobs is expected to continue to be keenly competitive primarily because so many people are attracted to the field. However, opportunities will be good for technical writers because of the more limited number of writers who can handle technical material. In addition, opportunities should be better on small dailies and weekly newspapers and in small radio and TV stations, where the pay is low. Persons considering a career in writing and editing should keep their options open. Academic preparation in another field may prove useful, either to qualify them as writers specializing in that field or to qualify them for another occupation in the event that they are unable to get a salaried writing job. Earnings In 1988, beginning salaries for writers and editorial assistants ranged from $18,000 to $26,600 annually, according to the Sales and Market ing Personnel Report, 33rd edition, 1988/89, published by the Execu tive Compensation Service, a Wyatt Data Services Company. Salaries for experienced writers and researchers generally ranged between $20,800 and $37,900 a year, depending on their qualifications and the size of the publication on which they worked. Technical writers had salaries ranging from $19,800 to $46,300. Experienced editors gener ally earned between $22,200 and $39,800 a year; supervisory editors, $32,600 to $49,400 a year. Starting salaries for copy editors on daily papers in towns with a population of less than 20,000 averaged $9,700 in 1988; copy editors in cities of 500,000 or more earned $13,000, according to a survey by the Dow Jones Newspaper Fund. Senior editors on large circulation newspapers and magazines, however, averaged over $60,000 per year. In addition, many writers and editors supplement their salaried income by doing freelance work. Writers and editors employed by the Federal Government earned an average of $31,228 a year in 1988. Related Occupations Writers and editors communicate ideas and information to individuals for their education and entertainment. Other communications occupa tions include newspaper reporters and correspondents, radio and televi sion announcers, advertising and public relations workers, and teachers of journalism. Sources of Additional Information For a guide to journalism careers and scholarships, contact: ••-The Dow Jones Newspaper Fund, P.O. Box 300, Princeton, NJ 08540. For information on college internships in magazine editing, contact: ••-American Society of Magazine Editors, 575 Lexington Ave., New York, NY 10022. For information on careers in technical writing, contact: ••-Society for Technical Communication, Inc., 815 15th St. NW., Suite 516, Washington, DC 20005. Visual Arts Occupations Designers (D O T. 141.051, .067, .081-014; 142 except .051-010 and .061-030) Nature of the Work Designers organize and design articles, products, and materials in such a way that they not only serve the purpose for which they were intended but are visually pleasing as well. Pleasant surroundings, beautiful clothes, and floral arrangements can boost our spirits, and products and packaging that are eye catching are more likely to attract buyers than those that are not. Designers usually specialize in one particular area of design, for example, automobiles, clothing, furniture, home appliances, industrial equipment, movie and theater sets, packaging, or floral arrangements. In developing a new design or altering an existing one, they first determine the needs of their clients and potential users. Then they consider the function, size, shape, weight, color, materials used, and the way the product functions, as well as ease of maintenance, safety, and cost of the design. Designers may compare similar or competitive products. They take into account and often set style and fashion trends. Designers usually develop sketches of several designs which they present for final selection to an art or design director; a product development team; a play, film, or television producer; or a client. The designer then makes a model, a sample, or detailed plans drawn to scale. Designers may supervise craft workers who carry out their designs. Those who run their own businesses may devote a considerable amount of time to developing business contacts and to administrative tasks such as checking catalogs and ordering samples. Design is not one but a number of different fields. Industrial design ers develop and design countless manufactured products like cars, home appliances, computers, stethoscopes, filing cabinets, fishing rods, pens, and piggy banks. They combine artistic talent with research on product use, marketing, materials, and production methods to create the best and most appealing design and to make the product competitive with others in the marketplace. Interior designers plan and furnish the interiors of private homes, public buildings, and commercial establishments such as offices, res taurants, hotels, and theaters. With a client’s tastes and needs in mind, they develop designs and prepare working drawings and specifications for interior construction, furnishings, lighting, and finishes. They coordinate colors; select furniture, floor coverings, and curtains; and design lighting and architectural details such as crown molding. They also plan additions and renovations. Interior designers must design the space in accordance with Federal, State, and local building codes. In addition, they plan spaces that meet accessibility standards for the disabled and elderly. Package designers create product containers that are not only attrac tive but easy to handle and store. Set designers design movie, televi sion, and theater sets. They study scripts, confer with directors, and conduct research to determine appropriate architectural styles. Fashion designers design coats, suits, dresses, hats, handbags, shoes, gloves, jewelry, underwear, and other apparel. Some highfashion designers are self-employed and design for individual clients. They make fashion news by establishing the “line,” colors, and kinds of materials that will be worn each season. Other high-fashion design ers cater to specialty stores or high-fashion department stores. They design original garments as well as follow the established fashion trends. Most fashion designers, however, work for apparel manufac turers, adapting fashions for the mass market. Textile designers design fabrics for garments, upholstery, rugs, and other products, using their knowledge of textile materials and fashion trends. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Interior designers plan and furnish the interiors of homes, public buildings, and commercial establishments. Floral designers cut and arrange fresh, dried, or artificial flowers and foliage into a design to express the sentiments of the sender. They trim flowers and arrange bouquets, sprays, wreaths, dish gardens, and terrariums. They usually work from a written order indicating the occasion, customer preference for color and type of flower, price, and the date, time, and place the arrangement or plant is to be delivered. The variety of duties performed by a floral designer depends on the size of the shop and the number of designers employed. In a small operation, the floral designer may own the shop and do almost every thing from growing flowers to keeping books. Working Conditions Working conditions and places of employment vary. Designers em ployed by manufacturing establishments or design firms generally work regular hours in well-lighted and comfortable settings. Selfemployed designers tend to work longer hours—especially at first, when they are trying to establish themselves and cannot afford to hire assistants or clerical help. Designers frequently adjust their workday to suit their clients, meet ing with them evenings or on weekends when necessary. They may transact business in clients’ homes or offices, in their own offices, or in other locations such as showrooms. Industrial designers usually work regular hours but occasionally work overtime to meet deadlines. In contrast, set designers, especially those in television broadcasting, often work long and irregular hours. Television production tempo is very fast, and set designers are often under pressure to make rapid changes in the sets. Fashion designers who work in the apparel industry usually have regular hours. During production deadlines or before'fashion shows, however, they may be required to put in overtime. In addition, fashion designers may be required to travel to production sites overseas and across the United States. Floral designers usually work regular hours in a pleasant work environment, except during the holidays when overtime may be re quired. All designers face frustration at times when their designs are rejected or when they cannot be as creative as they would like. Independent 175 176 Occupational Outlook Handbook consultants, who are paid by the assignment, are under pressure to please clients and to find new ones to maintain their incomes. Employment Designers held about 309,000 jobs in 1988. Nearly two-fifths were self-employed, a much higher proportion than in most occupations. Salaried designers are found in a number of different industries, depending on their design specialty. Most industrial designers, for example, work for consulting firms or for large manufacturing compa nies. Interior designers usually work for architectural or design firms; department stores and home furnishing stores; or hotel, restaurant, and other hospitality chains. Many do freelance work—full time, part time, or in addition to a salaried job. Set designers work for theater companies, the film industry, and television broadcasting companies. Fashion designers generally work for textile, apparel, and pattern manufacturers, or for fashion salons, high-fashion department stores, and specialty shops. Some work in the entertainment industry, designing costumes for theater, dance, television, and movies. Nearly all floral designers work for retail flower shops. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Creativity is crucial in all design occupations. People in this field also need a strong color sense, an eye for detail, a sense of balance and proportion, and sensitivity to beauty. A good portfolio—a collection of examples of a person’s best work—is often the deciding factor in landing a job. However, formal preparation in design is important in all fields with the exception of floral design. Educational requirements for entry level positions vary. Some de sign occupations, notably industrial design, require a bachelor’s or master’s degree. Interior designers generally need a college education. Few clients—especially commercial clients—are willing to entrust responsibility for designing living and working space to a designer with no formal credentials. Interior designers must also be knowledge able about Federal, State, and local codes and toxicity and flammability standards for furniture and furnishings. In fashion design, too, some formal career preparation is almost always needed to land a job. Employers seek individuals who are knowledgeable about textiles, fabrics, and ornamentation as well as about trends in the fashion world. In contrast to the other design occupations, a high school diploma ordinarily suffices for floral design jobs. Most floral designers learn their skills on the job. When they hire trainees, employers generally look for high school graduates who have a flair for color and a desire to learn. Formal training for designers is available in 2- and 3-year profes sional schools which award certificates or associate degrees in design. Graduates of 2-year programs generally qualify as assistants to design ers. Four-year colleges and universities grant the Bachelor of Fine Arts degree. The curriculum in these schools includes art and art history, principles of design, designing and sketching, and specialized studies for each of the individual disciplines such as garment construc tion, textiles, mechanical and architectural drawing, computerized design, sculpture, architecture, and basic engineering. A liberal arts education with courses in merchandising and business administration along with training in art is also a good background. Persons with training or experience in architecture also qualify for some design occupations. It is highly recommended that students in the design field take computer-aided design (CAD) courses. CAD is used in many design areas, particularly in industrial design, and most employers expect new employees to be familiar with the use of the computer as a design tool. Computers are used extensively in the aerospace, automotive, and electronic industries, and are becoming more popular in the other design fields as well. For example, interior designers are using comput ers to create numerous versions of space designs. Images can be inserted, edited, or replaced—making it possible for a client to see and choose among several replications of a design. In furniture design, a chair’s basic shape and structure may be duplicated and updated by https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis applying new upholstery styles and fabrics with the use of computers. CAD has the potential to become a powerful designing tool which will enhance a designer’s creativity and productivity. In 1988, the National Association of Schools of Art and Design accredited 151 postsecondary institutions with programs in art and design. All of these schools award a degree in art. Some award degrees in industrial design, interior design, textile design, graphic design, or fashion design. Many schools do not allow formal entry into a bache lor’s degree program until a student has successfully finished a year of basic art and design courses. Applicants may be required to submit sketches and other examples of their artistic ability. The Foundation for Interior Design Education Research (FIDER) accredits interior design programs and schools. Currently, there are 89 accredited programs located in schools of art, architecture, and home economics. Some colleges and universities offer degrees in floriculture and floristry and provide training in flower marketing and shop management. Floral design is taught in private trade and technical schools. People in the design field must be creative, imaginative, persistent, and able to communicate their ideas visually. Because tastes in style and fashion can change quickly, designers need to be open to new ideas and influences. Problem-solving skills and the ability to work independently are important traits. People in this field need self discipline to start projects on their own, and to budget their time in order to meet deadlines. Business sense and sales ability are important for those who are freelancers or run their own businesses. Beginning designers usually receive on-the-job training. Beginners usually need 1 to 3 years of training before they advance to higher level positions. Experienced designers in large firms may advance to chief designer, design department head, or other supervisory positions. Some experienced designers open their own firms. Interior design is the only design field subject to government regula tion: the District of Columbia licenses interior designers, and five States regulate use of the title. While licensing is the exception rather than the rule, membership in a professional association is universally recognized as a mark of achievement for designers. Professional mem bership usually requires the completion of 3 or 4 years of postsecondary education in design, at least 2 years of practical experience in the field, and completion of the National Council for Interior Design Qualification Examination. Job Outlook Employment in design occupations is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. However, most openings will result from the need to replace those who leave the field. Continued emphasis on product quality and safety; on design of new products for businesses and offices; on high-technology products in medicine, transportation, and other fields; and increasing competition among businesses should stimulate the demand for industrial design ers. Demand for industrial designers will also rise in those industries using advanced composites, ceramics, and materials being adapted to new uses. Growth in population and in personal incomes is expected to spur demand for interior designers, fashion designers, floral design ers, and set designers. Despite rapid growth in the number of jobs, designers in most specialties—with the exception of floral design—can expect to face competition throughout their careers. Many talented individuals are attracted to a career as a designer—among them, graduates of presti gious design schools. In light of the abundant supply, individuals with unexceptional talent, with no formal preparation in design, and without the necessary personal traits—particularly creativity and persever ance—may find it very difficult to establish and maintain a career in design. While most areas of design are highly competitive, this is not the case in floral design. Relatively low pay and limited opportunities for advancement restrict the supply of suitable applicants. As a result, finding a job as a floral designer should be relatively easy. Professional Specialty Occupations Earnings Median annual earnings of experienced full-time designers were about $26,400 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $16,700 and $35,000 a year. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $11,300, and the top 10 percent earned more than $47,000. Floral designers earned less than this.-According to a survey con ducted by Floral Finance Inc., beginning floral designers had average earnings of approximately $9,600 a year in 1989. Designers with 1 to 3 years of experience earned $11,500, while designers with over 3 years of experience averaged $13,800. Managers had average earnings of about $17,400 a year in 1989. Some floral designers reported average earnings of more than $31,200. I Earnings of self-employed designers vary greatly, depending on their talent and business ability, but generally are higher than those of salaried designers. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who design or arrange objects, materials, or interiors to improve their appearance and function include visual artists, architects, landscape architects, engineers, photographers, merchandise displayers, and fur designers. Sources of Additional Information For a list of accredited schools of art and design, contact: (•-National Association of Schools of Art and Design, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 22090. A brochure that describes careers in industrial design and lists academic programs in the field is available from the Industrial Design ers Society of America. For price and ordering information, write: ••-Industrial Designers Society of America, 1142-E Walker Rd., Great Falls, VA 22066. For information about careers in interior design, contact: ••-American Society for Interior Designers, 1430 Broadway, New York, NY 10018. For a list of accredited programs in interior design, contact: ••-Foundation for Interior Design Education Research, 60 Monroe Center, NW, Grand Rapids, MI 49503. For information about careers in floral arrangement, contact: ••-Society of American Florists, 1601 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314. (•-Florist Transworld Delivery, Education Division, 29200 Northwest Hwy., Southfield, MI 48037. Photographers and Camera Operators (D.O.T. 143) Nature of the Work The job of a photographer or camera operator is to accurately or artistically portray people, places, and events. Skillful photographers can capture the special feeling, mood, or personality that sells prod ucts, spurs interest in news stories, or brings back happy memories such as weddings. Because the skills of photographers are quite different from those needed by camera operators, workers generally specialize in one area or the other. Nonetheless, photographers and camera operators all use the same basic equipment, a camera. Camera operators generally use 35- millimeter cameras to film motion pictures, 16-millimeter cameras to film documentary and industrial films, and videotape cameras to record news events for later showing on television and for instructional purposes. Some camera operators have begun to offer their services to the general public by recording important events, such as weddings, on commercially available videotape recorders for later replay on home VCR’s. Most professional photographers use a wide variety of cameras. Unlike inexpensive snapshot cameras, which usually offer few adjust ments and have a lens permanently attached to the camera body, professional cameras can often be used with a variety of lenses de https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 177 signed for close-up, medium-range, or distance photography. They also offer a wide variety of adjustments that allow the photographer creative and technical control over the picture-taking process. In addi tion, professional photographers and camera operators use a vast array of mechanical and electronic equipment—from the simple tripod and flash attachments to specially constructed motorized vehicles, special lighting, and a variety of film and filters. Many photographers, especially those seeking special effects, de velop and print their own photographs in darkrooms, and may enlarge or otherwise alter the original image. Other photographers send their work to laboratories for processing. This is especially true of photogra phers using color film, which requires very expensive equipment and exacting conditions for processing and printmaking. (See the statement on photographic process workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Taking quality pictures and movies is a technical as well as a creative process. Photographers and camera operators must be familiar with all the possible combinations of light, film, and cameras, and how they are combined to make pictures of professional quality. Years of training and experience are required to develop the skills and abilities needed to coordinate all these variables. Creativity is often called for when composing a picture. The ele ments of composition include choosing a subject, deciding how to present it to achieve a particular effect, and adjusting equipment to accomplish the desired goal. The photographer or camera operator may wish to change or enhance the normal appearance of the subject, for example, or draw attention to a particular aspect by blurring out the background. It is through this creative application of the principles of composition, and the judicious use of light, lens, film, filters, and camera settings, that photographers and camera operators produce pictures that capture a mood or tell a story. Photographers may specialize in a particular type of photography, such as portrait, fashion, or advertising. Portrait photographers take pictures of individuals or groups of persons and often work in their own studios. For special events, such as weddings or christenings, they take photographs in churches and homes. Portrait photographers in small studios, like other small-business owners, frequently handle all aspects of their business. They arrange for advertising and schedule appointments; set and adjust equipment; develop and retouch nega tives; develop proofs; and mount and frame pictures. They also pur chase supplies and take care of billing and recordkeeping. Advertising, commercial, editorial, or industrial photographers take pictures of a wide range of subjects including manufactured articles, buildings, livestock, and groups of people. They frequently do work for catalogs and magazines. Companies use their work in publications to report to stockholders or to advertise company products or services. To create attractive, eye-catching promotional pictures, advertising photographers must command a broad array of photographic tech niques. Industrial photographers also photograph groups of people for employee news magazines or take “high speed” pictures of workers operating equipment and machinery for management’s use in analyzing production or work methods. Scientific photographers and biological photographers provide illus trations and documentation for scientific publications and research re ports. The photographs and slides they produce are also used for text books. These photographers usually specialize in a particular field, such as engineering, aerodynamics, medicine, biology, or chemistry. Some design photographic equipment for use as a research tool. For example, medical researchers often use ultraviolet and infrared photography, flu orescence, and X-rays to obtain information not visible under normal conditions. Time-lapse photography (where time is stretched or con densed), photomicrography (where the subject of the photography may be magnified 15 or 20 times or more), and photogrammetry (surveying an area using aerial photography) are other special techniques. Photojoumalists photograph newsworthy events, places, people, and things for publications such as newspapers and magazines. They may also prepare educational slides, filmstrips, and movies. Photography is also an art medium. As in other forms of artistic endeavor, self-expression and creativity are central while technical proficiency—essential for producing special effects—provides the ve- 178 Occupational Outlook Handbook hide for conveying the artist’s message. Unlike photojoumalists and commercial photographers, very few of those who specialize in artistic photography are successful enough to support themselves solely through this specialty. Some camera operators work for television networks and individual stations, covering news events as part of a team that includes a reporter and other technicians. These camera operators use special photo graphic equipment—called electronic news gathering cameras—to capture events on videotape. Images from these cameras can be trans mitted via satellite from the scene back to the newsroom in time for the telecast. Camera operators also are employed in the entertainment field. They use 35- and 16-millimeter motion picture cameras to film movies, television programs, and commercials. Animation camera operators film cartoons; optical-effects camera operators create illusions for television and movies. Camera operators in the entertainment business are usually supervised by directors of photography. Working Conditions Working conditions for photographers and camera operators vary con siderably. Photographers in government, commercial studios, and advertising agencies usually work a 5-day, 35- to 40-hour week. Freelancers, newspaper photographers, and camera operators work longer or more irregular hours and must be available on short notice. A substantial number of photographers, approximately 1 in 5, work part time. While almost all camera operators are employed by someone else, close to half of all photographers are self-employed. This adds extra dimensions to the job. Self-employed photographers must not only take pictures, they must also market themselves and bill for their services. While self-employment allows for a good deal of autonomy, flexible scheduling, and the possibility of working from one’s own home, it may also cause stress from continually needing to find new clients. Freelance, press, and commercial photographers may travel fre quently and may work in uncomfortable or even dangerous surround ings . This may be especially true for photojournalists assigned to cover stories on natural disasters or military conflicts. When working on assignment or on location, photographers and camera operators may be away from home for long periods. Work may also require long hours developing photos in a darkroom which can be cramped and poorly ventilated. The work can be strenu ous since photographers and camera operators may stand and walk for long periods while carrying a lot of equipment. Most photographers and camera operators work under pressure. Deadlines and demanding customers must be satisfied. Employment Photographers and camera operators held about 105,000 jobs in 1988. Nearly half of all photographers and camera operators are self-em ployed, a much higher proportion than the average for all occupations. Some of these are freelance photographers who do individual projects on a one-time-only or occasional basis for ad agencies or magazines. Salaried jobs for photographers are found, for the most part, in photographic or commercial art studios. Other major employers in clude newspapers, magazines, advertising agencies, radio and televi sion broadcasters, motion picture companies, and government agen cies. Camera operators are employed primarily in television broadcasting and motion picture studios. Photographers work in all parts of the country—small towns as well as large cities—but most are in the more populated areas. Almost all camera operators work in metropolitan areas, but assignments may take them far away from home. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Becoming a professional photographer is difficult because this is a popular field and competition is keen. There is no one best way of entering the occupation. Determination is often the key to success and may be just as important as creativity, skill, and formal preparation. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis '% I ..... .. An industrial photographer prepares to photograph a building. Once you are sure this is the occupation for you, the first step is to become immersed in the field and learn everything possible. Students should subscribe to photographic newsletters and magazines, join camera clubs, and find work in a camera store or photo studio, if possible. It is also important to determine an area of interest and specialize in it. Wildlife photographers, for instance, may know noth ing of fashion photography. Although many entry level jobs for photographers do not require formal preparation in photography, a high school diploma is generally necessary. Moreover, entry level positions in photojournalism and in scientific or technical photography are likely to require a college degree. Employers usually seek applicants who have a technical understand ing of photography as well as requisite personal traits—principally imagination, creativity, reliability, and honesty—and preferably some business skills. Technical expertise can be obtained through practical experience, postsecondary education, or some combination of the two. Good business skills can be obtained through work experience. On-the-job training is one of the most important sources of training for both camera operators and photographers. After graduating from high school or college and acquiring some understanding and experi ence in photography, one of the best ways of entering the field is locating a job as an assistant in a photographic studio. This is a particularly good approach for individuals interested in such areas as fashion photography, commercial photography, and portrait photog raphy. Photographers’ assistants generally start in the darkroom, where they learn to mix chemicals, develop film, and do photoprinting and enlarging. Later they may set up lights and cameras or help an experi Professional Specialty Occupations enced photographer take pictures. Individuals pursuing this route can also obtain the business skills vital to those thinking about opening their own businesses or becoming freelancers. Many aspiring photographers make the mistake of believing that talent alone will insure success. They fail to realize that virtually all professional photographers have talent. Success requires the business skills that help a photographer find and negotiate for business, bill for a photograph or a job, and keep good financial records. Camera trainees begin as first or second assistants to camera opera tors, helping set up equipment and learning the craft by observing experienced workers. Relatively few academic programs are oriented toward motion picture photography. As a result, camera operators generally acquire their skills through informal job training. On-thejob training offers the additional advantage of allowing trainees to earn while they leam. Formal preparation in photography is available in approximately 1,000 colleges, universities, community and junior colleges, voca tional-technical institutes, and private trade and technical schools. All of these institutions offer one or more courses in photography, often as part of a communications or journalism program. Some offer courses in cinematography. Not all of them, however, offer degree programs in photography or cinematography. Few provide a realistic background in basic business skills or their practical application. Coursework in photography provides a background in equipment, processes, and techniques. Bachelor’s and master’s degree programs provide the additional advantage of a well-rounded education and the opportunity to take potentially valuable courses such as marketing and business. Art schools offer useful training in design and composition, but not always the technical training needed for professional photographic work. The Armed Forces also train people in photography and camera skills. Training lasts between 7 and 22 weeks depending on the area of specialty. Photographers and camera operators must have good eyesight, artis tic ability, and manual dexterity. They should be patient, accurate, and enjoy working with detail. Knowledge of mathematics, physics, and chemistry is helpful for understanding the workings of various lenses, films, light sources, and developing processes and why particu lar adjustments are required for certain conditions. Some photographic specialties require additional qualities. Com mercial photographers must be imaginative and original in their think ing. Those photographing news stories must recognize a potentially good photograph and act quickly or lose the opportunity to capture an important event on film. Portrait photographers need the ability to help people relax in the presence of the camera. Freelance photographers, who are in business for themselves, must know how to identify markets and make connections with potential buyers. They must also understand copyright laws and how they affect ownership of photographs. In addition, they must know how to hire and direct models and acquire permission to use photographs of them, how to price photographs, and how to keep financial records. Photo journalists must not only be good with a camera, but must understand the story behind an event so that they can take a picture that will match the story. This requires some journalistic skills and helps explain why employers increasingly look for individuals with a 4-year degree in journalism with an emphasis on photography. Many newspapers offer internships for students interested in photojournalism. Newly hired workers are given relatively routine assignments that do not require split-second camera adjustments or decisions on what subject matter to photograph. News photographers, for example, may be assigned to cover events such as civic meetings or snowstorms. After gaining experience, they advance to more demanding assign ments. A few gain national recognition for their work and exhibit their photographs in art and photographic galleries, or publish them in books. Freelance photographers—who typically enter the field by submit ting unsolicited photographs to magazines—may become sufficiently known to have magazines contract with them for photo layouts. Free lancers may also sign with a stock photo agency. These agencies grant https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 179 rights to an individual’s photographs on a commission basis. Stock photo agencies require such a large number of submissions each year, however, that what starts as a part-time job can become full time. Camera operators—like news photographers—advance in their pro fession as their work circulates and as they develop a reputation. The best known camera operators may become directors of photography on movies and TV programs. A few industrial or scientific photogra phers may be promoted to supervisory positions. Magazine and news photographers may eventually become heads of graphic arts depart ments, or photography editors. Photographers and camera operators may become teachers and provide instruction in their own area of expertise. Job Outlook Employment of photographers and camera operators is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Many additional job openings will occur as workers transfer to other occupations or stop working. Demand for photographers will be stimulated by the steadily grow ing importance of visual images in many aspects of American lifein education, communication, entertainment, marketing, and research and development. Business firms, for example, are expected to make greater use of photographs, videocassettes, training films, and other visual aids in meetings, stockholders’ reports, sales campaigns, and public relations work. Photography is vitally important in scientific and medical research, areas that are projected to experience solid growth in the years ahead. Employment in photojournalism is expected to grow slowly, with keen competition expected for available posi tions. Slow growth is expected in portrait studios, about in line with the growth of the population. Employment of camera operators is expected to grow rapidly as the entertainment industries expand, but competition for jobs in this field is expected to remain keen. Generally regarded as an exciting and glamorous field, cinematography traditionally attracts many more ap plicants than there are jobs. Earnings Most experienced photographers and camera operators earned between $24,600 and $33,800 in 1988. The median weekly contract wage for beginning photographers who worked for newspapers with contracts with The Newspaper Guild was about $385 in 1989. The middle 50 percent of beginners’ contracts fell between $366 and $454; the lowest 10 percent were for $285 or less; and the top 10 percent were for $558 or more. The median weekly contract for photographers with some experience (usually 4 or 5 years) was about $635 in 1989. The middle 50 percent of these contracts fell between $540 and $720; the lowest 10 percent were for $450 or less; and the top 10 percent were for $822 or more. Photographers in the Federal Government earned an average of $25,550 a year in 1988. Some self-employed and freelance photographers earn more than salaried workers. Many do not. Earnings of self-employed and free lance photographers are affected by the number of hours they work, the quality of their product, their marketing ability, general business conditions, and the type and size of their community and clientele. Related Occupations Other workers who rely on visual arts talents in their jobs include visual artists, editors, illustrators, designers, painters, and sculptors. Sources of Additional Information Career information on photography is available from: (•-Professional Photographers of America, Inc., 1090 Executive Way, Des Plaines, IL 60018. ••-American Society of Magazine Photographers, 419 Park Ave. South, New York, NY 10016. 180 Occupational Outlook Handbook For a list of self-help publications on photography and photographic processing, write: (•-Eastman Kodak, Kodak Information Center, Department 841,343 State St., Rochester, NY 14650. A newsletter helpful to freelance photographers is available from: (•-Associated Photographers International, P.O. Box 2172, Chatsworth, CA 91313. For a publication listing places to sell your photographs and instruc tions on how to do it, write: (•-Writer’s Digest, 1507 Dana Ave., Cincinnati, OH 45202. Lists of colleges and universities offering courses or degree pro grams in photography may be found in college directories. Guidance offices, libraries, and large bookstores have such directories. Visual Artists (D.O.T. 102.261-014; 141.061-010,-014,-022,-26,-030; .081-010; 144; and 149.041, and .261) Nature of the Work Visual artists use an almost limitless variety of methods and materials to communicate ideas, thoughts, and feelings. They may use oils, watercolors, acrylics, pastels, magic markers, pencils, pen and ink, silkscreen, plaster, clay, or any of a number of other media, including computers, to create abstract works or images of objects, people, nature, topography, or events. Visual artists generally fall into one of two categories—“graphic artists” and “fine artists”—depending not so much on the medium, but on the artist’s purpose in creating a work of art. Graphic artists put their artistic skills and vision at the service of commercial clients, such as major corporations, retail stores, advertising firms, and production companies. Fine artists, on the other hand, often create art to satisfy their own inner need for self-expression, and may display their work in museums, art galleries, and homes. Of course, some of their work may be done on request from clients, but not on the same scale as that of graphic artists. Fine artists usually work independently, choosing the subject matter and medium they deem fit. Usually, they specialize in one or two forms of art. Painters generally work with two-dimensional art forms. Using techniques of shading, perception, and color-mixing, painters produce works that may evoke or depict different moods and emotions depending on the artist’s goals at the time the painting was done. Sculptors design three-dimensional art works—either molding and joining materials such as clay, wire, or metal, or cutting and carving forms from a block of plaster, wood, or stone. Some sculptors combine various materials such as concrete, metal, wood, plastic, and paper. Printmakers create printed images from designs cut into wood, stone, or metal, or from computer driven data. The designs may be en graved—as in the case of woodblocking; etched—as in the production of etchings; or derived from computers in the form of inkjet prints. Painting restorers preserve and restore damaged and faded paintings. They apply solvents and cleaning agents to clean the surfaces, recon struct or retouch damaged areas, and apply preservatives to protect the paintings. Fine artists may sell their works to stores, commercial art galleries, and museums, or sell directly to collectors. Commercial galleries may sell artists’ works on consignment. The gallery and artist predetermine how much each earns from a sale. Only the most successful are able to support themselves solely through sale of their works, however. Most fine artists hold other jobs as well. They may teach art in secondary schools, colleges, or universities; give private art lessons; or work in a totally unrelated field in order to support their careers as artists. Graphic artists, whether freelancers or employed by a firm, use a variety of print and film media to create and execute art that meets a client’s needs. Graphic artists arc increasingly using computers, in stead of the traditional tools such as pencils, scissors, and color strips, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis to perform their work. Computers enable them to lay out and test various designs, patterns, and colors before printing a final design. Graphic artists perform different jobs depending on their area of expertise. Graphic designers, for example, may design packaging and promotional displays for a new product, an annual report, or a distinctive logo for a store chain, company stationery, and products. Illustrators paint or draw pictures for books, magazines, and films. Many do a variety of illustrations, while others specialize in a particular field. Editorial artists do illustrations for magazines, album, cassette, and compact-disc covers, theater posters, and other publications. Med ical and scientific illustrators combine artistic skills with knowledge of the biological sciences. They draw illustrations of parts of the human body, or animals and plants. These illustrations are used in medical textbooks and in slide and video presentations for teaching purposes. Fashion artists draw illustrations of women’s, men’s, and children’s clothing and accessories for newspapers, magazines, and other media. Some illustrators draw “story boards” for TV commercials. Story boards present TV commercials in a series of scenes similar to a comic strip, so an advertising agency and client (the company doing the advertising) can evaluate proposed commercials. Story boards may also serve as guides to placement of actors and cameras and to other details during the production of commercials. Cartoonists draw political, advertising, social, and sports cartoons. Some cartoonists work with others who create the idea or story and write the captions. Most cartoonists, however, have humorous, criti cal, or dramatic talents in addition to drawing skills. Animators work in the motion picture and television industries. They draw the large series of pictures which, when transferred to film or tape, form the animated cartoons seen in movies and on TV. Working Conditions Graphic and fine artists generally work in art studios located in office buildings or their own homes. While their surroundings are usually well lighted and ventilated, odors from glues, paint, ink, or other materials may be present. Graphic artists employed by businesses and art studios generally work a standard 40-hour week. During busy periods, they may work overtime to meet deadlines. Self-employed graphic artists can set their own hours, but may spend much time and effort selling their services to potential customers or clients and establishing a reputation. Graphic artists create art that meets a client’s needs. Professional Specialty Occupations Employment Visual artists held about 216,000 jobs in 1988. About 3 out of 5 were self-employed. Self-employed artists are either graphic artists who freelance, offering their services to advertising agencies, publishing firms, and other businesses, or fine artists who earn income when they sell a painting or other art work. Of the artists who were not self-employed, most were graphic artists who worked for advertising agencies, commercial art and reproduction firms, or publishing firms. Others were employed by manufacturing firms, department stores, the motion picture industry, and government agencies. Visual artists are concentrated in large cities. New York City has by far the largest concentration because it is the center of both advertis ing and publishing. Boston, Chicago, Los Angeles, and San Francisco also have many artists. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In the fine arts field, formal training requirements do not exist, but it is very difficult to become skilled enough to make a living without some basic training. Bachelor’s and graduate degree programs in fine arts are offered in many colleges and universities. In the graphic arts field, demonstrated ability and appropriate training or other qualifica tions are needed for success. The device used by almost all in the graphic arts field to gain employment or freelance work is the “portfo lio," a collection of handmade, computer-generated, or printed exam ples of the artist's best work. Evidence of appropriate talent and skill shown in the portfolio is the most important factor used by art directors and others in deciding whether to hire or contract out work to an artist. In theory, a person with a good portfolio but no training or experience could succeed in graphic arts. In reality, assembling a successful portfolio requires skills generally developed in a postsecondary art school program, such as a bachelor’s degree in graphic arts or applied design. Some graphic artists have fine arts degrees, but an artist is generally better prepared for a successful graphic arts career if he or she has specialized graphic arts training. A bachelor’s degree in fine arts is less useful because it is focused more on art for its own sake than on art for marketing and other purposes. There are many kinds of art schools and programs, including 4-year programs, 2-year associate degree programs, and vocational education programs. Some of these provide the technical skills necessary to get an entry level job but may not give the background necessary for advancement. Persons hired in advertising agencies or graphic arts studios often start with relatively routine work. While doing this work, however, they may observe and practice their skills on the side. Many graphic artists work part time as a freelancer while continuing to hold a full time job until they get established. Others have enough talent and confidence in their ability to start out freelancing immediately after they graduate from art school. Many freelance part time while still in school in order to develop experience and a portfolio of published work. The freelance artist develops a set of clients who regularly contract for work at good rates. Some successful freelancers are widely recog nized for their skill in specialties such as children’s book illustration or magazine illustration. These artists earn high incomes and can pick and choose the type of work they do. Fine artists and illustrators advance as their work circulates and as they establish a reputation for a particular style. The best artists and illustrators continue to grow in ideas, and their work constantly evolves https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 181 over time. Graphic artists may advance to assistant art director, art director, and in some companies, manager of an art or design depart ment. Some may gain enough skill to succeed as a freelancer or may prefer to specialize in a particular area. Job Outlook The graphic and fine arts fields have a glamorous and exciting image. Because formal entry qualifications are few, many people with a love for drawing and creative ability qualify for entry. As a result, competition for both salaried jobs and freelance work is keen. Free lance work may be hard to come by, especially at first, and many freelancers earn very little until they acquire experience and establish a good reputation. Employment of visual artists, overall, is expected to grow faster than average for all occupations through the year 2000. Demand for the work of graphic artists will be strong as producers of information, goods, and services put even more emphasis on visual appeal in product design, advertising, marketing, and television. Employment growth for graphic artists, however, will be limited by increases in productivity due to computers. Most new jobs will be created in advertising agencies and graphic art studios. Employment of fine artists is expected to grow because of population growth, rising incomes, and growth in the number of people who appreciate fine arts. Competition in both areas is fierce, however. The supply of those seeking entry to this field will continue to exceed requirements in both the graphic and fine arts fields. Nonetheless, graphic arts studios and clients alike are always on the lookout for artists who display outstanding talent, creativity, and style. Talented artists who have developed a mastery of artistic techniques and skills should continue to be in great demand. Earnings Median earnings for salaried visual artists who usually work full time were about $20,000 a year in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $15,000 and $28,000 a year. The top 10 percent earned more than $37,000, and the bottom 10 percent earned less than $12,000. Earnings for self-employed visual artists vary widely. Those strug gling to gain experience and a reputation may be forced to charge what amounts to less than the minimum wage for their work. Wellestablished freelancers and fine artists may earn much more than salaried artists. Self-employed artists do not receive fringe benefits such as paid holidays, sick leave, health insurance, or pension benefits. Related Occupations Many occupations in the advertising industry, such as account execu tive or creative director, are closely related to commercial and graphic art and design. Workers in other occupations which apply visual art skills are architects, display workers, floral designers, industrial designers, interior designers, landscape architects, and photographers. The various printing occupations are related to graphic art, as is the work of art and design teachers. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in illustration, contact: wTlic Society of Illustrators, 128 East 63rd St., New York, NY 10021. For information on careers in graphic arts, contact: ••-American Institute of Graphic Artists, 1059 3rd Ave., New York, NY 10021. Performing Arts Occupations Actors, Directors, and Producers (D.O.T. 150 except .027-014; 159.067-010, 014, .117-010, .167-014, -018, .267-010, and .647-014; 184.117-010, 167-030, and -074; 187.167-174, -178, -182; 961.364-010; and 962.167-018) Nature of the Work Actors entertain and communicate with people through their interpreta tion of dramatic roles. They rely on facial and verbal expression as well as body motion for creative effect. Making a character come to life before an audience is a job that has great psychic rewards. Acting requires persistence, practice, and hard work as well as a special talent. Only a few actors achieve recognition as stars on the stage, in motion pictures, or on television. A somewhat larger number are well-known, experienced performers, who frequently are cast in supporting roles. Most actors struggle for a toehold in the profession and pick up parts wherever they can. Employment for actors is characteristically unsteady. Most actors experience frequent periods of unemployment, and many take temporary jobs, often as waiters or sales workers, while waiting for their next acting part to come along. Some actors employed by theater companies teach acting in courses offered to the public. Beginning stage actors generally start in “bit” parts where they speak only a few lines. If successful, they may progress to larger, supporting roles. They frequently serve as understudies for the principals. Film and television actors, in contrast, may begin in large roles or move into programs from working in commercials. In addition to the actors with speaking parts, “extras,” who have no lines to deliver, are used in almost all motion pictures, in many television shows, and in some theater productions. Directors interpret plays or scripts. In addition, they usually conduct rehearsals and auditions and select cast members as well as direct the work of the cast and crew. Directors use their knowledge of acting, voice, and movement to achieve the best possible performance and usually approve the scenery, costumes, choreography, and music. Producers select plays or scripts and hire directors, principal mem bers of the cast, and key production staff members. They negoatiate contracts with artistic personnel, often dealing with collective bargain ing agreements with labor unions. Producers also coordinate the activi ties of writers, directors, managers, and other personnel, arrange financing, and decide on the size of the production and its budget. Working Conditions Acting demands patience and total commitment, because actors must wait for parts or filming schedules, work long hours, and travel often. ir Only a few actors achieve recognition as stars. Digitized 182 for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Evening work is a regular part of a stage actor’s life. Flawless perfor mances require the tedious memorizing of lines and repetitive rehears als. Performances on television programs often allow little time for rehearsal, so that the actor must deliver a good performance with very little preparation. An actor needs stamina to withstand the heat of stage or studio lights, the long irregular hours, and the adverse weather conditions that may exist “on location.” When plays are “on the road,” traveling is necessary. Actors often face the anxiety of intermittent employment and rejections when auditioning for work. Directors and producers often work under stress as they try to meet schedules, stay within budgets, and resolve personnel problems. Employment In 1988, actors, directors, and producers held an average of about 80,000 jobs in motion pictures, stage plays, television, and radio. Many others were between jobs, so that the total number of people actually employed as actors, directors, and producers over the course of the year was higher. In the winter, most employment opportunities on the stage are in New York and other large cities. In the summer, stock companies in suburban and resort areas provide employment. In addition, many cities have nonprofit professional companies such as “little theaters,” repertory companies, and dinner theaters, which pro vide opportunities for local amateur talent as well as for professional entertainers. Normally, casts are selected in New York City for shows that go on the road. Employment in motion pictures and films for television is centered in Hollywood and New York City. However, studios are also located in Florida, Texas, and other parts of the country. In addition, many films are shot on location and employ local professionals and nonpro fessionals as day players and extras. A number of American-produced films are shot in foreign countries. In television, most opportunities are at the headquarters of the major networks—in New York, Los Angeles, and, to a lesser extent, Chicago. Sometimes employment opportunities are available with a few local television stations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Aspiring actors and directors should take part in high school and college plays, or work with little theaters and other acting groups for experience. Formal dramatic training or acting experience is generally neces sary, although some people enter the field without it. Many experi enced actors get formal training to learn new skills and improve old ones. Training can be obtained at dramatic arts schools in New York and Los Angeles, and at over 500 colleges and universities throughout the country offering bachelor’s or higher degrees in dramatic and theater arts. College drama curriculums usually include courses in liberal arts, stage speech and movement, directing, playwriting, play production, design, and history of the drama, as well as practical courses in acting. From these, the student develops an appreciation of the great plays and the roles he or she may play or direct. The best way to start is to use local opportunities and to build on them. Local and regional theater experience may help in obtaining work in New York or Los Angeles. Modeling experience may also be helpful. Actors need talent, creative ability, and training that will enable them to portray different characters. Training in singing and dancing is especially useful. Actors must have poise, stage presence, and the ability to affect an audience, plus the ability to follow direc tions. Physical appearance is often a deciding factor in being selected for particular roles. Many professional actors rely on agents or managers to find them performing engagements, negotiate contracts, and plan their careers. To become a movie extra, one must usually be listed by a casting agency, such as Central Casting, a no-fee agency that works with the Screen Extras Guild and supplies all extras to the major movie studios in Hollywood. Applicants are accepted only when the number of Professional Specialty Occupations persons of a particular type on the list—for example, athletic young women, old men, or small children—is below the foreseeable need. In recent years, only a very small proportion of the applicants have succeeded in being listed. There are no specific training requirements for directors and produc ers. Talent, experience, and business acumen are very important. Directors and producers come from different backgrounds. Actors, writers, film editors, and business managers often enter these fields. Formal training in directing and producing is available at some colleges and universities. Individuals interested in production management who have a bachelor’s degree or 2 years of on-set experience in motion picture or television production may qualify for the Assistant Directors Training Program offered jointly by the Directors Guild of America and motion picture and television companies. Training is given in New York and Los Angeles. To qualify, individuals must take a written test and go through a series of group and individual assessments. However, of the approximately 1,000 applicants who take the exam every year, only 8 to 15 people qualify for the programs. For most actors, directors, and producers, advancement takes the form of a growing reputation. For an actor, this means getting bigger and better roles. Some actors move into acting-related jobs as drama coaches or directors of stage, television, radio, or motion picture productions. A few teach drama in colleges and universities. For directors and producers, advancement may mean working on larger productions or taking shows to the most prestigious theaters. The length of a performer’s working life depends largely on training, skill, versatility, and perseverance. Some actors, directors, and pro ducers never retire. Many leave the occupation, however, because they cannot find enough work to make a living. Job Outlook Employment of actors, directors, and producers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as the number of theatrical and motion picture productions increases. Rising foreign demand for American productions, combined with a growing domestic market—fueled by the growth of cable television, home movie rentals, and television syndications—should stimulate demand for actors and other production personnel. The growth of these recorded media doesn’t seem to be drawing any interest away from live productions. People who prefer to see live entertainment are expected to continue to go to theaters for the excitement and aesthetic appreciation. In fact, attendance at live theater performances has been increasing slightly as regional and touring shows are reaching audi ences outside of the traditional theater center. New York City. In addition to jobs created by increasing demand, many more will arise as workers leave this high-tumover field. Nevertheless, the large number of people desiring acting careers and the lack of formal entry requirements will cause keen competition for acting and directing jobs. Only the most talented will find regular employment. Earnings Minimum salaries, hours of work, and other condititons of employ ment are covered in basic collective bargaining agreements between producers of shows and unions representing the various workers in this field. The Actors’ Equity Association represents stage actors; the Screen Actors Guild and the Screen Extras Guild cover actors in motion pictures, including televison, commercials, and films; and the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA) represents televison and radio performers. Most stage directors belong to the Society of Stage Directors and Choreographers, and film and television directors belong to the Directors Guild of America. Of course, each actor or director may negotiate an individual contract that provides for a higher salary than that specified in the basic agreement. The minimum weekly salary for actors in Broadway productions was $800 in 1989. Those in small “off-Broadway” theaters received minimums ranging from $280 to $505 a week, depending on the seating capacity of the theater. For shows on the road, actors receive an additional $73.50 per day. Eight performances amount to a week’s work on the stage, and any https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 183 additional performances are paid for as overtime. Actors usually work long hours during rehearsals. Once the show opens, they have more regular hours, working about 24 hours a week. In 1988, motion picture and television actors earned a minimum daily rate of $398, or $1,385 for a 5-day week. For extras, the minimum rate was $93 a day. Television actors also receive additional compensation for reruns. Earnings from acting are low because employment is so irregular. According to data from Actors’ Equity Association, about 23,000 of their members had no earnings from acting in 1987; about 4,500 made less than $2,500; about 6,300 earned $5,000 or more; and only 675 members earned more than $35,000. The Screen Actors Guild reports that over 80 percent of all performers who worked under SAG contracts in 1987 earned less than $5,000 from acting jobs, while 29 percent of their members earned no income at all from acting. Therefore, many actors must supplement their incomes from acting by holding other jobs. Some well-known actors have salary rates well above the mini mums, and the salaries of the few top stars are many times the figures cited, creating a false impression that all actors are highly paid. Many actors who earn more than a set minimum per year are covered by a union health, welfare, and pension fund, including hospitalization insurance, to which employers contribute. Under some employment conditions, Actors’ Equity and AFTRA members have paid vacations and sick leave. Salaries for stage directors vary greatly. The top money is on Broadway—$20,000 for a rehearsal period, which usually lasts 5 weeks. Small dinner theaters and summer stock pay much less—$500$600 per week—but offer the most employment opportunities. Producers seldom get salaries; instead, they get a percentage of a show’s earnings. Sometimes producers receive a set fee for their services. Related Occupations People who work in occupations requiring acting skills include danc ers, choreographers, disc jockeys, drama teachers or coaches, and radio and television announcers. Others working in occupations related to acting are playwrights, script writers, stage managers, costume designers, lighting designers, and set designers. Workers in occupa tions involved with the business aspects of theater productions include company managers, booking managers, and actors’, directors’, and playwrights’ agents. Sources of Additional Information For information about specific contracts covering stage actors, contact: (•-Actors’ Equity Association, 165 West 46th St., New York, NY 10036. Information about opportunities in regional theaters may be obtained from: wTheatre Communications Group, Inc., 355 Lexington Ave., New York, NY 10017. For information on the training program offered by the Directors Guild of America, contact: (•-Assistant Directors Training Program, 14144 Ventura Blvd., Sherman Oaks, CA 91423. Dancers and Choreographers (D.O.T. 151.027-010, and .047-010) Nature of the Work From ancient times to the present, dancers have expressed ideas, stories, rhythm, and sound with their bodies. They may perform in classical ballet, which includes the stylized, traditional repertory, or modem dance, which allows more free movement and self-expression. Others perform in dance adaptations for musical shows, in folk, ethnic, and jazz dances, and in other popular kinds of dancing. In addition to 184 Occupational Outlook Handbook being an art form for its own sake, dance also complements opera, musical comedy, and television performances. Dancers most often perform as a group, although a few top artists dance solo. Many dancers combine stage work with teaching. Chore ographers often create original dances, teach them to performers, and sometimes direct and stage the presentations of their work. Working Conditions Dancing is strenuous. Rehearsals require very long hours and usually take place daily, including weekends and holidays. For shows on the road, weekend travel often is required. Most performances take place in the evening, and dancers must become accustomed to working late hours. Due to the physical demands, most dancers stop performing by their late thirties, but they sometimes continue to work in the dance field as a choreographer, a dance teacher, or an artistic director. Some celebrated dancers, however, continue performing beyond the age of 50. Employment Professional dancers held an average of about 11,000 jobs at any one time in 1988. Many others were between engagements so that the total number of people employed as dancers over the course of the year was greater. In addition, there were many dance instructors in secondary schools, colleges and universities, dance schools, and private studios. Many teachers also performed from time to time. New York City is the home of most of the major dance companies. Other cities with full-time dance companies are Atlanta, Boston, Chi cago, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Dallas, Houston, Miami, Milwaukee, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Salt Lake City, San Francisco, Seattle, and Washington,DC. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Serious training for a career in dancing traditionally begins between the ages of 10 and 12. Early ballet training begins at 5 to 8 years of age and is usually given by private teachers and independent ballet schools. Students who demonstrate potential in the early teens receive more intensive and advanced professional training at regional ballet schools or schools conducted under the auspices of the major ballet companies. Leading dance school companies often have summer train ing programs from which they select candidates for admission to their regular full-time training program. Early and intensive training also is important for the modem dancer, but modem dance generally does not require as many years of training as ballet. Most dancers have their professional auditions by age 17 or 18; however, training and practice never end. For example, professional ballet dancers have 1 to 1 Vi hours of lessons every day, and spend many additional hours practicing and rehearsing. Because of the strenuous and time-consuming training required, a dancer’s formal academic instruction may be minimal. However, a broad, general education including music, literature, history, and the visual arts is helpful in the interpretation of dramatic episodes, ideas, and feelings. About 250 colleges and universities confer bachelor’s or higher degrees in dance, generally through the departments of physical educa tion, music, theater, or fine arts. Most programs concentrate on modem dance but also offer courses in ballet/classical techniques. A college education is not essential to obtaining employment as a professional dancer. In fact, ballet dancers who postpone their first audition until graduation may compete at a disadvantage with younger dancers. On the other hand, a college degree can be helpful for the dancer who retires at an early age, as often happens, and wishes to enter another field of work. A college education is also an advantage for college or university teaching. However, it is not necessary for teaching dance or choreogra phy in a studio. Studio schools usually require teachers to have experi ence as performers; colleges and conservatories generally require grad uate degrees, but performance experience often may be substituted. The dancer’s life is one of rigorous practice and self-discipline; therefore, patience, perseverance, and a devotion to dance are essen https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis tial . Good health and physical stamina are necessary in order to practice and perform and to follow the rugged schedule often required. Good feet and normal arches also are required. Above all, one must have flexibility, agility, coordination, grace, a sense of rhythm, and a feeling for music, as well as a creative ability to express oneself through movement. Seldom does a dancer perform unaccompanied. Therefore, ability to function as part of a team is important. Dancers also should be prepared to face the anxiety of intermittent employment and rejections when auditioning for work. For dancers, advancement takes the form of a growing reputation, bigger and better roles, and higher pay. Job Outlook Employment of dancers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to the public’s continued interest in this form of artistic expression. In addition to jobs arising from increased demand, some job openings will occur as dancers leave the occupation and as dance companies search for and find outstanding talent. However, because increasing numbers of dancers are seeking professional careers, applicants will continue to exceed the number of job openings, causing keen competition. Only the most talented will find regular employment. The best job opportunities are expected to be with national dance companies because of the demand for performances outside of New York City. Opera companies will also provide some employment opportunities. Dance groups affiliated with colleges and universities will be another source of employment, and television and motion pictures will also offer some opportunities. In addition, the growing popularity of dance in recent years has resulted in increased employ ment opportunities in teaching dance. Earnings Earnings of most professional dancers are governed by union contracts. Dancers in the major opera ballet, classical ballet, and modem dance corps belong to the American Guild of Musical Artists, Inc. AFL-CIO; those on live or videotaped television belong to the American Federa tion of Television and Radio Artists; those who perform in films and on TV belong to the Screen Actors Guild or the Screen Extras Guild; and those in musical comedies are members of Actors’ Equity Associa tion. The unions and producers sign basic agreements specifying mini t JI1L IjBIMI#. - * ■ > to,,, f%:: 5 :. Wj Dancers face keen competition. Professional Specialty Occupations mum salary rates, hours of work, and other conditions of employment. However, the separate contract signed by each dancer with the pro ducer of the show may be more favorable than the basic agreement. For 1989-90, the minimum weekly salary for new dancers in ballet and modem productions was $445. For new dancers being paid for single performances, the basic rate was $198 per performance and $140 per rehearsal. Dancers on tour received an additional allowance for room and board. Minimum performance rates for dancers on television ranged from $536 to $573 for a 1-hour show. The normal workweek is 30 hours including rehearsals and matinee and evening performances. Extra compensation is paid for additional hours worked. Some new choreographers receive a minimum fee of $325 for a ballet and $20 per performance in royalties. Earnings from dancing are generally low because dancers’ employ ment is irregular. They often must supplement their income by taking temporary jobs unrelated to dancing. Dancers covered by union contracts are entitled to some paid sick leave, paid vacations, and various health and welfare benefits provided by their unions. Employers contribute toward these benefits. Most other dancers do not receive any fringe benefits. Related Occupations Other occupations require the dancer’s knowledge of conveying ideas through physical motion. These include ice skater, dance critic, dance instructor, dance notator, and dance therapist. Athletes in most sports also need the same strength, flexibility, agility, and body control. Sources of Additional Information Information about colleges and universities that teach dance, including details on the types of courses offered, is available from: ••-National Dance Association, 1900 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091. Enclose a stamped, self-addressed envelope. For information on all aspects of dance, including job listings, contact: ••-American Dance Guild, 33 West 21st St., Third Floor, New York, NY 10010. Enclose a stamped, self-addressed envelope. Information about wages and working conditions, as well as guid ance on career changes, is available from: ••-The American Guild of Musical Artists, 1727 Broadway, New York, NY 10019. 185 tas, or popular songs. They transcribe ideas into musical notation using harmony, rhythm, melody, and tonal structure. Many songwriters now compose and edit music using computers. Some even have a musical keyboard linked to a computer which compiles the digital information into musical notation while they play. Also, they may program the composition in musical notation into the computer, which will play the song. Orchestra conductors lead orchestras and bands. They audition and select musicians and direct rehearsals and performances. They apply conducting techniques, music theory, and harmony to achieve desired musical effects. Choral directors conduct choirs and glee clubs. They audition and select singers and direct them at rehearsals and performances to achieve harmony, rhythm, tempo, shading, and other desired musical effects. Working Conditions Musicians generally perform at night and on weekends, and spend considerable time in practice and rehearsal. Performances often require travel. Because many musicians find only part-time work or experience unemployment between engagements, they often supplement their income with other types of jobs. Employment Musicians held about 229,000 jobs in 1988. Many were between engagements, so that the total number of people employed as musicians during the course of the year might have been greater. Many work in cities in which entertainment and recording activities are concentrated, such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Nash ville, Miami, and New Orleans. Classical musicians may perform with one of over 1,600 professional orchestras in the United States. Musicians also work in opera, musical comedy, and ballet productions. Many are organists who play in churches and synagogues. Some play in small chamber music groups like quartets or trios. Musicians also perform in clubs and restaurants, and for weddings and other events. Well-known musicians and groups give their own concerts, appear on “live” radio and television, make recordings, or go on concert tours. The Armed Forces, too, offer careers in their musical organizations. (D.O.T. 152 except .021-010) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many people who become professional musicians begin studying an instrument at an early age. They may gain valuable experience playing in a school or community band or orchestra or in a “combo” with a group of friends. Singers usually start training when their voices mature. Participation in school musicals or in a choir often provides good early training. Musicians need extensive and prolonged training to acquire the necessary skill, knowledge, and ability to interpret music. This training may be obtained through private study with an accomplished musician, in a college or university music program, in a music conservatory, or through practice with a group. For study in Nature of the Work Rock, gospel, classical, blues, and jazz are just a few categories of music in which professional musicians may specialize. They may play musical instruments, sing, write musical compositions, or conduct instrumental or vocal performances. Musicians may perform alone or as part of a group on stage, radio, or in TV or movie productions. Instrumental musicians play a musical instrument in an orchestra, band, rock group, or jazz “combo.” Classical musicians play string, brass, woodwind, or percussion instruments. Popular music perform ers usually play the trumpet, trombone, clarinet, flute, saxophone, organ, one of the “rhythm” instruments—the piano, string bass, drums, and guitar—or one of the many electronic synthesizers. Singers interpret music using their knowledge of voice production, melody, and harmony. They sing character parts or perform in their own individual styles. Singers are classified according to their voice range—soprano, contralto, tenor, baritone, or bass—or by the type of music they sing, such as opera, rock, folk, or country and western. Composers create original music such as symphonies, operas, sona Musicians spend considerable time in practice and rehearsal. Information about the related field of dance therapy, along with a list of schools that offer degrees in the field, is available from: ••-American Dance Therapy Association, Suite 108, 2000 Century Plaza, Columbia, MD 21044. Musicians https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 186 Occupational Outlook Handbook an institution, an audition frequently is necessary. Formal courses include musical theory, music interpretation, composition, conduct ing, and instrumental and voice instruction. Composers, conductors, and arrangers need advanced training in these subjects. Many colleges, universities, and music conservatories grant bache lor’s or higher degrees in music. Many also grant degrees in music education to qualify graduates for a State certificate to teach music in an elementary or secondary school. Those who perform popular music must have an understanding of and feeling for that style of music, but classical training may expand their employment opportunities. Although voice training is an asset for singers of popular music, many with untrained voices have successful careers. As a rule, musicians take lessons with private teachers when young, and seize every opportunity to make amateur or professional appearances. Young persons who consider careers in music should have musical talent, versatility, creative ability, and poise and stage presence to face large audiences. Since quality performance requires constant study and practice, self-discipline is vital. Moreover, musicians who play concert and nightclub engagements must have physical stamina be cause frequent travel and night performances are required. They must also be prepared to face the anxiety of intermittent employment and rejections when auditioning for work. Advancement for musicians generally means becomming better known and performing with better known bands and orchestras. Many musicians rely on agents or managers to find them performing engage ments, negotiate contracts, and plan their careers. Job Outlook Employment of musicians is expected to grow more slowly than the average through the year 2000, reflecting in part the increasing use of synthesizers instead of large bands and orchestras. In addition, a growing number of small clubs and dining establishments are hiring smaller bands than they have in the past. Despite slower than average growth in demand, thousands of job openings will occur as musicians retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. Nevertheless, jobseekers will face keen competition because many talented people wish to perform and there are few formal barriers to entry. Earnings Earnings often depend on a performer’s professional reputation as well as on geographic location—and on the number of hours worked. According to the American Symphony Orchestra League, minimum salaries in the 21 orchestras with the largest budgets ranged from $685 to $1,065 per week during the 1988-89 season. The season of these top orchestras ranged from 47 to 52 weeks, with an average of 51 weeks. In the 26 orchestras with the second largest budgets, the minimum salaries were between $469 and $960 per week, and the seasons lasted 29 to 52 weeks, with an average of 41 weeks. The majority of orchestras, however, offered salaries that were much lower and had seasons of shorter duration than those with high levels of funding. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis In 1989, musicians employed in motion picture or television record ing and those employed by recording companies were paid a minimum of about $167 and $220, respectively, for a 3-hour session. Although a few opera soloists and popular singers earned thousands of dollars per performance, the minimum wage rate for a principal singer on network or syndicated television was $536 for a 1 -hour show in 1988. Musicians employed by some symphony orchestras work under master wage agreements, which guarantee a season’s work up to 52 weeks. Many other musicians may face relatively long periods of unemployment between jobs. Even when employed, however, many work part time. Thus, their earnings generally are lower than those in many other occupations. Moreover, since they may not work steadily for one employer, some performers cannot qualify for unemployment compensation, and few have either sick leave or vacations with pay. For these reasons, many musicians give private lessons or take jobs unrelated to music to supplement their earnings as performers. Many musicians belong to a branch of the American Federation of Musicians. Professional singers usually belong to a branch of the Associated Actors and Artists of America. Related Occupations There are many music-related occupations. These include librettists, songwriters, arrangers, and music therapists. A large number of music teachers work in elementary and secondary schools, music conserva tories, and colleges and universities, or are self-employed. Many who teach music also perform. A technical knowledge of musical instruments is required by instru ment repairers, tuners, and copyists. In addition, there are a number of occupations in the business side of music such as booking agents, concert managers, and music store owners and managers; salespersons of records, sheet music, and musical instruments; and music publish ers. Others whose work involves music are disc jockeys, music critics, sound and audio technicians, music librarians, and radio and TV announcers. Sources of Additional Information For answers to specific questions about wages, hours of work, and working conditions for professional musicians, contact: •-American Federation of Musicians, 1501 Broadway, New York, NY 10036. The requirements for professional certification of organists and choirmasters are available from: •-American Guild of Organists, 475 Riverside Dr., Suite 1260, New York, NY 10015. For programs in music teacher education or a brochure entitled Careers in Music, contact: •-National Association of Schools of Music, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Reston, VA 22091. Information about careers in orchestra management is available from: ••American Symphony Orchestra League, 777 Nth St. NW., Suite 500, Washington, DC 20005. Technicians and Related Support Occupations Health Technologists and Technicians Clinical Laboratory Technologists and Technicians (D.O.T. 078.121-010, .161-010, .221-010, .261-010 and -014, .281-010, .361-014 and -030, .381-010 and -014, and .687-010) Nature of the Work Because changes in body fluids, tissues, and cells are often a sign that something is wrong, clinical laboratory testing plays a crucial role in the detection, diagnosis, and treatment of disease. Physicians order laboratory work for other reasons as well. Test results may be used to establish values against which future measurements can be compared; to monitor treatment, as with tests for drug levels in the blood that can indicate whether a patient is adhering or responding to a prescribed drug regimen; to reassure patients that a disease is absent or under control; or to assess the status of a patient’s health, as with cholesterol measurements. Although physicians depend heavily on laboratory results, they do not ordinarily perform the tests themselves. That is the job of clinical laboratory personnel. Many clinical laboratories are highly automated, and job duties reflect this. Using computerized instruments that per form a number of tests simultaneously, as well as microscopes, cell counters, and other kinds of sophisticated laboratory equipment, these workers perform tests, interpret the results, and relay them to the patient’s physician. Some clinical laboratory workers run routine tests, while others perform complex analyses. The types of tests performed and the amount of responsibility these workers assume depend largely on the amount of educational preparation and experience they possess. This section of the Handbook discusses the work of two levels of laboratory personnel; Technologists and technicians. Medical technologists generally have attained 4 years of postsecond ary training with a major in one of the life sciences, or have a combina tion of formal training and work experience. They perform complicated chemical, biological, hematological, immunologic, microscopic, and bacteriological tests. These may include chemical tests to determine blood glucose or cholesterol levels, for example, or examinations of tissue to detect the presence of infections or diseases. Technologists microscopically examine blood, tissue, and other body substances; make cultures of body fluid or tissue samples to determine the presence of bacteria, fungi, parasites, or other micro-organisms; and analyze samples for chemical content or reaction. They also type and cross match blood samples for transfusions. The exact procedure used depends on the test being performed. Many blood chemistry tests, for example, are highly automated. The technologist or technician calibrates an instrument known as a chemical analyzer, loads it with the specimens to be tested, selects the appro priate test code, and monitors the instrument to make sure it does not malfunction. Once the results are ready, the technologist verifies them for accuracy and sends them out or reports them to the attending physician. If a test requires the identification of cell types, such as in leukemia, the procedures are very different. In addition to identifying the cells on a stained blood film or from bone marrow, special stains may be required, cell markers performed, and chromosome studies completed. Technologists in small laboratories perform many types of tests, while those in specialty laboratories or large laboratories generally specialize. Technologists who prepare specimens and analyze the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis chemical and hormonal contents of body fluids are clinical chemistry technologists. Those who examine and identify bacteria and other micro-organisms are microbiology technologists. Other specialty groups include histology technicians, who cut and stain tissue speci mens for microscopic examination by pathologists; phlebotomists and blood bank technologists, who collect, type, and prepare blood and its components for transfusions; and immunology technologists, who examine elements and responses of the human immune system to foreign bodies. An important specialty in the field of medical technology is cytotechnology. Cytotechnologists, who receive their training in specialized programs, prepare slides of body cells and microscopically examine these cells for abnormalities. Any abnormality in the cell may signal the beginning of a malignant growth. Early detection of such cancers may mean the difference between life and death for the patient. Most medical technologists perform laboratory tests for physicians who provide patient care. However, some technologists teach, conduct research, develop laboratory techniques, or manage and administer clinical laboratories. Others work as independent consultants, advising physicians on how to set up and operate office laboratories. Still others engage in product development, quality assurance, and sales for manufacturers of pharmaceuticals, reagents, and equipment. Medical laboratory technicians generally have an associate degree from a community or junior college, or a diploma or certificate from a vocational or technical school. They are midlevel laboratory workers who function under the supervision of a medical technologist or labora tory supervisor. They perform a wide range of routine tests and labora tory procedures. Technicians may prepare specimens and operate auto matic analyzers, for example, or they may perform manual tests following detailed instructions. Like technologists, they may work in several different areas of the clinical laboratory or specialize in just one. Working Conditions Hours and other working conditions vary according to the size and type of employment setting. In large hospitals or in commercial labora tories that operate continuously, personnel are usually hired specifi cally for the day, evening, or night shift. Weekend or holiday work may be required since these laboratories operate 365 days a year. Some smaller laboratories also operate 24 hours a day. Laboratory personnel in small facilities are likely to work on rotating shifts rather than on a regular shift, however. That is, they may work the evening or weekend shift one week, and the day shift the following week. In some facilities, laboratory personnel are required to be on call (available in case of emergency) several nights a week or on weekends. Clinical laboratory personnel are trained to work with infectious specimens. It is of the utmost importance that specimens be handled properly to ensure that neither staff nor other test specimens become contaminated by disease-causing organisms. When proper methods of control and sterilization are followed, few hazards of infection exist. Laboratories generally are well lighted and clean. The specimens, solutions, and reagents used in the laboratory sometimes produce odors. Laboratory workers may spend a great deal of time on their feet. The work can create emotional as well as physical stress, inasmuch as treatment options depend on quick and accurate analysis of laboratory specimens. Employment Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians held about 242,000 jobs in 1988. About 3 out of 5 worked in hospitals. Others worked in 187 188 Occupational Outlook Handbook independent laboratories, physicians’ offices, clinics, health mainte nance organizations, public health agencies, pharmaceutical firms, and research institutions. About 1 laboratory worker in 6 holds a part-time job. In 1988, Veterans Administration hospitals and laboratories em ployed about 4,000 medical technologists and about 2,000 medical laboratory technicians. Others employed by the Federal Government worked for the U.S. Public Health Service. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The usual requirement for an entry level position as a medical technolo gist is a bachelor’s degree with a major in medical technology or in one of the life sciences. It is also possible to qualify through on-thejob experience, specialized training, or a combination of these. Bachelor’s degree programs in medical technology include substan tial course work in chemistry, biological sciences, microbiology, and mathematics, with the final component of course work devoted to acquiring the knowledge and skills used in the clinical laboratory. In addition to basic science, many programs offer or require course work in management, business, and computer applications. Programs in medical technology are offered by colleges and univer sities as well as by hospitals. Hospital programs generally arc affiliated with colleges or universities and lead to a bachelor’s degree, although a few hospital programs require a bachelor’s degree for entry. Many universities offer advanced degrees in medical technology and related clinical laboratory sciences for technologists who plan to specialize in a certain area of laboratory work or in teaching, administration, or research. t Medical laboratory technicians acquire their training in a variety of places, including community and junior colleges, hospitals, and vocational and technical schools. Many programs last 2 years and lead to an associate degree. Others are shorter and lead to a certificate in medical laboratory technology. Some medical laboratory technicians are trained in the Armed Forces. Persons interested in a clinical laboratory career should be careful about selecting an educational program. Prospective employers—hos pitals and independent laboratories—may have preferences as to pro gram accreditation. (Accreditation indicates that an educational pro gram meets established standards.) Educational programs should be able to provide information about the kinds of jobs obtained by gradu ates, educational costs, the length of time the educational program has been in operation, instructional facilities, and faculty qualifications. Nationally recognized accrediting agencies in the allied health field include the Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation (CAHEA) in cooperation with the National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sciences (NAACLS), and the Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools (ABHES). CAHEA accredits programs that provide education for 26 allied health occupations including medi cal technologists, cytotechnologists, histologic technicians, specialists in blood bank technology, and medical laboratory technicians. ABHES accredits training programs for medical laboratory technicians and medical assistants. Licensure and certification are well established in the health field as methods of assuring the skill and competence of personnel. Licensure refers to the process by which a government agency authorizes individ uals to engage in a given occupation and use a particular job title. Some States require laboratory personnel to be licensed or registered. More information on the subject is available from State departments of health, boards of occupational licensing, or occupational information coordinating committees. Certification is a voluntary process by which a nongovernmental organization such as a professional society or certifying agency grants recognition to an individual whose professional competence meets prescribed standards. Widely accepted by employers in the health industry, certification is a prerequisite for some jobs and often is necessary for career advancement. Agencies that certify medical labo ratory technologists and technicians include the Board of Registry of the American Society of Clinical Pathologists in conjunction with the American Association of Blood Banks, the American Medical https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Technologists, the National Certification Agency for Medical Labora tory Personnel, and the Credentialing Commission of the International Society for Clinical Laboratory Technology. These agencies have different requirements for certification and different organizational sponsors. Accuracy, dependability, analytical judgment, and the ability to work under pressure are important personal characteristics for clinical laboratory personnel. Close attention to detail is essential because small differences or changes in test substances or numerical readouts can be critically important for patient care. Manual dexterity and normal color vision are highly desirable. With the widespread use of automated laboratory equipment, mechanical, electronic, and com puter skills are gaining in importance. In addition, technologists in particular are expected to be good at problem solving and to have strong interpersonal and communications skills. Technologists may advance to supervisory positions in certain areas of laboratory work and, after several years’ experience, to positions such as chief medical technologist or laboratory manager in a large hospital. Manufacturers of home diagnostic testing kits and laboratory equipment and supplies seek experienced technologists to assist in product development or to work in marketing and sales. Manufacturers value the knowledge and hands-on experience that medical technolo gists bring to the firm, and the shift out of the laboratory to product sales and development offers excellent opportunities for career ad vancement. Graduate education in one of the biological sciences, chemistry, management, or education usually speeds advancement. Technicians can advance to positions as technologists through addi tional education and experience. Job Outlook Employment of clinical laboratory workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 because of the increased volume of testing. Continued expansion of the clinical laboratory field is foreseen for three fundamental reasons. First is the increase in disease and disability that will accompany rapid growth of the middle-aged and older population. Second is the probability of new, more powerful diagnostic tests. Advances in biotechnology have already changed testing methods through the use of monoclonal antibodies and other advanced technologies that permit rapid, simple, and accurate testing. As further advances occur, they are likely to spur additional testing. And lastly, research Accuracy, dependability, and analytical judgment are essential. Technicians and Related Support Occupations laboratories that work to find the cause, treatment, and cure for AIDS are expanding dramatically in response to increased funding from public and private sources. Employment would grow even faster were it not for advances in laboratory automation that make it possible for fewer people to perform more tests. Research and development efforts are targeted at simplifying routine testing procedures so that nonlaboratory personnel—physicians and patients in particular—can perform some of the basic tests that currently must be sent to a clinical laboratory for analysis. Traditionally, most clinical testing has been done in hospitals. This is changing, however. Restructuring of the health services industry has led to a shift in testing from hospitals to physicians’ offices and commercial laboratories. As hospitals examine the cost-effectiveness of their laboratory operations, they are becoming more selective about the tests they perform in-house. Routine laboratory work is likely to be retained, while unusual, rarely performed tests may be sent for processing to a commercial laboratory. At the same time, some hospi tals arc expanding the scope of their operations through aggressive marketing, and others are setting up regional centers much like com mercial laboratories. Hospital jobs are expected to provide only about one-fifth of the new jobs for clinical laboratory personnel. Many additional openings will occur in the hospital sector, however, due to replacement needs. Turnover is an important source of openings in this occupation since career advancement often means leaving a job as a technologist in order to become a sales representative, consultant, or educator. The increased volume of testing in physicians’ offices is likely to lead to more jobs for clinical laboratory personnel. Some medical practices hire full-time technologists or technicians, while others em ploy part-time personnel to run tests at specific times of the day. Demand for clinical laboratory personnel, though strong, is not ex pected to keep pace with the increased volume of tests performed in physicians’ offices, however. In the absence of regulatory changes, small medical practices will probably continue to have in-house labora tory work done by nurses or medical assistants, thereby avoiding the expense of hiring laboratory personnel. Employers’ preferences for the different levels of clinical laboratory personnel vary according to the size of the laboratory and the type of tests conducted. In small facilities where there is more specialized work and greater use of methods requiring a technologist’s expertise, employers tend to favor technologists. Further sustaining the demand for technologists is the complexity of much clinical testing and the need for in-depth knowledge and independent judgment to verify results and advise physicians. Large, highly automated hospital and commercial laboratories, on the other hand, employ more technicians to draw the samples and perform tests using this equipment. Like other areas of health care, the clinical laboratory is undergoing change on a scale that makes it difficult to project future trends. Demand for both technologists and technicians is expected to remain strong, reflecting the vital role these individuals perform. Job prospects may vary, however, depending on the employment setting, the region of the country, and, in some cases, the specialty. Prospects for cytotechnologists, for example, are expected to be excellent. Cytotechnologists are in great demand at present, and reports of a shortage are widespread. Trends in the incidence of cancer and other malignancies will continue to be the principal factor spurring demand for these workers, who perform tests that are used in the detection of cancers. The number of cytotechnology students is on the decline. Unless the number of people entering the field rises sharply, supply is not likely to match demand for cytotechnologists in the years ahead. Job prospects are bright for other laboratory personnel as well. Enrollments in clinical laboratory training programs have leveled off, and little if any increase in the number of students is expected through 2000. A smaller supply of newly prepared laboratory personnel should mean a highly favorable outlook for jobseekers, provided the number of qualified workers seeking to reenter the field remains about the same. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 189 Earnings Salaries of clinical laboratory personnel vary depending on the em ployer and geographic location. In general, those in large cities receive the highest salaries. Starting salaries for medical technologists employed by hospitals, medical schools, and medical centers averaged about $20,800 a year in 1988, according to a survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Beginning salaries for cytotechnologists averaged about $20,000; for histology technicians, about $16,800; and for medical laboratory technicians, about $16,800. According to the same survey, experienced medical technologists working in hospitals, medi cal schools, and medical centers averaged about $29,000 a year in 1988; cytotechnologists, about $26,000; histology technicians, about $21,800; and medical laboratory technicians, about $22,500. Medical technologists in the Federal Government earned an average of $26,877 a year in 1988. The average salaries for technicians were $19,544 a year in 1988. Related Occupations Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians perform a wide vari ety of tests to help physicians diagnose and treat disease. Their princi pal activity is the analysis and identification of substances. Other workers who perform laboratory tests include biology specimen techni cians, criminologists, food testers, sample testers, veterinary labora tory technicians, and water purification chemists. Sources of Additional Information Career information is available from: w-American Society of Clinical Pathologists, Board of Registry, P.O. Box 12270, Chicago, IL 60612. (•-American Society for Medical Technology, 2021 L St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. ••-American Medical Technologists, 710 Higgins Rd., Park Ridge, IL 60068. ••-American Association of Blood Banks, Suite 600, 1117N. 19th St., Arling ton, VA 22209. ••-American Association for Clinical Chemistry, 2029 K St. NW., 7th Floor, Washington, DC 20006. ••-American Society of Cytology, 1015 Chestnut St., Suite 1518, Philadelphia, PA 19107. ••-Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools, Oak Manor Office, 29089 U.S. 20 West, Elkhart, IN 46514. ••-National Certification Agency for Medical Laboratory Personnel, 1101 Con necticut Ave. NW., Suite 700, Washington, DC 20036. (•-International Society for Clinical Laboratory Technology, 818 Olive St., Suite 918, St. Louis, MO 63101. For a list of CAHEA-accredited educational programs for clinical laboratory personnel, write: ••-Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation, 535 N. Dearborn St., Chicago, IL 60610. For a list of training programs for medical laboratory technicians accredited by the Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools, write: «-Secretary-ABHES, 29089 U.S. 20 West, Elkhart, IN 46514. For information about employment opportunities in a Veterans Ad ministration medical center, contact the personnel office of that center. Information about employment opportunities with the National Insti tutes of Health is available from the Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892. Dental Hygienists (D.O.T. 078.361-010) Nature of the Work Dental hygienists provide preventive dental care and encourage pa tients to develop good oral hygiene skills. In addition to carrying out clinical responsibilities such as cleaning and scaling teeth, hygienists help patients develop and maintain good oral health by explaining the 190 Occupational Outlook Handbook relationship between diet or smoking and oral health, for example, and showing patients how to select toothbrushes and use floss threaders. Although most hygienists work with individual patients, some develop and promote community dental health programs. Depending on legal requirements in the State where they work, dental hygienists provide a wide range of services. They evaluate the patient’s dental health; remove calculus, stain, and plaque from above and below the gumline; apply caries-preventive agents such as fluorides and pit and fissure sealants; instruct patients on plaque control; expose and develop dental X-rays; place temporary fillings and periodontal dressings; remove sutures; and polish and recontour amalgam restora tions. In some States, hygienists who have the requisite education provide additional services—administering local anesthetics and nitrous oxide/ oxygen analgesia, placing and carving filling materials, and providing additional periodontal services. The nature of the work may vary by practice setting. In schools, for example, hygienists may assist the dentist in examining children’s teeth to determine the dental treatment required. Hygienists having advanced training may teach or conduct research. Working Conditions Flexible scheduling is a distinctive feature of this job; hygienists are usually able to arrange their schedules to meet their personal needs. Full-time, part-time, evening, and weekend work is widely available. Dentists frequently hire hygienists to work only 2 or 3 days a week, so hygienists may hold jobs in more than one dental office. Dental hygienists work in clean, well-lighted offices. Important health safeguards include regular medical checkups, strict adherence to proper radiologic procedures, compliance with recommended aseptic technique, and utilization of appropriate protective devices when ad ministering nitrous oxide/oxygen analgesia. The occupation is one of several covered by the Consumer-Patient Radiation Health and Safety Act of 1981, which encourages the States to adopt uniform standards for the training and certification of individuals who perform medical and dental radiologic procedures. Employment Dental hygienists held about 91,000 jobs in 1988. Because multiple jobholding is common in this field, the number of jobs greatly exceeds the number of hygienists. k Dental hygienists clean patients’ teeth, take X-rays, and teach proper oral hygiene techniques. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most dental hygienists work in private dental offices. Other places of employment include public health agencies, school systems, business firms, hospitals, clinics, and schools of dental hygiene. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Dental hygienists must be licensed by the State in which they plan to practice. To qualify for State licensure, a candidate must graduate from an accredited dental hygiene school and pass a written examination and a clinical examination. The American Dental Association Joint Commission on National Dental Examinations administers a written examination that is accepted for licensure by 49 States and the District of Columbia. In addition, examinations on legal aspects of dental hygiene practice are required by most States. States participating in regional board testing reciprocate by accepting regional board exami nation results from other States within their region. In 1988, 197 programs in dental hygiene in the United States were accredited by the Commission on Dental Accreditation. Although some programs lead to a bachelor’s degree, most grant an associate degree. A few institutions offer both types of programs. Several univer sities offer master’s degree programs in dental hygiene. Completion of an associate degree program is sufficient for the dental hygienist who wants to practice in a private dental office. A bachelor’s or master’s degree is usually required for positions that involve research, teaching, or clinical practice in public or school health programs. Dental hygienists with a master’s degree are qualified for teaching or administrative positions in dental hygiene educational programs. The minimum requirement for admission to a school of dental hygiene varies from school to school. However, most dental hygiene programs prefer applicants who have completed at least 1 year of college, and several programs require applicants to have completed 2 years. The curriculum in a dental hygiene program consists of courses in the basic sciences, dental sciences, clinical sciences, and liberal arts. These schools offer laboratory, clinical, and classroom instruction in subjects such as anatomy, physiology, chemistry, pharmacology, nutrition, radiography, histology (the study of tissue structure), periodontology (the study of gum diseases), pathology, dental materials, clinical dental hygiene, and social and behavioral sciences. People who want to become dental hygienists should enjoy working with others. The ability to put patients at ease is helpful, for patients often are under stress. Personal neatness, cleanliness, and good health are important qualities. Dental hygienists must have manual dexterity because they use various dental instruments with little room for error within a patient’s mouth. Among high school courses recommended for aspiring dental hygienists are biology, health, chemistry, psychol ogy, speech, and mathematics. Job Outlook Employment of dental hygienists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 in response to increasing demand for dental care. Demand will be stimulated by population growth, greater retention of natural teeth by middle-aged and elderly persons, growing public awareness of the importance of oral health, rising real incomes, and availability of dental insurance. Additional job openings will result from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Job prospects for dental hygienists are affected by practice patterns in dentistry as well as by the level of demand for dental care. At present, the use of dental hygienists is prevalent in some places, but not in others. This is changing as greater numbers of recent dental school graduates set up practice. New dentists are disposed to hire hygienists because they are taught in dental school how to make effective use of dental hygiene services. The trend toward group practice and retail dentistry—practice styles that stress appropriate utilization of dental auxiliaries—should also contribute to job growth for hygienists. Opportunities for graduates of accredited dental hygiene programs should be excellent in the years ahead. Enrollments in dental hygiene Technicians and Related Support Occupations programs have declined for the past decade, reducing the number of new graduates entering the field each year. The long-term enrollment trend is difficult to predict, but a marked upturn seems unlikely before the late 1990’s. Qualified hygienists will be in strong demand and should have little trouble finding or keeping a job. Earnings Earnings of dental hygienists are affected by geographic location, employment setting, and the education and experience of the individ ual. Dental hygienists who work in private dental offices may be paid on an hourly, daily, salary, or commission basis. According to a survey conducted for the American Dental Hygien ists’ Association (ADHA), half of all hygienists earned between $15,000 and $25,000 a year in 1986. Another ADHA survey showed average hourly pay of $14.16 in 1986. Fringe benefits vary substantially by practice setting, and may be contingent upon full-time employment. Dental hygienists who work for school systems, public health agencies, the Federal Government, or State agencies have the same benefits as other workers in these organizations. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations supporting health practitioners in an office setting include dental assistants, ophthalmic medical assistants, podiatric assistants, office nurses, medical assistants, and physician assistants. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career in dental hygiene and the educational requirements to enter this occupation, contact: •-Division of Professional Development, American Dental Hygienists’ Associ ation, 444 N. Michigan Ave., Suite 3400, Chicago, IL 60611. For information about accredited programs and educational require ments, contact: •-Commission on Dental Accreditation, American Dental Association, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Suite 1814, Chicago, IL 60611. The State Board of Dental Examiners in each State, or the American Association of Dental Examiners, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, IL 60611, can supply information on licensing requirements. 191 The dispensing optician then prepares a work order that gives the ophthalmic laboratory information needed to grind and insert lenses into a frame. The work order includes lens prescriptions and informa tion on lens size, material, color, and style. Some dispensing opticians do their own laboratory work, preparing the lenses themselves. After the glasses are made, the dispensing optician checks the power and surface quality of the lenses with special instruments, then adjusts the frame to the contours of the customer’s face and head so that it fits properly and comfortably. Adjustments are made with handtools, such as optical pliers, files, and screwdrivers. In fitting contact lenses, dispensing opticians measure the corneas of customers’ eyes, and then prepare work orders specifying the pre scription and lens size. Fitting contact lenses requires considerably more skill, care, and patience than fitting eyeglasses. Individuals purchasing their first set of contacts may need to visit the dispensing optician several times so that the optician can be sure the customer knows how to insert, remove, and care for the contacts. To be sure that the fit is correct, the dispensing optician observes the patient’s eyes, corneas, lids, and contact lenses with special instruments and microscopes. The dispensing optician refers customers to their ophthal mologist or optometrist if the fit seems improper. While dispensing opticians may make minor adjustments, major changes must be done in a prescription laboratory. The majority of dispensing opticians fit eyeglasses. A smaller num ber specialize in fitting contacts or cosmetic shells to cover blemished eyes. Working Conditions Dispensing opticians work indoors in pleasant surroundings that are well lighted and well ventilated. They may work in small shops where customers are served one at a time, or in large, bustling chain stores where several dispensing opticians are required to serve a number of customers at once. Because they sell and service eye lenses, opticians deal with customers most of the time. They spend much of their time on their feet. If they work in a laboratory where eyeglasses are made, they need to take precautions to guard against the hazards associated with cutting glass and handling various chemical solutions and ma chines with moving parts. Dispensing opticians generally work a 40-hour week, although longer hours are not uncommon. Some, especially those employed in Dispensing Opticians (D.O.T. 299.474-010) Nature of Work Over half the people in the United States wear glasses or contact lenses. Most require the services of dispensing opticians, who fit eyeglasses and sometimes fit contact lenses as well. After a checkup by an ophthalmologist or an optometrist, people needing corrective lenses ordinarily visit a dispensing optician to have the prescription filled. Optometrists generally fill prescriptions in house. They may do their own dispensing, or employ an optician to do it for them. (The work of optometrists is described in a statement elsewhere in the Handbook. See the statement on physicians for infor mation about ophthalmologists.) Dispensing opticians order the necessary ophthalmic laboratory work, help the customer select appropriate frames, and adjust the finished eyeglasses. In some States, they fit contact lenses under the supervision of an optometrist or ophthalmologist. During the customer’s visit, the dispensing optician measures the distance between the centers of the pupils of the eyes to determine where lenses should be placed in relation to them. The dispensing optician may also help the customer select from the various styles and colors of eyeglass frames. When choosing frames, important considerations include the customer’s occupation, habits, hairstyle, facial features, and the weight and thickness of the corrective lenses. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis & m MP In addition to fitting patients with glasses, some opticians grind and polish lenses. 192 Occupational Outlook Handbook retail shops in large shopping centers, work in the evenings and on Saturdays. Employment Dispensing opticians held about 49,000 jobs in 1988. Over half of all dispensing opticians work for ophthalmologists or optometrists who sell glasses directly to patients. Nearly as many work in optical shops or for department stores, drug stores, and other retail outlets, including the so-called “superoptical stores.” Firms in this rapidly growing segment of the retail trade industry cater to consumers’ desire for fast and convenient service by offering one-stop shopping: Customers may have their eyes examined, choose frames, and have glasses made on the spot. These stores employ not only dispensing opticians, but optometrists and ophthalmic laboratory personnel as well. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are several ways of becoming a dispensing optician, but all involve a substantial amount of on-the-job training. Hiring require ments for trainees vary from employer to employer. Some firms hire individuals with no background in opticianry and provide all the necessary training on the job; others seek trainees who are already familiar with the trade, possibly through having taken courses in opticianry or completing a formal training program. Ophthalmic labo ratory technicians are especially good candidates for trainee positions; many opticians have started out in an optical laboratory and have worked their way up. Solid math and science skills are important for individuals interested in becoming a dispensing optician. Knowledge of physics, algebra, geometry, and mechanical drawing is particularly valuable since train ing usually includes instruction in optical mathematics, optical phys ics, and the use of precision measuring instruments and other machin ery and tools. Because dispensing opticians deal directly with the public, they should have good social skills such as tact, a pleasant personality, and communication skills. In the 22 States that license dispensing opticians, individuals who are trained on the job must register with the State as apprentices and train from 2 to 5 years. Some form of apprenticeship or formal traineeship is offered in most of the other 28 States as well. Large chain stores, for example, generally offer structured apprenticeship training programs, while small companies provide on-the-job training of a more informal nature. In addition to receiving technical training, apprentices are taught the basics of office management and sales and, under the supervision of an experienced optician, may work directly with patients in fitting eyeglasses and contact lenses. In States requiring licensure, informa tion about apprenticeships is available from the State agency responsi ble for occupational licensing. In other States, information is available from the Division of Apprenticeship Training of the State Department of Labor. Formal training in opticianry is offered in community colleges and a few colleges and universities. In 1988, there were 40 collegiate programs. Of these, 15 were accredited by the Commission on Opti cianry Accreditation and awarded 2-year associate degrees in ophthal mic dispensing. Some States that license dispensing opticians allow program graduates to take the licensure exam immediately upon gradu ation, thereby waiving the 2- to 5-year apprenticeship that ordinarily precedes the exam. Other States shorten the apprenticeship period, requiring no more than a few months to a year before graduates of formal training programs are eligible to take the licensure exam. Some aspiring dispensing opticians get their start as optical labora tory workers. (See the statement on ophthalmic laboratory technicians elsewhere in the Handbook.) They generally leam laboratory skills in vocational-technical institutes, trade schools, or programs offered by manufacturers. Such programs usually last from a few weeks to a year and provide the basic technical skills needed by good all-round dispensing opticians. Just as with apprenticeship training, the advan tage of starting out as an optical lab worker is that it allows individuals to earn money as they learn. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Credentials for dispensing opticians are gained through voluntary certification or registration. In most States that require a license to dispense eyeglasses, continuing education is necessary for relicensure. For specific information about licensing procedures, consult the State board of occupational licensing. Certification is offered by the American Board of Opticianry and by the National Contact Lens Examiners. Continuing education is required to maintain certification. Many experienced dispensing opticians go into business for them selves. Others become managers of retail optical stores or sales repre sentatives for wholesalers or manufacturers of eyeglasses or lenses. Job Outlook Employment in this occupation is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 in response to rising demand for corrective lenses, a result of demographic trends. Not only is the population growing, but the number of middle-aged and aged persons (those 75 years and over) is projected to increase sharply over the next decade. Middle age is a time when many persons begin using corrective lenses for the first time, and aged persons require more vision care, on the whole, than others. Vision screening programs and other efforts to increase public awareness of eye care are likely to stimulate demand as well. Nowa days, less stigma is attached to wearing eyeglasses than in the past. Industrial safety precautions may require more safety goggles and glasses. Increased participation in sports may require some people to use special lenses and frames. Fashion, too, influences demand. The growing variety of frame styles and colors—as well as the increasing popularity of contact lenses—encourages people to buy more than one pair of corrective lenses. Finally, demand is expected to grow in response to products such as special lens treatments; photochromic lenses (glasses that become sunglasses in sunlight), now available in plastic as well as glass; tinted lenses; bifocal contact lenses; and extended wear contact lenses. This occupation is vulnerable to changes in the business cycle, with employment falling somewhat during downturns and rising during periods of economic recovery. As is generally the case, however, most openings will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who change occupations or stop working. Employment opportunities in opticianry should be excellent for entry level workers as well as for those with experience. Graduates of formal training programs will continue to be in great demand, and applicants with the requisite aptitude for math and science should have little difficulty securing positions as apprentices or trainees. Opportunities probably will be best in metropolitan areas. Not only are there more optical shops and chain stores in cities and suburban areas, but retail optical shops in small communities tend to be small establishments with few employees. Often, the owners themselves are dispensing opticians and handle all the optical dispensing without assistance. Earnings The earnings of dispensing opticians vary considerably; those who work in States that require licensure often earn the most. According to limited information, earnings of dispensing opticians averaged about $25,000 a year in 1988 and ranged from about $15,000 to $30,000. Related Occupations Other workers who deal with customers and perform delicate work include jewelers, ocularists, calibrators, ophthalmic laboratory techni cians, orthodontic technicians, prosthetics technicians, and watch re pairers. Sources of Additional Information For general information about this occupation, contact: ••-Opticians Association of America, 10341 Democracy Lane, P.O. Box 10110. Fairfax, VA 22030. Technicians and Related Support Occupations For a list of accredited training programs, contact: ••-Commission of Opticianry Accreditation, 10111 Martin Luther King, Jr., Hwy., Suite 110, Bowie, MD 20715. EEG Technologists (D.O.T. 078.362-022) Nature of the Work Electroencephalography is a procedure that measures the electrical activity of the brain. An instrument called an electroencephalograph records this activity and produces a written tracing of the brain’s electrical impulses. This record of brain waves, an electroencephalo gram (EEG), can be taken while patients are at rest or asleep, while they are subjected to stimuli such as loud sounds and blinking lights, or during periods of exaggerated breathing. The so-called “resting” EEG is a basic neurological diagnostic tool. Neurologists use electroencephalograms to help diagnose the extent of injury for patients suspected of having brain tumors, strokes, toxic/ metabolic disorders, or epilepsy; to measure the effects of infectious diseases on the brain; and to determine whether individuals with mental or behavioral problems have an organic impairment such as Alzhei mer’s disease. Surgeons use them to monitor the patient’s condition during major surgery. EEG’s are standard in intensive care units as well, since absence of electrical activity in the brain is a basis for 5 The resting EEG is a basic neurological diagnostic tool. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 193 determining that a patient is “clinically” dead, or is used to assess the prospects for recovery of patients in a coma. More sophisticated equipment is used for special EEG procedures, including ambulatory monitoring. Evoked potential studies, nerve conduction studies, sleep studies, and brain wave mapping are other neurodiagnostic procedures often conducted by the EEG technologist. Tests such as these improve the physician’s ability to detect the under lying reasons for a wide variety of troubling conditions. Ambulatory monitoring is used to check the activity of the brain over a 24-hour period. Sometimes, in cases where patients experience dizzy spells or sudden blackouts, brain waves may appear perfectly normal until the onset of symptoms. By monitoring such patients for an extended period of time, there is a better chance of detecting abnormal brain wave patterns. Evoked potential studies aid in the evaluation of the visual, auditory, and other sensory systems of the body, and in the diagnosis of chronic diseases like multiple sclerosis. Nerve conduction studies are used to evaluate muscle and nerve problems such as carpal tunnel syndrome. Sleep studies have proven valuable in the treatment of sleep disorders, impotence, and some cases of hypertension. Brain wave mapping involves the use of computer-generated images of brain function; it is simply an enhancement of the EEG, in which a colorcoded picture or “map” shows the intensity of brain waves in different areas of the brain. The people who operate electroencephalographs are called EEG technologists or technicians. The term “technologist” is generally used for workers who are registered or certified and “technician” for those who are not. With the introduction of additional tests and instruments that measure the electrical activity of the brain, new job titles are coming into use. Among the most common are electroneurodiagnostic technologist and neurophysiologic technologist. In some places, these workers are simply known as diagnostic technicians. It may take years, however, before another term replaces “EEG technologist” in standard usage. It is not just job titles that are changing with the development of new ways of monitoring and evaluating the functioning of the nervous system. Job duties and skill levels are changing as well. Proficiency in operating basic EEG equipment is becoming little more than the entry level skill for jobs in this field; additional training is necessary for personnel who perform special EEG procedures. Before EEG technologists produce electroencephalograms, they take a short medical history and help the patient relax. Then they apply electrodes to designated spots on the patient’s head and body and make sure that the instruments are working correctly. The technologist chooses the most appropriate combination of instrument controls and electrodes to produce the kind of record needed. Technologists must recognize and correct any artifacts that appear (an artifact is an electri cal or mechanical event that comes from somewhere other than the brain, such as eye movement or interference from electrical sources). Mechanical problems with the electroencephalograph are reported to the supervisor, so that the instrument can be repaired promptly. The first step in conducting a special procedures EEG is essentially the same as that for a resting EEG—attaching electrodes to the patient’s body. However, electrodes for a resting EEG are secured at various places on the scalp, whereas a special procedures EEG may require that electrodes be secured on the chest, arm, leg, or spinal column as well, to record activity from both the central and peripheral nervous systems. In the procedure known as ambulatory monitoring, activity of the heart as well as the brain may be monitored while the patient carries out normal activities over a 24-hour period. Once the monitoring time has elapsed, the technologist removes the small recorder fastened to the patient’s side and feeds the recorded information into a special machine which transforms the digital recordings into hard copy (paper) EEG tapes. The technologist reviews the tapes, a process which can take several hours, selecting sections for the physician to examine. In order to determine which sections merit attention from the physician, the technologist must be able to distinguish between normal and abnor mal brain wave patterns. Whereas ambulatory EEG’s measure general brain wave activity, 194 Occupational Outlook Handbook evoked potential testing uses a special machine to measure sensory and physical response to specific stimuli. After the electrodes have been attached properly, the technologist sets the instrument for the type and intensity of the stimulus. If there is no reaction, progressively stronger stimuli are applied until the patient reacts. Once there is a reaction, the sensation level is noted. Additional stimuli are applied until the technologist decides an adequate reading has been taken. The technologist may spend anywhere from 1 to 4 hours with the patient when an evoked potential test is being run. Increasingly, technologists are called upon to set up and monitor EEG’s and evoked potential tests in the operating room. Surgical monitoring requires that technologists be well versed in anesthesia and its effect on brain waves, so that they can alert the surgical team when readings from the EEG instrument suggest a change in the patient’s recording. The procedure known as nerve conduction is used to diagnose muscle and nerve problems. The technologist prepares the patient for the 1-hour exam by placing electrodes on the skin above a nerve and on the skin above the muscle. Then the technologist operates a machine that stimulates the nerve with an electrical current and records how long it takes the nerve impulse to reach the muscle. By comparing the patient’s muscle reaction reading to normal and abnormal charts, the technologist provides the physician with information that may lead to a diagnosis. Nerve conduction studies are often performed in conjunc tion with electromyographies (EMG ’ s); however, a physician performs the actual EMG since it involves needle insertion. Sleep studies and brain wave mapping are examples of other diag nostic procedures administered by specialized EEG personnel. Sleep studies require technologists to be competent in monitoring respiration and heart activity in addition to brain wave activity. Technologists must know the various stages of sleep, the average length of each stage, and the characteristic functioning of the neurologic and cardio pulmonary systems during each stage. When all the necessary readings have been taken, the technologist coordinates readings from the various organ systems, separating them according to the various stages of sleep, and relays them to the physician. Brain wave mapping requires the technologist to decide which sections of the EEG should be trans formed into color-coded pictures of brain wave frequency and inten sity, for examination by a physician. Technologists must know how to recognize changes in the patient’s neurologic, cardiac, and respiratory status. To react properly in an emergency, they must understand the kinds of medical emergencies that can occur while they are taking the EEG. For example, if a patient suffers an epileptic seizure in the EEG laboratory, the technologist must be prepared to take the proper action. Besides conducting EEG’s, technologists may have supervisory or administrative responsibilities. They may, for example, manage the EEG laboratory, arrange work schedules, keep records, schedule ap pointments, order supplies, and provide instruction in EEG techniques. In some hospitals, job duties are not confined to electroencephalog raphy. EEG technologists perform EKG’s and other kinds of proce dures as well. To acquire the requisite skills, technologists are “crosstrained” to handle several different machines. Working Conditions EEG technologists usually work in clean, well-lighted surroundings, and spend about half of their time on their feet. A lot of bending is necessary, as they may work with patients who are unruly or very ill and require assistance. A 5-day, 40-hour workweek with some overtime is normal, although some hospitals require EEG technologists to be “on call” (ready to report to work at a moment’s notice) after hours and on weekends and holidays. These employees generally work during the day, but those involved in sleep studies may work evenings and nights. Employment Electroencephalographic technologists held nearly 6,400 jobs in 1988. Most jobs are in hospitals, but other health care settings are gaining in importance. EEG technologists work in neurology laboratories, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis offices of neurologists and neurosurgeons, group medical practices, health maintenance organizations, urgent care centers and clinics, and psychiatric facilities. Most technologists work full time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement EEG technologists generally learn their skills on the job, although some complete formal training programs. Applicants for trainee posi tions in hospitals need a high school diploma. Often, EEG trainees transfer to the neurology department from other jobs in the hospital, such as laboratory aide or licensed practical nurse. Formal training is offered at the postsecondary level by hospitals, medical centers, community colleges, vocational-technical institutes, and colleges and universities. In 1988, the Joint Review Committee for the Accreditation of EEG Technology Training Programs had approved 15 formal programs. Programs usually last from 1 to 2 years and include laboratory experience as well as classroom instruction in neurology, anatomy, neuroanatomy, physiology, neurophysiology, clinical and internal medicine, psychiatry, and electronics and instru mentation. Graduates receive associate degrees or certificates. Credentials for EEG personnel are available through the American Board of Registration of Electroencephalographic Technologists, which awards the title “Registered EEG Technologist” to qualified applicants. This board also accredits technologists in the subspecialty of evoked potential as “Registered Evoked Potential Technologist.” Although not generally required for entry level jobs, registration indi cates professional competence, and usually is necessary for supervi sory or teaching jobs. Persons who want to enter this field should have manual dexterity, good vision, writing skills, an aptitude for working with electronic equipment, and the ability to work with patients as well as with other health personnel. High school students considering a career in this occupation should take courses in health, biology, human anatomy, and mathematics. EEG personnel in large hospitals can advance to chief EEG technolo gist and take on increased responsibilities in laboratory management and in teaching basic techniques to new personnel or students from EEG training programs. Chief EEG technologists generally are super vised by a physician—an electroencephalographer, neurologist, or neurosurgeon. Job Outlook Employment of EEG technologists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000, reflecting greater use of the EEG and related neurodiagnostic tests and the willingness of health insurers and others to pay for them. Nonetheless, most job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force entirely. Continued acceptance of the value of the EEG is expected to sustain demand for the workers who perform these tests. Moreover, further advances in clinical neurophysiology are a virtual certainty, and these are likely to spur demand by expanding the uses of neurodiagnostic testing. The rate at which this field expands will also be governed by the willingness of third-party payers to pay for neurological testing. EEG laboratories, which offer outpatient as well as inpatient testing, have become revenue centers for hospitals inasmuch as outpatient services are fully reimbursed at present. Some hospitals have expanded their EEG laboratories, adding space and hiring additional personnel. Non hospital providers have responded to incentives in the reimbursement system as well, expanding the range of EEG procedures they offer and creating more jobs for EEG technologists. Because job growth through the year 2000 is expected to be very' rapid in outpatient settings, including offices of neurologists, medical group practices, and health maintenance organizations, opportunities are likely to be especially favorable in those settings. Opportunities for individuals who have a background in EEG technology will be excellent. Hospitals and other employers prefer to hire individuals with some formal preparation. Technicians and Related Support Occupations Earnings Starting salaries of EEG technologists employed by hospitals, medical schools, and medical centers averaged $15,924 a year in 1988, accord ing to a survey by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Starting salaries for registered EEG technologists were higher. Salaries of experienced EEG technologists ranged as high as $27,360 a year in 1988. Positions such as EEG laboratory supervisor, special procedures instructor, or EEG training program director generally command higher salaries. EEG technologists in hospitals receive the same benefits as other hospital personnel, including paid vacations, sick leave, health insur ance, and pensions. Some institutions provide tuition assistance, uni forms, parking, child care, and other employee benefits. Related Occupations Related occupations in supervised health care activities are audiometrist, electrocardiograph technician, clinical laboratory technician, occupational therapy assistant, surgical technician, physical therapy aide, and psychiatric aide. Sources of Additional Information Local hospitals can supply information about employment opportu nities. For general information about a career in electroencephalography as well as a list of accredited training programs, contact: ••-Executive Office, American Society of Electroneurodiagnostic Technologists Inc., Sixth at Quint, Carroll, IA 51401. Information about specific accredited training programs is also avail able from: ••-Joint Review Committee for the Accreditation of EEG Technology Training Programs, 11526 Fifty-third St., North, Clearwater, FL 34620. Information on becoming a registered EEG technologist is available from: (•-American Board of Registration for Electroencephalgraphic Technologists, Califomia-Davis Medical Center, EEG Laboratory, Room 5203, Sacramento, CA 95817. EKG Technicians (D.O.T. 078.264-010 and 078.362-018) Nature of the Work EKG technicians operate a machine called an electrocardiograph, which records graphic tracings of heartbeats known as electrocardio grams (EKG’s, also called ECG’s). These tracings indicate the electri cal impulses transmitted by the heart muscle during and between heartbeats. Physicians order electrocardiograms to help diagnose heart disease, monitor the effect of drug therapy, and analyze changes in the condition of a patient’s heart over a period of time. The test is done before most kinds of surgery, including outpatient surgical procedures. Some physicians use electrocardiograms as a routine diagnostic procedure for persons who have reached a certain age. In many fields, electrocar diograms are required as part of preemployment physical examina tions. Since the equipment is mobile, EKG technicians can record electro cardiograms in a doctor’s office, in a hospital cardiology department, or at the patient’s bedside. After explaining the procedure to the patient, the technician attaches 10 electrodes to the chest, arms, and legs of the patient. Normally the technician applies a gel or cream between the electrodes and the patient’s skin to facilitate the passage of the electrical impulses. By manipulating switches on the electrocar diograph and positioning the electrodes across the chest, the technician obtains a recording of the heart’s electrical action. A stylus or inkpen records the tracings on graph paper. The test is usually performed while the patient is resting or while exercising. The technician must know the anatomy of the chest and heart to select the exact locations https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 195 for the chest electrodes. Electrodes placed in the wrong location result in an inaccurate reading. After the recording is completed, the technician prepares the electro cardiogram for analysis by a physician, usually a heart specialist. The most advanced EKG equipment employs a computer to analyze the tracing, and the technician may need to enter information into the console using a keyboard. Technicians must be able to recognize and correct any technical errors, such as crossed leads, incorrect lead placement, or electrical interference, that prevent an accurate reading. They also must call the doctor’s attention to any significant deviations from the average normally recorded by the technique used. Physicians then review the recordings and study these and other deviations iden tified. Some EKG technicians schedule appointments, type doctors’ inter pretations, maintain patients’ EKG files, and care for equipment. Experienced technicians may perform specialized EKG tests, in particular, ambulatory monitoring (also called Holter monitoring, after the physician who developed the equipment) and stress testing. When a Holter monitoring exam is ordered, the technician first places elec trodes on the patient’s chest and then attaches a portable EKG monitor the size of a tape recorder to the patient’s belt. The patient wears the monitor for 24-48 hours and pursues a normal routine. When the designated time has elapsed, the technician removes the electrodes and tape and places the tape into a machine known as a Holter scanner. The technician reads the tape for any electrical disturbances before sending the reading to the physician. When a treadmill stress test is necessary, the technician explains the procedure, connects the patient to an EKG monitor, and obtains a baseline reading and resting blood pressure. Then the technician puts the patient through the prescribed exercise, which involves walking on a treadmill whose speed is gradually increased. A physician or nurse is always present during this test in case of cardiac arrest. Cardiology is one of the most rapidly developing fields in medicine today, and new procedures for diagnosing and treating heart and circulatory problems are being introduced all the time. These have raised skill requirements and created new occupations in the field of cardiovascular and cardiopulmonary technology. EKG technicians perform relatively simple tasks and do not have the background to assist in more sophisticated cardiac procedures, such as echocardiogra phy and cardiac catheterization, unless they complete additional training. Working Conditions Technicians generally work a 5-day, 40-hour week, which may include Saturdays and Sundays. Those in hospitals and private clinics also may work evening hours. A lot of time is spent walking and standing. The work can become hectic. Employment Electrocardiograph technicians held about 18,000 jobs in 1988. Most worked in hospital cardiology departments. Some EKG technicians had jobs in cardiologists’ offices, cardiac rehabilitation centers, health maintenance organizations, or clinics. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most EKG technicians are trained on the job. Training usually is conducted by an EKG supervisor or a cardiologist and lasts no more than 4 to 6 weeks for the basic “resting” EKG. Learning to handle critically ill patients, to interpret graphs, and to write reports for the physician takes approximately 4-5 months. Specialized EKG tests (ambulatory monitoring and stress tests) require an additional 4 months of training. Applicants for trainee positions must be high school graduates. High school courses recommended for students interested in this field include health, biology, and typing. Many employers prefer to train people already familiar with the health care field, orderlies or nursing assistants, for example. Familiarity with medical terminology also can be acquired in classes on human anatomy and physiology and by studying a medical dictionary. Applicants for EKG training must be 196 Occupational Outlook Handbook reliable, have mechanical aptitude, ability to follow detailed instruc tions, and presence of mind in emergencies. A pleasant, relaxed manner for putting patients at their ease is an asset. There are no licensing requirements for EKG technicians; acquiring credentials—available through the Cardiovascular Credentialing Inter national/National Board of Cardiovascular Testing—is voluntary. Experienced technicians may be promoted to supervisory, adminis trative, or managerial positions. Some shift into jobs in equipment sales and marketing. But on the whole, opportunities for advancement are quite limited for EKG technicians unless they acquire additional skills. Employers generally encourage EKG technicians to acquire addi tional skills and may provide the training they need to conduct special ized procedures including Holtcr monitoring and stress testing. More extensive training, of up to 2 years, is necessary to prepare for a job as an invasive or noninvasive cardiology technologist. EKG technicians, nurses, radiologic technologists, and others with health professions experience are prime candidates for such training. Job Outlook Employment of EKG technicians is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Although cardiology is anticipated to grow, demand for EKG technicians is not likely to keep pace with growth in the number of cardiac tests and procedures performed. Nor will job growth be as rapid as in the more highly skilled cardiology technology occupations—a consequence of productivity gains associated with newer EKG equipment and efforts to streamline hospital staffing. Most job openings, therefore, will result from the need to replace technicians who transfer to other jobs or leave the labor force altogether. Use of the EKG as a standard test in the diagnosis and treatment of heart disease is expected to continue, but advances in technology have substantially raised EKG technicians’ productivity. An EKG which used to take 15 minutes can now be performed in 5 minutes, thanks to new EKG equipment that records readings more quickly and relieves the technician from having to mount three separate graphs on a back board for the physician to read. In addition, computerization has cut back dramatically on paperwork. Rather than spending time on clerical duties, technicians can use their time administering EKG’s. Employment of EKG technicians will also be constrained by hospi tals’ efforts to cut labor costs. Many hospitals are cutting back on EKG personnel by training registered nurses, respiratory therapists, and others to perform EKG procedures during off hours. Thus, some hospitals whose EKG departments formerly operated on a 24-hour basis have cut back to 8- or 12-hour coverage; emergency EKG’s are handled by other hospital personnel. If this trend persists, it will dampen demand for EKG technicians in hospitals. A small but growing number of jobs will be available in offices of cardiologists, cardiology clinics, health maintenance organizations, and other outpatient settings. Facilities such as these are expected to experience very rapid growth through the year 2000. Nonetheless, outpatient facilities generally prefer to hire staff members who can perform not one but several tasks. Nurses, medical assistants, and clinical laboratory personnel often have the necessary EKG training. Because entry requirements are minimal, the pool of prospective jobseekers is very large. Individuals seeking positions as EKG techni cians may find that employers prefer applicants with previous EKG experience or formal training, including Armed Forces training. Tech nicians with training in Holter monitoring or stress testing in addition to basic EKG’s are expected to have more favorable job prospects than those without these additional skills. Earnings EKG technicians employed in hospitals, medical schools, and medical centers earned starting salaries of about $13,044 a year in 1988, according to a survey by the University of Texas Medical Branch. EKG technicians who perform more sophisticated tests are paid more than those who perform only basic ones. Some experienced EKG technicians earned as much as $24,252 a year. EKG technicians in hospitals receive the same fringe benefits as other hospital personnel, including health insurance, pension benefits, vacations, and sick leave. Some institutions provide tuition assistance, uniforms, and other benefits. Related Occupations Many other workers perform cardiac tests. Cardiac ultrasound technol ogists (also known as cardiac sonographers and echocardiographers) perform basic and pulsed Doppler echocardiograms. Peripheral vascu lar technicians conduct sonographic (sound wave) tests on the arteries and veins. Cardiac catheterization technologists, cardiopulmonary function technologists, and cardiology technologists also assist physi cians in diagnosing heart ailments. These occupations require up to 2 years of formal training. Sources of Additional Information Local hospitals can supply information about employment opportu nities. For a list of training programs in cardiovascular and cardiopulmo nary technology, contact: ' ••-National Society of Cardiovascular Technology/National Society of Pulmo nary Technology (NSCT/NSPT), 1133 15th St. NW., Suite 1000, Washington, DC 20005. - For information about acquiring credentials in cardiovascular and cardiopulmonary technology, contact: ••-Cardiovascular Credentialing International and National Board of Cardiovas cular Testing (CCI/NBVT), P.O. Box 611, Wright Brothers Station, Dayton, OH 45419-0611. Emergency Medical Technicians (D.O.T. 079.374-010) EKG technicians must follow detailed instructions. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work An automobile accident, a heart attack, a near drowning, an unsched uled childbirth, a poisoning, a gunshot wound—all of these situations demand urgent medical attention. Seeing medical emergencies like these on television has made millions of Americans aware of the crucial role played by emergency medical technicians (EMT’s). A call from a dispatcher sends EMT’s—who usually work in teams of two—to the scene of the emergency. Although speed is essential, EMT’s must obey the traffic laws governing the operation of emer gency vehicles. They also must know the best route to take in the face of traffic, road construction, and weather conditions. Upon arriving at the scene, the EMT checks for potential dangers and parks the ambulance in a safe place to avoid accidents. Additional help from hazardous material experts or fire or electric company Technicians and Related Support Occupations personnel may be requested. If no police are present, bystanders may be enlisted to lend a hand. In the case of an automobile accident, for instance, bystanders can help control traffic by placing road flares, removing debris, and redirecting traffic. EMT’s first assess the situation and establish priorities for providing emergency services. In addition to carefully assessing the patient’s condition, they try to determine whether the patient has epilepsy, diabetes, or other preexisting medical conditions, so they can provide the correct treatment. Operating under strict guidelines, EMT’s give appropriate emergency care consistent with their level of training. This may include opening airways, restoring breathing, controlling bleeding, treating for shock, administering oxygen, immobilizing frac tures, bandaging, assisting in childbirth, managing emotionally dis turbed patients, treating and resuscitating heart attack victims, and giving initial care to poison and bum victims. Some procedures are carried out under the step-by-step direction of medical staff with whom the EMT’s are in radio contact. EMT’s are trained to distinguish one kind of emergency from an other. Often, the situation is serious enough to require a radio report directly to the hospital about the nature and the extent of injuries or illness. EMT’s may then be instructed to transmit vital signs and other information so that hospital emergency department staff can determine what treatment the EMT’s should provide. When patients are trapped, as in the case of an automobile accident, cave-in, or building collapse, EMT's face a double problem: providing medical attention and removing the patient safely. Only after the rescue site has been made safe can medical treatment begin. The goal is to reduce the chance of further injury to the patient while also protecting the safety of rescue personnel. When patients are trapped, rescue efforts can often be conducted while medical services are being pro vided. To do this, EMT’s must use the correct equipment and tech niques to safely remove the patients. In difficult rescues, EMT’s may contact the dispatcher to request additional help or special rescue or utility services. In case of death, EMT’s notify the proper authorities and arrange for the protection of the deceased’s property. When patients must be transported to a hospital, EMT’s place them on stretchers or other specially designed patient-handling devices, carry them to the ambulance and lift them in, and then secure both patient and stretcher for the trip to the hospital. While one EMT drives to the hospital specified by their instructions, or to the nearest appropriately equipped hospital, the other monitors the patient’s vital signs and gives additional care as needed or as directed by a physician with whom they have remained in radio contact. Some EMT’s work in large hospital trauma centers which use helicopters to transport critically ill or injured patients. Experience has shown that critically injured patients have a much better chance of survival if they can be transported to a trauma center within an hour of being injured. For this reason, and because operating costs are so high, helicopters are usually reserved only for patients who require the immediate or specialized attention available at a trauma center. Upon arrival at the hospital, EMT’s help transfer patients from the ambulance to the emergency department. They report their observa tions and care of the patients to the emergency department staff for diagnostic purposes and as a matter of record. EMT’s may help the emergency department staff. EMT’s must maintain a clean, well-equipped ambulance. After each run, EMT’s replace the used linen, blankets, and other supplies, send reusable items to be sterilized, and carefully check all equipment so that the ambulance is ready for the next trip. If they have carried patients who have a contagious disease, they decontaminate the interior of the ambulance and report such calls to the proper authorities. In cases of contamination by radiation or other hazardous materials, they seek special experts to remove the hazard. EMT’s must also see that the ambulance is in good operating condition by checking the gasoline, oil, tire pressure, lights, siren, heater, brakes, and communications equipment before their shift begins. The entry level worker whose duties have just been described is an EMT-Ambulance (EMT-A) or basic EMT. There are two other levels https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 197 of EMT’s: EMT-Intermediates and EMT-Paramedics. These workers have more training than EMT-A’s and can perform additional proce dures, as specified by State law. In most States, EMT-Intermediates may treat trauma patients with intravenous fluids and with antishock garments and airway management techniques. EMT-Intermediates are widely used in rural areas, where the number and type of services called for require an individual with more training than an EMT-A but less than an EMT-Paramedic. EMT-Paramedics are trained in advanced life support skills. Work ing with radio communication under the direction of a physician, EMT-Paramedics in most States may administer drugs both orally and intravenously, interpret EKG’s, perform endotracheal intubation, and use complex equipment such as a monitor or defibrillator. A fourth level of EMT is now emerging. Known as EMT-Defibrilla tor (EMT-D), this level was designed to provide EMT-Ambulance personnel with the additional training they need to administer electrical defibrillation. Knowledge of this technique permits these EMT’s to resuscitate certain types of heart attack victims. Working Conditions Because EMT’s treat patients both indoors and out, they are exposed to all kinds of weather. Much of their time is spent standing, kneeling, bending, and lifting. In addition to being exposed to the possible hazard of noise-induced hearing loss from ambulance sirens, EMT’s are exposed to unexpected dangers associated with trying to rescue people, and occasional violence from drug overdose victims and the like. The work is not only physically strenuous, but emotionally draining—not surprising in a job that involves life-or-death situations. Individuals in this occupation are likely to experience considerable job-related stress. EMT’s employed by fire departments often have about a 51-hour workweek. Those employed by hospitals often work between 31 and 42 hours a week. Those in private firms often work about 56 hours. Some EMT’s, especially those in police and fire departments, have to be on call for extended periods. Volunteer EMT’s have varied work schedules, but many put in from 8 to 24 hours a week. Because many ambulance services function 24 hours a day, EMT’s often work nights, weekends, and holidays. Irregular working hours add to the stress of the job. Employment In 1988, there were 76,000 paid EMT’s; an estimated 10 percent of them were EMT-Paramedics. Most paid EMT’s work full time, while most volunteers work part time. Nearly all EMT jobs are found in private ambulance services, in hospitals, or in municipal police, fire, or rescue squad departments. Not surprisingly, volunteers are generally basic EMT’s. Those with more education and training, such as EMT-Intermediates, are more likely to hold a paid position. At the highest level, EMT-Paramedic, relatively few are volunteers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Instruction in emergency medical care techniques is mandatory to become an EMT. A national standard training course is the 110-hour program designed by the U.S. Department of Transportation to train EMT-A’s in basic life support techniques. This program or its equiva lent is available in all 50 States, the District of Columbia, and the Virgin Islands. It is offered by police, fire, and health departments; in hospitals; and as a nondegree course in medical schools, colleges, and universities. The 110-hour program provides instruction and practice in dealing with emergencies such as bleeding, fractures, oxygen administration, airway obstruction, cardiac arrest, and emergency childbirth. Students learn to use and care for common emergency equipment, such as backboards, suction devices, splints, oxygen delivery systems, and stretchers. Physicians, nurses, and experienced EMT’s usually give the lectures and demonstrations. After completing basic EMT training, students may take a 2-day 198 Occupational Outlook Handbook EMT’s must be emotionally stable in stressful situations. course dealing with the removal of trapped victims and a 5-day course on driving emergency vehicles. Individuals trained in EMT-Defibrillation must first demonstrate competency in providing basic life support. They must then success fully complete a course designed to instruct them on when a patient needs to be defibrillated, how to defibrillate safely, and how to assess and monitor a patient once the patient has been defibrillated. EMT-Intermediates have basic EMT training plus some of the EMTParamedic course material. Training requirements for EMT-Intermedi ates vary from State to State, but typically include further instruction in patient assessment as well as the use of esophageal airways, intrave nous fluids, and antishock garments. Training programs for EMT-Paramedics, of which there were be tween 400 and 500 in 1989, generally last an average of 9 months. The American Medical Association’s Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation accredits EMT-Paramedic programs that meet its standards. In many places, refresher courses and continuing education are available to EMT’s. Although requirements vary, applicants to an EMT training course generally must be at least 18 years old, have a high school diploma or the equivalent, and have a valid driver’s license. Among high school subjects recommended for persons interested in the field are driver education and health and science courses. Training in the Armed Forces as a “medic” is good preparation for prospective EMT’s. Graduates of approved EMT training programs who meet certain experience requirements and pass a written and practical examination administered by the State certifying agency or the National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians earn the title of Registered EMTAmbulance. To maintain their certification, all EMT’s must reregister at specified intervals, usually every 2 years. To reregister, an individual must be working as an EMT, meet a continuing education requirement, and pay a fee. Currently there are no standards for becoming a Registered EMTDefibrillator. Prerequisites for taking the EMT-Intermediate examination include registration as an EMT-A, 35 to 55 additional hours of classroom work, and a specified amount of clinical experience and field internship. The examination covers the first part of the EMT-Paramedic training curriculum and builds upon the basic EMT skill levels. Registration for EMT-Paramedics by the National Registry of Emer gency Medical Technicians requires current registration or State certi https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis fication as an EMT-Ambulance, successful completion of an EMTParamedic training program, 6 months of field experience as an EMTParamedic, and passing a written and practical examination. Although not a general requirement for employment, national regis tration is acknowledgment of an EMT’s qualifications and makes higher paying jobs easier to obtain. In 1989, about 47,000 basic EMT’s were registered. In addition, all 50 States have some kind of certification procedure. In 26 States, the Virgin Islands, and the District of Columbia, registra tion with the National Registry is required at some or all levels of certification. Fifteen other States and Puerto Rico require their own certification examination or provide the option of taking the National Registry examination. EMT’s should have good dexterity and physical coordination. They must be able to lift and carry up to 100 pounds. EMT’s need good eyesight (corrective lenses may be used) with accurate color vision. Because EMT’s often work under trying conditions, they must exercise good judgment under stress and have leadership ability. Emo tional stability and the ability to adapt to many different situations help them handle difficulties. They should have a neat and clean appearance and a pleasant personality. Advancement beyond the EMT-Paramedic level is possible, but it usually means leaving fieldwork. With experience and additional education, EMT-Paramedics can climb the management ladder in the field of emergency services. Beginning as an EMT-Paramedic, advancement through the ranks would start with a stint as a field supervisor and then progress to operations supervisor, operations man ager, administrative director, and finally, executive director. EMT’s could also become EMT instructors, but this usually requires additional education in teaching methods or a bachelor’s degree in education. Some EMT’s move into sales, representing emergency medical equipment manufacturers, for example. Others become firefighters or police officers. Still others build on their EMT experience by enrolling in academic programs that prepare them for clinical or management careers in health or related fields. Job Outlook Employment of EMT’s is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Conflicting forces will shape demand for these workers. On the one hand, population growth—very rapid growth in the number of aged people (those 75 years and over) in particular—is expected to lead to more jobs for EMT’s. Develop ments in the field of emergency medicine may heighten demand as well. As more physicians and nurses specialize in emergency medi cine, appropriately trained EMT’s are likely to be used more effec tively. The decline in the number of 18- to 24-year-olds, expected to continue until the mid-1990’s, will decrease the number of prospective volunteers and may lead to more paid EMT jobs as municipalities have little choice but to rely on paid EMT’s. Other factors are likely to constrain job growth, however. Of fore most importance is the rising cost of training and equipping EMT’s. Cost containment will doubtless remain a preoccupation of emergency medical service providers. The benefits of emergency medical services will have to be weighed against the cost of providing these services. Another factor that may adversely affect demand for EMT’s is taxpayer resistance to increased local government expenditures. Opportunities for paid EMT’s are expected to be best in municipal governments and private ambulance services. In many localities, tax payers have come to regard emergency medical services as a basic municipal service—as essential as police and fire protection, for exam ple. However, a growing number of municipalities are contracting with private ambulance services to furnish all or part of their emergency medical services instead of setting up a new municipal program or hiring additional city or county EMT’s. If this trend persists, employ ment prospects in private ambulance services should be especially favorable. Demand for EMT’s in hospitals will be affected by the rate of growth of the hospital industry, together with administrators’ efforts Technicians and Related Support Occupations to phase out unprofitable programs and services. While some hospitals are likely to expand their emergency and trauma services—initiating helicopter services, for example—others will find that running an ambulance service is too expensive. Such hospitals may decide to leave the provision of emergency medical services to others in the community. In addition to job openings created by expansion of emergency medical services, many openings will occur because of replacement needs, which are substantial in this occupation. Turnover is quite high, reflecting the stress that accompanies the heavy responsibilities, risky working conditions, and modest pay. Prospects for qualified applicants should be excellent in the years ahead. Indeed, with the impending decline in the young adult popula tion, employers are developing recruitment and retention programs. Earnings Earnings of EMT’s depend on the employment setting and geographic location as well as the individual’s training and experience. EMT’s working in areas where there is a heavy volume of calls typically earn the highest salaries. According to a survey conducted by the Journal of Emergency Medical Services (JEMS), average starting salaries in 1988 were as follows: EMT-Ambulance (Basic) ................................................. $16,960 EMT-Intermediate ............................................................ $17,130 EMT-Paramedic ................................................................ $22,510 EMT’s working in the public sector, usually local government, command the highest average annual salaries, as the accompanying table shows. Table 1. Average annual salaries of emergency medical techni cians by work setting, 1988 EMT-I EMTBasic Mean, all settings................. ......$25,210 $20,220 $19,690 Private ambulance services . ...... 22,170 Fire departments................... ...... 31,960 Hospitals................................ .... 21,190 16,670 27,430 18,250 15,450 27,420 13,700 Employer SOURCE: Paramedic Journal of Emergency Medical Services Fringe benefits offered by emergency medical service providers vary widely. Basic benefits usually include medical and liability insurance, vacation and sick leave, and some paid holidays. Employers faced with recruitment difficulties might offer a more generous benefit package. EMT’s employed by hospitals and police and fire departments receive the same benefits as other employees. Related Occupations Other workers in occupations that require quick and level-headed reactions to life-or-death situations are police officers, firefighters, and registered nurses. Sources of Additional Information Information concerning training courses, registration, and job opportu nities for prospective EMT’s can be obtained by writing to the Emer gency Medical Service Director of your State. Information about the registration of EMT’s also is available from: ••-National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians, P.O. Box 29233, Columbus, OH 43229. General information about EMT’s is available from: ••-National Association of Emergency Medical Technicians, 9140 Ward Pky., Kansas City, MO 64114. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 199 Licensed Practical Nurses (D.O.T. 079.374-014) Nature of the Work Licensed practical nurses (L.P.N.’s), or licensed vocational nurses (L.V.N.’s) as they are called in Texas and California, help care for the sick under the direction of physicians and registered nurses. (The work of registered nurses is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most L.P.N.’s provide basic bedside care. They take such vital signs as temperature, blood pressure, pulse, and respiration and treat bedsores, administer cardiopulmonary resuscitation, prepare and give injections, apply dressings, and insert catheters. They also help pa tients with bathing and personal hygiene, keep them comfortable, and care for their emotional needs. In States where the law allows, they may administer prescribed medicines or start intravenous fluids. Some L.P.N.’s assist in the delivery, care, and feeding of infants. Others help registered nurses with seriously ill or injured patients in intensive care units or postoperative recovery rooms. Some experienced L.P.N.’s supervise nursing assistants and aides. L.P.N.’s in nursing homes, in addition to providing routine bedside care, may also help evaluate residents’ needs, develop care plans, and supervise nursing aides. In doctors’ offices, walk-in clinics, and health maintenance organizations, they also perform clerical duties such as making appointments and keeping records. L.P.N.’s who work in private homes may also prepare meals and teach family members simple nursing tasks. Working Conditions Licensed practical nurses in hospitals and nursing homes generally work 40 hours a week, but since patients need round-the-clock care, they may work some nights, weekends, and holidays. They often stand for long periods and help patients move in bed, stand, or walk. They also face the stress of working with sick patients and their families. Hospital-based L.P.N.’s face hazards from caustic chemicals, radia tion, and infectious diseases such as AIDS and hepatitis. L.P.N.’s also are subject to back injuries when moving patients and shock from electrical equipment. L.P.N.’s employed in nursing homes often face heavy workloads due to chronic understaffing. In addition, the people they take care of may be confused, irrational, highly agitated, or given to abrupt mood swings. In private homes, L.P.N.’s usually work 8 to 12 hours a day and go home at night. Private duty nursing affords a great deal of freedom in setting one’s own work hours. Employment Licensed practical nurses held about 626,000 jobs in 1988. About half of all L.P.N.’s worked in hospitals, and one-fifth worked in nursing homes. The rest worked in a variety of settings, including doctors’ offices and clinics, and for temporary help agencies. Some L.P.N.’s work as private duty nurses. Of these, some are self-employed, in which case they are hired directly by patients or their families. Others are employees of a nurses’ registry or temporary help agency which contract with hospitals and nursing homes to pro vide L.P.N.’s on a temporary basis. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To acquire the license required by all States to become an L.P.N., applicants must complete a State-approved practical nursing program and pass the national written examination. Educational requirements for enrollment in State-approved training programs range from comple tion of ninth grade to high school graduation, but a high school diploma is usually preferred. In 1987, approximately 1,250 State-approved programs provided 200 Occupational Outlook Handbook mm An L.P.N. instructs a patient in the use of a lung exercise device. practical nursing training. Trade, technical, or vocational schools offered more than half of these programs. Others were in high schools, community and junior colleges, hospitals, and health agencies. Several programs operated by the Armed Forces for military personnel were State-approved. Practical nursing programs include both classroom study and clinical practice. Classroom instruction covers basic nursing concepts, princi ples, and related subjects, including anatomy, physiology, medicalsurgical nursing, pediatrics, obstetrics, psychiatric nursing, adminis tration of drugs, nutrition, and first aid. Supervised clinical experience is usually in a hospital, but sometimes other settings are included as well. Most L.P.N. programs last 1 year. There is some sentiment, however, of extending them to 18 or 24 months. The reasons for this are a rapidly expanding knowledge base, the greater complexity of health care technology, and employers’ concerns about liability. Any changes in L.P.N. training, however, will most likely come about as part of a slow overall restructuring of education and licensing of both registered nurses and practical nurses, as well as other health care workers. L.P.N.’s should have a deep regard for people and be emotionally stable because work with the sick and injured can be stressful. As part of a health care team, they must be able to follow orders and work under close supervision. Job Outlook Employment of L.P.N.’s is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 in response to the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis long-term care needs of a rapidly growing aged population (those 75 years and over) and to the general growth of health care. Nursing homes will offer the most new jobs for L.P.N.’s as the number of aged and disabled persons in need of long-term care is expected to rise rapidly. In addition to caring for the aged, nursing homes may be called on to care for the increasing number of patients who have been released from the hospital before they are fully recov ered. Finally, recent State and Federal regulations require nursing homes to employ more L.P.N.’s. Very rapid growth is also expected in such personal care facilities as board and care homes, old age homes, and group homes for the mentally retarded. Hospitals will continue to provide intensive, high-technology care that demands the skills of highly trained personnel such as registered nurses. As a result, employment of L.P.N.’s in hospitals is expected to experience only average growth. If hospitals continue to face a scarcity of R.N.’s, however, they may employ more L.P.N.’s than projected. Employment is projected to grow very rapidly in physicians’ offices, walk-in clinics, and health maintenance organizations—all fast-growing segments of the health care industry—and in the temporary help sector. A growing number of licensed practical nurses will provide home care, while not necessarily working for home health agencies. As in most other occupations, replacement needs will be the main source of job openings. Job prospects depend on supply as well as demand. Unless the number of people completing L.P.N. training increases, job prospects should be excellent. Earnings Median annual earnings of L.P.N.’s who worked full time in 1988 were about $17,500. The middle 50 percent earned between $14,700 and $21,200. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $11,800; the top 10 percent, more than $25,500. L.P.N.’s in nursing homes had a median annual salary of $15,000 in 1987, according to a survey by the Hospital Compensation Service, Hawthorne, NJ. Starting salaries of L.P.N.’s employed in hospitals averaged about $15,900 a year in 1988, according to a national survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Experienced L.P.N.’s averaged about $21,400. Related Occupations Other jobs that involve working closely with people while helping them include emergency medical technician, social service aide, hu man service worker, and teacher aide. Sources of Additional Information A list of State-approved training programs and information about practical nursing are available from: (•-Communications Department, National League for Nursing, 350 Hudson St., New York, NY 10014. (•-National Association for Practical Nurse Education and Service, Inc., 1400 Spring St., Suite 310, Silver Spring, MD 20910. For information about a career in practical nursing, contact: (•-National Federation of Licensed Practical Nurses, Inc., P.O. Box 1088, Raleigh, NC 27619. Information about employment opportunities in Veterans Adminis tration medical centers is available from local VA medical centers and also from: (•-Title 38 Employment Division, (054D), Veterans Administration, 810 Ver mont Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20420. For information on nursing careers in hospitals, contact: (•-American Hospital Association, Division of Nursing, 840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60611. For a copy of Health Careers in Long-Term Care, write: (•-American Health Care Association, 1201 L St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. Technicians and Related Support Occupations 201 Medical Record Technicians (D.O.T. 079.367-014) Nature of the Work Just as schools and colleges keep transcripts of grades and employers maintain personnel records, doctors and hospitals set up a permanent file for every patient they treat. This file is known as the medical record or chart. It includes the patient’s medical history, results of physical examinations, reports of X-ray and laboratory tests, diagnosis and treatment plans, doctors’ orders and notes, and nurses’ notes. The medical record shows what the patient’s symptoms were, what tests were ordered, and how the patient responded to treatment. Accurate and orderly records are essential for clinical purposes, and have other important uses as well. They provide background and documentation for insurance claims and Medicare reimbursement, legal actions, professional review of treatment and medications pre scribed, and training of health professions personnel. Medical records are used for research and planning as well. They provide data for clinical studies, evaluations of the benefits and cost of various medical and surgical procedures, and assessments of community health needs. Managing an information system that meets medical, administra tive, ethical, and legal requirements involves the teamwork of medical record administrators, medical record technicians, medical record clerks, and medical transcriptionists, known collectively as medical record personnel. Directing the activities of the medical record depart ment is the medical record administrator, whose job it is to develop systems for documenting, storing, and retrieving medical information. Administrators train and supervise the medical record staff. They are responsible for compiling statistics required by Federal and State agencies, assist physicians in evaluations of patient care or research studies, and may testify in court about records and record procedures. Medical record administrators work closely with top hospital execu tives to monitor hospital spending and physician practice patterns. Medical record technicians are the people who actually handle the records, organizing and evaluating them for completeness and accu racy. When assembling a patient’s medical record, technicians first make sure that the medical chart is complete. With a paper medical record, this means ensuring that all forms are present and properly identified and signed. In a growing number of hospitals, the medical and nursing staff use computers rather than the traditional paper record to note symptoms and record blood pressure readings, medication dosages, test results, and other patient care information. In these hospitals, technicians use their own computer terminals to retrieve information from the patient’s “chart” in the hospital’s central com puter. Once they have all the necessary information (a process that may require them to contact physicians or nurses to fill in incomplete entries), technicians assign a code to each diagnosis and procedure documented in the record. In assigning codes, technicians consult a classification manual and rely, too, on their knowledge of disease processes. After the entries on the chart have been coded, technicians may pse a packaged computer program to assign the patient to one of several hundred “diagnosis-related groups” or DRG’s. The DRG determines the amount the hospital will be reimbursed if the patient is covered by Medicare or other insurance programs that use the DRG system. In large hospitals, technicians who specialize in the coding area are called medical record coders or coder/abstractors. Because information in the medical record is used for reimbursement purposes as well as clinical decisionmaking, it is doubly important that entries be complete and accurate. This has always been important for patient care; now it is important for the hospital as well. A coding error could mean a financial loss for the hospital since the amount of reimbursement may depend on the diagnostic group to which the patient is assigned. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Medical record technicians assign a code to each diagnosis and procedure. Technicians have other duties as well. They may, for example, tabulate and analyze data at the request of hospital officials responsible for quality assurance, marketing, or planning. Technicians might be asked to tabulate statistics that show differences in the average length of a hospital stay according to diagnosis, admitting physician, and procedures performed. Technicians known as registrars maintain spe cial registries showing occurrences of disease by type, such as cancer, injury, or stroke. Technicians also maintain health record indexes and compile administrative and health statistics for public health officials, administrators, planners, and others. In response to inquiries from law firms, insurance companies, gov ernment agencies, researchers, and patients, medical record techni cians may collect medical records. They may present these records during legal proceedings, for example, or provide documentation for meetings of oversight groups such as utilization review committees and medical review boards. The day-to-day tasks of medical record personnel vary with the size of the facility. In a small facility, for example, a technician may have full responsibility for managing the medical record department, whereas in a large facility, technicians are likely to specialize in just one aspect of the work. If the department is large enough to employ medical record clerks and transcriptionists, a technician would be responsible for supervising and training them. In many nursing homes, a record clerk—working under a consultant who is a Registered Record Administrator (RRA) or an Accredited Record Technician (ART)—is responsible for maintaining the medical record system. Working Conditions Medical record personnel generally work a standard 40-hour week. Some overtime may be required. In hospitals where medical record departments are open 18-24 hours a day, 7 days a week, medical record personnel work on day, evening, and night shifts. Part-time work is generally available. The work environment is usually pleasant and comfortable, but some aspects of the job can be stressful. The utmost accuracy is essential, and this demands concentration and close attention to detail. The emphasis on accuracy can cause fatigue and mental strain. Medical record technicians who work at video display terminals for prolonged periods may experience eyestrain and musculoskeletal pain. Employment Medical record technicians held about 47,000 jobs in 1988. Three out of five jobs were in hospitals. Most of the remainder were in medical group practices, health maintenance organizations, nursing homes, clinics, and other facilities that deliver health care. In addition, insurance firms, accounting firms, and law firms that specialize in health matters employ medical record technicians to 202 Occupational Outlook Handbook tabulate and analyze data from medical records. Public health depart ments hire technicians to supervise data collection from health care institutions and to assist in research. Some medical record technicians provide services to nursing homes and physicians’ offices on a consultant basis. Other self-employed record technicians specialize in coding, record copy services, or medi cal transcription—the typing of physicians’ records and notes from dictating or recording equipment or, occasionally, from written notes. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer to hire a credentialed medical record technician. Gaining the credential as an Accredited Record Technician is voluntary and is obtained by passing a written examination offered by the Ameri can Medical Record Association (AMRA). To be eligible to take the examination, a person must be a graduate of a 2-year associate degree program accredited by the Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation of the American Medical Association in collaboration with AMRA, or a graduate of the Independent Study Program in Medical Record Technology who has also obtained 30 semester hours of academic credit in prescribed areas. In 1988, community and junior colleges offered 99 accredited programs for medical record techni cians. Medical record technology programs include courses in biologi cal sciences, medical terminology, medical record science, business management, legal aspects, and introduction to computer data pro cessing. Experienced medical record technicians generally advance in one of three ways—by specializing, managing, or teaching. Many senior medical record technicians specialize in coding, particularly Medicare coding. Tumor registry is another specialty area. Supervision and management offer a second way to advance. In large medical record departments, experienced technicians may be come section supervisors, with responsibility for overseeing the work of the coding, correspondence, or discharge sections, for example. Senior technicians may eventually be promoted to director or assistant director of medical record departments. Technicians who aim to be come department heads should plan on satisfying the requirements for the Registered Record Administrator (RRA) credential, since employ ers generally prefer RRA’s when filling the medical record director’s job. Teaching is another career option for experienced technicians. Qual ifications vary from institution to institution, but most schools demand a master’s degree in a related field, such as education or health adminis tration. Hospitals sometimes advance promising medical record clerks to jobs as medical record technicians, although this practice is becoming less common. Advancement generally requires 2-4 years of job experi ence and successful completion of the hospital’s in-house training program. Job Outlook Employment of medical record technicians is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 because of the pivotal role of medical records in managing health care costs. Management’s heightened need for complete, accurate, and timely clinical data is the overriding reason for anticipated job growth. Office hours are expected to expand. Also contributing to projected growth are the likelihood of more detailed record analysis, shortened billing time, and increased contact with physicians and other hospital staff to clarify entries on the medical record and assure that the record is complete. Despite the rapid growth, most openings will occur because of replacement needs. The key role of medical records in financial management is not the only reason for expecting employment to rise. Greater emphasis on documenting the quality of medical care, spurred in part by malpractice concerns, together with greater the skill required for documentation due to the complexity of medical records systems and the sensitivity of the information, will also spur demand. Relatively more technicians and fewer clerks will be used to staff medical departments. Automation already has reduced the demand for medical record https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis clerks by eliminating the need for labor-intensive tasks such as filing. Automation of this field has moved swiftly, and it is possible that medical records will reach an almost paperless state by the late 1990’s. Computerized systems currently in place enable transcriptionists to put physicians’ and nurses’ handwritten notes into machine-readable form; technicians using computers then retrieve and tabulate the neces sary data. The transcriptionist’s role could be bypassed if direct entry of medical notes via bedside terminals or hand-held computers increases. While direct entry of medical records would lessen the demand for transcriptionists, technicians would still be needed to code the records. Direct entry is just now starting to be implemented, however, and it is hard to predict how rapidly it will be adopted. Another development that would lessen the need for clerks and transcriptionists if it came into widespread use is an electronic card of credit-card size containing the patient’s comprehensive medical re cord. Patients would submit the card for updating each time they obtained medical care. Medical record technicians could then obtain the information needed for the facility’s recordkeeping system directly from the card. France presently has such a system, but implementation in the United States is not likely to occur soon because of problems of confidentiality and cost. Greater need for accurate and up-to-date medical records is not confined to the hospital sector. Health maintenance organizations, large medical group practices, nursing homes, and home health agen cies share the need for complete and timely data for reimbursement purposes, professional review of the quality of care, and financial management. The value of well-maintained medical records in finan cial management is likely to be an especially important consideration, given the for-profit orientation of many newly emerging health care facilities. This should fuel demand for medical record personnel in a variety of health care settings. The outlook for experienced technicians who have completed a formal training program will be excellent through the year 2000. Demand for experienced or credentialed technicians is expected to be very strong due to the emphasis on accuracy in coding and abstracting data. New graduates, too, are expected to encounter an extremely favorable job market. Jobseekers without formal training in medical record technology will probably not be hired as medical record technicians since highly accurate coding and abstracting skills are essential. Such individuals may be hired as medical record clerks, however, with the prospect of promotion to positions as medical record technicians once they master the requisite skills. Earnings Earnings of medical record technicians vary according to locality. Medical record technicians earned a median salary of $ 17,200, accord ing to the Hospital and Health Care Report, 13th edition, 1988/89, from the Executive Compensation Service, a Wyatt Data Services Company. In 1988, medical record technicians employed by the Federal Gov ernment averaged $17,315 a year. Outstanding record technicians may work up to higher supervisory positions with corresponding pay increases, although Registered Record Administrators fill most posi tions. Like other hospital employees, medical record personnel generally receive paid holidays and vacations, health insurance, life insurance, and retirement benefits. Related Occupations Medical record technicians perform a variety of technical and clerical duties, including verification, transcription, and filing. Workers with similar duties include information clerks, insurance clerks, library technical assistants, medical secretaries, and medical transcriptionists. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in medical record technology, including the Independent Study Program, is available from: wAmerican Medical Record Association, 875 N. Michigan Ave., John Han cock Center, Suite 1850, Chicago, IL 60611. Technicians and Related Support Occupations A list of CAHEA-approved programs for medical record technicians is available from: ••-American Medical Association, Division of Allied Health Education and Accreditation, 535 N. Dearborn St., Chicago, IL 60610. Nuclear Medicine Technologists (D.O.T. 078.161-018 and .361-018) Nature of the Work Nuclear medicine is the branch of radiology that uses radionuclides— unstable atoms that emit radiation spontaneously—in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. The radionuclides are purified and com pounded like other drugs to form radiopharmaceuticals. When a radio pharmaceutical is injected into a patient or taken orally, the radioactiv ity can be detected and monitored from outside the body to assess the characteristics or functioning of those tissues or organs in which it settles. Abnormal areas show up as higher or lower concentrations of radioactivity than normal. Thyroid function studies were among the first clinical medical appli cations using radionuclides. Since then, diagnostic applications of nuclear medicine have expanded dramatically, with images of bones, brain, liver, and heart function emerging as particularly important. Nuclear medicine today commands a place alongside other highly valued diagnostic disciplines. As is generally the case in medical diagnostics, specially trained technologists perform the tests and proce dures under the supervision of physicians, who in turn interpret the results. Nuclear medicine technologists are trained to use radiopharmaceuti cals in a variety of areas. They may conduct laboratory studies, do research, or develop and administer procedures for purchasing, using, and disposing of radioactive nuclides. Implementing safety procedures is another important role. Most of the time, however, technologists work directly with patients, performing nuclear medicine procedures that are used to diagnose or treat disease. Nuclear medicine technologists, like radiologic technologists, oper ate diagnostic imaging equipment. However, the equipment used in these two specialties relies on different principles, and job duties reflect this. Radiologic technologists create an image by shooting a beam of radiation, commonly called an X-ray, through the patient. (See the statement on radiologic technologists elsewhere in the Handbook.) In nuclear medicine, the technologist prepares the radiopharmaceutical for the patient to take, administers it, and then operates a camera that detects and maps the radioactive drug in the patient’s body to create an image. Preparing the radiopharmaceutical requires laboratory skills as well as strict adherence to safety precautions to keep the radiation dose to workers and the patient as low as possible. The nuclear medicine technologist calculates and prepares the cor rect dosage of the radiopharmaceutical and then administers it to the patient by mouth, injection, or other means. Prior to the examination, the technologist explains the test procedure to the patient and tries to relieve any anxiety the patient may be experiencing. Once the radiopharmaceutical has had time to enter the system, the technologist is ready to perform the imaging procedure. The technolo gist positions the patient and then starts the gamma scintillation cam era, also known as a scanner, which creates images of the distribution of the radiopharmaceutical as it passes through or localizes in different parts of the patient’s body. Once the imaging has been completed, the technologist views these images on a computer screen or on film. The technologist carefully reviews the image for any additional information to give the physician, who interprets the nuclear medicine study. Some studies, such as cardiac function studies, are processed with the aid of a computer. Technologists who specialize in computer processing may be called “nuclear medicine technology computer specialists.” In some facilities, nuclear medicine technologists perform imaging https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 203 procedures in subspecialties of radiology. Technologists may spend part of the day in the ultrasound or diagnostic radiology departments, performing sonograms, fluoroscopy, or routine X-rays. The amount of time spent on nonnuclear medicine procedures depends on the size of the facility, the amount of specialization, and organizational policy within the institution. The job of the nuclear medicine technologist encompasses more than diagnostic imaging. Because nuclear medicine is used in certain laboratory tests, technologists must be proficient in clinical laboratory procedures. In one type of test, a small quantity of a radiopharmaceuti cal is administered to a patient and then specimens such as blood or urine are collected and measured for radioactivity level. In other words, laboratory testing replaces the image as the means of assessing the behavior of the radioactive substance inside the body. In another kind of test, the technologist adds radioactive substances to blood or serum in a test tube to determine levels of hormones or therapeutic drug content. Other job responsibilities include insuring that radiation safety procedures are carefully followed by all workers in the nuclear medicine laboratory and that complete and accurate records are kept. This includes patient medical records, patient procedures performed, and amounts and types of radionuclides received, used, and disposed of. Working Conditions Nuclear medicine technologists generally work a 40-hour week. This may include evening or weekend hours in hospital departments which operate on an extended schedule. In addition, technologists in some hospitals are required to perform on-call duty on a rotation basis. Depending on the size of the nuclear medicine department and number of technologists employed, the frequency of required on-call duty varies. The number of times a technologist is actually called to work while on call depends on the size and case mix of the hospital. Technologists in large teaching hospitals may expect to report to the hospital several nights a week to perform emergency procedures, while those in small community hospitals may only be called in once or twice a month. Opportunities for weekend, part-time, and shift work are also available. Technologists are on their feet much of the day, and may be required to lift or turn disabled patients. Therefore, physical stamina is im portant. Although there is potential radiation exposure in this field, exposure is kept to a minimum by the use of safe working procedures and safety devices such as instruments that measure radiation exposure rates, shielded syringes, gloves, and other protective devices. Technologists wear special badges that measure radiation levels while they are in the radiation area. The badge measurement rarely approaches or exceeds established safety levels because of safety programs and built-in safety devices. Employment Nuclear medicine technologists held about 10,000 jobs in 1988. About 9 out of 10 jobs were in hospitals. The rest were in medical laboratories, physicians’ offices, outpatient clinics, and imaging centers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Technologists used to be trained on the job, but this is no longer the case. Employers prefer to hire individuals who have completed formal training programs, available in hospitals, community colleges, univer sities, and Veterans Administration medical centers. Programs vary in a number of respects: Length of training, prerequisites, class size, and cost. They range in length from 1 to 4 years and may lead to a certificate, associate degree, or bachelor’s degree. One-year certificate programs in nuclear medicine technology are designed for health professionals or individuals with a previous science background. These programs are ideal for radiologic technol ogists and ultrasound technologists wishing to specialize in nuclear medicine. They also attract medical technologists, registered nurses, 204 Occupational Outlook Handbook regulatory agencies or hospitals, positions which build upon their background and experience. Nine out of ten nuclear medicine technologists work in hospitals. respiratory therapists, and others who wish to change fields or specialize. People not already trained in one of the health professions have three options: a 2-year certificate program, a 2-year associate program, or a 4-year baccalaureate program. Generally, certificate programs are offered in hospitals; associate programs in community colleges; and baccalaureate programs in universities. Among the topics covered in all programs are physical sciences, the biological effects of radiation exposure, radiation protection and procedures, radiopharmaceuticals and their use on patients, imaging techniques, and computer applica tions. Programs that grant academic degrees (associate or bachelor’s) cover additional topics. The Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation (CAHEA) accredits most formal training programs in this field. In 1988, there were 106 CAHEA-accredited programs in nuclear medi cine technology. Nuclear medicine technologists are among the occupations covered by the Consumer Patient Radiation Health and Safety Act of 1981, which aims to protect the public from the hazards of unnecessary exposure to medical and dental radiation by making sure that personnel involved in administering radioactive drugs or operating radiologic equipment are properly trained. The act requires the Federal Govern ment to set standards that the States, in turn, may use for approving training programs or licensing individuals who use radioactivity ele ments or radiation in medicine or dentistry. Procedures for acquiring professional credentials in nuclear medi cine technology include licensure—required by law in seven States and Puerto Rico—and certification or registration, which is voluntary. Registration or certification is available from the American Registry of Radiologic Technologists (ARRT) and from the Nuclear Medicine Technology Certification Board (NMTCB). Credentials from either of these professional bodies qualify applicants for employment in the hospital setting. Many jobs are open only to registered or registry-eligible technolo gists. Hospitals, for example, generally require CAHEA-accredited training plus credentials in nuclear medicine technology. Medical group practices and outpatient clinics are more likely to hire technolo gists without formal credentials. Career opportunities are diverse. Advancement usually involves promotion to a supervisory position, such as chief technologist or department administrator or manager. Specialization in a clinical area such as nuclear cardiology or computer analysis offers another route for advancement. Some technologists progress by becoming instructors or directors in nuclear medicine technology programs, a step that usually requires an associate or bachelor’s degree in nuclear medicine technol ogy. Some technologists leave patient care to take positions in research laboratories. Others leave the occupation to work as sales or training representatives with health industry equipment manufacturing firms or radiopharmaceutical companies, or as radiation safety officers in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of nuclear medicine technologists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 in response to the health care needs of a growing and aging population. However, most job openings will come from the need to replace experienced technologists who leave the field. Strong demand for nuclear medicine procedures is expected for several reasons. Substantial growth in the number of middle-aged and older persons will spur demand for diagnostic procedures, including nuclear medicine tests. Advances in medical diagnostics are likely to lead to new applications of nuclear medicine. Moreover, the cost of conducting these exams will continue to be covered, for the most part, by health insurance programs including Medicare and Medicaid. The growing popularity of modalities such as magnetic resonance imaging could reduce demand for some nuclear medicine procedures, but on balance, technological innovations seem likely to increase rather than decrease the diagnostic uses of nuclear medicine. The use of radiopharmaceuticals in combination with monoclonal antibodies is just one illustration of the field’s enormous diagnostic potential. Mono clonal antibodies have an affinity for tumors. When radioactively marked, they are easily followed by scanning equipment as they gather around otherwise invisible parts of the body. They can be used to detect cancer, for example, at far earlier stages than is customary today, and without resort to surgery. Another illustration is the use of nuclear medicine diagnostics in cardiology. Using radionuclides injected into the bloodstream, nuclear medicine technologists can measure the percentage of the patient’s blood pumped by each contrac tion of the heart. This procedure performed at rest, and during stress, examines the heart’s ability to meet the body’s needs. In some patients, such a test eliminates the need for cardiac catheterization, a costly and at times risky procedure. Cost considerations will affect the speed with which new applica tions of nuclear medicine become widely available. As new medical techniques emerge, insurance companies and other third-party payers decide whether or not they are reimbursable. Some promising nuclear medicine procedures, such as PET (positron emission tomography), are extremely costly, and hospitals contemplating them will have to consider equipment costs, reimbursement policies, and the number of potential users. Job opportunities for nuclear medicine technologists in offices of physicians, medical laboratories, and free-standing imaging centers are expected to grow substantially in the years ahead. Nonetheless, hospitals will continue to be the dominant employer of these workers through the year 2000. Employment prospects are excellent at present; reports of a shortage are widespread. The longrun outlook is favorable, inasmuch as demand is projected to rise while the supply of new graduates may not keep pace. Enrollment in accredited training programs has declined in recent years. If current enrollment patterns persist, the number of job open ings will exceed the number of qualified applicants. Earnings Starting salaries for nuclear medicine technologists employed in hospi tals, medical schools, and medical centers averaged about $20,820 a year in 1988, according to a national survey by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Experienced technologists averaged about $27,012. The average salary of nuclear medicine technologists employed by the Federal Government was $24,846 a year in 1988. Related Occupations Nuclear medical technologists operate sophisticated equipment to help physicians and other health practitioners diagnose and treat patients. Workers in related occupations include radiologic technologists, ultra sound technologists, cardiology technologists, electroencephalographic technologists, clinical laboratory technologists, perfusionists, and respiratory therapists. Technicians and Related Support Occupations Sources of Additional Information Additional information on a career as a nuclear medicine technologist is available from: (•-The Society of Nuclear Medicine, 136 Madison Ave., New York, NY 10016. (•-American Society of Radiologic Technologists, 1500 Central Ave., Albu querque, NM 87123. For the current list of accredited programs in nuclear medicine technology, write: (•-Division of Allied Health Education and Accreditation, American Medical Association, 535 N. Dearborn St., Chicago, IL 60610. Information on certification is available from: (•-Nuclear Medicine Technology Certification Board, P.O. Box 806, Tucker, GA 30085. (•-The American Registry of Radiologic Technologists, 2600 Wayzata Blvd., Minneapolis, MN 55405. Information about employment opportunities in Veterans Adminis tration medical centers is available from local Veterans Administration medical centers and also from: (•-Recruitment and Examining Division (054E), 810 Vermont Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20420. Radiologic Technologists (D.O.T. 078.162-010, .361-034, .362-026 and .364-010) Nature of the Work Perhaps the most familiar use of the X-ray is the diagnosis of broken bones. Although this remains a major use, medical uses of radiation go far beyond that. Today, radiation is used not only to produce images of the interior of the body, but to treat disease as well. At the same time, the rapidly growing use of imaging techniques that do not involve X-rays is transforming the field, and the term “diagnostic imaging” embraces procedures such as ultrasound and magnetic resonance scans as well as the familiar X-ray. With the application of computer technology to radiology, the field has been revolutionized. Computer-enhanced equipment produces amazingly clear and sharp images. Thanks in part to the speed with which computerized scanners can read and organize the millions of messages involved in a single test, it is now possible to view soft tissues and organs such as the heart and brain, parts of the body that until quite recently could only be examined through invasive techniques such as exploratory surgery. Remarkable strides have occurred in the development of imaging equipment that does not involve the use of radiation, thereby reducing the risks of adverse side effects. Examples include ultrasound machines (which use sound waves), magnetic resonance scanners (radio waves), and positron emission scanners (electrons). Although discovered many years ago, some of these imaging techniques have become clinically practical only during the last decade, as a result of improvements in electronic circuitry that enable computers to handle the vast amount of data involved. No hard and fast rules about job titles exist in this field. However, operators of radiologic equipment should not be confused with radiolo gists—physicians who specialize in the interpretation of radiographs. Radiologic personnel may be called radiologic technologists in one hospital, radiographers in another, and X-ray technicians in yet a third. The size of the facility, amount of specialization, and organizational policy are among the factors that determine which job titles are used. Another reason for inconsistency in job titles is the rapidity with which new medical technologies have emerged and practice patterns have changed. When new equipment is introduced, existing staff are taught to operate it, and it may be some time before job titles are changed. Radiographers take X-ray films (radiographs) of all parts of the human body for use in diagnosing medical problems. They prepare patients for radiologic examinations, assuring that they remove any articles, such as belt buckles or jewelry, through which X-rays cannot pass. Then they position the patients, who either lie on a table, sit, or https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 205 stand, so that the correct parts of the body can be radiographed, always taking care not to aggravate injuries or make the patients uncomfortable. To prevent unnecessary radiation exposure, the tech nologist surrounds the exposed area with radiation protection devices, such as lead shields, or in some way limits the size of the X-ray beam. After the necessary preparations, the technologist positions the radi ation equipment at the correct angle and height over the appropriate area of a patient’s body. Using instruments similar to a measuring tape, the technologist measures the thickness of the section to be radiographed and then sets the controls on the machine to produce radiographs of the appropriate density, detail, and contrast. The tech nologist then places a properly identified X-ray film of the correct size under the part of the patient’s body to be examined, and makes the exposure. Afterward, the technologist removes the film and develops it. Throughout the procedure, the technologist is careful to use only as much radiation as is necessary to obtain a good diagnostic examination. Before a radiologist examines a patient by fluoroscopy (watching a patient’s internal organs on a monitor or screen), the radiologic technologist may prepare a solution of contrast medium for the patient to drink. As this solution passes through the patient’s digestive tract, the radiologist looks for diseases, injuries, or defects in the patient's digestive system. When fluoroscopic examinations are performed, whether on the digestive tract or on other parts of the body such as chest, heart, or blood vessels, the technologist assists the physician by preparing and positioning the patient, adjusting the machine, apply ing the correct exposure, and making any necessary followup radio graphs. With the successful use of radiation as a cancer treatment, radiation therapy technology has developed into a separate specialty. Radiation therapy technologists (D.O.T. 078.361-034) prepare cancer patients for treatment and administer prescribed doses of ionizing radiation to specific body parts. Technologists operate many kinds of equipment, including high-energy linear accelerators with electron capabilities. They must position patients under the equipment with absolute accu racy in order to expose affected body parts to treatment while protecting the rest of the body from radiation. Radiation therapy may produce side effects such as nausea and vomiting. Hair loss and redness of skin can occur in treated areas, so the technologist must observe the patient’s reactions and keep the physician informed. A sympathetic and understanding manner is essen tial, for technologists need to give clear instructions and explanations £ Radiation therapy technologists help treat cancer patients. 206 Occupational Outlook Handbook to patients who are likely to be very ill and may be dying. Radiation therapy technologists have the opportunity to develop a close and compassionate relationship with patients and their families, for, in contrast to other areas in radiology, these technologists are likely to. see the same patient repeatedly. Other responsibilities include quality assurance duties such as main taining the proper operation of accessory devices and radiation equip ment, observing departmental safety measures, keeping patient re cords, and assisting in the preparation and handling of radioactive materials. Many of the new, extremely powerful forms of diagnostic imaging do not involve the use of radiologic equipment at all. The ability to “see” inside the human body without exposing patients (or technolo gists) to radiation hazards is one reason the new procedures have taken hold so quickly. Sonographers (D.O.T. 078.364-010), also known as ultrasound technologists, use non-ionizing equipment to transmit sound waves at high frequencies into the patient’s body, then collect reflected echoes to form an image. The image, which results from the “bounce-back” of sound from the areas being scanned, is viewed on a screen and may be automatically recorded on a printout strip or photographed from the screen for permanent records and for use in interpretation and diagnosis by physicians. Magnetic resonance imaging works in much the same way but uses magnetic fields in place of sound waves. Ultrasound and magnetic resonance images can be displayed as moving pictures—an important feature for cardiovascular and prenatal studies. In the area of obstetrics and gynecology, the use of ultrasound is widespread, and it is coming into use in other clinical areas as well. Sonographers select equipment appropriate for use in ultrasound tests ordered by physicians. They also check the patient’s other diag nostic studies for information. Sonographers explain the procedure, record any additional medical history considered necessary, and then position the patient for testing. Viewing the screen as the scan takes place, the sonographer must be able to recognize subtle differences between healthy and pathological areas; to check for factors such as position, obstruction, or change of shape; and to judge if the images are satisfactory for diagnostic purposes. A high degree of technical skill and knowledge of anatomy and physiology are essential to recog nize the significance of all body structures present in the ultrasound image. Technologists carry out doctors’ orders. Before a radiologic technol ogist can perform any examination or procedure on a patient, a physi cian must issue a requisition for the study or treatment. Similar to prescriptions for drugs, these requisitions assure that technologists examine or treat only people certified by physicians as needing such studies or treatment. At all times, technologists must follow precisely not only physicians’ instructions but also regulations concerning use of radiation to insure that they, patients, and co-workers are protected from its dangers. Because technologists may work with patients who cannot help themselves, good health, moderate strength, and stamina are impor tant. The possibility always exists that patients will have breathing difficulties or go into shock or cardiac arrest; should this happen, the technologist must be ready to assist until other medical personnel can be called in. In addition to the duties involved in preparing patients and operating equipment, technologists may have administrative tasks. They may prepare work schedules, evaluate equipment, or manage their depart ment or unit. Working Conditions Radiologic technologists generally work a 40-hour week that may include evening and weekend or on-call hours. Some hospitals offer extremely flexible work schedules. A technologist may choose to work 3 13-hour days a week, for example. Part-time work is widely available. Technologists are on their feet a lot and may be required to lift or turn disabled patients. There are potential radiation hazards in this field; however, these haz https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ards have been reduced by the use of safety devices such as instruments that measure radiation exposure, lead aprons, gloves, and other shield ing . Because of the presence of radiation and radioactive materials, tech nologists wear special badges that measure radiation levels while they are in the radiation area, as well as the cumulative lifetime dose. The badge measurement rarely approaches or exceeds established safety lev els because of safety programs and built-in safety devices. Employment Radiologic technologists held about 132,000 jobs in 1988. Most of these involved the operation of diagnostic radiologic equipment. Radi ation therapy technologists and sonographers hold a very small propor tion of the jobs in this field. About 3 out of every 5 jobs are in hospitals. The rest are located in physicians’ offices, health maintenance organizations, clinics, and diagnostic imaging centers. Many technologists work part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Preparation for this field is offered at the postsecondary school level in hospitals, medical centers, colleges and universities, trade schools, vocational-technical institutes, and the Armed Forces. Hospitals, which employ most radiologic technologists, prefer to hire individuals who have completed a formal training program. Formal training programs are offered in radiography, radiation ther apy technology, and diagnostic medical sonography (ultrasound). These programs vary in a number of respects: Length of training, prerequisites, class size, and cost. Programs range in length from 1 to 4 years and lead to a certificate, associate degree, or bachelor’s degree. Two-year programs are most prevalent. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a new field, and few formal programs have been developed to prepare technologists to operate MRI scanners. Most training is provided by hospitals and equipment manufacturers. Radiologic technologists are among those most often chosen to train on the equipment. Some of the 1-year certificate programs are designed for individuals from other health professions who wish to change fields—medical technologists, registered nurses, and respiratory therapists, for exam ple. Certificate programs also attract experienced radiologic technolo gists who want to specialize in radiation therapy technology or sonogra phy. A bachelor’s or master’s degree in one of the radiologic technologies is desirable for supervisory, administrative, or teaching positions. The Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation (CAHEA) accredits most formal training programs for this field. Nearly 766 CAHEA-accredited programs graduated about 6,792 per sons in 1988: 6,080 in radiography, 502 in radiation therapy technol ogy, and 210 in diagnostic medical sonography. Radiography programs require, at a minimum, a high school di ploma or the equivalent. High school courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology are helpful. The programs provide both class room and clinical instruction in anatomy, physiology, patient care procedures, physics, radiation protection, principles of imaging, medi cal terminology, positioning, medical ethics, radiobiology, and pa thology. It is difficult to generalize about prerequisites for training programs in radiation therapy and diagnostic medical sonography, but applicants with a background in science, or experience in one of the health professions, generally are preferred. Most programs consider appli cants with liberal arts backgrounds, however, as well as high school graduates with substantial coursework in math and science. Radiologic technologists and radiation therapy technologists are covered by provisions of the Consumer Patient Radiation Health and Safety Act of 1981, which aims to protect the public from the hazards of unnecessary exposure to medical and dental radiation by making sure that operators of radiologic equipment are properly trained. The act requires the Federal Government to set standards that the States, in turn, may use for accrediting training programs and certifying individuals who engage in medical or dental radiography. Technicians and Related Support Occupations Procedures for acquiring professional credentials in radiologic occu pations include licensure—required by law in some States—and certi fication or registration, which is voluntary. Many jobs are open only to registered or registry-eligible technologists. Hospitals, for example, generally require CAHEA-accredited training plus credentials in the appropriate radiologic technology. Public health departments and pri vate physicians are more likely to hire workers without such creden tials. The number of States that regulate the practice of radiologic technol ogy is growing. By 1989, 25 States required radiographers to be licensed, and 22 required radiation therapy technologists to be li censed. (Puerto Rico requires a license for the practice of either specialty.) Registration is offered by the American Registry of Radiologic Technologists (ARRT) in both radiography and radiation therapy tech nology. The American Registry of Diagnostic Medical Sonographers (ARDMS) certifies the competence of sonographers. With experience and additional training, staff technologists in large radiography departments may be promoted to clinical jobs that require advanced skills in special procedures including CT scanning, ultra sound, angiography, and magnetic resonance imaging. Another route to career advancement is supervisory; experienced technologists may be promoted to supervisory positions such as chief technologist, super visor, and—ultimately—department administrator or manager. Some technologists progress by becoming instructors or directors in radio logic technology programs; others take jobs as sales representatives or instructors with equipment manufacturers. With additional education, available at major cancer centers, radia tion therapy technologists can specialize and become medical radiation dosimetrists. In this specialty, the dosimetrist works with health physi cists and oncologists (physicians who specialize in the study and treatment of tumors) to develop treatment plans. Job Outlook Employment in the field of radiologic technology is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2000 because of the importance of these technologies in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. Radiology is a dynamic field with vast clinical potential, and current as well as new uses of imaging equipment are virtually certain to increase demand for technologists. Technology will continue to evolve. New generations of diagnostic imaging equipment are expected to give even better information to physicians, with less risk and discomfort for the patient, than is the case today. Computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, arte riography, and digital vascular imaging have taken hold very quickly. Applications of diagnostic ultrasound—already in wide use in cardiol ogy and obstetrics/gynecology—are expected to grow. In the treatment area, radiation therapy will continue to be used— alone or in combination with surgery or chemotherapy—to treat can cer. More treatment of cancer is anticipated due to the aging of the population, educational efforts aimed at early detection, and improved ability to spot malignancies through radiologic procedures such as mammography. New procedures based on ultrasound promise to change the way some diseases are treated. Lithotripsy, which uses sound waves to pulverize kidney stones, is an example. However, the speed with which hospitals adopt new technologies such as lithotripsy depends largely on cost and reimbursement consid erations. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) equipment, for example, is extremely expensive to purchase and install. Although physicians are enthusiastic about the clinical benefits, it is reimbursement pol icy—that is, the willingness of third-party payers (insurers) to pay for a particular procedure—that governs the decision to adopt a technology as costly as MRI. Some promising new technologies may not come into widespread use because they are too expensive, but on the whole, it appears that the benefits to physicians and patients are so great that new uses of radiologic procedures will continue to grow. Changes in the age structure of the population should assure expan sion of the field, since middle-aged and older persons—whose numbers will grow substantially through 2000—are at risk for heart disease, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 207 cancer, and other diseases in which radiologic technologies are used. The number of heart patients undergoing arteriograms has already risen dramatically, and a further increase is likely. Although hospitals will remain the principal employer of radiologic technologists, opportunities in nonhospital settings are increasing rap idly. Many technologists will find jobs with walk-in clinics, freestand ing imaging centers, medical group practices, and health maintenance organizations. Radiology groups will constitute a particularly impor tant employer of technologists. Health facilities such as these are expected to grow very rapidly through 2000 due to the strong shift toward outpatient care, encouraged by third party payers and made possible by technological advances that permit more procedures to be performed outside the hospital. Technologists are even working on the road. In response to rural needs, radiologic technologists travel in large vans equipped with sophisticated diagnostic equipment. This trend is likely to continue. Stiffer licensure legislation is expected to spur demand for formally trained radiologic technologists in nonhospital settings. Hospitals al most invariably require professional credentials such as the ARRT or ARDMS when hiring radiologic technologists, but hiring requirements in clinics and physicians offices vary. Where State law permits, physi cians’ offices may have a nurse perform radiologic procedures, for example. This practice is expected to disappear gradually as more States enact licensure laws that require such procedures to be per formed by credentialed radiologic personnel. Most jobs will come from the need to replace experienced technolo gists who leave the profession. Turnover is relatively high in radiation therapy technology, because of the considerable stress in treating patients who may be close to death. The demand for additional workers brought about by the growth and aging of the population, expansion of the kinds of facilities that provide radiologic services, technological advances in the field, and replacement needs may be increasingly difficult to meet. Currently there are reports of a widespread shortage. Although all areas of radiologic technology are affected, radiation therapy technologists and sonographers are hardest to find. The current situation is highly favorable for jobseekers. Enrollments in accredited training programs have declined sharply since the early 1980’s, in part because the college-age population has been decreasing. That trend will persist well into the 1990’s. Educators are taking steps to recruit older students to offset the drop in the number of young adults. However, unless there is a marked increase in the supply of radiologic technologists (or a sharp drop in demand for their services) prospects for jobseekers should continue to be very favorable. Earnings Starting salaries of radiologic technologists employed in hospitals, medical schools, and medical centers averaged about $18,408 a year in 1988, according to a national survey by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Experienced radiologic technologists averaged about $24,552 a year. Workers with specialized skills earn more. Radiation therapy tech nologists started at about $21,672, according to the University of Texas survey. Experienced radiation therapy technologists averaged $27,864. Average Federal salaries in 1988 were about $21,993 a year for diagnostic radiologic technologists and $24,115 for radiation therapy technologists. Sick leave, vacations, health insurance, and other benefits are com parable to those covering other workers in the same organization. Related Occupations Radiologic technologists operate sophisticated equipment to help phy sicians, dentists, and other health practitioners diagnose and treat patients. Workers in related occupations include nuclear medicine technologists, cardiology technologists, cardiopulmonary technolo gists, cardiovascular technologists, perfusionists, respiratory thera pists, clinical laboratory technologists, and electroencephalographic technologists. 208 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information For career information, enclose a stamped, self-addressed businesssize envelope with your request to: (••American Society of Radiologic Technologists, 15000 Central Ave. SE, Albuquerque, NM 87123. (••Society of Diagnostic Medical Sonographers, 12225 Greenville Ave., Suite 435, Dallas, TX 75231. Information about a career in radiation therapy technology is also available from: (•-American Cancer Society, 1599 Clifton Rd. NE., Atlanta, GA 30329. For the current list of accredited education programs in radiography, radiation therapy technology, or diagnostic medical sonography, write: (•-Division of Allied Health Education and Accreditation, American Medical Association, 535 N. Dearborn St., Chicago, IL 60610. For information on certification in radiologic technology, contact: (•-American Registry of Radiologic Technologists, 1255 Northland Dr., Mendota, MN 55120. For information on certification in sonography, contact: (•-American Registry of Diagnostic Medical Sonographers, 32 Hollister St., Cincinnati, OH 45219. Surgical Technologists Surgical technologists may sometimes be “on call" for emergencies. directly by surgeons. Most, however, are employed by hospitals and other places that have operating room, delivery room, and emergency room facilities. (D.O.T. 079.374-022) Nature of the Work The term “operating room” conjures up the image of two principal characters: The surgeon and the patient. Most operations involve more people than this, however, and during a major procedure such as open heart surgery, the operating room may be crowded with as many as 20 doctors, nurses, and technicians. Among these are surgical technologists, also called surgical technicians or operating room tech nicians. Surgical technologists work with, and under the supervision of, surgeons or registered nurses. They help set up the operating room with surgical instruments, equipment, sterile linens, and fluids such as saline (a salt solution), or glucose (a sugar solution). Surgical technologists also may prepare patients for surgery by washing, shav ing, and disinfecting body areas where the surgeon will operate. They may transport patients to the operating room and help drape them and position them on the operating table. During surgery, they pass instruments and other sterile supplies to the surgeons and the surgeons’ assistants. They may hold retractors, cut sutures, and help count the sponges, needles, supplies, and instru ments used during the operation. Surgical technologists help prepare, care for, and dispose of specimens taken for laboratory analysis during the operation and may help apply dressings. At times, surgical technol ogists may operate sterilizers, lights, or suction machines, and help operate diagnostic equipment. After the operation, surgical technologists may help transfer patients to the recovery room and assist nurses in cleaning and stocking the operating room for the next operation. Working Conditions Surgical technologists work in clean, well-lighted, cool environments. They need stamina to be on their feet, alert and able to concentrate, throughout operations that may last several hours. Most surgery is performed during the day, but some workplaces, such as emergency surgical units, require 24-hour coverage. A 40hour, 5-day workweek is normal for surgical technologists, although many are required at times to be “on call” (available to work on short notice for emergencies) during weekends and evenings on a rotating basis. Employment Surgical technologists held about 35,000jobs in 1988. In some regions of the country, technologists known as private scrubs are employed https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Nearly all technologists receive their training in formal programs offered by community and junior colleges, vocational and technical institutes, or hospitals. In 1988, there were an estimated 200 training programs for surgical technologists, of which 101 were accredited by the Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation of the American Medical Association. High school graduation normally is required for admission. Although most programs last from 9 to 10 months, some community college programs last 2 years and lead to an associate degree. Accredited programs provide classroom education as well as super vised clinical experience. Required courses include anatomy, physiol ogy, microbiology, pharmacology, and medical terminology. Other courses cover such topics as the care and safety of patients during surgery, aseptic techniques, and surgical care procedures. Students also learn how to sterilize instruments; prevent and control infection; and handle special drugs, solutions, supplies, and equipment. Some surgical technologists receive their training in hospital-based programs that last from 6 months to 1 year, depending on the program’s admission requirements. The shorter programs are designed for li censed practical nurses, who already have some background in anat omy, physiology, and clinical practice. The longer programs, from 9 months to a year, are for individuals with no background in health care. Some surgical technologists are trained in the Armed Forces. Re gardless of where they are educated and trained, surgical technologists are expected to keep abreast of new developments in the field. With additional training, they can work with new equipment such as lasers and assist in the more complex procedures such as open heart surgery. Obtaining professional credentials for this occupation is voluntary; the Liaison Council on Certification certifies technologists who demon strate entry level knowledge by passing a national certification exami nation. Continuing education or reexamination is required to maintain certification, which must be renewed every 6 years. Manual dexterity is a necessity for surgical technologists because they must handle instruments quickly, often having to anticipate which instrument is needed. They must be conscientious, orderly, and emo tionally stable. In surgery, there is little margin for error. High school students interested in careers in this occupation are advised to take courses in health, biology, chemistry, and mathematics. Career advancement for surgical technologists often involves leav ing the occupation in order to take sales, consumer relations, or management positions with insurance companies, sterile supply ser vices, or operating equipment firms. Some technologists advance by Technicians and Related Support Occupations becoming instructors in surgical technology training programs. Other technologists go back to school to become registered nurses. Job Outlook Employment in this field is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. As in other occupa tions, most job openings will result from the need to replace experi enced workers who transfer to other occupations or stop working altogether. Future prospects for surgical technologists will be affected by the volume of surgery, surgical practice patterns, and the availability of operating room nurses. The number of surgical procedures is expected to rise due to projected changes in the size and age structure of the population, technological advances that permit surgical intervention for more conditions than ever before, and widespread insurance cover age for surgical care. The rate of surgery has climbed steadily among persons 65 years of age and over. These elderly patients undergo surgery for cataracts, hip replacements, hernia repair, or prostate removal, to name a few typical procedures. As new procedures and improvements in technology con tinue to make surgery less risky and more successful, the potential benefits to elderly patients increasingly outweigh the risks. Rapid growth of the 65-and-over population in the years ahead is almost certain to sustain a high level of demand for surgery. Surgical practice patterns are changing, however; the dominant trend is a shift to outpatient or ambulatory surgery. Advances in anesthesia, fiber optics, and laser technology have made it possible for many procedures to be performed on an outpatient basis, and cost control considerations furnish a powerful stimulus for choosing outpatient rather than inpatient surgery. Some health insurance plans, for example, cover the full cost of outpatient surgery but pay only part of the cost if the same procedure entails a hospital stay. The growing popularity of outpatient or ambulatory surgery is espe cially evident in the hospital sector. Explosive growth is occurring in the number of outpatient surgical procedures performed in hospitals. Outpatient surgery is also performed in physicians’ offices, clinics, and freestanding “surgicenters,” and demand for surgical technologists is expected to remain strong in all of these settings. Shortages of operating room nurses may heighten the demand for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 209 surgical technologists. Hospitals and freestanding surgicenters unable to locate sufficient numbers of surgical nurses may alter operating room staffing patterns, increasing their utilization of surgical technologists. Thus, in communities experiencing a nursing shortage, opportunities for surgical technologists should be especially favorable. Because so many factors are at work, the job market for surgical technologists will vary from one community to another, depending on local hiring needs and the supply of qualified applicants. Employment prospects for graduates of accredited programs in sur gical technology are expected to be very good, overall. Employers tend to view graduates of accredited training programs more favorably than those without such preparation. Earnings The average starting salary for surgical technologists was about $14,928 a year in 1988, according to a national survey by the Univer sity of Texas Medical Branch. Experienced technologists earned an average salary of approximately $20,124 annually. Salaries vary widely by geographic location, with those on the east and west coasts generally higher. Surgical technologists employed by surgeons tend to earn more than those employed by hospitals and similar institutions. Surgical technologists employed by hospitals receive the same fringe benefits as other hospital personnel, including health insurance, pen sion benefits, vacations, and sick leave. Some institutions provide tuition assistance, uniforms, and other benefits. Related Occupations Other health occupations requiring approximately 1 year of training after high school are licensed practical nurse, respiratory therapy technician, medical laboratory assistant, medical assistant, dental as sistant, optometric assistant, and physical therapy aide. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on a career as a surgical technologist, on training programs for the occupation, and on certification is available from: ••-Association of Surgical Technologists, 8307 Shaffer Pky., Littleton, CO 80127. Technicians, Except Health Aircraft Pilots (D.O.T. 196 except .163 and 621.261-018) Nature of the Work Pilots are highly trained, skilled professionals who fly numerous kinds of airplanes and helicopters to carry out a wide variety of tasks. Some pilots transport passengers, cargo, and mail, while others dust crops, spread seed for reforestation, test aircraft, and take aerial photographs. Helicopter pilots are involved in firefighting, police work, offshore exploration for natural resources, evacuation and rescue efforts, log ging operations, construction work, and weather station operations; some also transport passengers. On most aircraft, two pilots usually make up the cockpit crew. Generally, the most experienced pilot (called captain) is in command and supervises all other crew members. The copilot or first officer assists in communicating with air traffic controllers, monitoring the instruments, and flying the aircraft. Most large aircraft have a third pilot in the cockpit—the flight engineer or second officer—who assists the other pilots by monitoring and operating many of the instruments and systems, making minor inflight repairs, and watching for other aircraft. New technology can perform many flight tasks, however, and virtually all new aircraft will fly with only two pilots in the future. New aircraft have computerized controls, requiring pilots to make more extensive use of video displays. Before departure, pilots plan their flights carefully. They confer with flight dispatchers and aviation weather forecasters to find out about weather conditions enroute and at their destination. Based on this information, they choose a route, altitude, and speed that should provide the fastest, safest, and smoothest flight. When flying under instrument flight rules, the pilot in command must file an instmment flight plan with air traffic control so that the flight can be coordinated with other air traffic. Before taking off, pilots thoroughly check their planes to make sure that the engines, controls, instruments, and other systems are functioning properly. They also make sure that baggage or cargo has been loaded correctly. Takeoff and landing are the most difficult and dangerous parts of the flight and require close coordination between the pilot and copilot. For example, as the plane accelerates for takeoff, the pilot concentrates on the runway while the copilot scans the instrument panel. To calcu late the speed they must attain to become airborne, pilots consider the altitude of the airport, outside temperature, weight of the plane, and the speed and direction of the wind. The moment the plane reaches takeoff speed, the copilot informs the pilot, who then pulls back on the controls to raise the nose of the plane. Unless the weather is bad, the actual flight is relatively easy. Pilots steer the plane along their planned route and are monitored by the air traffic control stations they pass along the way. They continuously scan the instrument panel to check their fuel supply, the condition of their engines, and the air-conditioning, hydraulic, and other systems. Pilots may request a change in altitude or route if circumstances dictate. For example, if the ride is rougher than expected, they may ask air traffic control if pilots flying at other altitudes have reported better conditions. If so, they may request a change. This procedure also may be used to find a stronger tailwind or a weaker headwind to save fuel and increase speed. In addition, pilots monitor warning devices designed to help detect sudden shifts in wind conditions that can cause crashes. If visibility is poor, pilots must rely completely on their instruments. Using the altimeter readings, they know how high above ground they are and can fly safely over mountains and other obstacles. Special navigation radios give pilots precise information which, with the help Digitized 210 for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis of special maps, tells them their exact position. Other very sophisti cated equipment provides directions to a point just above the end of a runway and enables pilots to land completely “blind.” Once on the ground, pilots must complete records on their flight for their company and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Airline pilots have the services of large support staffs and conse quently perform few nonflying duties. Pilots employed by businesses that use their own aircraft, however, usually are the businesses’ only experts on flying and, consequently, have many other duties. They may load the plane, handle all passenger luggage to insure a balanced load, and supervise refueling. Other nonflying responsibilities include keeping records, scheduling flights, arranging for major maintenance, and performing minor maintenance and repair work on their planes. Some pilots are instructors. They teach their students the principles of flight in ground-school classes and demonstrate how to operate aircraft in dual-controlled planes. A few specially trained pilots employed by the airlines are “examin ers” or “check pilots.” They periodically fly with each airline pilot and copilot to make sure that they are proficient. Working Conditions By law, airline pilots cannot fly more than 100 hours a month or more than 1,000 hours a year. Most airline pilots fly an average of 80 hours a month and work an additional 120 hours a month performing nonflying duties. The majority of flights involve layovers away from home. When pilots are away from home, the airlines provide hotel accommodations, transportation between the hotel and airport, and an allowance for expenses. Airlines operate flights at all hours of the day and night, so work schedules often are irregular. Based on seniority, pilots generally have a choice of flights. Pilots employed outside the airlines often have irregular schedules; they may fly 30 hours one month and 90 hours the next. Since these pilots frequently have many nonflying responsibilities, they have much less free time than airline pilots. Except for business pilots, most pilots employed outside the airlines do not remain away from home overnight. They may work odd hours, however. Instructors, for exam ple, often give lessons at night or on weekends. Before takeoff, pilots check equipment and controls. Technicians and Related Support Occupations Airline pilots, especially those on international routes, often suffer jet lag—disorientation and fatigue caused by many hours of flying through different time zones. The work of test pilots, who check the flight performance of new and experimental planes, may be dangerous. Pilots who are crop dusters may be exposed to toxic chemicals and often do not have the benefit of a regular landing strip. Helicopter pilots involved in firefighting or police work are particularly subject to personal injury. Although flying does not involve much physical effort, the mental stress of being responsible for a safe flight, no matter what the weather, can be tiring. Particularly during takeoff and landing, pilots must be alert and quick to react if something goes wrong. Employment Civilian pilots held about 83,000 jobs in 1988. About 9 out of 10 salaried pilots worked for the airlines. Others worked as flight instruc tors at local airports or for large businesses that use their own airplanes or helicopters to fly company cargo and executives. Some pilots flew small planes for air taxi companies, usually to or from lightly traveled airports not served by the airlines. Others worked for a variety of businesses performing tasks such as crop dusting, inspecting pipelines, or conducting sightseeing trips. Federal, State, and local governments also employed pilots. Several thousand pilots were self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All pilots who are paid to transport passengers or cargo must have a commercial pilot’s license with an instrument rating issued by FAA. Helicopter pilots must hold a commercial pilot’s certificate with a helicopter rating. To qualify for these licenses, applicants must be at least 18 years old and have at least 250 hours or more of flight experience. They also must pass a strict physical examination to make sure that they are in good health and have 20/20 vision with or without glasses, good hearing, and no physical handicaps that could impair their performance. Applicants must pass drug screening tests and a written test that includes questions on the principles of safe flight, navigation techniques, and FAA regulations. They also must demon strate their flying ability to FAA examiners. To fly in bad weather, pilots must be rated by FAA to fly by instruments. Pilots may qualify for this rating by having a total of 105 hours of flight experience, including 40 hours of experience in flying by instruments; passing a written examination on procedures and FAA regulations covering instrument flying; and demonstrating their ability to fly by instruments. Airline pilots must fulfill additional requirements. They must pass FAA written and flight examinations to earn a flight engineer’s license. Captains must have an airline transport pilot’s license. Applicants for this license must be at least 23 years old and have a minimum of 1,500 hours of flying experience, including night and instrument flying. All licenses are valid as long as a pilot can pass the periodic physical examinations and tests of flying skills required by Government and company regulations. Flying can be learned in military or civilian flying schools. Either kind of training satisfies the flight experience requirements for licens ing. The FAA has certified about 600 civilian flying schools, including some colleges and universities that offer degree credit for pilot training. Military pilots gain substantial experience on jet aircraft and helicop ters, which airlines and many businesses prefer. Having lost many pilots to the airlines in recent years, the Armed Forces are offering financial incentives to curb the high rate of attrition. More pilots are expected to stay in military flying, forcing the airlines to hire a larger proportion of general aviation pilots. As a result, most recent entrants to this occupation have received their flight instruction at FAA- certi fied schools. Pilots hired by airlines must be high school graduates; however, most airlines require 2 years of college and prefer to hire college graduates. In fact, most entrants to this occupation have a college degree. Because pilots must be able to make quick decisions and accurate judgments under pressure, airline companies reject applicants who do not pass required psychological and aptitude tests. However, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 211 due to the shortage of pilots in recent years, many carriers have loosened educational qualifications and even vision requirements. Many airlines are hiring pilots with corrected rather than unaided 20/ 20 vision. The major airlines have also raised the maximum age for employment, in some cases, to more than 50 years. New airline pilots usually start as flight engineers. Although airlines favor applicants who already have a flight engineer’s license, they may train those who have only the commercial license. All new pilots receive several weeks of intensive training in simulators and classrooms before being assigned to a flight. In addition, pilots gener ally receive additional training on a regular basis to keep abreast of technological advances—for example, wind-shear detection equipment. Companies other than airlines generally do not require as much flying experience. However, a commercial pilot’s license is required, and companies prefer applicants who have experience in the type of plane they will be flying. New employees generally start as copilots. Test pilots often are required to have an engineering degree. Most helicopter pilots are trained in the military. Military pilots only have to pass the FAA “military competency” examination in order to be licensed as a commercial helicopter pilot. Because of insurance requirements, most commercial companies require that helicopter pi lots have 1,500 hours of flying time. If a pilot does not accumulate that time flying in the military, it is difficult to get a job in the commercial sector. Advancement for all pilots generally is limited to other flying jobs. Many pilots start as flight instructors, building up their flying hours while they earn money teaching. As they become more experienced, these pilots occasionally fly charter planes and perhaps get jobs with small air transportation firms, such as air taxi companies. Some ad vance to business flying jobs. A small number get flight engineer jobs with the airlines. In the airlines, advancement usually depends on seniority provisions of union contracts. After 2 to 7 years, flight engineers advance accord ing to seniority to copilot and, after 5 to 15 years, to captain. Seniority also determines which pilots get the more desirable routes. In a nonair line job, a copilot may advance to pilot and, in large companies, to chief pilot in charge of aircraft scheduling, maintenance, and flight procedures. Job Outlook Due to an expected shortage of pilots, the job outlook for pilots should be favorable in the coming years. Employment growth coupled with an expected wave of retirements will provide many job openings for pilots. Many pilots who were hired in the late 1960’s during the last major boom in the air transportation industry will be subject to mandatory retirement soon. In addition, the military, which in the past provided the majority of pilots, has increased its benefits and financial incentives in an effort to retain pilots. Thus, the military is expected to be a diminishing source of supply in the future. Also, many pilots who were laid off because of the recession during the early 1980’s are now employed—further reducing the available supply of qualified pilots. As a result, the oversupply of qualified pilots that resulted in keen competition for jobs in the past is diminishing, and the developing shortage of pilots is expected to continue well into the future. College graduates who have experience flying jet aircraft and who have a commercial pilot’s license and a flight engineer’s license are expected to have the best opportunities for jobs with the major airlines. Older pilots who are seeking a second career may find particularly good job opportunities with commuter and regional airlines. Employment of pilots is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. While computerized flight engineering systems may reduce the demand for flight engineers, the expected growth in airline passenger and cargo traffic—created by increases in population and income—will create a greater need for more airliners, pilots, and flight instructors. Employment of business pilots is expected to grow more slowly than in the past as more 212 Occupational Outlook Handbook businesses opt to fly with regional and smaller airlines serving their area rather than buy and operate their own aircraft. Aircraft pilots understandably have a strong attachment to their occupation since it requires a substantial investment in specialized training and offers very high earnings. Generally, a relatively small proportion of pilots leave the occupation each year. However, because of the large number of retirements expected through the year 2000, replacement needs will be the primary source of job openings. Employment of pilots is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, when declines in the demand for air travel force airlines to curtail the number of flights, airlines may temporarily furlough some pilots. Commercial and corporate flying, flight instruc tion, and testing of new aircraft also decline during recessions, ad versely affecting pilots employed in those areas. Earnings Earnings of airline pilots are among the highest in the Nation. Accord ing to the Future Aviation Professionals of America, the average salary for airline pilots was about $80,000 a year in 1988; for flight engineers, $42,000; for copilots, $65,000; and for captains, $107,000. Some senior captains on the largest aircraft earned as much as $165,000. Earnings depend on factors such as the type, size, and maximum speed of the plane, and the number of hours and miles flown. Extra pay may be given for night and international flights. Starting salaries for flight engineers averaged about $18,000 a year in 1988. Generally, pilots working outside the airlines earn lower salaries. Average salaries for chief pilots ranged from about $42,000 to $71,000 a year in late 1987, according to a survey conducted by the National Business Aircraft Association; for captains/pilots, $43,000 to $58,000; and for copilots, $28,000 to $36,000. Usually, pilots who fly jet aircraft earn higher salaries than nonjet pilots. Airline pilots generally are eligible for life and health insurance plans financed by the airlines. They also receive retirement benefits and, if they fail the FAA physical examination, disability payments. Some airlines provide allowances to pilots for purchasing and cleaning their uniforms. As an additional benefit, pilots and their immediate families usually are entitled to free or reduced fare transportation on their own and other airlines. Most airline pilots are members of the Airline Pilots Association, International (AFL-CIO). Those employed by one major airline are members of the Allied Pilots Association. Some flight engineers are members of the Flight Engineers’ International Association (AFLCIO). Related Occupations Although they are not in the cockpit, air traffic controllers and dispatch ers also play an important role in making sure flights are safe and on schedule, and participate in many of the decisions pilots must make. Air Traffic Controllers (D.O.T. 193.162 except-022, .167-010) Nature of the Work Air traffic controllers are the guardians of the airways. They keep track of planes flying within their assigned area and make certain that they are safe distances apart. Their immediate concern is safety, but controllers also must direct planes efficiently to minimize delays. Some regulate airport traffic; others regulate flights between airports. Although airport tower or terminal controllers watch over all planes traveling through the airport’s airspace, their main responsibility is to organize the flow of aircraft in and out of the airport. Relying on radar and/or visual observation, they closely monitor each plane to maintain a safe distance between all aircraft and to guide pilots between the hangar or ramp and the end of the airport’s airspace. During arrival or departure, each plane is handled by several control lers. As a plane approaches an airport, the pilot radios ahead to inform the terminal of its presence. The controller in the radar room just beneath the control tower has a copy of the plane’s flight plan and already has observed the plane on radar. If the way is clear, the controller directs the pilot to a runway; if the airport is busy, the plane is fitted into a traffic pattern with other aircraft waiting to land. As the plane nears the runway, the pilot is asked to contact the tower. There, another controller, who also is watching the plane on radar, monitors the aircraft the last mile or so to the runway, delaying any departures that would interfere with the plane’s landing. Once the plane has landed, a ground controller in the tower directs it along the taxiways to its assigned gate. The ground controller works almost entirely by sight, but may use radar if visibility is very poor. A similar procedure is used for departures. The ground controller directs the plane to the proper runway. The local controller then informs the pilot about conditions at the airport, such as the weather, speed and direction of wind, and visibility. The local controller also issues runway clearance for the pilot to take off. Once in the air, the plane is guided out of the airport’s airspace by the departure controller. After each plane departs, airport tower controllers notify enroute controllers who will next take charge. There are 24 enroute control centers located around the country, each employing 300 to 700 control lers, with more than 150 on duty during peak hours at the busier facilities. Airplanes generally fly along designated routes; each center is assigned a certain airspace containing many different routes. Enroute controllers work in teams of up to three members, depending on how heavy traffic is; each team is responsible for a section of the center’s airspace. A team, for example, might be responsible for all planes that are between 30 to 100 miles north of an airport and flying at an altitude between 6,000 and 18,000 feet. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities in a particular airline and the qualifications required may be obtained by writing to the personnel manager of the airline. For addresses of airline companies and informa tion about job opportunities and salaries, contact: ••-Future Aviation Professionals of America, 4959 Massachusetts Blvd.. At lanta, GA 30337. (This organization may be called toll free at 800-JET-JOBS.) For information on airline pilots, contact: m-Airline Pilots Association, 1625 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036. w-Air Transport Association of America, 1709 New York Ave. NW., Washing ton, DC 20006. For a copy of List of Certificated Pilot Schools, write to: •-Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washing ton, DC 20402. For information about job opportunities in companies other than airlines, consult the classified section of aviation trade magazines and apply to companies that operate aircraft at local airports. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Air traffic controllers carefully monitor each plane. Technicians and Related Support Occupations To prepare for planes about to enter the team’s airspace, the radar associate controller organizes flight plans coming from printing ma chines. If two planes are scheduled to enter the team’s airspace at a similar time, location, and altitude, this controller may arrange with the preceding control unit for one plane to change its flight plans. The previous unit may have been another team at the same or an adjacent center, or a departure controller at a neighboring terminal. As a plane approaches a team’s airspace, the radar controller accepts responsibil ity for the plane from the previous controlling unit. The controller also delegates responsibility for the plane to the next controlling unit when the plane leaves the team’s airspace. The radar controller, who is the senior team member, observes the planes in the team’s airspace on radar and communicates with the pilots when necessary. Radar controllers warn pilots about nearby planes, bad weather conditions, and other possible hazards. Two planes on a collision course will be directed around each other. If a pilot wants to change altitude in search of better flying conditions, the controller will check to determine that no other planes will be along the proposed path. As the flight progresses, the team responsible for the aircraft notifies the next team in charge. Through team coordina tion, the plane arrives safely at its destination. Both airport tower and enroute controllers usually control several planes at one time and often have to make quick decisions about completely different activities. For example, a controller might direct a plane on its landing approach and at the same time provide pilots entering the airport’s airspace with information about conditions at the airport. While instructing these pilots, the controller also would ob serve other planes in the vicinity, such as those in a holding pattern waiting for permission to land, to ensure that they remain well sepa rated. In addition to airport towers and enroute centers, air traffic control lers also work in flight service stations operated at over 100 locations. These controllers provide pilots with information on the station’s particular area, including terrain, preflight and inflight weather infor mation, suggested routes, and other information important to the safety of a flight. Flight service station controllers assist pilots in emergency situations and participate in searches for missing or overdue aircraft. During the 1990’s, the Federal Aviation Administration plans to install an entirely new air traffic control system which will make use of a comprehensive computer radar network to automate many of the tasks currently performed by air traffic controllers. Working Conditions Controllers work a basic 40-hour week; however, they may work additional hours for which they receive overtime pay or equal time off. Because most control towers and centers operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, controllers rotate night and weekend shifts. Flight service station controllers assist pilots in emergency situations and participate in searches for missing or overdue aircraft. During busy times, controllers must work rapidly and efficiently. This requires total concentration to keep track of several planes at the same time and make certain all pilots receive correct instructions. Employment Air traffic controllers held over 24,000 Federal Government jobs in 1988, at airports—in towers and flight service stations—and in enroute traffic control centers. The overwhelming majority worked for the FAA; a small number of civilian controllers worked for the Department of Defense. In addition to controllers employed by the Federal Govern ment, some worked for private air traffic control companies providing service to non-FAA towers. , Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Air traffic controller trainees are selected through the competitive Federal Civil Service system. Applicants must pass a written test that measures their ability to learn the controller’s duties. Applicants with experience as a pilot, navigator, or military controller can improve their rating by scoring well on the occupational knowledge portion of the examination. Abstract reasoning and three-dimensional spatial https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 213 visualization are among the aptitudes measured by the examination. In addition, applicants generally must have 3 years of general work experience or 4 years of college, or a combination of both. Applicants must pass physical and psychological examinations. Applicants also must pass drug screening tests. For airport tower and enroute center positions, applicants must be less than 31 years old. Those 31 years old and over are eligible for positions at flight service stations. Potential controllers must be articulate, since directions to pilots must be given quickly and clearly. A good memory also is important because controllers constantly receive information which they must immediately grasp, interpret, and remember. Decisiveness is also required since controllers often have to make quick decisions. Successful applicants receive a combination of on-the-job and for mal training to learn the fundamentals of the airway system, FAA regulations, controller equipment, and aircraft performance character istics. They receive 11 to 13 weeks of intensive screening and training at the FAA Academy in Oklahoma City. Over the next several years, this training will include instruction in the operation of the new, more automated air traffic control system. It then takes several years of progressively more responsible work experience, interspersed with considerable classroom instruction and independent study, to become a fully qualified controller. At airports, new controllers begin by supplying pilots with basic flight data and airport information. They then advance to ground controller, then local controller, departure controller, and finally, ar rival controller. At an enroute traffic control center, new controllers first deliver printed flight plans to teams, gradually advancing to radar associate controller and then radar controller. Failure to become certi fied in any position at a facility within a specified time may result in dismissal. Controllers who fail to complete either the academy or the on-the-job portion of the training are dismissed. Controllers must pass a physical examination each year and a job performance examination twice each year. Controllers also are subject to drug screening as a condition of continuing employment. Controllers can transfer to jobs at different locations or advance to supervisory positions, including management or staff jobs in air traffic control and top administrative jobs in the FAA. Job Outlook Competition for air traffic controller jobs is expected to remain keen through the year 2000 because the occupation’s relatively high pay and liberal retirement program attract many more qualified applicants than the number of job openings. Employment of air traffic controllers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Employment growth is not expected to keep pace with growth in the number of aircraft flying because of the expected introduction of laborsaving air traffic control equipment—including the automated Microwave Landing System—that will enable pilots to receive instruc tions over automated data links, thus reducing the need for controllers during the 1990’s. Most job openings will arise from the need to replace experienced controllers who transfer to other occupations or stop working. Air traffic controllers who continue to meet the proficiency and medical requirements enjoy more job security than most workers. The demand for air travel and the workloads of air traffic controllers decline during recessions, but controllers seldom are laid off. Earnings Air traffic controllers who started with the FAA in 1989 earned about $19,500 (grade 7) a year. Controllers at the grade 9 level and above earn 5 percent more than other Federal workers in an equivalent grade. A controller’s pay is determined by both the worker’s job responsibilities and the complexity of the particular facility. Earnings are higher at facilities where traffic patterns are more complex. In 1988, controllers averaged about $38,200 a year. Depending on length of service, they receive 13 to 26 days of paid vacation and 13 days of paid sick leave each year, life insurance, and 214 Occupational Outlook Handbook health benefits. In addition, controllers can retire at an earlier age and with fewer years of service than other Federal employees. Related Occupations Other occupations which involve the direction and control of traffic in air transportation are airline-radio operator and airplane dispatcher. Technicians in large stations and the networks usually work a 40hour week, but may occasionally work overtime under great pressure to meet broadcast deadlines. Technicians in small stations routinely work more than 40 hours a week. Evening, weekend, and holiday work is usual because most stations are on the air 18 to 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Sources of Additional Information A pamphlet providing general information about controllers and in structions for submitting an application is available from any U.S. Office of Personnel Management Job Information Center. Look under U.S. Government, Office of Personnel Management, in your telephone book to obtain a local Job Information Center telephone number, and call for a copy of the Air Traffic Controller Announcement. If there is no listing in your telephone book, dial the toll-free number 800 555-1212 and request the number of the Office of Personnel Manage ment Job Information Center for your location. Employment Broadcast technicians held about 27,000 jobs in 1988. Almost all were in radio and television stations. Television stations employ, on the average, many more technicians than radio stations. Some are em ployed in other industries, producing employee communications, sales, and training programs. Technician jobs in television are located in virtually all cities, while jobs in radio are also found in most smaller towns. The highest paying and most specialized jobs are concentrated in New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Washington, D.C.— the originating centers for most of the network programs. Broadcast Technicians (D.O.T. 193.167-014, 262-018, and -038; 194.062-010, .262-010, -014, 018,.282-010, .362-010, -014, -018, and .382-014) Nature of the Work Broadcast technicians install, test, repair, set up, and operate the electronic equipment used to record and transmit radio and television programs. They work with television cameras, microphones, tape recorders, light and sound effects, transmitters, antennas, and other equipment. In the control room of a radio or television broadcasting studio, these technicians operate equipment that regulates the signal strength, clarity, and range of sounds and colors in the material being recorded or broadcast. They also operate control panels to select the source of the material being broadcast. Technicians may switch from one camera or studio to another, from film to live programming, or from network to local programs. By means of hand signals and, in television, by use of telephone headsets, they give technical directions to personnel in the studio. Broadcast technicians in small stations perform a variety of duties. In large stations and at the networks, on the other hand, technicians are more specialized, although job assignments may change from day to day. The terms “operator,” “engineer,” and “technician” often are used interchangeably to describe these jobs. Transmitter operators monitor and log outgoing signals and operate transmitters. Mainte nance technicians set up, adjust, service, and repair electronic broad casting equipment. Audio control engineers regulate sound pickup, transmission, and switching, and video control engineers regulate the quality, brightness, and contrast of television pictures. Recording engineers operate and maintain video and sound recording equipment. Technicians operate equipment designed to produce special effects, such as the illusions of a bolt of lightning or a police siren. Field technicians set up and operate broadcasting equipment outside the studio. Television news coverage requires so much electronic equipment, and the technology is changing so fast, that many stations assign technicians exclusively to news. Chief engineers, transmission engi neers, and broadcast field supervisors supervise the technicians who operate and maintain broadcasting equipment. Working Conditions Broadcast technicians generally work indoors in pleasant surround ings. However, those who broadcast from disaster areas or crime scenes may work under less favorable conditions. Technicians doing maintenance may climb poles or antenna towers, while those setting up equipment do heavy lifting. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The best way to prepare for a broadcast technician job—particularly for those who hope to advance to supervisory positions or to jobs in large stations and at the networks—is to obtain technical school, community college, or college training in broadcast technology or in engineering or electronics. Anyone who operates and maintains broadcast transmitters in radio and television stations must have a restricted radiotelephone operator permit, according to Federal law. No examination is required to get one. The Federal Communications Commission no longer requires persons working with microwave to have a general radiotelephone operator license; however, some States may require a license. Beginners learn skills on the job from experienced technicians and supervisors. They generally begin their careers in small stations and, if qualified, move on to larger ones. Large stations generally only hire technicians with experience. Many employers pay tuition and expenses for courses or seminars to help technicians keep abreast of develop ments in the field. Certification by the Society of Broadcasting Engineers is a mark of competence and experience. The certificate is issued to experienced technicians who pass an examination. Prospective technicians should take high school courses in math, physics, and electronics. Building electronic equipment from hobby kits and operating a "ham” or amateur radio are good experience, as is work in college radio and television stations. Broadcast technicians must have an aptitude for working with elec trical and mechanical systems and equipment and manual dexterity— the ability to perform tasks requiring precise, coordinated hand move ments. Experienced technicians may become supervisory technicians or chief engineers. A college degree in engineering is generally needed to become chief engineer at a large TV station. Job Outlook People seeking beginning jobs as broadcast technicians are expected to face strong competition in major metropolitan areas, where the number of qualified jobseekers greatly exceeds the number of open ings. There, stations seek highly experienced personnel. Prospects for entry level positions generally are good in small cities and towns for people with appropriate training. Employment of broadcast technicians is expected to decline through the year 2000 because of laborsaving technical advances such as computer-controlled programming and remote control of transmitters. This has shifted the emphasis from operations to maintenance work, which frequently is performed by commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers employed by broadcasting equipment manufactur ers. (See the statement on this occupation elsewhere in the Handbook.) Faster growth is expected in the nonbroadcast area. Organizations will use video more extensively for employee communications, staff training, and the marketing and promotion of products and services. Technicians and Related Support Occupations 215 map. Computer Programmers (D.O.T. 020.162-014, .167-018, -022, .187-010, and .262-010) ' * • ™58t Employment of broadcast technicians is projected to decline. Most job openings will result from the need to replace experienced technicians who leave the occupation. Earnings Television stations usually pay higher salaries than radio stations; commercial broadcasting usually pays more than educational broad casting; and stations in large markets pay more than those in small ones. According to a survey conducted by the National Association of Broadcasters and the Broadcast Financial Management Association, average earnings for technicians at radio stations were $21,600 a year in 1988; salaries ranged from $12,400 in the smallest markets to $31,400 in the largest markets. For chief technicians, average earnings were $25,300 and the range was $12,000 to $44,800. In television, average earnings for operator technician were $20,300 a year, and salaries ranged from $15,100 in the smallest markets to $31,300 in the largest markets; for technical director, average earnings were $23,000 and the range was $16,900 to $36,000; for maintenance technician, the average was $26,200 and the range was $21,500 to $36,500; and for chief engineer, the average was $43,500 and the salaries ranged from $34,800 in the smallest markets to $61,500 in the largest markets. Related Occupations Broadcast technicians need the electronics training and hand coordina tion necessary to operate technical equipment, and they generally complete specialized postsecondary programs. Others with similar jobs and training include drafters, engineering and science technicians, surveyors, air traffic controllers, radiologic technologists, respiratory therapy workers, EKG technicians, EEG technicians, and medical laboratory technicians. Nature of the Work A researcher—with a few keystrokes—accesses hundreds of related references on a specific topic; a corporate executive receives mail without opening an envelope; a patient’s kidney dialysis machine monitors his progress and adjusts accordingly; a security guard is alerted to a break-in and tracks the intruder’s path. Computer technol ogy, which makes these things possible, is reaching every aspect of our lives, and new applications are constantly being developed. Computers can process the vast quantities of information they need for a specific task only if they are correctly instructed. Computer programmers write the detailed instructions (called programs or soft ware) that list in a logical order the steps the machine must follow. In traditional settings—typically large corporations and government agencies—programmers work from descriptions prepared by systems analysts who have carefully studied the task that the computer system is going to perform. These descriptions list the input required, the steps the computer must follow, and the desired arrangement of the output. (A more detailed description of the work of systems analysts is presented elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some organizations, particu larly smaller ones, do not employ systems analysts. Instead, workers called programmer-analysts are responsible for both systems analysis and programming. Programmers in software houses (companies that specialize in writing computer programs) often work without the con tribution of systems analysts. Instead, they may work directly with experts from various fields to develop new software—graphics, com puter-aided design, animation, and educational instruction, for exam ple. They also may work alone to revise existing packaged software. Regardless of setting, programmers write specific programs by breaking down each step into a logical series of instructions the com puter can follow. Programmers developing instructions for making airline reservations, for example, would first take the appropriate company records and then specify a solution by showing the steps the computer must follow to obtain current flight schedules and availability status, check time constraints on connecting flights, add new reserva tions, secure seat locations, and bill the customer. Programmers then code the instructions the computer will execute in a programming language, such as COBOL—traditionally used for business applications—FORTRAN—the standard for scientific pro gramming—or one of the more advanced artificial intelligence (AI) languages. They also insert comments in the coded instructions so Sources of Additional Information For information about licensing, write to: •-Federal Communications Commission, 1919 M St. NW., Washington, DC 20554. For information on careers for broadcast technicians, write to: •-National Association of Broadcasters Employment Clearinghouse, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. For a list of schools that offer programs or courses in broadcasting, contact: •-Broadcast Education Association, National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. For information on certification, contact: •-Society of Broadcast Engineers, 7002 Graham Rd., Suite 216, Indianapolis, IN 46220. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Programmers design software packages to be sold to the general public. 216 Occupational Outlook Handbook others can understand the program. Programmers using computeraided software engineering (CASE) can concentrate on writing the unique parts of the program because the computer automates some of the more basic processes. This also yields more reliable and consistent programs and increases programmers’ productivity by eliminating some of the routine steps. Next, programmers test the operation of the program to be sure the instructions are correct and will produce the desired information. Programmers prepare sample data that will test every part of the program and, after the program has been run, review the results to see if any errors were made. If errors did occur, the program must be changed and rechecked until it produces the correct results. This is called “debugging” the program. Finally, programmers prepare an instruction sheet for the computer operator who will run the program. (The work of computer operators is described in the statement on computer and peripheral equipment operators elsewhere in the Handbook.) They may also assist in writing a user’s manual for a software package. Programs vary with the type of information to be accessed or gener ated. For example, the data involved in updating school records are different from those required to simulate a flight on a pilot trainee’s monitor. Although simple programs can be written in a few hours, programs that use complex mathematical formulas or many data files may require more than a year of work. In some cases, several program mers may work together as a team under a senior programmer’s supervision. Programmers often are grouped into two broad types: Applications programmers and systems programmers. Applications programmers usually are oriented toward business, engineering, or science. They write software to handle specific jobs, such as a program used in an inventory control system or one to guide a missile after it has been fired. Systems programmers, on the other hand, maintain the software that controls the operation of the entire computer system. These work ers make changes in the sets of instructions that determine how the central processing unit of the computer handles the various jobs it has been given and communicates with peripheral equipment, such as terminals, printers, and disk drives. Because of their knowledge of entire computer systems, systems programmers often help applications programmers determine the source of problems that may occur with their programs. Working Conditions Programmers work in offices in comfortable surroundings. They usu ally work about 40 hours a week, but their hours are not always from 9 to 5. Programmers may report early or work late to use the computer when it is available; occasionally, they work longer hours in order to meet deadlines. Employment Computer programmers held 519,000 jobs in 1988. Most were em ployed by data processing service organizations, including firms that write and sell software; other business services; manufacturers of office, computing, and accounting machines; machinery and equip ment wholesalers; banks; and educational institutions. Applications programmers work for all types of firms that use computer systems. Systems programmers, on the other hand, usually work for organizations with large computer centers and for firms that manufacture computers or develop software. A small but growing number of programmers are employed on a temporary basis. A manufacturer automating the factory floor with robotics and artificial intelligence, for example, may need the services of several extra programmers to write and “debug” the software neces sary to get the factory running. Once the software is functioning, however, their services are no longer needed. Rather than hiring these programmers as permanent employees and then laying them off after the job is done, employers increasingly are contracting with temporary help agencies or directly with programmers themselves. Such tempo rary jobs usually last several months at least, and some last a year or longer. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are no universal training requirements for programmers because employers’ needs vary. Computer programming is taught at public and private vocational schools, community and junior colleges, and universities. High schools in many parts of the country also offer introductory courses in data processing. Many programmers are col lege graduates; others have taken special courses in computer program ming to supplement their experience in fields such as accounting, inventory control, or other business areas. The level of education and quality of training that employers seek, however, have generally been rising due to the growth in the number of qualified applicants and the increasing complexity of some program ming tasks. To start as an applications programmer, an experienced person may not need a college degree, but it is usually required to start in a systems programming position. Employers using computers for scientific or engineering applications prefer college graduates who have degrees in computer or information science, mathematics, engineering, or the physical sciences. Graduate degrees are required for some jobs. Employers who use computers for business applications prefer to hire people who have had college courses in programming and busi ness; however, a bachelor’s degree is not required by all employers. Also, experience in accounting, inventory control, and other business skills generally is preferred by employers. Some employers promote workers such as computer operators who have taken courses in pro gramming to programmer jobs because of their work experience, An indication of experience and professional competence at the senior programmer level is the Certificate in Computer Programming. This designation is conferred by the Institute for Certification of Com puter Professionals upon candidates who have passed a core examina tion plus exams in 2 specialty areas. College graduates with little or no experience may be tested for certification as an assistant. When hiring programmers, employers look for people who can think logically and who are capable of exacting analytical work. The ability to work with abstract concepts and do technical analysis is especially important for systems programmers because they work with the software that controls the computer’s operation. The job calls for patience, persistence, and the ability to work with extreme accuracy even underpressure. Ingenuity and imagination are particularly impor tant when programmers work in areas like computer-aided design where creativity is the key. Beginning programmers may spend their first weeks on the job attending training classes. After this initial instruction, they may work alone on simple assignments, or on a team with more experienced programmers. Either way, they generally must spend at least several months working underdose supervision. Because of rapidly changing technology, programmers must continue their training by taking courses offered by their employer or software vendors. For skilled workers, the prospects for advancement are good. In large organizations, they may be promoted to lead programmers and be given supervisory responsibilities. Some applications programmers become systems programmers after they gain experience and take courses in systems software. Both applications programmers and sys tems programmers may become lead programmers or systems analysts or be promoted to a related managerial position. Job Outlook Employment of programmers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as computer usage expands. Although the proportion of programmers leaving the occupa tion each year is smaller than in most occupations, most of the job openings for programmers will result from replacement needs. Most of the programmers who leave the occupation transfer to other occupa tions, such as manager or systems analyst. The need for programmers will increase as businesses, government, schools, and scientific organizations seek new applications for comput ers and improvements to the software already in use. Further automa tion of offices and factories, advances in health and medicine, and continuing scientific research will drive the growth of programmer Technicians and Related Support Occupations employment. An important area of progress will be data communica tions. Linking different computers so they can communicate with each other is necessary to achieve the greater efficiency that organizations require to remain competitive. AI principles and languages will in creasingly be used in the years ahead, becoming just additional tools available to programmers. More and more programmers will be creat ing and maintaining expert systems as well as using the new generation of programming tools. Although opportunities will exist throughout the economy, jobs for both systems and applications programmers should be particularly plentiful in data processing service firms, soft ware houses, and computer consulting businesses. Employment, however, is not expected to grow as rapidly as in the past as improved software and programming techniques simplify or eliminate some programming tasks. The greater use of packaged soft ware that can meet the needs of many users also may moderate the growth in demand for applications programmers. The rapid growth of employment opportunities in this occupation has led to a substantial increase in the number of courses in program ming being offered by postsecondary schools, junior colleges, and 4year colleges and, consequently, in the number of trained people seeking jobs. As the number and quality of applicants have increased, employers have become more selective. Competition has increased for entry level positions, affecting even applicants with a bachelor’s degree. Graduates of 2-year programs in data processing and people with less than a 2-year degree or its equivalent in work experience are facing especially strong competition. Because shorter curriculums generally are not as thorough and offer limited training in applied fields, graduates of these programs are expected to have even more difficulty finding jobs than in the recent past. Job prospects should be good for college graduates who are familiar with a variety of programming languages, particularly newer languages that apply to computer networking, data base management, and artifi cial intelligence. Applicants who know both programming and opera ting languages, especially if the languages are closely related, have significantly better chances of landing the job of their choice. Employers are looking for ways to cut costs, and minimizing in house training is one way to do that. As a result, many employers prefer to hire applicants with previous experience in the field. There fore, people who want to become programmers can enhance their chances by combining work experience with the appropriate formal training. Students have various options. One is to hold a summer or part-time job in a data processing department. Participating in a college work-study program or undertaking an internship are other ways to gain experience. Students can also improve their employment pros pects by taking courses such as accounting, management, engineering, or science—allied fields in which applications programmers are in demand. Earnings Median earnings of programmers who worked full time in 1988 were about $30,600 a year. The middle 50 percent earned between $22,100 and $39,900 annually. The lowest 10 percent earned less than$16,700, and the highest 10 percent more than $49,500. In the Federal Government, the entrance salary for programmers with a college degree or qualifying experience was about $15,700 a year in 1989. Programmers working in the West and South earned somewhat more than those working in the Northeast and Midwest. Salaries tend to be highest in mining and public utilities and lowest in retail trade, finance, insurance, and real estate. On average, systems programmers earn more than applications programmers. Related Occupations Other workers in mathematics, business, and science who solve de tailed problems include systems analysts, mathematical statisticians, engineers, financial analysts, actuaries, mathematical technicians, and operations research analysts. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 217 Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for computer programmers. Further information about certification as a computer professional is available from: ••-Institute for the Certification of Computer Professionals, 2200 East Devon Ave., Suite 268, Des Plaines, IL 60018. Drafters (D.O.T. 001.261; 002.261;003.131, .261 except-010,281;005.281; 007.161 010, -014, and -018, .261, and .281; 010.281 except -022;014.281;017 except .261-010; 019.161-010, .261-014; and 726.364-014) Nature of the Work Drafters prepare technical drawings used by workers who build space craft, industrial machinery and other manufactured products, and office buildings, bridges, and other structures. Their drawings show the technical details of the products and structures from all sides, with exact dimensions, and specify materials to be used, procedures to be followed, and other information needed to carry out the job. Drafters prepare and fill in technical details, using drawings, rough sketches, specifications, and calculations made by engineers, surveyors, archi tects, and scientists. For example, working from rough sketches, drafters use knowledge of standardized building techniques to draw the details of a structure, or employ knowledge of engineering theory to arrange the parts of a machine and determine the number and kind of fasteners needed. For this, they may use technical handbooks, tables, and calculators. There are two methods by which drawings are prepared. In the traditional one, drafters sit at drawing boards and use compasses, dividers, protractors, triangles, and other drafting devices to prepare the drawing manually. Today, drafters also use computer-aided draft ing (CAD) systems. They sit at computer work stations and draw on a video screen. They may put the drawing on paper or just store it electronically. These systems free drafters from much routine work and permit them to easily prepare many variations of a design. When CAD systems were first introduced, some thought a new occupation—CAD operator—would result. It is now apparent that a person who produces a technical drawing using CAD is still a drafter, and needs all the knowledge of traditional drafters as well as CAD skills. Despite CAD’s advantages, most drafting is still done manually, partly because of the cost of CAD systems, but also because of problems in shifting office procedures to the use and storage of CAD generated drawings. However, the cost of CAD systems is dropping rapidly, and by the year 2000 it is likely that almost all drafters will use CAD systems, although manual drafting probably will still be used in certain applications. Many drafters specialize. Architectural drafters draw architectural and structural features of buildings and other structures. They may specialize by the type of structure, such as schools or office buildings, or by material, such as reinforced concrete or stonework. Aeronautical drafters prepare engineering drawings used for the manufacture of aircraft and missiles. Electrical drafters draw wiring and layout diagrams used by workers who erect, install, and repair electrical equipment and wiring in powerplants, electrical distribution systems, and buildings. Electronic drafters draw wiring diagrams, schematics, and layout drawings used in the manufacture, installation, and repair of electronic equipment. Civil drafters prepare drawings and topographical and relief maps used in civil engineering projects such as highways, bridges, flood control projects, and water and sewage systems. Mechanical drafters draw detailed working diagrams of machinery and mechanical devices, including dimensions, fastening methods, and other engineering information. 218 Occupational Outlook Handbook Working Conditions Although drafters usually work in well-lighted and well-ventilated rooms, they often sit at drawing boards or computer terminals and do very detailed work for long periods. This work may cause eyestrain and back discomfort. Employment Drafters held about 319,000 jobs in 1988. About one-third of all drafters worked in engineering and architectural services, firms that design construction projects or do other engineering work on a contract basis for organizations in other parts of the economy; and about onethird worked in durable goods manufacturing industries, such as ma chinery, electrical equipment, and fabricated metals. Drafters also were employed in the construction, transportation, communications, and utilities industries. Over 13,000 drafters worked in government in 1988, primarily at the State and local level. Most drafters in the Federal Government worked for the Department of Defense. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer applicants for drafting positions who have post-high school training in technical institutes, junior and community colleges, or extension divisions of universities. Training covers drafting and mechanical drawing fundamentals, computer-aided design techniques, manufacturing and construction methods, and also mathematics, sci ence, and engineering technology. Many types of publicly and privately operated schools provide drafting training. The kind and quality of programs can vary consider ably. Therefore, prospective students should be careful in selecting a program. They should contact prospective employers regarding their preferences and ask schools to provide information about the kinds of jobs obtained by graduates, instructional facilities and equipment, and faculty qualifications. Technical institutes offer intensive technical training but less theory and general education than junior and community colleges. Many offer 2-year associate degree programs, which are similar to or part of the programs offered by community colleges or State university systems. Other technical institutes are run by private, often for-profit, organiza tions, sometimes called proprietary schools; their programs vary con- siderably in length and types of courses offered. Some are 2-year associate degree programs. Junior and community colleges offer curriculums similar to those in technical institutes but may include more theory and liberal arts. Often there may be little or no difference between technical institute and community college programs. However, courses taken at junior or community colleges are more likely to be accepted for credit at 4year colleges than those at technical institutes. After completing the 2-year program, some graduates qualify for jobs as drafters while others continue their education in a related field at 4-year colleges. Four-year colleges usually do not offer drafting training, but college courses in engineering and mathematics are useful for obtaining a job as a drafter. Area vocational-technical schools are postsecondary public institu tions that serve local students and emphasize training needed by local employers. Most require a high school diploma or its equivalent for admission. Other training may be obtained in the Armed Forces in technical areas which can be applied in civilian drafting jobs. Some additional training may be needed, depending on the military skills acquired and the kind of job, but often this is gained on the job. Some correspon dence schools also offer training for drafters. Those planning careers in drafting should be able to draw freehand three-dimensional objects and do detailed work accurately and neatly. Artistic ability is helpful in some specialized fields. In addition, pro spective drafters should be able to work closely with engineers, survey ors, architects, and other workers. Beginners usually do routine work under close supervision. After gaining experience, they do more difficult work with less supervision and may advance to senior drafter or supervisor. With appropriate college courses, they may become engineers or architects. Job Outlook Employment of drafters is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Industrial growth and the increasingly complex design problems associated with new products and processes will greatly increase the demand for drafting services. However, greater use of CAD equipment—which increases drafters’ productivity—is expected to offset some of this growth in demand. Although some in the field had expected that CAD systems would decrease drafters’ employment, this has not occurred in most situations where CAD systems have been installed. In fact, it now appears that productivity gains from CAD have been relatively modest. One reason is that CAD systems have been used to produce more variations of a design. As in other areas, the ease of obtaining computer-generated information stimulates a demand for more information. Although growth in employment will create many job openings, most job open ings are expected to arise as drafters transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Drafters are highly concentrated in industries that are sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy, such as engineering and architectural services and durable goods manufacturing. During recessions, when fewer buildings are designed, drafters may be laid off. Earnings Median annual earnings of drafters who worked year round, full time were about $24,100 in 1988; the middle 50 percent earned between $17,700 and $30,900 annually. Experienced drafters in manufacturing, transportation, and utilities averaged between $16,700 and $26,500 a year. Senior drafters aver aged about $32,600 a year. Although the use of computer-aided drafting is increasing, many drawings are still done by hand. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations Other workers who prepare or analyze detailed drawings and make precise calculations and measurements include architects, landscape architects, engineers, engineering technicians, science technicians, photogrammetrists, and surveyors. Technicians and Related Support Occupations 219 Sources of Additional Information Information on schools offering programs in drafting and other areas is available from: e*-National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, Dept. OOH, PO Box 10429, Rockville, MD 20850. Engineering Technicians (D.O.T. 002.280, .281; 003.161, .261, .362; 005.261; 006.261; 007.161-026 and -030. .167-010 and -022, . 181; 008.261; 010.261-010 and -026; 011.261 010 and-014, .281, .361; 012.261-014, .267; 013.161;017.261-010;019.161014, .261-022 and -026, .267, .281, .381; 194.381, .382-010; 199.261-014; 726.261; .281-010; 761.281-014; 828.261-018; and 962.382) Nature of the Work Engineering technicians use the principles and theories of science, engineering, and mathematics to solve problems in research and development, manufacturing, sales, construction, and customer ser vice. Their jobs are more limited in scope and more practically oriented than those of scientists and engineers. Many engineering technicians assist engineers and scientists, especially in research and development. Some technicians work on their own, servicing equipment at customers’ worksites. Others work in production or inspection jobs. Engineering technicians who work in research and development build or set up equipment, prepare and conduct experiments, calculate or record the results, and assist engineers in other ways. Some make prototype versions of newly designed equipment. They also assist in routine design work, often using computer-aided design equipment. Engineering technicians who work in manufacturing follow the general directions of engineers. They may prepare specifications for materials, devise and run tests to ensure product quality, or study ways to improve manufacturing efficiency. They may also supervise production workers to make sure they follow prescribed procedures. Engineering technicians also work as field representatives of manu facturers, wholesalers, or retailers. They help customers install, test, operate, and maintain complex technical equipment, and may write repair or operating manuals. Civil engineering technicians help civil engineers plan and build highways, buildings, bridges, dams, wastewater treatment systems, and other structures and do related surveys and studies. Some inspect water and wastewater treatment systems to ensure that pollution control requirements are met. Others estimate construction costs and specify materials to be used. (See statement on cost estimators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Electrical and electronics technicians help develop, manufacture, and service electrical and electronic equipment such as radios, radar, sonar, television, industrial and medical measuring or control devices, navigational equipment, and computers, often using measuring and diagnostic devices to test, adjust, and repair equipment. Workers who only repair electrical and electronic equipment are discussed in several other statements elsewhere in the Handbook. Many of these repairers are often incorrectly called electronics technicians. Industrial engineering technicians study the efficient use of person nel, materials, and machines in factories, stores, repair shops, and offices. They prepare layouts of machinery and equipment, plan the flow of work, make statistical studies, and analyze production costs. Mechanical engineering technicians help engineers design and de velop machinery and other equipment by making sketches and rough layouts. They also record data, make computations, analyze results, and write reports. When planning production, mechanical engineering technicians prepare layouts and drawings of the assembly process and of parts to be manufactured. They estimate labor costs, equipment life, and plant space. Some test and inspect machines and equipment in manufacturing departments or work with engineers to eliminate production problems. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employers prefer technicians with formal training, preferably an associate degree in engineering technology. Working Conditions Most engineering technicians work regular hours in laboratories, of fices, electronics shops, industrial plants, or construction sites. Service representatives usually spend much of their time working in customers’ establishments. Some may be exposed to electrical shock hazards from equipment. Employment Engineering technicians held about 722,000 jobs in 198S. About twofifths worked in manufacturing, mainly in the electrical and electronic machinery and equipment, transportation equipment, and machinery industries. Over one-fifth worked in service industries, mostly in engineering or business services companies who do engineering work on contract for government, manufacturing, or other organizations. In 1988, the Federal Government employed about 63,000 engineer ing technicians. About two-fifths worked for the Department of De fense; others worked for the Departments of Transportation, Agricul ture, and Interior, the Tennessee Valley Authority, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. State governments employed about 37,000 and local governments about 23,000. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although it is possible to qualify for engineering technician jobs through many combinations of work experience and education, em ployers strongly prefer applicants with formal technical training, pref erably an associate degree in engineering technology or its equivalent. Training is available at technical institutes, junior and community colleges, extension divisions of colleges and universities, and public and private vocational-technical schools. Persons with college courses in science, engineering, and mathematics may also qualify for some positions but may need additional specialized training and experience. In some cases, training can be obtained on the job or through apprenticeship programs or correspondence schools. Some types of Armed Forces training and experience also may qualify one for some engineering technician jobs. Many types of publicly and privately operated schools provide technical training. The kind and quality of programs vary considerably. Therefore, prospective students should be careful in selecting a pro gram. They should contact prospective employers regarding their pref erences and ask schools to provide information about the kinds of jobs 220 Occupational Outlook Handbook obtained by graduates, instructional facilities and equipment, and faculty qualifications. Technical institutes offer intensive technical training but less theory and general education than junior and community colleges. Many offer 2-year associate degree programs, and are similar to or are part of a community college or are part of State university systems. Other technical institutes are run by private, often for-profit, organizations, sometimes called proprietary schools; their programs vary consider ably in length and types of courses offered. Some are 2-year associate degree programs. Junior and community colleges offer curriculums similar to those in technical institutes but may include more theory and liberal arts. Often there may be little or no difference between technical institute and community college programs. However, courses taken at junior or community colleges are more likely to be accepted for credit at 4year colleges than those at technical institutes. After completing the 2-year program, some graduates get jobs as engineering technicians while others continue their education at 4-year colleges. Four-year colleges usually do not offer engineering technician train ing, but college courses in science, engineering, and mathematics are useful for obtaining a job as an engineering technician. Some employ ers hire bachelor’s degree graduates in engineering and other technical areas as technicians because they are not able to find technicians with the qualifications they seek who have less education. However, it is not necessary to obtain a bachelor’s degree for most jobs as an engineering technician. Area vocational-technical schools are postsecondary public institu tions that serve local students and emphasize training needed by local employers. Most require a high school diploma or its equivalent for admission. Other training in technical areas may be obtained in the Armed Forces. Some additional training may be needed, depending on the military skills acquired and the kind of job, but often this is gained on the job. Some correspondence schools also offer training for engineer ing technicians. Prospective engineering technicians should take as many high school science and math courses as possible. Engineering technicians need an aptitude for mathematics and science. For design work, creativity also is desirable. They should be able to work well with others since they are often part of a team of engineers and other technicians. Those in sales and service should be able to work independently and deal effectively with customers. Engineering technicians usually begin by doing routine work under the close supervision of an experienced technician, engineer, or scien tist. As they gain experience, they are given more difficult assignments with only general supervision. Some engineering technicians eventu ally become supervisors, and a few, engineers. Job Outlook Well-qualified engineering technicians should experience very good employment opportunities through the year 2000. Employment is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations due to anticipated increases in research and development expenditures and expected continued rapid growth in the output of technical products. Competitive pressures and advancing technology will force companies to improve and update manufacturing facilities and product designs more rapidly than in the past. Despite the projected faster-than-average growth, most job openings will be to replace technicians who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Many technician jobs are defense related; cutbacks in defense spend ing could result in layoffs. Earnings Median annual earnings of full-time engineering technicians were about $25,800 in 1988; the middle 50 percent earned between $19,800 and $31,600. Ten percent earned less than $14,900, and 10 percent earned over $39,000. In the Federal Government, engineering technicians could start at https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis $12,531, $14,067, or $15,735 in 1989, depending on their education and experience. Related Occupations Engineering technicians apply scientific and engineering principles usually acquired in postsccondary programs below the baccalaureate level. Occupations of a similar nature include science technicians, drafters, surveyors, broadcast technicians, and health technologists and technicians. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as an engineering technician, contact: wJETS, 1420 King St., Suite 405, Alexandria, VA 22314. For information on engineering technicians specializing in electron ics, contact: •-International Society of Certified Electronics Technicians, 2708 W. Berry, Suite 3, Fort Worth, TX 76109. •-Electronics Technicians Association, International, 604 North Jackson St., Greencastle, IN 46135. Library Technicians (D.O.T. 100.367-018) Nature of the Work Library technicians help librarians acquire, prepare, and organize material, and help users find materials and information. Technicians in small libraries handle a wide range of duties; those in large libraries usually specialize. Library technicians are also known as library technical assistants. They answer questions about use of the card catalog, direct library users to standard references, organize and maintain periodicals, per form routine cataloging and coding of library materials, file cards, verify information on order requests, retrieve information from com puter data bases, and supervise other support staff. Some library technicians operate and maintain audiovisual equipment such as pro jectors and recorders and assist library users with microfilm or micro fiche readers. Technicians may also design posters, bulletin boards, or displays. Those in school libraries teach students to use the school library/ media center and encourage them to do so. They also help teachers get instructional materials and help students with special assignments. Some work in special libraries maintained by government agencies, corporations, law firms, advertising agencies, museums, professional societies, medical centers, and research laboratories, where they con duct literature searches, compile bibliographies, and prepare abstracts, usually on subjects of particular interest to the organization. Working Conditions The job requires standing, stooping, bending, lifting, and reaching. Those who work with users answer questions and provide assistance. Technicians who prepare library materials sit at desks or computer terminals for long periods and may develop headaches or eyestrain from working with video display terminals. Some duties like calculat ing circulation statistics can be repetitive and boring. Others, such as computer searches using local and regional library networks and cooperatives, can be interesting and challenging. Library technicians in school libraries work regular school hours. Those in public libraries and college and university (academic) libaries may work weekends and evenings. Library technicians in special libraries usually work a regular 40-hour week. Employment Library technicians held about 54,000 jobs in 1988. Most worked in school, academic, or public libraries. The Federal Government Technicians and Related Support Occupations 221 Sources of Additional Information Information about a career as a library technician and a directory of schools offering training programs in this field can be obtained from: «»-Counci] on Library/Media Technicians, Cuyahoga Community College, At tention Margaret R. Barron, 2900 Community College Ave., Cleveland, OH 44115. For information on training programs for library/media technical assistants, write: (••American Library Association, Office for Library Personnel Resources, 50 East Huron St., Chicago, IL 60611. Paralegals (D O T. 119.267-022 and -026) Library technicians help library users find information. employed about 3,300 library technicians. Most worked in Department of Defense libraries or in the Library of Congress. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for library technicians vary widely. Some em ployers want applicants with postsecondary training as a library techni cian while others hire those with work experience or other training. Some 2-year colleges offer an associate of arts degree in library technology. Programs include both liberal arts and library-related study. Students learn about library organization and operation and how to order, process, catalog, locate, and circulate library materials and work with library automation. Credits earned for an associate degree in library technology do not apply toward a professional degree in library science. Job Outlook Employment of library technicians is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. However, many library technicians will be needed annually to replace those who transfer to other fields or leave the labor force. Employment of technicians in school libraries is expected to grow slowly, paralleling school enrollments. Employment is expected to decline in academic libraries because of declining college enrollments. Employment in public libraries is likely to grow slowly, due to slow population growth and limited budgets. Growth of technician employ ment in Special libraries will be faster than average, because of faster than average growth in the number of professional and managerial workers who use special libraries. Opportunities will continue to be best for those with good computer skills. Nature of the Work Not all legal work requires a law degree. Lawyers are often assisted in their work by paralegals—also called “legal assistants"—who perform many of the same tasks as lawyers, except for those tasks prohibited as being the practice of law. Paralegals work directly under the supervision of a lawyer. While the lawyer assumes responsibility for the paralegal’s work, a paralegal is often allowed to perform all the functions of a lawyer other than accepting clients, setting legal fees, giving legal advice, or presenting a case in court. Paralegals generally do background work for lawyers. To help prepare a case for trial, a paralegal investigates the facts of the case to make sure that all relevant information is uncovered. The paralegal may conduct research to identify the appropriate laws, judicial deci sions, legal articles, and other material that will be used to determine whether or not the client has a good case. After analyzing all the information, the paralegal may prepare a written report that is used by the attorney to decide how the case should be handled. If the attorney decides to file a lawsuit on behalf of the client, the paralegal may assist in the preparation of legal arguments, draft pleadings to be filed with the court, obtain affidavits, and assist the attorney during the trial. The paralegal also may keep files of all documents and correspondence important to the case. Besides litigation, paralegals may also work in areas such as bank ruptcy, corporate law, criminal law, employee benefits, patent and copyright law, and real estate. They help draft documents such as contracts, mortgages, separation agreements, and trust instruments. They may help prepare tax returns and plan estates. Some paralegals coordinate the activities of the law office employees and keep the financial records for the office. Paralegals who work for corporations help attorneys with such Earnings Salaries for library technicians vary widely, depending on the type of library and geographic location. Salaries of library technicians in the Federal Government averaged $18,808 in 1988. Related Occupations Library technicians keep records; catalog, sort, and shelve materials; and assist people seeking information. Workers in other occupations with similar duties include record management technicians, data pro cessing control clerks, medical record technicians, title searchers, insurance record custodians, and teacher aides. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis vParalegals often do legal research to identify laws, judicial decisions, and legal articles relevant to a case. 222 Occupational Outlook Handbook matters as employee contracts, shareholder agreements, stock option plans, and employee benefit plans. They may help prepare and file annual financial reports, maintain corporate minute books and resolu tions, and help secure loans for the corporation. Paralegals may also review government regulations to make sure that the corporation oper ates within the law. The duties of paralegals who work in government vary depending on the type of agency that employs them. Generally, paralegals in government analyze legal material for internal use, maintain reference files, conduct research for attorneys, collect and analyze evidence for agency hearings, and prepare informative or explanatory material on the law, agency regulations, and agency policy for general use by the agency and the public. Paralegals employed in community legal service projects help the poor, the aged, and other persons in need of legal aid. They file forms, conduct research, and prepare documents. When authorized by law, they may represent clients at administrative hearings. Some paralegals, usually those in small and medium-sized law firms, have varied duties. One day the paralegal may do research on judicial decisions on improper police arrests and the next day may help prepare a mortgage contract. This requires a general knowledge of many areas of the law. Some paralegals work for large, departmentalized law firms, gov ernment agencies, and corporations and specialize in one area of the law. Some specialties are real estate, estate planning, family law, labor law, litigation, and corporate law. Even within specialties, func tions often are broken down further so that a paralegal deals with one narrow area of the specialty. For example, paralegals who specialize in labor law may deal exclusively with employee benefits. A growing number of paralegals are using computers in their work. Computer software packages are increasingly used to search legal literature stored in the computer and identify legal texts relevant to a specific subject. In litigation that involves many supporting docu ments, paralegals may use computers to organize and index the mate rial. Paralegals may also use computer software packages to perform tax computations and explore the consequences of possible tax strate gies for clients. Employment Paralegals held about 83,000jobs in 1988. Private law firms employed the vast majority; most of the remainder worked for various levels of government. Paralegals are found in nearly every Federal Government agency; the Departments of Justice, Treasury, Interior, and Health and Human Services and the General Services Administration are the largest employers. State and local governments and publicly funded legal service projects employ paralegals as well. Banks, real estate development companies, and insurance companies also employ small numbers of paralegals. programs are acceptable. However, some employers prefer to train their paralegals on the job, promoting experienced legal secretaries or hiring persons with college education but no legal experience. Other entrants have experience in a technical field that is useful to law firms, such as a background in tax preparation for tax and estate practice or nursing or health administration for personal injury practice. Over 600 formal paralegal training programs are offered by 4-year colleges and universities, law schools, community and junior colleges, business schools, and proprietary schools. In 1988, nearly 130 pro grams had been approved by the American Bar Association (ABA); although this approval is neither required nor sought by many pro grams, graduation from an ABA-approved program can enhance one’s employment opportunities. The requirements for admission to formal training programs vary widely. Some require some college courses or a bachelor’s degree. Others accept high school graduates or persons with legal experience. A few schools require standardized tests and personal interviews. Most paralegal programs are completed in 2 years, although some take as long as 4 years and award a bachelor’s degree upon completion. Other programs take only a few months to complete, but require a bachelor’s degree for admission. Programs typically include a combi nation of general courses on subjects such as the law and legal research techniques, and courses that cover specialized areas of the law, such as real estate, estate planning and probate, litigation, family law, contracts, and criminal law. Many employers prefer applicants with training in a specialized area of the law. Programs also increasingly include courses that introduce students to the legal applications of computers. Many paralegal training programs include an internship in which students gain practical experience by working for several months in a law office, corporate legal department, or government agency. Experience gained in internships is an asset when seeking a job after graduation. Depending on the program, graduates may receive a cer tificate, an associate degree, or, in some cases, a bachelor’s degree. The quality of paralegal training programs varies; the better pro grams generally emphasize job placement. Prospective students should examine the experiences of recent graduates of programs in which they are considering enrolling. Paralegals need not be certified, but the National Association of Legal Assistants has established standards for voluntary certification which require various combinations of education and experience. Para legals who meet these standards are eligible to take a 2-day examination given each year at several regional testing centers by the Certifying Board of Legal Assistants of the National Association of Legal Assis tants. Persons who pass this examination may use the designation Certified Legal Assistant (CLA). This designation is a sign of compe tence in the field and may enhance employment and advancement opportunties. Paralegals must be able to handle legal problems logically and effec tively communicate, both orally and in writing, their findings and opin ions to their supervising attorney. They must understand legal terminol ogy and have good research and investigative skills. Familiarity with the operation and applications of computers in legal research and litigation support is increasingly important. Paralegals must always stay abreast of new developments in the law that affect their area of practice. Because paralegals often deal with the public, they must be courte ous and uphold the high ethical standards of the legal profession. A few States have established ethical guidelines that paralegals in the State must follow. Experienced paralegals usually are given progressively more respon sible duties and less supervision. In large law firms, corporate legal departments, and government agencies, experienced paralegals may supervise other paralegals and clerical staff and delegate work assigned by the attorneys. Advancement opportunities include promotion to managerial and other law-related positions within the firm or corporate legal department. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are several ways to enter the paralegal profession. Employers generally require formal paralegal training; several types of training Job Outlook The number of job openings for paralegals is expected to increase significantly through the year 2000, but so will the number of persons Working Conditions Paralegals do most of their work at desks in offices and law libraries. Occasionally, they travel to gather information and perform other duties. Paralegals employed by corporations and government work a stan dard 40-hour week. Paralegals who work for law firms sometimes work very long hours when they are under pressure to meet deadlines. At some law firms, they do not get paid for overtime work, but may receive bonuses and compensatory time off. Paralegals handle many routine assignments, particularly when they are inexperienced. Some find that these assignments offer little chal lenge and become frustrated with their duties. However, paralegals usually assume more responsible and varied tasks as they gain experi ence. Furthermore, as new laws and judicial interpretations emerge, paralegals are exposed to many new legal problems that make their work more interesting and challenging. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Technicians and Related Support Occupations pursuing this career. Thus, competition for jobs should continue as the number of graduates from paralegal training programs rises. Still, job prospects are generally expected to be good for graduates of highly regarded formal programs. Employment of paralegals has grown tremendously since the emer gence of this occupation in the late 1960’s. Employment is expected to continue to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. The emphasis on hiring paralegals should continue in both legal and law-related fields so that the cost, availabil ity, and efficiency of legal services can be improved. Besides jobs arising from growth in demand for paralegals, numerous job openings are expected to arise as persons leave the occupation for various reasons. Private law firms will continue to be the largest employers of para legals as a growing population sustains the need for legal services. The growth of prepaid legal plans also should contribute to the demand for the services of law firms. A growing array of other organizations, such as corporate legal departments, insurance companies, real estate and title insurance firms, and banks will also hire paralegals. Job opportunities are expected to expand throughout the private sector as more companies become aware that paralegals are able to do many legal tasks for lower salaries than lawyers. Job opportunities for paralegals will expand even in the public sector. Community legal service programs—which provide assistance to the poor, the aged, minorities, and middle-income families—oper ate on limited budgets and will utilize more paralegals to keep expenses down and serve the most people. Federal, State, and local government agencies, consumer organizations, and the courts also should continue to hire paralegals in increasing numbers. To a limited extent, paralegal jobs are affected by the business cycle. During recessions, the demand for some discretionary legal services, such as planning estates, drafting wills, and handling real estate transactions, declines. Corporations are less inclined to initiate litigation when falling sales and profits lead to fiscal belt tightening. As a result, paralegals employed in offices adversely affected by a recession may be laid off. On the other hand, during recessions, corporations and individuals are more likely to face other legal prob lems, such as bankruptcies, foreclosures, and divorces, that require legal solutions. Furthermore, the continuous emergence of new laws and judicial interpretations of existing laws creates new business for lawyers and paralegals without regard to the business cycle. Earnings Earnings of paralegals vary greatly. Salaries depend on the education, training, and experience the paralegal brings to the job, the type of employer, and the geographic location of the job. Generally, paralegals who work for large law firms or in large metropolitan areas earn more than those who work for smaller firms or in less populated regions. Paralegals had an average annual salary of about $24,900 in 1988, according to a utilization and compensation survey by the National Association of Legal Assistants; the middle 50 percent earned between $20,000 and $29,000 a year. Starting salaries of paralegals averaged $20,900, while paralegals with from 3 to 5 years of experience aver aged $24,200 a year. Salaries of paralegals with over 10 years of experience averaged $28,500 annually, according to the same survey. In addition to a salary, many paralegals received an annual bonus, which averaged $1,100 in 1988. Employers of the majority of parale gals provided life and health insurance benefits and contributed to a retirement plan on their behalf. Paralegals hired by the Federal Government in 1989 started at about $15,800 or $ 19,500 a year, depending on their training and experience. The average annual salary of paralegals who worked for the Federal Government in 1988 was about $29,200. Related Occupations Several other occupations also call for a specialized understanding of the law and the legal system but do not require the extensive training of a lawyer. Some of these are abstractors, claim examiners, compli https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 223 ance and enforcement inspectors, occupational safety and health work ers, patent agents, police officers, and title examiners. Sources of Additional Information General information on a career as a paralegal and a list of paralegal training programs approved by the American Bar Association are available from: w-Standing Committee on Legal Assistants, American Bar Association, 750 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60611. For information on certification of paralegals, schools that offer training programs in a specific State, and standards and guidelines for paralegals, contact: (•-National Association of Legal Assistants, Inc., 1601 South Main St., Suite 300, Tulsa, OK 74119. Information on a career as a paralegal, schools that offer training programs, and local paralegal associations can be obtained from: ••-National Federation of Paralegal Associations, Suite 201, 104 Wilmot Rd., Deerfield, IL 60015-5195. ••-National Paralegal Association, P.O. Box 406, Solebury, PA 18963. Information on paralegal training programs may be obtained from: ••-American Association for Paralegal Education, P.O. Box 40244, Overland Park, KS 66204. General information about a career as a legal assistant manager is available from: ••-Legal Assistant Management Association, P.O. Box 40129, Overland Park, KS 66204. Science Technicians (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 463.) Nature of the Work Science technicians use the principles and theories of science and mathematics to solve problems in research and development, produc tion, and oil and gas exploration. Their jobs are more practically oriented than those of scientists. Most science technicians specialize in agriculture, biology, chemistry, the nuclear field, or a particular industry such as petroleum. Science technicians who work in research and development con struct or maintain experimental equipment, set up and monitor experi ments, calculate and record results, and help scientists in other ways. Those who work in production test products for proper proportions of ingredients or for strength and durability. Agricultural technicians work with agricultural scientists in food and fiber research, production, and processing. Some conduct tests and experiments to improve the yield and quality of crops or to increase the resistance of plants and animals to disease, insects, or other haz ards. Other agricultural technicians do animal breeding and nutrition work. Biological technicians work with biologists, studying living organ isms. Many help conduct medical research, helping to find a cure for cancer or AIDS, for example, or they may help conduct pharmaceutical research. Biological technicians also analyze organic substances such as blood, food, and drugs; some examine evidence in criminal investi gations. Chemical technicians work with chemists and chemical engineers, developing and using chemicals and related products and equipment. Most do research and development, testing, or other laboratory work. They set up and conduct tests and experiments and collect and analyze data. Some chemical technicians collect and analyze samples of air and water to monitor pollution levels. Nuclear technicians operate nuclear test and research equipment, monitor radiation, and assist nuclear engineers and physicists in re search. Some also operate remote control equipment to manipulate radioactive materials or materials to be exposed to radioactivity. Petroleum technicians measure and record physical and geologic conditions in oil or gas wells using instruments lowered into wells or 224 Occupational Outlook Handbook by analysis of the mud from wells. In oil and gas exploration, they collect and examine geological data or test geological samples to determine petroleum and mineral content. Some petroleum techni cians, called scouts, collect information about oil and gas well drilling operations, geological and geophysical prospecting, and land or lease contracts. Other science technicians collect weather information or assist oceanographers. Working Conditions Science technicians work under a wide variety of conditions. Many work indoors, usually in laboratories, and have regular hours. Some occasionally work irregular hours to monitor experiments that can’t be completed during regular working hours. Others, such as agricul tural and petroleum technicians, perform much of their work outdoors, sometimes in remote locations, and some may be exposed to hazardous conditions. Chemical technicians sometimes work with toxic chemi cals, nuclear technicians may be exposed to radiation, and biological technicians sometimes work with disease-causing organisms. How ever, there is little risk if proper safety procedures are followed. Employment Science technicians held about 232,000 jobs in 1988. About 40 percent worked in manufacturing, especially in the chemical, petroleum refin ing, and food processing industries. Almost 40 percent worked in service industries, mainly in colleges and universities and in indepen dent research and development laboratories. In 1988, the Federal Government employed about 17,600 science technicians, mostly in the Departments of Defense, Agriculture, Inte rior, and Commerce. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are several ways to qualify for a job as a science technician. Most employers prefer applicants who have at least 2 years of specialized training. Many junior and community colleges offer associate degrees in a specific technology or a more general education in science and mathematics. Technical institutes generally offer technician training but provide less theory and general education than junior or community colleges. The length of programs at technical institutes varies, although 2-year associate degree programs are common. Many science techni cians have a bachelor’s degree in science or mathematics, or have had science and math courses in 4-year colleges. Some with bachelor’s degrees become science technicians because they can’t find or don’t want a job as a scientist or because employers couldn’t find properly trained technicians with less education. In some cases, they may be able to move into jobs as scientists, managers, or technical sales workers. Some companies offer formal or on-the-job training for science technicians. Technicians also may qualify for their jobs with some types of Armed Forces training. Persons interested in careers as science technicians should take as many high school science and math courses as possible. They should be able to work well with others since technicians often are part of a team. Technicians usually begin work as trainees in routine positions under the direct supervision of a scientist or experienced technician. As they gain experience, they take on more responsibility and carry out assignments under only general supervision. Some eventually become supervisors. Job Outlook Science technicians with good technical and communications skills should experience very good employment opportunities through the year 2000. Employment is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to an expected growth in scientific research and development and production of tech nical products. Because of the growth of biotechnology, employment of biological technicians is expected to grow faster than other science technicians. Employment of chemical, nuclear, and petroleum techni cians is expected to grow more slowly. Despite the projected growth, most job openings will arise from the need to replace technicians who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Earnings Median annual earnings of science technicians were about $21,600 in 1988; the middle 50 percent earned between $16,300 and $29,200. Ten percent earned less than $12,900, and 10 percent earned over $38,000. In the Federal Government in 1989, science technicians could start at $12,531, $14,067, or $15,738, depending on their education and experience. The average salary for science technicians employed by the Federal Government was $21,655 in 1988. Related Occupations Other technicians who apply scientific principles at a level usually taught in 2-year associate degree programs include engineering techni cians, broadcast technicians, drafters, and health technologists and technicians. Some of the work of agricultural and biological techni cians is related to that in agriculture and forestry occupations. Sources of Additional Information For information about a career as a chemical technician, contact: w-American Chemical Society, Education Division, Career Publications, 1155 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Tool Programmers, Numerical Control (D.O.T 007.167-018 and 020.187-014) A chemical technician at work at an agricultural research center. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Aircraft, industrial machinery, construction equipment, and many other durable goods require precision-machined metal parts. Most of these parts are made with machine tools—drill presses, lathes, milling machines, and others—an increasing number of which are numerically controlled (NC). NC machine tools contain an electronic controller that directs the machine’s operations. The controller “reads” a program—a Technicians and Related Support Occupations V ► , * * v " ► - „ * coded list of the steps necessary to perform a specific machining job— and runs the machine tool’s mechanisms through the steps. The quality of the products these machines produce depends largely on the coded instructions, known as programs, that are written by tool programmers. Tool programmers must have a broad knowledge of machining operations, mathematics, and blueprint reading. They must know how various machine tools operate and the working properties of the metals and plastics used to make parts. Although machinery manufacturers are trying to standardize programming languages, currently there are numerous languages in use. Because of this, tool programmers must know the languages for each of the machines with which they work. Programmers often use previous machine shop experience when planning and writing a program. They begin the task of writing a program by analyzing the blueprints of the item to be made by the machine. They then determine the sequence of machine operations and select the proper cutting tools needed to machine the workpiece into the desired shape. They also determine the amount and types of coolants and lubricants that will be discharged during the machining process. For simple jobs, they manually compute the size and position of the cuts that must be made on the workpiece, and also calculate the machine speed and feed rate needed for the type of material being machined. They then write the program in the language of the ma chine’s controller and put it on a storage medium such as punch tape, magnetic tape, or floppy disk. For most jobs, programmers use computers to write the program for the machine controller. Using computer languages called general processors, programmers can write the program for a controller as a series of simple commands. The computer does the mathematics and uses programs called post processors to translate the general processor program into the language of the controller and store it on tape or on disk. A growing number of firms have computer-aided design (CAD) systems that programmers can use to write the program for the control ler. When a part is designed using a CAD system, data about its dimensions are calculated. In a CAD system with the proper software, the tool programmer can use these data to develop the controller’s program. Tool programmers do not write or maintain the general or post processors and CAD software; they only use them as aids in their work. Programmers also write an instruction list to help the machine operator set up and tend the machine. In addition, they may assist the operator in the initial setup and operation of the machine. Finally, programmers may watch a trial run of the machine to insure that it is functioning properly and check the output to be sure all specifications are met. Because a problem with the program could damage the costly machinery and cutting tools, computer simulations may be used instead of a trial run to check the program. If errors are found, the program must be changed and retested until the problem is resolved. The length of time it takes to complete a program depends on its complexity. For simple programs, only one programmer may be needed. However, for more complex machining operations, a team of programmers may work for several months on the project. 225 Although tool programmers work in all parts of the country, jobs are most plentiful in areas where manufacturing is concentrated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement When hiring tool programmers, employers prefer skilled machinists or tool and die makers or those with technical school training in tool programming. For some specialized types of programming, such as complex parts for the aerospace or shipbuilding industries, they may even prefer individuals with a degree in engineering. For those interested in pursuing a career as a tool programmer, high school courses in mathematics, blueprint reading, metalworking, data processing, physics, and drafting provide a valuable background. Most programmers learn their skills through a combination of voca tional or community college education and on-the-job training. Class room training begins with an introduction to numerical control and the basics of programming and then advances to more complex topics, such as computer-aided design. In the shop, those without previous experience in the metalworking field often receive informal training in machine operations and metal properties. Then trainees start writing simple programs under the direction of an experienced programmer. Although they are writing these programs for the machining of metal parts, the program may initially be tested on wood or wax because an error could severely damage the machinery and cutting tools. Because programming methods vary for different brands of numeri cally controlled machine tools, programmers must receive additional training when new machinery is introduced. This often is conducted at the plant by a representative of the machinery manufacturer. In addition, to stay abreast with emerging developments in the field, programmers often continue to upgrade their programming skills through courses at community colleges. Although practice varies from shop to shop, many employers will pay for this training. Tool programmers can advance to supervisory jobs or may transfer to skilled machining jobs such as tool designer. Job Outlook Employment of tool programmers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. In addition to openings arising from growth in demand for these workers, many openings are expected to occur each year as programmers transfer to other fields of work or retire. Because this is a relatively small occupa tion, however, the total number of job openings will be much smaller than in other machining occupations, such as metalworking and plastic working machine operator, machinist, and tool and die maker. As the economy grows, the demand for industrial machinery, air craft, motor vehicles, and other products that use machined parts or rely on tooling for molded parts will increase. In order to better compete with foreign manufacturers of these goods, American firms are expected to continue investing in automated and numerically con- Working Conditions Most tool programmers work in offices that are near, but separate from, the shop floor. Work areas are usually clean, well lighted and ventilated, and free of machine noise. Generally, their work is not as active nor as dangerous as that of workers who operate the machine tools. However, when they assist machinists or numerical-control machine-tool operators on the shop floor, tool programmers must follow established safety precautions—such as wearing protective glasses and earplugs. Most tool programmers work a 40-hour week; however, overtime is common during periods of increased manufacturing activity. Employment Numerical-control tool programmers held about 7,900 jobs in 1988. Almost all worked for manufacturing firms or small machining shops that produce durable goods such as aircraft parts, industrial machinery, and instruments. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Tool programmers must have a broad understanding of machining operations, mathematics and blueprint reading. 226 Occupational Outlook Handbook trolled equipment. This is expected to reduce their labor costs by increasing productivity and to improve product quality by machining and tooling to more exact specifications. As use of numerically con trolled equipment expands, the demand for tool programmers will rise. Employment demand may be moderated somewhat in the years ahead. Research is underway to develop standardized programming languages. The “next generation controller” will provide programmers with more flexibility and should simplify some of the more routine programming functions, thus increasing programmers' productivity. Those interested in this occupation should keep in mind that employ ment is very sensitive to economic conditions. As manufacturing activity falls—because of overall economic slowdowns or rising im ports—so does demand for tool programmers. When this occurs, programmers may face layoffs or reduced workweeks. Earnings In 1988, tool programmers earned about $14.00 an hour, according to the limited data available. In comparison, the hourly rate for all https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis production workers in private industry, except farming, was $9.29. In addition to their hourly wage, most tool programmers receive health and life insurance, a pension plan, paid vacations, and sick leave. Related Occupations Tool programmers apply their knowledge of machining operations, metals, blueprints, and machine programming to write programs that run machine tools. Computer programmers also write detailed instruc tions for a machine—in this case a computer. Other highly skilled workers involved in metal machining work are tool and die designers, tool planners, tool and die makers, and machinists. Sources of Additional Information For more information about this occupation, contact: ""The National Machine Tool Builders, 7901 Westpark Dr McLean VA 22102. w-The National Tooling and Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Ft. Washington, MD 20744. *■The Tooling and Manufacturing Association (formerly The Tool and Die Institute), 1177 South Dee Rd., Park Ridge, IL 60068. V Marketing and Sales Occupations Cashiers (D.O.T. 209.567-014; 211.362-010, .367, .462, .467, .482; 249.467; and 294.567) t ► i L ► * „ * *_ Nature of the Work Supermarkets, department stores, movie theaters, restaurants, and many other businesses employ cashiers to facilitate the sale of their merchandise. Most cashiers total bills, receive money, make change, fill out charge forms, and give receipts. Bank tellers, who perform similar duties but work in financial institutions, are discussed else where in the Handbook. At the beginning of each shift, cashiers are assigned to a register and given a drawer to be inserted in it. The drawer contains a “bank” of money. Cashiers must count their bank to insure that it contains the correct sum of money and that there is an adequate amount of change. At the end of their shift, they once again count its contents and compare them with sales data. If there is a large shortage, they may recount it under a manager’s supervision. An occasional shortage of small amounts may be overlooked, but repeated shortages are grounds for dismissal in many establishments. Cashiers traditionally have rung up customers’ purchases using a cash register—manually entering the price of each product the con sumer was buying. Although cash registers are still used in most stores, an increasing number of establishments are using more sophisticated equipment, such as scanners and computer terminals. In stores with scanners, the cashier passes the product’s Universal Product Code over the scanning device, which transmits the code number to a computer. The computer identifies the item and its price. In other establishments, cashiers manually enter a code into a computer terminal, and a descrip tion of the item and its price appear on the screen. In stores with a commissioned sales staff, cashiers may also enter a code for the sales worker. After entering all items and subtracting the value of any coupons or special discounts, cashiers total the bill and take payment. Depending on the type of establishment, payment may be by cash, check, or charge. Cashiers must know the store’s policies and procedures for accepting each type of payment. For checks and charges, they may have to request additional identification from the customer or call in for an authorization. For example, many stores require two forms of identification when writing a check. After insuring that the identifica tion belongs to the individual, the cashier may write required informa tion—such as the telephone or credit card number—on the back of the check. When the sale is complete, cashiers give the appropriate change and issue a receipt to the customer. They may also wrap or bag the purchase. In addition to counting the contents of their drawer at the end of their shift, cashiers usually separate charge forms, return slips, cou pons, and any other noncash items. They may also remove and replace the master register tape and include it with the day’s receipts. Cashiers may also handle returns and exchanges. Before the cus tomer can exchange the item or receive a refund or credit slip, the cashier must insure that the merchandise is in good condition and determine where and when it was purchased and the type of payment used. Cashiers may have other duties as well. In many supermarkets and convenience stores, for example, cashiers weigh produce and bulk food as well as return unwanted items to the shelves. At movie theaters and ticket agencies, cashiers operate ticket-dispensing machines and answer questions. Those who work in restaurants may take reservations for meals and special parties or orders for take-out food. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Conditions Most cashiers work indoors, usually standing in small booths or behind counters. Because of their proximity to store entrances, cashiers may be exposed to cold drafts in the winter and considerable heat during the summer. In addition, they are often unable to leave their workstations without supervisory approval since they are responsible for large sums of money. Although some cashiers work the standard 40-hour week, more than one-half are on part-time schedules. The majority of those working part time do so on a voluntary basis—as many are students, homemak ers, and others seeking to supplement their income. Hours of work often vary depending on the needs of the employer. Generally, cashiers are expected to work weekends, evenings, and holidays to accommodate customers’ needs. However, because of this, many employers offer flexible schedules. Full-time workers who work on weekends receive time off during the week. Because the holiday season is the busiest time for most retailers, many employers restrict the use of vacation time from Thanksgiving through the beginning of January. The work of cashiers can be very repetitious, but it can be rewarding for those who like working with people. On the other hand, dealing with tired or angry customers can be very taxing. Employment Cashiers held about 2,310,000 jobs in 1988. Although employed in nearly every industry, more than one-third of all jobs were in supermarkets and other food stores. Department stores, gasoline ser vice stations, drug stores, and other retail establishments also em ployed large numbers of these workers. Because cashiers are needed in businesses and organizations of all types and sizes, jobs are distributed much like the general population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Cashier jobs tend to be entry level positions requiring little or no work experience. Although there are no specific educational requirements, employers filling full-time jobs prefer applicants with a high school More than one-third of all cashiers work in food stores. 227 228 Occupational Outlook Handbook diploma. Courses in business arithmetic, bookkeeping, typing, and other business subjects are good preparation for these jobs. Nearly all cashiers are trained on the job. In small firms, beginners are often trained by an experienced worker. The first day is usually spent observing the operation and becoming familiar with the store’s equipment, policies, and procedures. After this, trainees are assigned to a register—frequently under the supervision of a more experienced worker. In larger firms, trainees spend several days in classes before being placed on the sales floor. Topics covered typically include a description of the industry and the company, instruction on the store’s policies, procedures, and operation of the equipment, and a discussion of security. Training for experienced workers is not common except when new equipment is introduced or when procedures change. In these cases, training is given on the job by the employer or a representative of the equipment manufacturer. Persons who want to become cashiers should be able to do repetitious work accurately. They need finger dexterity, a high degree of eye-hand coordination, and an aptitude for working with figures. Because they deal constantly with the public, cashiers should be neat in appearance and be able to deal tactfully and pleasantly with customers. In addition, some firms seek persons who have operated specialized equipment or who have business experience, such as typing or selling. Advancement opportunities for cashiers vary. For those working part time, promotion may be to a full-time position. Others advance to head cashier or cash office clerk. In addition, the job offers a good opportunity to learn an employer’s business and so may serve as a steppingstone to a more responsible position. Job Outlook Employment of cashiers is expected to increase as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to expanding demand for goods and services by a growing population. Although growth will account for numerous openings, most jobs will result from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. As in the past, replacement needs will create a significant number of job openings, for the occupation is large and turnover is higher than average. Opportunities for part-time work are expected to continue to be excellent. Over the past decade, employment of cashiers grew rapidly as retailers introduced centralized cashier stations and increased the num ber of part-time jobs. The continued popularity of the self-service retail format and growth in discount retailing, coupled with a strong employer preference for part-time workers, should lead to further employment growth. Workers under the age of 25 traditionally have filled many of the openings in this occupation. However, this group of workers is projected to decline through the year 2000. In fact, employers in many areas are already facing a shortage of qualified applicants. As a result, employers can be expected to increase efforts to attract and retain workers by offering higher wages, more generous benefits, and more flexible schedules. Earnings Cashiers have earnings ranging from the minimum wage to several times that amount. Wages tend to be higher in unionized establish ments and in areas where there is intense competition for workers. In establishments covered by Federal law, those beginning at the minimum wage earn $3.80 an hour, rising to $4.25 an hour on April 1, 1991. However, employers can pay workers younger than 20 years a lower training wage for up to 6 months. In some States, the minimum wage in many establishments is governed by State law, and where State minimums are higher, the establishment must pay at least that amount. In 1988, median weekly earnings for full-time cashiers were about $192. The middle 50 percent earned between $151 and $269; 10 percent earned below $130; and 10 percent earned above $400. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Like many other occupations, benefits for full-time cashiers tend to be better than for those working part time. However, cashiers often receive health and life insurance and paid vacations. In addition, those working in retail establishments often receive a discount on purchases and those in restaurants may receive free or low-cost meals. Related Occupations Cashiers receive payment for the purchase of goods and services. Other workers with similar duties include food counter clerks, bank tellers, counter and rental clerks, postal service clerks, and sales clerks. Sources of Additional Information Details about employment opportunities are available from local busi nesses and the local office of the State employment service. Counter and Rental Clerks (D O T. 216.482-030; 249.362-010; .366-010; 295.357-010, -014 and -018; .367-010, -014, and -026; .467-010, -014, and -018; .477-010; 299.367-018; 369.367-010 and -014; .477-014; and .677-010) Nature of the Work Whether choosing a video tape, dropping off clothes to be drycleaned, or renting a car, we rely on counter and rental clerks to handle these transactions efficiently. Although specific duties vary by establish ment, counter and rental clerks are responsible for answering ques tions, taking orders, receiving payments, and accepting returns. In addition, they may do some selling when sales workers are unavailable. (Cashiers and retail sales workers, occupations with somewhat similar duties, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Regardless of where they work, counter and rental clerks must be knowledgeable about the company’s services, policies, and proce dures. Often, customers are not sure what they want. To assist them, counter and rental clerks may explain what is available, its cost, the rental provisions, and any promotions that are in effect. For example, in the car rental industry, they inform customers about the types of automobiles available, the daily and weekly rental costs, and the coverage options. When taking orders, counter and rental clerks use various types of equipment. In some establishments, they write out tickets and order forms. In a growing number, however, they use computers and bar code scanners. Many computer systems provide “menus” for the clerk, who selects the appropriate function depending on the customer’s request. Although clerks must enter a code or name at the prompt, most of these systems require very little data entry. Scanners “read" the product code and display a description of the item on a computer screen. Regardless of whether they are using a hand-held scanner or passing the product over a stationary scanner, clerks must insure that the data on the screen match the actual product. Counter and rental clerks also note any special instructions and check the condition of the merchandise. In drycleaning establishments, they inform the customer when the items will be ready. In rental agencies, they insure that customers meet any age or other require ments and state when and in what condition the item must be returned. When customers come to retrieve their clothing or return rented mer chandise, counter and rental clerks calculate the fee and take payment. They may also inspect the item to insure the merchandise has not been damaged. Depending on the type of establishment, they may have specialized duties. In a coin laundry, counter clerks, also called attendants, provide change for washers and dryers and often do laundry in establishments that provide drop-off service. Those employed in supermarkets and grocery stores may help customers select fresh flowers, delicatessen or bakery products, or cosmetics. In shops that rent formal wear, Marketing and Sales Occupations they may fit and measure garments; in video stores, they often make suggestions about which movie the customer might enjoy. Working Conditions Because firms employing counter and rental clerks generally operate at the convenience of their customers, these workers often work night and weekend hours. However, because of this, many employers offer flexible schedules. Working conditions are usually pleasant; most stores and service establishments are clean, well-lighted, and tempera ture controlled. However, clerks are on their feet much of the time and may be confined behind a small counter area. Although many counter and rental clerks work a 40-hour week, nearly one-half are on part-time schedules—usually during rush peri ods, such as weekends, evenings, and holidays. The majority of those working part time choose to do so because the wide range of store hours creates job opportunities attractive to homemakers, students, and others seeking supplemental income. This job requires constant interaction with the public and can be taxing—especially when something goes wrong. Employment Counter and rental clerks held about 241,000 jobs in 1988. About 1 clerk in 3 worked for a laundry or drycleaning establishment. Other large employers included automobile rental firms, equipment rental firms and leasing services, and grocery stores. Counter and rental clerks are employed throughout the country but are concentrated in metropolitan areas where renting and leasing services are in greater demand. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Counter and rental clerk jobs are primarily entry level and require little or no experience and little formal education. However, employers generally prefer high school graduates for these positions. Entrants to this occupation are often in their late teens and early twenties; for many, it is their first job. In most companies, counter and rental clerks are trained on the job. Training usually consists of learning how to operate the equipment and becoming familiar with the establishment’s policies and procedures under the observation of a more experienced worker. However, some employers have formal classroom training programs lasting from 1 to 2 weeks. Topics covered in this training usually include a description of the industry and the company, company policies and procedures, equipment operation, sales techniques, and customer service. Persons who want to become counter and rental clerks should enjoy working with people and have the ability to deal tactfully with difficult customers. Other desirable characteristics include a neat appearance, a pleasant personality, and good oral and written communication skills. Advancement opportunities vary depending on the size and type of company. However, jobs as counter and rental clerks offer good opportunities for workers to learn about their company’s products and business practices. These jobs can be steppingstones to more responsible positions, for it is common in many establishments to promote counter and rental clerks into assistant manager positions. Job Outlook Employment in this occupation is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to anticipated employment growth in the industries where they are concentrated. Despite this growth, however, most job openings will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. In recent years, employment in rental and leasing services has skyrocketed—creating thousands of new jobs for counter and rental clerks. Much of this growth has occurred in video rental stores, but continued growth in all rental services is expected. New opportunities will also be created in grocery stores as many of these establishments https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 229 expand into video rental and sales of prepared food and other specialty products. Like many other occupations in retail trade and food service, workers under the age of 25 traditionally have filled many of the openings in this occupation. However, this group of workers is projected to decline through the year 2000, and, as a result, employers can be expected to improve efforts to attract and retain workers and to increase the use of computerized equipment. To attract workers, employers are likely to offer higher wages and more generous benefits. To retain them, more emphasis will be placed on advancement opportunities. Increased use of computerized systems is expected to reduce the amount of time required to handle an order, enabling employers to expand their business without increasing their staff. Earnings Counter and rental clerks typically start at the minimum wage, which, in establishments covered by Federal law, was $3.80 an hour in 1990, and is scheduled to rise to $4.25 an hour on April 1, 1991. Employers can pay workers younger than 20 years a lower training wage for up to 6 months. However, in areas where there is intense competition for workers, wages are often much higher. In addition to their wages, some counter and rental clerks receive commissions based on the number of contracts they complete or services they sell. Retail counter clerks earned a median weekly income of $213 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $164 and $296 a week. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $ 138; the top 10 percent earned more than $443. Full-time workers typically receive health and life insurance and paid vacation and sick leave. Benefits for counter and rental clerks who work part time tend to be significantly less than for those who work full time. Many companies offer both full- and part-time employees discounts on the services they provide. Related Occupations Counter and rental clerks take orders and receive payment for services rendered. Other workers with similar duties include cashiers, retail sales workers, food counter clerks, postal service clerks, bank tellers, and toll collectors. SH0S REPAIR ' -aji; i || Job opportunities will be good for counter and rental clerks. 230 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information Details about employment opportunities are available from local busi nesses and local offices of the State employment service. health and disability policies. The following tabulation presents the percent distribution of wage and salary jobs by category of insurance. Percent Total................................................................................................. 100 Insurance Sales Workers (D.O.T. 239.267 and 250.257) Nature of the Work Most people have their first contact with an insurance company through an insurance sales agent or broker. These professionals help individuals or companies select the right policy for their needs. Insurance agents and brokers sell policies that provide individuals and businesses with financial protection against loss. They plan for the financial security of individuals, families, and businesses; advise about insurance protection for automobiles, homes, businesses, or other properties; prepare reports and maintain records; and help policyholders settle insurance claims. Specialists in group policies may help an employer provide employees the opportunity to buy insurance through payroll deductions. Insurance agents may work for one company or as independent agents selling for several companies. Insurance brokers do not sell for a particular company but place insurance policies for their clients with the company that offers the best rate and coverage. Insurance agents sell one or more of several types of insurance: Life, property-liability (casualty), health, and disability. Life insur ance agents offer policies that pay survivors when a policyholder dies. Depending on the policyholder’s circumstances, a whole-life policy also can be designed to provide retirement income, funds for the education of children, or other benefits. (Life insurance agents and brokers are sometimes called life underwriters; see the statement on underwriters elsewhere in the Handbook.) Casualty insurance agents and brokers sell policies that protect individuals and businesses from financial loss as a result of automobile accidents, fire or theft, or other losses. Casualty insurance can also cover workers’ compensation, product liability, or medical malprac tice. Many life and property/casualty insurance agents also sell health insurance policies covering the costs of hospital and medical care or loss of income due to illness or injury. An increasing number of insurance agents and brokers offer compre hensive financial planning services to their clients. As a result, many insurance agents and brokers are also licensed to sell securities, such as mutual fund shares or annuities. Since insurance sales agents obtain many new accounts through referrals, it is important that agents maintain regular contact with their clients to ensure their satisfaction. Developing a satisfied clientele who will recommend an agent’s services to other potential customers is a key to success in this field. Working Conditions Most insurance agents and brokers work in small offices, contacting clients and providing insurance policy information. However, most of their time is spent outside their offices, traveling locally to meet with clients and close sales. They generally arrange their own hours of work, and often schedule evening and weekend appointments for the convenience of clients. Many work more than 40 hours a week. Employment Insurance agents and brokers held about 423,000 jobs in 1988. Many work part time, especially beginners who have other jobs while they attempt to build up a clientele. Many agents and brokers are selfemployed. While most agents specialize in life insurance, a growing number (called multiline agents) offer life, property/casualty, and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Life insurance..................................................................................... Insurance agents, brokers, and services........................................ Fire, marine, and casualty insurance.............................................. Accident and health insurance, medical service plans................. Other industries.................................................................................. 47 36 10 4 3 Agents and brokers are employed in cities and towns throughout the country, but most work in or near large population centers. Some insurance agents and brokers are employed in the headquarters of insurance companies, but most work out of local company offices or independent agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although many companies prefer college graduates—particularly those who have majored in business or economics—for jobs selling insurance, some hire high school graduates with potential or proven sales ability or those who have been successful in other types of work. In fact, most entrants have transferred from other occupations. Understandably, they tend to be older, on average, than entrants to other occupations. College training may help the agent or broker grasp the fundamentals and procedures of insurance selling more quickly. Many colleges and universities offer courses in insurance, and some schools offer a bachelor’s degree in insurance. College courses in finance, mathemat ics, accounting, economics, business law, government, and business administration enable the insurance agent or broker to relate insurance to other personal finance problems and to economic conditions. Courses in psychology, sociology, and public speaking can prove useful in improving sales techniques. In addition, computer literacy is very important. The use of computers to provide instantaneous information on a wide variety of financial products has greatly im proved agents’ and brokers' efficiency and enabled them to devote more time to clients. All insurance agents and brokers must obtain a license in the States where they plan to sell insurance. In most States, licenses are issued only to applicants who complete specified courses and then pass written examinations covering insurance fundamentals and the State insurance laws. Agents and brokers who plan to sell mutual fund shares and other securities also must be licensed by the State. New agents usually receive training at the agencies where they work and, frequently, also at the insurance company’s home office. Beginners sometimes attend company-sponsored classes to prepare for examinations. Others study on their own and accompany experienced agents when they call on prospective clients. As the diversity of financial products sold by insurance agents and brokers increases, employers are placing greater emphasis on continuing professional education. Agents and brokers can hone their practical selling skills and broaden their knowledge of insurance and other financial services and planning by taking courses at colleges and universities and attending institutes, conferences, and seminars sponsored by insurance organizations. The Life Underwriter Training Council, in cooperation with the National Association of Life Under writers, offers a life insurance marketing program leading to the desig nation “LUTCF,” Life Underwriter Training Council Fellow. The American College of Bryn Mawr, in cooperation with the American Society of Chartered Life Underwriters and Chartered Financial Con sultants, offers programs leading to the designations Chartered Life Underwriter (CLU) and Chartered Financial Consultant (ChFC). A health insurance program, administered by Northeastern University and sponsored by the National Association of Health Underwriters, awards the Registered Health Underwriter (RHU) designation. Casu alty and property insurance agents and brokers can earn the Certified Marketing and Sales Occupations 231 The growing number of working women should further increase insur ance sales. Rising incomes as well as a concern for financial security also may stimulate sales of mutual funds, variable annuities, and other financial products and services. Growing demand for long-term healthcare and pension benefits for retirees—an increasing proportion of the population—should spur insurance sales. Sales of property/ casualty insurance should rise as more people seek coverage not only for their homes, cars, and valuables, but also for expensive, advanced technology products such as home computers and video recorders. As new businesses emerge and existing firms expand coverage, sales of commercial insurance should increase. In addition, complex types of commercial coverage such as product liability, workers’ compensa tion, employee benefits, and legal, kidnap, and pollution liability insurance are proliferating. Employment of agents and brokers will not keep pace with the rising level of insurance sales because more policies will be sold to groups and by mail and telephone. Agents now process policies much more efficiently by using computers. Also, some agents’ routine clerical tasks are being assumed by insurance sales representatives. The trend toward multiline agents also will cause employment to rise more slowly than the volume of insurance sales. In addition, large firms may increasingly hire risk managers to analyze their insurance needs and select the best policies. Most individuals and businesses consider insurance a necessity, regardless of economic conditions. Therefore, agents are not likely to face unemployment because of a recession. Many insurance sales workers develop expertise in a wide range of insurance and financial services. Insurance Counselor (CIC) designation from the Society of Certified Insurance Counselors; the Certified Professional Insurance Agent (CPIA) designation from the Society of Certified Professional Insur ance Agents, the certifying agency of the National Association of Professional Insurance Agents; and the Chartered Property Casualty Underwriter (CPCU) designation from the American Institute for Prop erty and Liability Underwriters. These designations, LUTCF, CLU, ChFC, RHU, CIC, CPIA, and CPCU are recognized marks of achieve ment in their respective fields. A growing number of States are making continuing education man datory. Insurance agents and brokers should be enthusiastic, outgoing, self confident, disciplined, hard working, and able to communicate effec tively. They should be able to inspire customer confidence. Some companies give personality tests to prospective employees because personality attributes are important in sales work. Since they usually work without supervision, agents and brokers must be able to plan their time well and have the initiative to locate new clients. An insurance agent who shows sales ability and leadership may become a sales manager in a local office. A few advance to agency superintendent or executive positions. However, many who have built up a good clientele prefer to remain in sales work. Some, particularly in the property/casualty field, establish their own independent agencies or brokerage firms. Job Outlook Employment of insurance agents and brokers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most job openings are expected to result from the need to replace agents and brokers who leave the occupation. Many beginners are unable to establish a sufficiently large clientele in this highly competitive busi ness. Opportunities should be best for ambitious people who enjoy sales work and who develop expertise in a wide range of insurance and financial services. Future demand for agents and brokers depends on the volume of sales of insurance and other financial products. Shifts in the age distribution of the population will result in a large increase in the number of people who assume career and family responsibilities. People in this group have the greatest need for life and health insurance. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings The median annual income of salaried insurance sales workers was $25,000 in 1988. The lowest 10 percent earned $ 13,900 or less, while the top 10 percent earned over $52,000. Generally, companies pay new agents a modest salary during the training period, which usually lasts about 6 months. Providing they meet established sales goals, agents arc usually subsidized for about 30 more months. Thereafter, most agents are paid on a commission basis. The amount of the commission depends on the type and amount of insurance sold, and whether the transaction is a new policy or a renewal. Some agents involved with financial planning receive an hourly fee for their services rather than a commission. Earnings usually increase rapidly with experience. According to a 1988 survey of the insurance industry conducted by the Life Insurance Marketing Research Association, agents in their second year averaged $21,200, agents in their third year averaged $24,700, agents in their fourth year averaged $30,400, while agents with more experience averaged $50,300 annually. About 55 percent of the agents with over 1 year of experience earned over $25,000 annually, while 68 percent of the agents with over 5 years of experience earned over $25,000. Property/casualty insurance agents usually earned higher incomes than other agents. Insurance agents generally pay their own automobile and travel expenses. Independent agents and brokers must also pay office rent, clerical salaries, and other operating expenses out of their earnings. Most agents and brokers have group life and health insurance plans and retirement pensions. The size of most pensions depends on sales volume. Related Occupations Other workers who sell complex or expensive products or services include real estate agents and brokers, securities and financial services sales representatives, financial advisors, estate planning specialists, and manufacturers’ sales workers. Sources of Additional Information General occupational information about insurance agents and brokers is available from the home office of many life and casualty insurance companies. Information on State licensing requirements may be ob tained from the department of insurance at any State capital. 232 Occupational Outlook Handbook Information about a career as a life insurance agent or broker also is available from: w-American Society of Chartered Life Underwriters (CLU) and Chartered Financial Consultants (ChFC), 270 Bryn Mawr Ave., Bryn Mawr, PA 19010. (•-National Association of Life Underwriters, 1922 F St. NW., Washington, DC 20006. For information on health insurance agents and brokers, contact: (•-National Association of Health Underwriters, 1000 Connecticut Ave. NW., Suite 1111, Washington, DC 20036. For information on courses in health and life insurance, contact: (•-Health Insurance Association of America, Education Department, 1025 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036. For information about insurance sales careers in independent agencies and brokerages, contact: (•-Independent Insurance Agents of America, 100 Church St., 19th Floor, New York, NY 10007. (•-National Association of Professional Insurance Agents, 400 N. Washington St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Manufacturers’ and Wholesale Sales Representatives (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 463.) Nature of the Work A bag of potato chips, a piece of construction equipment, a romance novel. These and thousands of other products are bought and sold each day. To facilitate this process, firms employ manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives to market their products to manufactur ers, wholesale and retail establishments, government agencies, and other institutions. Regardless of the type of product they sell, the primary job of these sales representatives is to interest wholesale and retail buyers and purchasing agents in their merchandise. (Retail sales workers, who sell directly to consumers, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Depending on where they work, these sales representatives have different job titles. Many of those representing manufacturers are referred to as manufacturers' representatives and those employed by wholesalers generally are called sales representatives. Those selling technical products, for both manufacturers and wholesalers, are usually called industrial sales workers or sales engineers. In addition to those employed directly by firms, manufacturers’ agents are self-employed sales workers who contract their services to all types of companies. Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives spend much of their time traveling to and visiting with prospective buyers. During a sales call, they show samples, pictures, and catalogs that describe items that their company stocks. Often, sales representatives discuss the customers’ needs and suggest how their company’s merchandise can meet those needs. They inform customers about prices, availabil ity, special sales promotions, and how their products can save money and improve productivity. In addition, because of the vast number of manufacturers and wholesalers selling similar products, they try to emphasize the prompt and dependable services offered by their com pany. They also take orders and resolve any problems or complaints with the merchandise. These sales representatives may have additional duties as well. For example, sales engineers, who are among the most highly trained sales workers, typically sell products whose installation and optimal use require a great deal of technical expertise and support—products such as industrial robots, numerical-control machinery, and mainframe computers. In addition to providing information on their firm’s prod ucts, these workers help prospective buyers with technical problems. For example, they may recommend improved materials and machinery for a firm’s manufacturing process, draw up plans of proposed machin ery layout, and estimate cost savings from buying their equipment. They present this information to company officials and negotiate a sale, a process that may take several months. In addition, they may https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis work with engineers in their own companies, adapting products to a customer’s special needs. After the sale, sales representatives may make frequent followup visits to ensure that the equipment is function ing properly and may even get involved in training customers’ employ ees to operate and maintain new equipment. Those selling consumer goods often suggest how and where their merchandise should be displayed. Working with retailers, they may arrange a promotional program, such as a visit by a celebrity. They also perform many other services for retailers, such as checking the store’s displays, taking reorders, and advising them about advertising and pricing. Prospecting for new clients is another important component of this job. Sales representatives whose products are not in wide distribution follow leads generated by other clients, from advertisements in trade journals, and from participation in trade shows and conferences. They may also attempt to capture accounts from other companies by stressing the superior quality, price, or performance of their merchandise. Often, this may require meeting with and entertaining prospective clients after work. Sales representatives also analyze sales statistics, prepare reports, and handle administrative duties, such as filing their expense account reports, scheduling appointments, and making travel plans. They also study literature about new and existing products and monitor the sales, prices, and new product developments of their competitors. In addition to all these duties, manufacturers’ agents must manage their businesses. This requires organizational skills as well as knowl edge of accounting, marketing, and administration. Working Conditions Some manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives have large territories and do considerable traveling. Because a sales region may cover four or five States, they may be away from home for several days or weeks at a time. Others work near their “home base” and most of their traveling is done by automobile. Because their days are usually spent making sales calls, most sales representatives spend evenings writing reports and performing other administrative duties. As a result, sales representatives typically work more than 40 hours per week. Although the hours are long, most sales representatives have the freedom to determine their own schedule. As a result, they may be able to arrange their appointments so that they can have time off when they want it. Dealing with different types of people can be both stimulating and demanding. In addition, sales representatives often face competition not only from representatives of other companies, but also from fellow workers. Companies may set goals or quotas and hold contests with prizes for those who make the most sales. Because their incomes depend solely on commissions, manufacturers’ agents are also under the added pressure to maintain and expand their client base. Manufacturers’ representatives talk to prospective customers at trade shows. Marketing and Sales Occupations Employment Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives held about 1,883,000 jobs in 1988. Two of every three worked in wholesale trade—mostly for distributors of machinery and equipment, food prod ucts, motor vehicles and parts, hardware and plumbing, and electrical goods. Others were employed in manufacturing and mining. Unlike other sales occupations, few opportunities exist for part-time work. In addition to those working directly for a firm, many were selfemployed manufacturers’ agents who worked for a straight commission based on the value of their sales. However, these workers generally gained experience and recognition with a manufacturer or wholesaler prior to going into business for themselves. Although sales representatives work and travel in every part of the country, many are based out of their firm’s headquarters or regional office, which usually is located in or near a large city. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The background needed for sales jobs varies by product line and market. Although a college degree is increasingly desirable for a job as a sales representative, many employers prefer to hire individuals with previous sales experience. In fact, for many consumer products, such as food, sales ability and familiarity with brands are more impor tant than a degree. Firms selling industrial products, on the other hand, often require a degree in science or engineering in addition to industry experience. As a result, most entrants to this occupation, even those with college degrees, transfer from other occupations and tend to be older than entrants to other occupations. Many companies have formal training programs for beginning sales representatives that last up to 2 years. In some programs, trainees rotate among jobs in plants and offices to learn all phases of production, installation, and distribution of the product. In others, trainees take formal classroom instruction at the plant, followed by on-the-job training in a branch office under the supervision of a field sales manager. In some firms, new workers are trained by accompanying more experienced workers on their sales calls. As these workers gain famil iarity with the firm’s products and clients, they are given increasing responsibility until they are eventually assigned their own territory. These workers must stay abreast of new merchandise and the chang ing needs of their customers. They may attend trade shows where new products are displayed or conferences and conventions where they meet with other sales representatives and clients to discuss new product developments. In addition, many companies sponsor sales meetings where the company’s entire sales force is gathered together and presen tations are made on sales performance, product development, and profitability. Manufacturers' and wholesale sales representatives should be goal oriented, persuasive, and able to work independently. A pleasant personality and appearance, the ability to get along well with people, and problem-solving skills also are important. In addition, patience and perseverance are needed because completing a sale can take several months. Because these workers may be on their feet for long periods and may have to carry heavy product sample cases, some physical stamina is necessary. Sales representatives should also enjoy traveling because much of their time is spend visiting current and prospective clients. As in most selling jobs, arithmetic skills are an asset. Frequently, promotion takes the form of an assignment to a larger account or territory where commissions are likely to be greater. Experi enced sales representatives may move into jobs as sales trainers— workers who train new employees on selling techniques and company policies and procedures. Those who have good sales records and leadership ability may advance to sales supervisor, branch manager, or district manager. Those who demonstrate managerial ability eventually may advance to sales manager or other executive positions; many top corporate executives started as sales workers. In addition to advancement opportunities within a firm, frequent contact with business people in other firms helps these workers transfer to other jobs. Some go into business for themselves as manufacturers’ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 233 agents. Others find opportunities in buying, purchasing, advertising, or marketing research. Job Outlook Employment of manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives is expected to increase more rapidly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as the economy expands and as demand for durable and nondurable goods increases. In addition to growth arising from increasing demand for these products, many openings will result each year as experienced sales workers transfer to other occupations, retire, or stop working for other reasons. Although overall employment is expected to increase significantly, the outlook varies by industry and by type of sales job. Jobs are likely to be most plentiful in wholesale firms, where the majority are already employed. In recent years, foreign competition has increased in many manufacturing industries. As this continues, some firms will increase their direct sales force to stimulate sales. A growing number, however, will rely on wholesalers and manufacturers’ agents to market their products as a way to control their costs and expand their customer base. Thus, those interested in this occupation should keep in mind that direct selling opportunities in manufacturing are likely to be best with products with strong demand, such as consumer products or computers and related supplies and equipment. Opportunities for manufacturers’ agents will also rise in response to the anticipated increase in contracting out of the sales function. In addition, these workers will benefit from the increased consumption of imported goods because it is often more cost efficient for importers to delegate their sales responsibilities than to hire a sales force. Although overall opportunities are expected to be good, those enter ing this field should remember that sales are affected by changing economic conditions and consumer preferences. As a result, employ ment opportunities and earnings may fluctuate from year to year. Prospects will be best for those with the appropriate knowledge or technical expertise, plus the personal traits necessary for successful selling. In addition, although demand for their services is expected to be strong, those considering a career as a manufacturer’s agent should have good organizational and marketing skills and an established client base. Earnings Compensation methods vary by type of firm and product sold. How ever, most employers use a combination of salary and commission or salary plus bonus. Commissions are usually based on the amount of sales, whereas bonuses may depend on individual performance, on the performance of all sales workers in the group or district, or on the company’s performance. Median annual earnings of full-time manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives were about $28,000 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,900 and $41,400 a year. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $14,400; the top 10 percent earned more than $51,700 a year. In addition to their earnings, sales representatives working for an employer are usually reimbursed for their travel and entertainment expenses, such as transportation costs, meals, and hotels, and receive numerous benefits. These often include health and life insurance, a pension plan, vacation and sick leave, personal use of a company car, and “frequent flyer” mileage. Also, some companies offer incentives such as free trips or gifts for outstanding sales workers. Unlike those working directly for a manufacturer or wholesaler, manufacturers’ agents work strictly on commission. Depending on the type of product they are selling, their experience in the field, and the size of their client base, their earnings can be significantly higher or lower than those working in direct sales. In addition, because manufacturers' agents are self-employed, they must pay their own travel and entertainment expenses as well as provide for their own benefits. Related Occupations Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives must have sales ability and knowledge of the products they sell. Workers in other 234 Occupational Outlook Handbook occupations that require similar skills are retail, services, real estate, insurance, and securities sales workers, as well as wholesale and retail buyers. Sources of Additional Information Further information about job opportunities as a sales representative may be obtained from local employers. In addition, for information on sales and marketing educational programs, contact: ••-Distributive Education Clubs of America, 1908 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091. Information on manufacturers’ agents is available from: •-Manufacturers’ Agents National Association, 23016 Mill Creek Rd., P.O. Box 3467, Laguna Hills, CA 92654. Real Estate Agents, Brokers, and Appraisers (D.O.T. 191.267-010, 250.157, .357 except -022) Nature of the Work The purchase or sale of a home, or an investment property, is usually one of the most important financial events in peoples’ lives, and a much more complex transaction than the purchase of clothes or groceries. As a result, people generally seek the help of real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers when buying or selling homes. Real estate agents and brokers have a thorough knowledge of the housing market in their community. They know which neighborhoods will best fit their clients’ budgets, local zoning and tax laws, and where to obtain financing for the purchase. Agents and brokers also act as a medium for price negotiations between buyer and seller. Brokers are independent business people who not only sell real estate owned by others, but also rent and manage properties and develop new building projects. In closing sales, brokers often provide buyers with information on loans to finance the purchases. They also arrange for title searches and for meetings between buyers and sellers when details of the transactions are agreed upon and the new owners take possession. A broker’s knowledge, resourcefulness, and creativity in arranging financing that is most favorable to the prospective buyer often mean the difference between success and failure in closing a sale. In some cases, agents assume the responsibilities in closing sales, but, in many areas, this is done by lawyers or lenders. Brokers also manage their own offices, advertise properties, and handle other busi ness matters. Some combine other types of work, such as the sale of insurance or the practice of law, with their real estate business. Real estate agents generally are independent sales workers who provide their services to a licensed broker on a contract basis. In return, the broker pays agents a portion of the commission earned from property sold through the firm by the agent. Today, relatively few agents receive salaries as employees of a broker or realty firm. Instead, most derive their income from commissions paid for sales through the firm. In selling or renting real estate, brokers and agents generally first meet with potential buyers to get a feeling for the type of home they would like and can afford. Then, they may take the client to see a number of homes that appear to meet the needs and income of the client. Because real estate is so expensive, agents may have to meet several times with a prospective buyer to discuss properties. In answer ing questions, agents emphasize those selling points that are likely to be most important to the buyer. To a young family looking at a house, for example, they may point out the convenient floor plan and the fact that schools and shopping centers are close by. To a potential investor seeking the tax advantages of owning a rental property, they may point out the proximity to the city and the ease of finding a renter. Whenever bargaining over price becomes necessary, agents carefully follow the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis seller’s instructions and may present counteroffers in order to get the best possible price. There is more to agents’ and brokers’ jobs, however, than just selling. Since they must have properties to sell, they spend a significant amount of time obtaining “listings” (owner agreements to place proper ties for sale with the firm). Much time is spent on the telephone exploring leads gathered from advertisements and personal contacts. When listing property for sale, agents and brokers make comparisons with similar property being sold to determine its fair market value. Most real estate agents and brokers sell residential property. A few, usually in large firms or specialized small firms, sell commercial, industrial, agricultural, or other types of real estate. Each specialty requires knowledge of that particular type of property and clientele. Selling or leasing business property, for example, requires an under standing of leasing practices, business trends, and location needs. Agents who sell or lease industrial properties must know about trans portation, utilities, and labor supply. To sell residential properties, the agent must know the location of schools, religious institutions, shopping facilities, and public transportation, and be familiar with tax rates and insurance coverage. Agents and brokers increasingly use computers to generate lists of properties for sale, their location and description, and to identify available sources of financing. Real estate transactions involve substantial financial commitments, so parties to the transactions usually seek the advice of real estate appraisers, objective experts who do not have a vested interest in the property. An appraisal is an unbiased estimate of the quality, value, and best use of a specific property. Real estate appraisers, for example, may help prospective sellers set a competitive price, estimate the market value of a property as a condition for a mortgage loan, or determine the assessed value of a property for tax purposes. Many real estate appraisers are employees of banks, savings and loan associa tions, mortgage companies, and multiservice real estate companies, while others work for independent real estate appraisal firms that appraise property for a fee. When they make an appraisal, real estate appraisers inspect proper ties and evaluate the quality of their construction, condition, and functional design. They compile information on properties by taking measurements, interviewing persons familiar with the properties’ his tory, and searching public records of sales, leases, assessments, and other transactions. They estimate the present cost of reproducing any structures on the properties and how much the value of structures may have depreciated over time. Taking into consideration the location of the properties, current market conditions, and real estate trends or impending changes that could influence the future value of the proper ties, appraisers arrive at estimates of their value. Depending on the purpose of the appraisal, they may estimate the market value of the property, the insurable value, the investment value, or another kind of value. Appraisers often prepare formal reports that document their findings. Real estate appraisers often specialize in certain types of properties. Most appraise only homes, but others specialize in appraising apart ment or office buildings, shopping centers, or a variety of other types of commercial, industrial, or agricultural properties. Working Conditions Although real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers generally base their operations in offices, much of their time is spent outside the office—showing properties to clients, analyzing properties for sale, meeting with prospective clients, researching the state of the market, inspecting properties for appraisal, and performing a wide range of other duties. Brokers provide office space, but agents generally furnish their own automobiles. Agents, brokers, and appraisers often work more than a standard 40-hour week. In addition, they often work evenings and weekends to suit the convenience of their clients. Employment Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers held about 422,000 jobs in 1988. Many worked part time, and a significant number were self- Marketing and Sales Occupations employed. Many additional agents and brokers worked on a commis sion basis, many of them combining their real estate activities with other careers. Most real estate and appraisal firms are relatively small; indeed, some are a one-person business. Some large real estate firms have several hundred real estate agents operating out of many branch offices. Many brokers have franchise agreements with national or regional real estate organizations. Under this type of arrangement, similar to many fast-food restaurant operations, the broker pays a fee in exchange for the privilege of using the more widely known name of the parent organization. Although franchised brokers often receive help in train ing salespeople and in running their offices, they bear the ultimate responsibility for the success or failure of the firm. Real estate is sold and appraised in all areas, but employment is concentrated in large urban areas and in smaller but rapidly growing communities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Real estate agents and brokers must be licensed in every State and in the District of Columbia. All States require prospective agents to be a high school graduate, be at least 18 years old, and pass a written test. The examination—more comprehensive for brokers than for agents—includes questions on basic real estate transactions and on laws affecting the sale of property. Most States require candidates for the general sales license to complete at least 30 hours of classroom instruction and those seeking the broker’s license to complete 90 hours of formal training in addition to a specified amount of experience in selling real estate (generally 1 to 3 years). Some States waive the experience requirements for the broker’s license for applicants who have a bachelor’s degree in real estate. A small, but increasing number of States require that agents have 60 hours of college credit—roughly the equivalent of an associate degree. State licenses generally must be renewed every year or two, usually without reexamination. Some States, however, require continuing education for license renewal. The Federal Government requires that appraisers of most types of real estate be State licensed or certified by July 1, 1991. State requirements for appraisers must meet Federal standards, but States are free to set more stringent requirements. Appraisers must be “certi fied” to be able to appraise property involved in any federally related transaction of $1 million or more. Appraisal experience and a satisfac tory score on an examination are needed to be certified, but college education may be substituted for a portion of the experience require ment. “Licensed” appraisers, who must meet somewhat less stringent requirements, may appraise residential properties containing up to four units. Persons enter real estate appraisal from a variety of backgrounds. Traditionally, persons enter from real estate sales, management, and finance positions. However, a growing number of persons are entering appraiser jobs directly from college. College courses in real estate, finance and business administration, economics, and English can be helpful. Trainee appraisers usually assist experienced appraisers until they are able to become licensed. Persons who take real estate agent, broker, and appraiser positions are older, on average, than entrants to most other occupations. Many homemakers and retired persons are attracted to real estate sales by the flexible and part-time work schedules characteristic of this field and may enter, leave, and later reenter the occupation, depending on the strength of the real estate market, family responsibilities, and other personal factors. In addition to those who are entering or reentering the labor force, some transfer into real estate jobs from a wide range of occupations, including clerical and other sales jobs. As real estate transactions have become more complex, many firms have turned to college graduates to fill positions. A large number of agents, brokers, and appraisers have some college training, and the number of college graduates selling real estate has risen substantially in recent years. However, personality traits are fully as important as academic background. Brokers look for applicants who possess such characteristics as a pleasant personality, honesty, and a neat appear https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 235 ance. Maturity, tact, and enthusiasm for the job are required in order to motivate prospective customers in this keenly competitive field. Agents also should have a good memory for names and faces and business details, such as taxes, zoning regulations, and local land-use laws. Persons interested in beginning jobs as real estate agents often apply in their own communities, where their knowledge of local neighbor hoods is an advantage. The beginner usually learns the practical aspects of the job, including the use of computers to locate or list available properties or identify available sources of financing, under the direction of an experienced agent. Many firms offer formal training programs for both beginners and experienced agents. Larger firms generally offer more extensive pro grams than smaller firms. Over 1,000 universities, colleges, and junior colleges offer courses in real estate. At some, a student can earn an associate or bachelor’s degree with a major in real estate; several offer advanced degrees. Many local real estate boards that are members of the National Association of Realtors sponsor courses covering the fundamentals and legal aspects of the field. Advanced courses in appraisal, mortgage financing, property development and manage ment, and other subjects also are available through various National Association of Realtor affiliates. Many real estate appraisers voluntarily earn professional designa tions that represent formal recognition of their professional competence and achievements. A number of appraiser organizations have programs that, through a combination of experience, professional education, and examinations, lead to the award of such designations. Among the more common are various designations awarded by the American Institute of Real Estate Appraisers, the Society of Real Estate Apprais ers, and the American Society of Appraisers. Trained and experienced agents can advance in many large firms to sales or general manager. Persons who have received their broker’s license may open their own offices. Others with experience and training in estimating property value may become real estate appraisers, and people familiar with operating and maintaining rental properties may become property or real estate managers. Agents, brokers, and appraisers who gain general experience in real estate and a thorough knowledge of business conditions and property values in their localities may enter mortgage financing or real estate investment counseling. Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers need a thorough knowledge of the housing market in their community. 236 Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Outlook Employment of real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as a result of the growing volume of sales of residential and commercial properties. However, most job openings will occur each year as workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Real estate sales positions should continue to be relatively easy to obtain. Not everyone is successful in this highly competitive field, however; many beginners become discouraged by their inability to close a sufficient number of sales and subsequently leave the occupa tion. Well-trained, ambitious people who enjoy selling should have the best chance for success. Employment growth in this field will stem primarily from increased demand for home purchases and rental units. Shifts in the age distribu tion of the population over the next decade will result in a larger number of persons in the prime working ages (25-54 years old) with careers and family responsibilities. This is the most geographically mobile group in our society and the one that traditionally makes most of the home purchases. As their incomes rise, these people also may be expected to invest in additional real estate. Employment of real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers is sensi tive to swings in the economy. During periods of declining economic activity and tight credit, the volume of sales and the resulting demand for sales workers may decline. During these periods, the earnings of agents, brokers, and appraisers decline, and many work fewer hours or leave the occupation. Earnings Commissions on sales are the main source of earnings of real estate agents and brokers—few receive a salary. The rate of commission varies according to the type of property and its value; the percentage paid on the sale of farm and commercial properties or unimproved land usually is higher than that paid for selling a home. Commissions may be divided among several agents and brokers. The broker and the agent in the firm that obtained the listing generally share their part of the commission when the property is sold; the broker and the agent in the firm that made the sale also generally share their part of the commission. Although an agent’s share varies greatly from one firm to another, often it is about half of the total amount received by the firm. According to a National Association of Realtors survey, the median income of full-time real estate agents was about $18,000 a year in 1988. Real estate brokers had a median gross personal income (after expenses) of $41.000 a year, and broker associates—licensed brokers who did not have their own firm—$28,500 a year. The most successful agents and brokers earn considerably more. Some firms, especially the large ones, furnish group life, health, and accident insurance. Income usually increases as an agent gains experience, but individ ual ability, economic conditions, and the type and location of the property also affect earnings. Sales workers who are active in commu nity organizations and local real estate boards can broaden their con tacts and increase their earnings. A beginner’s earnings often are irregular because a few weeks or even months may go by without a sale. Although some brokers allow an agent a drawing account against future earnings, this practice is not usual with new employees. The beginner, therefore, should have enough money to live on until com missions increase. Related Occupations Selling expensive items such as homes requires maturity, tact, and a sense of responsibility. Other sales workers who find these character traits important in their work include automotive sales workers, securi ties and financial services sales workers, insurance agents and brokers, yacht brokers, travel agents, and manufacturers’ representatives. Other appraisers specialize in performing many types of appraisals besides real estate, including aircraft, antiques and fine arts, business valua tions, and yachts. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information Details on licensing requirements for real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers are available from most local real estate and appraiser organizations or from the State real estate commission or board. For more information about opportunities in real estate work, as well as a list of colleges and universities offering courses in this field, contact; w-National Association of Realtors, 430 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, IL 60611. Information on careers in real estate appraising is available from: •-American Institute of Real Estate Appraisers, 430 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, IL 60611. •-American Society of Appraisers, P.O. Box 17265, Washington, DC 20041. •-Society of Real Estate Appraisers, 225 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, IL 60601. ' Retail Sales Workers (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See page 463.) Nature of the Work Millions of dollars are spent each day on all types of merchandise— everything from sweaters and cosmetics to lumber and plumbing sup plies. Sales workers are employed by virtually every type of retailer to assist customers in the selection and purchase of these items. Whether selling shoes, computer equipment, or clothing, a sales worker’s primary job is to interest customers in the merchandise. This may be done by describing the product’s construction, demonstrating its use, or showing various models and colors. For some jobs, particu larly those selling expensive and complex items, special knowledge or skills are needed. Personal computer sales workers, for example, must have sufficient knowledge of electronics to explain to customers the features of various brands and models, the meaning of manufactur ers’ specifications, and the types of software that are available. In addition to selling, most retail sales workers make out sales checks; receive cash, check, and charge payments; and give change and receipts. Depending on the hours they work, they may have to open or close the cash register. This may include counting the money in the cash register; separating charge slips, coupons, and exchange vouchers; and making deposits at the cash office. Sales workers are often held responsible for the contents of their register, and repeated shortages are cause for dismissal in many organizations. Sales workers also handle returns and exchanges of merchandise, perform gift wrapping services, and keep their work areas neat. In addition, they may help stock shelves or racks, arrange for mailing or delivery of a purchase, mark price tags, take inventory, and prepare displays. Sales workers must be aware of any promotions the store is sponsor ing and know the store’s policies and procedures, especially on returns and exchanges. Because millions of dollars worth of merchandise is stolen each year, they also must be familiar with the store’s security practices. For example, many clothing stores use electronic sensors to discourage shoplifting. During slow selling periods, sales workers may install these on the merchandise. After the customer has purchased an item, they must remember to remove or deactivate the sensor. Consumers often form their impressions of a store by its sales force. The retail industry is very competitive and, increasingly, employers are stressing the importance of customer service and satisfaction. As a result, providing courteous and efficient service is becoming a more important component of this position. When a customer wants an item that is not on the sales floor, for example, the sales worker may check the stockroom and, if there are none there, may call another store to locate the item. Depending on the type of store, the sales clerk may offer to special order the item. To provide better customer service, some firms employ personal shoppers. Some personal shoppers assist consumers in purchasing a particular item. For example, personal shoppers employed in depart- Marketing and Sales Occupations ■mk'm ' 'J Being pleasant to customers is a major part of a retail sales worker’s job. ment stores often assist customers in updating their wardrobes. Others actually choose the item for the client based on information provided. For example, these workers may buy groceries and arrange for their delivery for people confined to their homes. Although most sales workers have many duties and responsibilities, in jobs selling standardized articles such as food, hardware, linens, and housewares, they often do little more than take payments and wrap purchases. (Cashiers, who have similar job duties, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Most sales workers in retail trade work in clean, comfortable, welllighted stores. However, they often stand for long periods and may be confined to a particular area. In addition, they often need supervisory approval when they want to leave the sales floor. On the other hand, some do not work in stores. Door-to-door sales representatives, for example, spend much of their time traveling throughout a community regardless of weather conditions. The 5-day, 40-hour week is the exception rather than the rule in retail trade. Many retail sales jobs are part time, and employees are on duty during peak selling hours, including evenings and weekends. Because weekends are busy days in retailing, almost all employees work at least one of these days and have a weekday off. Longer than normal hours may be scheduled before Christmas and during other peak periods. Some sales workers, especially those employed by stores in suburban shopping centers, regularly work one evening or more a week. In addition, most retailers restrict the use of vacation time from Thanksgiving until early January. This job can be rewarding for those who enjoy working with people. At times, however, the work may be repetitious and the customers surly. Employment Retail sales workers held about 4,571,000 jobs in 1988. They worked in stores ranging from small specialty shops employing several workers to the giant department store with hundreds of salespersons. In addi tion, some were self-employed representatives of direct sales compa nies and mail-order houses. The largest employers of retail sales workers, however, are department stores, apparel and accessories stores, grocery stores, and car dealers. This occupation offers many opportunities for part-time work and is especially appealing to students, retirees, and others looking to supplement their income. However, most of those selling “big ticket” items, such as cars and automotive equipment, furniture, electronic equipment, and household appliances, work full time. Because retail stores are found in every city and town, sales positions are distributed geographically in much the same way as the population. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 237 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There generally are no formal education requirements for this type of work—in fact, many people get their first job in retail sales. Employers prefer persons who enjoy working with people and have the tact to deal with difficult customers. Among other desirable characteristics are an interest in sales work, a pleasant personality, a neat appearance, and the ability to communicate clearly. In addition, because they are selling valuable merchandise, almost all employers require a good character. Some employers may even conduct a background check before hiring—especially for those positions selling high-priced items. In most small stores, an experienced employee or the proprietor instructs newly hired sales personnel in making out sales checks and operating the cash register. In larger stores, training programs are more formal and usually are conducted over several days. Initially, trainees are taught how to make cash, check, and charge sales. Next, they are instructed on returns and special orders. Other topics usually included are customer service, security, and the store’s policies and procedures. Depending on the type of product that they are selling, they may be given specialized training. For example, those working in cosmetics receive instruction on the types of products available and for whom they would be most beneficial. Some retail sales workers are hired for a particular department; others are placed after they have completed training. Placement is usually based on where positions are available. However, there are some retail sales workers, often called “floaters,” who are not assigned to a particular department; instead, they fill in where needed. As those who work full time gain experience and seniority, they usually move to positions of greater responsibility or to those with potentially higher commissions. The most experienced—and the highest paid—sales workers sell big-ticket items. This work requires the most knowledge of the product and the greatest talent for persuasion. Traditionally, capable sales workers without a college degree could advance to management positions. However, a college education is becoming increasingly important for management jobs. Large retail businesses generally prefer to hire college graduates as management trainees. Despite this trend, capable employees without a college degree should still be able to advance to administrative or supervisory work in large stores. In addition, large stores often have several departments where employees are paid on a commission basis—that is, their earnings are a percentage of the sales they make. Earnings in these departments are usually higher than in salaried departments, and, as a result, transferring into these departments is usually considered a promotion. Opportunities for advancement vary in small stores. In some estab lishments, advancement opportunities are limited because one person, often the owner, does most of the managerial work. In others, however, some sales workers are promoted to assistant managers. Retail selling experience may be an asset when applying for sales positions with larger retailers or in other industries, such as financial services, wholesaling, or manufacturing. Job Outlook Employment of retail sales workers is expected to increase faster than the average for all workers through the year 2000 due to anticipated growth in retail sales. In addition, numerous job openings will be created as sales workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. As in the past, replacement needs will generate an exceptionally large number of sales jobs because the occupation is large and turnover is higher than average. There will continue to be many opportunities for part-time workers, and demand will be strong for temporary work ers during peak selling periods such as the Christmas season. Retail trade has always been a very competitive industry—tradition ally dominated by large department stores. Recently, however, con sumers have been doing more of their shopping at specialty stores, discounters, and nontraditional retailers—catalog, television, and tele phone shopping services. To combat this, many department stores have renewed their emphasis on customer service and increased the number of sales and other promotions. Although increased sales vol ume by discounters and other nonstore retailers is expected to slow 238 Occupational Outlook Handbook demand for sales workers, this should be offset by the increased demand for these workers by department and specialty stores as they strive to achieve customer service and satisfaction. Job opportunities should be best in these establishments. During recessions, sales volume and the resulting demand for sales workers generally decline. Purchases of costly items such as cars, appliances, and furniture tend to be postponed during difficult eco nomic times. In areas of high unemployment, sales of all types of goods may decline. Layoffs, however, are unlikely. Since sales worker turnover is usually very high, employers often can cut employment simply by not replacing all those who leave. Workers under the age of 25 traditionally have filled many of the openings in this occupation. However, this group of workers is projected to decline through the year 2000. In fact, employers in many areas are already facing a shortage of qualified applicants. As a result, employers can be expected to improve efforts to attract and retain workers by offering higher wages, more generous benefits, and more flexible schedules. Nevertheless, competition is expected to remain strong for most commission-based jobs. Earnings Earnings of retail sales workers vary widely by type of goods sold, as the following tabulation shows. Motor vehicles and boats..................................................................$439 Furniture and home furnishings..................................................... 354 Auto, electronic, and other parts.................................................. 323 Radio, television, hi-fi, and appliances........................................ 322 Door-to-door sales........................................................................... 302 Hardware and building supplies..................................................... 300 Apparel.............................................................................................. 207 Other commodities.......................................................................... 217 The starting wage for many part-time positions was the Federal minimum wage, $3.80 an hour in 1990. The minimum wage is sched uled to rise to $4.25 an hour on April 1, 1991. However, employees can pay workers younger than 20 years a lower training wage for up to 6 months. In some areas where employers are having difficulty attracting and retaining workers, wages are much higher than the established minimum. Compensation systems vary by type of establishment and merchan dise being sold. Some sales workers receive salary plus commissions. Others are paid only on a commission or salary basis. Those paid by commission may find their earnings greatly affected by ups and downs in the economy. Benefits tend to be few in smaller stores, but in large establishments they are comparable to those offered by other employers and usually include vacation and sick leave, health and life insurance, and pension plans. In addition, nearly all sales workers are able to buy merchandise at a discount, often from 10 to 30 percent below regular prices. In some cases, this privilege is extended to the employee’s family as well. Related Occupations Sales workers use sales techniques coupled with their knowledge of merchandise to assist customers and encourage purchases. These skills are used by people in a number of other occupations, including demon strators, wholesale trade sales workers, real estate sales agents, whole sale and retail buyers, insurance agents and brokers, manufacturers’ sales workers, and cashiers. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in retail sales may be obtained from the person nel offices of local stores; from State merchants’ associations; or from local unions of the United Food and Commercial Workers International Union. In addition, general information about retailing is available from: ••-National Retail Merchants Association, 100 West 31st St,, New York, NY 10001. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Securities and Financial Services Sales Representatives (D.O.T. 162.157-014, -042; 251.157, .257-010) Nature of the Work Securities sales representatives. Most investors—whether they are individuals with a few hundred dollars or large institutions with mil lions to invest—use securities sales representatives when buying or selling stocks, bonds, shares in mutual funds, insurance annuities, certificates of deposit, or other financial products. Securities sales representatives often are called registered representatives, account executives, or brokers. When an investor wishes to buy or sell securities, sales representa tives may relay the order through their firms’ offices to the floor of a securities exchange, such as the New York Stock Exchange. There, securities sales representatives known as brokers' floor representatives buy and sell securities. If a security is not traded on an exchange, the sales representative sends the order to the firm’s trading department, which trades it directly with a dealer in the over-the-counter market. After the transaction has been completed, the sales representative notifies the customer of the final price. Securities sales representatives also provide many related services for their customers. Depending on a customer’s knowledge of the market, they may explain the meaning of stock market terms and trading practices; offer financial counseling; devise an individual fi nancial portfolio for the client including securities, life insurance, corporate and municipal bonds, mutual funds, certificates of deposit, annuities, and other investments; and offer advice on the purchase or sale of particular securities. Not all customers have the same investment goals. Some individuals may prefer long-term investments designed either for capital growth or to provide income over the years; others might want to invest in short-term securities that they hope will rise in price quickly. Securities sales representatives furnish information about the advantages and disadvantages of an investment based on each person’s objectives. They also supply the latest price quotations on any security in which the investor is interested, as well as information on the activities and financial positions of the corporations issuing these securities. Securities sales representatives may serve all types of customers or they may specialize in one type only, such as institutional investors. In institutional investing, most sales representatives specialize in a specific financial product such as stocks, bonds, options, annuities, or commodity futures. Some handle the sale of new issues, such as corporate securities issued to finance plant expansion. The most important part of a sales representative’s job is finding clients and building a customer base. Thus, beginning securities sales representatives spend much of their time searching for customers— relying heavily on telephone solicitation. They may meet some clients through business and social contacts. Many sales representatives find it useful to get additional exposure by teaching adult education invest ment courses or giving lectures at libraries or social clubs. Brokerage firms may give sales representatives lists of people with whom the firm has dealt in the past. Sometimes sales representatives may inherit the clients of representatives who have retired. Financial services sales representatives. Financial services sales representatives call on various businesses to solicit applications for loans and new deposit accounts for banks or savings and loan associa tions. They also locate and contact prospective customers to present their bank’s financial services and to ascertain the customer’s banking needs. At most small and medium-size banks, branch managers and commercial loan officers are responsible for marketing the bank’s financial services. As banks offer more and increasingly complex financial services—for example, securities brokerage and financial Marketing and Sales Occupations 239 planning—the job of the financial services sales representative will assume greater importance. Working Conditions Securities sales representatives usually work in offices where there is much activity. They have access to “quote boards” or computer termi nals that continually provide information on the prices of securities. When sales activity increases, due perhaps to unanticipated changes in the economy, the pace may become very hectic. Established securities sales representatives usually work the same hours as others in the business community. Beginners who are seeking customers may work much longer hours, however. Most securities sales representatives accommodate customers by meeting with them in the evenings or on weekends. Financial services sales representatives generally work in a comfort able, less stressful office environment. They generally work 40 hours a week. They may spend considerable time outside the office meeting with present and prospective clients, attending civic functions, and participating in trade association meetings. Some financial services sales representatives work exclusively inside banks, providing service to “walk-in” customers. Employment Securities and financial services sales representatives held about 200,000 jobs in 1988. In addition, a substantial number of people in other occupations sold securities. These include partners and branch office managers in securities firms as well as insurance agents and brokers offering securities to their customers. Securities sales representatives are employed by brokerage and investment firms in all parts of the country. Many of these firms are very small. Most sales representatives, however, work for a small number of large firms with main offices in big cities (especially in New York) and approximately 23,000 branch offices in other areas. Financial services sales representatives are employed by banks, savings and loan associations, and other credit institutions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because securities sales representatives must be well informed about economic conditions and trends, a college education is increasingly important, especially in the larger securities firms. In fact, the over whelming majority of entrants to this occupation are college graduates. Although employers seldom require specialized academic training, courses in business administration, economics, and finance are helpful. Many employers consider personal qualities and skills more impor tant than academic training. Employers seek applicants who have sales ability and good communication skills, are well groomed, and have a strong desire to succeed. Self-confidence and an ability to handle frequent rejections also are important ingredients for success. Because maturity and the ability to work independently also are important, many employers prefer to hire those who have achieved success in other jobs. Some firms prefer candidates with sales experi ence, particularly those who have worked on commission in areas such as real estate or insurance. Understandably, most entrants to this occupation transfer from other jobs. Some begin working as securities sales representatives following retirement from other fields. Securities sales representatives must meet State licensing require ments, which generally include passing an examination and, in some cases, furnishing a personal bond. In addition, sales representatives must register as representatives of their firm according to regulations of the securities exchanges where they do business or the National Association of Securities Dealers, Inc. (NASD). Before beginners can qualify as registered representatives, they must pass the General Securities Registered Representative Examination, administered by the NASD. All States require a second examination—the Uniform Securities Agents State Law Examination. These tests measure the prospective representative’s knowledge of the securities business, cus tomer protection, and recordkeeping procedures. Most employers provide on-the-job training to help securities sales representatives meet the requirements for registration. In most firms, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A successful salesperson must be enthusiastic and motivated. the training period generally takes about 4 months. Trainees in large firms may receive classroom instruction in securities analysis, effective speaking, and the finer points of selling; take courses offered by business schools, such as the New York Institute of Finance, or other institutions and associations; and undergo a period of on-the-job train ing lasting up to 2 years. In small firms, sales representatives generally receive training in outside institutions and on the job. Many trainees take correspondence courses in preparation for the securities examina tions. Securities sales representatives must understand the basic character istics of a wide variety of financial products offered by brokerage firms. Representatives periodically take training, through their firms or outside institutions, to keep abreast of new financial products as they are introduced on the market and to improve their sales techniques. Training in the use of computers is important, as the securities sales business is highly automated. The principal form of advancement for securities sales representa tives is an increase in the number and size of the accounts they handle. Although beginners usually service the accounts of individual investors, eventually they may handle very large institutional accounts such as those of banks and pension funds. Some experienced sales representatives become branch office managers and supervise other sales representatives while continuing to provide services for their own customers. A few representatives advance to top management positions or become partners in their firms. Banks and other credit institutions prefer to hire college graduates for financial services sales jobs. A business administration degree with a specialization in finance or a liberal arts degree including courses in accounting, economics, and marketing serves as excellent preparation for this job. Financial services sales representatives learn through on-the-job training under the supervision of bank officers. Outstanding perfor mance can lead to promotion to managerial positions. Job Outlook The demand for securities sales representatives fluctuates as the econ omy expands and contracts. Thus, in an economic downturn, the number of persons seeking jobs usually exceeds the number of open ings—sometimes by a great deal. Even during periods of rapid eco nomic expansion,-however, competition for securities sales training positions—particularly in larger firms—is keen because of potentially 240 Occupational Outlook Handbook high earnings. Job opportunities should be best for mature individuals with successful work experience. Opportunities for inexperienced sales representatives should be best in smaller firms. The number of securities sales representatives is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most job openings, however, are expected to be created by representatives who transfer to other jobs or leave the labor force. Due to the highly competitive nature of securities sales work, many beginners leave the field because they are unable to establish a suffi cient clientele. Once established, however, securities sales representa tives have a relatively strong attachment to their occupation because of high earnings and the considerable investment in training. Employment of securities sales representatives is expected to expand as economic growth, rising personal incomes, and greater inherited wealth increase the funds available for investment. More individual investors are expected to purchase common stocks, mutual funds, and other financial products after seeking advice from securities sales representatives regarding the increasing array of investment alterna tives. Deregulation has enabled brokerage firms to sell certificates of deposit, offer checking and deposit services through cash management accounts, and sell insurance products such as annuities and life insur ance. Growth in the number and size of institutional investors will be strong as more people enroll in pension plans, set up individual retirement accounts, establish trust funds, and contribute to the endow ment funds of colleges and other nonprofit institutions. In addition, more representatives will be needed to sell securities issued by new and expanding corporations and by State and local governments financing public improvements. Employment of financial services sales representatives also is ex pected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as banks and credit institutions expand the financial services they offer, and issue more loans for personal and commercial use. Earnings According to the Securities Industry Association, average annual earn ings of beginning securities sales representatives were $28,000 in 1988. Earnings of full-time, experienced securities sales representa tives who served individual investors averaged about $71,000 a year, while the relatively small number of sales representatives who handled institutional accounts averaged about $240,000. Trainees usually are paid a salary until they meet licensing and registration requirements. After registration, a few firms continue to pay a salary until the new representative’s commissions increase to a stated amount. The salaries paid during training usually range from $1,000 to $1,400 a month. After candidates are licensed and registered, their earnings depend on commissions from the sale or purchase of stocks and bonds, life insurance, or other securities for customers. Commission earnings are likely to be high when there is much buying and selling and lower when there is a slump in market activity. Most firms provide sales representatives with a steady income by paying a “draw against com mission”—that is, a minimum salary based on the commissions which they can be expected to earn. Securities sales representatives who can provide their clients with the most complete financial services should enjoy the greatest income stability. Financial services sales representatives are paid a salary; some receive bonuses if they meet certain established goals. Average earn ings of financial services sales representatives are considerably less than those of securities sales representatives. Securities and financial services sales representatives usually receive paid health and life insurance. Many employers also offer profit sharing and stock options. Financial services sales representatives typically receive additional fringe benefits such as paid vacation and sick leave and pension plans. Related Occupations Similar sales jobs requiring specialized knowledge include insurance agents and real estate agents. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information Further information concerning a career as a securities sales represenatives is available for $1 from: (■-Securities Industry Association, 120 Broadway, New York, NY 10271. Career information also may be obtained from the personnel depart ments of individual securities firms. For information about job opportunities for financial services sales representatives in various States, contact State bankers’ associations. Or write directly to a particular bank to inquire about job openings. For the names and addresses of banks in a specific location as well as the names of their principal officers, consult one of the following directories. m-The American Bank Directory (Norcross, Ga., McFadden Business Publica tions). nrPolk’s World Bank Directory (Nashville, R.L. Polk & Co.). m-The U.S. Savings and Loan Directory (Chicago, Rand McNally & Co.). Services Sales Representatives (D.O.T. 165.157; 236.252; 250.357-022; 251.157-014, .257-014 and -018, .357; 252.257, .357; 253; 254; 259 except .257-014 and .357-026; 269.357 018; 273.357-014; 279.357-042; and 293 except .357-018) Nature of the Work Services sales representatives sell a wide variety of services, from linen supplies and cable television to educational services and telephone communications systems. Sales representatives for data processing services firms sell complex services such as inventory control, payroll processing, sales analysis, and financial reporting. An educational services sales representative might persuade States to use a particular licensing examination on insurance laws and regulations. Hotel sales representatives contact government, business, and social groups to solicit convention and conference business for the hotel. They contact prospective clients and determine their needs, outline the types and prices of services offered by the hotel, and prepare contracts when clients reserve space at the hotel. Fundraisers plan programs to raise money for charities or other causes such as the Special Olympics for handicapped children and mentally retarded adults. They write, telephone, or visit potential contributors and persuade them to donate money by explaining the purpose and benefits of various sports pro grams. They also may organize volunteers and plan special events to raise money. Sales representatives for temporary help services firms locate and acquire clients who will hire the firm’s employees. Tele phone services sales representatives contact and visit commercial cus tomers to review their telephone systems, analyze their communica tions needs, and recommend services such as installation of additional telephone instruments, lines, and switchboard systems. Other repre sentatives sell advertising, automotive leasing, public utility, extermi nating, burial, printing, shipping, protective, and management con sulting services. (Information on other sales workers, including insurance agents and brokers, real estate agents and brokers, securities and financial services sales representatives, and travel agents, appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) Despite the diversity of services being sold, the jobs of virtually all services sales representatives have much in common. First, all sales representatives must fully understand and be able to discuss the ser vices their company offers. Second, the procedures they follow are similar. They develop lists of prospective clients through selected use of telephone and business directories, asking business associates and customers for leads, and looking for new clients as they cover their assigned territory. Sometimes they acquire clients through persons who call to inquire about the company’s services. Then, they meet with clients and explain how the services being offered can meet their needs, sometimes using literature or demonstrations to describe their company’s services. They answer questions about the nature and cost of the services and try to persuade potential customers to purchase the services. If they fail to make a sale on the first visit, they may follow Marketing and Sales Occupations V TALK! 241 administrative and public relations responsibilities in addition to their sales duties. A sales representative’s job also depends on the size of his or her territory. A representative for a pest control company may sell primar ily by telephone from an office. A linen supply sales representative may serve a small territory in a large city, but a sales representative for a national educational services organization may be responsible for serving several States. Working Conditions Working conditions for sales representatives vary. Those responsible for a large territory may spend a great deal of time traveling, sometimes for weeks at a time. Representatives who cover a small territory may spend a certain amount of time in the office each day keeping records, preparing various documents, and setting up appointments with cus tomers. Appointments must be scheduled for a time most convenient to customers. Representatives who sell exclusively by telephone spend all their time in the office. Many representatives have the flexibility to set their own schedules so long as they meet their company's goals. Selling is stressful work. Sales representatives face competition not only from representatives of other companies but also from fellow workers. Companies may set goals df quotas and hold contests with prizes for those who make the most sales. Customer service is a vital ingredient for success in sales. up with more visits, letters, and phone calls. After making a sale, representatives call on their customers to see that the services have met their needs, to determine if additional services are needed, and to obtain referrals. Since services sales representatives obtain many new accounts through referrals, it is important that they maintain regular contact with their clients to ensure that they are satisfied with the services. Developing a satisfied clientele who will continue to use the services and will recommend the services to other potential customers is an important key to success in this field. Like other types of sales jobs, a services sales representative’s reputation is very important to his or her success. Some aspects of service sales work vary with the kind of service sold. Selling highly technical services such as communications systems or computer consulting services usually involves more complex and lengthy sales processes. In these situations, sales representatives usually operate according to policies outlined in the company’s marketing and business plans. Such work plans identify prospective clients, establish marketing strategies, and set forth staff responsibilities and timetables to achieve set goals. In selling technical services, sales representatives must become familiar with the intricacies of their customers’ operations in order to best serve their needs. Sales representatives often work as part of a team and receive technical assistance from support personnel. For example, those who sell data processing services might work with a systems engineer, and those who sell telephone services might receive technical assistance from a communications consultant. Because of the length of time between the initial contact with a customer and the actual sale, representatives who sell technical services generally work with several customers at one time. Since prospective sales might be at different stages of the process, sales representatives must be well organized and efficient in scheduling their time. On the other hand, some sales representatives deal exclusively with one large client. Selling less complex services such as linen supply, detective, or exterminating services generally involves simpler and shorter sales processes. A sales representative’s job can also vary with the size of the company. Those working for relatively large companies generally are more specialized and are assigned territorial boundaries and specific services and accounts. Those in smaller companies generally have more independence. Representatives in smaller companies may have https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment Services sales representatives held about 481,000 salaried jobs in 1988. Over half were in business services industries, including man agement, consulting, public relations, protective, advertising, person nel supply, and computer and data processing services. Significant numbers of sales representatives worked for firms that offer a wide range of other services. The following tabulation shows the distribution of services sales representative jobs by industry. Percent Total.................................................................................................. 100 Business services................................................................................. Advertising...................................................................................... Personnel supply services............................................................. Computer and data processing services..................................... Other business services................................................................. Automotive repair............................................................................... Personal services................................................................................. Hotels and other lodging places....................................................... Membership organizations................................................................. Amusements and recreation, except motion pictures................... Other..................................................................................................... 55 9 5 10 31 9 8 5 4 4 15 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many employers require that services sales representatives have a college degree, but specific requirements vary depending on the ser vices that a particular company sells. Employers who market advertis ing services seek individuals with a college degree in advertising or marketing or a master of business administration degree; companies that market educational services prefer individuals with an advanced degree in marketing or related fields. Many hotels seek graduates from college hotel administration programs, and companies that sell computer services and telephone systems prefer sales representatives with a background in computer science or engineering. Courses in business, economics, and marketing are helpful in obtaining most jobs as services sales representatives. Some employers hire sales representatives with a high school di ploma if they have a proven sales record. This is particularly true for those who sell nontechnical services such as linen supply, exterminat ing, laundry, and funeral services. Many firms conduct formal intensive training programs for their sales representatives. Individuals learn about the company’s operations and services. They also receive instruction in various sales techniques such as prospecting for clients, probing customer needs, interviewing, 242 Occupational Outlook Handbook sales presentations, and closing a sale. They may also receive motiva tional and sensitivity training to help them understand different person ality types and make them more effective in dealing with people. Sales representatives may also attend seminars on a wide range of subjects given by outside training institutions such as technical schools and colleges and universities. In addition, frequent “in-house” training sessions acquaint them with new services and products and help them maintain and update their sales techniques. They may also receive training in the use of computers to increase their productivity. Many large companies prefer to hire sales representatives directly out of school, while smaller companies prefer to hire individuals who have a proven sales record. Smaller companies generally lack the resources to provide training programs for their sales representatives. Sales representatives must have a pleasant, outgoing personality and good rapport with people. They must be highly motivated, well organized, and efficient. Good grooming and a neat appearance are essential. Self- confidence, reliability, and the ability to communicate are also vital characteristics. Sales representatives should be self starters who have the ability to work under pressure to meet sales goals. Sales representatives who have good sales records and leadership ability may advance to sales supervisor, branch manager, or district manager. Those with managerial ability eventually may advance to sales manager or other executive positions; many top executives in industry started as sales workers. Frequent contact with business people in other firms can provide sales workers with leads about job openings, thus facilitating advance ment possibilities. Some go into business for themselves as indepen dent representatives. Others find opportunities in advertising and mar ket research. Job Outlook Employment of services sales representatives, as a group, is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 in response to the continued rapid increase in demand for services in general. However, growth of services sales jobs is directly related to employment growth in the particular industries where they are found. For example, the burgeoning growth in temporary help firms should prompt very rapid growth for personnel supply services sales representatives; the continued growth in factory and office auto mation should lead to very rapid employment growth for data process ing services sales representatives; and growth in the advertising indus try should also spur much faster than average growth in employment of this industry’s sales force. Employment of those who sell hotel services and automotive services is expected to increase at a somewhat slower pace but still significantly faster than the average for all workers due to the continued increase in demand for their services. In addition, many openings will occur each year because of the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. As in other sales occupations, turnover is relatively high— particularly among representatives who sell nontechnical services. Each year, many new services sales representatives discover that they are unable to earn enough money at selling and leave the occupation. Prospective services sales representatives with a college background or a proven sales record should have the best job opportunities. Earnings In 1988, median annual earnings of full-time advertising sales repre sentatives were about $23,100. Representatives selling other business services had median annual earnings of $23,700. Earnings of represen tatives who sold technical services such as computer or communication services were generally higher than for those who sold nontechnical services. Earnings of experienced sales representatives depend on perfor mance. Successful sales representatives can quickly establish a clien tele and build up their income. Experienced sales representatives often earn more than managers in their firm; some sales representatives earn over $100,000 a year. Sales representatives work on different types of compensation plans. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Some get a straight salary; others are paid solely on a commission basis—a percentage of the dollar value of their sales. Most firms use a combination of salary and commissions. Many sales representatives have expense accounts to cover meals and travel, and some drive a company car. Many companies offer benefits such as paid vacations, life and health insurance, and pension plans. Some employers offer bonuses, extra vacation time, trips, and prizes for sales that exceed company quotas. Because sales are affected by changing economic conditions and consumer and business preferences, earnings may fluctuate from year to year. Related Occupations Services sales representatives must have sales ability and a knowledge of the service they sell. Workers in other occupations that require these skills include buyers, real estate agents, insurance agents, securities sales representatives, wholesale and retail trade sales representatives, telephone solicitors, and travel agents. Sources of Additional Information For details about employment opportunities for services sales represen tatives, contact employers who sell services in your area. Travel Agents (D.O.T. 252.157-010) Nature of the Work Constantly changing air fares and schedules, a proliferation of vacation packages, and business/pleasure trip combinations make travel plan ning frustrating and time consuming. Many travelers, therefore, turn to travel agents, who can make the best possible travel arrangements for them. Depending on the needs of the client, travel agents give advice on destinations, make arrangements for transportation, hotel accommoda tions, car rentals, tours, and recreation, or plan the right vacation package or business/pleasure trip combination. They may also advise on weather conditions, restaurants, and tourist attractions and recre ation. For international travel, agents also provide information on customs regulations, required papers (passports, visas, and certificates of vaccination), and currency exchange rates. Travel agents consult a variety of published and computer-based sources for information on departure and arrival times, fares, and hotel ratings and accommodations. They often base recommendations on their own travel experiences or those of colleagues or clients. Travel agents may visit hotels, resorts, and restaurants to rate, firsthand, their comfort, cleanliness, and quality of food and service. Travel agents also promote their services. They present slides or movies to social and special interest groups, arrange advertising dis plays, and suggest company-sponsored trips to business managers. Working Conditions Travel agents spend most of their time behind a desk conferring with clients, completing paperwork, contacting airlines and hotels for travel arrangements, and promoting group tours. They may be under a great deal of pressure during vacation seasons. Many agents, especially those who are self-employed, frequently work long hours. Employment Travel agents held about 142,000 jobs in 1988 and are found in every part of the country. Nearly one-half are in suburban areas; about 40 percent are in large cities; and the rest, in small towns and rural areas. Many travel agents are self-employed. Marketing and Sales Occupations i r sr-o ■lip • i,- '■ ■ ■ • ■ Employment of travel agents is expected to grow rapidly. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Formal or specialized training is becoming increasingly important for travel agents since few agencies are willing to train people on the job. Many vocational schools offer 3- to 12-week full-time programs, as well as evening and Saturday programs. Travel courses are also offered in public adult education programs and in community and 4-year colleges. A few colleges offer a bachelor’s and a master’s degree in travel and tourism. Although few college courses relate directly to the travel industry, a college education is sometimes desired by employers. Courses in computer science, geography, foreign languages, and his tory are most useful. Courses in accounting and business management also are important, especially for those who expect to manage or start their own travel agencies. Several home-study courses provide a basic understanding of the travel industry. The American Society of Travel Agents (ASTA) and the Institute of Certified Travel Agents offer a travel correspondence course. Travel agencies also provide on-the-job training for their employees. Employers require computer skills—a significant part of training programs consists of computer instruction. Travel experience is an asset since personal knowledge about a city or foreign country often helps to influence clients’ travel plans. Experience as an airline reservation agent also is a good background for a travel agent. Travel agents need good selling skills—they must be pleasant and patient and able to gain the confidence of clients. Some people start as reservation clerks or receptionists in travel agencies. With experience and some formal training, they can take on greater responsibilities and eventually assume travel agent duties. In agencies with many offices, travel agents may advance to office man ager or to other managerial positions. Experienced travel agents can take an advanced course, leading to the designation of Certified Travel Counselor, offered by the Institute of Certified Travel Agents. The institute awards the designation to those completing an 18-month part-time course. Another recognized mark of achievement in this field is a certificate of proficiency from the American Society of Travel Agents, awarded to those who pass a 3-hour test. Those who start their own agencies generally have experience in an established agency. They must generally gain formal supplier or corpo ration approval before they can receive commissions. Suppliers or cor porations are organizations of airlines, shiplines, or rail lines. The Air lines Reporting Corporation, for example, is the approving body for airlines. To gain approval, an agency must be in operation, be financially sound, and employ at least one experienced manager/travel agent. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 243 There are no Federal licensing requirements for travel agents. How ever, Rhode Island requires licensing, and Ohio, Hawaii, and Califor nia require registration. In California, travel agents not approved by a corporation are required to have a license. Job Outlook Employment of travel agents is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Many job openings will arise as new agencies open and existing agencies expand, but most will occur as experienced agents transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Spending on travel is expected to increase significantly through the year 2000. As business activity expands, so will business-related travel. Employment of managerial, professional specialty, and sales representative occupations—those who do most business travel—is projected to grow rapidly. Also, with rising incomes, more people are expected to travel on vacation—and to do so more frequently—than in the past. In fact, many people take more than one vacation a year. Charter flights and larger, more efficient planes have brought air transportation within the budgets of more people. So has the easing of Government regulation of air fares and routes, by fostering greater competition among airlines to offer better and more affordable service. In addition, American travel agents organize tours for the growing number of foreign visitors. Although most travel agencies now have automated reservation systems, this has not weakened demand for travel agents. The travel industry generally is sensitive to economic downturns, when travel plans are likely to be deferred. Therefore, the number of job opportunities fluctuates. Earnings Experience, sales ability, and the size and location of the agency determine the salary of a travel agent. According to a survey conducted by the Travel Education Center, salaries of travel agents generally ranged from $12,000 for beginners to $21,000 a year for experienced agents in 1986. Managers earned about $30,000 a year. Salaried agents usually have standard benefits, such as insurance coverage and paid vacations, that self-employed agents must provide for themselves. Earnings of travel agents who own their agencies depend mainly on commissions from airlines and other carriers, cruise lines, tour operators, and lodging places. Commissions for domestic travel ar rangements, cruises, hotels, sightseeing tours, and car rentals are about 10 percent of the total sale; and for international travel, about 11 percent. When travel agents arrange complex plans that require several connections on different kinds of transportation, they may charge the traveler a service fee for the time and expense involved. An increasing number of travel agencies charge a fee for their services. During the first year of business or while awaiting corporation approval, self-employed travel agents generally have low earnings. Their income is generally limited to commissions from hotels, cruises, and tour operators and to nominal fees for making complicated arrange ments. Working capital of more than $50,000 generally is needed to carry the agency through a profitless first year. Even established agents have lower profits during economic downturns. When they travel, agents usually get substantially reduced rates for travel and accommodations. Related Occupations . Travel agents organize and schedule business, educational, or recre ational travel or activities. Other workers with similar responsibilities include secretaries, tour guides, airline reservation agents, rental car agents, and travel counselors. Sources of Additional Information For further information on training opportunities, contact: w-American Society of Travel Agents, 1101 King St., Alexandria, VA 22314. For certification information, contact: w-The Institute of Certified Travel Agents, 148 Lindon St., P.O. Box 56, Wellesley, MA 02181. Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical Adjusters, Investigators, and Collectors (D.O.T. 168.267-014 and -038; 191.167-022; 195.267-010; 203.382-014; 205.367-018 and -034; 209.382-014 and .687-018; 219.362-034, -042, and -050, .367-014, and .482-014; 241.267-014, -018, -030, and -034, .357-010, .362-010, .367-010, -014, -022, and -034, and .387-010; and 249.367-030) Nature of the Work For organizations to serve the public well, they need workers who act as intermediaries by doing such things as settling claims and investigating complaints, interpreting and explaining rules and regula tions, and monitoring and spotting irregularities. Their duties are quite varied, but their primary goal is to ensure smooth relations between the organization and its customers and clients. Adjusters, investigators, and collectors are such workers, and they are employed in diverse work settings, with many concentrated in insurance companies, department stores, banks, and government agencies. When customers file claims with insurance companies, for instance, they want fast and efficient service. The rapid and fair settlement of all claims is essential to any insurance company if it is to meet its commitments to policyholders and protect its financial viability. To achieve these goals, insurance companies rely upon several kinds of workers—claim representatives (including adjusters, examiners, and investigators) and insurance processing clerks (including claim clerks and policy processing clerks). Claim Representatives. Claim representatives investigate claims, ne gotiate settlements, and authorize payments to claimants. When a policyholder files a claim for damage or a loss, the claim adjuster must initially determine whether the policy covers it and the amount of the loss. To expedite processing, minor claims filed by automobile or homeowner policyholders are usually handled by “inside adjusters” or “telephone adjusters.” These workers contact claimants by telephone or by mail to get information on repair costs, medical expenses, or other records needed by the company. Many companies centralize this operation in a drive-in claims center, where the cost of repair is determined and a check is issued immediately. More complex cases are referred to a “claim adjuster” or “outside adjuster.” Claim adjusters plan and schedule the work required to process a claim. They investigate claims by interviewing the claimant and witnesses, consulting police and hospital records, and inspecting property damage to determine the extent of the company's liability. They keep written or taped records of information obtained from witnesses and prepare reports of their findings. When the company is liable, they negotiate with the claimant and settle the case. Material damage adjusters inspect automobile damage and use the latest computerized estimating equipment to prepare estimates of the damage. Some adjusters work with all lines of insurance. Others specialize in claims associated with fire damage, marine loss, automotive damage, product liability, or workers' compensation. Claim adjusters some times testify in court on contested claims. In life and health insurance companies, the counterpart of the claim adjuster is the claim examiner, who investigates questionable claims or those exceeding a designated amount. Examiners may check claim applications for completeness and accuracy, interview medical special ists, consult policy files to verify information on a claim, or calculate benefit payments. Claim examiners may also travel to obtain informa tion by personal interview or to contact State insurance departments. 244 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Generally, examiners are authorized to investigate and approve payments on all claims up to a certain limit; larger claims are referred to a senior examiner. In addition to verifying claims and approving payments, examiners also maintain records of settled claims and pre pare reports to be submitted to their company’s data processing de partment. Claim representatives are making greater use of computers to keep records of clients and actions taken in various claims. Many have computer terminals on their desks, and a growing number use portable lap-top computers when they are on assignment outside the office. Insurance Processing Clerks. Policy processing clerks process new policies, modifications to existing policies, and claims. They also review insurance applications to ensure that all the questions are answered. After an application has been reviewed by underwriters and a company determines that it will issue a policy, policy processing clerks compile the necessary forms. They also correspond with insur ance sales agents to inform them of the status of the application being processed and to encourage prompt delivery to policyholders. Policy processing clerks also make adjustments to existing policies—such as a change in beneficiary, amount of coverage, or type of insurance— and recalculate premiums. Policy processing clerks also work on policies that are to be reinstated or cancelled. A file for each policy holder is prepared and maintained with changes in coverage recorded to ensure an up-to-date record. They mail correspondence notices regarding changes to the sales agent and to the policyholder. Claim clerks (also called claim interviewers) obtain information from policyholders regarding claims. They prepare reports and review insurance claim forms and related documents for completeness. They call or write insured or other involved persons for missing information and update claim files. Claim clerks may transmit routine claims for payment or advise the claim supervisor if further investigation is indicated. Like claim representatives, insurance processing clerks use comput ers extensively in their work. Most spend a large part of their time creating and updating records at a personal computer or terminal. Adjustment Clerks. Adjustment clerks investigate and resolve cus tomers’ complaints about merchandise, service, billing, or credit rat ing. They may work for banks, department stores, utility companies, and other large organizations selling products and services to the public. Sometimes they are called customer-service representatives, customer-complaint clerks, or adjustment correspondents. Adjustment clerks examine all pertinent information in order to determine the validity of a customer’s complaint. In a department store, this may mean checking sales slips or warranties, as well as the merchandise in question. In a bank, it could mean looking at photographs of people using automated teller machines. In a utility company, it could mean reviewing meter books, microfilm, computer printouts, and machine accounting records. Regardless of the setting, these clerks confer—in person, by telephone, or through written corre spondence—with the various parties involved, such as the customer and the appropriate company personnel. After an investigation and evaluation of the facts, the adjustment clerk informs both the customer and the appropriate employees of the establishment of his or her findings, adjustments, and recommenda tions. These may include exchanging merchandise, refunding money, crediting customers’ accounts, or adjusting customers’ bills. The ad justment clerk ensures that the appropriate changes are set in motion. In some cases, the clerk follows up on the recommended adjustments to be sure that the customer is satisfied. To prevent future complaints Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical of a similar nature, they may recommend to management improve ments in product, packaging, shipping methods, service, or billing methods and procedures. Adjustment clerks keep records of all relevant matters, using them to prepare reports for their supervisors. Adjustment clerks also respond to inquiries from customers. Clerks frequently can answer these inquiries with a form letter, but other times they must compose a letter themselves. Adjustment clerks also issue duplicate or additional credit cards upon request. Bill and Account Collectors. Bill and account collectors, sometimes called collection correspondents, are responsible for ensuring that customers pay their overdue accounts. Some collectors are employed by collection agencies; others, known as “inside collectors,” work for original creditors, such as department stores, hospitals, or banks. Depending on their employer, they may specialize in a specific area, such as automobile loans, credit card accounts, or medical bills. Many companies automatically notify customers by mail if their account is overdue. If the customer does not respond, a collector locates and notifies him or her of the delinquent account, usually over the telephone, sometimes by letter. If the customer has moved without leaving a forwarding address, the collector may check with the post office, the telephone company, credit bureaus, or former neighbors to obtain the new address. This is called skip-tracing. Once the collector has found the debtor, he or she informs the customer that the account is overdue and solicits payment. Collectors also attempt to learn the cause of the delay in payment; if necessary, they review the terms of the sale, service, or credit contract with the customer. Where feasible, they offer the customer advice and counsel on how to pay off the debts, such as by taking out a bill consolidation loan. The collector’s objective is to ensure that the customer first pays the debt of their company. If the customer agrees to pay, the collector notes that for the record and checks later to verify that the payment has indeed been made. The collector may grant an extension of time if the customer asks for one. In the event the customer fails to respond at all, the collector prepares a statement to that effect for the credit department of the establishment. In more extreme cases, the collector may initiate repossession proceed ings or service disconnections or may hand the account over to an attorney for legal action. Bill and account collectors keep records of the amounts collected and the status of the accounts. Some fill out daily reports to keep their supervisors apprised of their progress. In some organizations, bill and account collectors receive payments and post the amount to the customer’s account. In most operations, however, the posting and receiving are done by other clerical workers. Most collectors handle other administrative functions for the accounts assigned to them, such as recording changes of address. Increasingly, collectors use computers to keep track of overdue accounts, although many still rely on cards and other paper documents, or a combination of the two. There are a variety of automated systems. In general, the collector works at a video display terminal that is linked to a mainframe computer. In the most sophisticated systems, the computer dials the phone automatically and the collector begins to speak only when a connection has been made. This system eliminates time spent calling busy or nonanswering numbers. Many collectors use regular telephones; some use headsets like those used by telephone operators. From time to time, their supervisors may listen in on their conversations with debtors as a way to evaluate their job performance. Welfare Eligibility Workers and Interviewers. Welfare eligibility workers and interviewers—sometimes referred to as intake workers, eligibility determination workers, eligibility specialists, or income maintenance specialists—determine who can receive welfare and other types of social assistance. They do so by interviewing and investigating applicants and recipients to see who is eligible. Based on the informa tion they obtain, they initiate procedures to grant, modify, deny, or terminate individuals’ eligibility for various aid programs. In addition, they determine the amounts of the grants. Where appropriate, they make referrals to other social service agencies and community re https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 245 sources. They prepare reports that document their findings and deci sions. The authority of welfare eligibility workers and interviewers varies from one jurisdiction to another. In some places, these workers are authorized to decide on an applicant’s eligibility, subject to review by their supervisor. In other places, however, they can only make recommendations to their supervisors, who in turn make the ultimate decision. In 37 States, these workers are employed by the State government. In the remainder, they are employed by the county or municipal government. Welfare eligibility workers and interviewers work with various kinds of public assistance programs. The best-known are Aid to Fami lies with Dependent Children, Medicaid, Food Stamps, and the Work Incentive Program. Depending on local circumstances, there may be other programs, such as those for public housing, refugee assistance, and fuel assistance. Welfare eligibility workers record and evaluate personal and finan cial data that they obtain through interviews and investigations. Al though they usually conduct interviews of applicants and recipients in their offices, they may make occasional home visits, especially if the applicant or recipient is elderly or disabled. In addition, they may check with employers or other references to verify answers and get further information. These workers also provide information to applicants and current recipients. For example, they explain and interpret the rules and regula tions governing eligibility for assistance. They may inform them of other resources available in the community for financial or social welfare assistance. More experienced workers may help train new workers. In addition, they may be assigned to special units whose responsibility is to detect fraud. Most welfare eligibility workers and interviewers specialize in a specific area, such as housing, but some are responsible for several areas. They may assist social workers by informing them of pertinent information they have gathered during their interviews with applicants. In some areas, particularly rural ones, eligibility workers may also perform other kinds of welfare duties. An increasing number of welfare eligibility workers and interview ers are directly using automated systems. The traditional method has been for these workers to fill out standardized forms that are then passed on to data entry keyers, who in turn enter the data into a central computer. A growing number of welfare eligibility workers and interviewers are now entering the data into the computer themselves. When they interview applicants and recipients, they sit in front of a computer terminal and enter the information provided by the client. In the most advanced systems, the computer terminal prompts them with questions. The impetus for computerization has been a desire both to increase worker productivity and to prevent cheating by recipients. Working Conditions Claim representatives may work inside or outside, depending on their particular job. Most claim examiners and some claim adjusters have desk jobs that require no unusual physical activity. They typically work a standard 5-day, 40-hour week. Claim examiners may work longer hours during peak periods or when quarterly and annual state ments are prepared. They also may travel from time to time. Material damage adjusters work at local claim centers. However, many claim adjusters work outside the office, traveling and inspecting damaged property. Occasionally, an experienced adjuster may travel to the scene of a disaster such as a tornado, hurricane, or flood to work with local adjusters and government officials. Some cases may require travel outside the United States. Some adjusters may be on “emergency call” from time to time. Adjusters generally have the flexibility to arrange their work schedules to accommodate evening and weekend appointments with clients. Much of the work of insurance processing clerks is routine and requires remaining at work stations for extended periods of time. Because most companies provide 24-hour claim service to their policy- 246 Occupational Outlook Handbook holders, some claim clerks work evenings and weekends. Many claim clerks work part time. Adjustment clerks, bill and account collectors, and welfare eligibil ity workers and interviewers work in offices, usually during regular business hours. Some work part time. A few bill and account collectors work as temporaries. From their offices, they deal with the public, either by telephone or in person. Dealing with customers, clients, or applicants who are upset or angry can be stressful. Adjusters, investigators, and collectors frequently are assigned pro duction quotas—handling a prescribed number of cases in a given period—and the pressure to meet these quotas may cause stress. Some welfare eligibility workers and interviewers may be hired on a seasonal basis to help administer a specific program. For example, some States hire these workers for the winter to help run emergency fuel assistance programs. Adjusters, investigators, and collectors who spend a lot of time working at video display terminals may experience musculoskeletal strain and eyestrain. Employment Adjusters, investigators, and collectors held about 961,000 jobs in 1988. The following tabulation presents employment distribution by detailed occupation: Percent Total................................................................................................. 100 Adjustment clerks.............................................................................. Insurance policy processing clerks.................................................. Bill and account collectors............................................................... Insurance adjusters, examiners, and investigators........................ Insurance claims clerks.................................................................... Welfare eligibility workers and interviewers................................. Property and casualty insurance claims examiners....................... All other adjusters and investigators............................................... 24 18 16 15 11 9 3 4 Most large insurance companies provide on-the-job training and home-study courses to beginning claim adjusters and examiners. For example, material damage adjusters would learn about automo bile body construction, analysis of collision data, and repair cost estimation, including the use of the latest computerized estimating equipment. They also learn how to deal with customers. In smaller firms, workers may receive their training through courses offered by the Insurance Institute of America, a nonprofit organization offering educational programs and professional certification to per sons in the property-liability insurance industry. The Insurance Institute of America offers an Associate in Claims (AIC) designation upon successful completion of six examinations. Adjusters can prepare for these examinations by independent home study or through company or public classes. The International Claim Association (ICA) offers a program on life and health insurance claims administration. Completion of the fiveexamination program leads to the professional designation, Associate, Life and Health Claims (ALHC). The Life Office Management Association (LOM A) offers a compre hensive 10-course life and health insurance educational program that leads to the professional designation, Fellow, Life Management Insti tute (FLMI). LOMA also offers the Master Fellow Program (FLMI/ M) that is designed specifically to meet the continuing education needs of life and health insurance professionals. Students can prepare for FLMI exams through independent home study or through insurance company or FLMI Society classes. Most States require adjusters to be licensed. Applicants usually must comply with one or more of the following: Pass a written examination covering the fundamentals of adjusting; complete an approved course Insurance companies employ the vast majority of claim adjusters, examiners, and investigators, property and casualty insurance claim examiners, policy processing clerks, and claim clerks. Real estate firms and government agencies employ most of the rest. Almost one-fifth of all adjustment clerks are employed by depart ment stores. Manufacturing firms, banks and other financial institu tions, and telephone companies are other major employers of these workers. One in five bill and account collectors works for a credit reporting and collection agency. Many others work in banks, department stores, and other institutions that extend credit. Practically all welfare eligibility workers and interviewers are em ployed by State and local governments. A few work for private social service agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most companies prefer to hire college graduates for claim representa tive positions. Persons may be hired without college training, however, particularly if they have specialized experience. For example, persons with knowledge of automobile body shop and mechanical applications may qualify as a material damage adjuster and those with extensive clerical experience might be hired as inside adjusters. No specific field of college study is recommended as the best prepa ration. Although courses in insurance, economics, or other business subjects are helpful, a major in almost any field is adequate preparation. Knowledge of computer applications is increasingly important. An adjuster who has a business or an accounting background might spe cialize in financial loss due to strikes, breakdowns in equipment, or damage to merchandise. College training in engineering is helpful in adjusting industrial claims, such as damage from fires and other accidents. A legal background is most helpful to those handling work ers’ compensation and product liability cases. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ....... Claims representatives have diverse educational backgrounds. Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical in insurance or loss adjusting; furnish character references; be at least 20 or 21 years of age and a resident of the State; and file a surety bond. Because they often work closely with claimants, witnesses, and other insurance professionals, claim representatives must be able to communicate effectively and gain the respect and cooperation of oth ers. Some companies require applicants to pass a battery of written aptitude tests designed to measure communication, analytical, and general mathematical skills. Examiners must understand Federal and State insurance laws and regulations. Both adjusters and examiners should have a good memory, be observant, and enjoy working with details. Beginning adjusters and examiners work on small claims under the supervision of an experienced worker. As they learn more about claim investigation and settlement, they are assigned larger, more complex claims. Trainees are promoted as they demonstrate competence in handling assignments and as they progress in their course work. Be cause of the complexity of insurance regulations and claims proce dures, workers who lack formal academic training may advance more slowly. Employees who demonstrate competence in claims work or administrative skills may be promoted to department supervisor in a field office or to a managerial position in the home office. High school graduation is considered adequate preparation for most insurance processing clerk positions. Courses in typing and word processing, business arithmetic, and office machine operation are desirable. Employers view favorably previous office experience. Most new workers begin as file clerks and move into insurance processing positions as they demonstrate their ability. However, persons with considerable clerical experience may begin processing insurance poli cies immediately. Some experienced insurance processing clerks may be promoted to a clerical supervisory position. Advancement to a claim representative or an underwriting technician position is possible for clerks who demonstrate potential, have had college training, or have taken special ized courses in insurance. Many companies offer home-study courses that allow their employees to gain the necessary knowledge to advance. Many employers do not require any formal education for adjustment clerk positions. Instead, they look for people who can read and write and who possess good communications and interpersonal skills. Typ ing ability is also viewed favorably. Adjustment clerk is an entry level position in some, but not all, organizations. Depending on their assignment, new adjustment clerks may receive training on the job from a supervisor or an experienced coworker, or they may enter a formal training course given by the organization. Training covers such topics as how to use computers, what standard forms to use, whom to contact in other departments of the organization, and how to deal with customers. Some employers provide for more advanced training for experienced adjustment clerks. This training may be offered in-house or from trade associations or local colleges. While high school graduation sometimes is required by employers when they hire bill and account collectors, formal education beyond high school is not stressed. Previous work experience as a collector is particularly valuable, however. Experience in the field of telemarket ing or as a telephone operator also is helpful, as is knowledge of the billing process. Employers seek individuals who speak well and who are persistent and detail-oriented. Employers normally provide training to new bill and account collec tors. This training, which may last up to a couple of months, is usually conducted in a classroom setting or on the job. It may utilize lectures, videotapes, computer programs, role-playing, and hands-on experi ence. In addition to learning about skip-tracing and the firm’s billing procedure, new collectors learn communications and negotiating skills. Learning to use the firm’s computer and telephone systems is an integral part of such training. Successful bill and account collectors may become supervisors. Some even start their own collection agencies. Hiring requirements for welfare eligibility workers and interviewers vary widely. Depending on the jurisdiction, applicants may need a high school diploma, some postsecondary training, or a bachelor’s https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 247 degree. In some jurisdictions, especially rural ones, graduation from high school is not required. Previous work experience may be substi tuted for education in some places, particularly if it is in a closely related field like employment interviewing, social work, or insurance claims. Fluency in a foreign language may be an advantage in parts of the country that have concentrations of recent immigrants. After they are hired, eligibility workers are given training, some times in a formal classroom setting, other times in a more informal manner. They are taught the policies, procedures, and regulations that they are expected to follow. Any formal training would be followed by on-the-job training provided by the supervisor. Because they deal with people who are in difficult economic circum stances, welfare eligibility workers and interviewers should be com passionate and empathetic. Attention to detail is important because there are many policies, procedures, and regulations that must be observed. Advancement to the job of social worker is possible, although additional formal education—such as a bachelor’s or master’s de gree—usually is needed. Because a significant and growing proportion of adjusters, investiga tors, and collectors use computers, courses in typing or word process ing are recommended. Employers increasingly view experience with computers as an asset. Job Outlook Overall employment of adjusters, investigators, and collectors is ex pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Growth rates will vary considerably by occupation. Employment of claim representatives is expected to grow faster than average as the increasing volume of insurance in force results in more insurance claims. Shifts in the age distribution of the population will result in a large increase in the number of people who assume career and family responsibilities. People in this group have the greatest need for life and health insurance, as well as protection for homes, automobiles, and other possessions. A growing demand for insurance coverage for working women is also expected. New or expanding businesses will need protection for new plants and equipment and for insurance cover ing their employees’ health and safety. Opportunities should be partic ularly good for claim representatives who specialize in complex busi ness insurance such as marine cargo, workers’ compensation, and product and pollution liability. Employment of insurance processing clerks is expected to grow more slowly than average due to the greater use of word processors, personal computers, and other automated office equipment. Within this group, employment of claim clerks will be less adversely affected by this trend than employment of policy processing clerks because claim clerks have much more interpersonal contact, which cannot be automated. The number of job openings for workers in the insurance industry should not fluctuate greatly from year to year. This industry is less sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy than most industries. Employment of adjustment clerks is expected to grow about as fast as average as business establishments seek to maintain good customer relations. An important aspect of good customer service is resolving customers’ complaints in a friendly and timely fashion. Because much of their work involves direct communication with customers, demand for adjustment clerks is expected to keep pace with the growth in the number of customers. Faster than average growth in the employment of bill and account collectors is expected as companies strive to increase their revenues by increasing the efficiency of their debt collection. As competition increases, firms will try to gain an advantage by minimizing their losses. Demand for these workers will be boosted by the growing amount of consumer debt and by the rising number of personal bank ruptcies. Contrary to the pattern in most occupations, employment of bill and account collectors tends to rise during recessions. This is due primarily 248 Occupational Outlook Handbook to the difficulty that many laid-off workers have in meeting their financial obligations. Employment of welfare eligibility workers and interviewers is ex pected to grow about as fast as average as State and local governments respond to the growing need for public assistance among their constit uents. The Family Support Act of 19S8, a reform of the welfare system, will involve welfare departments more in such areas as job training, childcare, and medical assistance. This legislation is expected to result in an increase in the number of people being served by welfare agencies, which will stimulate demand for these workers. This is expected to be offset somewhat by increased productivity resulting from the spread of automated office systems. Despite the lack of growth in demand for these workers, many openings will be created by the relatively high turnover in these jobs. Earnings Eamings of adjusters, investigators, and collectors vary significantly. According to a survey of property and liability insurance companies, inside adjusters earned a median salary of $22,300 a year in 1988; senior inside adjusters, $26,700; outside adjusters, $24,800; senior outside adjusters, $33,200; and technical specialist claims adjusters, $39,800. Adjusters are also furnished a company car or are reimbursed for use of their own vehicle for business purposes. Claim examiners earned a median annual salary of $29,900 in 1988; senior claim examiners, $33,600; claim supervisors, $36,600; and claim managers, $47,100. Automobile damage appraisers received a median annual salary of $26,400 in 1988, while senior automobile damage appraisers earned $28,800. Specific information on eamings of policy processing clerks and claim clerks is not available. However, median annual eamings for records clerks, a category that includes policy processing clerks, were $16,400 in 1988. Interviewers, whose work is similar to that of claim clerks, had median annual eamings of $15,000. Median eamings of full-time bill and account collectors were about $16,600 in 1988; the middle 50 percent earned between $14,200 and $20,900 a year. Ten percent earned less than $10,800 and 10 percent, more than $25,000. Some bill and account collectors receive a base salary and work on commission beyond that. Adjustment clerks employed in department stores in 1988 earned average annual salaries ranging from $9,000 to $13,800. According to a survey by the Administrative Management Society, customer service representatives—who perform the duties of adjustment clerks—averaged $17,700 a year in 1988. Median annual eamings of full-time welfare eligibility workers and interviewers were about $17,600 in 1988; the middle 50 percent earned between $13,500 and $22,700 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $11,800 and the top 10 percent earned more than $28,200. Many welfare eligibility workers and interviewers belong to unions. The two principal unions representing these workers are the American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees and the Service Employees International Union. Related Occupations The work of claim representatives is related to that of contract adminis trators, construction contractors, lease buyers, and other workers who negotiate contracts and investigate claims for companies and indi viduals. The work of insurance processing clerks and adjustment clerks is similar to that of other workers who compile, review, or maintain records, including coding, contract, auditing, and reservation clerks and title searchers. The work of bill and account collectors is related to that of customer service representatives, telemarketers, telephone interviewers, and other workers who deal with the public over the telephone. The work of welfare eligibility workers is similar to that of financial aid counselors, loan counselors, credit counselors, probation officers, and other workers who interview customers or clients. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information General information about careers as a claim representative or an insurance processing clerk is available from the home offices of many life and property and liability insurance companies. Information about career opportunities in these occupations may be obtained from: (•-Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, NY 10038. Information about licensing requirements for claim adjusters may be obtained from the department of insurance in each State. For more information on claim representatives, contact; w-Alliance of American Insurers, 1501 Woodfield Rd., Suite 400 West, Schaumburg, IL 60173-4980. For information about public insurance adjusting, contact: ••-National Association of Public Adjusters, 300 Water St 21202. Baltimore MD Information on the Associate, Life and Health Claims (ALHC) and the Fellow, Life Management Institute (FLMI) designations can be obtained from: wLife Office Management Association, 5770 Powers Feny Rd., Atlanta GA 30327. Career information on bill and account collectors is available from: (•-American Collectors Association, Inc., 4040 West 70th St., P.O. Box 35106, Minneapolis, MN 55435. Employment information on welfare eligibility workers and inter viewers is available at social service offices of municipal, county, and State governments. Bank Tellers (D.O.T. 211.362, except -010; 216.362-018; and 219.462-010) Nature of the Work Most bank customers have contact with the teller, the individual who cashes checks and processes deposits or withdrawals. Many banks employ one or two “all-purpose” tellers; larger banks employ tellers in more specialized functions. One specialized teller, for example, sells savings bonds; another accepts payment for customers’ utility bills; a third receives deposits for Christmas club accounts; and a fourth keeps records and performs the necessary paperwork for customer loans. Others process the proliferating variety of certificates of deposit and money market accounts. Still other tellers handle foreign curren cies, sell travelers’ checks, or compute interest on savings accounts. Commercial tellers, the most common kind of teller, cash custom ers’ checks and handle deposits and withdrawals from checking and savings accounts. Before cashing a check, the teller must see that the written and numerical amounts agree, verify the identity of the person to receive payment, and be certain that the account has sufficient funds to cover the check. The teller must carefully count out the cash to avoid errors. Sometimes a customer withdraws money in the form of a cashier’s check, which the teller types up and verifies. When accept ing a deposit, the teller checks the accuracy of the deposit slip and enters the total in a passbook or on a deposit receipt. Tellers may use machines to make change and total deposits. In most banks, tellers use computer terminals to record deposits and withdrawals. In some banks, they type, or write deposit receipts and passbook entries by hand. Tellers’ duties begin before and continue after banking hours. They begin the day by receiving and counting an amount of working cash for their drawer; this amount is verified by a supervisor, usually the head teller. Tellers use this cash for payments during the day and are responsible for its safe and accurate handling. After banking hours, tellers count cash on hand, list the currency-received tickets on a settlement sheet, and balance the day’s accounts. They also sort checks and deposit slips. Paying and receiving tellers may supervise one clerk or more. Many tellers process the large number of transactions conducted by bank customers using the growing number of automatic teller machines Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical (ATM’s). During certain periods when ATM’s are not available for customers’ use, tellers replenish cash drawers and corroborate deposits and payments. When not balancing and settling ATM’s, highly experi enced tellers sometimes assume the duties of customer service repre sentatives, explaining the various types of accounts and financial services offered by their banks. Banks now offer more and increasingly complex financial services, and customer service duties have become an increasingly important part of many tellers’ jobs. Working Conditions Most tellers work during the day, Monday through Friday; some work evenings or weekends. The job offers ample opportunity to work part time with flexible hours. Continual communication with customers, repetitive tasks, and prolonged standing within a fairly small area also characterize the job. Employment Bank tellers held about 522,000 jobs in 1988; over one-fourth worked part time. The following tabulation indicates the distribution of wage and salary jobs by type of banking or credit institution. Banking....................................................................................... 378,000 Commercial, stock, and mutual savings banks........... . 371,000 Establishments closely related to banks ............................ 7,000 Credit agencies other than banks ............................................ 143,000 Savings and loan associations.............................................. 101,000 Personal credit institutions................................................... 41,000 Mortgage bankers and brokers and other credit agencies................................................................... 1,000 Holding and other investment offices and security and commodity brokers, dealers, exchanges, and services............................................................................. 1,000 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In hiring tellers, banks seek people who have good numerical and clerical skills, enjoy public contact, and feel comfortable handling large amounts of money. Although tellers work independently, their recordkeeping is closely supervised. Tellers should be courteous, at tentive, and patient in their dealing with the public. Maturity, tact, and the ability to quickly explain bank procedures and services are important in helping customers complete transactions or make financial decisions. Most entrants transfer from other occupations; virtually all have at least a high school education. New tellers usually leant their duties through on-the-job and formal training. They observe experienced workers for a few days before doing the work themselves. Training may last from a few days to 3 weeks or longer and, as experience is -3 my 249 gained, includes instruction on equipment such as ATM’s or on-line video terminals. Beginners usually start as commercial tellers; in large banks which have a separate savings teller’s “cage,” they may start as savings tellers. Often banks simultaneously train tellers for other cleri cal duties. Experienced tellers may advance to head teller or customer service representative. Banks encourage this upward mobility by providing access to education and other sources of additional training. Outstand ing tellers who have had some college or specialized training offered by the banking industry may be promoted to a managerial position. Tellers can prepare for better jobs by taking courses accredited by the American Institute of Banking, an educational affiliate of the American Bankers Association, and the Institute of Financial Educa tion, an educational affiliate of the United States League of Savings Institutions. These organizations have several hundred chapters in cities across the country and numerous study groups in small communi ties. Most banks use the facilities of these organizations, which assist local banks in conducting cooperative training programs or developing independent training programs. Some banks have their own training programs which result in teller certification—a sign of competence in this field. Experienced tellers qualify for certification by taking re quired courses and passing examinations. Job Outlook The number of bank tellers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 primarily due to relatively slow employment growth in commercial, stock, and mutual savings banks and savings and loan associations—where employment of tellers is highly concentrated. In addition, employment growth among bank tellers is not expected to keep pace with overall employ ment growth in banks and other savings and credit institutions because of the increasing use of automatic teller machines and other electronic equipment. Nevertheless, qualified applicants should have good pros pects, since this occupation provides a relatively large number of job openings. Demand for part-time tellers, especially during peak periods, is expected to be particularly strong. The overwhelming majority of job openings for tellers are expected to be created by replacement needs—characteristic of occupations that generally require limited formal education and offer relatively low pay. Most tellers who leave transfer to other occupations. Others stop working—primarily to assume household duties. Cyclical swings in the economy seem to have little immediate effect on bank activities. Consequently, tellers are generally immune to layoffs. Earnings In 1988, median annual earnings of full-time tellers were $12,800. The lowest 10 percent earned about $9,200, while the top 10 percent earned around $20,300. In general, a greater range of responsibilities results in a higher salary. However, experience, length of service, and, especially, the location and size of the bank are also important. Tellers generally receive the usual fringe benefits such as pensions and personal and sick leave allowances. Some part-time tellers, how ever, may not be eligible for certain benefits such as life and health insurance. Related Occupations Tellers combine a knowledge of bank procedures with quickness and accuracy to process money, checks, and other financial items for customers. Other workers with similar duties include new accounts tellers, cashiers, toll collectors, post office clerks, auction clerks, and ticket sellers. Sources of Additional Information General information about banking occupations, training opportuni ties, and the banking industry is available from: Bank tellers must enjoy public contact and feel comfortable handling large amounts of money. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis «*-American Bankers Association, Reference Librarian, 1120 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036. , ••-Institute of Financial Education, 111 E. Wacker Dr., Chicago, IL 60601. 250 Occupational Outlook Handbook Information on careers with the Federal Reserve System is available from: "•"Board of Governors, The Federal Reserve System, Personnel Division, Washington, DC 20551, or from the personnel department of the Federal Reserve bank serving each geographic area. State bankers’ associations can furnish specific information about job opportunities in their State, Or write directly to a particular bank to inquire about job openings. For the names and addresses of banks and savings and related institutions, as well as the names of their principal officers, consult one of the following directories. m-The American Bank Directory (Norcross, Ga., McFadden Business Publica tions). m-Polk’s World Bank Directory (Nashville, R.L. Polk & Co.). m-Rand McNally International Bankers Directory (Chicago, Rand McNally & Co.). m-The U.S. Savings and Loan Directory (Chicago, Rand McNally & Co.). m-Rand McNally Credit Union Directory (Chicago, Rand McNally & Co.). Clerical Supervisors and Managers ! . in i — ! ; ft t|lr- T u (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See page 463.) Nature of the Work All organizations need timely and effective clerical support if they are going to operate efficiently. The responsibility for coordinating this work and keeping it flowing smoothly belongs to clerical supervisors and managers. In many firms, they are simply called office managers. Although their specific duties vary by employer, many duties are common to all. Clerical supervisors and managers generally interview prospective clerical employees and make recommendations regarding their hiring. Some may be actively involved in recruiting new workers as well. For example, they may make presentations at high schools and business colleges. When new workers arrive on the job, supervisors greet them and orient them to the procedures in their section. They also instruct workers in the daily routines of the workplace, interpret work rules, and make clear what is expected of them. Supervisors are usually responsible for training new and experienced employees. Because much clerical work is computerized, they must familiarize new employees with the computer system in the organiza tion and relate it to the work for which the employee is responsible. When new or updated software packages are introduced, supervisors ensure that their subordinates learn how to use them efficiently. Planning the work of subordinates is another key function of clerical supervisors and managers. To do this effectively, the supervisor must know the strengths and weaknesses of each member of the staff as well as the required level of quality and time allotted to each job. They must make allowances for unexpected absences and other disruptions and adjust assignments as circumstances dictate. After allocating work assignments and issuing deadlines, clerical supervisors oversee the work to ensure that it is proceeding on schedule and meets established quality standards. This generally is the most time-consuming task of supervision and may involve direct observation of several workers. It also may involve reviewing each person’s work on a computer, as in the case of data entry keyers, or, in the case of telephone operators, listening to how they deal with callers. When supervising long-term projects, the supervisor may establish regular meetings with staff members to discuss their progress as well as any new developments that have arisen. An integral part of a clerical supervisor’s job is to evaluate the work of subordinates. If a worker has done a good job, the supervisor needs to tell him or her. Likewise, if a worker has done a poor job, the supervisor must discuss this with the employee, determine the cause, and help the worker improve performance. Clerical supervisors may recommend promotions or other awards, retentions, transfers, or dis missals of workers under their supervision. Clerical supervisors act as the liaison between professional, techni https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Clerical assignments may be shifted to meet deadlines. cal, and other managerial staff and clerical workers. This may involve clarifying instructions for a project, making revisions to a completed one, incorporating new company policies, or implementing techniques for customer service or documentation. They must also keep their superiors informed of the progress of their work and alert them of any real or potential problems. When problems arise, clerical supervisors need to assess the cause and take steps to correct them. This may involve in-depth discussions with the workers involved to resolve interpersonal conflicts, meetings with professional or managerial staff to alter the specifications of the project, or arranging special training to increase a worker’s skill level. Supervisors may be responsible for ensuring that the equipment and machinery used in their departments are in good working order. If a word processor or other machine breaks down, they must alert the persons responsible for its maintenance. They also must request new equipment or supplies for their department when necessary. In organizations covered by union contracts, supervisors must know the provisions of labor-management contracts and run their depart ments according to these agreements. They may meet with union representatives to discuss work problems or grievances. In addition to supervising others, many clerical supervisors do some clerical work themselves. Where appropriate, they may relieve their subordinates to give them a break, as is the case with telephone operators. Working Conditions Clerical supervisors and managers are employed in a wide variety of work settings, but most work in offices that are clean, well lighted, and generally comfortable. The majority work a standard 40-hour week. Because some workplaces operate around the clock, however, clerical supervisors may have to work nights, weekends, and holidays. In some cases, supervisors rotate among the three shifts. In others, shifts are assigned on the basis of seniority. Due to the need for continuity of supervision, few clerical supervisors and managers work on a temporary or part-time basis. Employment Clerical supervisors and managers held about 1,183,000 jobs in 1988. Although jobs for clerical supervisors are found in practically every industry, the largest number are found in organizations with a large clerical work force, such as government agencies, wholesale trade Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical outlets, banks, business service firms, colleges and universities, hospi tals, and telephone companies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Clerical supervisor is not usually an entry level position. Most people entering this occupation transfer from other occupations, very often from those that they then supervise. Many supervisors are hired from within the organization; some, however, are recruited from outside to fill positions with more general managerial responsibilities. To be considered for a supervisory position, workers must first prove themselves, demonstrating that they have mastered their own work. In evaluating candidates, superiors look for high motivation, determination, loyalty, poise, confidence, and the ability to give and follow orders. They also look for supervisory attributes, such as the ability to set priorities, to organize and coordinate work efficiently, and to establish good personal relations with other workers. A broad base of office skills coupled with personal flexibility make supervisors more adaptable to changes in organizational structure and able to move among departments when necessary. The ability to pay close attention to detail, as in proofreading, is necessary in order to ensure that errors made by subordinates are caught and corrected. Employers increasingly view some experience with computers as necessary. Many employers also require some postsecondary training. An associate degree is considered sufficient in many cases, but increasingly a bache lor’s degree is preferred. A clerk with potential supervisory abilities may be given occasional supervisory assignments. Shortly before or after assuming full-time supervisory duties, he or she may attend in-house training or take courses at local community colleges, vocational schools, or profes sional associations. Job Outlook Employment of clerical supervisors and managers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as economic growth results in a greater volume of clerical work. Although growth in the demand for clerical supervisors will generate many job openings, most openings will result from the need to replace experienced supervisors who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Because the occupation is so large, replacement needs will create an exceptionally large number of job openings. Employment of clerical supervisors is tied to employment of the clerical workers they supervise. Although many more clerical workers will be needed to meet the needs of growing organizations, technologi cal changes affecting clerical work are expected to moderate growth in clerical employment. As employment in some clerical occupations slows or even declines as a result of office automation, fewer supervi sors may be needed in some work settings. In addition, a growing number of clerks work exclusively on computers; this enables some clerical supervisors to monitor the work of their subordinates electroni cally, thereby increasing their own productivity. Earnings Median annual earnings of full-time clerical supervisors were about $23,700 in 1988; the middle 50 percent earned between $17,700 and $31,800 a year. Ten percent earned less than $14,000, and 10 percent more than $42,700. As is the case in most fields, large employers tend to pay higher salaries than small ones. In addition, employers in major metropolitan areas tend to pay higher salaries than those in rural areas. Depending on their employer, clerical supervisors may receive a variety of fringe benefits. These may include health and life insurance, paid vacations, tuition assistance, and a pension plan. Some clerical supervisors in the private sector may receive additional compensation in the form of bonuses, stock options, and the use of a company car. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about earn ings, hours, and employment opportunities in this and other clerical jobs. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 251 Computer and Peripheral Equipment Operators (D.O.T. 208.685-030; 213.362, .382, .582, .682, and .685) Nature of the Work Computer and peripheral equipment operators oversee the operation of computer hardware systems. They must ensure that these expensive machines are used as efficiently as possible. This includes anticipating problems before they occur and taking preventive action as well as solving problems that do occur. The duties of computer and peripheral equipment operators vary with the size of the installation, the type of equipment used, and the policies of the employer. In organizations with small computer sys tems, for example, computer operators run both the computer and all the peripheral equipment such as printers, disk drives, and tape readers. In large computer installations, computer operators specialize in con sole operation while peripheral equipment operators run the related devices. Generally, the duties of computer operators and peripheral equipment operators involve the following tasks. Working from operating instructions prepared by programmers or operations managers, computer operators set controls on the computer and on peripheral devices required to run a particular job. Computer operators or, in large installations, peripheral equipment operators load the equipment with tapes, disks, and paper as needed. While the computer is running—which may be 24 hours a day for large computers—computer operators monitor the computer console and respond to operating and computer messages. If an error message occurs, operators must locate the problem and solve it or terminate the program. Peripheral equipment operators may have to prepare printouts and other output for distribution to computer users. Operators also maintain log books listing events such as machine malfunctions that occurred during their shift. In addition, computer operators may supervise and train peripheral equipment operators and computer operator trainees. They also may help programmers and systems analysts test and debug new programs. (Detailed descriptions of these occupations are pre sented elsewhere in the Handbook.) As the trend toward networking—making connections between computers—accelerates, a growing number of these workers are opera ting personal and minicomputers. More and more establishments are realizing the need to connect all their computers in order to enhance productivity. In many offices, factories, and other work settings, minicomputers and personal computers (PC’s) serve as the center of such networks, often referred to as local area networks or multiuser gg « CJfZBMZMi l—!■ - Computers are loaded with the information required to run a particular job. 252 Occupational Outlook Handbook systems. While some of these computers are operated by users in the area, many require the services of full-time operators. The tasks performed are very similar to those performed on the larger computers. As organizations continue to use computers in more areas of operation, they are also realizing opportunities to increase the productivity of computer operations. Automation, which traditionally has been the application of computer technology to other functional areas of an organization, is now reaching the computer room. Programs now exist that enable the computer to perform some of the more routine tasks formerly done by computer operators. For example, scheduling, loading and downloading programs, and run ning periodic reports can be done automatically without the interven tion of the operator. In addition, the computer can respond to common error messages and reroute those that need an operator’s special attention. These improvements free operators for more important tasks, like solving complex error messages, troubleshoot ing, or general monitoring of Jlthe system. Working Conditions Computer operating personnel work in well-lighted, well-ventilated, and generally comfortable rooms. Because many organizations use their computers 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, computer and peripheral equipment operators may be required to work evening or night shifts and weekends. Shift assignments generally are made on the basis of seniority. Automated operations will lessen the need for shift work because the computer will be able to take over its own operations during the less desirable working hours. Employment In 1988, computer operators and peripheral equipment operators held about 275,000 and 42,000 jobs, respectively. Although jobs for com puter and peripheral equipment operators are found in almost every industry, most are in wholesale trade establishments; manufacturing companies; data processing service firms; banks; government agencies; and accounting, auditing, and bookkeeping service firms. These orga nizations have data processing needs that require large computer instal lations. About 1 out of 10 computer and peripheral equipment operators works part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Previous work experience is the key to landing an operator job in many large establishments. These employers look for specific, hands-on experience on the type of equipment and related operating systems that they use. A bachelor’s degree in computer science or data process ing may be required by some of the largest firms. Smaller organizations may be more willing to provide informal training because their com puter systems are not as expensive nor downtime as costly as in larger installations. In these smaller shops, education may be substituted for experience to some extent. A high school diploma and some college or business school training are usually required for entry level positions. Training is also offered in the military services and by some computer manufacturers. Workers usually receive some on-the-job training to become acquainted with their employer’s equipment and routines. The length of training varies with the job and the experience of the worker. New peripheral equipment operators are expected to leam their jobs in a few weeks. Computer operators with prior experience or training are expected to learn their employer’s system also within a few weeks. Because computer technology changes so rapidly, operators must be adaptable and willing to learn. For example, more formal education or training will be required for an operator to supervise an automated data center. Greater analytical and technical expertise will be needed to deal with the higher level problems that the computer is not pro grammed to handle. Computer and peripheral equipment operators must be able to com municate well in order to work (tffectively with programmers and each https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis other. Computer operators also must be able to work independently because they may have little or no supervision. A few computer operators may advance to supervisory jobs. Periph eral equipment operators may become computer operators. Through on-the-job experience and additional formal education, some computer and peripheral equipment operators advance to jobs as programmers. Job Outlook Employment of computer and peripheral equipment operators is ex pected to rise faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. In addition to jobs resulting from growth in demand for operators, many openings will arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Advances in technology have reduced both the size and the cost of computer equipment while at the same time increasing their capacity for data storage and processing. These improvements in technology have fueled an expansion in the use of computers in such areas as factory and office automation, telecommunications, medicine, and education. As computer usage and the amount of information to be processed grow, the need for computer operators and peripheral equip ment operators will also grow. But because computer and peripheral equipment operators work mainly with large computer systems— the part of the overall computer market that has slowed down— employment of operators is not expected to rise as rapidly as in previous years. As the benefits of automating computer operations become more recognized, the number of new operator positions in growing data centers will decline. Operators who are displaced by automation may be reassigned to support staffs assisting other members of the organiza tion. Others may be retrained to perform different job duties such as supervising an entire operations center, maintaining automation packages, and analyzing computer operations to recommend ways to increase productivity. Earnings In 1988, full-time computer operators earned an average annual salary of $17,800. The middle 50 percent earned between $13,500 and $23,900. The lowest 10 percent of computer operators earned less than $10,600, and the top 10 percent earned more than $30,500. In the Federal Government, computer operators with a high school diploma started at about $11,000 a year in 1989. Those with 1 year of college started at $12,500. Applicants with operations experience started at higher salaries. Computer operators and peripheral equipment operators had higher earnings in the Midwest and West than in the Northeast and South. Operators employed in manufacturing and transportation and public utilities had higher earnings than those employed in finance and retail trade. Related Occupations Other occupations involving work with computers include systems analysts, programmers, and computer service technicians. Other occupations in which workers operate electronic office equipment include data entry keyers, secretaries, typists, and typesetters and compositors. Sources of Additional Information For information about work opportunities in computer operations, contact firms that use computers such as banks, manufacturing and insurance firms, colleges and universities, and data processing service organizations. The local office of the State employment service can supply information about employment and training opportunities. Further information about the occupation of computer operator is available from: (•-Association for Computer Operations Management, 742 E. Chapman Ave., Orange, CA 92666. Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical Credit Clerks and Authorizers (D O.T. 203.382-022; 205.367-022; 209.362-018 and 367-022; 219.362-038; 237.367-014; 241.267-030; and 249.367-022, -050, and .382-010) Nature of the Work At some point in your life, you will probably apply for credit—to buy a home, furniture or appliances, an automobile, or to get a credit card. A credit clerk or authorizer will review your credit history and obtain the information needed to determine your creditworthiness. Credit clerks contact applicants, credit bureaus, and other sources for infor mation, and verify loan documents to ensure completeness. Credit authorizers refer to credit records and reports to decide whether to approve a customer’s credit card purchase. Clerks in credit bureaus secure and update information for credit reports. These workers are often called credit investigators or reporters. Clerks in banks and other financial institutions process or close loan and credit applications. Some clerks verify employment and financial information of credit card applicants. Loan processing clerks prepare loan applications for underwriters. They review loan applications, write credit bureaus and reporting agencies for applicant records, and contact employers, banks, and references to verify personal and financial information. Clerks order appraisals from appraisal compa nies and secure tax forms, bank statements, and any required govern ment forms from applicants. They calculate debt-to-income ratios to see that applicants meet the minimum guidelines for a loan. If any information in the loan package is inaccurate, clerks contact the proper source for further information. Closing clerks obtain and prepare documents needed for real estate settlements. They check to see that they are complete, that all legal documents, such as deeds of trust, hazard insurance papers, and title commitments, are accurate and correctly signed, and that all loan conditions required for settlement have been met. Credit authorizers approve charges against customers’ existing ac counts. Most charges are approved automatically by computer. How ever, when accounts are past due, overextended, invalid, or show a change of address, sales persons refer transactions to credit authorizers located in a central office. Authorizers evaluate the customers’ compu terized credit records and payment histories and quickly decide whether or not to approve new charges. Authorizers may enter address changes and credit extensions into computer credit files. required to have previous work experience, preferably in financial institutions. New employees are generally trained on the job—working under the close supervision of more experienced workers. Some credit work ers also take courses in credit offered by banking and credit associa tions, public and private vocational schools, and colleges and universi ties. As workers demonstrate competence, they can advance to loan or credit department supervisor, underwriter, or management. For management positions, employers prefer applicants with a bachelor’s degree in business or a related field. Positions in these fields involve much telephone contact, so good communication skills are a necessity. Job Outlook Employment of credit clerks and authorizers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as the volume of credit in the economy continues to grow. Growth will occur as the number of real estate, retail sales, and other transactions requiring credit grows rapidly. The interpersonal nature of loan clerk ing and the judgment required of authorizers ensure that computers will not significantly affect employment. In addition to jobs created by growth, many jobs will become available as workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Earnings According to limited available data, average annual earnings ranged from around $11,000 to about $25,000 in 1988. Credit authorizers Working Conditions Credit clerks and authorizers usually work a 35- to 40-hour week. However, during particularly busy periods, they may work overtime. For credit clerks handling residential real estate, the busy periods are spring and summer and at the end of the month. For authorizers, they are during the Christmas shopping season and on store sale days. In fact, temporary workers are often hired as credit authorizers during peak workloads. In retail establishments, authorizers may work nights and weekends during store hours. Credit authorizers sit for long periods in front of video display terminals, which may cause eyestrain and headaches and pose a risk for pregnant women. Employment Credit clerks and authorizers held about 229,500 jobs in 1988. Almost three-fourths were in banks and other financial institutions, and about 1 in 10 were in wholesale and retail trade. The rest were distributed among business services, such as credit reporting and collection agen cies and computer and data processing services. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement No specific training is needed for entry level positions in credit clerking and authorizing, with the exception of loan closing. Closers are often https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 253 Credit authorizers are generally trained on the job. 254 Occupational Outlook Handbook averaged about $12,500 a year. Credit clerks generally started at $13,000 to $15,000, while senior clerks generally earned $20,000 to $25,000. Full-time workers generally receive health insurance, vacation and sick leave, and other standard benefits; part-timers may not. In addi tion, workers in retail establishments usually receive a discount on store purchases. Related Occupations Occupations with duties similar to those of credit clerks and authorizers include claim examiners and adjusters, customer-complaint clerks, procurement clerks, probate clerks, and collection clerks. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities in the field of credit, including entry level and management positions, is available from: ••-International Credit Association, Education Department, Box 27357, St. Louis, MO 63141-1757. Additional information about local job opportunities in credit clerk ing and authorizing may be obtained from retail stores, banking institu tions, and credit reporting agencies. Employment Financial records processors held about 2,849,000 jobs in 1988, with accounting, bookkeeping, and auditing clerks accounting for 8 of every 10 workers. They are employed in virtually every industry. Most are in wholesale and retail trade, manufacturing, and health, education, and business services and in financial institutions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Some entrants are high school graduates who have taken vocational training in accounting, bookkeeping, or business data processing; others have post-secondary training from vocational schools, commu nity and junior colleges, and business schools and colleges. However, many enter the occupation without formal financial records processing training and learn on the job, working with experienced processors. Some entrants are college graduates with degrees in business, finance, or the liberal arts. Although a degree is rarely required, many take these jobs to get into a company or into the finance and accounting field, with the hope of being promoted to managerial or management support jobs. These workers may start at higher salaries and advance more rapidly than those without a degree. With experience, financial record processors are given more difficult assignments, and those with appropriate experience and education can become clerical supervisors, accountants, or financial officers. Financial record processors must be careful, orderly, and detail oriented in order to avoid and recognize errors and should have a strong aptitude for numbers. Typing and computer skills are valuable, as is office experience. Financial Records Processors Nature of the Work Financial records processors compute, record, and review financial data in order to maintain systematic billing, payroll, and other accounting records and carry out financial transactions. This group includes billing and related clerks; bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks; and payroll and timekeeping clerks. Typically, financial records processors prepare bills and invoices, maintain financial data in computer and manual files, and compute wages for payroll records. The duties of financial records processors vary with the size of the firm. In a small business, for example, one worker may handle all financial records and transactions, while in a large firm, with many processors, workers may just handle timecards, accounts payable, or expense accounts. Computers have changed the duties of most financial records proces sors. In the past, workers performed calculations with adding machines and wrote figures into ledgers and files. Now, many workers use financial software programs to make calculations and manipulate data. Furthermore, financial records processors access files stored on a computer, rather than leaf through stacks of paper. They also use computers to produce reports that summarize financial data. Despite automation, workers still keep back-up paper records for research, auditing, and reference. Working Conditions Financial records processors work in a typical office environment. Reviewing detailed numerical data is often repetitive, requiring proces sors to sit for long periods. Extended periods at video display terminals may cause headaches, eye strain, and musculoskeletal strain. They generally work a standard 40-hour week, but may work longer hours to meet deadlines at the end of the fiscal year, during tax time, or when monthly and yearly accounting audits are performed. Billing, bookkeeping, and accounting workers in hotels, restaurants, and stores may work overtime during peak holiday and vacation seasons. About 1 financial records processor in 4 works part time; some work as temporaries. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Little change in overall employment of financial records processors is expected through the year 2000. The volume of financial and account ing records and transactions is expected to increase as the economy expands. However, rising productivity, stemming from increased use of computers and better programs to record, store, and manipulate data, should keep employment from rising. Despite the lack of employment growth, there should be a very large number of job openings. This occupational group is large and many workers transfer to other occupations or stop working, primarily to attend to family responsibilities. (The outlook for individual financial records processing occupations is discussed in the statements that follow.) Earnings Median annual earnings of full-time financial records processors were about $ 16,000 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 13,000 and $20,500. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10,500; the top 10 percent earned more than $25,500. Earnings vary by occupation, as shown in the following tabulation of 1988 median salaries: Payroll and timekeeping clerks.................................................$17,300 Billing clerks and related workers........................................... 16,300 Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks..................... 16,000 Related Occupations Workers in a number of other jobs also must be good at working with figures, keeping records, and performing detailed, routine work. These occupations include bank teller, statistical clerk, statement clerk, bro kerage clerk, shipping clerk, and receiving clerk. Sources of Additional Information A brochure describing a career as a bookkeeper or accounting clerk is available upon request from: ••-Association of Independent Colleges and Schools, 1 Dupont Circle NW., Suite 350, Washington, DC 20036. State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for financial records processing occupations. Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical Billing Clerks (DOT 184.387-010; 210.382-022, -026, -066; 211.482-014, -018, 010- 214.267-010, .362-010, -014, -022, -026. -038, -042, .382-010, -018 -022, -026, -030, .387-010, -014, -018, .462-010, .467-010, 214.482-010, -014, -018, -022, .582-010, .587-010; 216.382-034, -050, .482-014, -018, -022; 217.382-010; 241.267-026; and 249.367-034) .582 -014, -014; -054, Nature of the Work In order to maintain its credit rating and financial stability, an organiza tion must pay its bills promptly as well as receive timely payment for its goods or services. Billing clerks compute fees and costs, record data, and produce statements, bills, and invoices that are used to settle these accounts. Billing, cost, and rate clerks keep records, calculate charges, and maintain files. Billing machine operators use billing machines to prepare statements, bills, and invoices and bookkeeping machines to compile records of transactions. In a growing number of firms, workers using computers and ad vanced billing equipment now handle both functions. Clerks handling accounts receivable prepare invoices to collect bills from customers. They use calculating machines or computers to compile the amount due from purchase orders, sales tickets, and charge slips and also calculate shipping charges. They type invoices that list the items sold, the sales totals, the credit terms, the date of shipment or dates services were provided, and often a salesperson’s identification. Billing clerks maintain and update this information in manual and computer files. Supervisors review invoices and approve them before bills are sent out. Accounts-payable clerks verify billing data so that proper payment can be made. They compare invoices against purchase orders and receiv ing documents to verify the receipt, amount, and price of items ordered, the name of the billing company, and any necessary codes, and write up a payment slip or produce a check. If there are errors in the shipments or the amount due, they contact the billing company to clear up the discrepancy and update computer and manual files. They obtain signa tures from accountants, managers, or supervisors and send out checks. services will result in more business transactions, but productivity increases will keep employment from rising. Employment of machine operators will decline as more advanced machines permit billing, cost, and rate clerks to handle many of their responsibilities. Despite the lack of growth, many job opemings will occur as billing clerks transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and eamings.) Bookkeeping, Accounting, and Auditing Clerks (DOT. 209.687-010; 210.362-010, .367-010, -014, .382-010, -014, -018, -030 -034, -038, -042, -046, -050, -054, -058, -062; 214.362-018; 216.362 010, -014,-022,-026,-034,.367-010,.382-010, -014, -018, -022, -026,-030, -038, -058, -070, -074, .387-010, .482-010, -026, .587-010, -014; 219.362 062, -066, .367-042, .387-018, .487-010, .587-010; and 249.367-038) Nature of the Work Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks compute, classify, and record numerical data in order to develop and maintain financial re cords. They record debits and credits, compare current and past balance sheets, and monitor loans and accounts payable and receivable to insure that payments are up to date. They also prepare bank deposits. They compile data from cashiers, verify and balance receipts, and send in deposits. Entry level clerks verify documents for mathematical Employment Billing clerks held about 421,000 jobs in 1988. About 4 of every 10 workers were in banks and other financial institutions, insurance companies, and in organizations providing business and health ser vices. About 1 of every 4 employees was found in wholesale and retail establishments, and a significant number worked in manufacturing, transportation, communications, and utilities. Approximately 1 in 6 billing clerks works part time. Job Outlook Employment of billing clerks is expected to change little through the year 2000. A growing economy and a greater demand for billing Billing clerks use computers to prepare and update billing records. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 255 Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks must be good at detail. 256 Occupational Outlook Handbook accuracy and proper codes. More advanced clerks may total, balance, and reconcile billing vouchers; ensure completeness and accuracy of data on accounts; and code documents according to company proce dures. They may also post transactions in journals and on computer files, and update these files when needed. They review computer printouts against manually maintained journals, and make necessary corrections. Senior workers review invoices and statements to make sure all information is accurate and complete, and may reconcile computer reports with operating reports. Employment Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks held about 2,252,000 jobs in 1988. Almost 1 of every 3 was in wholesale and retail trade. About one-fourth were in organizations providing business, health, educational, and social services. Approximately 1 in 4 bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks works part time. Job Outlook Little change is expected in the employment of bookkeeping, account ing, and auditing clerks through the year 2000. A growing economy will result in more financial transactions and other activities, and, therefore, more demand for accounting services. However, automation of office functions is expected to continue, with resulting productivity increases. Despite the lack of employment growth, job openings will be numerous because of the large size of the occupation. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.) Payroll and timekeeping clerks screen timecards for calculating, coding, and other errors. distributed to secretaries and general office clerks. Employment is expected to decline in many manufacturing industries, where the num ber of employees, and therefore the number of payroll records, will decline. Employment in some fast growing service industries, how ever, will increase slightly. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.) Payroll and Timekeeping Clerks (D.O.T. 215.362-018, .367-022, .382-010, and .482-010) Nature of the Work Payroll and timekeeping clerks perform a vital function—insuring that employees’ paychecks are correct and paid on time. Timekeeping clerks distribute and collect timecards each pay period. These workers review employee workcharts, timesheets, and timecards to be sure that information, such as the number of hours worked and sick and vacation days, is properly recorded, and that authorizing signatures have been made. Timekeeping clerks keep informed of new payroll policies and inform managers and other employees of procedural changes. In the payroll department, payroll clerks screen the timecards for calculating, coding, or other errors. Then they compute earnings, vacation day, and sick leave balances. They review computer reports listing timecards that cannot be processed because of errors and contact employees or managers for further information. Payroll clerks maintain manual back-up files for research and refer ence. They also adjust for mistakes in earnings, record changes in employee addresses, close out files when workers retire, resign, or transfer, and advise employees on income tax withholding. They mail earnings and tax witholding statements in early January for employees’ tax returns. Employment Payroll and timekeeping clerks held about 176,000jobs in 1988. About 1 of every 3 worked in business, health, education, and social services. Over 1 in 4 worked in manufacturing, and approximately 1 of every 10 were in wholesale and retail trade and in government. Approximately 1 in 8 payroll and timekeeping clerks works part time. Job Outlook Little or no change in employment of payroll and timekeeping clerks is expected through the year 2000. Automation will continue to make these workers more productive. More of the work will involve data entry, so data entry clerks will handle some tasks formerly done by payroll clerks. Automated timeclocks are performing tasks formerly done by timekeepers. In addition, some timekeeping duties are being https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis General Office Clerks (D.O.T. 209.362-030, .562-010, .567-022; 219.362-010, -022, -026; 243 362 014; 245.362-014, .367-010, -014, -018; 249.367-010, -014; 375.362-010 579.137-030) Nature of the Work Many clerical tasks must be performed in order to keep a modern office running smoothly. While most clerical workers specialize in one specific task, such as typing or filing, some do a variety of duties without specializing in any particular area. These workers, called general office clerks, perform many different tasks in support of gen eral office, business, or administrative operations. Work assignments of general office clerks are set in accordance with the needs of the employer. Therefore, variety is the key. Some days may be spent filing or typing; others may be spent entering data at a computer terminal. General office clerks also may operate photocopi ers, calculators, or other office equipment, as well as answer tele phones and deliver messages. Experienced workers may handle more demanding tasks. These could include maintaining financial or other records, verifying statisti cal reports for accuracy and completeness, and handling and adjusting customer complaints. Other duties could include taking inventory of equipment and supplies, answering questions on departmental services and functions, and helping prepare budgetary requests. In addition, senior general office clerks may be expected to oversee and direct the work of lower level clerks. Working Conditions For the most part, working conditions for general office clerks are the same as those for other office employees in the same company. Those on a full-time schedule usually work a standard 40-hour week. Never theless, I in 4 works part time. In addition, a significant number of general office clerks work as temporaries. Employment General office clerks held over 2.5 million jobs in 1988. They work in every sector of the economy and are fairly evenly distributed Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical 257 highest in public utilities and mining and lowest in construction and finance, insurance, and real estate. In 1989, the Federal Government paid general office clerks a starting salary of $11,500 a year if they were high school graduates or had 6 months of clerical work experience. In 1988, general office clerks in the Federal Government earned an average annual salary of about $17,300. Related Occupations Other workers who perform a variety of clerical tasks to keep offices functioning smoothly include office helpers, messengers, mail clerks, file clerks, and real estate clerks. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for general office clerks. General office clerks perform a wide variety of tasks. throughout industry and government. Their distribution by geographic region is very similar to that of the labor force in general. Information Clerks Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many general office clerk jobs are entry level and do not require office or business experience. Employers usually require a high school diploma, and some require typing, word processing, and other general office skills. In addition, basic computer skills are becoming increas ingly important. Training for this occupation is widely available. Business education programs are offered in high schools, community and junior colleges, and postsecondary vocational schools. Courses in keyboarding, micro computer applications, and office practices are particularly helpful. General office clerks usually work with others. Therefore, they should be cooperative and able to work as part of a team. Some general office clerks—particularly those who exhibit strong communication, interpersonal, and analytical skills—are promoted to supervisory positions. Others move into different clerical jobs, such as receptionist, typist, or secretary. Advancement to professional occupa tions usually requires more formal education, such as a college degree. Nature of the Work Information clerks are involved with gathering information from and providing information to the public. Depending on the setting, they may be called hotel and motel clerks, interviewing clerks, new ac counts clerks, receptionists, or reservation agents and transportation ticket clerks. Although day-to-day duties vary widely, many information clerks greet customers and other visitors, determine their needs, and refer callers to the person who can help them. Others answer questions and elicit information from the public. More detail on these occupations is available in the statements that appear later in this section. A growing number of information clerks use automated office equip ment such as word processors or personal computers in the course of their work. While this equipment allows them to handle more information, it does not alter the basic content of their job—human contact and interaction. That is something that even the most sophisti cated machine cannot replace. Job Outlook Due to the large number of expected job openings, primarily as a result of high turnover in this very large occupation, employment prospects should be quite favorable. Jobseekers who have typing and other secretarial skills, basic computer skills, and who can use a wide range of office machines such as facsimile machines and copiers should have the best opportunities. General office clerks should find many opportunities for part-time or temporary work, especially during peak business periods. Employment of general office clerks is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as many small businesses place a single office worker—frequently a general office clerk—in charge of all the clerical work. Because they are clerical “jacks-of-all-trades,” general office clerks find work in virtually every kind of industry. Therefore, employment is not dependent on the fortunes of any single industry. Similarly, because they perform a wide variety of office duties using many types of equipment, their employment is not necessarily dependent on any particular technology. Working Conditions Because many information clerks greet customers and visitors, they usually work in areas that are highly visible and carefully designed and furnished to make a good impression. Working conditions usually are pleasant; work stations are clean, well lighted, and relatively quiet. Because of the visible nature of the job, many information clerks operate with less direct supervision than other clerical workers. Although most information clerks work a standard 40-hour week, a sizable number work irregular schedules. Some jobs—those in the transportation industry, hospitals, hotels, and banks, in particular— may require evening, weekend, and holiday work. Employees with the least seniority usually are assigned the least desirable shifts. For most information clerks, the work is not physically demanding, although the repetitious nature of the job may be tiring. For example, reservation agents may spend all day answering telephone inquiries and entering reservations into a computer system. Prolonged exposure to a video display terminal may lead to eye and musculoskeletal strain as well as complications to pregnancy. Hotel and motel clerks and ticket agents are on their feet most of the time, and ticket agents have to lift heavy baggage. During holidays and other busy periods, these clerks may find the work hectic due to the large number of guests or travelers who must be served. When service does not flow smoothly—because of cancelled flights or mis handled reservations, for example—these clerks act as a buffer be tween the establishment and its customers. Trying to pacify irate customers can be emotionally draining. Interviewing clerks who conduct surveys may have to travel from place to place within their local area by car or by public transportation. Earnings Median annual earnings of full-time general office clerks were about $15,400 in 1988; the middle 50 percent earned between $12,600 and $19,800 annually. Ten percent earned less than $9,600, and 10 percent more than $26,200. Beginning general office clerks in private firms averaged $10,500 a year in 1988. Clerks with more responsibilities earned higher salaries, up to an average of $19,300 a year. General office clerks’ salaries vary by industry. They tend to be https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 258 Occupational Outlook Handbook They also may have to deal with rejection or irritated persons because they have called at an inconvenient time, such as at mealtime. Employment In 1988, information clerks held about 1.3 million jobs. These workers are employed throughout the economy, but are concentrated in lodging establishments, offices of physicians, hospitals, and firms providing business services. This type of work lends itself to flexible working arrangements—much more prevalent for receptionists, interviewing and new accounts clerks, and hotel and motel clerks than for reserva tion agents—and 1 of every 3 information clerks works part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although hiring requirements vary from industry to industry, a high school diploma or its equivalent usually is required, and, for some jobs, some college education is preferred. For example, the airline industry has traditionally drawn jobseekers who have completed some college coursework. In fact, passenger service jobs throughout the transportation industry are increasingly being sought by college gradu ates, in part because of the attractive travel benefits that are offered. Orientation and training for information clerks vary by job setting. In some cases, formal instruction is given; in others, all the training is given on the job. For example, hotel and motel clerks receive their training on the job. The training period is usually brief and includes an explanation of the job duties and information about the establish ment, such as room location and available services. Once on the job, they receive help and supervision from the assistant manager or an experienced clerk. Some clerks may need additional training in data processing or office machine operations because of the increased use of computerized reservation and billing systems. Receptionists and interviewing clerks also receive their training on the job. They leam good interviewing techniques and telephone etiquette; they leam how their employers keep records and become familiar with the kinds of business forms used. These workers also may leam to operate duplicating machines, calculators, word proces sors, and personal computers. Most airline reservation agents leam their skills through formal company programs. In a classroom setting, they are taught company policy and government regulations that cover ticketing procedures and other matters related to the airline. They leam to read schedules, calculate fares, and plan passenger itineraries. They also leam to use the computer to obtain information on schedules and seat availability, and to reserve space for passengers. They are tested daily, and home work usually is assigned. To maximize their productivity, reservation agents are expected to limit the time spent on each call without, of course, alienating customers. Thus, learning how to carry on a conversation in an organized, yet pleasing manner is an important part of their training. After completing classroom instruction, new agents work under supervisors or experienced agents for several weeks. In contrast, automobile clubs train their travel clerks on the job, without formal classes. Many information clerks continue to receive instruction on a regular basis after their initial training ends. Employers frequently provide weekly or monthly training sessions on new procedures and changes in company policies. Because information clerks must deal directly with the public, a good appearance and a pleasant personality are essential, as are prob lem-solving ability and good interpersonal skills. A good speaking voice is essential because these employees frequently use the telephone or public address systems. Courses useful to persons wanting to enter these occupations include basic math and English, geography, U.S. history, psychology and public speaking. Typing ability often is needed, and experience with computer equipment is useful. Some employers may require applicants to take a typing test to gauge their skills. It also may be helpful for those in the lodging industry to be able to speak a foreign language. Advancement for information clerks comes about either by transfer to a more responsible job or by promotion to a supervisory position. For example, receptionists, interviewers, and new accounts clerks https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis with typing or other clerical skills may advance to a better paying job as a secretary, administrative assistant, or bookkeeper. In the transportation industry, a common progression is from reservation agent to ticket agent; a few go on to become field sales agents. Information clerks with demonstrated ability, leadership qualities, and an understanding of the operations of the organization can advance to supervisory positions. Additional training frequently is helpful in preparing clerks for promotion. In the lodging industry, for example, clerks can improve their chances for advancement by taking home or group study courses in hotel and motel management such as those sponsored by the Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Motel Association. Regardless of job setting, a college degree fre quently is required for advancement in the management ranks. Job Outlook Overall employment of information clerks is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Although many openings will occur as businesses and organizations expand, most jobs for information clerks will result from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Replacement needs will create an exceptionally large number of job openings, for the occupation is large and turnover is higher than average. This work is well suited to flexible work sched ules, and many opportunities for part-time work will be available. Economic growth and general business expansion are expected to stimulate demand for these workers. Employment of receptionists, hotel clerks, and interviewing clerks should grow more rapidly than that of new accounts clerks and reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks. The more rapidly growing occupations are concentrated in industries that are experiencing rapid growth. For example, very rapid employment growth is expected for interviewers found in firms supplying market research analysis, public relations, or charge account services as more firms find it cost effective to contract out for these services. Rapid growth is also expected in the lodging industry as personal incomes increase and leisure time expands, which will drive up the demand for hotel and motel clerks. In addition, the services industry, where the majority of receptionists are employed, is expected to continue to grow rapidly. In contrast, takeovers, merg ers, and consolidations in the banking and transportation industries will cause employment of new accounts clerks and reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks to grow at a more moder ate pace. Earnings In 1988, median weekly earnings of full-time information clerks were $270. The middle 50 percent earned between $212 and $350. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $175, while the top 10 percent earned more than $479. Earnings vary widely by occupation. Salaries of reservation and ticket agents tend to be significantly higher than for other clerks, while hotel clerks tend to earn quite a bit less, as shown in the following tabulation. Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks................................................................................... $423 Interviewing and newaccounts clerks......................................... 288 Receptionists..................................................................................... 256 Hotel and motel clerks..................................................................... 214 Earnings of information clerks vary by industry. Salaries in manu facturing, transportation and utilities, and wholesale trade tend to be higher than in services, finance, and retail trade. Earnings vaty by region also, with those in the West and Northeast tending to be higher than those in the Midwest and South. In 1989, the Federal Government paid beginning information recep tionists with a high school diploma or 6 months’ experience $11,484 a year. The average salary for all information receptionists employed by the Federal Government was $15,645 a year in 1988. Earnings of hotel and motel clerks depend on the location, size, and type of establishment in which they work. Large luxury hotels and Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical those located in metropolitan and resort areas generally pay clerks more than less expensive ones and those located in less populated areas. In general, hotels pay higher salaries than motels or other types of lodging establishments. In addition to their hourly wage, information clerks usually receive the same package of fringe benefits as other workers in the organiza tion. Typical benefits include health and life insurance, vacation and sick leave, paid holidays, and a pension plan. Those who work eve nings, nights, weekends, or holidays also may receive a shift differen tial. Some employers offer educational assistance to their employees. Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks receive free or very low cost travel on their company’s carriers for themselves and their immediate family and, in some companies, free uniforms. Many reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks belong to labor unions. Five unions cover most of the organized agents and clerks: The Amalgamated Transit Union; the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Brotherhood of Railway, Airline and Steamship Clerks, Freight Handlers, Express and Station Employees; the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chaffeurs. Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.); and the Transport Workers Union of America. Related Occupations A number of other workers deal with the public, receive and provide information, or direct people to others who can assist them. Among these are customer-service representatives, dispatchers, and telephone operators. Hotel and Motel Clerks (D.O.T. 238.362-010) Nature of the Work Hotel and motel clerks perform a variety of services for guests of hotels, motels, and related establishments. They may assign rooms to guests and answer questions about available services, checkout times, or parking facilities. In assigning rooms, they must consider their guests’ preferences while trying to maxmize the establishment’s reve nues. These workers help guests fill out registration forms and may collect payment. They also keep records of room assignments so they can advise housekeepers, telephone operators, and maintenance workers that rooms are occupied. They are always in the public eye and, through their attitude and behavior, greatly influence the public’s impressions and affect an establishment’s reputation. Because many smaller hotels and motels require minimal staffs, the clerk also may function as a bookkeeper, cashier, or telephone opera1 tor. Large establishments, however, usually employ several of these clerks to perform various services, such as registering guests, handling mail, or providing information. Employment Hotel and motel clerks held about 113,000 jobs in 1988. This occupa tion is well suited to flexible work schedules, and about 1 of every 5 clerks works part time. Hotels and motels are found in all parts of the country. Job Outlook Employment of hotel and motel clerks is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as more hotels, motels, and other lodging establishments are built and as occupancy rates rise. Business travel, the staple of the lodging industry, will remain strong, and discretionary travel is expected to increase. The number of international travelers to the United States should grow because of the increased promotion abroad of the domestic tourist industry and continued low inflation in this country. Further increases in the number https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 259 About one of every five hotel and motel clerks works part time. of two-eamer families should raise discretionary income, which also may increase the demand for vacation accommodations. Shifts in travel preferences away from long vacations toward long weekends and other, more frequent, short trips also should increase demand. Job opportunities should be excellent because turnover is very high. Each year thousands of workers transfer to other occupations that offer better pay and advancement opportunities. Workers under the age of 25 traditionally have filled a significant proportion of these jobs. This pool of young workers is expected to shrink through the year 2000, however, forcing many employers to offer higher wages, better fringe benefits, and more training to attract and retain workers. Opportunities for part-time work should continue to be plentiful, both because this type of work is compatible with flexible schedules and because employ ers increasingly will stress this flexibility as a benefit in order to attract workers. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in the lodging industry', as well as information on professional development and training programs, may be obtained from: w-The Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Motel Association P.O. Box 1240, East Lansing, MI 48826. (See introductory part of this section for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) Interviewing and New Accounts Clerks (D.O.T. 205.362-018, -026, -030, .367-014, -026, -042, -054, and -058) Nature of the Work The work of these clerks generally involves helping people complete different types of forms. They verify the information and perform various processing tasks. The particular duties and job titles of these workers depend upon the type of employer. For example, clerks working in a hospital or clinic are called hospital or outpatient admitting clerks. They gather all the preliminary informa tion required for admission, such as the patient’s name, address, age, religion, persons to notify in case of emergency, attending physician, and individual or insurance company responsible for payment of the bill. In a hospital, they may assign a patient to a room and escort the patient or arrange for an escort to the assigned room. They type admitting records and route them to designated departments. In a clinical setting, they schedule appointments and provide general infor mation about outpatient care. They also receive payments and answer the telephone. Charge-account clerks interview and help applicants fill out the application forms for credit cards. They check references by phone or 260 Occupational Outlook Handbook tals, and the Federal Government, for which they conduct population surveys. About 1 of every 4 interviewing clerks works part time. . #25* *■ f- Job Outlook Employment of interviewing and new accounts clerks is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. The fastest growth will occur in miscellaneous business services, as more organizations rely on firms to provide services on a contract or fee basis. More interviewing clerks will be needed to staff firms providing market research and public relations services as well as public opinion polling. Expansion of the credit card service industry also will spur job growth. New jobs will result as more small businesses turn to credit card companies for services rather than extend credit themselves. More moderate employment growth is expected for clerks in finan cial institutions due to consolidations and advances in bank automa tion. Little change is expected for interviewing clerks in the Federal Government. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about em ployment opportunities. General information about banking occupations, including training opportunities, is available from: •-American Bankers Association, 1120 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036. (See introductory part of this section for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) Receptionists (D.O.T. 203.362-014; 205.367-038; 237.267-010, .367-010, -018, -022, -026, -038, -042, -046, and -050; 238.367-022 and -034; and 249.262-010 and .367 082) Interviewing and new accounts clerks help people complete forms. form letter and notify the customer of the credit decision. They also may verify entries and correct errors on charge accounts and may answer credit rating requests from banks and credit bureaus. (For more information about the issuance of credit, see the statement on loan and credit clerks, credit checkers, and credit authorizers elsewhere in the Handbook.) New accounts clerks are employed by financial institutions such as commercial banks and savings and loan associations. They interview people who want to open a checking or savings account and record the data on an application form. They describe the services that are available and help people fill out forms for special services, such as overdraft protection or automatic teller machine cards. They also may answer telephone inquiries about procedures for opening or closing accounts. Survey workers, sometimes called telemarketing representatives, work for organizations that develop information by conducting surveys of the public. They interview people and compile statistical informa tion on such topics as occupation and earnings, political preferences, and buying habits. They contact people at home or at their place of business, approach people at random on the streets, contact them by telephone following specified sampling procedures. They review, classify, and sort the responses to their questions. Regardless of the job setting, all interviewing and new accounts clerks must elicit infor mation from others. Employment Interviewing and new accounts clerks held about 237,000jobs in 1988. Virtually all of them were employed by banks and savings and loan associations, firms providing miscellaneous business services, hospi https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work All organizations want to make a good first impression. This is an important part of the job of the receptionist, who generally is the first person a caller sees or speaks to. Receptionists greet customers and other visitors, determine their needs, and refer callers to the person who can help them. They also answer questions from the public. Their day-to-day duties vary a great deal, depending on where they work. Those in hospitals and doctors’ offices, for example, may obtain personal and financial information and then direct patients to the proper waiting rooms. In beauty shops, they arrange appointments and may show customers to the operator’s booth. In factories or large business firms and government offices, they provide identification cards and arrange for escorts to take callers to the proper office. Those working for bus and train companies respond to inquiries about departures, arrivals, stops, and related matters. Many receptionists keep records of callers, the times at which they called, and the persons to whom they were referred. When they are not busy with callers, they may perform clerical duties, such as typing or filing. Some open and sort mail and collect and distribute messages. Still others prepare travel vouchers and do simple bookkeeping. Receptionists, particularly those in large cities, frequently perform a security function—seeing who belongs in a given place and who does not. They also may be expected to monitor the attendance of other employees and report this to management. Increasingly, receptionists use automated office equipment such as word processors or personal computers in the course of their work. While this equipment allows them to handle more messages, for example, it does not alter the basic content of their job—human contact and interaction. Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical Employment Receptionists held about 833,000 jobs in 1988. More than one-third of all jobs were located in health facilities: Doctors’ and dentists’ offices, hospitals, nursing homes, urgent care centers, surgicenters, clinics, and so forth. Factories, wholesale and retail stores, govern ment agencies, real estate offices, and firms providing business and personal services also employed large numbers of receptionists. More opportunities for flexible working arrangements exist for receptionists than for other information clerks; 1 of every 3 reception ists works part time. Job Outlook Employment of receptionists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Employment is expected to grow more rapidly than employment of clerical workers in general. This is largely because so many receptionists work for firms providing business and professional services—sectors of the economy that are expected to continue to show strong growth—partic ularly doctors' and dentists’ offices, law firms, temporary help agen cies, and consulting firms. In addition, more and more firms are recognizing the importance of these workers in promoting good public relations. Job opportunities should be very plentiful. In addition to rapid employment growth, turnover is high. Each year, a great many receptionists transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force to tend to household responsibilities, return to school, or retire. Because the work of receptionists is of a person-to-person nature, it is unlikely to be affected by office automation. In addition, because establishments need their services even during economic downturns, receptionists usually are not subject to layoffs during recessions. Many receptionists also perform secretarial duties, and persons with good typing, stenographic, and other skills should have the best job prospects. Sources of Additional Information State employment offices can provide information on job openings for receptionists. (See the introductory part of this section for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) Job opportunities for receptionists should be plentiful. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 261 Reservation and Transportation Ticket Agents and Travel Clerks (D.O.T. 214.362-030; 238.167-010 and-014, .362-014, .367 except-022; and 248.382-010) Nature of the Work Each year, millions of Americans travel by plane, train, ship, bus, and automobile. Because so many people travel, it often is necessary to make reservations and plan trips well in advance. These workers facilitate passenger travel in a variety of ways. They help passengers plan their trips by answering questions and offering suggestions on travel arrangements such as routes, time schedules, rates, and types of accommodation. They make and confirm transportation and hotel reservations, calculate expenses, and write and sell tickets. When passengers are about to embark on their trip, these agents and clerks check their baggage, direct them to the point of departure, and help them to board. Reservation agents usually work in large central offices answering customer telephone inquiries and booking reservations. Most agents have access to computer terminals and, by typing instructions on the keyboard, can quickly obtain the necessary information and make the reservations. Agents also can change or cancel reservations at the customer’s request, simply by modifying the record on the computer. After the reservation has been made and the ticket has been purchased, ticketing clerks compile and record the information, such as dates of travel and method of payment. The tickets then are sent to the passenger. Ticket agents are sometimes referred to by other titles, such as passenger agent, passenger-booking clerk, reservation clerk, ticket clerk, and ticket seller. In addition to selling tickets, they answer inquiries, check baggage, examine visas, ensure passenger seating, and check in animals. Other ticket agents, more commonly known as gate agents, work in airports assisting passengers when boarding. Their duties include directing passengers to the correct boarding area, checking flight tickets, making boarding announcements, and assisting elderly, disabled, or young passengers when they board or depart the airplane. Passenger rate clerks work for bus companies. They arrange trips by planning travel routes, computing rates, selling fares, and keeping customers informed of appropriate details. They also may arrange travel accommodations for tourists. Most travel clerks are employed by automobile clubs. These work ers, often called travel counselors, plan trips and offer travel sugges tions for club members. Using a road map, they show the best route from the point of origin to the destination, as well as the return. They indicate the points of interest, restaurants, hotels, or other housing accommodations along the route and explain what emergency repair services are available during the trip. They may make reservations for club members and calculate expenses and mileage. Travel clerks also work in other settings, such as for hotels and motels, business firms, and government agencies. When guests or employees are planning trips, travel clerks assist them by providing them with the appropriate literature and information, answering ques tions, and offering suggestions. They make reservations, pick up and deliver tickets, arrange for visas, and make any other arrangements necessary for a safe and enjoyable trip. Regardless of setting, reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks must be knowledgeable about their companies’ poli cies and procedures. They must be aware of the availability of special promotions and services and be able to answer any questions their customers may have. Employment Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks held about 133,000 jobs in 1988. Nearly 3 of every 4 of these workers were 262 Occupational Outlook Handbook Nearly three of every four ticket agents are employed by airlines. employed by the airlines. Others worked for automobile clubs, hotels and other lodging places, railroad companies, and other companies that provide transportation services. Although agents and clerks are found throughout the country, most work in downtown ticket and reservation offices and at large metropoli tan transportation terminals, where most passenger business originates. The remainder work in smaller communities often served only by intercity bus or railroad lines. Job Outlook Employment of reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. A growing and more travel-oriented population will increase the number of passenger miles, which, in turn, is expected to increase demand for agents and clerks. However, applicants are likely to encounter considerable competition for openings because the supply of qualified applicants far outstrips demand. For one thing, many people satisfy the entry requirements. Moreover, airline jobs, in particular, attract many applicants because of the travel benefits and glamour associated with the industry. Employment of reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, discretionary passenger travel declines, and transportation service companies are less likely to hire and may even lay off or demote agents and clerks. Sources of Additional Information For information about job opportunities as reservation and transporta tion ticket agents and travel clerks, write the personnel manager of individual transportation companies. Addresses of airlines are avail able from: w-Air Transport Association of America, 1709 New York Ave. NW., Washing ton, DC 20006. (See the introductory part of this section for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) Mail Clerks and Messengers (D.O.T. 209.562-014, .567-018, .587-018, -026, -038; 215.563; 222.367 022, .387-038, .567-018, .587-030, -032; 230.367-014, .647-010, .667-010; 239.362, .567, .677, .687; 243.367-010; 248.367-030; and 249.687-010) Nature of the Work Mail clerks and messengers help businesses and governments run efficiently by moving and distributing information, documents, and small packages. Most large organizations employ mail clerks to serve as the link https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis between the U.S. Postal Service and individual offices and workers. They sort incoming mail and deliver mail within large office buildings, often using carts to carry the mail between offices. They also prepare outgoing mail for delivery to the post office. Many organizations have large mailings of an item; mail clerks may prepare materials for mailing by folding it, inserting it into envelopes, and affixing the proper postage. They also may sort large mailings by zip code before deliver ing it to the post office. In larger organizations or organizations with a large volume of outgoing mail, mail clerks often operate machines which collate, fold, and insert material to be mailed into envelopes. They also operate machines which affix postage. When necessary, they contact delivery services to send important letters or parcels. In addition, it is becoming common for mail clerks to keep their records of incoming and outgoing items on computers. Mail clerks also handle their organization’s internal mail. They sort internal mail and deliver it within a building or, if necessary, to and from nearby buildings. Messengers pick up and deliver letters, documents, or small pack ages which need to be sent or received quickly. By sending an item by messenger, the sender ensures that it reaches its destination the same day or even within the hour. Messengers also deliver items which the sender is unwilling to entrust to other means of delivery, such as important legal or financial documents. Some messengers pick up and deliver important small packages such as medical samples to be tested. Most messengers deliver items within a limited geographic area such as a city or metropolitan area. Items which need to go longer distances usually are sent by mail or by an overnight delivery service. Some messengers carry items only for their employer, which typically might be a law firm, bank, or financial institution. Other messengers may act as part of an organization’s internal mail system and mainly carry items between an organization’s buildings or entirely within one building. Many messengers work for messenger or courier services; they pick up and deliver items anywhere within a local area. Messengers reach their destination by several methods. Many drive vans or cars or ride motorcycles. In congested urban areas, they often travel by bicycle since this is the fastest way to travel in heavy traffic. Bicycle messengers usually are employed by messenger or courier services. A few messengers travel by foot, especially in urban areas or when making deliveries nearby. Some messengers, especially those who work for courier services, provide and maintain their own trans portation. Messengers receive their instructions either by reporting to their office in person or by telephone or two-way radio. They then pick up the item and carry it to its destination. After a delivery, they check with their office and receive instructions about the next delivery. Consequently, most messengers spend most of their time outdoors or in their vehicle. Messengers usually maintain records of deliveries and often obtain signatures from the persons receiving the items. Working Conditions Working conditions for mail clerks are much different from the work ing conditions for most messengers. Most mail clerks work regular hours, spending much of their time in mailrooms, which are usually located in office buildings. Although mailrooms are usually clean and well lighted, there may be noise from mail-handling machines. Most of the rest of their time is spent making mail deliveries throughout an office building. Mail clerks spend most of their time on their feet while sorting and delivering mail and operating machinery, which can be tiring and physically demanding. They are sometimes required to lift heavy objects but usually do not do much physical labor. Messengers work in a less structured environment than mail clerks because they spend most of their time alone making deliveries and usually are not closely supervised. Although many messengers work full time during regular business hours, some messengers work nights and weekends. Messengers who deliver by bicycle must be physically fit and are exposed to all weather conditions as well as the many hazards con nected with heavy traffic. Some messengers, especially those who work for courier services, are paid according to the number of deliv- Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical Messengers often work for courier services. eries made and distance traveled. The pressure to make as many deliveries as possible to increase earnings can be stressful and may lead to unsafe driving or bicycling practices. Employment Messengers and mail clerks together held about 259,000 jobs in 1988; about 136,000 were mail clerks and 123,000 were messengers. Only about 15 percent of the messengers were employed by courier and messenger services. The rest were employed in a wide variety of other industries including financial and legal services, which employed about 3 out of 10, and hospitals and medical laboratories, which employed over 1 in 10. In 1988, about one-fifth of all mail clerks worked in Federal, State, and local governments. Others were employed in a wide range of industries. Very few messengers or mail clerks were self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are no formal qualifications or training required to be a mail clerk or messenger, although some employers prefer high school grad uates. This is a first job for many. Mail clerks receive on-the-job training. They often operate comput ers and mail-handling machinery to help prepare mailings; this training may be provided by a representative of the machinery manufacturer. Mail clerks are sometimes required to have a driver’s license if they make deliveries to other buildings. Messengers are required to have a driver’s license if they operate a motor vehicle; many messengers are required to provide and maintain their own vehicle. They need a good knowledge of the geographic area in which they travel as well as a good sense of direction. Mail clerks, depending on the size of the operation, often can advance to a supervisory position. Messengers, especially those who work for messenger or courier services, have limited advancement opportunities. Job Outlook Employment of mail clerks and messengers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Employment will grow due to growth in the economy and increasing amounts of written information to be handled. Despite the projected slower than average employment growth, there are expected to be many job openings for mail clerks and messen gers through the year 2000. Most job openings will be to replace workers who leave the occupation because the limited formal education and training requirements for these jobs allow easy entry, making the occupation attractive for those who want a short-term source of in come. This is especially true for messengers, many of whom work in this occupation a relatively short time. Employment of mail clerks will remain at about the present level through the year 2000 because, despite increasing amounts of mail https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 263 to be handled, mail-handling machinery will increase mail clerks’ productivity. In addition, the development of robot mail carts to distrib ute mail in large office buildings will further reduce the demand for mail clerks. Employment of messengers will increase about as fast as the average for all occupations. Until recently, employment of messengers has been growing rapidly in response to the increasing desire to receive information quickly. However, development of new electronic infor mation-handling technology will slow the growth of messengers’ em ployment. The most important development is the facsimile machine, which allows copies of documents to be sent across town or across the country immediately and is rapidly becoming standard office equip ment. The transmission of information by computer will also reduce the demand for messengers as more computers become part of net works. However, messengers will still be needed to transport docu ments and other small packages which cannot be sent electronically. Much of the expected growth in employment of messengers will be in messenger or courier services as businesses and governments increas ingly rely on these services instead of their own messengers. Earnings Median weekly earnings of full-time mail clerks were about $278 in 1988; the middle 50 percent earned between $213 and $354. Median weekly earnings of full-time messengers were $264. The middle 50 percent of messengers earned between $198 and $385.'Messengers occasionally receive tips from clients, but this is not a significant part of their earnings. Beginning messengers in manufacturing, transportation, and utili ties averaged $206 a week in 1988; experienced messengers averaged $233 to $270. Some messengers are paid by commission rather than earning a regular wage. The commission usually is based on the number of deliveries made and the distance traveled. Therefore, for some messen gers, the more deliveries they make and the faster they travel, the more they earn. In addition, some messengers, especially those who work on commission, provide their own transportation; they must pay for the cost of their vehicle as well as the fuel and maintenance costs. Mail clerks usually receive the same benefits offered to employees of most large employers; these usually include health insurance, vacation pay, and retirement benefits. Messengers who work for employers other than messenger and courier services usually receive similar benefits. However, messengers who work for messenger and courier services often receive few benefits other than Social Security and workers’ compensation; messengers who work on commission may not receive sick, holiday, or vacation pay. Related Occupations Messengers and mail clerks sort and deliver letters, parcels, and other items. They also keep accurate records of their work. Others who do similar work are postal clerks and mail carriers, route drivers, and traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local em ployers and local offices of the State employment service. Material Recording, Scheduling, Dispatching, and Distributing Occupations Nature of the Work Workers in this group are responsible for a variety of communications and recordkeeping operations in business and government. In general, they coordinate, expedite, and keep track of orders for personnel, equipment, and materials. 264 Occupational Outlook Handbook Dispatchers receive requests for service and initiate action to provide that service. Duties vary, depending on the needs of the employer. Police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers, also called public safety dispatchers, handle calls from people reporting crime, fire, and medical emergencies; truck, bus, and train dispatchers schedule and coordinate the movement of these vehicles; taxicab dispatchers relay requests for cabs to individual drivers; tow truck dispatchers take calls for emergency road service; and gas and electric and telephone company dispatchers handle calls related to utility and telephone service. Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks keep track of goods trans ferred between businesses and their suppliers and customers. They verify and keep records on all incoming and outgoing shipments. Traffic clerks keep a record of destination, weight, and charges of all incoming and outgoing shipments. Shipping clerks assemble, address, stamp, and ship merchandise or materials. Receiving clerks unpack, verify, and record incoming merchandise. In a small company, one clerk may perform all of these tasks. Stock clerks receive, store, issue, and maintain inventory of stock— merchandise in wholesale and retail establishments, and equipment, supplies, and materials in all other kinds of organizations. In small firms, they may perform all of the above tasks, including those usually handled by shipping and receiving clerks. In large establishments, they may be responsible for only one task. More detail on these occupations is available in the statements that follow. Other clerical occupations in this group include production, plan ning, and expediting clerks—who coordinate and expedite the flow of work and material according to production schedules; procurement clerks—who draw up purchase orders for procurement of merchandise or material; weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers—who weigh, measure, and check materials; utilities customer service repre sentatives—who interview applicants for water, gas, electric, or tele phone service; and utilities meter readers—who read electric, gas, water, or steam meters and record the volume used by their customers. (See the end of this section for more information on these occupations.) Working Conditions Working conditions vary considerably by occupation and employment setting. The work of dispatchers can be very hectic when a large number of calls come in at the same time. The job of public safety dispatcher is particularly stressful because so much is at stake. The slow or improper response to a call can result in destruction of property, serious injury, or death. Also, callers who are anxious or afraid may become hysterical and be unable to provide the needed information; some even become abusive. Despite these provocations, the dispatcher must remain cool, objective, and in control of the situation. Dispatchers work indoors in surroundings that are typical of office jobs. They sit for long periods. If they spend a lot of time at a video display terminal, as is increasingly commonplace, they may experience problems of eyestrain and musculoskeletal strain. Dispatchers gener ally work a standard 40-hour week. Because many service providers operate around the clock, dispatchers may have to work evenings, weekends, and holidays. Some employers have three shifts where dispatchers rotate to divide daytime, weekend, and holiday work equally. Traffic, shipping, receiving, and stock clerks generally work in warehouses, stock rooms, or in shipping and receiving rooms that may not be temperature controlled. They also may spend time in cold storage rooms or outside on loading platforms, where they are exposed to the weather. Although many use mechanical material-handling equipment to move heavy items, some may perform strenuous and laborious chores. Most jobs involve much standing, bending, walking, stretching, lifting, and carrying. The typical workweek is 8 hours a day, Monday through Friday, although evening and weekend hours are standard for some jobs and may be required in others when large shipments are delivered and when inventory is taken. Employment In 1988, material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing workers held about 2.9 million jobs. About 2.2 million were stock https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis clerks, found primarily in wholesale and retail establishments. Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks held almost 535,000 jobs, mostly in wholesale, retail, and manufacturing establishments. The 202,000 dispatchers were concentrated in transportation, communications, util ities, and State and local government. Although jobs for these workers are found throughout the country, most work near population centers where stores, warehouses, facto ries, and large communications centers are concentrated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although a high school education is usually sufficient for beginning jobs, preference may be given to candidates who have business, dis patching, or specific job-related experience. Reading and writing skills and a basic knowledge of business arithmetic are necessary; typing, filing, and recordkeeping abilities also are important. Some employers give applicants typing tests. Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks and stock clerks who handle jewelry, liquor, or drugs may have to be bonded. Police, fire, and ambulance dispatching jobs generally are governed by State or local government civil service regulations. Candi dates for these jobs may have to pass written, oral, and performance tests. Familiarity with personal computers or computer terminals is an asset, because computers are increasingly used for inventory control and for dispatching. Trainees usually develop the necessary skills on the job. This infor mal training may last from several days to a few months, depending on the complexity of the job. Dispatchers usually require the most extensive training. Working under an experienced dispatcher, they monitor calls and learn how to operate telephones, radio transmitters and receivers, radio consoles, teletypewriters, and data communica tions terminals. As they gain confidence, they begin to handle calls themselves. Many public safety dispatchers also participate in struc tured training programs provided by their employer. Some employers offer an 80-hour training course designed by the Associated Public Communications Officers (APCO). This course includes such units as interpersonal communications; overview of the police, fire, and rescue functions; modem public safety telecommunications systems; basic radio broadcasting; local, State, and national crime information com puter systems; and telephone complaint/report processing procedures. Other employers develop in-house programs based on their own needs. Emergency medical dispatchers often get special training or have special skills. Some agencies bring in trained paramedics or nurses to work as dispatchers. Because this is so costly, many agencies expand the training of their dispatchers to include instruction on how to help callers begin appropriate lifesaving procedures while trained profes sionals are on their way. Although there are no mandatory licensing or certification require ments, some States require that public safety dispatchers possess a certificate to work on a State network such as the Police Information Network. Voluntary certification programs are offered by both APCO and the International Municipal Signal Association. Many dispatchers participate in these programs in order to improve their prospects for career advancement. Stock clerks and traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks usually leam the job by doing simple tasks under close supervision. Stock clerks first leam how to count and mark stock and then start keeping records and taking inventory. Stock clerks who just bring merchandise to the sales floor and stock shelves and racks need little or no training. Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks start out by checking items to be shipped and then attaching labels and making sure the addresses are correct. As more and more establishments use automated equipment, training and retraining on this equipment are done informally on the job. Physical fitness, communications skills, an understanding of human nature, and the ability to work under pressure are important personal qualities for dispatchers. Public safety dispatchers, especially police dispatchers, must have extremly high standards of personal conduct. Residency in the city or county of employment frequently is required. Strength, stamina, good eyesight, and an ability to work at repetitive Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical tasks and sometimes under pressure are important characterisics for stock clerks and traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks. Advancement opportunities vary with the place of employment. Dispatchers who work for private firms, which are usually small, will find few opportunities for advancement. Public safety dispatchers, on the other hand, may become a shift or divisional supervisor or chief of communications, or move to higher paying administrative jobs. Some may go on to become police officers or sheriffs. In large firms, stock clerks may advance to invoice clerk, stock control clerk, or procurement clerk. Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks may be promoted to head clerk, and those with a broad understanding of shipping and receiving may enter a related field such as industrial traffic management. With additional training, some stock clerks and traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks advance to jobs as warehouse manager or purchasing agent. 265 Earnings Median annual earnings of workers in all material recording, schedul ing, dispatching, and distributing occupations were about $18,000 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $13,000 and $24,000. The lowest 10 percent earned $10,000 or less; the top 10 percent earned over $31,000. Earnings vary somewhat by occupation. Dispatchers earn slightly more than the average for all occupations and stock clerks and traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks earn less. Median annual earnings of dispatchers were $18,900 in 1988. There are considerable differences in dispatcher earnings by industry setting. In 1988, average starting salaries for dispatchers ranged from a low of around $7,000 for taxicab dispatchers to about $11,000 for bus and emergency vehicle road dispatchers to approximately $17,000 for police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers. The median earnings of traffic, shipping, receiving, and stock clerks were between $ 16,000 and $ 17,000 in 1988, with stock clerks generally receiving the higher pay. Like dispatchers, eamings vary by industry. Earnings in retail trade establishments fall into the middle range. In transportation, utilities, and wholesale trade, eamings are usually higher; in finance, insurance, real estate, and services they are lower. Workers in material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distrib uting occupations usually receive the same benefits as most other workers. See the discussion of these in the introductory section of the Handbook. If uniforms are required, they either receive the uniforms or an allowance to purchase them. service is carried out quickly and accurately. Their specific duties depend on the type of service being rendered. Police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers, called public safety dis patchers, are usually the first people called in an emergency. They receive these calls in a variety of settings; they may work in a police station, a fire station, a hospital, or a centralized city communications center. In many cities, it is the police department that serves as the communications center. In these situations, all 911 emergency calls go to the police department where a dispatcher handles the police calls and screens the others before transferring them to the appropriate service. When handling a call, dispatchers carefully question the caller to determine the type, seriousness, and location of the emergency. They then quickly decide on the kind and number of units needed, locate the closest and most suitable ones, and send them to the scene of the emergency. They keep in touch with the units until the emer gency has been handled, in case further instructions are needed. When appropriate, they stay in close contact with other service providers— for example, a police dispatcher would monitor the response of the fire department when there is a major fire. In a medical emergency, dispatchers not only keep in close touch with the dispatched units but also with the caller. They often give extensive prearrival first aid instructions while the caller is waiting for the ambulance. They contin uously give updates on the patient’s condition to the ambulance person nel and often serve as a link between the medical staff in a hospital and the emergency medical technicians in the ambulance. (The work of emergency medical technicians is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) Truck dispatchers who work for local and long-distance trucking companies coordinate the movement of trucks and freight between cities. They handle customers’ requests for pickup and delivery of freight, make up loads for specific destinations, assign drivers and schedules, and provide other information. Bus dispatchers make sure that local and long-distance buses stay on schedule. They handle all problems that may disrupt service and dispatch orders to restore service and schedules. Train dispatchers are responsible for the timely move ment of trains according to train orders and schedules. Taxicab dis patchers or starters dispatch taxis in response to requests for service. They maintain a map showing the location of each cab and keep logs on all road service calls. Tow truck dispatchers take calls for emer gency road service. They relay the problem to a nearby gas station or a tow truck service and see to it that the emergency road service is completed. Gas and water service dispatchers monitor gas lines and water mains and send out service trucks and crews to take care of emergencies. Other dispatchers coordinate deliveries, service calls, and related activities for a variety of firms. Regardless of where they work, all dispatchers keep records, logs, and schedules of the calls they receive and the actions they take. They may type and file cards on each call and then prepare detailed reports on all activities occurring during the shift. Those who work with a computer-aided dispatch system make the appropriate entries and corrections into the computer as they occur, and then print a log or report at the end of each day. Many police, ambulance, taxicab, and tow truck dispatchers work as part of a two-person team. One person usually receives incoming calls while the other dispatches and follows up on them. This is commonplace in large communications centers or companies. Dispatchers Employment Job Outlook Employment of material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and dis tributing workers is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Employment growth among the occupations in this group is expected to vary. Although employment of stock clerks is expected to grow as fast as the average as the volume of business transactions increases, automation will enable clerks to handle more stock and this will hold down employment growth some what. Employment of traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks is ex pected to increase slower than the average as automation and other productivity improvements enable these clerks to handle materials more efficiently. Average employment growth is expected for dis patchers as the population increases and the need grows to save lives, to protect property, and to provide other services. (D.O.T. 215.167-010, .367-018; 221.362-014, .367-070, -082; 239.167-014; .367-014, -022, -030; 248.367-026; 249.167-014, .367-070; 372.167-010; 379.162-010; .362-010, -018;910.167-014,.367-018; 911.167-010; 913.167 010; .367-010; 914.167-014; 919.162-010; 932.167-010; 939.362-010; 952.167-010; 953.167-010; 954.367-010; 955.167-010; and 959.167-010) Nature of the Work Dispatchers act as a link between the public requesting assistance and the appropriate service provider. They see to it that each request for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Dispatchers held about 202,000 jobs in 1988. About one-third were police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers, almost all of whom worked for State and local governments—primarily for local police and fire departments. Most of the remaining dispatchers worked for local and long-distance trucking companies and bus lines; telephone, electric, and gas utility companies; wholesale and retail establishments; and companies providing business services. Although dispatching jobs are found throughout the country, most work in urban areas where large communications centers and busi nesses are located. 266 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information For further information on training for police, fire, and emergency dispatchers, contact: •-Associated Public-Safety Communications Officers, P.O. Box 669, New Smyrna Beach, FI 32070. •-International Municipal Signal Association, P.O. Box 539, 1115 North Main St., Newark, NY 14513. For general information and earnings on dispatchers, contact: •-International Brotherhood of Teamsters, 25 Louisiana Ave. NW., Washing ton, DC 20001. •-Service Employees International Union, AFL-CIO, 1313 L St. NW., Wash ington, DC 20005. •-Communications Workers of America, 1925 K St. NW., Washington, DC 20006. •-American Train Dispatchers Association, 1401 South Harlem Ave., Berwyn, IL 60402. Information on job opportunities for police, fire, and emergency dispatchers is available from State and local civil service commissions or police departments. Information about work opportunities for other types of dispatchers is available from local employers and the nearest State employment service office. (See introductory part of this section for information on training and earnings.) Stock Clerks Dispatchers keep records and logs of the calls they receive and the actions they take. Job Outlook Overall employment of dispatchers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to the growing need for the various services that dispatchers provide. Most job openings will result from the need to replace those who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force; dispatchers who work under a lot of pressure often leave the occupation after a few years. Employment of police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers is not expected to keep pace with that of other dispatchers. Public safety dispatchers are concentrated in State and local government, an industry sector that is expected to experience slower than average growth due to budget constraints. Increasingly intense competition for available funding should result in relatively slow employment growth. Although population growth and economic expansion are expected to drive up overall employment of those dispatchers not involved in public safety, not all specialties will be affected in the same way. Employment of taxicab, truck, and store dispatchers is sensitive to economic conditions. When economic activity falls, demand for their services declines. They may experience layoffs or a shortened work week, and jobseekers may have some difficulty finding a job. Employ ment of tow truck dispatchers, on the other hand, is seldom affected by general economic conditions because of the emergency nature of their business. Computerization is making inroads into all areas of dispatching, increasing productivity and dampening employment growth. This equipment is very expensive, making it affordable only to relatively large establishments. It will therefore be some time before most dis patchers are using computers. Related Occupations Other occupations that involve the direction and control of the move ment of vehicles, freight, and personnel, as well as information and message distribution, are airline-radio operators, airline dispatchers, air traffic controllers, radio and television transmitter operators, tele phone operators, customer service representatives, and transportation agents. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis (D.O.T. 219.367-018, -034, .387-026; 221.587-018,-022;222.167-010, .367 014, -038, -042, -050, -062, .387-018,-026, -030, -034, -042, -058, -062, -070, .587-022, -054, .687-046; 229.367-010, -014, .587-014; 249.367-058; 339.687-010; 969.367-010) Nature of the Work Stock clerks receive, unpack, check, store, and keep track of merchan dise or materials. They keep records of items entering or leaving the stock room and report damaged or spoiled goods. They organize and, when necessary, mark items with identifying codes or prices so that inventories can be located quickly and easily. In many firms, stock clerks use hand-held scanners connected to computers to keep invento ries up to date. In stores, stock clerks may bring merchandise to the sales floor and stock shelves and racks. In stockrooms and warehouses, they store materials in bins, on the floor, or on shelves. In large establishments, where they may be responsible for only one specific task, they may be known as inventory clerk, stock control clerk, merchandise distributor, order filler, property custodian, or store keeper. In small firms, they may also be responsible for tasks usually handled by shipping and receiving clerks. Employment Stock clerks held about 2.2 million jobs in 1988. More than one-third were stockroom, warehouse, or yard clerks; more than one-half were sales floor stock clerks, many of whom worked part time. Almost 50 percent of stockroom, warehouse, and yard stock clerks worked in retail and wholesale firms; about 20 percent were in factories; and others were in hospitals, government agencies, schools, and other organizations that keep large quantities of materials and goods on hand. Almost all sales floor stock clerks were employed in retail trade. About half of these worked in food stores. Jobs for stock clerks are found in all parts of the country, but most work in urban areas, where stores, warehouses, and factories are concentrated. Job Outlook Employment of stock clerks is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as the volume of sales and inventory transactions increases. However, automation will enable clerks to handle more stock, and this will hold down employment growth somewhat. The impact of automation will be the greatest in warehouse stockrooms. This is especially true in manufacturing and in wholesale trade, the industries whose operations are most easily Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical 267 Traffic, Shipping, and Receiving Clerks (D.O.T. 209.367-042; 214.587-014; 219.367-022 and -030; 221.367-022 and .687-014; 222.367-066, .387-014, -022, -050, and -054, .485-010, .567-010 and -014, .587-010, -018, -034, and -058, .687-022 and -030; 248.362-010, .367-014 and -022; 919.687-010; and 976.687-018) Stock clerks keep records of items entering or leaving the stockroom or warehouse. Nature of the Work Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks keep records of all goods shipped and received. Their duties depend on the size of the establish ment. In a small company, one clerk may be responsible for every thing. In a large company, the responsibilities are usually divided among several clerks who specialize. Traffic clerks maintain records on the destination, weight, and charges on all incoming and outgoing freight. They sometimes enter this information into a computer to be used by the accounting and other departments within the firm. They make sure that the rate charges are accurate by comparing the classification of materials with rate charts. They may also keep a file of claims for overcharges and for damages to goods in transit. Shipping clerks are responsible for all outgoing shipments. They make sure the order has been filled correctly. Sometimes they fill the order themselves; they obtain merchandise from the stockroom and wrap it or pack it in shipping containers. They also address and label packages, look up and compute freight or postal rates, and record the weight and cost of each shipment. They also may prepare invoices and furnish information about shipments to another part of the com pany, such as the accounting department. Once a shipment is checked and ready to go, shipping clerks may move it—sometimes by forklift truck—to the shipping dock and direct its loading. When shipments arrive, receiving clerks perform tasks similar to those of shipping clerks. They determine whether their employer’s orders have been correctly filled by verifying incoming shipments against the original order and the accompanying bill of lading or invoice. They record the shipment and the condition of its contents. In many firms, receiving clerks record the information by using hand- automated. In addition to computerized inventory control systems, firms in these industries are expected to rely more and more on sophisti cated conveyor belts, automatic high stackers to store and retrieve goods, and automatic guided vehicles (AGV’s), which are batterypowered driverless vehicles. Employment of stock clerks who work in food, general merchan dise, department, apparel, and accessories stores is expected to be somewhat less affected by automation since much of their work is done on the sales floor and is difficult to automate. Job prospects should be good because this occupation is very large and many job openings will occur each year to replace stock clerks who transfer to other jobs or leave the labor force. Many jobs are entry level and therefore many vacancies are created by normal career progression. Related Occupations Other workers who also handle, move, organize, and store materials, include shipping and receiving clerks, distributing clerks, and routing clerks. Source of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for stock clerks. Also, see clerical and sales occupations elsewhere in the Handbook for sources of additional information. (See introductory part of this section for information on training and earnings.) https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most clerks have to stand for long periods while they check merchandise. 268 Occupational Outlook Handbook held scanners to read the bar codes on incoming products. After recording this information, they connect the scanner or reader to a personal computer and transfer the data to the appropriate department. They may route or move shipments to the proper department, ware house section, or stockroom. They also arrange for adjustments with shippers whenever merchandise is lost or damaged. Shipping and receiving clerks in small businesses may perform some stock clerk duties. Employment Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks held about 535,000 jobs in 1988. Eight of every ten workers were employed by wholesale estab lishments, retail stores, and manufacturing firms. Although jobs for traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks are found throughout the coun try, most clerks work in urban areas, where factories and wholesale establishments generally are located. About 1 out of 11 traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks works part time. Job Outlook Employment of traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Employment growth will continue to be affected by automation as all but the smallest firms move to hold down labor costs by using computers to store and retrieve shipping and receiving records. Methods of materials handling have changed significantly in recent years. Large warehouses are increasingly automated, using equipment such as computerized conveyor systems, robots, computer-directed trucks, and automatic storage and retrieval systems. Automation, cou pled with the growing use of hand-held scanners and personal comput ers in receiving departments, is expected to hold down employment growth. Despite automation, job openings will arise due to increasing eco nomic activity and because certain functions cannot be automated. For example, someone needs to check shipments before they go out and when they arrive to ensure that everything is in order. However, most job openings will occur because of the need to replace traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks who leave the occupation. Because this is an entry level occupation, many vacancies are created by normal career progression. Related Occupations Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks record, check, and often store the materials that a company receives. They also process and pack goods for shipment. Other workers who perform similar duties are stock clerks, material clerks, distributing clerks, routing clerks, and order fillers. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks. (See introductory part of this section for information on training and earnings.) Postal Clerks and Mail Carriers (D.O.T. 209.687-014; 230.363-010, .367-010; 239.367-018; and 243.367 014) Nature of the Work Each day, the United States Postal Service receives, sorts, and delivers millions of letters, bills, advertisements, and packages. To do this, it employs about 864,000 workers. Three of every four of these workers are postal clerks and mail carriers. Postal clerks and mail carriers are classified as casual, part-time flexible, part-time regular, or full time. Casual workers are not career https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis employees, but are hired to help process and deliver mail during peak mailing or vacation periods. Part-time flexible workers are career employees who do not have a regular work schedule or weekly guaran tee of hours; they replace absent workers and help with extra work as the need arises. Part-time regulars have a set work schedule of less than 40 hours per week. Full-time postal employees work a 40-hour week over a 5-day period. Clerks and carriers are further distinguished by the type of work they do. Clerks are usually classified by the mail processing function they perform, whereas carriers are classified by their type of route, city or rural. About 485 mail processing centers throughout the country service post offices in surrounding areas. Some clerks, more commonly re ferred to as mail handlers, unload the sacks of incoming mail; separate letters, parcel post, magazines, and newspapers; and transport these to the proper sorting and processing area. In addition, they may perform simple canceling operations and rewrap packages damaged in processing. After letters have been put through stamp-canceling machines, they are taken to other workrooms to be sorted according to destination. Clerks operating electronic letter-sorting machines push keys corres ponding to the ZIP code of the local post office to which each letter will be delivered; the machine then drops the letters into the proper slots. Some clerks operate optical character readers (OCR’s) and bar code sorters, machines that can “read” the address and sort a letter according to a code printed on the envelope. Others sort odd-sized letters, magazines, and newspapers by hand. Finally, the mail is sent to local post offices for sorting according to delivery route and for delivery. Postal clerks at local post offices sort local mail for delivery to individual customers and provide retail services such as selling stamps and money orders, weighing packages to determine postage, and checking that packages are in satisfactory condition for mailing. Clerks also register, certify, and insure mail and answer questions about postage rates, post office boxes, mailing restrictions, and other postal matters. Occasionally, they may help a customer file a claim for a damaged package. Once the mail has been processed and sorted, it is ready to be delivered. Duties of city and rural carriers are very similar. Most travel established routes delivering and collecting mail. They start work at the post office early in the morning, where they spend a few hours arranging their mail for delivery and taking care of other details. Carriers may cover the route on foot, by vehicle, or a combination of both. On foot, they carry a heavy load of mail in a satchel or push it in a cart. In some urban and most rural areas, they use a car or small truck. Although the Postal Service provides vehicles to city carriers, most rural carriers use their own automobiles. Deliveries are made house-to-house, to roadside mailboxes, and to large buildings, such as offices or apartments, which generally have all the mailboxes on the first floor. Besides delivering and collecting mail, carriers collect money for postage-due and c.o.d. (cash on delivery) fees and obtain signed receipts for registered, certified, and insured mail. If a customer is not home, the carrier leaves a notice that tells where special mail is being held. After completing their routes, carriers return to the post office with mail gathered from street collection boxes, homes, and businesses. They tum in the mail receipts and money collected during the day and may separate letters and parcels for further processing by clerks. The duties of some city carriers may be very specialized; some deliver only parcel post while others collect mail from street boxes and receiving boxes in office buildings. In contrast, rural carriers provide a wide range of postal services. In addition to delivering and picking up mail, they sell stamps and money orders and accept parcels, letters, and items to be registered, certified, or insured. All carriers answer customers’ questions about postal regulations and services and provide change-of-address cards and other postal forms when requested. In addition to their regularly scheduled duties, carriers often participate in neighborhood service programs in which Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical they check on elderly or shut-in patrons or notify the police of any suspicious activities along their route. The Postal Service recently implemented an employee involvement program. Open to members of the three participating unions, the National Association of Letter Carriers, the National Rural Letter Carriers Association, and the Mail Handlers Union, the aim of the program is to bring together workers and managers to address problems and improve conditions in the workplace. Teams of workers and managers meet to discuss and try to resolve the problems of the work unit. Through these programs, employees can increase their participation in the decisionmaking process while improving their work environment. Working Conditions Postal clerks usually work in clean, well-ventilated, and well-lit build ings. However, other conditions vary according to work assignments and the type of laborsaving machinery available. In small post offices, mail handlers use handtrucks to move heavy mail sacks from one part of the building to another and clerks may sort mail by hand. In large post offices and mail processing centers, chutes and conveyors move the mail, and much of the sorting is done by machines. Despite the use of automated equipment, the work of mail handlers and postal clerks can be physically demanding. These workers are often on their feet, reaching for sacks and trays of mail or placing packages and bundles into sacks and trays. Mail handlers and distribution clerks may become bored with the routine of moving and sorting mail. Many work at night or on weekends because most large post offices process mail around the clock, and the largest volume of mail is sorted during the evening and night shifts. Window clerks, on the other hand, have a greater variety of duties, frequent contact with the public, and rarely have to work at night. However, they may have to deal with irate customers, and they are held accountable for the assigned stock of stamps and for postal funds. Most carriers begin work early in the morning, in some cases as early as 4 a.m. if they have routes in the business district. A carrier’s schedule has its advantages, however: Carriers who begin work early in the morning are through by early afternoon, and they spend most of the day on their own, relatively free from direct supervision. Carriers spend most of their time outdoors, and deliver mail in all kinds of weather. Even those who drive often must walk when making deliveries and must lift heavy sacks of parcel post when loading their vehicles. In addition, carriers always must be cautious of potential hazards on their routes. Wet roads and sidewalks can be treacherous, and each year numerous carriers are bitten by unfriendly dogs. Applicants should apply at the post office or mail processing center where they wish to work in order to determine when an exam will be given. Applicants’ names are listed in order of their examination scores. Five points are added to the score of an honorably discharged veteran, and 10 points to the score of a veteran wounded in combat or disabled. When a vacancy occurs, the appointing officer chooses 1 of the top 3 applicants; the rest of the names remain on the list to be considered for future openings until their eligibility expires, usually 2 years from the examination date. Relatively few people under the age of 25 are hired as career postal clerks or mail carriers, a result of keen competition for these jobs and the customary waiting period of 1-2 years or more after passing the examination. It is not surprising, therefore, that most entrants transfer from other occupations. New postal clerks are trained on the job by experienced workers. Mail handlers are instructed on the organization of the mail processing facility, how to operate material moving equipment, and safety prac tices. Distribution clerks begin with simple tasks to learn regional groupings of States, cities, and ZIP codes. To help clerks learn these groups, many post offices offer classroom instruction. Window clerks also acquire their skills through a combination of classroom and onthe-job training. In the classroom, they learn about the various services available, how to operate scales and other equipment, and how to best serve their customers. On the job, they observe a more experienced worker for several days before being assigned their own window. Clerks receive additional instruction when new equipment is intro duced. They usually are trained by another postal employee or, some times, a training specialist hired under contract by the Postal Service. Employment The U.S. Postal Service employed 380,000 postal clerks and 285,000 mail carriers in 1988. Three-fourths of them worked full time. Most postal clerks worked at mail processing centers, although some clerks provided window service and sorted mail at local post offices. Al though most mail carriers worked in cities and suburban communities, 39,000 were rural carriers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Postal clerks and mail carriers must be U.S. citizens or have been granted permanent resident-alien status in the United States. They must be at least 18 years old (or 16, if they have a high school diploma). Qualification is based on a written examination that measures speed and accuracy at checking names and numbers and ability to memorize mail distribution procedures. Applicants must pass a physical examina tion as well, and may be asked to show that they can lift and handle mail sacks weighing up to 70 pounds. Applicants for jobs as postal clerks operating electronic sorting machines must pass a special exami nation that includes a machine aptitude test. Applicants for mail carrier positions must have a driver’s license, a good driving record, and a passing grade on a road test. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 269 raiBSMs Postal clerks and mail carriers must pass written and physical exams. 270 Occupational Outlook Handbook A good memory, good coordination, and the ability to read rapidly and accurately are important. In addition, mail handlers should be in good physical condition. Mail handlers and distribution clerks work closely with other clerks, frequently under the tension and strain of meeting dispatch transportation deadlines. Window clerks must be courteous and tactful when dealing with the public, especially when answering questions or receiving complaints. New mail carriers also are trained on the job. Carrier training includes instruction on the delivery route, sorting procedures, avoiding injury, and other pertinent information. An increasing number of localities sponsor training academies where, through classroom in struction and simulated neighborhoods, new carriers learn skills and experienced carriers receive training to improve their skills. Physical stamina is required because mail carriers spend much of their time on their feet and usually lift or carry heavy sacks of mail. In addition, they should enjoy frequent public contact because they often answer questions and provide other postal services to the patrons on their route. Postal clerks and mail carriers often begin on a part-time flexible basis and become regular or full time in order of seniority as vacancies occur. Full-time clerks may bid for preferred assignments such as the day shift, a window job, or a higher level nonsupervisory position as expediter or window service technician. Carriers can look forward to obtaining preferred routes as their seniority increases, or to higher level jobs such as carrier technician. Both clerks and carriers can advance to supervisory positions. Job Outlook Those seeking a job in the Postal Service can expect to encounter keen competition—the number of appl icants for postal clerk and mail carrier positions is expected to continue to far exceed the number of openings. Job opportunities will vary by occupation and duties performed. Overall employment of postal clerks is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. In spite of the anticipated increase in the total volume of mail, automation will continue to increase the productivity of postal clerks. Increasingly, mail will be moved using automated materials-handling equipment and sorted using optical character readers, bar code sorters, and other automated sorting equipment. In addition, demand for window clerks will be moderated by the increased sales of stamps and other postal products by grocery and department stores and other retail outlets. Conflicting factors also are expected to influence demand for mail carriers. Despite competition from alternative delivery systems and new forms of electronic communication, the volume of mail handled by the Postal Service is expected to continue to grow. Population growth and the formation of new households, coupled with an increase in the volume of third class mail, will stimulate demand for mail delivery. However, increased use of the “ZIP + 4” system, which can be used to sort mail to the carrier route, should decrease the amount of time carriers spend sorting their mail. In addition, the Postal Service is moving toward more centralized mail delivery, such as the use of more cluster boxes, to cut down on the number of door-to-door deliv eries. Although these trends are expected to increase carrier productiv ity, they will not significantly offset the growth in mail volume, and employment of mail carriers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. In addition to jobs created by growth in demand for postal services, some jobs will become available because of the need to replace postal clerks and mail carriers who retire or stop working for other reasons. The factors that make entry to these occupations highly competitiveattractive salaries, a good pension plan, steady work, and modest educational requirements—contribute to a high degree of job attach ment, so that replacement needs produce fewer job openings than in most other occupations. In contrast to the typical pattern, postal work ers generally remain in their jobs until they retire; relatively few transfer to other occupations. Although the volume of mail to be processed and delivered rises and falls with the level of business activity, as well as with the season of the year, full-time postal clerks and mail carriers have, to date, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis never been laid off. When mail volume is high, full-time clerks and carriers work overtime, part-time clerks and carriers work additional hours, and casual clerks and carriers may be hired. When mail volume is low, overtime is curtailed, part-timers work fewer hours, and casual workers are discharged. Earnings In early 1989, base pay for begining full-time carriers and postal clerks was $22,250 a year, rising to a maximum of $29,385 after 10 1/2 years of service. For those working between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m, a 10percent supplement is paid. Experienced, full-time, city delivery mail carriers earn an average salary of $28,056 a year. Postal clerks and carriers working part-time flexible schedules begin at $11 an hour and, based on the number of years of service, increase to $14.65 an hour. Rural delivery carriers had average base salaries of $29,400 in early 1989. Their earnings are determined through an evaluation of the amount of work required to service their routes. Carriers with heavier workloads generally earn more than those with lighter workloads. Rural carriers also receive a maintenance allowance when required to use their own vehicles. In early 1989, this was approximately 30 cents per mile. Postal workers enjoy a variety of employer-provided benefits. These include health and life insurance, vacation and sick leave, and a pension plan. In addition to their hourly wage and benefits package, some postal workers receive a uniform allowance. This group includes those work ers who are in the public view for 4 or more hours each day and various maintenance workers. The amount of the allowance depends on the job performed—some workers are only required to wear a partial uniform, and their allowance is lower. In 1989, for example, the allowance for a letter carrier was $229 per year, compared to $98 for a window clerk. Most of these workers belong to one of four unions: American Postal Workers Union, National Association of Letter Carriers, National Post Office Mail Handlers, and National Rural Letter Carriers Association. Related Occupations Postal clerks and mail carriers play an important role in moving the Nation’s mail, and their work and qualifications are closely related. Other workers whose duties are related to those of postal clerks include mail clerks, file clerks, routing clerks, sorters, material moving equip ment operators, clerk typists, cashiers, data entry operators, and ticket sellers. Others with duties related to those of mail carriers include messengers, merchandise deliverers, and delivery-route truckdrivers. Sources of Additional Information Local post offices and State employment service offices can supply details about entrance examinations and specific employment opportu nities for postal clerks and mail carriers. Record Clerks Nature of the Work Organizations of all kinds—businesses, government agencies, unions, and colleges and universities—need to keep accurate records of their activities. These records can be either financial or nonfinancia! in nature. Maintaining and updating nonfinancial records, ranging from personnel records to information on blood donors to sales figures, is the job of record clerks. (For information about workers who maintain financial records, see the statements on financial records processing occupations elsewhere in the Handbook. Additional information about record clerks is given in the separate statements in this section.) Record clerks perform a wide variety of recordkeeping duties. For example, brokerage clerks prepare and maintain the records generated when stocks, bonds, and other types of investments change hands. Statement clerks assemble the monthly statements most of us receive Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical from our bank. File clerks store and retrieve various kinds of office information for use by members of the staff. Library assistants check books in and out. Order clerks process incoming orders for goods and services. Personnel clerks ensure that employee records are kept in good order. Typing—and increasingly, word processing—is an integral part of many of these jobs. Personnel forms, stock certificates, and orders for merchandise all need to be put into legible formats. Interaction with the public is also a basic part of many of these jobs. Personnel clerks, for example, may answer applicants’ questions concerning job open ings; bookmobile drivers may help users find specific books; and order clerks may call customers to determine the urgency of particular orders. Working Conditions With the exception of library clerks and bookmobile drivers, these workers are employed in offices. Most work alongside the organiza tion’s other clerical workers; some file clerks, however, work in central filing rooms, separate from other departments. Although they do not do much heavy lifting, file clerks and library assistants must frequently stoop, bend, and reach, as well as spend a lot of time on their feet. Bookmobile drivers must face the difficulties of driving in various kinds of traffic and weather. An increasing number of record clerks use video display terminals (VDT’s) as part of their daily routine. Workers who spend a lot of time on VDT’s may experience eyestrain and musculoskeletal strain. Most of these workers work regular business hours. Some, such as library assistants, may work some evenings and weekends. Library assistants employed in school libraries generally work only during the school year. Brokerage clerks may have to work overtime if there is a high volume of stock market activity. Slightly more than half of all library assistants and bookmobile drivers work part time, while about 1 in 3 file clerks works part time. There is much less opportunity for part-time work in the other occupations. Employment Record clerks held about 886,000 jobs in 1988. The following tabula tion indicates the employment in each occupation. Percent 271 dures. Technical training needed for some specialized order clerk positions can be obtained in technical institutes and in 2- and 4-year colleges. Once hired, these workers generally receive their training informally on the job. Under the guidance of a supervisor or senior worker, new employees learn about the operations of the organization, how their department fits into the organizational structure, and procedures to follow. Some formal classroom training may be necessary, such as training in the use of personal computers. These workers must be honest, discreet, and trustworthy because they frequently come in contact with sensitive material. Because state ment clerks have access to individual’s financial information, they must be bonded. Personnel clerks also have access to private infor mation. There are several ways for these workers to advance. The most common is to take on more responsible duties in the same occupation with higher pay. Others advance to closely related occupations. For example, some order clerks use their experience to move into a sales position, and statement clerks frequently move into jobs as bank tellers or bookkeepers. Some move into another clerical position, such as secretary. The most competent workers can advance to a supervisory position in the same area. Job Outlook Employment of record clerks is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. In all of these occupations, the vast majority of job openings will be due to the need to replace those who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The main factor influencing employment in these occupations is the spread of office automation. A lot of these jobs are “back office” clerical positions, the sector of the economy which has been most directly affected by office automation. Productivity has increased sig nificantly as more and more of these workers now use computers instead of the typewriters, adding machines, calculators, and other equipment that they used previously. In addition, the proliferation of computers throughout the Nation’s offices has resulted in the use of automated equipment by millions of other office workers—primarily managers and professionals. Taken together, these factors indicate that although demand for record clerks will rise, it will not keep pace with the rising level of economic activity. Total................................................................................................. 100 Order clerks......................................................................................... File clerks............................................................................................ Personnel clerks................................................................................. Library assistants and bookmobile drivers..................................... Brokerage clerks................................................................................ Statement clerks................................................................................. 33 30 15 12 7 4 Earnings Salaries of record clerks vary considerably. Region of the country, size of city, and type and size of establishment all influence salary levels. Average salaries vary by detailed occupation, as shown in the following tabulation. These workers are employed in virtually every industry. The largest number work for firms providing health, business, and other types of services. Large numbers also work in finance, insurance, real estate, trade, manufacturing, and government. Order clerks.................................................................................. $20,100 Personnel clerks........................................................................... 16,700 Library assistants and bookmobile drivers............................. 15,300 File clerks..................................................................................... 14,500 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many of these jobs are entry level. Most employers require applicants to have at least a high school diploma or its equivalent. In some cases, more education is required. For example, order clerks in hightechnology firms often need to understand complex scientific and mechanical processes, which generally requires college education. Employers prefer those with general office skills, especially the ability to type. In addition, experience with computers—such as using word processing and spreadsheet programs—is increasingly preferred by employers. Employers also look for people with interpersonal skills. High schools, business schools, and community colleges teach the office skills that prepare jobseekers for most of these jobs. Business education programs typically include courses in typing, word process ing, shorthand, records management, and office practices and proce According to a 1988 survey conducted by the Securities Industry Association, salaries of brokerage clerks ranged from $13,800 to $26,700, with margin clerks, option clerks, and stock loan clerks earning the highest salaries, and transfer clerks, syndicate clerks, registration clerks, and dividend clerks earning the lowest. In the Federal Government in 1989, personnel clerks and file clerks with a high school diploma or 6 months of clerical experience started at $12,531 and $11,484, respectively. In 1988, the average salary for all personnel clerks was $18,000 and for file clerks, $14,600. In addition to salary, record clerks receive the same package of benefits as other employees in the organization. In large and mediumsize establishments, sick and annual leave, life and health insurance, and retirement plans are common. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 272 Occupational Outlook Handbook Related Occupations Among other workers whose duties may include sorting, storing, processing, or retrieving documents and other materials are mail clerks, medical record clerks, tape librarians, and general office clerks. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for record clerks. In addition, public libraries and libraries in academic institutions can provide information about job openings for library assistants and bookmobile drivers. Brokerage Clerks and Statement Clerks (D.O.T. 216.382-042, -046; 219.362-018, -054, -058, and .482-010) Nature of the Work Keeping the complex world of finance running smoothly on a daily basis requires the efforts of many workers. Workers in two vital occupations whom customers rarely see are brokerage clerks and statement clerks. Brokerage clerks, who work in the operations area of securities firms, perform many duties to facilitate the sale and purchase of stocks, bonds, commodities, and other kinds of investments. Their job title depends upon the type of work they do. Purchase-and-sale clerks match orders to buy with orders to sell. Their function is to balance and verify trades, and they do it partly by sorting and filing tickets from stock traders. Dividend clerks are responsible for ensuring timely payments of stock or cash dividends to clients of a particular brokerage firm. Transfer clerks examine stock certificates for adherence to banking regulations. Receive-and-deliver clerks are responsible for physically receiving and delivering stock certificates. They take securities from the vault of the brokerage firm and deliver them to customers, banks, and other brokerage firms. Margin clerks, the highest level of brokerage clerks, post accounts and monitor activity in customers’ accounts. Their job is to ensure that customers make their payments and stay within legal boundaries con cerning stock purchases. A significant and growing number of brokerage clerks use video display terminals (VDT’s) in their work. Some use VDT's most of the time, while others use them only part of the time. Statement clerks are responsible for assembling and sending out the customers’ bank statements every month. How this is done depends on the particular bank. In the most modem banks, statement clerks, sometimes called state ment operators, operate sophisticated, high-speed machines. These machines fold the statement, collate it if it is more than one page, insert the statement and cancelled checks into an envelope and seal it, < -4 Computers are changing the work of brokerage clerks. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and weigh it for postage. Statement clerks load the machine with the statements, cancelled checks, and envelopes. They then monitor the equipment, checking for jams and other problems. If any occur, they fix it themselves or call the repair personnel. In banks that do not have such machines, statement clerks manually place the statements and cancelled checks in envelopes, seal them, and weigh them for postage. They may also be responsible for placing cancelled checks, in order, into trays, from which they retrieve them when sending out the statements. In a small but growing number of banks, only the statement is sent to the customer. The cancelled checks are not returned; this is known as check truncation. Statement clerks arc employed primarily in large banks. In smaller banks, their function is usually handled by a teller or a new-accounts clerk. Employment Brokerage clerks held about 64,000 jobs in 1988, and statement clerks held about 32,000. About 4 out of 5 brokerage clerks were employed in firms involved in the sales of securities and commodities. Almost all statement clerks were employed by banking institutions of some kind. Job Outlook Little change is expected in the employment of brokerage clerks and statement clerks through the year 2000 due to the impact of automation and changes in business practices. For example, computers now calcu late the dividends due on stocks, something done for decades by brokerage clerks with adding machines and calculators. In addition, the further spread of check truncation is expected to hold down employ ment of statement clerks. Nevertheless, there will be thousands of openings every year to replace those who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.) File Clerks (D.O.T. 206.362-010, .367-014, and .387) Nature of the Work An orderly file system is the key to an efficient organization. Records need to be arranged so that information can be located quickly. This creates many job opportunities for file clerks, who keep records accu rate, up to date, and properly placed. File clerks classify, store, update, and retrieve office information on request. To do this, they examine incoming material and file it according to a numerical system, by letter of the alphabet, or by subject matter. When records are requested, file clerks locate them and turn them over to the borrower. If necessary, they make copies of records and distribute them. They keep track of materials removed from the files and make sure that those given out are returned. Records must be current to be useful. File clerks ensure that new information is added to the files in a timely manner. In addition, from time to time, file clerks may destroy outdated file materials or transfer them to inactive storage. They check files at regular intervals to make sure that all items are correctly placed. Whenever records cannot be located, the file clerk searches for the missing material. As an organization’s needs for information change, file clerks implement changes to the filing system established by the supervisory personnel. There are many different types of filing systems in use. Many file clerks still place paper files in file cabinets. Some clerks operate mechanized files that rotate to bring the needed records to them. Others retrieve documents stored on microform (microfilm or microfiche) and place them in viewers for display. A small but growing number of file clerks use optical disks as a storage medium. Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical A growing number of file clerks are using computerized filing and retrieval systems. In these, information on the location of documents is stored on a computer. To retrieve a document, the clerk enters the document’s identification code, obtains the location, and retrieves the document. The document may be a sheet of paper stored in a drawer in a file cabinet or an image on microform. In the first example, the clerk manually retrieves the document and gives it to the borrower. In the latter example, the clerk retrieves the microform and displays it on a microform reader for the requester to use. In small offices, file clerks often have expanded responsibilities. These include typing, word processing, sorting mail, or operating copying machines. Those who work with automated filing systems may code, index, and put all incoming documents on microfilm or microfiche. Employment File clerks held about 263,000 jobs in 1988. In addition, many other clerical workers performed some filing tasks in connection with their work. While file clerk jobs are found in nearly every sector of the economy, about 4 out of 5 file clerks are employed in services; finance, insurance, and real estate; and government. About 1 out of 3 file clerks works part time. Job Outlook Employment of file clerks is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as employers increasingly automate their recordkeeping systems. Many openings, nevertheless, will occur to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Recordkeeping requirements are expected to rise in conjunction with a general increase in population and economic activity. However, the expected growth in the volume of records should be partially offset by the greater use of automated systems that enable file clerks to become more productive. An example is the increasing use of more efficient computerized filing systems. In addition, the growing use of personal computers by professionals and managers will relieve file clerks of some work. Business firms are expected to increase their use of temporary workers in order to reduce their costs and to enhance their organiza tional flexibility. Thus a large proportion of all new jobs will be in personnel supply firms that provide temporary workers. Other indus- Opportunities for temporary jobs should be very good. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 273 tries where the demand for file clerk services will be strong include offices of physicians, dentists, and other health professionals, legal services, and computer and data processing services. Jobseekers who have typing and other secretarial skills and are familiar with a wide range of office machines—personal computers, in particular—should have better opportunities than less experienced applicants. File clerks should find many opportunities for temporary or part-time work, especially during peak business periods. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.) Library Assistants and Bookmobile Drivers (D.O.T. 209.387-026; 222.587-014; 249.363-010, .365-010, .367-046, and .687-014) Nature of the Work Keeping library resources in orderly condition for the reading public and making sure materials are readily available to a variety of users require a lot of work. Much of this work is done by library assistants and bookmobile drivers, who work under the direction of librarians. Modern libraries contain more than simply books. They also have periodicals, films, video cassettes, phonograph records, compact disks, and framed paintings. Library assistants—sometimes referred to as library media assistants, library clerks, library aides, or circulation assistants—register patrons so they can borrow these materials. They record such information as the borrower’s name and address from the application and then issue a library card. If borrowers change thenname or address, the assistant makes the appropriate change in the records and on the borrower’s card. Many libraries now use microfilm machines or computers as part of their recordkeeping system, and library assistants often are responsible for their use. When borrowers want to take out materials, the assistant records, by hand, scanner, or by photograph, the borrower’s identity and stamps the due date on the materials. They inspect returned materials for damage, check the due dates, and compute any fines that may be owed. They review records to compile a list of overdue materials and send out overdue notices. Filing cards in the card catalog also is part of their job. Library assistants sort returned books, publications, and other items and return them to shelves, files, or other designated storage areas. If any of the materials have been damaged, these workers repair them, if possible. For example, they may use mending tape or paste to repair torn pages or covers. Sometimes they are asked to locate materials to be loaned, either to a patron or to another library. They answer questions from patrons, both in person and on the telephone, and refer the questions they cannot answer to a librarian. Some library assistants specialize in helping patrons with serious vision problems, including blindness. Sometimes referred to as talking-books library clerks or braille-and-talking-books clerks, they review the borrower’s list of desired reading material. They then search for these materials, which can be large type or braille volumes, tape cassettes, and open reel talking books. If the requested materials are not available, the clerk searches for substitutes, keeping in mind the age, education interests, and gender of the borrower. After getting the mate rials from the shelf, they do the necessary paperwork and give or mail them to the borrower. They are often responsible for receiving and in specting the materials when they are sent back to the library. To extend library services to as wide an audience as possible, many libraries employ bookmobile drivers. These workers drive a van stocked with books or a light truck that pulls a book trailer to specific places on a regular schedule. Depending on local conditions, they may drive alone or may be accompanied by a librarian or library technician. At each stop, which may be a shopping center, apartment complex, school, or nursing home, they open the library to the public. They perform many of the same functions as in a normal library, receiving and checking out books, collecting fines, and shelving materials. 274 Occupational Outlook Handbook ' 'ill *m.. QUERY FiLvJE More than one-half of all library assistants work part time. Sometimes they may transport book deposit collections, which are collections prepared by librarians for use at specialized institutions, such as juvenile centers, detention centers, ormental institutions. They must keep track of their mileage, the materials lent out, and the amount of fines collected. In addition, they are responsible for the maintenance of the vehicle. The schedules of bookmobile drivers depend on the size of the area being served. Some of these workers go out on their routes every working day, while others do so only certain days of the week. On the other days, they perform library assistant duties at the library. Employment Library assistants and bookmobile drivers held about 105,000 jobs in 1988. Almost one-half of these workers were employed by public libraries; most of the remainder worked in school libraries. Opportuni ties for flexible schedules are abundant; over one-half of these workers were on part-time schedules. Job Outlook Employment of library assistants and bookmobile drivers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Nevertheless, thousands of library assistants and bookmo bile drivers will be needed every year to replace those who transfer to other fields or leave the labor force. Because the vast majority of library assistants and bookmobile drivers work in local public or school libraries of some kind, employ ment is expected to grow slowly. This reflects the expected slow growth in funding for local governments and academic institutions of all types. Similarly, because so many are employed by public institutions, library assistants and bookmobile drivers are not directly affected by the ups and downs of the business cycle. Nevertheless, some of these workers may lose their jobs if there are cuts in govern ment budgets. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.) Order Clerks (D.O.T. 209.387-018; 245.367-026; 249.367-042, -054; 295.367-018; and 659.462-010) Nature of the Work Order clerks receive and process incoming orders for materials, mer chandise, or services. They are sometimes called customer-order clerks, customer service representatives, order fillers, order proces sors, or order takers. They handle orders for a wide variety of items, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis including spare parts for machines, consumer appliances, gas and electric power connections, film rentals, and articles of clothing. Orders can come from within the organization or from outside it. In large companies with many work sites, such as automobile manufacturers, parts and equipment need to be ordered from the company’s warehouses. Order clerks in such settings, called “inside order clerks,” receive orders from other workers employed by the same company. These clerks may also receive orders from salespersons in the field. Many other order clerks, however, receive orders from outside the organization, either from other companies or from individu als. Order clerks in an office supplies wholesaler, for instance, receive orders from retail establishments, such as for a shipment of pens and pencils that the retailer in turn sells to the public. A growing number of order clerks work in catalog sales, receiving orders from individual customers. Order clerks dealing primarily with the public sometimes are referred to as “outside order clerks.” The majority of order clerks nowadays work on video display termi nals (VDT’s). Usually the VDT’s are part of a larger computer system. Using this equipment, order clerks have ready access to information such as prices and inventory. Some order clerks receive orders through their terminals; orders also are received by telephone, mail, and facsim ile machine. A small and declining number of order clerks use tradi tional paper forms, catalogs, and the like to do their work. In addition to taking orders, order clerks may answer customers’ questions, such as which products are in stock and which products are most appropriate for their needs. Some order clerks, especially those in industrial settings, must be able to give price estimates for entire jobs, not just single parts. Order clerks review incoming orders for completeness and clarity. If an order is not clear, the order clerk communicates with the customer to straighten out the matter. Similarly, if customers need additional information, such as prices, shipping dates, or anticipated delays, the order clerk contacts them. After an order has been verified, the clerk enters the information on an order form and computes the cost to the customer. The clerk then routes the order to the proper department—such as the warehouse— that actually sends out or delivers the item in question. In many organizations, order clerks make adjustments to inventory records. For example, if an order for bolts arrives, the clerk makes sure that the bolts are sent and then subtracts the amount of the order from the inventory control form. Clerks also are responsible for notifying other departments when inventories are low or when orders would deplete supplies. Compiling data from completed orders to produce reports is another part of an order clerk’s job. These reports are used by managers to assess the organization’s performance and plan its future activities. Order clerks need to establish priorities in filling orders. For exam ple, an order clerk in a blood bank may receive a request from a hospital for a certain type of blood. The clerk must find out if the request is routine or of an emergency nature, and then take the appro priate action. Employment Order clerks held about 293,000 jobs in 1988. Most worked for wholesale and retail establishments and manufacturing firms. Job Outlook Little change in the employment of order clerks is expected through the year 2000 as office automation continues to increase the productivity of these workers. Nevertheless, thousands of jobs will be available each year due to the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to another occupation or leave the labor force. As the economy grows, more orders for goods and services will be placed. How this growing business activity relates to employment of order clerks depends in large measure on the setting. Demand for outside order clerks who deal mainly with the public should remain strong. The greater use of toll-free numbers that makes “home shop ping” easier and more convenient, coupled with the increase in the number of families where both husband and wife work outside the Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical Technology is changing the way orders are received and processed. home and a growing elderly population, will stimulate demand for these workers. Demand for inside order clerks will be much weaker, however. The spread of electronic data interchange (EDI), a system that enables computers to communicate directly with other computers, means that many orders between establishments can now be placed electronically, with little human intervention. Although currently limited to large organizations, it is expected that orders between enterprises increas ingly will be done by computer. Using sophisticated inventory control and automatic billing systems, companies can keep track of their inventory and accounts with much less help from order clerks. In addition, a growing number of compa nies are using facsimile machines to receive orders. Instead of an order clerk spending time on the telephone taking down the order, the order is “faxed” to the clerk, who in turn enters the information into the system as soon as possible. This arrangement saves a lot of time. Some companies, especially in the retail business, use voice recognition equipment to receive orders. Currently, this technology usually con sists of an answering machine. However, experts believe that by the year 2000, there will be “interactive” voice recognition equipment, whereby customers will call and speak to a computer that will be able to carry on a conversation and take the order. To the extent that such equipment is perfected and marketed widely, it is expected to further depress the demand for order clerks. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.) and regulations, administer an oath of office, and see that the new employees report to their duty station. Personnel clerks maintain the personnel records of the firm’s em ployees. These records include information such as name, address, job title, earnings, fringe benefits, absences, and supervisory reports on job performance. If an item needs to be changed or updated—for example, when an employee receives a promotion or switches health insurance plans—the personnel clerk makes the change on the appro priate form. Attention to detail is necessary because these matters are very important to the economic security and well-being of the employee, as well as to the efficient operation of the organization. Personnel clerks often are assigned a certain office or department and are responsible for maintaining the personnel records of all of its employees. In the course of their work, they sometimes must deal with other offices, such as payroll, or outside organizations, such as insurance companies. Some personnel clerks are involved in hiring. As part of their job, they may interview job applicants to obtain information such as age, education, and work experience; administer aptitude, person ality, and interest tests; explain the organization’s employment policies and refer qualified applicants to the employing official; and request references from present or past employers. Personnel clerks inform job applicants, by telephone or letter, of their acceptance or rejection for employment. If an outside organization makes an authorized request concerning an employee—credit bureaus and finance companies, for instance, frequently request confirmation of employment—the personnel clerk searches the employee’s personnel records and provides the infor mation. At times it may be necessary to supply reports about employees to others in the organization. For example, when awards are being granted, the deciding officials may need a report on all those eligible. In such cases, personnel clerks review the relevant records and prepare the reports. Some personnel clerks perform reception duties. They also an swer—by telephone or letter—inquiries from the public, send out announcements of job openings or job examinations, and issue applica tion forms at a counter. Other personnel clerks are known as assignment clerks. Their role is to notify a firm’s employees of position vacancies and to identify and assign—following the proper guidelines and proce dures—qualified applicants. They keep track of vacancies throughout the organization and fill out and distribute vacancy advertisement forms. When applications arrive in response to the advertisement, the clerks review them and verify the information using personnel records. After the selection is made, they notify all the applicants of their acceptance or rejection. In some job settings, personnel clerks have more specific job titles. Personnel Clerks (D.O.T. 205.362-010,-014,-022, .367-062, .567-010; 209.362-026; 241.267 010; and 249.367-090) Nature of the Work A smoothly functioning personnel department is essential to the opera tion of any large establishment. A key job within that department— also referred to as the human resources management department—is that of personnel clerk. (For information on payroll and timekeeping clerks, see the statements elsewhere in the Handbook.) These workers carry out many tasks to ensure that employee personnel records are in order and up to date. When new employees begin work at many companies and govern ment agencies, they are greeted and briefed by personnel clerks. Personnel clerks make sure that the proper forms are filled out correctly for health and life insurance, tax withholding, and other things. They may explain various employee benefits and pay rates, review rules https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 275 Personnel clerks keep accurate and up-to-date records on all employees. 276 Occupational Outlook Handbook In temporary help agencies, for example, referral clerks handle calls from businesses or other organizations requesting temporary workers. After receiving and recording the necessary information regarding the job requirements, they review the agency’s records to locate registered workers who meet the requirements and are available for the scheduled work shift. The clerks then inform the selected workers of the available job. Some referral clerks specialize in referring specific types of work ers, such as nurses. In insurance companies, agent-contract clerks evaluate the character and ability of prospective insurance agents, and approve their contracts to sell insurance for the company. They review the prospect’s applica tion, recommendations, and other materials to judge the applicant’s character and qualifications. If the applicant meets the company’s requirements, the clerk approves the contract. If not, the clerk sends a letter communicating the rejection. Identification clerks are responsible for security matters. They com pile and record personal data about vendors, contractors, and civilian and military personnel and their dependents at defense installations. Their job duties include interviewing applicants, corresponding with law enforcement authorities, and preparing badges, passes, and identi fication cards. Employment Personnel clerks held about 129,000jobs in 1988. While these workers are found in most industries, 1 of every 4 works for a government agency. Colleges and universities, hospitals, department stores, and banks also employ large numbers. Job Outlook Employment of personnel clerks is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Although the workload for personnel departments throughout the country should increase, the automation of these departments will increase the produc tivity of personnel clerks and moderate employment growth. In addi tion to jobs created by increased demand for personnel services, many job openings are expected each year to replace workers who transfer to other jobs or leave the labor force. The workload for personnel departments should increase in response to the requirements of a growing work force and because of changing personnel practices. Changes in tax and immigration laws, the growing popularity of flexible benefit plans, and the growth of legislatively mandated benefits are examples of these changes. The automation occurring in personnel departments is similar to that occurring in many other departments. The growing use of word processors and personal computers and the spread of local area net works are some of the most obvious signs. A recent technological development that is beginning to have an impact is electronic data interchange (EDI). EDI refers to the sending of data from computer to computer, without the need for anyone to reenter the data. In the case of personnel departments, this means that a lot of data entry work done by personnel clerks can be eliminated as other people enter the data and send it to the personnel office. This is most feasible in large organizations with multiple personnel offices. In addition, as other workers in personnel offices, especially professionals, increasingly use computers and other automated office equipment, it could result in less work for personnel clerks. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.) Secretaries (D.O.T. 201) Nature of the Work The efficiency of any organization depends in part upon secretaries, who are at the center of communications within the firm. They process and transmit information to the staff and to other organizations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Secretaries frequently place orders for office supplies. Secretaries perform a variety of administrative and clerical duties that are necessary to run and maintain organizations efficiently. They sched ule appointments, give information to callers, organize and maintain files, fill out forms, and take and transcribe dictation. The amount of time secretaries spend on these and other duties—including typing— depends on the way office work is handled within the organization. In offices that have word processing centers, administrative secre taries handle everything except dictation and typing. Their duties range from filing, routing mail, and answering telephones to more complex work such as answering letters, doing research, and preparing statistical reports. Administrative secretaries sometimes work in clus ters of three or four so that they can help each other. Because they are released from dictation and typing, they can serve several members of the professional staff. Some secretaries do highly specialized work. Legal secretaries prepare legal papers and correspondence such as summonses, com plaints, motions, and subpoenas under the supervision of an attorney. They also may review law journals and assist in other ways with legal research. Medical secretaries transcribe dictation, prepare correspon dence, and assist physicians or medical scientists with reports, speeches, articles, and conference proceedings. They need to know medical terminology and be familiar with hospital or laboratory proce dures. Technical secretaries assist engineers or scientists. In addition to the usual secretarial duties, they may prepare much of the correspon dence, maintain the technical library, and gather and edit materials for scientific papers. Another specialized secretary is the social secretary, sometimes called a personal secretary, who arranges social functions, answers personal correspondence, and keeps the employer informed about all social activities. Membership secretaries compile and maintain membership lists, record the receipt of dues and contributions, and give out information to members of organizations and associations. They may have such other duties as sending out newsletters and promo tional materials. School secretaries handle secretarial duties in elemen tary and secondary schools; they may take care of correspondence, pre pare bulletins and reports, keep track of money for school supplies and student activities, and maintain a calendar of school events. In today’s automated offices, more and more secretaries are assum ing responsibilities previously handled by managers and professionals. For example, using personal computers, secretaries now run spread sheet, data base management, and graphics programs. Their role is to help ensure that information gets to the people who need it in a timely fashion. With companies tending to view information as a valuable commodity for gaining a competitive edge on their rivals, this role of secretaries is becoming more critical. Working Conditions Secretaries usually work in offices that are clean and free from high noise levels except during peak typing periods. Their jobs often involve Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical sitting for long periods, and they often have to type materials that are difficult to read. If they spend a lot of time typing, particularly at a video display terminal, they may encounter problems of eyestrain, musculoskeletal strain, and stress. Secretaries generally work a standard 40-hour week. In some cities, especially in the Northeast, the scheduled workweek is 37 hours or less. Office work lends itself to alternative or flexible working arrange ments, and 1 secretary in 6 works part time. In addition, a significant number of secretaries work as temporaries. A few participate in job sharing arrangements, in which two people divide responsibility for a single job. Employment Secretaries held 3,373,000 jobs in 1988, making this one of the largest occupations in the U.S. economy. Secretaries are employed in organizations of every description. About one-half of all secretaries are employed in firms providing services, ranging from education and health to legal and business services. Others work for firms that engage in manufacturing, construc tion, wholesale and retail trade, transportation, and communications. Banks, insurance companies, investment firms, and real estate firms are important employers, as are Federal, State, and local government agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement High school graduates qualify for most secretarial positions provided they have basic office skills. Secretaries must be proficient in typing and good at spelling, punctuation, grammar, and oral communication. Shorthand is necessary for some positions. Word processing experi ence is increasingly important and more and more employers require it. The skills needed for a secretarial job can be acquired in various ways. Although formal training or refresher courses are not essential for most jobs, training is an asset and may lead to higher paying jobs. Secretarial training ranges from high school vocational education programs that teach office practices, shorthand, and typing to 1- to 2-year programs in secretarial science offered by business schools, vocational-technical institutes, and community colleges. Specialized training programs also are available for students planning to become medical or legal secretaries. In addition to a solid grounding in secretarial skills, employers look for a good command of the English language. Some firms look for individuals with excellent interpersonal skills, since secretaries must be tactful in their dealings with many different people. Discretion, judgment, organizational ability, and initiative are important for the more responsible secretarial positions. Continuing changes in the office environment, many made possible by the computer, have increased the demand for secretaries who are adaptable and versatile. Workers must be prepared to be retrained whenever an employer introduces new equipment. Secretaries may have to attend classes at work to leam to operate word processing equipment, information storage systems, personal computers, and other automated office equipment. These classes may be offered by the equipment manufacturer or an in-house trainer. Sometimes, secretaries must acquire this training at their own expense at a private business school. The frequency with which such equipment is changed or updated makes retraining and continuing education an integral part of the job, and employers seek workers who understand and accept the inevitability of change. The majority of job openings are filled by people who have not been working. Although some of these entrants have been in school or between jobs, most have been full-time homemakers. The remaining openings are filled by individuals who transfer from another occupa tion, most commonly another clerical job. The majority of entrants are between 25 and 54 years of age. Many positions are filled by persons who have completed some college course work. Advancement for secretaries generally comes about either by promo tion to more responsible secretarial positions or transfer to another https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 277 kind of job. As secretaries gain experience, they can qualify for the designation Certified Professional Secretary (CPS) by passing a series of examinations given by the Institute for Certifying Secretaries, a department of Professional Secretaries International. This designation is recognized by a growing number of employers as the mark of excellence in the secretarial field. Similarly, a legal secretary with 5 years’ experience may become certified as a Professional Legal Secre tary (PLS) by passing an examination administered by the Certifying Board of the National Association of Legal Secretaries. Qualified secretaries who broaden their knowledge of their com pany’s operations may be promoted to positions such as administrative assistant, clerical or secretarial supervisor, and office manager. By taking college courses or completing a degree program in a field such as business, marketing, accounting, or personnel administration, secretaries may progress into entry level management positions. Train ing in computer skills is an increasingly important factor in promotions. Secretaries with word processing experience can advance to jobs as word processing trainers, supervisors, or managers within their own firms or in a secretarial or word processing service bureau. They also can get jobs with manufacturers of word processing and other office equipment in positions such as instructor or sales representative. Job Outlook Employment of secretaries is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 in line with the general growth of the economy. Despite productivity gains made possible by office automation, there will continue to be strong demand for secretaries. In addition to job openings resulting from growth in demand for secretaries, an exceptionally large number of job openings will arise due to replacement needs. Every year several hundred thousand secre taries transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force—primarily because of household responsibilities. In this occupation, as in most, replacement needs are the main source of jobs. Demand for secretaries will rise as the labor force grows and as more workers are employed in offices. The trend toward having secretaries assume more responsibilities traditionally reserved for managers and professionals also will stimulate demand. Employment growth will be moderated by changes in the way office work is performed, however. In firms that have invested in electronic typewriters, word processors, or personal computers, secretaries can turn out significantly more work than when they used electric or manual typewriters. Office automation has occurred most fully in large firms, and now is spreading to small businesses. New office technologies such as electronic mail and voice message systems are in use in a growing number of organizations. These and other kinds of sophisticated equipment are expected to be used more widely in the years ahead and may tend to limit somewhat demand for secretaries. Widespread use of automated equipment is changing the way admin istrative support is handled in many offices, leading to reassignment of job duties and restructuring of entire departments. Large firms are experimenting with different methods of staffing their administrative support operations. In some cases, such traditional secretarial duties as typing, filing, copying, and accounting are being assigned to work ers in other units or departments. In some law offices and physicians’ offices, paralegals and medical assistants are taking over some duties formerly done by secretaries. In addition, there is a trend in many offices for groups of professionals and managers to “share” secretaries, as opposed to the traditional practice of having one secretary work for only one professional or manager. The proliferation in recent years of personal computers in offices throughout the country has affected secretaries in another way. Increas ingly, professionals and managers are doing their own word processing rather than submitting the work to secretaries and other support staff, as they did previously. This trend is expected to continue, contributing to slower employment growth. Developments in office technology are certain to continue, and they will bring about further changes in the secretary’s work environment. However, many of a secretary’s job duties are of an administrative 278 Occupational Outlook Handbook nature—such as scheduling conferences, making travel arrangements, and transmitting staff instructions—and hence not easily automated. Because automated equipment cannot substitute for the personal skills that are essential to the job, the need for secretaries will continue. Many employers complain of a shortage of first-rate secretaries. Therefore, well-qualified secretaries will be in great demand and should find many job opportunities. In addition to mastering the tradi tional secretarial skills, applicants who have computer skills will in creasingly be sought by employers. Earnings The average annual salary for all secretaries was $21,710 in 1988. Salaries vary a great deal, however, reflecting differences in skill, experience, and level of responsibility, ranging from $17,810 to $29,354. Salaries in different parts of the country also vary; earnings generally are lowest in southern cities and highest in northern and western cities. In 1988, for example, secretaries averaged $21,424 a year in the Northeast, $22,126 in the Midwest, $23,244 in the West, and $20,488 in the South. In addition, salaries vary by industry. Salaries of secretaries tend to be highest in transportation and public utilities and lowest in retail trade and finance, insurance, and real estate. The starting salary for inexperienced secretaries in the Federal Gov ernment was $12,531 a year in 1989. Secretaries employed by the Federal Government in 1989 averaged about $18,800. Most secretaries in large cities receive 7 paid holidays or more a year and a 2-week vacation after working 1 year. With added years of service, vacations may range to 4 weeks or more. Group life and health insurance, pension plans, and other benefits often are provided. Related Occupations A number of other workers type, record information, and process paperwork. Among these are bookkeepers, receptionists, stenogra phers, office managers, personnel clerks, typists, administrative assis tants, legal assistants, medical assistants, and medical record techni cians. Sources of Additional Information For career information, write to: ••-Professional Secretaries International, 301 East Armour Blvd., Kansas City, MO 64111. Persons interested in careers as legal secretaries can request a pam phlet, So You Want To Be A Legal Secretary, from: ••-National Association of Legal Secretaries (International), 2250 East 73rd St., Suite 550, Tulsa, OK 74136. Brochures describing a career as a secretary or legal secretary are available from: ••-Association of Independent Colleges and Schools, 1 Dupont Circle NW., Suite 350, Washington, DC 20036. skilled stenographers take difficult dictation and do more responsible clerical work. They may sit in on staff meetings and later give a summary report or a word-for-word record of the proceedings. They also supervise other stenographers, typists, and clerical workers. Tech nical stenographers must know the terms used in a particular profes sion. They include medical, legal, and engineering or scientific stenog raphers. Some experienced stenographers take dictation in foreign languages; others work as public stenographers serving traveling busi ness people and others. Shorthand reporters are specialized stenographers who record all statements made in an official proceeding. Shorthand reporters often work as court reporters. They take down all statements made at legal proceedings and present their record as the official transcript. Many other shorthand reporters work as freelance reporters who record out-of-court testimony for attorneys, proceedings of meetings and conventions, and other private activities. Still others record the pro ceedings in the U.S. Congress, in State and local governing bodies, and in government agencies at all levels. Some reporters dictate notes on magnetic tapes that a typist can transcribe later. Others transcribe their notes with the help of note readers, persons skilled in reading back shorthand notes. A large and growing number of reporters use Computer-Aided Transcription, a system in which a computer directly translates the reporter’s shorthand notes into English. Because the reporter’s transcript is the official record of a proceeding, accuracy is vitally important. Transcribing-machine operators listen to recordings and use a type writer or word processor to transcribe what they hear into the proper format. In addition to transcribing letters, reports, and the like, they may have some other clerical duties. Sometimes they are called dictating-machine transcribers or dictating-machine typists. Print shop stenographers take dictation and use typewriters to tran scribe the dictated material and to prepare metal printing plates to be used by addressing machines. Working Conditions Stenographers usually work in clean, well-lighted offices. Sometimes they work in nonoffice settings, such as courts, legislatures, and conventions. Although the work is not physically demanding, sitting in the same position for long periods can be tiring. In addition, pressure to be accurate and fast can be stressful. Stenographers generally work a standard 40-hour week. In some cities, especially in the Northeast, the scheduled workweek is 37 hours or less. Some stenographers work part time or as temporaries. Employment Stenographers held 159,000 jobs throughout the economy in 1988. Four of every ten worked for government agencies, a reflection of the large number of shorthand reporters working in courts, legislatures, and agencies in the executive branch. State employment offices can provide information about job open ings for secretaries. Stenographers (D.O.T. 202.362 and 203.582-058) Nature of the Work The efficient conduct of business and other endeavors often requires a precise written record of spoken communication. Stenographers provide such records. Stenographers and stenotype operators take dictation and then tran scribe their notes on a typewriter or word processor. They may either take shorthand or use a stenotype machine, which prints shorthand symbols. General stenographers, including most beginners, take rou tine dictation and do other office tasks such as typing, filing, answering telephones, and operating office machines. Experienced and highly https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Stenographers record proceedings at deposition hearings. Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers hire only high school graduates. Stenographic skills are taught in high schools, vocational schools, and proprietary business schools. More than 400 postsecondary schools and colleges offer 2-year training programs in court reporting. Seventy-four of these programs have been approved by the National Shorthand Reporters Association, and all of them teach computer-aided transcription. Employers usually have no preferences among the many different shorthand methods. For court reporters, however, the preference is for stenotype, not only because reporters can write faster using stenotype, but also because they can feed stenotype notes to a computer for high-speed transcription. The most important factors in hiring and promotion are speed and accuracy. To qualify for jobs in the Federal Government, stenographers must be able to take dictation at a mini mum of 80 words per minute and type at least 40 words per minute. Workers must achieve higher rates to advance to more responsible positions. Although requirements vary in private firms, applicants with the best speed and accuracy will receive first consideration in hiring. Many shorthand reporting jobs require more than 225 words of dicta tion per minute; shorthand reporters in the Federal Government gener ally must take at least 175 words a minute. Some States require each court reporter to be a Certified Shorthand Reporter (CSR). A certification test is administered by a board of examiners in each State that has CSR laws. The National Shorthand Reporters Association confers the designation Registered Professional Reporter (RPR) upon those who pass a two-part examination and participate in continuing education programs. The RPR designation is recognized as the mark of excellence in the profession. Stenographers can advance to secretarial positions, especially if they develop their interpersonal skills such as the ability to communi cate well. Stenographers who take the necessary training can become shorthand reporters. Job Outlook Employment of stenographers is expected to decline sharply. The widespread use of dictation machines has greatly reduced the need for office stenographers, and the traditional “steno pool” is practically a thing of the past. Despite this decline, some job openings will arise each year due to the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Demand for skilled shorthand reporters should remain strong as State and Federal court systems expand to handle the rising number of criminal court cases and civil lawsuits. Another factor keeping demand strong is the growing number of conventions, conferences, and similar meetings, the proceedings of which must be recorded. The growing trend to provide instantaneous written records of events for the deaf and hearing impaired also should strengthen demand for these workers. Competition for entry level jobs as a shorthand reporter is increasing as more workers enter the field. Opportunities will be best for those who have earned certification by the National Shorthand Reporters Association. Earnings Stenographers in private industry averaged $21,528 a year in 1988. Shorthand reporters generally earn higher salaries than stenographic office workers. Regardless of specialty, earnings depend on speed, education, experience, and geographic location (earnings are generally higher in large cities than in rural areas). Inexperienced clerk-stenographers in the Federal Government started at $12,531 a year in 1989. The average annual salary for all clerk-stenographers employed by the Federal Government was about $15,000 in 1988. Most stenographers in large cities receive 7 paid holidays or more a year and a 2-week vacation after working 1 year. With added years of service, vacations may range to 4 weeks or more. Group life and health insurance, pension plans, and other fringe benefits often are provided. Related Occupations A number of other workers type, record information, and process paperwork. Among these are bookkeepers, receptionists, secretaries, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 279 office managers, personnel clerks, typists, administrative assistants, medical assistants, and legal assistants. Sources of Additional Information For information about shorthand reporting, contact: •-National Shorthand Reporters Association, 118 Park St. SE., Vienna, VA 22180. Brochures describing a career as a shorthand reporter or court re porter are available from: •-Association of Independent Colleges and Schools, 1 Dupont Circle NW., Suite 350, Washington, DC 20036. State employment offices can provide information about job open ings for stenographers. Teacher Aides (D.O.T. 099.327-010; 219.467-010; and 249.367-074, and -086) Nature of the Work Teacher aides help classroom teachers in a variety of ways to give them more time for teaching. They help and supervise students in the classroom, cafeteria, school yard, or on field trips. They record grades, set up equipment, or help prepare materials for instruction. They may also tutor and assist children in learning class material. Aides’ responsibilities vary greatly by school district. In some dis tricts, teacher aides just handle routine nonteaching and clerical tasks. They grade tests and papers, check homework, keep health and atten dance records, type, file, and duplicate materials. They may also stock supplies, operate audiovisual equipment, and keep classroom equipment in order. In other districts, aides also help instruct children, under the supervision and guidance of teachers. They work with students individually or in small groups—listening while students read, reviewing class work, or helping them find information for reports. Sometimes, aides take charge of special projects and prepare equipment or exhibits—for a science demonstration, for example. Working Conditions About half of all teacher aides work part time during the school year. Most work the traditional 9- to 10-month school year. They may work Ac Teacher aides help children review and understand their lessons. 280 Occupational Outlook Handbook outdoors supervising recess when weather allows and spend much of their time standing, walking, or kneeling. Working closely with the students can be both physically and emotionally tiring. Employment Teacher aides held about 682,000 jobs in 1988. About 8 out of 10 worked in elementary and secondary schools, with many concentrated in the lower grades. Some assisted special education teachers with physically, mentally, or emotionally handicapped children. Most of the others worked in child daycare centers. Employment was distrib uted geographically much the same as the population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Educational requirements for teacher aides range from less than a high school diploma to some college training. Districts that give aides some teaching responsibilities usually require more training than those that don’t assign teaching tasks. A number of 2-year and community colleges offer associate degree programs that prepare graduates to work as teacher aides. However, most teacher aides receive on-the-job training. Aides are taught how to operate audiovisual equipment, keep records, and prepare instructional materials. In addition, they are made familiar with the organization and operation of a school and with teaching methods. Teacher aides should enjoy working with children and be able to handle classroom situations with fairness and patience. Preference in hiring may be given to those with previous experience in working with children. Aides also must demonstrate initiative and a willingness to follow a teacher’s directions. They must have good oral and writing skills and be able to communicate effectively with students and teach ers. Clerical skills may also be necessary. Some States have voluntary certification for general teacher aides. To qualify, an individual may need a high school diploma or general equivalency degree (G.E.D.), or even some college training. Kansas, Louisiana, Texas, and Wisconsin grant permits for paraprofessionals, as some aides are called, in special education. Advancement for teacher aides, usually in the form of higher earn ings or increased responsibility, comes primarily with experience or additional education. Some school districts provide release time so that aides may take college courses. Aides who earn bachelor’s degrees may become certified teachers. Job Outlook Employment of teacher aides is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000, primarily reflecting rising enrollments and increases in the ratio of teacher aides to teachers. Enrollment growth will not occur at the same rate in all parts of the country. Largely because of migration to the South and West, enrollment increases are expected to be greater in those regions than in the Northeast and Midwest. Teacher aide employment is sensitive to changes in State and local expenditures for education. Pressures on education budgets are greater in some States and localities than in others. A number of teacher aide positions are financed through Federal programs. For example, a 1986 law requires that public schools provide special education services to all children between the ages of 3 and 6 who need it. This will stimulate the demand for teacher aides who work with special education teachers. Because of a relatively high turnover in the occupation, most open ings for teacher aides are expected to occur as a result of the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or who leave the labor force to assume full-time housekeeping responsibilities, return to school, or for other reasons. Earnings In 1988-89, aides involved in teaching activities earned an average of $7.05 an hour; those performing only nonteaching activities averaged $6.14 an hour. Earnings varied by region and also by work experience and academic qualifications. Many aides are covered by collective bargaining agreements and have health and pension benefits similar to those of the teachers in their schools. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations The educational support activities that teacher aides perform demand organizational skills, cooperativeness, recordkeeping ability, and a talent for getting along with people. Other occupations requiring some or all of these skills include childcare workers, career guidance techni cians, home health aides, library attendants, medical record techni cians, nursing aides, receptionists, and retail sales clerks. Sources of Additional Information Information on teacher aides as well as on a wide range of educationrelated subjects, including teacher aide unionization, can be obtained from: ••-American Federation of Teachers, 555 New Jersey Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001. School superintendents and State departments of education can provide details about employment requirements. Telephone, Telegraph, and Teletype Operators (D.O.T. 235.222-010, .462-010, .562-014, .662-014, -018, -022, and -026; and 239.367-026) Nature of the Work Although millions of telephone numbers are dialed directly each day, making a call sometimes requires the assistance of a telephone opera tor. Operators who work in telephone company central offices probably are the most familiar. Central office operators help customers with calls that require assistance or that cannot be dialed directly. Personto-person calls, calls from mobile telephones, or collect calls generally need an operator’s intervention. Operators also handle special billing requests, such as charging a call to a third number or to a calling card, or giving customers credit or a refund when they have reached a wrong number or have gotten a bad connection. These operators obtain the information necessary to complete the call and record the details for billing purposes. In some telephone companies, technological innovations have taken place that change the responsibilities of operators. Electronic switching systems are being installed in central offices, thus reducing the need for manual switching. New traffic service position system terminals automatically feed data about each telephone connection, such as the length and cost of the call, into a computer that processes the billing statements. It is now possible in many places to dial numbers in other countries directly, without the help of an operator. The task of responding to “intercept” calls (vacant, changed, or disconnected numbers) also is being automated. A device automatically answers those calls, and a computerized recording explains the reason for the interception and gives the new number. The monitoring and computing of charges on calls from pay telephones also are being automated, eliminating functions formerly performed by operators. Directory assistance operators also work for telephone companies either on a local, regional, or national level. They answer customer inquiries for local and long-distance telephone numbers by accessing computerized alphabetical and geographical directories. Sometimes the operator does not even need to read the number—instead, a compu terized recording reads it so the operator can answer the next call. Many businesses and large organizations like hotels or medical centers receive so many calls that they employ their own operators to run private branch exchange (PBX) switchboards. Switchboard or PBX operators connect interoffice or house calls, answer and relay outside calls, assist company employees in making outgoing calls, supply information to callers, and record charges. Some PBX switch boards permit direct inside dialing. This allows calls to be made to and from the office without going through the switchboard. In such establishments, PBX operators may do other office work, such as typing- filing, or sorting mail. Many act as receptionists or information Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical ■ 281 work generally is quite repetitive and, in telephone companies, is closely supervised. Computerized pacing and monitoring by supervi sors, combined with the rapid pace, may cause stress. Operators usually need supervisory approval to leave their work stations. Employment Telephone operators held about 330,000 jobs in 1988. More than onehalf worked as PBX operators in hotels, hospitals, department stores, or other organizations. The remainder worked in telephone companies. Roughly one-fifth of all operators worked part time, although relatively few of those employed by telephone companies were part-time workers. Operators may work for large organizations that have their own telephone systems. clerks by relaying messages or announcing visitors. (Receptionists are described elsewhere in this section of the Handbook.) Operators also work in other settings. Telephone-answering-service operators manage switchboards to provide answering service for cli ents. Communication-center operators handle airport authority com munication systems. For example, they use the public address system to page passengers or visitors. They also monitor electronic equipment alarms. Private-branch-exchange service advisors, sometimes called cus tomer instructors or telephone usage counselors, conduct training classes in the operation of switchboard and teletype equipment at the telephone company’s training school or on the customer’s premises. Service observers monitor telephone conversations between operators and customers to observe the operator’s behavior, technical accuracy, and adherence to company policies. Working Conditions The hours that telephone operators work vary with the nature of the company by which they are employed. The scheduled hours of PBX operators generally are the same as those of other clerical workers in the firm. They may even work as temporary employees. Telephone company operators generally work 32'/2 to hl'A hours a week. Central office operators, as well operators in hotels, hospitals, and other places where telephone service is needed on a 24-hour basis, work shifts, even on holidays and weekends. Some operators work split shifts—that is, they are on duty during the peak calling periods in the late morning and early evening and have time off in between. Telephone companies normally assign shifts by seniority, allowing the most experienced workers to choose when they will work. These operators, like all telephone company employees, may be subject to 24-hour call. In general, though, they work overtime only during emergencies. Many telephone company operators work at video display terminals in pleasant, well-lighted, air-conditioned surroundings. But if the work site is not well designed, these operators may experience eyestrain and musculoskeletal strain. The job of a telephone operator requires little physical exertion; during peak calling periods, however, the pace at the switchboard may be hectic. Telephone companies continually strive to increase operator efficiency, and this can create a tense work environment. An operator’s https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Persons interested in becoming a telephone operator should like to serve the public; be pleasant, courteous, and patient; and not mind sitting for long periods of time. A clear, pleasing voice and good hearing are important. In addition to being a good listener, prospective operators should have good reading, spelling, and arithmetic skills. Good eye-hand coordination and manual dexterity are useful, as is an ability to work well under pressure. Many telephone companies and business firms require operators to pass a physical examination. Some employers require a high school diploma. High school courses in speech, office practices, and business math provide a helpful back ground for persons interested in this occupation. New operators are taught how to use the equipment and keep records of calls. In larger companies this may include familiarization with computer terminals and recordkeeping programs. Once they have learned the procedure, they put through practice calls. In telephone companies, classroom instruction usually lasts up to 3 weeks and is followed by on-the-job training. Classroom instruction covers the time zones and geography so that central office operators understand rates and know where major cities are located. Tapes are used to familiarize trainees with the dial tone, busy signal, and other telephone sounds and to improve diction and courtesy by giving them an opportunity to hear their own voices. Training is tailored to the knowledge required in the department where the employee is going to work. Close supervision continues after training is completed. PBX operators who handle routine calls usually have a somewhat shorter training period than telephone company operators. These work ers usually are trained informally by experienced personnel, although, in large businesses, an instructor from the local telephone company may train new employees. After 1 or 2 years of experience, telephone company operators may be promoted to service assistant, aiding the supervisor by monitoring telephone conversations. Direct promotion to supervisor may also be possible in some companies. Some operators advance to other clerical jobs or to telephone craft jobs such as installer or repairer. Large firms may promote PBX operators to more responsible clerical positions; however, many small businesses have limited advancement opportu nities. Job Outlook Employment of telephone operators is expected to grow about as fast as average for all occupations through the year 2000. Within this occupation, however, conflicting trends will continue. Employment of switchboard operators is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations as businesses expand to meet the changing needs of the population. On the other hand, employment of directory assistance operators and central office operators is expected to decline as automa tion continues to increase these workers’ productivity. As in most occupations, the majority of job openings for telephone operators will result from the need to replace experienced employees who stop working or transfer to another occupation. While demand for switchboard or PBX operators will increase, automation will cause the rate of growth to be slower than in the past. As older switchboards that require operators to make all the connections are replaced by newer, electronic switchboards that route calls automatically, fewer operators will be needed. In addition, voice 282 Occupational Outlook Handbook message systems are expected to proliferate as computers become smaller, cheaper, and more powerful. These systems record spoken telephone messages in digital form, and can store, play, and forward them, depending on the user’s instructions. These systems do much of the work currently performed by PBX operators, such as taking messages and providing information. Employment prospects will be best for switchboard operator/ receptionists—receptionists who have been trained to make telephone connections. PBX systems with a direct-inside-dialing (DID) option leave operators free to concentrate on other clerical tasks. This flexibility appeals to employers and will stimulate demand for these workers. Employment prospects for telephone company operators are poor. Employment of these workers has been declining for the past 25 years as technological innovations have reduced labor requirements, and this trend is expected to continue. Further productivity improvements should more than offset the employment gains from strong growth in residential and business demand for telephone services and the development of new markets, including electronic fund- transfer sys tems and home data processing. Another change, while not of a technological nature, is expected to reduce the demand for directory assistance operators. A number of telephone companies now charge for directory assistance calls, thus prompting customers to use telephone directories instead. A technology presently under development could—if perfected— profoundly affect employment in this occupation. Referred to as voice recognition technology, it aims to give computers the capacity to understand speech and to talk back. Such equipment conceivably could replace directory assistance operators altogether because it could understand customers’ requests and reply correctly. Rudimen tary forms of this technology exist, but much remains to be done before these machines could replace humans. Although it is doubtful that voice recognition technology will be sufficiently developed by the year 2000 to affect employment significantly, it illustrates the technological changes that affect employment in this occupation. Employment of operators is less sensitive to fluctuations in the business cycle than employment of other workers in the telephone industry. The volume of telephone calls is affected very little by economic fluctuations. However, telephone companies hire fewer op erators during recessions because there is less turnover (and conse quently fewer openings) when other jobs are relatively hard to find. Few PBX operators are laid off during recessions because, even in slow times, businesses must keep their lines of communication open. Technological change has had a far greater effect than the business cycle on employment of telephone company operators. However, operators are usually not laid off, for collective bargaining agreements seek to ensure that the companies reduce employment either through attrition or by retraining or reassignment. Earnings Telephone operators earned a median annual salary of $15,600 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $12,100 and $22,100. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $8,600; the top 10 percent earned more than $25,400 a year. Telephone company operators gener ally earn more than switchboard operators. Telephone operators employed by AT&T and the Bell Operating Companies and represented by the Communications Workers of America earned an average annual salary of $24,000 in 1988. Eamings of experienced telephone operators are about the same as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. In 1989, the Federal Government paid starting telephone operators between $11,484 and $14,067 a year, depending on educa tion, training, and experience. The average annual salary in 1988 for all operators employed by the Federal Government was $15,700. Most telephone company operators are members of the Communica tions Workers of America or the International Brotherhood of Electri cal Workers. For these operators, union contracts govern wage rates, wage increases, and the time required to advance from one step to the next (it normally takes 4 years to rise from the lowest paying, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis nonsupervisory operator position to the highest). Contracts also call for extra pay for work beyond the normal 6 'A to 7 Vi hours a day or 5 days a week, and for all Sunday and holiday work. Most contracts provide a pay differential for nightwork and split shifts. Paid vacations are granted according to length of service. Many contracts provide for a 1-week vacation beginning with 6 months of service; 2 weeks for 1 to 6 years; 3 weeks for 7 to 14 years; 4 weeks for 15 to 24 years; and 5 weeks for 25 years and over. Depending on locality, holidays range from 9 to 11 days a year. Additional provisions include paid sick leave; group life, medical, and dental insurance; sickness and accident benefits; retirement and disability pensions; a savings plan; and an employee stock ownership plan. Insurance, pensions, holidays, vacations, and other benefits for PBX operators are the same as those for other clerical employees in the firm. Related Occupations Other workers who provide information to the general public include customer service representatives, dispatchers, hotel clerks, informa tion clerks, police aides, receptionists, reservation agents, and travel clerks. Sources of Additional Information For more details about employment opportunities, contact your local telephone company. For general information on the telephone industry and career oppor tunities in it, request copies of Phonefacts and Is It for You? A Career in the Telephone Industry from: (■-United States Telephone Association, 900 19th St. NW., Suite 800, Wash ington, DC 20006. Typists, Word Processors, and Data Entry Keyers (D.O.T. 203.362-010 and -022, .382-010, .582-022, -026, -030, -034, -054, -066, -070, and -078, and 209.382-010) Nature of the Work The efficient operation of a modem office requires the rapid and expeditious flow and processing of information and data. The jobs of typist, word processor, and data entry keyer are vital in this respect. Typists and word processors are concerned mainly with the process ing of text. They facilitate communication by making neat, typed copies of reports, letters, and memoranda. Data entry keyers are involved primarily with the processing of numerical information. Their job is to enter data from checks, bills, invoices, and other documents into computer systems. Such systems store and process vast amounts of data. Each time an individual writes a check, for example, the amount must be entered into a bank’s computer, so the correct charge can be made to his or her account. Beginning or junior typists usually type headings on form letters, address envelopes, or prepare simple forms for standard tabulations. As they gain experience, they may begin to do routine typing, such as insurance policies, or to type from handwritten drafts. Often, they perform other office tasks as well: Answering telephones, filing, and operating copiers, calculators, and other office machines. More experienced typists do work that requires a higher degree of accuracy and independent judgment. Senior typists work from rough drafts that are difficult to read or that contain technical material. They may plan and type complicated statistical tables, combine and rearrange materials from different sources, or prepare master copies to be reproduced on copying machines. In some organizations, word processing centers handle the transcrip tion and typing for several departments. Word processors, sometimes called word-processing-machine operators, use word processing equipment to record, edit, store, and revise correspondence, reports, Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical statistical tables, forms, and other materials. Word processing equip ment normally includes a keyboard, a video display terminal, and a printer, and may have “add-on” capabilities such as optical character recognition readers. Some word processors work in large, centralized word processing centers that are relatively isolated from other depart ments. Others, however, are located in smaller areas that are physically dispersed throughout the organization, and they work fairly closely with other employees. Job titles of typists vary by duties performed and work setting. For example, clerk typists combine typing with filing, sorting mail, answering telephones, and other general office work. Bordereau clerks compile data and type applications for insurance companies. Notereaders transcribe stenotyped notes of court proceedings into standard formats. Continuity clerks aid movie editors by typing descriptive records of motion picture scenes, including such things as dialog, wardrobe, hairstyle, and entrances and exits of actors. The main function of the data entry keyer is to type data from documents quickly and accurately. This is done with a variety of typewriter-like equipment. Many keyers use a machine that converts the information they type to magnetic impulses on tapes or disks. The information is then read into the computer from the tape or disk. Some keyers operate on-line terminals of the main computer system that transmit and receive data. Others use personal computers. Although brands and models of computer terminals and data entry equipment differ somewhat, their operation and keyboards are similar. Some keyers working from terminals use data from the computer to produce business, scientific, and technical reports. In some offices, keyers also operate computer peripheral equipment such as printers and tape readers, act as tape librarians, and perform other clerical duties. Working Conditions Typists, word processors, and data entry keyers usually work in offices that are clean. They sit for long periods and sometimes must contend with high noise levels caused by various office machines, such as printers, or with lighting that may be inappropriate if they are using a video terminal. Much recent research on occupational health and safety has been concerned with the hazards to physical and mental health posed by new types of office equipment. Studies have found that word proces sors who work full time on video terminals experience musculoskeletal strain, eye problems, and stress. Increasingly, studies are focusing on the risk of miscarriage, birth defects, and other pregnancy complica tions that may be experienced by women who work at terminals extensively. Typists and word processors generally work a standard 40-hour week. In some cities, especially in the Northeast, the scheduled work week is 37 hours or less. Office work lends itself to alternative of flexible working arrange ments; many typists and word processors hold temporary jobs and 1 in 4 works part time. Some of these part-time workers are self-employed freelance typists or word processors; others take short-term jobs through temporary help agencies. Some employers are experimenting with home-based offices—sophisticated computerized equipment in stalled in workers’ homes enabling them to transcribe material at home and, almost instantly, produce printed copy in an office miles away. These home-based jobs often do not include the full range of fringe benefits that office workers enjoy, and they lack the advantages of social interaction on the job. Employment Typists, word processors, and data entry keyers held 1,416,000 jobs in 1988 and were employed in every sector of the economy. Four of every ten held jobs in educational institutions, health care facilities, law offices, and firms that provide business services. Among the latter are temporary help agencies and word processing service bureaus. One in five worked in government agencies at various levels. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 283 ||5|3 «f ; !• I #'## *fjf Many typists, word processors, and data entry keyers work for temporary help agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers generally hire high school graduates who can meet their requirements for typing speed. Increasingly, employers expect appli cants to have word processing training or experience. Spelling, punctu ation, and grammar skills are important, and familiarity with standard office equipment and procedures is an asset. Typing or data entry can be learned in different ways—in high schools, community colleges, business schools, home study schools, or on one’s own, using self-teaching aids such as books, records, and personal computers. Some people learn to type for personal conve nience, or because it is a useful skill for other jobs. Word processing and data entry are taught in many community colleges and business schools and are beginning to be taught in high schools. Large companies and government agencies generally have training programs to help clerical employees upgrade their skills and advance to more responsible positions, including typist. Nonetheless, the pro portion of job openings filled by workers who transfer from other occupations is lower than average. People who become typists, word processors, or data entry keyers tend to come from outside the labor force; they are younger than average, and many probably have never worked before. The proportion of these workers who transfer to other occupations is higher than average, suggesting that this work serves as a steppingstone to higher paying, more responsible jobs. It is common for typists, word processors, and data entry keyers to transfer to another clerical job, such as secretary, statistical clerk, or stenogra pher, or be promoted to a supervisory job in a word processing or data entry center. Job Outlook Employment of typists, word processors, and data entry keyers is expected to decline through the year 2000 despite the “information explosion” and rapid growth in the volume of business transactions. This is an indication of significant productivity improvements among office workers due to the widespread use of automated office equip ment. Despite this decline, many thousands of openings will occur each year due to the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The amount of text to be processed and data to be entered is tremendous and growing. However, technological advances and re 284 Occupational Outlook Handbook structuring of work processes should allow this increased workload to be handled with fewer typists, word processors, and data entry keyers. Technological advances, such as the installation of word processing equipment—have raised the productivity of these workers signifi cantly, allowing them to undertake work of an amount and degree of complexity that would have been impossible in the past. Automation of office tasks is expected to continue. For example, optical character recognition readers, which scan documents and enter their text and data into a computer, are being used in more and more workplaces. Improvements in this technology are being made, and widespread commercial application during the 1990’s is likely. This should appre ciably reduce the workload for these workers. In addition, researchers are working to develop voice recognition technologies, so that people can enter text and data by simply speaking to a computer. Although it is likely that such machines (voice-activated typewriters, for in stance) will be perfected sometime during the 1990’s, it is doubtful that they will be inexpensive enough to be widely used by the year 2000. However, when this technology finally is in place throughout the economy, it is expected to result in a sharp drop in demand for typists, word processors, and data entry keyers. With the proliferation of personal computers throughout the econ omy, more and more workers are performing work formerly done by typists, word processors, and data entry keyers. A growing number of professionals and managers are using desktop personal computers and executive work stations to handle much of the keyboarding previously delegated to typists, word processors, and data entry keyers. Also, some traveling salespersons now use portable, lap-top computers to enter their orders; previously, such orders were entered by data entry keyers in the central office. Job prospects should be brightest for those typists and word proces sors with the best technical skills. In particular, the more word process ing “languages” word processors know—especially the more complex ones—the better their job opportunities will be. Improvements in data processing technology and systems will en able organizations to handle the growing volume of data with fewer data entry keyers. The use of on-line processing that enables depart ments within an organization to enter data from remote terminals is an example of such an improvement. Another is the use of recognition technologies such as bar code scanners now used in many food stores. Increasingly, data are being captured at the point of origin and entered into the system without human intervention. Such is the case https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis in the banking industry with automatic teller machines. In addition, as more companies buy computers and communication among computers becomes easier through standardization, data increasingly will need to be entered only once. After that, it can simply be sent from one computer to another, without the need for a data entry keyer to reenter it. This process is known as electronic data interchange. As improvements in communications systems allow data to be transmitted great distances at relatively low cost, more firms may choose to locate data entry facilities out of the country in areas where wage rates are lower. If this occurs, the demand for data entry keyers could decline even more sharply. Earnings Typists in metropolitan areas earned average annual salaries of $14,612 in 1988. Word processors averaged $18,148, while data entry keyers averaged $15,002. The salaries of these workers vary by industry. They tend to be highest in transportation and public utilities and lowest in retail trade and finance, insurance, and real estate. Similarly, their salaries tend to vary by region of the country, with salaries in the West being the highest. Regardless of industry or region, typists generally receive higher salaries if they have word processing experience. In the Federal Government in 1989, clerk-typists and data entry keyers without work experience each started at $11,484 a year. The average annual salary for all clerk-typists in the Federal Government in 1988 was about $16,000, while that for data entry keyers was about $15,000. Most typists, word processors, and data entry keyers in large cities receive 7 paid holidays or more a year and a 2-week vacation after working 1 year. With added years of service, vacations may range up to 4 weeks or more. Group life and health insurance, pension plans, and other fringe benefits often are provided. Related Occupations Many other office workers use keyboarding skills. Among these are secretaries, stenographers, receptionists, office machine operators, personnel clerks, and administrative assistants. Sources of Additional Information For information about job opportunities in data entry, contact the nearest office of the State employment service. Service Occupations Protective Service Occupations Correction Officers (D.O.T. 372.367-014, .567-014. .667-018, and .677; and 375.367) Nature of the Work Correction officers are charged with the safety and security of persons who have been arrested, are awaiting trial, or who have been tried and convicted of a crime and sentenced to serve time in a correctional institution. Correction officers may escort prisoners in transit between courtrooms, correctional institutions, and other points. They maintain order within the institution, enforce rules and regulations, and often supplement the counseling that inmates receive from psychologists, social workers, and other mental health professionals. To make sure inmates are orderly and obey rules, correction officers monitor inmates' activities, such as working, exercising, eating, and bathing. They assign and supervise inmates’ work assignments, as well as instruct and help them on specific tasks. Sometimes it is necessary to search inmates and their living quarters for weapons or drugs, to settle disputes between inmates, and to enforce discipline. Correction officers cannot show favoritism and must report any inmate who violates the rules. To prevent escapes, officers staff security positions in towers and at gates. They count inmates periodically to make sure all are present. Correction officers inspect the facilities to assure the safety and security of the prisoners. They check cells and other areas of the institution for unsanitary conditions, fire hazards, and evidence of infractions of rules by inmates. Daily, they inspect locks, window bars, grill doors, and gates for signs of tampering. Correction officers report orally and in writing on inmate conduct and on the quality and quantity of work done by inmates. Officers also report disturbances, violations of rules, and any unusual occurrences. They usually keep a daily record of their activities. In some modern facilities, correction officers monitor the activities of prisoners from a centralized control center with the aid of closed circuit television cameras. Correction officers escort inmates to and from cells and other areas and admit and accompany authorized visitors within the facility. From time to time, they may inspect mail for contraband (prohibited items), administer first aid, or assist police authorities by investigating crimes committed within the institution and by searching for escaped inmates. Counseling and helping inmates with problems are increasingly important parts of the correction officer’s job. Correctional institutions usually employ psychologists and social workers to counsel inmates, but correction officers informally supplement the work of the profes sionals. They may arrange a change in a daily schedule so that an inmate can visit the library, help inmates get news of their families, talk over personal problems that may have led to committing a crime, or suggest where to look for a job after release from prison. In some institutions, officers receive specialized training and have a more formal counseling role and may lead or participate in group counseling sessions. Correction sergeants directly supervise correction officers. They usually are responsible for maintaining security and directing the activities of a group of inmates during an assigned watch or in an assigned area. Working Conditions Correction officers may work indoors or outdoors, according to their duties. Some indoor areas are well lighted, heated, and ventilated, but https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis MM* Correction officers may counsel inmates. others are overcrowded, hot, and noisy. Outdoors, weather conditions may be disagreeable. Working in a correctional institution can be stressful and hazardous; correction officers occasionally have been injured or killed during inmate riots. Correction officers usually work an 8-hour day 5 days a week. Prison security must be provided around the clock, which means some officers work weekends, holidays, and nights. During emergencies, officers may work overtime. Employment Correction officers held about 186,000 jobs in 1988. About three-fifths worked at State correctional institutions such as prisons, prison camps, and reformatories. Most of the remainder worked at city and county jails or other institutions run by local governments. A few thousand correction officers worked at Federal correctional institutions. Most correction officers work in relatively large institutions located outside metropolitan areas, although a significant number work in jails and other smaller facilities located in cities and towns. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most institutions require that correction officers be at least 18 years old and have a high school education or its equivalent, or qualifying work experience. However, the minimum age is 21 in some institu tions. In addition, correctional institutions increasingly seek correction officers with postsecondary education in psychology, criminology, and related fields—reflecting an increased emphasis on personal coun seling and rehabilitation of inmates. Correction officers must be in good health. Many States require candidates to meet formal standards of physical fitness, eyesight, and hearing. Strength, good judgment, and the ability to think and act quickly are assets. Other common requirements include a driver’s license, work experience that demonstrates reliability, and having no felony convictions. Some States screen applicants for drug abuse and require candidates to pass a written or oral examination. The Federal Government, as well as almost every State and a few localities, provides training for correction officers based on guidelines established by the American Correctional Association. Some States have special training academies. All States and local departments of correction, however, provide informal on-the-job training. Academy trainees generally receive several weeks or months of instruction on institutional policies, regulations, and operations; coun 285 286 Occupational Outlook Handbook seling psychology, crisis intervention, inmate behavior, and contra band; custody and security procedures; fire and safety; inmate rules and rights; administrative responsibilities; written and oral communi cation, including preparation of reports; self-defense, including the use of firearms; cardiopulmonary resuscitation; and physical fitness training. New Federal correction officers undergo 2 weeks of training at their assigned institutions followed by 3 weeks of basic correctional instruction at the Federal Bureau of Prisons training center at Glenco, Georgia. On-the-job trainees receive several weeks or months of simi lar training in an actual job setting under an experienced officer. Experienced officers receive inservice training to keep abreast of new ideas and procedures. Some complete home-study courses. Correction officers employed in Michigan must be certified. The criteria for certification are 340 hours of academy training and 15 hours of more advanced training that includes the law regarding corrections; human growth and development; and prison organization. Officers in Pennsylvania’s 2-year apprenticeship program, which provides 4 weeks of orientation, 4 weeks of training at its academy, and 20 months of on-the-job training, receive certification from the U.S. Department of Labor. With additional education, experience, or training, qualified officers may advance to correction sergeant or other supervisory, administra tive, or counseling positions. Many correctional institutions require experience as a correction officer for other corrections positions. Offi cers sometimes transfer to related areas, such as probation and parole. Job Outlook Employment of correction officers is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as additional officers are hired to supervise and counsel an increasing inmate popula tion and to relieve tensions in already crowded correctional institutions. Expansion and new construction of correctional facilities are also expected to create many new jobs for correction officers. Increasing public concern about the spread of illegal drugs—resulting in more convictions—and the adoption of mandatory sentencing guidelines calling for longer sentences and reduced parole for inmates will also spur demand for correction officers. Rapid growth in demand coupled with job openings resulting from the need to replace experienced workers who retire or transfer to other occupations should mean favor able job opportunities for correction officers. Employment of correction officers is not usually affected by changes either in economic conditions or the overall level of government spending because security must be maintained in correctional institu tions at all times. Even when corrections budgets are cut, correction officers are rarely laid off. Earnings According to a survey by Contact Center, Inc., correction officers at the State level had average earnings of about $21,000 a year in 1988. Starting pay averaged $17,900 and ranged from $11,600 in West Virginia to $35,000 in Alaska. Average earnings for experienced workers ranged from $13,800 in Arkansas to $40,000 in Alaska. Salaries generally were comparable for correction officers working in jails and other county and municipal correctional institutions. At the Federal level, the starting salary was $15,700 a year in 1989; correction sergeants and other supervisory officers could advance to salaries of $35,000 to $40,000. The average salary for all Federal correction officers and correction sergeants was about $21,600 in 1988. Correction officers usually are provided uniforms or an allowance to purchase their own. Most are provided or can participate in hospital ization or major medical insurance plans; many officers can get disabil ity and life insurance at group rates. They also receive vacation and sick leave and pension benefits. Officers employed by the Federal Government and most State governments are covered by civil service systems or merit boards. Related Occupations A number of related careers are open to high school graduates who are interested in the protective services and the field of security. Bailiffs https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis guard offenders and maintain order in courtrooms during proceedings. Bodyguards escort people and protect them from injury or invasion of privacy. House or store detectives patrol business establishments to protect against theft and vandalism and to enforce standards of good behavior. Security guards protect government, commercial, and indus trial property against theft, vandalism, illegal entry, and fire. Police officers and deputy sheriffs maintain law and order, prevent crime, and arrest offenders. Other corrections careers are open to persons interested in working with offenders. Probation and parole officers counsel offenders, pro cess their release from correctional institutions, and evaluate their progress in becoming productive members of society. Recreation lead ers organize and instruct offenders in sports, games, arts, and crafts. Some of these related occupations are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Sources of Additional Information Information about entrance requirements, training, and career opportu nities for correction officers may be obtained from the Federal Office of Personnel Management, State civil service commissions, State departments of correction, or nearby correctional institutions and facil ities. Information on corrections careers, as well as information about schools that offer criminal justice education, financial assistance, and job listings, is available from: •-Contact, Inc., P.O. Box 81826, Lincoln, NE 68501. Additional information on careers in corrections is available from: •-The American Correctional Association, 8025 Laurel Lakes Court, Laurel, MD 20707. Firefighting Occupations (D.O.T. 373 except .117; 379.687-010; 452.134, .364-014, .687-014) Nature of the Work Every year, fires take thousands of lives and destroy property worth billions of dollars. Firefighters help protect the public against this danger. This statement gives information only about career firefighters; it does not cover volunteer firefighters, who make up the overwhelming majority of all firefighters in the Nation. During duty hours, firefighters must be prepared to respond to a fire and handle any emergency that arises. Because firefighting is danger ous and complicated, it requires organization and teamwork. At every fire, firefighters perform specific duties assigned by an officer such as a lieutenant, captain, or chief. They may connect hose lines to hydrants, operate a pump, or position ladders. Their duties may change several times while the company is in action. They may rescue victims and administer emergency medical aid, ventilate smoke-filled areas, oper ate equipment, and salvage, the contents of buildings. The job of firefighter has become more complex in recent years due to the use of increasingly sophisticated equipment. In addition, many firefighters have assumed additional responsibilities—for example, working with ambulance services that provide emergency medical treatment, assisting in the recovery from natural disasters such as earthquakes and tornadoes, and becoming involved with the control and cleanup of oil spills and other hazardous chemical incidents. Most fire departments also are responsible for fire prevention. They provide specially trained personnel to inspect public buildings for conditions that might cause a fire. They may check building plans, the number and working condition of fire escapes and fire doors, the storage of flammable materials, and other possible hazards. In addi tion, firefighters educate the public about fire prevention and safety measures. They frequently speak on this subject before school assem blies and civic groups. Service Occupations Between alarms, they have classroom training, clean and maintain equipment, conduct practice drills and fire inspections, and participate in physical fitness activities. Firefighters also prepare written reports on fire incidents and review fire science literature to keep abreast of technological developments and administrative practices and policies. Working Conditions Firefighters spend much of their time at fire stations, which usually have facilities for dining and sleeping. When an alarm comes in, firefighters must respond rapidly, regardless of the weather or hour. They may spend long periods at fires, hazardous chemical incidents, and other emergencies on their feet and outdoors, sometimes in adverse weather. Firefighting is one of the most hazardous occupations. It involves risk of death or injury from sudden cave-ins of floors or toppling walls and from exposure to flames and smoke. Firefighters also may come in contact with poisonous, flammable, and explosive gases and chem icals. Work hours of firefighters are longer and vary more widely than hours of most other workers. The majority of firefighters work over 50 hours a week; during some weeks, they may work significantly longer hours. In some cities, firefighters are on duty for 24 hours, then off for 48 hours, and receive an extra day off at intervals. In other cities, they work a day shift of 10 hours for 3 or 4 days, a night shift of 14 hours for 3 or 4 nights, have 3 or 4 days off, and then repeat the cycle. In addition, firefighters often work extra hours at fires and other emergencies. Fire lieutenants and fire captains often work the same IFIRE DEPT., ■'lllgfc Firefighters risk injury from floor cave-ins, toppling walls, and exposure to smoke and flames. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 287 hours as the firefighters they supervise. Duty hours may include some time when firefighters are free to read and study. Employment Firefighters held about 291,000 jobs in 1988. More than 9 out of 10 worked in municipal fire departments. Some very large cities have several thousand firefighters, while many small towns have only a few. Some firefighters work in fire departments on Federal and State installations, including airports. Private firefighting companies employ a small number. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Applicants for municipal firefighting jobs may have to pass a written test; tests of strength, physical stamina, coordination, and agility; and a medical examination—including a test that screens for drug use. These examinations are open to persons who are at least 18 years of age and have a high school education or the equivalent. Those who receive the highest scores have the best chances for appointment. Extra credit usually is given for military service and education. Experience as a volunteer firefighter or in the Armed Forces and completion of community college courses in fire science will improve an applicant’s chances for appointment. In fact, in recent years, an increasing propor tion of entrants to this occupation have some postsecondary education. As a rule, beginners in large fire departments are trained for several weeks at the department’s training center. Through classroom instruc tion and practical training, the recruits study firefighting techniques, fire prevention, hazardous materials, local building codes, and emer gency medical procedures; also, they learn how to use axes, saws, chemical extinguishers, ladders, and other firefighting and rescue equipment. After completing this training, they are assigned to a fire company, where they are evaluated during a probationary period. A small but growing number of fire departments have accredited apprenticeship programs lasting 3 to 4 years. These programs combine formal, technical instruction with on-the-job training under the super vision of experienced firefighters. Technical instruction covers subjects such as firefighting techniques and equipment, chemical hazards asso ciated with various combustible building materials, emergency medi cal procedures, and fire prevention and safety. Most experienced firefighters continue to study to improve their job performance and prepare for promotion examinations. Today, firefighters need more training to operate increasingly sophisticated equipment and to deal safely with the greater hazards associated with fighting fires in larger, more elaborate structures. To progress to higher level positions, firefighters must acquire expertise in the most advanced firefighting equipment and techniques and in building construction, emergency medical procedures, writing, public speaking, management and budgeting procedures, and labor relations. Fire departments fre quently conduct training programs, and some firefighters attend train ing sessions sponsored by the National Fire Academy on a variety of topics such as executive development, anti-arson techniques, and pub lic fire safety and education. Most States also have extensive firefighter training programs. Many colleges and universities offer courses such as fire engineering and fire science that are helpful to firefighters, and fire departments often offer firefighters incentives such as tuition reimbursement or higher pay to pursue advanced training. Many fire captains and other supervisory personnel have college training. Among the personal qualities firefighters need are mental alertness, courage, mechanical aptitude, endurance, and a sense of public ser vice. Initiative and good judgment are extremely important because firefighters often must make quick decisions in emergencies. Because members of a crew eat, sleep, and work closely together under condi tions of stress and danger, they should be dependable and able to get along well with others in a group. Leadership qualities are assets for officers, who must establish and maintain discipline and efficiency as well as direct the activities of firefighters in their companies. Opportunities for promotion are good in most fire departments. As firefighters gain experience, they may advance to a higher rank. After 3 to 5 years of service, they may become eligible for promotion to the 288 Occupational Outlook Handbook grade of lieutenant. The line of further promotion usually is to captain, then battalion chief, assistant chief, deputy chief, and finally to chief. Advancement generally depends upon scores on a written examination, performance on the job, and seniority. Increasingly, fire departments are using assessment centers—which simulate a variety of actual job performance tasks—to screen for the best candidates for promotion. However, many fire departments require a master’s degree—prefera bly in public administration or a related field—for promotion to posi tions higher than battalion chief. Job Outlook Firelighters are expected to face considerable competition for available job openings. Firefighting attracts many people because a high school education is sufficient, earnings are relatively high, a pension is guar anteed upon retirement, and promotion is possible to progressively more responsible positions on the basis of merit. In addition, the work is frequently exciting and challenging and affords an opportunity to perform a valuable public service. Consequently, the number of quali fied applicants in most areas generally exceeds the number of job openings, even though the written examination and physical require ments eliminate many applicants. This situation is expected to persist through the year 2000. Employment of firefighters is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Despite the increase in the Nation’s population and fire protection needs, slow growth in local government spending should limit growth of firefighter jobs. Although employment should rise as new fire departments are formed and as others enlarge their fire prevention sections, little growth is expected in large, urban fire departments. Much of the expected increase will occur in smaller communities with expanding populations that augment volunteers with career firefighters to better meet growing, increasingly complex fire protection needs. A small number of local governments are expected to contract for firefighting services with private companies. Turnover of firefighter jobs is unusually low, particularly for an occupation that requires a relatively limited investment in formal education. Nevertheless, most job openings are expected to result from the need to replace those who retire or stop working for other reasons, or who transfer to other occupations. Layoffs of firefighters are not common. Fire protection is an essential service, and citizens are likely to exert considerable pressure on city officials to expand or at least preserve the level of fire-protection coverage. Even when budget cuts do occur, local fire departments usually cut expenses by postponing equipment purchases or hiring new firefighters, rather than by laying off staff. Earnings According to a 1988 survey by the International City Management Association, entrance salaries for beginning full-time firefighters aver aged about $19,700 a year. Nonsupervisory firefighters had an average salary of about $25,000 a year, but their earnings varied considerably depending on city size and region of the country. Average earnings ranged from $23,200 in the smallest cities to $31,400 in the largest cities, and from $21,500 in the South to $29,300 in the West. Fire lieutenants and fire captains may earn considerably more. The law requires that overtime be paid to those firefighters who average 53 or more hours a week during their work period—which ranges from 7 to 28 days. Firefighters receive a range of fringe benefits that usually includes medical and liability insurance, vacation and sick leave, and some paid holidays. Practically all fire departments provide protective clothing (helmets, boots, and coats) and breathing apparatus and many also provide dress uniforms. Firefighters generally are covered by liberal pension plans that often provide retirement at half pay at age 50 after 25 years of service or at any age if disabled in the line of duty. The majority of career firefighters are members of the International Association of Fire Fighters (AFL-CIO). https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations Firefighters work to prevent fires and to save lives and property when fires and other emergencies such as explosions and chemical spills do occur. Related fire protection occupations include wild-land firefight ers and fire-protection engineers, who identify fire hazards in homes and workplaces and design prevention programs and automatic fire detection and extinguishing systems. Other occupations in which workers respond to emergencies include police officers and emergency medical technicians. Sources of Additional Information Information on obtaining a job as a firefighter is available from local civil service offices or fire departments. Information about a career as a firefighter may be obtained from: (•-International Association of Fire Chiefs, 1329 18th St. NW., Washington DC 20036. (•-International Association of Fire Fighters, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006. Information about firefighter professional qualifications may be ob tained from: (•-National Fire Protection Association, Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02269. Additional information on the salaries and hours of work of fire fighters in various cities is published annually by the International City Management Association in its Municipal Yearbook, which is available in many libraries. Guards (D.O.T. 372.563, .567-010, .667-010, -014. and -030 through -038; 376.667 010; and 379.667-010) Nature of the Work Guards, also called security officers, patrol and inspect property to protect against fire, theft, vandalism, and illegal entry. Their duties vary with the size, type, and location of their employer. In office buildings, banks, hospitals, and department stores, guards protect records, merchandise, money, and equipment. In department stores, they often work with undercover detectives to watch for theft by customers or store employees. At ports, airports, and railroads, guards protect merchandise being shipped as well as property and equipment. They screen passengers and visitors for weapons, explosives, and other forbidden articles. They insure that nothing is stolen while being loaded or unloaded, and watch for fires, prowlers, and trouble among work crews. Sometimes they direct traffic. Guards who work in public buildings, such as museums or art galleries, protect paintings and exhibits. They also answer routine questions from visitors and sometimes guide traffic. In factories, laboratories, government buildings, data processing centers, and military bases where valuable property or information— such as information on new products, computer codes, or defense secrets—must be protected, guards check the credentials of persons and vehicles entering and leaving the premises. University, park, or recreation guards perform similar duties and also may issue parking permits and direct traffic. Golf course patrollers prevent unauthorized persons from using the facility and help keep play running smoothly. At social affairs, sports events, conventions, and other public gather ings, guards maintain order, give information, and watch for persons who may cause trouble. Some guards work as bouncers and patrol places of entertainment such as nightclubs to preserve order among customers and protect property. Armored car guards protect money and valuables during transit. Bodyguards protect individuals from bodily injury, kidnapping, or invasion of privacy. In a large organization, a security officer often is in charge of the guard force; in a small organization, a single worker may be responsi Service Occupations ble for security. Patrolling usually is done on foot, but if the property is large, guards may make their rounds by car or motor scooter. As more businesses purchase advanced electronic security systems to protect their property, more guards are being assigned to stations where they monitor these systems. In many cases, these guards maintain radio contact with other guards patrolling on foot or in motor vehicles. Some guards use computers to store information on matters relevant to security—for example, visitors or suspicious occurrences—during their hours on duty. As they make their rounds, guards check all doors and windows, see that no unauthorized persons remain after working hours, and insure that fire extinguishers, alarms, sprinkler systems, furnaces, and various electrical and plumbing systems are working properly. They sometimes set thermostats or turn on lights for janitorial workers. Guards usually are uniformed and may carry a nightstick and gun, although the use of guns is decreasing. They also may carry a flashlight, whistle, two-way radio, and a watch clock—a device that indicates the time at which they reach various checkpoints. Correction officers—guards who work in prisons and other correc tional institutions—are discussed separately in this section of the Handbook. Working Conditions Guards work indoors and outdoors patrolling buildings, industrial plants, and grounds. Indoors, they may be stationed at a guard desk to monitor electronic security and surveillance devices or check the credentials of persons entering or leaving the premises. They also may be stationed at gate shelters or may patrol grounds in all weather. Since guards often work alone, no one may be nearby to help if an accident or injury occurs. Some large firms, therefore, use a reporting service that enables guards to be in constant contact with a central station outside the plant. If they fail to transmit an expected signal, the central station investigates. Guard work is usually routine, but guards must be constantly alert for threats to themselves and to the property that they are protecting. Guards who work during the day may have a great deal of contact with other employees and members of the public. Many guards work alone at night; the usual shift lasts 8 hours. Some employers have three shifts, and guards rotate to divide daytime, /SHOW mtificatiqn Guards use two-way radios to inform the security office of problems. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 289 weekend, and holiday work equally. Guards usually eat on the job instead of taking a regular break. Employment Guards held about 795,000 jobs in 1988. Industrial security firms and guard agencies employed over one-half of all guards. These organiza tions provide security services on contract, assigning their guards to buildings and other sites as needed. The others were in-house guards, employed in large numbers by banks; building management compa nies; hotels; hospitals; retail stores; restaurants and bars; schools, colleges, and universities; and Federal, State, and local governments. Although guard jobs are found throughout the country, most are located in metropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer guards who are high school graduates. Appli cants with less than a high school education also can qualify if they pass reading and writing tests and demonstrate competence in follow ing written and oral instructions. Some jobs require a driver’s permit. Employers also seek people who have had experience in the military police or in State and local police departments. Most persons who enter guard jobs have prior work experience, although it is usually unrelated. Because of limited formal training requirements and flexible hours, this occupation attracts some persons seeking a second job. For some entrants, retired from military careers or other protective services, guard employment is a second career. Applicants are expected to have good character references, no pol ice record, good health—especially in hearing and vision—and good personal habits such as neatness and dependability. They should be mentally alert and emotionally stable. Guards must be physically fit to cope with emergencies. Some employers require applicants to take a polygraph examination or a written test of honesty, attitudes, and other personal qualities. Some employers require applicants and expe rienced workers to submit to drug screening tests as a condition of employment. Virtually all States and the District of Columbia have licensing or registration requirements for guards who work for contract security agencies. Registration generally requires that employment of an indi vidual as a guard be reported to the licensing authorities—the State police department or other State licensing commission. To be granted a license as a guard, individuals generally must be 18 years old, have no convictions for perjury or acts of violence, pass a background examination, and complete classroom training in such subjects as property rights, emergency procedures, and seizure of suspected crimi nals. In 1988, only about five States and the District of Columbia had licensing requirements for in-house guards. Candidates for guard jobs in the Federal Government must have some experience as a guard and pass a written examination. Armed Forces experience also is an asset. For most Federal guard positions, applicants must qualify in the use of firearms. The amount of training guards receive varies. Training requirements generally are increasing as modern, highly sophisticated security sys tems become more commonplace. Many employers give newly hired guards instruction before they start the job and also provide several weeks of on-the-job training. Guards receive training in protection, public relations, report writing, crisis deterrence, first aid, drug con trol, and specialized training relevant to their particular assignment. Guards employed at establishments that place a heavy emphasis on security usually receive extensive formal training. For example, guards at nuclear power plants may undergo several months of training before being placed on duty under close supervision. Guards may be taught to use firearms, administer first aid, operate alarm systems and electronic security equipment, and spot and deal with security problems. Guards who are authorized to carry firearms may be periodically tested in their use according to State or local laws. Some guards are periodically tested for strength and endurance. Although guards in small companies receive periodic salary in creases, advancement is likely to be limited. However, most large organizations use a military type of ranking that offers advancement 290 Occupational Outlook Handbook in position and salary. Guard experience enables some persons to transfer to police jobs that offer higher pay and greater opportunities for advancement. Guards with some college education may advance to jobs that involve administrative duties or the prevention of espionage and sabotage. A few guards with management skills open their own contract security guard agencies. Related Occupations Guards protect property, maintain security, and enforce regulations for entry and conduct in the establishments at which they work. Related security and protective service occupations include: Bailiffs, border guards, correction officers, deputy sheriffs, fish and game wardens, house or store detectives, police officers, and private investigators. Job Outlook Job openings for persons seeking work as guards are expected to be plentiful through the year 2000. High turnover in this large occupation ranks it among those providing the greatest number of job openings in the entire economy. Many opportunities are expected for persons seeking full-time employment, as well as for those seeking part-time or second jobs at night or on weekends. However, some competition is expected for in-house guard positions. Compared to contract security guards, in-house guards enjoy higher earnings and benefits, greater job security, and more advancement potential, and arc usually given more training and responsibility. Employment of guards is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Increased concern about crime, vandalism, and terrorism will heighten the need for security in and around plants, stores, offices, and recreation areas. The level of business investment in increasingly expensive plant and equipment is expected to rise, resulting in growth in the number of guard jobs. Demand for guards will also grow as private security firms increasingly perform duties—such as monitoring crowds at airports and providing security in courts—formerly handled by government police officers and marshals. (Police, detectives, and special agents are discussed separately in this section of the Handbook.) Because engaging the services of a security guard firm is easier and less costly than assuming direct responsibility for hiring, training, and managing a security guard force, job growth is expected to be concentrated among contract security guard agencies. Guards employed by industrial security and guard agencies occa sionally are laid off when the firm at which they work does not renew its contract with their agency. Most are able to find employment with other agencies, however. Guards employed directly by the firm at which they work are seldom laid off because a plant or factory must still be protected even when economic conditions force it to close temporarily. Sources of Additional Information Further information about work opportunities for guards is available from local employers and the nearest State employment service office. Information about registration and licensing requirements for guards may be obtained from the State licensing commission or the State police department. In States where local jurisdictions establish licens ing requirements, contact a local government authority such as the sheriff, county executive, or city manager. Information about Federal Government contract guard job require ments is presented in the Contract Guard Information Manual, GPO Publication No. 022-00-00192-2, which may be purchased from the U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402. Earnings Guards working in 23 urban areas averaged an estimated $5.71 an hour in 1988. Those working in the Midwestern States earned more than the average, while guards employed in the South earned somewhat less. Hourly wages of guards were estimated to average $11.28 in public utilities and transportation; $10.31 in manufacturing; $8.14 in wholesale trade; $7.82 in banking, finance, insurance, and real estate; $6.43 in retail trade; and $5.04 in the various service industries, including security and guard agencies. Guards with specialized training or some supervisory responsibilities averaged $8.47 an hour, while those with less training and responsibility averaged $5.77 an hour. Guards employed by industrial security and guard agencies generally started at or slightly above the minimum wage. In establishments covered by Federal law, workers beginning at the minimum wage earn $3.80 an hour, rising to $4.25 an hour on April 1, 1991. However, employers can pay workers under age 20 a lower training wage for up to 6 months. Unionized in-house guards tend to earn more than the average. Many guards are represented by the United Plant Guard Workers Of America. Other guards belong to the International Union of Guards or the International Union Of Security Officers. Depending on their experience, newly hired guards in the Federal Government earned between $12,500 and $14,100 a year in 1989. Guards employed by the Federal Government averaged about $16,300 a year in 1988. These workers usually receive overtime pay as well as a wage differential for the second and third shifts. Many guards have paid vacations, sick leave, health and life insurance, and pension plans. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Police, Detectives, and Special Agents (D.O.T. 168.167-010: 372.137, .167-018, .363, .367-010; 375.133 through .137-018, .137-026 through . 167-014, -022, -030 through -046, .263 through .363, .384; and 377.264) Nature of the Work The safety of our Nation’s cities, towns, and highways greatly depends on the work of police, detectives, and special agents, whose responsi bilities range from controlling traffic to preventing and investigating crimes. In most jurisdictions, whether on or off duty, these officers are expected to exercise their authority whenever necessary. As civilian police department employees and private security per sonnel increasingly assume routine police duties, police and detectives are able to spend more time fighting serious crime. Police and detec tives are also becoming more involved in public relations—increasing public confidence in the police and instructing the public in the best ways to help the police fight crime. Police and detectives who work in small communities and rural areas have many duties. In the course of a day’s work, they may direct traffic at the scene of a fire, investigate a burglary, and give first aid to an accident victim. In a large police department, by contrast, officers usually arc assigned to a specific type of duty. Most officers are detailed either to patrol or to traffic duty; smaller numbers are assigned to special work such as accident prevention. Others are experts in chemical and microscopic analysis, firearms identification, and hand writing and fingerprint identification. In very large cities, a few officers may work with special units such as mounted and motorcycle police, harbor patrols, helicopter patrols, canine corps, mobile rescue teams, and youth aid services. Detectives and special agents are plainclothes investigators who gather facts and collect evidence for criminal cases. They conduct interviews, examine records, observe the activities of suspects, and participate in raids or arrests. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) special agents investigate violations of Federal laws in connection with bank robberies, theft of Government property, organized crime, espionage, sabotage, kidnap ping, and terrorism. Agents with specialized training usually work on cases related to their background. For example, agents with an accounting background may investigate white-collar crimes such as bank embezzlements or fraudulent bankruptcies and land deals. Fre quently, agents must testify in court about cases that they investigate. Special agents employed by the U.S. Department of Treasury work for the U.S. Customs Service; the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms; the U.S. Secret Service; and the Internal Revenue Service. Customs agents enforce laws preventing the illegal smuggling of goods Service Occupations 291 regular intervals, officers report to police headquarters from call boxes, radios, or telephones. Police, detectives, and special agents also write reports and maintain police records. They may testify in court when their arrests result in legal action. Some officers, such as division or bureau chiefs, are responsible for training or certain kinds of criminal investigations, and those who command police operations in an assigned area have administrative and supervisory duties. * } - Police officers proceed with caution in arresting criminals. across U.S. borders. Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms agents might investigate suspected illegal sales of guns or the underpayment of taxes by a liquor or cigarette manufacturer. U.S. Secret Service agents protect the President, Vice President, and their immediate families, Presidential candidates, ex-Presidents, and foreign dignitaries visiting the United States. Secret Service agents also investigate counterfeiting, the forgery of Government checks or bonds, and the fraudulent use of credit cards. Internal Revenue Service special agents collect evidence against individuals and companies that are evading the payment of Federal taxes. State police officers (sometimes called State troopers or highway patrol officers) patrol highways and enforce laws and regulations that govern their use. They issue traffic citations to motorists who violate the law. At the scene of an accident, they direct traffic, give first aid, and call for emergency equipment including ambu lances. They also write reports which may be used to determine the cause of the accident. In addition, State police officers provide services to motorists on the highways. For example, they radio for road service for drivers with mechanical trouble, direct tourists to their destination, or give information about lodging, restaurants, and tourist attractions. State police officers also provide traffic assistance and control during road repairs, fires, and other emergencies, as well as during special occurrences such as parades and sports events. They sometimes check the weight of commercial vehicles, conduct driver examinations, and give information on highway safety to the public. In addition to highway responsibilities, State police in the majority of States also enforce criminal laws. In communities and counties that do not have a local police force or a large sheriffs department, the State police are the primary law enforcement agency, investigating crimes such as burglary or assault. They also may help city or county police catch lawbreakers and control civil disturbances. Most new police recruits begin on patrol duty, riding in a police vehicle or walking on “foot” patrol. They work alone or with senior officers in such varied areas as congested business districts or outlying residential neighborhoods. Officers attempt to become thoroughly fa miliar with conditions throughout their area and, while on patrol, remain alert for anything unusual. They note suspicious circumstances, such as open windows or lights in vacant buildings, as well as hazards to public safety such as burned-out street lights or fallen trees. Officers enforce traffic regulations and also watch for stolen automobiles. At https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Conditions Police, detectives, and special agents usually work 40 hours a week. Because police protection must be provided around the clock in all but the smallest communities, some officers work weekends, holidays, and nights. Police officers and special agents are subject to call any time their services are needed and may work overtime, particularly during criminal investigations. The jobs of some special agents such as U.S. Secret Service agents require extensive travel. Police, detectives, and special agents may have to work outdoors for long periods in all kinds of weather. The injury rate among police, detectives, and special agents is higher than in many occupations and reflects the risks taken in pursuing speeding motorists, apprehending criminals, and dealing with public disorders. Employment Police, detectives, and special agents held about 515,000 jobs in 1988. Most were employed by local governments, primarily in cities with more than 25,000 inhabitants. Some cities have very large police forces, while hundreds of small communities employ fewer than 25 officers each. State police agencies employed about 10 percent of all police, detectives, and special agents; various Federal agencies, particularly the Treasury Department and the Federal Bureau of Inves tigation, employed an additional 5 percent. There are about 17,000 State and local police departments in the Nation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Civil service regulations govern the appointment of police and detec tives in practically all States and large cities and in many small ones. Candidates must be U.S. citizens, usually at least 21 years of age, and must meet rigorous physical and personal qualifications. Eligibility for appointment depends on performance in competitive written examina tions as well as on education and experience. Physical examinations often include tests of vision, strength, and agility. Because personal characteristics such as honesty, good judgment, and a sense of responsibility are especially important in police and detective work, candidates are interviewed by a senior officer at police headquarters, and their character traits and background are investi gated. In some police departments, candidates also may be interviewed by a psychiatrist or a psychologist, or be given a personality test. Most applicants are subjected to lie detector examinations and drug testing. Some police departments subject police officers in sensitive positions to drug testing as a condition of continuing employment. Although police and detectives often work independently, they must perform their duties in accordance with laws and departmental rules. They should enjoy working with people and serving the public. In large police departments, where most jobs are found, applicants usually must have a high school education. An increasing number of cities and States require some college training, and some hire law enforcement students as police interns; some departments require a college degree. A few police departments accept applicants who have less than a high school education as recruits, particularly if they have worked in a field related to law enforcement. To be considered for appointment as an FBI special agent, an applicant must be a graduate of an accredited law school; be a college graduate with a major in either accounting, engineering, or computer science; or be fluent in a foreign language. College graduates who do not have specialized degrees must also have at least 3 years of full time work experience. Applicants must be U.S. citizens, between 23 and 35 years of age, and willing to accept an assignment anywhere in 292 Occupational Outlook Handbook the United States. They also must be in excellent physical condition with at least 20/200 vision corrected to 20/40 in one eye and 20/20 in the other eye. All new agents undergo 15 weeks of training at the FBI academy at the U.S. Marine Corps base in Quantico, Virginia. Applicants for special agent jobs with the U.S. Department of Treasury must have a bachelor’s degree, or a minimum of 3 years’ work experience of which at least 2 are in criminal investigation, or a comparable combination of experience and education. Candidates must be in excellent physical condition and be less than 35 years of age at the time of entrance on duty. Treasury agents undergo 8 weeks of training at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center in Glenco, Georgia, and another 8 weeks of specialized training with their particu lar bureau. More and more, police departments are encouraging applicants to take post-high school training in law enforcement. Many entrants to police and detective jobs have completed some formal postsecondary education; a significant number are college graduates. Many junior colleges, colleges, and universities offer programs in law enforcement or administration of justice. Other courses helpful in preparing for a police career include psychology, counseling, English, American history, public administration, public relations, sociology, business law, chemistry, physics, and driver education. Physical education and sports are especially helpful in developing the stamina and agility needed for police work. Knowledge of a foreign language is an asset in areas that have concentrations of ethnic populations. Some large cities hire high school graduates who are still in their teens as civilian police cadets or trainees. They do clerical work and attend classes and are appointed to the regular force at age 21 if qualified. Before their first assignments, officers usually go through a period of training. In small communities, recruits work for a short time with experienced officers. In State and large city police departments, they get more formal training that may last a number of weeks or months. This training includes classroom instruction in constitutional law and civil rights, State laws and local ordinances, and accident investiga tion. Recruits also receive training and supervised experience in patrol, traffic control, use of firearms, self-defense, first aid, and handling emergencies. Police officers usually become eligible for promotion after a proba tionary period ranging from 6 months to 3 years. In a large department, promotion may allow an officer to become a detective or specialize in one type of police work such as laboratory analysis of evidence, traffic control, communications, or working with juveniles. Promotions to sergeant, lieutenant, and captain usually are made according to a candidate’s position on a promotion list, as determined by scores on a written examination and on-the-job performance. Many types of training help police officers and detectives improve their job performance and advancement. Through training given at police department academies—required annually in many States— and colleges, officers keep abreast of crowd-control techniques, civil defense, legal developments that affect their work, and advances in law enforcement equipment. Many police departments pay all or part of the tuition for officers to work toward college associate and bache lor’s degrees in law enforcement, police science, administration of justice, or public administration, and pay higher salaries to those who earn a degree. Job Outlook Employment of police officers, detectives, and special agents is ex pected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to the increase in the Nation’s population and police protection needs. A more security-conscious society and growing concern about drug-related crimes should contribute to the increasing demand for police services. However, employment growth may be tempered somewhat by continuing budgetary constraints— resulting in the increased use of lower paid civilian police department employees in parking enforcement and various clerical, administrative, and technical support positions. In addition, private security firms may increasingly assume some routine police duties such as crowd https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis surveillance at airports and other public places. Although turnover of police, detective, and special agent jobs is among the lowest of all occupations, the need to replace workers who retire, transfer to other occupations, or stop working for other reasons will be the source of most job openings. The opportunity for public service through police work is attractive to many. The job frequently is challenging and involves much responsi bility. Furthermore, in some communities, police officers may retire with a pension to pursue a second career before age 50. Because of attractive salaries and benefits, the number of qualified candidates generally exceeds the number of job openings in many Federal agencies and some State and local police departments—resulting in increased hiring standards and selectivity by employers. Competition is expected to remain keen for higher paying jobs in larger police departments. Persons having college training in law enforcement should have the best opportunities. Opportunities will be best in those communities whose departments are expanding and are having difficulty attracting an adequate supply of police officers. Competition is expected to be extremely keen for special agent positions with the FBI and U.S. Treasury Department as these prestigious jobs tend to attract a far greater number of applicants than the number of job openings. Conse quently, only the most highly qualified candidates obtain jobs. The level of government spending influences the employment of police officers, detectives, and special agents. The number of job opportunities, therefore, can vary from year to year and from place to place. Layoffs, on the other hand, are rare because early retirements enable most staffing cuts to be handled through attrition. However, police officers who lose their jobs from budget cuts usually have little difficulty finding jobs with other police departments. Earnings According to a 1988 survey by the International City Management Association, police officers started at an average of $20,600 a year and could reach an average maximum of $26,700 a year after about 6 years of service. Some officers with longer service may be eligible to receive additional “longevity pay” averaging about $ 1,500 a year. Earnings vary by region and the size of the police department. Larger departments generally pay higher salaries. Police officers and detec tives who work in the West earn somewhat higher salaries, while those employed in the South earn somewhat less. According to a 1987 survey by the Bureau of Justice Statistics, police and detective sergeants earned salaries ranging from $17,500 in smaller jurisdictions of less than 2,500 people to $35,300 in larger juisdictions of over 1 million people. Salaries for police chiefs ranged from about $19,000 in smaller jurisdictions to $87,000 in larger juris dictions. The law requires that overtime be paid to those police officers and detectives who average 43 or more hours a week during their work period—which ranges from 7 to 28 days. Earnings vary by region and the size of the department. In 1989, starting FBI agents earned about $26,300 a year, and starting U.S. Treasury Department agents earned about $15,700 or $19,500 a year. Salaries of experienced FBI agents started at around $41,100, while supervisory agents started at around $48,600 a year. Salaries of experienced U.S. Treasury Department agents started at $34,600, while supervisory agents started at $41,100. Police departments usually provide officers with special allowances for uniforms and furnish revolvers, nightsticks, handcuffs, and other required equipment. Paid vacation and sick leave and medical and life insurance are common fringe benefits. In addition, because police officers generally are covered by liberal pension plans, many retire at half-pay after 20 or 25 years of service. Related Occupations Police officers maintain law and order in the Nation’s cities, towns, and rural areas. Workers in related law enforcement occupations include guards, bailiffs, correction officers, deputy sheriffs, fire marshals, fish and game wardens, and U.S. marshals. Service Occupations Sources of Additional Information Information about entrance requirements may be obtained from Fed eral, State, and local civil service commissions or police departments. Additional information on the salaries and hours of work of police and detectives in various cities is published annually by the Interna tional City Management Association in its Municipal Yearbook, which is available in many libraries. Pamphlets providing general information about jobs as special agents with the U.S. Department of Treasury and instructions for submitting an application are available from any U.S. Office of Person https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 293 nel Management Job Information Center. Look under U.S. Govern ment, Office of Personnel Management, in your telephone book to obtain a local Job Information Center telephone number. If there is no listing in your telephone book, dial the toll-free number 800-555-1212 and request the number of the Office of Personnel Management Job Information Center for your location. For information on FBI special agents, contact: w-FBI, Applicant Recruiting Office, 1900 Half St. SW., Washington, DC 20535. Food and Beverage Preparation and Service Occupations Chefs, Cooks, and Other Kitchen Workers (D.O.T. 311.674-014; 313.281 through .687; 315.361 through .381; 316.661, .684-010 and -014; 317; 318.687; and 319.464 through .687) Nature of the Work A reputation for serving good food is essential to any restaurant, whether it prides itself on hamburgers and French fries or exotic foreign cuisine. Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers are largely responsible for the reputation a restaurant acquires. Some restaurants offer a varied menu featuring meals that are time consuming and difficult to prepare, requiring a highly skilled cook or chef. Other restaurants emphasize fast service, offering hamburgers and sand wiches that can be prepared in advance or in a few minutes by a fastfood or short-order cook with only limited cooking skills. Chefs and cooks are responsible for preparing meals that are tasty and attractively presented. Chefs are the most highly skilled, trained, and experienced kitchen workers. Although the terms chef and cook are still sometimes used interchangeably, cooks generally have more limited skills. Many chefs have earned fame for both themselves and the restaurants, hotels, and institutions where they work because of their skill in artfully preparing the traditional favorites and in creating new dishes and improving familiar ones. (For information on executive chefs, see the Handbook statement on restaurant and food service managers.) Institutional chefs and cooks work in the kitchens of schools, indus trial cafeterias, hospitals, and other institutions. For each meal, they prepare a small selection of entrees, vegetables, and desserts, but in large quantities. Restaurant chefs and cooks generally prepare a wider selection of dishes for each meal, cooking most individual servings to order. Whether in institutions or restaurants, chefs and cooks measure, mix, and cook ingredients according to recipes. In the course of their work they use a variety of pots, pans, cutlery, and equipment, including ovens, broilers, grills, slicers, grinders, and blenders. They are often responsible for directing the work of other kitchen workers, estimating food requirements, and ordering food supplies. Some chefs and cooks also help plan meals and develop menus. Bread and pastry bakers, called pastry chefs in some kitchens, produce baked goods for restaurants, institutions, and retail bakery shops. Unlike bakers who work at large, automated industrial bakeries, bread and pastry bakers need only supply the customers who visit their establishment. They bake smaller quantities of breads, rolls, pastries, pies, and cakes, doing most of the work by hand. They measure and mix ingredients, shape and bake the dough, and apply fillings and decorations. Short-order cooks prepare foods to order in restaurants and coffee shops that emphasize fast service. They grill and garnish hamburgers, prepare sandwiches, fry eggs, and cook French fried potatoes, often working on several orders at the same time. Prior to busy periods, they may slice meats and cheeses or prepare coleslaw or potato salad. During slow periods, they may clean the grill, food preparation sur faces, and counters. Specialty fast-food cooks prepare a limited selection of menu items in fast-food restaurants. They cook and package batches of food such as hamburgers and fried chicken, which are prepared to order or kept warm until sold. Other kitchen workers, under the direction of chefs and cooks, perform tasks requiring less skill. They weigh and measure ingredients, fetch pots and pans, and stir and strain soups and sauces. They clean, peel, and slice potatoes, vegetables, and fruits and make salads. They also may cut and grind meats, poultry, and seafood in preparation Digitized294 for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Before busy meal periods, chefs and cooks prepare ingredients for use. for cooking. Their responsibilities also include cleaning work areas, equipment and utensils, and dishes and silverware. The number and types of workers employed in kitchens depend partly on the type of restaurant. For example, fast-food outlets offer only a few items, which are prepared by fast-food cooks. Smaller, full-service restaurants that offer casual dining often feature a limited number of easy-to-prepare items, supplemented by short-order special ties and readymade desserts. Typically, one cook prepares all of the food with the help of a short-order cook and one or two other kitchen workers. Large eating places may have more varied menus and prepare, from start to finish, more of the food they serve. Kitchen staffs often include several chefs and cooks, sometimes called assistant or apprentice chefs or cooks, a bread and pastry baker, and many less skilled kitchen workers. Each chef or cook usually has a special assignment and often a special job title—vegetable, fry, or sauce cook, for example. Executive chefs coordinate the work of the kitchen staff and often direct certain kinds of food preparation. They decide the size of servings, sometimes plan menus, and buy food supplies. Working Conditions Many restaurant and institutional kitchens have modem equipment, convenient work areas, and air-conditioning; but others, particularly in older and smaller eating places, are frequently not as well equipped. Other variations in working conditions depend on the type and quantity of food being prepared and the local laws governing food service operations. Workers generally must withstand the pressure and strain of working in close quarters during busy periods, stand for hours at a time, lift heavy pots and kettles, and work near hot ovens and grills. Job hazards include slips and falls, cuts, and bums, but injuries are seldom serious. Work hours in restaurants may include late evening, holiday, and weekend work, while hours in cafeterias in factories, schools, or other institutions may be more regular. Kitchen workers employed by public and private schools may work during the school year only, usually for 9 or 10 months. Vacation resorts may offer only seasonal employment. Service Occupations Employment Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers held nearly 2.8 million jobs in 1988. Short-order and fast-food cooks held 630,000 of the jobs; restaurant cooks, 572,000; institutional cooks, 403,000; bread and pastry bakers, 124,000; and other kitchen workers, 1,027,000. About three-fifths of all chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers worked in restaurants and other retail eating and drinking places. One-fifth worked in institutions such as schools, universities, hospitals, and nursing homes. The remainder were employed by hotels, government and factory cafeterias, grocery stores, private clubs, and many other organizations. More than 40 percent worked part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most kitchen workers start as fast-food or short-order cooks, or in one of the other less skilled kitchen positions that require little education or training and that allow them to acquire their skills on the job. After acquiring some basic food handling, preparation, and cooking skills, they may be able to advance to an assistant cook or short-order cook position, but many years of training and experience are necessary to achieve the level of skill required of an executive chef or cook in a fine restaurant. Even though a high school diploma is not required for beginning jobs, it is recommended for those planning a career as a cook or chef. High school or vocational school courses in business arithmetic and business administration are particularly helpful. An increasing number of chefs and cooks are obtaining their training through high school or post-high school vocational programs and 2- or 4-year colleges. Chefs and cooks may also be trained in apprenticeship programs offered by professional culinary institutes, industry associa tions, and trade unions. An example is the 3-year apprenticeship program administered by local chapters of the American Culinary Federation in cooperation with local employers and junior colleges or vocational education institutions. In addition, some large hotels and restaurants operate their own training programs for cooks and chefs. Persons who have had courses in commercial food preparation may be able to start in a cook or chef job without having to spend time in a lower skilled kitchen job, and they may have an advantage when looking for jobs in better restaurants and hotels, where hiring standards often are high. Some vocational programs in high schools offer this kind of training. But usually these courses, which range from a few months to 2 years or more and are open in some cases only to high school graduates, are given by trade schools, vocational centers, col leges, professional associations, and trade unions. The Armed Forces also are a good source of training and experience. Although curricula may vary, students usually spend most of their time learning to prepare food through actual practice. They learn to bake, broil, and otherwise prepare food, and to use and care for kitchen equipment. Training programs often include courses in menu planning, determination of portion size and food cost control, purchasing food supplies in quantity, selection and storage of food, and use of leftover food to minimize waste. Students also learn hotel and restaurant sanita tion and public health rules for handling food. Training in supervisory and management skills sometimes is emphasized in courses offered by private vocational schools, professional associations, and university programs. Many school districts, in cooperation with school food services divisions of State departments of education, provide on-the-job train ing and sometimes summer workshops for cafeteria kitchen workers who wish to become cooks. Some junior colleges, State departments of education, and school associations also offer training programs. Cafeteria kitchen employees who have participated in these training programs often are selected for jobs as cooks. Certification provides valuable formal recognition of the skills of a chef or cook. The American Culinary Federation certifies chefs and cooks at the levels of cook, chef, pastry chef, executive chef, and master chef. Certification standards are based primarily on experience and formal training. The ability to work as part of a team, a keen sense of taste and smell, and personal cleanliness are important qualifications for chefs, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 295 cooks, and other kitchen workers. Most States require health certifi cates indicating that these workers are free from contagious diseases. Advancement opportunities for chefs and cooks are better than for most other food and beverage preparation and service occupations. Many acquire higher paying positions and new cooking skills by moving from one job to another. Others gradually advance to executive chef positions or supervisory or management positions, particularly in hotels, clubs, or larger, more elegant restaurants. Some eventually go into business as caterers or restaurant owners; others may become instructors in vocational programs in high schools, junior and commu nity colleges, and other academic institutions. Job Outlook Job openings for chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers are expected to be plentiful through the year 2000. Growth in demand for these workers will create many job openings, but most openings will arise from the need to replace the relatively high proportion of workers who leave this very large occupation each year. There is substantial turnover in many of these jobs because their limited requirements for formal education and training allow easy entry, and the many part-time posi tions arc attractive to persons seeking a short-term source of income rather than a career. Many of the workers who leave these jobs transfer to other occupations, while others stop working to assume household responsibilities or to attend school full time. Workers under the age of 25 have traditionally filled a significant proportion of the lesser skilled jobs in this occupation. The pool of young workers is expected to shrink through the year 2000, however, forcing many employers to offer higher wages, better fringe benefits, and more training to attract and retain workers. Employment of chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Since a significant proportion of food and beverage sales by eating and drinking establishments is associated with the overall level of economic activity—workers’ lunches and entertainment of clients, for example—sales and employment will increase with the growth of the economy. Other factors contributing to employment growth will be population growth, rising family and personal incomes, and more leisure time that will allow people to dine out and take vacations more often. Also, as more women join the work force, families increasingly may find dining out a welcome convenience. Employment in restaurants is expected to grow rapidly. As the average age of the population increases, demand will grow for restau rants that offer table service and more varied menus—which will require highly skilled cooks and chefs. The popularity of fresh baked breads and pastries in fine dining establishments should insure contin ued rapid growth in the employment of bakers. However, employment of short-order and specialty fast-food cooks is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations because most work in fast-food restaurants, which are expected to have slower growth than in the past. Employment of institutional chefs and cooks will increase about as fast as the average because their employment is concentrated in the educational sector. Employment growth in elementary and secondary school and college cafeterias is expected to be limited by the anticipated modest growth of the student population. However, growth in the number of elderly people is expected to result in a rapid increase in kitchen jobs associated with nursing homes, residential care facilities, and other health care institutions. Earnings Wages of chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers vary depending on the part of the country and, especially, the type of establishment in which they work. Wages generally are highest in elegant restaurants and hotels. According to a survey conducted by the National Restaurant Association, median hourly earnings of chefs were $9.80 in 1988, and generally ranged between $9 and $10. However, many executive chefs earned over $40,000 annually. Cooks had median hourly earnings of $5.70, with most earning between $5 and $6.75. Assistant cooks had 296 Occupational Outlook Handbook median hourly earnings of $5, with most earning between $4.50 and $5.50. According to the same survey, short-order cooks had median hourly earnings of $4.60 in 1988; most earned between $4.50 and $5.50. Median hourly earnings of bread and pastry bakers were $5.75; most earned within the range of $5.50 to $6.25. Salad preparation workers generally earned less, with median hourly earnings of $4.75; most earned between $4.25 and $5. Food preparation workers in fast-food restaurants had median hourly earnings of $3.90, with most earning between $3.50 and $4.75 per hour. Some employers provide uniforms and free meals, but Federal law permits employers to deduct from wages the cost, or fair value, of any meals or lodging provided, and some employers exercise this right. Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers who work full time often receive paid vacation and sick leave and health insurance, but part time workers generally do not receive such benefits. In some large hotels and restaurants, kitchen workers belong to unions. The principal unions are the Hotel Employees and Restaurant Employees International Union and the Service Employees Interna tional Union. Related Occupations Workers who perform tasks similar to those of chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers include butchers and meatcutters, cannery workers, and industrial bakers. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local em ployers and local offices of the State employment service. Career information about chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers, as well as a directory of 2- and 4-year colleges that offer courses or programs that prepare persons for food service careers, is available from: ••-The Educational Foundation of the National Restaurant Association, 250 South Wacker Dr., Suite 1400, Chicago, 1L 60606. For information on the American Culinary Federation’s apprentice ship and certification programs for cooks, write to: ••-American Culinary Federation, P.O. Box 3466, St. Augustine, FL 32084. For general information on hospitality careers, write to: ••-Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, 1200 17th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20036-3097. For general career information and a directory of accredited private trade and technical schools offering programs in the culinary arts, write to: •••National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, P.O. Box 10429, Department BL, Rockville, MD 20850. particular entree, explain how various items on the menu are prepared, or prepare some salads and other special dishes at tableside. Depending on the type of restaurant, waiters and waitresses may perform duties associated with other food and beverage service occupa tions in addition to waiting on tables. These tasks may include escorting guests to tables, serving customers seated at counters, setting up and clearing tables, or cashiering. However, larger or more formal restaurants frequently relieve their waiters and waitresses of these additional duties. Bartenders fill the drink orders that waiters and waitresses take from customers seated in the restaurant or lounge, as well as orders from customers seated at the bar. Because some people like their cocktails made a certain way, bartenders occasionally are asked to mix drinks to suit a customer’s taste. Most bartenders must know dozens of drink recipes and be able to mix drinks accurately, quickly, and without waste, even during the busiest periods. Besides mixing and serving drinks, bartenders collect payment, operate the cash register, clean up after customers have left, and may also serve food items to customers seated at the bar. Bartenders who work at service bars have little contact with custom ers. They work at small bars in restaurants, hotels, and clubs where drinks are served only to diners at tables. However, the majority of bartenders work in eating and drinking establishments where they also directly serve and socialize with patrons. Some establishments, especially larger ones, use automatic equip ment to mix drinks of varying complexity at the push of a button. However, bartenders still must be efficient and knowledgeable to prepare drinks not handled by the automatic equipment or mix drinks when it is not functioning. Also, equipment is no substitute for the friendly socializing most customers prefer. Bartenders usually are responsible for ordering and maintaining an inventory of liquor, mixes, and other bar supplies. They also arrange the bottles and glassware into attractive displays and often wash glass ware used at the bar. Hosts and hostesses try to evoke a good impression of the restaurant by warmly welcoming guests. They courteously direct patrons to where they may leave coats and other personal items and indicate where they may wait until their table is ready. Hosts and hostesses assign guests to tables suitable for the size of their group, escort them to their seats, and provide menus. Hosts and hostesses are restaurants’ personal representatives to patrons. They try to insure that service is prompt and courteous and the meal enjoyable; they may also adjust complaints of dissatisfied diners. Hosts and hostesses schedule dining reservations, arrange par ties, and organize any special services that are required. In some restaurants, they also act as cashier. Dining room attendants and bartender helpers assist waiters, wait resses, and bartenders by keeping the serving area stocked with sup- Food and Beverage Service Workers (D.O.T. 310.137-010 and .357; 311.472 through .674-010 and .674-018 through .677; 312; 319.474 and .687; 350.677-010, -026, -030; 352.677-018; and 355.677-010) Nature of the Work Whether they work in small, informal diners or large, elegant restau rants, all food and beverage service workers deal with customers. The quality of service they provide determines in part whether the patron is likely to return. Waiters and waitresses all take customers’ orders, serve food and beverages, prepare itemized checks, and sometimes accept pay ments—but the manner in which they perform these tasks varies considerably, depending on where they work. In coffee shops, they are expected to provide fast and efficient, yet courteous, service. In fine restaurants, where gourmet meals are accompanied by attentive formal service, waiters and waitresses serve the meal at a more lei surely pace and offer more personal service to patrons. For example, they may recommend a certain kind of wine as a complement to a https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Waiters and waitresses in fine restaurants offer attentive personal service to patrons. Service Occupations plies, cleaning tables, and removing dirty dishes to the kitchen. They replenish the supply of clean linens, dishes, silverware, and glasses in the restaurant dining room, and keep the bar stocked with glasses, liquor, ice, and drink garnishes. Bartender helpers also keep the bar equipment clean and wash glasses. Dining room attendants set tables with clean tablecloths, napkins, silverware, glasses, and dishes and serve ice water, rolls, and butter to patrons. At the conclusion of the meal, they remove dirty dishes and soiled linens from the tables and take them to the kitchen. Cafeteria attendants stock serving tables with food, trays, dishes, and silverware and may carry trays to dining tables for patrons. Counter attendants take orders and serve food at counters. In cafete rias, they serve food displayed on counters and steamtables as re quested by patrons, carve meat, dish out vegetables, ladle sauces and soups, and fill cups and glasses. In lunchrooms and coffee shops, counter attendants take orders from customers seated at the counter, transmit the orders to the kitchen, and pick up and serve the food when it is ready. They also fill cups and glasses with coffee, soda, and other beverages and prepare fountain specialties such as milkshakes and ice cream sundaes. They often prepare some short-order items, such as sandwiches and salads, and wrap or place orders in containers to be taken out and consumed elsewhere. Counter attendants also clean counters, write up itemized checks, and accept payment. Fast-food workers take orders from customers standing at counters at fast-food restaurants. They get the ordered beverage and food items, serve them to the customer, and accept payment. Many fast-food workers also cook and package French fries, make coffee, and fill beverage cups using a drink-dispensing machine. Working Conditions Food and beverage service workers are on their feet most of the time and often have to carry heavy trays of food, dishes, and glassware. During busy dining periods, they are underpressure to serve customers quickly and efficiently. The work is relatively safe, but care must be taken to avoid slips, falls, and burns. Although some food and beverage service workers work 40 hours or more a week, the majority are employed part time—a larger propor tion than in almost any other occupation. The majority of those working part-time schedules do so on a voluntary basis because the wide range in dining hours creates work opportunities attractive to homemakers, students, and others seeking supplemental income. Many food and beverage service workers are expected to work evenings, weekends, and holidays. Some work split shifts—that is, they work for several hours during the middle of the day, take a few hours off in the afternoon, and then return to their jobs for the evening hours. Employment Food and beverage service workers held nearly 4.5 million jobs in 1988. Waiters and waitresses held 1.8 million of these jobs; counter attendants and fast-food workers, over 1.6 million; dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers, 448,000; bartenders, 414,000; and hosts and hostesses, 183,000. Restaurants, coffee shops, bars, and other retail eating and drinking places employed four-fifths of all food and beverage service workers. Of the remainder, nearly half worked in hotels and other lodging places, and others in bowling alleys, casinos, and country clubs and other membership organizations. Jobs are located throughout the coun try but are most plentiful in large cities and tourist areas. Vacation resorts offer seasonal employment, and some workers alternate be tween summer and winter resorts instead of remaining in one area the entire year. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are no specific educational requirements for food and beverage service jobs. Although many employers prefer to hire high school graduates for waiter and waitress, bartender, and host and hostess positions, completion of high school is generally not required for fastfood workers, counter attendants, and dining room attendants and bartender helpers. For many persons, a job as a food and beverage https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 297 service worker serves as a source of immediate income rather than a career. Many entrants to these jobs are in their late teens or early twenties and have a high school education or less. Usually, they have little or no work experience. Many are full-time students or homemakers. Food and beverage service jobs are a major source of part-time employment for high school students. Most employers place an emphasis on personal qualities. Food and beverage service workers should be well spoken and have a neat and clean appearance because they are in close and constant contact with the public. They should enjoy dealing with all kinds of people, and a pleasant disposition and sense of humor are important. State laws often require that food and beverage service workers obtain health certificates showing that they are free of contagious diseases. Waiters and waitresses need a good memory to avoid confusing customers’ orders and to recall the faces, names, and preferences of frequent patrons. They also should be good at arithmetic if they have to total bills without the aid of a calculator or cash register. In restaurants specializing in foreign foods, knowledge of a foreign language is helpful. Experience waiting on tables is preferred by restaurants and hotels which have rigid table service standards. Jobs at these establish ments often have higher earnings, but may also have higher educational requirements than less formal establishments. Generally, bartenders must be at least 21 years of age, and employers prefer to hire persons who are 25 or older. They should be familiar with State and local laws concerning the sale of alcoholic beverages. Most food and beverage service workers pick up their skills on the job by observing and working with more experienced workers. Some employers, particularly some fast-food restaurants, use self-instruction programs to teach new employees food preparation and service skills through audiovisual presentations and instructional booklets. Some public and private vocational schools, restaurant associations, and large restaurant chains also provide classroom training in a generalized food service curriculum. Some bartenders acquire their skills by attending a bartending school or taking vocational and technical school courses that include instruc tion on State and local laws and regulations, cocktail recipes, attire and conduct, and stocking a bar. Some of these schools help their graduates find jobs. Due to the relatively small size of most food-serving establishments, opportunities for promotion are limited. After gaining some experi ence, some dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers are able to advance to waiter, waitress, or bartender jobs. For waiters, waitresses, and bartenders, advancement usually is limited to finding a job in a larger restaurant or bar where prospects for tip earnings are better. Some bartenders open their own businesses. Some hosts and hostesses and waiters and waitresses advance to supervisory jobs, such as maitre d’hotel, dining room supervisor, or restaurant manager. In larger restaurant chains, food and beverage service workers who excell at their work are often invited to enter the company’s formal manage ment training program. (For more information, see the Handbook statement on restaurant and food service managers.) Job Outlook Job openings for food and beverage service workers are expected to be plentiful through the year 2000. Most openings will arise from the need to replace the high proportion of workers who leave this very large occupation each year. There is substantial movement into and out of the occupation because the limited formal education and training requirements for these jobs allow easy entry, and the predominance of part-time jobs is attractive to persons seeking a short-term source of income rather than a career. Many of these workers simply move to other occupations; others stop working to assume household respon sibilities or to attend school. Employment of food and beverage service occupations is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Since a significant proportion of food and beverage sales by eating and drinking places is associated with the overall level of economic activity—workers’ lunches and entertainment of clients, for example—sales and employment will increase with the growth of the 298 Occupational Outlook Handbook economy. Growth in demand also will stem from population growth, rising personal incomes, and increased leisure time. Also, as more women join the work force, families may increasingly find dining out a welcome convenience. Growth of the various types of food and beverage service jobs is expected to vary greatly. As the composition of the Nation’s population becomes older, diners are expected to increasingly patronize fullservice restaurants, spurring growth in demand for waiters and wait resses and dining room attendants. Workers under the age of 25 have traditionally filled a significant proportion of food and beverage service jobs, particularly in fast-food restaurants. The pool of these young workers in the labor force is expected to shrink through the year 2000. To attract and retain workers, many employers will be forced to offer higher wages, better fringe benefits, more training, and increased opportunities for full-time em ployment. Increasing wage rates and average weekly hours should cause employment of counter attendants and fast-food workers to grow more slowly than other food and beverage service workers. Because potential earnings are greatest in popular restaurants and fine dining establishments, keen competition is expected for the limited number of jobs in these restaurants. Earnings Food and beverage service workers derive their earnings from a combi nation of hourly wages and customer tips. Their wages and the amount of tips they receive vary greatly, depending on the type of job and establishment. For example, fast-food workers and hosts and hostesses generally do not receive tips, so their wage rates may be higher than those of waiters and waitresses, who may earn more from tips than from wages. In some restaurants, waiters and waitresses contribute a portion of their tips to a tip pool, which is distributed among many of the establishment’s other food and beverage service workers and kitchen staff. Tip pools allow workers who normally do not receive tips, such as dining room attendants, to share in the rewards for a meal well served. In 1988, median hourly earnings (including tips) of full-time waiters and waitresses were $4.70. The middle 50 percent earned between $3.70 and $6.90; the top 10 percent earned at least $9.10. For most waiters and waitresses, higher eamings are primarily the result of receiving more in tips rather than higher hourly wages. Tips generally average between 10 and 20 percent of guests’ checks, so waiters and waitresses working in busy, expensive restaurants earn the most. Full-time bartenders had median hourly eamings (including tips) of $6 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned from $4.80 to $8.50; the top 10 percent earned at least $11.70. Like waiters and waitresses, bartenders employed in public bars may receive more than half of their eamings as tips. Service bartenders are often paid higher hourly wages to offset their lower tip eamings. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Median hourly earnings (including tips) of full-time dining room attendants and bartender helpers were $4.80 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $4 and $6.10; the top 10 percent earned over $8.20. Most received over half of their earnings as wages; the rest was their share of the proceeds from tip pools. Full-time counter attendants and fast-food workers had median hourly eamings (including any tips) of $4 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $3.20 and $5.20, while the highest 10 percent earned over $6.10. Although some counter attendants receive part of their earnings as tips, fast-food workers generally do not. In establishments covered by Federal law, workers beginning at the minimum wage earn $3.80 an hour, rising to $4.25 an hour on April 1, 1991. However, employers can pay workers under age 20 a lower training wage for up to 6 months. Federal law also permits employers to credit an employee’s tip eamings toward the minimum hourly wage, up to an amount equaling 45 percent of the minimum, and some employers exercise this right. Employers are also permitted to deduct from wages the cost, or fair value, of any meals or lodging provided. However, many employers provide free meals and furnish uniforms. Food and beverage service workers who work full time often receive paid vacation and sick leave and health insurance, but part-time work ers generally do not receive such benefits. In some large restaurants and hotels, food and beverage service workers belong to unions. The principal unions are the Hotel Employ ees and Restaurant Employees International Union and the Service Employees International Union. Related Occupations Other workers whose jobs involve serving customers and helping them feel at ease and enjoy themselves include flight attendants, butlers, and tour busdrivers. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local em ployers and local offices of the State employment service. General information on food and beverage service jobs is available from: w-The Educational Foundation of the National Restaurant Association, 250 South Wacker Dr., Suite 1400, Chicago, IL 60606. For general information on hospitality careers, write to: wCouncil on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, 1200 17th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20036-3097. For general career information and a directory of accredited private trade and technical schools that offer training for bartender and other food and beverage service jobs, write to: wNational Association of Trade and Technical Schools, P.O. Box 10429, Department BL, Rockville, MD 20850. Health Service Occupations Dental Assistants (D O T. 079.371-010) Nature of the Work Dental assistants work at chairside as dentists examine and treat pa tients. In some dental offices, assistants perform clerical and laboratory duties as well. The assistant makes the patient as comfortable as possible in the dental chair, prepares him or her for treatment, and obtains dental records. The assistant hands the dentist the proper instruments and materials and keeps the patient’s mouth dry and clear by using suction or other devices. Assistants sterilize and disinfect instruments and equipment; prepare tray setups for dental procedures; provide postoperative instruction; and instruct patients in oral health care. Some dental assistants prepare materials for making impressions and restorations, expose radiographs, and process dental X-ray film as directed by the dentist. Depending on the size of the dental practice and the way it is organized, dental assistants may be expected to perform a variety of clinical, office, and laboratory duties. If the practice is large, they are likely to specialize in one of these areas. Clinical duties generally predominate. State law determines which clinical tasks a dental assis tant may (or may not) perform, but in most States they remove sutures, apply anesthetic and caries-preventive agents to the teeth and oral tissue, remove excess cement used in the filling process, and place rubber dams on the teeth to isolate them for individual treatment. In small, single-dentist practices, dental assistants may manage the office in addition to their clinical responsibilities, arranging and confirming appointments, receiving patients, keeping treatment records, sending bills, receiving payments, and ordering dental supplies and materials. Those with laboratory duties may, for example, make casts of the teeth and mouth from impressions taken by the dentist. The work of the dental assistant should not be confused with that of the dental hygienist, who is licensed to perform a wider variety of clinical tasks. (See the statement on dental hygienists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Dental assistants work in a well-lighted, clean environment. Handling radiographic equipment poses dangers, but the hazards can be mini mized by proper use of lead shielding and safety procedures. Dental assistants, like dentists, work in either a standing or sitting position. Their work area is usually near the dental chair, so that they can arrange instruments, materials, and medication, and hand them to the dentist when needed. They must be a dentist’s “third hand,” and, therefore, should exhibit some manual dexterity and be able to deal with people who may be under considerable stress. Although the 40-hour workweek prevails for dental assistants, the schedule might include work on Saturday. Employment Dental assistants held about 166,000 jobs in 1988. Almost 1 out of 3 worked part time, sometimes in more than one dentist’s office. Most dental assistants work in private dental offices. Others work in dental schools, hospital dental departments, State and local public health departments, or private clinics. The Federal Government em ploys dental assistants in hospitals and dental clinics of the U.S. Public Health Service and the Veterans Administration. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Dental assisting is an entry level job. The principal requirements are a congenial personality and the ability to learn the job. Consequently, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Dental assistants hold and pass instruments to dentists. They may also take notes dictated by the dentist. entrants to this occupation tend to be young; for some, it is their first experience in the world of work. Many assistants learn their skills on the job, though some are trained in dental assisting programs offered by community and junior colleges, trade schools, and technical institutes. Some assistants are trained in Armed Forces schools. About 275 formal training programs were accredited by the Ameri can Dental Association’s Commission on Dental Accreditation in 1987. The majority of these programs take 1 year or less to complete and lead to a certificate or diploma. Graduates of 2-year programs offered in community and junior colleges earn an associate degree. The minimum requirement for any of these programs is a high school diploma or its equivalent. Some schools require typing or a science course for admission. Some private vocational schools offer 4- to 6month courses in dental assisting, but these are not accredited by the Commission on Dental Accreditation. Those receiving dental assistant training in the Armed Forces almost always qualify for civilian jobs as dental assistants. High school students interested in careers as dental assistants should take courses in biology, chemistry, health, typing, and office practices. Accredited dental assisting programs include classroom, laboratory, and preclinical instruction in dental assisting skills and related theory. In addition, students gain practical experience in affiliated dental schools, local clinics, or selected dental offices. 299 300 Occupational Outlook Handbook Certification is available through the Dental Assisting National Board. Certification is an acknowledgment of an assistant’s qualifica tions and professional competence, but usually is not required for employment. In several States that have adopted standards for dental assistants who perform radiologic procedures, completion of the certi fication examination meets those standards. High school graduates may qualify to take the certification examina tion by graduating from a training program accredited by the Commis sion on Dental Accreditation or by having 2 years of full-time experi ence as a dental assistant. In addition, all applicants must have taken a course in cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Some dental assistants seek to qualify for practice as dental hygien ists. Prospective dental assistants who foresee this possibility should plan carefully, since credit earned in a dental assistant program often is not applicable toward requirements for a dental hygiene certificate. The field of dental assisting education also offers opportunities in teaching and program administration. Job Outlook Employment of dental assistants is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Population growth, widespread dental insurance, and greater retention of natural teeth by middle-aged and older persons are the principal factors that will fuel demand for dental care. Almost all dentists employ at least one dental assistant, and large dental practices may employ several. The incentive to do so is strong, for if dentists arc able to delegate routine tasks, they can use their time for more remunerative proce dures. Job growth in this occupation is closely related to the number of practicing dentists. Since 1982, the number of persons graduating from dental school has declined precipitously. A continued decline in the number of new dentists is foreseen until the late 1990’s; this is likely to slow industry growth and constrain employment growth of assistants as well. Nonetheless, opportunities should be excellent for persons interested in entering the occupation. The projected decrease in the youth labor force—traditionally the principal source of supply for dental assist ing—means that fewer young adults will be available for entry level jobs such as this. Qualified applicants should have little trouble locating a job, while employers may find it necessary to raise wages, offer better benefits, or try to attract mature workers. Most job openings for dental assistants will arise from the need to replace assistants who leave the occupation. Each year many assistants leave the job to take on family responsibilities, return to school, or transfer to another occupation. Earnings Salaries of dental assistants depend largely on the duties and responsi bilities attached to the particular job and on geographic location. Dentists’ policies with respect to salaries vary widely, but there is some evidence that individuals who have completed a formal training program in dental assisting or are employed in States that set minimal standards command higher pay. In 1988, median weekly earnings for dental assistants working full time were about $267 a week. The middle 50 percent earned between $216 and $340 a week; 10 percent earned less than $180; and 10 percent earned more than $407 a week. Related Occupations Dental assistants perform a variety of duties that do not require the dentist’s professional knowledge and skill. Workers in other occupations supporting health practitioners include medical assis tants, chiropractor assistants, ophthalmic medical assistants, optometric assistants, podiatric assistants, and veterinary technicians. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities, scholarships, accredited dental assistant programs, and requirements for certification is available from: w-American Dental Assistants Association, 919 N. Michigan Ave., Suite 3400, Chicago, IL 60611. •-Commission on Dental Accreditation, American Dental Association, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Suite 1814, Chicago, IL 60611. ••-Dentai Assisting National Board, Inc., 216 E. Ontario St., Chicago, IL 60611. Medical Assistants (D.O.T. 079.364-010, and -014, .367-010, and .374-018) Nature of the Work Medical assistants help physicians examine and treat patients, as well as perform routine tasks needed to keep the office running smoothly. Although medical assistants can perform both clinical and adminis trative tasks, the nature of the work varies from office to office. The size of the practice affects the scope of the job, as does the physician’s view of medical assisting responsibilities. Thus, in small practices, medical assistants are usually “generalists,” handling both clerical and clinical duties and reporting directly to the office manager or physician. Those employed in large practices tend to specialize in a particular area under the supervision of department administrators. Clinical duties vary according to State law and commonly include taking and recording vital signs and medical histories; explaining treatment procedures to patients; preparing patients for examination; and assisting during the examination. Afterwards, medical assistants collect and prepare laboratory specimens or preform basic laboratory tests on the premises; dispose of contaminated supplies; and sterilize medical instruments. Other clinical duties include instructing patients about medication and special diets, authorizing drug refills as directed, telephoning prescriptions to the pharmacy, drawing blood, preparing patients for X-rays, taking EKG’s, and applying dressings. Medical assistants may also arrange instruments and equipment in the examining room; check office and laboratory supplies; and maintain the waiting, consulting, and examination rooms in a neat and orderly condition. Medical assistants perform a variety of administrative duties. They may answer the telephone, greet patients, record and file patient medi cal records, fill out insurance forms, handle correspondence, schedule appointments, arrange for hospital admission and laboratory services, and handle billing and bookkeeping. Some assistants specialize. Podiatric medical assistants, for exam ple, make castings of the feet, expose and develop X-rays, and assist podiatrists at surgery in addition to handling front office responsibil ities. Ophthalmic medical assistants help ophthalmologists provide medi cal eye care. They take medical histories and use precision instruments to administer diagnostic tests, measure and record vision, and test the functioning of eyes and eye muscles. They also instruct patients in the use of eye dressings, protective shields, and safety glasses, as well as in the insertion, removal, and care of contact lenses. At the direction of the physician, they may administer medications, including eye drops. Their responsibilities may include maintaining optical and sur gical instruments and assisting the ophthalmologist in surgery. Working Conditions Medical assistants work in a well-lighted, clean environment. They need to be careful when performing clinical work, such as sterilizing equipment or doing laboratory tests. Although medical assistants generally have a 40-hour workweek, this may include evening and weekend hours. Service Occupations &v In addition to working with patients, medical assistants often have administrative duties. Employment Medical assistants held about 149,000 jobs in 1988. Three out of five were employed in physicians’ offices, and about 1 in 5 worked in offices of other health practitioners such as optometrists, podiatrists, and chiropractors. Slightly more than 1 in 10 worked in hospitals. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Medical assisting is one of the few health occupations open to individu als with no formal training. Although education in medical assisting is available at both the secondary and postsecondary levels, such training—while generally preferred—is not always required. It is still often the case that medical assistants are trained on the job. Applicants usually need a high school diploma or the equivalent. High school courses in mathematics, health, biology, typing, bookkeeping, com puters, and office practices are helpful. Formal programs in medical assisting are offered in vocationaltechnical high schools, and at the postsecondary level by vocational schools, community and junior colleges, and universities. Community college and university programs usually last 2 years and lead to an associate degree. Private vocational programs can take up to 1 year to complete, and graduates receive a diploma or certificate. Two agencies are recognized by the U.S. Department of Education to accredit programs in medical assisting: The American Medical Association’s Committee on Allied Health Education and Accredita tion (CAHEA) and the Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools (ABHES). The 174 medical assisting and 11 ophthalmic medical assisting programs approved by CAHEA graduated about 5,100 students in 1988. The 138 ABHES accredited medical assisting programs graduated about 9,200 students in 1988. The medical assist ing curriculum consists of courses in the biological sciences and medi cal terminology as well as typing, transcription, recordkeeping, ac counting, and insurance processing. Students also learn laboratory techniques, use of medical equipment, clinical procedures, and first aid; they are also instructed in office practices, patient relations, and medical law and ethics. Although there are no general licensing requirements for medical assistants, some States require the successful completion of a test or a short course as a prerequisite for performing certain procedures such as taking x-rays, drawing blood, or giving injections. Employers prefer https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 301 to hire experienced workers or certified applicants who have success fully completed a national examination. The American Association of Medical Assistants awards the Certified Medical Assistant credential; the American Medical Technologists awards the Registered Medical Assistant credential; the American Society of Podiatric Assistants awards the Certified Podiatric Assistant credential; and the Joint Com mission on Allied Health Personnel in Ophthalmology awards the Ophthalmic Medical Assistant credential at three levels: Certified Oph thalmic Assistant, Certified Ophthalmic Technician, and Certified Ophthalmic Technologist. Because medical assistants have a great deal of contact with the public, a neat, well-groomed appearance, and a courteous, pleasant manner are needed. Medical assistants must not only be good at putting patients at ease, but be good listeners and interpret a physician’s instructions correctly the first time they are given. Conscientiousness, a sense of responsibility, and respect for the confidential nature of medical information are required of all medical assistants. Clinical duties require a reasonable level of manual dexterity and visual acuity. Medical assistants may be able to advance to office manager. Hospi tals often hire people with training or experience in medical assisting for jobs as ward clerks, medical record clerks, phlebotomists, and EKG technicians. Medical assistants with computer skills are often qualified for a wide variety of research and management support positions. Advancement for medical assistants sometimes also means leaving the occupation. Some medical assistants find work as consul tants in medical office management or in the medical insurance indus try. Those who enjoy clinical work sometimes enter other health professions such as nursing and medical technology. Job Outlook Employment of medical assistants is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to anticipated expansion of the health services industry. Employment growth will be spurred by the increased medical needs of an aging population, growth in the number of health practitioners, more diagnostic testing, and the increased volume and complexity of paperwork. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace experienced assistants who leave the occupation. In view of the high turnover as well as the preference of many physicians for trained personnel, job prospects should be excellent for medical assistants with formal training, experience, or both. Employ ers prefer applicants with formal certification, and medical assistants with word processing and computer skills may have an advantage over less qualified applicants. Earnings The earnings of medical assistants vary widely. Pay levels are governed chiefly by the assistant’s experience and qualifications, the size and location of the employer’s practice, and the number of hours worked. According to a survey conducted by the Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation, the average starting salary for graduates of the medical assistant programs they accredit was about $13,000 a year in 1988. Related Occupations Workers in other medical support occupations include medical secre taries, hospital admitting clerks, pharmacy helpers, medical reception ists, medical record clerks, dental assistants, occupational therapy aides, and physical therapist aides. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities, CAHEA-accredited educa tional programs in medical assisting, and requirements for the Certified Medical Assistant exam is available from: w-The American Association of Medical Assistants, 20 North Wacker Dr., Suite 1575, Chicago, IL 60606. 302 Occupational Outlook Handbook Information about career opportunities and requirements for taking the Registered Medical Assistant certification exam are available from: (•-Registered Medical Assistants of American Medical Technologists, 710 Higgins Rd., Park Ridge, IL 60068. For a list of ABHES-accredited educational programs in medical assisting, write: (•-Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools, Oak Manor Office, 29089 U.S. 20 West, Elkhart, IN 46514. Information about career opportunities, training programs, and re quirements to become a Certified Ophthalmic Assistant is available from: (•-Joint Commission on Allied Health Personnel in Ophthalmology, 2025 Woodlane Dr., St. Paul, MN 55125-2995. Information about careers for podiatric assistants is available from: (•-American Society of Podiatric Assistants, 2204 Washington St., Waco, TX 76701. Nursing Aides and Psychiatric Aides (D.O.T. 354.374-010, .377-010, and .677-010; 355.377-014 and -018, .674 014, -018, and -026) Nature of the Work Nursing aides and psychiatric aides help care for physically or mentally ill, injured, disabled, or infirm individuals confined to hospitals, long term care facilities such as nursing homes, and mental health settings. (Homemaker-home health aides, whose duties are similar but who work in clients’ homes, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Nursing aides are sometimes known as nursing assistants or hospital attendants, and work under the supervision of registered and licensed practical nurses. Typical duties include answering patients’ call bells, delivering messages, serving meals, making beds, and feeding, dress ing, and bathing patients. Aides may also give massages, take tempera tures, pulse, respiration, and blood pressure, and assist patients in getting in and out of bed and walking. They may also escort patients to operating and examining rooms or store and move supplies in hospital pharmacies or supply rooms. Nursing aides employed in nursing homes are sometimes called geriatric aides and, like nursing aides, work under the supervision of registered and licensed practical nurses. They are often the principal caregivers in nursing homes, having far more contact with residents than other members of the staff. They furnish virtually all of the routine care. They take and record vital signs such as temperature and pulse, provide skin care to comatose or paralyzed patients, help residents in and out of bed, and assist with the bathing, dressing, feeding and toileting of residents. Since residents may stay in a nursing home for months or even years, aides are expected to develop ongoing relationships with them and respond to them in a positive, caring way. Psychiatric aides, also known as mental health assistants, psychiatric nursing assistants, or ward attendants, care for mentally impaired or emotionally disturbed individuals. They work under a team that may include psychiatrists, psychologists, psychiatric nurses, social work ers, and therapists. In addition to helping patients dress, bathe, groom, and eat, psychiatric aides socialize with patients. Psychiatric aides may play games such as cards with the patients, watch television with them, or participate in group activities that are designed to elicit behavior changes. They observe patients and report any signs or actions which might be important for the professional staff to know. If necessary, they help restrain unruly patients. Because they have the closest contact with patients, psychiatric aides have a great deal of influence on patients’ outlook and treatment. Working Conditions Most full-time aides work about 40 hours a week or less. Because patients need care 24 hours a day, scheduled work hours include evenings, nights, weekends, and holidays. Workers spend many hours https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nursing aides take blood pressure, pulse, and temperature. standing and may have to move partially paralyzed patients in and out of bed or help them stand or walk. Nursing aides often empty bed pans, change soiled bed linens, and care for disoriented and irritable patients. Psychiatric aides are sometimes confronted with violent patients. While such experiences can be emotionally draining, many gain personal satisfaction from assisting those in need. Employment Nursing aides held about 1,184,000 jobs in 1988, while psychiatric aides held about 114,000 jobs. Almost half of all nursing aides worked in nursing homes, and about one-quarter worked in hospitals and State and county mental institutions. Almost all psychiatric aides worked in psychiatric hospitals, State and county mental institutions, or private psychiatric facilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In many cases, neither a high school diploma nor previous work experience is necessary for jobs as nursing and psychiatric aides. A few employers, however, require some training or experience. Hospitals, for example, may require a minimum of 1 year’s experience as a nursing aide or home health aide. Nursing homes, however, generally hire untrained and inexperienced workers with the under standing that the aide must complete 75 hours of mandatory training and pass a written exam within 4 months of employment. Still, for most jobs, personal qualifications such as dependability, integrity, and a pleasant manner are the principal requirements. Since employers often accept applicants who are 17 or 18 years of age, these occupations offer young people an entry into the world of work. The availability of night and weekend hours also provides high school and college students a chance to work during the school year. The work is also open to middle-aged and older men and women. Nursing aide training is offered in high schools, vocational-technical centers, some nursing homes, and community colleges. It covers body mechanics, nutrition, anatomy and physiology, infection control, and communications skills. They also teach personal care skills such as the bathing, feeding, and grooming of patients. Some facilities, other than nursing homes, provide classroom in struction for newly hired aides, while others rely exclusively on infor mal instruction from a licensed nurse or an experienced aide. Such training may last several days to a few months. From time to time, aides may also attend lectures, workshops, and other forms of in service training. Applicants should be healthy, tactful, patient, understanding, emo tionally stable, dependable, and have a desire to help people. They should also be able to work as part of a team, and be willing to perform repetitive, routine tasks. Opportunities for advancement within these occupations arc limited. Career ladders, where they exist at all, are very short. Nonetheless, Service Occupations the large and rapidly growing health industry with its hundreds of occupations and numerous employment settings offers alternative job opportunities for aides who undertake additional training. Some em ployers and unions provide career advancement opportunities by sim plifying the educational paths to advancement. Experience as an aide can also help individuals decide whether the health care field is for them. Job Outlook Job prospects for nursing aides are expected to be excellent through the year 2000. Employment of nursing aides is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations in response to an emphasis on rehabilitation and the long-term care needs of a rapidly growing aged population (those 75 years old and older). Employment will increase as a result of the anticipated expansion of nursing homes and other long-term care facilities for people with chronic illnesses and disabling conditions, many of whom are elderly. As a result, long-term care settings, not hospitals—are expected to provide most of the new jobs for nursing aides in the years to come. Also contributing to the growing demand will be modern medical technology which, while saving more lives, also increases the need to provide care for those who never fully recover. Hospitals will continue to provide intensive, high-technology care that demands the skills of highly trained personnel such as registered nurses. As a result, employment growth for nursing aides in hospitals is not expected to be as fast as total hospital employment growth. Employment of psychiatric aides is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. Demand for inpatient psychiatric care may rise due to the very sharp increase in the number of older persons—many of whom experience severe depression or are unable to recognize friends and relatives. Demand for care in private psychiatric facilities, community mental health centers, and halfway houses is likely to grow for several reasons, including greater health insurance coverage for acute psychiatric episodes; growing public acceptance of formal treatment for drug abuse and alcoholism; and a lessening of the stigma attached to those receiving mental health care. While employ ment in private psychiatric facilities may grow, employment in public mental hospitals is likely to be stagnant due to constraints on public spending. Replacement needs will constitute the major source of openings for aides. Turnover is high, a reflection of modest entry requirements, low pay, minimal benefits, and lack of advancement opportunities. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 303 Earnings Median annual earnings of nursing and psychiatric aides who worked full time in 1988 were about $11,500. The middle 50 percent earned between $8,900 and $15,500. The lowest 10 percent earned about $7,000 or less. The top 10 percent earned $21,100 or more. In 1987, the Veterans Administration paid inexperienced nursing aides who were high school graduates annual salaries of $10,816. Nursing aides with a year of experience received $ 11,801, while those with 2 years received $13,248. Nursing aides in hospitals had median annual eamings of $13,600 in 1988, according to the Hospital and Health Report, 13th edition, 1988/89, from the Executive Compensation Service, a Wyatt Data Service Company. Nursing homes paid certified nursing aides a median annual salary of $16,600 and noncertified nursing aides, about $10,400 in 1988, according to a survey by the Hospital Compensation Service, Haw thorne, NJ. Attendants in hospitals and similar institutions generally receive at least 1 week’s paid vacation after 1 year of service. Paid holidays and sick leave, hospital and medical benefits, extra pay for late-shift work, and pension plans also are available to many hospital and some nursing home employees. Related Occupations Nursing aides help with the routine care and treatment of people who are sick, disabled, or infirm. Workers with similar duties include homemaker-home health aides, childcare attendants, companions, oc cupational therapy aides, and physical therapy aides. Psychiatric aides work in mental health settings. Among profes sional occupations found in such settings are psychologists, psychia trists, registered nurses, social workers, human services workers, mental health technicians, and physical, occupational, and recreational therapists—all described elsewhere in the Handbook. Sources of Additional Information For information on nursing careers in hospitals, contact: (•-American Hospital Association, Division of Nursing, 840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60611. For a copy of Health Careers in Long-Term Care, write: w-American Health Care Association, 1201 L St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. Information about employment also may be obtained from local hospitals and nursing homes, and psychiatric facilities. Personal Service and Building and Grounds Service Occupations Animal Caretakers, Except Farm (D O T. 410.674-010, -022; 412.671-010, .674-014; 418.381-010, .674-010, 677-010; and 449.671-010) Nature of the Work Most people like animals. But, as pet owners can attest, it is hard work taking care of them. Animal caretakers, sometimes called animal attendants, take on this job. They feed, water, and exercise animals and clean and repair their cages. They also provide social interaction for the animals with play and companionship. Because of their frequent contact with the animals, caretakers often are the first persons to identify behavioral changes that could indicate an illness or injury. Caretakers are needed wherever there are animals. Kennels, animal shelters, pet stores, stables, veterinary facilities, laboratories, and zoological parks all house animals and employ caretakers. Job titles and duties vary by employment setting. Kennel staff usually care for small companion animals like dogs and cats. Beginning attendants perform basic tasks, such as cleaning cages and dog runs. With more experience, they may learn to give basic treatment and first aid. Experienced attendants may also bathe and groom the animals and clean the animals’ ears and teeth. People who specialize in maintaining dogs’ appearance are called “dog groomjji: WmM 'H _____i. - -■* ____ Animal caretakers provide social interaction for animals. 304 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ers.” Some groomers work in kennels and others operate their own grooming business. Besides grooming, caretakers perform other ser vices offered in kennels. They might sell pet food and supplies, teach obedience classes, help with breeding, or prepare animals for shipping. In addition to providing the basic maintenance of the animals, caretakers in animal shelters screen applicants for animal adoption, groom the dogs, and vaccinate newly admitted animals. With more training, they may also put severely injured or unwanted animals to death. Pet store caretakers provide daily care, such as bathing the puppies, and maintain the animals. Other duties are selling pet supplies and giving advice to customers. Stable staff care for horses. They saddle and unsaddle the horses, give them rubdowns, and walk them through a cool-off after a ride. Experienced staff also train horses. Additional duties include feeding and grooming the horses, mucking out stalls, polishing saddles, clean ing and organizing the tack room, and storing supplies and feed. Veterinary hospitals may employ three types of caretakers: Veteri nary technician, veterinary assistant, and animal attendant. Veterinary technicians, also known as animal health technicians, are the most skilled. They do everything that a veterinarian does except diagnose ailments, prescribe medication, or perform surgery. Veterinary techni cians keep records, take specimens, perform laboratory tests, prepare animals and instruments for surgery, take and develop radiographs, dress wounds, and assist the veterinarian with examinations and surgery. Veterinary assistants feed and bathe the animals, administer medica tion as prescribed by the veterinarian, and assist the veterinarian and the veterinary technician in the treatment of the animal. For example, the assistant may hold the animal while the technician gives it an injection. Animal attendants clean cages, exercise the animals, and monitor the animals for symptoms of illnesses like vomiting. This is the most basic job and is frequently performed by part-time workers. Laboratories also have three levels of animal caretakers: Laboratory animal technologist, laboratory animal technician, and assistant labo ratory animal technician. The highest level, laboratory animal technol ogist, supervises the daily care and maintenance of the animals by the technician and assistant; they may also assist in surgical care and other laboratory procedures. The animal laboratory technician provides the daily care of the animals—giving prescribed dosages and medications, taking specimens, performing laboratory tests, and assisting with mi nor surgery. Technicians also keep daily records of the animals’ diets, behavior, and health. The assistant laboratory animal technician sani tizes cages and feeds the animals. Zookeepers prepare the diets, clean the enclosures, and monitor the behavior of exotic animals. Keepers sometimes assist in research studies on their wards. Depending upon the species, the keepers may also train the animals. An example is the elephant keeper who teaches the pachyderm to hold up its foot so that the veterinarian may examine the sole. In addition, keepers may put on special shows and give lectures to the public. Working Conditions People who love animals get satisfaction from working with and helping animals. However, some of the work may be physically de manding and unpleasant. Caretakers have to clean animal cages and lift heavy supplies like bales of hay. Also, the work setting is often noisy. Some duties like putting a hopelessly injured or aged animal to death may be very stressful. Animal caretakers can be exposed to injury, disease, and infection from the animals they attend. Caretakers may work outdoors in all kinds of weather. Hours are irregular. Animals have to be fed every day, so caretakers rotate week-end shifts. Some animal hospitals and animal shelters require an attendant to be on duty 24 hours a day, Service Occupations which means night shifts. Caretakers of show and sports animals have to travel to competitions. Employment Animal caretakers held about 92,000 jobs in 1988. Most were em ployed in veterinary facilities and boarding kennels. Other employers were animal shelters, stables, pet stores, zoological parks, and local, State, and Federal agencies. One out of every six caretakers is selfemployed. Schedules tend to be flexible, and 1 out of 3 caretakers works part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most animal caretakers working in kennels, pet stores, animal shelters, and stables are trained on the job. There are few formal training programs, but the American Boarding Kennel Association offers a home-study program for kennel technicians. Some States require certification of caretakers who put animals to death. Training may be through a veterinarian or a State Humane Society. Except for performing euthanasia, no formal training require ments exist for animal caretakers in these settings; nonetheless, many employers look for people with some experience with animals. Some employers prefer high school or college students who have taken courses in biology and other sciences. Caretakers start by cleaning cages and advance to giving medication and grooming dogs. The majority of dog groomers learn their trade through on-the-job training, but a few grooming schools do exist. Dog groomers may receive professional registration or certification from the National Dog Groomers Association of America. The Ameri can Boarding Kennels Association accredits kennels and offers a Certi fied Kennel Operator program, both of which show professional com petency. In veterinary facilities, requirements differ with the type of position. Thirty-five States require veterinary technicians to be licensed; this is the only animal caretaker position requiring licensure. Licensure requirements in most States include graduation from an accredited animal technology program. In 1989, there were 60 associate programs and 5 bachelor’s degree programs accredited by the American Veteri nary Medicine Association. Courses include animal pharmacology, veterinary physiology and anatomy, animal care and management, radiography, anesthetic nursing and monitoring, parasitology, animal husbandry, chemistry, biology, applied mathematics, communica tions, and the humanities. Veterinary technicians with formal training may also obtain certification through State regulatory agencies. In States without education requirements for veterinary technicians, the veterinarian may employ applicants with a strong science background and train them on the job as a technician; however, most veterinarians prefer to hire graduates of formal academic programs. Animal attendants and veterinary assistants do not have formal education requirements. They are trained on the job. Often, the atten dant advances to the assistant level after gaining experience. Requirements in laboratories also vary with the type of position. The American Association for Laboratory Animal Science (AALS) tests and certifies each level of caretaker. To be eligible to take the certification examination, laboratory animal technologists must have 6 years of training, 4 years of which may be collegelevel courses in the life sciences and at least 2 years of laboratory work experience. Laboratory animal technicians need 3 years of work experience in a laboratory. They may substitute 2 years of education in college-level life sciences for 2 years of experience. Assistant laboratory animal technicians must have 1 year of work experience or 6 months of experience and 6 months of collegelevel life science education. Large zoological parks may require their keepers to have a bache lor’s degree in biology, animal science, or a related field. They also require their staff to have some experience with animals, preferably exotic animals. Experience may be obtained by volunteering in a zoo or by starting in a smaller zoo and working one’s way up to a larger zoo. Advancement varies with employment setting. Kennel caretakers may be promoted to kennel supervisor, assistant manager, and then https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 305 manager. Caretakers with enough capital may leave to open up their own kennels. Pet store caretakers may become store managers. In laboratories, assistant laboratory animal technicians may advance to laboratory animal technician, and the animal laboratory technician may become a technologist; however, the technologist position requires a collegelevel background in the life sciences. Caretakers in animal shelters may transfer to animal adoption counselor, then to animal control, and finally to shelter director. The Humane Society of the United States offers a 2-week course for animal shelter and control personnel. Job Outlook Employment of animal caretakers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as the population and economy expand. The demand for caretakers reflects overall eco nomic conditions because people purchase more pets and pet services when they can comfortably afford them. Despite growth in demand for animal caretakers, the overwhelming majority of jobs will result from the need to replace workers leaving the field. Many animal caretaker jobs that require little or no training have work schedules which tend to be flexible; therefore, it is an ideal first job for people entering the labor force as well as for students and others looking for temporary or part-time work. Because these workers have a weak attachment to the occupation, turnover is quite high and the overall availability of jobs should be very good. Much of the work of these animal caretakers is seasonal, so job opportunities during vacation periods should be excellent. The best prospects should be for graduates of training programs in veterinary technology. Many employers complain of a shortage of formally trained veterinary technicians. Job opportunities for certified laboratory animal technicians and technologists are also good. As concern for animal welfare increases, so will the need for certified personnel in laboratories. The outlook for zookeepers is not so favor able. Jobseekers will face keen competition because of expected slow growth in zoo capacity, low turnover, and the fact that the prestigious nature of the occupation attracts many candidates. Additional opportunities will occur in kennels as owners increas ingly focus on the business aspects of the kennel and hire managers to operate the animal care department. Earnings In 1988, median earnings for all animal caretakers were $10,972. Most earned between $8,788 and $13,988. The lowest 10 percent of animal caretakers earned less than $7,124, and the top 10 percent earned more than $17,940. Generally, veterinary technicians, labora tory animal technologists, and zookeepers earn more than other animal caretakers. Related Occupation Animal caretakers like to work with their hands and with animals. Occupations that involve the same aptitudes are gamekeeper; gamefarm help; poultry breeder; and artificial-breeding technician. Sources of Additional Information For more information on animal caretaking and the animal shelter and control personnel training program, write to: or-Animal Caretakers Information, The Humane Society of the U.S., Compan ion Animals Division, Suite 100, 5430 Grosvenor Lane, Bethesda, MD 20814. To learn more about dog grooming and the name of the nearest certified dog groomer in your area, send a stamped self-addressed envelope to: ••-National Dog Groomers Association of America, Box 101, Clark, PA 16113. For information on training and certification of kennel staff and owners, contact: (•-American Boarding Kennel Association, 4575 Galley Rd., Suite 400-A, Colorado Springs, CO 80915. For information on certification for laboratory animal personnel, write to: (•-American Association for Laboratory Animal Science (AALAS), 70 Timber Creek Dr., Suite #5, Cordova, TN 93018. 306 Occupational Outlook Handbook Barbers SI (D.O.T. 330) Nature of the Work Barbers cut, trim, shampoo, and style hair. Many people still go to a barber for just a haircut, but an increasing number seek services such as hairstyling and permanents. Barbers trained in these areas are called “hairstylists" and work in styling salons; “unisex” salons, shops that have male and female customers; and some barbershops. They cut and style hair to suit each customer and may color or straighten hair and fit hairpieces. Most barbers offer hair and scalp treatments, shaves, and facial massages. By tradition, most customers are men. However, a growing number of barbers cut and style women’s hair. They usually work in unisex salons. Some States require a cosmetologist’s license as well as a barber’s license, however, to permanent wave or color women’s hair. In most States, barbers are licensed to perform all the duties of cosme tologists except skin care and nail treatment. (See the Handbook statement on cosmetologists and related workers.) As part of their responsibilities, barbers keep their scissors, combs, and other instruments sterilized and in good condition. They clean their work areas and may sweep the shop as well. Some sell lotions, tonics, and other cosmetic supplies. Those who own or manage a shop order supplies, pay bills, keep records, and hire employees. 9 isfe . " ■■ Working Conditions Barbers usually work in clean, pleasant surroundings, with good light ing and ventilation. Good health and stamina are important because barbers must stand a great deal and work with both hands at shoulder level—a position that can be tiring. Most barbers work more than 40 hours a week, and a workweek of over 50 hours is not uncommon. Although weekends and lunch hours are generally very busy, a barber may have some time off during slack periods. Barbers receive income from commissions or wages and tips. Employment Barbers held about 76,000 jobs in 1988. Most worked in barbershops, some worked in beauty shops and unisex salons, and a few worked in department stores, hotels, hospitals, and prisons. About 3 out of every 4 barbers operate their own businesses. All cities and towns have barbershops, but employment is concen trated in the most populous cities and States. Hairstylists usually work in cities and suburbs, where the greatest demand for their services exists. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States require barbers to be licensed. Generally a person must be a graduate of a State-approved barber school and be at least 16 years old (18 in some States). Education requirements vary—some States require graduation from high school while others have no requirement at all. Applicants for licensure usually are required to pass a written test and demonstrate an ability to perform basic barbering services. Some States have reciprocity agreements that allow licensed barbers to practice in a different State without additional formal training. However, some States do not recognize training or licenses obtained in another State; consequently, persons who wish to become barbers should review the laws of the State in which they want to work before entering a barber school. Barber training is offered in about 400 schools; about 8 out of 10 barber schools are private. Some schools train cosmetologists as well. Some public high schools offer barbering in their vocational programs. Barber school programs usually last 9 to 12 months. Students study the basic services—haircutting, shaving, facial massaging, and hair and scalp treatments—and, under supervision, practice on customers in school “clinics.” Most schools also teach unisex hairstyling and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis chemical styling. Students attend lecutures on barber services, the use and care of instruments, sanitation and hygiene, and recognition of certain skin ailments. Instruction also is given in selling and general business practices. There are also advanced courses for experienced barbers in hairstyling, coloring, and the sale and service of hairpieces. Dealing with customers requires patience and a better than average disposition. In addition, good eye-hand coordination is required. Bar bers also should have sound judgment about what hair style is most flattering. Beginners usually get their first jobs through the barber school they attended. Some experienced barbers become shop managers or open their own shops. Job Outlook Little or no change is expected in the employment of barbers through the year 2000. A shift in consumer preferences from regular haircuts to more personalized and intensive services has greatly affected the occupation. Barbers who specialize in hairstyling have been much more successful than those who offer conventional services. This trend is expected to continue, and employment opportunities should be better for hairstylists than for other barbers. Barbers have a relatively strong attachment to their occupation— unlike most workers in occupations that require less than a year of formal training. Nevertheless, most job openings will result from the need to replace experienced barbers who retire or stop working for other reasons. Most barbers remain in the occupation until they retire— perhaps because most barbers are self-employed. Service Occupations Earnings Barbers receive income from commissions or wages and tips. Most barbers who are not shopowners normally receive 60 to 70 percent of the money they take in; a few are paid straight salaries. According to limited information, barbers generally cam between $300 and $500 a week. Earnings depend on the size and location of the shop, customers’ tipping habits, competition from other barber shops, and the barber’s ability to attract and hold regular customers. Some barbers receive 1- or 2-week paid vacations, insurance, and medical benefits. The principal union that organizes barbers—both employees and shopowners—is the United Food and Commercial Workers Interna tional Union. The principal association that represents and organizes shopowners, managers, and employees is the Associated Master Bar bers and Beauticians of America. Related Occupations Other workers whose main activity consists of improving a patron’s personal appearance include cosmetologists, electrologists, makeup artists, and estheticians. Sources of Additional Information Lists of barber schools, by State, are available from: (•-National Association of Barber Schools, Inc., 304 South 11 th St., Lincoln, NE 68502. Every State maintains information on State licensing requirements and approved barber schools. For details, contact the State board of barber examiners or the equivalent authority at your State capital. Additional information on this occupation is available free of charge from: nr-Hair International, 1318 Starbrook Dr., Charlotte, NC 28222. Childcare Workers (D.O.T. 355.674-010; and 359.677-010, -018, -026) Nature of the Work Nurturing young children is the job of childcare workers, who look after youngsters whose parents are at work or cannot be with them for other reasons. Job duties vary according to the ages of the children. Workers who care for infants follow a basic routine—feeding, diaper ing, comforting, and playing and talking with the children. Those who work with preschool children attend to basic needs and, in addition, organize activities that stimulate the children’s physical, emotional, intellectual, and social growth. Childcare workers work in daycare centers or in their own homes. They greet children as they arrive, help them remove outer garments, and teach them how to dress and undress. They may organize and direct indoor and outdoor games. They plan activities which provide exercise and teach children to get along with one another. They also select activities that encourage self-expression and development of arts and crafts, musical, and language skills. These may include paint ing and drawing, working with clay and wood, singing, reading, and storytelling. Keeping children healthy is an important part of the job. Childcare workers serve nutritious meals and snacks and use these as an opportu nity to teach good eating habits and responsibility for cleaning up. They see to it that children have proper rest periods. They spot children who may be getting sick or showing signs of emotional or develop mental problems and bring these to the parents’ attention. Job duties and the amount of supervision a worker receives vary with the work setting. In large daycare centers, each worker is in charge of a group of children under the supervision of a director, who lays out specific objectives and activities. Although the childcare worker may offer suggestions, overall responsibility for program de https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 307 velopment rests with the director, who also handles marketing, budget ing, staffing, and other administrative duties. Job duties are more varied, and the work setting more informal, for childcare workers who care for a few children in their own homes. Gen erally known as family daycare providers, these workers are subject to State licensing requirements that regulate the number of children one worker may care for and the environment in which care is provided. Currently 42 States have such regulations. Family daycare providers devise activities for the children in their care, prepare meals and snacks, and ensure that both indoor and outdoor spaces are safe and clean. In addition to their childcare duties, they are responsible for all aspects of running a small business: Marketing, interviewing prospective clients, obtaining and renewing a license, purchasing supplies, keeping records, and handling finances. They are generally self-employed. (Childcare workers who work in the child's home are covered in the statement on private household workers found elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Childcare facilities can range from a single poorly furnished room to a large, beautifully equipped building. Some facilities accommodate a few children, others a hundred or more. Childcare centers may be in private homes, churches, schools, workplaces where employers provide care for employees’ children, or buildings used exclusively for childcare. Childcare centers are often year round. Many are open 12 hours a day. Full-time staff workers usually have 8-hour shifts. However, many work part time or have staggered hours. Family daycare provid ers who have young children of their own can earn money without having to leave them. They have flexibility in their hours of work and in daily routine, but may work long hours to fit parents’ work sched ules. Since they work at home, they can also handle some housekeep ing responsibilities. Childcare workers spend much of their time standing, walking, bending, stooping, and lifting. They must be constantly alert, antici pate and prevent trouble, deal with disruptive children, and provide fair but firm discipline. This can be physically and emotionally taxing. The work is demanding and sometimes hectic and requires a great deal of physical stamina and patience. Rewards, on the other hand, come from seeing young children blossom and grow under their care. Employment Childcare workers held about 670,000 jobs in 1988. Many worked part time. About two-thirds of childcare workers are self-employed. Most of these are family daycare providers who take care of children in their own homes. The rest work in daycare centers sponsored by a variety of organizations. Many centers are for-profit operations, affiliated in some instances with a local or national chain. Others are run by churches, synagogues, community agencies, school systems, and State mm$ ftmnxt > •£. v V (TLvi Childcare workers must be constantly alert. 308 Occupational Outlook Handbook and local governments. A small number are operated by business firms for the children of their employees. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Entry level positions generally require little or no experience. Although there are no specific educational requirements, employers prefer indi viduals with a high school diploma. Some employers provide on-thejob training by an experienced worker. High school students who plan to work with small children should take courses in child development, psychology, sociology, home eco nomics, and nutrition. Courses in art, music, drama, and physical education also provide good preparation. Volunteer or paid babysitting is helpful. Formal training or certification is desirable in some jobs and is recom mended for advancement. Many colleges offer programs in childcare, early childhood education, child and family studies, and pre-elementary education. Subjects include childhood development, child health care, child psychology, and play and educational activities. The Child Development Associate (CDA) credential program certi fies childcare workers. The program is open to anyone 18 years of age or older who has childcare experience and some related classroom, workshop, or other training. A team of childcare professionals helps candidates improve their childcare skills and recommends further train ing, if necessary. The training is offered in local schools and colleges. When candidates are ready, the team assesses their abilities and perfor mance with young children and decides whether they qualify for the CDA credential. Childcare workers should be kind and patient and have energy and physical stamina. Skills in music, art, drama, and storytelling are also important. Those who work for themselves must have business sense and management abilities. As childcare workers gain experience, they may advance to supervisory or administrative positions in large child care centers. Often, however, these positions require additional train ing. Some workers set up their own childcare businesses. Job Outlook Employment of childcare workers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. This reflects anticipated growth in the number of young children who will need care, together with a shift in the type of childcare arrangements parents choose. Although the number of children under the age of 5 is expected to decline between 1988 and the year 2000, the number of youngsters in need of daycare almost certainly will increase. Currently, mothers of very young children are almost as likely to work as other women. This pattern is not expected to change. Moreover, women are returning to work sooner after childbirth. A number of daycare centers now offer infant care in addition to care for toddlers and preschoolers. Many parents turn to formal childcare arrangements because they find it too difficult to set up a satisfactory arrangement with a relative, babysitter, or live-in worker. The availability of relatives to care for young children appears to have decreased. Family members today are spread out over large distances and it may not be feasible for grandmothers to care for their grandchildren, for example. Further more, with so many women in the labor force, the pool of women at home has contracted. Nearly half of all preschoolers who receive some form of childcare are in childcare centers or family daycare settings, and formal arrangements such as these are likely to be even more widespread in the future. This will spur demand for childcare workers. Job openings will be plentiful through the year 2000. Increased demand for childcare workers plus the need to replace workers who leave the occupation are expected to create numerous openings. Per sons who are interested in this work and suited for it should have little trouble finding and keeping jobs. Earnings In 1988, median annual earnings of full-time childcare workers were $9,724. The middle 50 percent earned between $7,956 and $13,052; the top 10 percent earned at least $16,640. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Pay varies according to the childcare center and the area of the country. Many entry level workers receive no more than the minimum wage, currently $3.80 an hour, scheduled to rise to $4.25 an hour on April 1, 1991; workers younger than 20 years may receive a lower training wage for up to 6 months. Others start as high as $8 an hour. Benefits also vary. Some employers offer a full benefits package including health insurance and paid vacations, while others offer no benefits at all. Some employers offer seminars and workshops to help workers improve upon or learn new skills. A few are willing to cover the cost of courses taken at community colleges or technical schools. Earnings of self-employed childcare workers vary depending on the hours worked, number and ages of the children, and the geographic area. Related Occupations Childcare work requires patience, creativity, an ability to nurture, motivate, teach, and influence others, and, in some cases, leadership and organizational and administrative abilities. Others who work with children and require these aptitudes include teacher aides, children’s tutors, foster parents, kindergarten and elementary school teachers, and early childhood program directors. Sources of Additional Information For general information about childcare workers, contact: (•-National Child Care Association, 920 Green St. NW., Washington, DC 20037. (•-Childcare Employee Project, P.O. Box 5603, Berkeley, CA 94705. (•-Childcare Action Campaign, 99 Hudson St., Suite 1233, New York, NY 10013. For information on childcare center accreditation standards and program development and resources, contact: (•-National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1834 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20009. For eligibility requirements and a description of the Child Develop ment Associate Credential (CDA), write to: • (•-CDA National Credentialing Program, 1718 Connecticut Ave. NW., Suite 500, Washington, DC 20009. Cosmetologists and Related Workers (D.O.T. 331; 332; 333; 339.361, .371) Nature of the Work Hair has been a center of attention since people first began to care about their appearance. Throughout history, a great deal of effort has gone into acquiring a fashionable hairstyle or a perfectly trimmed beard. Although styles change from year to year, the cosmetologist’s task remains the same—to help people look attractive. Cosmetologists, also called beauty operators, hairstylists, or beauti cians, shampoo, cut, and style hair, and advise patrons on how to care for their hair. Frequently, they straighten or permanent wave a patron’s hair to keep the style in shape. Cosmetologists may also lighten or darken the color of the hair. Cosmetologists may give manicures and scalp and facial treatments; provide makeup analysis for women; and clean and style wigs and hairpieces. Related workers include manicur ists, who clean, shape, and polish customer’s fingernails and toenails; makeup artists, who apply makeup; electrologists, who remove hair from skin by electrolysis; and estheticians, who cleanse and beautify the skin. Cosmetologists offer all the services that barbers do except men’s shaves. (See the Handbook statement on barbers.) Most cosmetologists make appointments and keep records of hair color and permanent wave formulas used by their regular patrons. They also keep their work area clean and sanitize their hairdressing implements. Some sell hair products and other cosmetic supplies. Those who operate their own salons also have managerial duties which include hiring and supervising workers, keeping records, and ordering supplies. Service Occupations 309 Working Conditions Cosmetologists generally work in clean, pleasant surroundings, with good lighting and comfortable temperatures. Their work can be ardu ous and physically demanding because they must be on their feet for hours at a time and work with their hands at shoulder level. Prolonged exposure to hair and nail chemicals may be hazardous. Many full-time cosmetologists work more than 40 hours a week, including evenings and weekends, when beauty salons are busiest. Employment Cosmetologists held about 649,000 jobs in 1988. The overwhelming majority of cosmetologists were hairstylists; other specialists included manicurists and shampooers. Most worked in beauty salons, some worked in “unisex” salons, barber shops, or department stores, and a few were employed by hospitals and hotels. About half of all cosmetol ogists operate their own businesses. About two-fifths of all cosmetologists work part time. The abun dance of part-time jobs attracts many persons who want to combine a job with family, school, or other responsibilities. All cities and towns have cosmetology salons, but employment is concentrated in the most populous cities and States. Those cosmetolo gists who set fashion trends with their hairstyles usually work in New York City, Los Angeles, and other centers of fashion and the performing arts. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although all States require cosmetologists to be licensed, the qualifi cations necessary to obtain a license vary. Generally, a person must have graduated from a State-licensed cosmetology school, pass a physical examination, and be at least 16 years old. In addition, educa tion requirements vary from State to State—some require graduation from high school while others require as little as an eighth grade education. In a few States, completion of an apprentice training pro gram can substitute for graduation from a cosmetology school, but very few cosmetologists learn their skills in this way. Cosmetology instruction is offered in both public and private voca tional schools, in either daytime or evening classes. A daytime course usually takes 6 months to 1 year to complete; an evening course takes longer. Many public school programs include cosmetology. An apprenticeship program usually lasts from 1 to 2 years. Both public and private programs include classroom study, demon strations, and practical work. Most schools provide students with the necessary hairdressing implements, such as combs, scissors, razors, and hair rollers, and include their cost in the tuition fee. In some schools, students must purchase their own. Beginning students work on mannequins or on each other. Once they have gained some experi ence, students practice on patrons in school “clinics.” Most schools teach styling of men’s as well as women’s hair. After graduating from a cosmetology program, students take the State licensing examination. The examination consists of a written test and, usually, a practical test of cosmetology skills. In some States, an oral examination is included, and the applicant is asked to explain the procedures he or she is following while taking the practical test. In some States, a separate examination is given for persons who want only a manicurist license or a facial care license. Some States have reciprocity agreements that allow a cosmetologist licensed in one State to work in another without reexamination. Persons who want to become cosmetologists must have finger dex terity and a sense of form and artistry. They should enjoy dealing with the public and be willing and able to follow patrons’ instmetions. Because hairstyles are constantly changing, cosmetologists must keep abreast of the latest fashions and beauty techniques. Business skills are important for those who plan to operate their own salons. Many schools help their students find jobs. During their first months on the job, new cosmetologists are given relatively simple tasks, such as giving shampoos, or are assigned to perform the simpler hairstyling patterns. Once they have demonstrated their skills, they are gradually permitted to perform the more complicated tasks such as hair coloring and permanent waving. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Cosmetologists are taught to style men’s as well as women’s hair. Advancement usually is in the form of higher earnings as cosmetolo gists gain experience and build a steady clientele, but many manage large salons or open their own after several years of experience. Some teach in cosmetology schools. Others become sales representatives for cosmetics firms, or open businesses as beauty or fashion consultants. Some cosmetologists work as examiners for State cosmetology boards. Job Outlook Employment of cosmetologists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 in response to population growth, higher incomes, the rising number of working women, and expansion of the beauty salon industry. Hairstyling for men also contributes to the demand for cosmetologists because many men go to full-service shops or cosmetology salons for styling services. Opportunities for those who specialize in nail and skin care will be especially good. Opportunities for part-time work should continue to be very good. Most people regard spending on grooming care as discretionary. During hard economic times, they tend to visit cosmetologists less frequently, which reduces cosmetologists’ earnings. Rarely, however, are cosmetologists laid off solely because of economic downturns. Earnings Median weekly earnings of wage and salary cosmetologists who usu ally worked full time were about $235 in 1988; the middle 50 percent earned between $ 175 and $320 per week. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $135, and the top 10 percent earned mored than $420. These earnings generally consist of a base salary, commissions, and tips. Earnings also depend on the size and location of the salon, patrons’ tipping habits, competition from other beauty salons, and the individ ual cosmetologist’s ability to attract and hold regular patrons. Large salons and department stores offer group life and health insurance and other benefit plans. Nearly all employers provide annual paid vacations of at least 1 week after a year’s service. The principal union which organizes cosmetologists—both employ ees and salon owners—is the United Food and Commercial Workers International Union. The principal trade association which represents and organizes salon owners, managers, and employees is the National Cosmetology Association, Inc. Other organizations include the Asso ciated Master Barbers and Beauticians of America; the National Asso ciation of Accredited Cosmetology Schools, Inc., which represents 310 Occupational Outlook Handbook school owners and teachers; and the National Beauty Culturists’ League, representing black cosmetologists, teachers, managers, and salon owners. Related Occupations Other workers whose main activity consists of helping patrons improve their personal appearance include barbers, beauty consultants, and health club directors and specialists. Sources of Additional Information A list of licensed training schools and licensing requirements can be obtained from State boards of cosmetology or from: (•-National Accrediting Commission of Cosmetology Arts and Sciences, 1333 H St. NW., Suite 710, Washington, DC 20005. w-National Association of Accredited Cosmetology Schools, Inc., 5201 Lees burg Pike, Falls Church, VA 22041. Additional information about careers in cosmetology and State licensing requirements is available free of charge from: (•-National Cosmetology Association, Inc., 3510 Olive St., St. Louis, MO 63103. For general information about the occupation, contact: (•-Hair International, 1318 Starbrook Dr.. Charlotte, NC 28210. Flight Attendants (D.O.T. 352.367-010) Nature of the Work Flight attendants are aboard almost all passenger planes to look after the passengers’ flight safety and comfort. At least 1 hour before each flight, attendants are briefed by the captain on such things as expected weather conditions and special passenger problems. The attendants see that the passenger cabin is in order, that supplies of food, beverages, blankets, and reading material are adequate, and that first aid kits and other emergency equipment are aboard and in working order. As passengers board the plane, attendants greet them, check their tickets, and assist them in storing coats and carry-on luggage. Before the plane takes off, attendants instruct passengers in the use of emergency equipment and check to see that all passengers have their seat belts fastened and seat backs forward. In the air, they answer questions about the flight, distribute magazines and pillows, and help care for small children and elderly and handicapped persons. They may administer first aid to passengers who become ill. Attendants also serve cocktails and other refreshments and, on many flights, heat and distribute precooked meals. After the plane has landed, the flight attendants assist passengers as they leave the plane. They then prepare Flight attendants make announcements regarding safety equipment and procedures. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis reports on medications given to passengers, lost and found articles, and cabin equipment conditions. Some flight attendants straighten up the plane's cabin. Assisting passengers in the rare event of an emergency is the most important function of attendants. This may range from reassuring passengers during occasional encounters with strong turbulence to opening emergency exits and inflating evacuation chutes following an emergency landing. Lead or first flight attendants aboard planes oversee the work of the other attendants while performing most of the same duties. Working Conditions Since airlines operate around the clock year round, attendants may work at night and on holidays and weekends. They usually fly 75 to 85 hours a month. In addition, they generally spend about 75 to 85 hours a month on the ground preparing planes for flight, writing reports following completed flights, and waiting for planes that arrive late. Because of variations in scheduling and limitations on flying time, many attendants have 11 or 12 days or more off each month. Attendants may be away from their home bases at least one-third of the time. During this period, the airlines provide hotel accommodations and an allowance for meal expenses. The combination of free time and discount air fares provides flight attendants the opportunity to travel and see new places. However, the work can be strenuous and trying. Short flights require speedy service if meals are served. A rough flight can make serving drinks and meals difficult. Attendants stand during much of the flight and must remain pleasant and efficient regardless of how tired they are or how demand ing passengers may be. Flight attendants are susceptible to injury because of the job demands in a moving aircraft. Employment Flight attendants held about 88,000 jobs in 1988. Commercial airlines employed the vast majority of all flight attendants, most of whom were stationed in major cities at the airlines’ home bases. A small number of flight attendants worked for large companies that operate their own aircraft for business purposes. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The airlines like to hire poised, tactful, and resourceful people who can deal comfortably with strangers. Applicants usually must be at least 19 to 21 years old, but some airlines have higher minimum age requirements. Flight attendants must have excellent health, good vision, and the ability to speak clearly. Applicants must be high school graduates. Those having several years of college or experience in dealing with the public are preferred. Flight attendants for international airlines generally must speak an appropriate foreign language fluently. Most large airlines require that newly hired flight attendants com plete 4 to 6 weeks of intensive training in their own schools. The airlines that do not operate schools generally send new employees to the school of another airline. Transportation to the training centers and an allowance for board, room, and school supplies may be provided. Trainees learn emergency procedures such as evacuating an airplane, operating an oxygen system, and giving first aid. Attendants also are taught flight regulations and duties, and company operations and policies. Trainees receive instruction on personal grooming and weight control. Trainees for the international routes get additional instruction in passport and customs regulations and dealing with terrorism. To wards the end of their training, students go on practice flights. Atten dants must receive 12 to 14 hours of training in emergency procedures and passenger relations annually. After completing initial training, flight attendants are assigned to one of their airline’s bases. New attendants are placed in “reserve status” and are called on either to staff extra flights or fill in for attendants who are sick or on vacation. Reserve attendants on duty must be available on short notice. Attendants usually remain on reserve for at least 1 year; at some cities, it may take 5 years or longer to advance from reserve status. Advancement takes longer today than in the past because experienced attendants are remaining in this career Service Occupations for more years than they used to. Attendants who no longer are on reserve bid for regular assignments. Because these assignments are based on seniority, usually only the most experienced attendants get their choice of base and flights. Some attendants transfer to flight service instructor, customer ser vice director, recruiting representative, or various other administrative positions. Job Outlook Competition for jobs as flight attendants is expected to remain very keen through the year 2000 because the number of applicants is expected to greatly exceed the number of job openings. The glamour of the airline industry and the opportunity to travel and meet people attract many appli cants. Those with at least 2 years of college and experience in dealing with the public have the best chance of being hired. Employment of flight attendants is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Growth in population and income is expected to increase the number of airline passengers. Airlines enlarge their capacity by increasing the number and size of planes in operation. Since Federal Aviation Administration safety rules require one attendant for every 50 seats, more flight attendants will be needed. As more career-minded people enter this occupation, job turnover will decline. Nevertheless, most job openings are expected from the need to replace attendants who stop working or transfer to other occupations. Employment of flight attendants is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, when the demand for air travel declines, many flight attendants are put on part-time status or laid off. Until demand increases, few new attendants are hired. Earnings Beginning flight attendants had median earnings of about $12,600 a year in 1988, according to data from the Association of Flight Atten dants. Flight attendants with 6 years of flying experience had median annual earnings of about $21,500, while some senior flight attendants earned as much as $38,000 a year. Flight attendants receive extra compensation for overtime and for night and international flights. In addition, flight attendants and their immediate families are entitled to reduced fares on their own and most other airlines. Many flight attendants belong to the Association of Flight Atten dants. Others arc members of the Transport Workers Union of America or several other unions. Flight attendants are required to buy uniforms and wear them while on duty. Uniform replacement items are usually paid for by the com pany. The airlines generally provide a small allowance to cover clean ing and upkeep of the uniforms. lish a peaceful mood, and increase property values. A growing number of individuals and organizations rely on gardeners and groundskeepers to do this work for them. All gardeners plant and care for trees, plants, and lawns, but their duties vary by specialty, with some jobs encompassing a much wider array of responsibilities than others. A large commercial project might entail landscaping the interior and exterior of a shopping mall. Following the plans drawn up by the landscape architect, gardeners plant trees, hedges, and flowering plants and apply mulch for protection. For a residential customer, gardeners might terrace a hillside, build retaining walls, and install a patio, as well as plant trees and shrubs. They also may contract to care for the landscape after it is completed. Gardeners working exclusively for homeowners, estates, and public gardens are responsible for the overall care of the property, ranging from feeding, watering, and pruning the flowering plants and trees to mowing and watering the lawn. Some landscape gardeners, called lawn service workers, specialize in maintaining lawns and shrubs for a fee. A growing number of residential and commercial clients, such as managers of office buildings, shopping malls, multiunit residential buildings, and hotels and motels favor this full-service landscape maintenance. These workers perform a full range of duties, including mowing, edging, trimming, fertilizing, dethatching, and mulching. Others are more specialized. Those working for chemical lawn service firms routinely inspect lawns for problems and apply fertilizers, weed killers, and other chemicals to lawns. Groundskeepers have even more varied duties than do gardeners, frequently combining the work of a gardener with that of a maintenance mechanic. They may work on athletic fields, golf courses, cemeteries, or parks. Groundskeepers who care for athletic fields keep both natural and artificial turf fields in top condition and mark boundaries and paint team logos and names on the playing fields before each athletic event. In order to keep natural turf fields in good playing condition, grounds keepers must make sure the underlying soil has the proper consistency to sustain new sod. They generally resod the entire field once a year in order to provide the best possible footing for the athletes. Their duties include regular mowing, watering, fertilizing, and aerating the fields. They must control insects, weeds, and crabgrass with chemicals and apply fungicides to prevent diseases. Synthetic turf requires special care, although it does not have to be mowed, watered, or fertilized. Groundskeepers must vacuum and disinfect the field after use in order t if' Related Occupations Other jobs that involve helping people and require the ability to be pleasant even under trying circumstances include tour guide, gate agent, host or hostess, waiter or waitress, and camp counselor. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities in a particular airline and the qualifications required may be obtained by writing to the personnel manager of the company. For addresses of airline companies and information about job opportunities and salaries, contact: r%7<* <Aj ••-Future Aviation Professionals of America, 4959 Massachusetts Blvd., At lanta, GA 30337. (This organization may be called toll free at 800-Jet-Jobs.) Gardeners and Groundskeepers (D.O.T. 406.381-010, .683-010, .684-010, -014,-018, .687-010; 408.161 010, .684-010, and .687-014) Nature of the Work Attractively designed, healthy, and well-maintained lawns, gardens, trees, and shrubbery can help create a positive first impression, estab https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 311 ", : ' Some gardeners specialize in maintaining lawns and shrubs. 312 Occupational Outlook Handbook to prevent growth of harmful bacteria. They also must periodically remove the turf and replace the cushioning pad. Greenskeepers maintain golf courses. They have to do many of the same things athletic turf groundskeepers do. In order to keep the putting greens in good condition, greenskeepers periodically relocate the hole, usually after 250 or more rounds of golf. Changing the pin placement eliminates uneven wear of the turf and adds interest and challenge to the game. The greenskeeper also must keep canopies, benches, ball washers, and tee markers repaired and freshly painted, as well perform other tasks required in order to keep the course neat and attractive at all times. Cemetery workers prepare graves and maintain cemetery grounds. They dig graves to specified depth, generally using a back-hoe. They may place concrete slabs on the bottom and around the sides of the grave to line it for greater support. When readying a site for the burial ceremony, they position the casket-lowering device over the grave, cover the immediate area with an artificial grass carpet, erect a canopy, and arrange folding chairs to accommodate mourners. They regularly mow grass, prune shrubs, plant flowers, and remove debris from graves. They also must periodically build the ground up around new gravesites to compensate for settling. Duties of groundskeepers in parks and recreation facilities encom pass just about everything necessary to keep these facilities ready for the many people who use them. Basic duties include caring for lawns, trees, and shrubs, maintaining athletic fields and playgrounds, and keeping parking lots, picnic areas, and other public spaces free of litter. Depending on the type and location of the facility, their duties also may include removing snow and ice from roads and walkways, erecting and dismantling snow fences, and maintaining swimming pools. These workers inspect and clean all buildings, make needed repairs, and keep everything freshly painted. They inspect playground equipment and keep it in safe working condition. Many different kinds of equipment and tools are used in landscaping and grounds maintenance. Although gardeners and groundskeepers are using power tools to make their jobs easier, they also use handtools when working in confined spaces where large or automated equipment is difficult and dangerous to use. The most commonly used handtools include shovels, rakes, pruning saws, saws, hedge and brush trimmers, and axes. Many workers use power lawnmowers, chain saws, snow blowers, and electric clippers. Some workers who care for estates, commercial and industrial grounds, and golf courses use large mecha nized equipment, such as tractors and twin-axle vehicles. Cemetery workers often use tractor-pulled flail mowers that enable safe mowing over grave markers. Park, school, cemetery, and golf course grounds keepers may use sod cutters to harvest sod that will be replanted elsewhere. Athletic turf groundskeepers use magnetic sweepers and vacuums and other devices to remove water from athletic fields. In addition, some workers in large operations use spraying and dusting equipment. Working Conditions Many of the jobs for gardeners and groundskeepers are seasonal, mainly in the spring and summer, when cleanup, planting, and mowing and trimming take place. Gardeners and groundskeepers work outdoors in all kinds of weather conditions. They frequently are under pressure to get the job completed, especially when they are preparing for public events, such as athletic competition or burials. They may be exposed to pesticides, insecticides, and other chemi cals and must exercise safety precautions to prevent exposure. They also are exposed to dangerous equipment and tools such as power lawnmowers, chain saws, and electric clippers. Employment In 1988, gardeners and groundskeepers held about 760,000 jobs. About 1 of 3 worked for lawn and garden services and landscape architects. About 1 of every 10 worked for private households and estates. Many worked for firms that operate real estate; for local government, including parks departments, and recreational facilities such as golf courses, race tracks, and amusement parks. Others were https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis employed by schools, hospitals, cemeteries, hotels, retail nurseries, and garden stores. Approximately 2 out of 10 -Were self-employed, providing landscape maintenance directly to customers on a contract basis. About 1 out of 3 gardeners and groundskeepers worked part time, most likely students working their way through school. Others working part time were older workers who might have been cutting back their hours as they approached retirement. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Entrance requirements for gardeners and groundskeepers are modest. Most entrants are high school graduates, but a high school diploma is not necessary for many jobs. Some people gain experience as a home gardener or by working in a nursery, a sod production operation, or for a tree service. Some high school students may gain experience and knowledge by belonging to the Future Farmers of America. There are no national standards for gardeners and groundskeepers, but some States require certification for workers involved in the exten sive use of chemicals, such as those used by chemical lawn services. Certification requirements vary, but usually include passing a test on the proper and safe use of insecticides, pesticides, and fungicides. Employers prefer applicants with a good driving record and some experience driving a truck, because many gardeners and groundskeep ers, especially those in lawn care services, must transport equipment to and from job sites. Because these workers often deal directly with the company’s cus tomers, they must get along well with people. Employers also look for responsible, self-motivated individuals, since many gardeners and groundskeepers work with little supervision. Courses in agronomy, horticulture, and botany are helpful for ad vancement. There are many 2- and 4-year programs in landscape management, interiorscape, and ornamental horiculture. Courses in clude turfgrass management, equipment use and care, landscape de sign, plant biology, and irrigation. A cooperative education program is considered one of the best methods of being trained. It is a program in which a student works alternate semesters or quarters for a lawn care or landscape contractor. Generally, a gardener or groundskeeper can advance to supervisor after several years of progressively responsi ble experience, including the demonstrated ability to deal effectively with both coworkers and customers. Supervisors can advance to grounds manager or superintendent for a golf course or other athletic facility, a cemetery, a campus, a school system, or manager of a lawn maintenance firm. Many gardeners and groundskeepers become landscape contractors. The Professional Grounds Management Society offers in-house cer tification to those managers who have a combination of 8 years of experience and formal education beyond high school. Job Outlook Employment of gardeners and groundskeepers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 in response to increasing demand for gardening and landscaping services. Despite this growth, most job openings are expected to result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force. Expected growth in the construction of commercial and industrial buildings, shopping malls, homes, highways, and parks and recre ational facilities should stimulate demand for these workers. Develop ers are increasingly utilizing landscaping services, both interior and exterior, to attract prospective buyers and tenants. In addition, owners of many existing buildings and facilities are upgrading their landscap ing. Also, a growing number of homeowners are using lawn mainte nance and landscaping services to enhance the beauty and value of their property as well as to conserve their leisure time. Growth in the number of parks, athletic fields, golf courses, cemeteries, and similar facilities also can be expected to add to the demand for these workers. Job openings should be plentiful because the occupation is large and turnover is high. This occupation attracts many young people who are not committed to the occupation. Some take a job to earn money for a specific purpose, such as financing a college education; others only Service Occupations 313 take this job until a better paying job is found. Because wages for beginners are low and the work is physically demanding, many em ployers have difficulty attracting enough workers to fill available openings. Earnings Median weekly earnings of gardeners and groundskeepers who usually worked full-time were about $230 in 1988; the middle 50 percent earned between $185 and $330. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $145, and the top 10 percent earned more than $440 a week. According to a survey conducted by Lawn Care Industry Magazine, those who worked for chemical lawn care firms averaged $7 an hour in 1988. Those who worked for landscape maintenance firms earned an average of $7.50 an hour. Related Occupations Gardeners and groundskeepers perform most of their work outdoors. Others whose jobs may be performed outdoors are construction work ers, nursery workers, farmers, horticultural workers, tree surgeon helpers, tree trimmers and pruners, and forest conservation workers. Sources of Additional Information For career information, contact: (•-Associated Landscape Contractors of America, Inc., 405 N. Washington St., Suite 104, Falls Church, VA 22046. w-National Landscape Association. 1250 I St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. For career and certification information, contact: (•-Professional Grounds Management Society, 12 Galloway Ave., Suite IE, Cockeysville, MD 21030. Homemaker-Home Health Aides (D O T. 079.224-010; 309.354-010; and 354.377-014) ■HHPIhHHHI Nature of the Work Homemaker-home health aides allow elderly, disabled, and ill persons to live in their own homes instead of an institution. They provide home management services, personal care, and emotional support for clients who need such assistance. Some homemaker-home health aides work with families in which a parent is incapacitated and small children need care. Others help discharged hospital patients who have relatively short-term needs. Most homemaker-home health aides, however, work with elderly or disabled clients who require more extensive care than spouse, family, or friends can provide informally. Job duties as well as schedules vary according to clients’ needs. A person recuperating from major surgery may require daily care for a period of days or weeks, while someone with a chronic condition is likely to need help several times a week over an indefinite period of time. Homemaker-home health aides perform light housekeeping chores: Cleaning a client’s room, kitchen, and bathroom; doing the laundry; and changing bed linens. Aides may also plan meals (includ ing special diets), shop for food, and prepare meals. Among the personal care services that aides perform are assisting with bathing or giving a bed bath, shampooing hair, and helping the client move from bed to a chair or another room. Homemaker-home health aides also check pulse and respiration, help with simple pre scribed exercises, and assist with medications. Occasionally, they may change nonsterile dressings, use special equipment such as a hydraulic lift, or assist with braces or artificial limbs. Homemaker-home health aides also provide instruction and psycho logical support. For example, the home health aide may assist in toilet training a severely mentally handicapped child and work with the parents in reinforcing the training. Providing emotional support and understanding is a particularly important aspect of the work since a client’s progress in regaining strength and independence may be greatly https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Many homemaker-home health aides work with elderly clients. influenced by his or her mental attitude. Lastly, if employed by an agency, the aide reports changes in the client’s condition and helps a professional team decide when the services being given to the client should be changed. In agency settings, homemaker-home health aides are assigned specific duties by a supervisor—usually a registered nurse, physical therapist, or social worker. If the care is medically related, the supervisor consults the client’s physician about the need for in home services, especially if the client recently has been discharged from the hospital. Many homemaker-home health agencies, both public and private, require that a physician certify that such services are necessary. Before the aide starts coming to the client’s home, the supervisor pays an initial visit to determine what specific services are appropriate and to discuss the aide’s scheduled duties with the client. (In many agencies, the aide is expected to submit a daily report, signed by the client, that lists the exact services performed and the hours worked.) The supervisor visits the client regularly to be sure that the service is satisfactory. If the supervisor determines that extensive services will be required over a long period of time, attempts are made to coordinate the assignment of the aide with other community and in-home services such as adult day care, meals-on-wheels, friendly visitors, and tele phone reassurance. If satisfactory provision for the required care can not be made, the supervisor may suggest an alternative arrangement such as transfer to a nursing home or retirement residence. However, in many cases, it is possible to maintain care in the home through the services provided by homemaker-home health aides—coordinated, when needed, with other community services. 314 Occupational Outlook Handbook Working Conditions The amount of variety in a homemaker-home health aide’s daily routine depends on whether the aide assists one client or many. The job can entail going to the same home even,' day for months or even years. More commonly, however, aides work with a number of different clients, each job lasting a few days or weeks. Sometimes, aides go to two or three clients in the course of a single day. Because aides assist clients in their own homes, surroundings differ from case to case. One home may be neat, while another may be untidy. Likewise, one case may be emotionally draining because the client is angry, abusive, or mentally confused, while another may be enjoyable because the client is so pleasant to be with. Homemaker-home health aides are essentially on their own when they are at work. Although aides sent out by agencies generally have detailed instructions as to what services are to be performed, which clients are to be visited, and when these visits are to take place, it is up to the aide to carry out the instructions. Ordinarily, there is little direct supervision while the worker is in the client’s home. Aides are usually required to furnish their own transportation. Often, this means having access to an automobile. In any event, it is the aide’s responsibility to find a way to get to the client’s home on time. Aides may spend a good portion of the working day traveling from one client to another. Full-time, part-time, and shift work is available for homemakerhome health aides. An attractive element of this job is that aides are often able to arrange their schedules to meet their personal needs. Employment Homemaker-home health aides held about 327,000 jobs in 1988. Most aides are employed by public or private agencies, including homemaker-home health agencies, home health agencies, visiting nurse associations, hospitals, public health and welfare departments, and temporary help firms. Self-employed aides have no agency affilia tion or supervision, and accordingly accept clients, set fees, and arrange work schedules on their own. Although only a small number of men currently are employed in the occupation, additional men are needed to care for men who prefer a male aide. The demand for male homemaker-home health aides has increased significantly with the advent of AIDS hospices that have a large proportion of male patients. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum requirement for a homemaker-home health aide is to be able to read and write. A high school diploma is desirable, but not necessary. Most agencies require some formal training. Training requirements for homemaker-home health aides are chang ing. The Federal Goverment will implement new guidelines starting January 1990 for home care paraprofessionals who receive reimburse ment from Medicare. The new law requires a total of 75 training hours with a combination of at least 16 hours of classroom training and a minimum of 16 hours of practical training supervised by an experi enced registered nurse. Subjects taught include communication skills; observation, reporting, and documentation of patient status and the care or services furnished; reading and recording vital signs; basic infection control procedures; basic elements of body function and changes; maintenance of a clean, safe and healthy environment; recog nition of and procedures for emergencies; the physical, emotional and developmental characteristics of the patients served; personal hygiene and grooming; normal range of motion and positioning; and basic nutrition. Programs may be offered by the employing agency, the American Red Cross, a community college, or a vocational school, but they must meet the approval of the Health and Human Services Department. Some training programs may vary depending upon State regulations. Many agencies offer in-service training opportunities for staff mem bers. Workshops or lectures may be scheduled on specialized topics such as caring for clients with AIDS or Alzheimer’s disease. Successful homemaker-home health aides are mature persons who like to help people and don’t mind hard work. They have a sense of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis responsibility, compassion, emotional stability, and a cheerful disposi tion. Aides must be tactful and able to get along with all kinds of people. Since aides work in private homes, they must also be honest and discreet. Clients may not want their medical problems or personal habits made public knowledge. In addition to these personal qualities, homemaker-home health aides must be in good health because some of their duties, such as lifting, moving, and supporting patients, require above-average physical strength. A physical examination including a chest X-ray may be required. As aides take on a variety of cases, they develop expertise in caring for persons with many types of illnesses. Some aides discover a special talent for caring for a specific type of client, such as those suffering from Parkinson’s disease, and in some larger agencies, experienced homemaker-home health aides can specialize in caring for clients with a specific type of problem. After gaining experience in different types of cases, aides can assume more responsibility and become more self directing within the scope of their assigned duties. Job Outlook Employment of homemaker-home health aides is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Changing demographics will play a major role in this growth. The number of people in their eighties and beyond is projected to rise substantially. This age group is characterized by mounting health problems that require some assistance. Another factor expected to stimulate demand for homemaker-home health aides is the increasing reliance—by health professionals—on home care for patients of all ages. This trend reflects several developments: Efforts to contain costs by moving patients out of hospitals as quickly as possible; the realiza tion that treatment in familiar surroundings can be more effective than in clinical surroundings; and the development of portable equipment for home use. For example, newborn babies with jaundice now can be treated at home with portable phototherapy equipment, and home maker-home health aides will be needed to help their parents to take care of these infants as well as other home duties. The extent to which these growth factors are translated into jobs for home care workers will depend on other things, however—notably the availability of public and private funds to purchase in-home ser vices; trends in informal caretaking by family, friends, and neighbors; and the role of alternative arrangements, including adult day care and life care communities. Concern about the cost of hospital care has set in motion a number of important changes in the way such care is delivered and paid for. Pressure to reduce the length of hospital stays, for example, has spurred demand for home health services for patients recovering from stroke, surgery, and other serious conditions. The use of home care for patients upon their discharge from the hospital is expected to expand substan tially, due in part to coverage for such care by Medicare, Medicaid, health maintenance organizations, and private health insurance plans. Job prospects are excellent for people seeking work as homemakerhome health aides. In addition to new jobs created by the growth and aging of the population and new home technology, replacement needs are expected to produce numerous job openings. Turnover is high, a reflection of the relatively low skill requirements and low pay. Also contributing to turnover are the emotional demands this kind of work imposes. Providing personal care and performing home management duties in a client’s home can be quite stressful if the client is terminally ill or has an abrasive personality. Moreover, if no other family mem bers are present, the work can be isolating. Aides who lack the tempera ment or maturity for handling difficult interpersonal situations are likely to leave the occupation. However, persons who are interested in this work and suited for it should have no trouble finding and keeping a job. Individuals with prior experience or training as home maker-home health aides or nursing aides should find employment opportunities abundant and will be in great demand. Earnings Earnings for homemaker-home health aides vary considerably. Some aides start at the minimum wage. The Federal minimum wage is $3.80 Service Occupations an hour and is scheduled to rise to $4.25 on April 1, 1991. Employees can pay workers younger than 20 years a lower training wage for up to 6 months. Homemaker-home health aides in agencies in large cities that have high living costs generally pay higher wages, up to $8 an hour to start. Agencies that have union contracts usually pay higher wages and offer more benefits. While some agencies pay the same rate to all aides, most agencies give slight pay increases as aides gain experience and are given more responsibility. Benefits vary even more than wages. Some agencies offer no benefits at all, while others offer a full package of holidays, vacation, sick leave, health and life insurance, and a retirement plan. While some agencies hire only “on-call” hourly workers, with no benefits, many agencies also employ aides on a full-time or part-time basis with many benefits and a minimum number of hours guaranteed. A typical full time aide is guaranteed 36 hours of work a week; has 1 to 3 weeks of paid vacation each year, based on number of years of employment; earns 1 day of sick leave a month; is paid for major holidays; and can participate in health insurance and pension plans. A typical part-time employee works a regular schedule and usually works at least 20 hours a week, receives the same hourly wage as full-time employees, and may have prorated benefits. A few agencies also prorate vacation and sick leave for those employees who do not have a guaranteed minimum number of hours or a regular schedule. Related Occupations Homemaker-home health aide is a service occupation that combines duties of health workers and social service workers. Workers in related occupations that involve personal contact to help or instruct others include attendants in children’s institutions, childcare attendants in schools, child monitors, companions, nursing aides, nursery school attendants, occupational therapy aides, orderlies, physical therapy aides, playroom attendants, and psychiatric aides. Sources of Additional Information General information about training and employment opportunities for homemaker-home health aides and a list of relevant publications are available from: w-The National Association for Homecare, 519 C St. NE., Washington, DC 20002. know how to use equipment and cleaners properly to avoid harming floors, fixtures, and themselves. Working Conditions Since most office buildings are cleaned while they are empty, many cleaners work evening hours. Some, however, such as school and hospital custodians, work in the daytime. When there is a need for 24hour maintenance, janitors may be assigned to shifts. Janitors and cleaners usually work inside heated, well-lighted build ings. However, sometimes they work outdoors sweeping walkways, mowing lawns, or shoveling snow. Working with machines can be noisy, and some tasks, such as cleaning bathrooms and trash rooms, can be dirty and unpleasant. Janitors may suffer minor cuts, bruises, and bums from machines, handtools, and chemicals. Janitors and cleaners spend most of their time on their feet, some times lifting or pushing heavy furniture or equipment. Many tasks, such as dusting or sweeping, require constant bending, stooping, and stretching. Employment Janitors and cleaners held about 2.9 million jobs in 1988. One-third worked part time (less than 35 hours a week). Custodians worked in every type of establishment. About 1 in 5 worked in a school, including colleges and universities. One in five worked for a firm supplying building maintenance services on a con tract basis. One in ten worked in a hotel and another one in ten in a hospital. Others were employed by restaurants, operators of apartment buildings, office buildings, and other types of real estate, churches and other religious organizations, manufacturing firms, and government agencies. Although cleaning jobs can be found in all cities and towns, most are located in highly populated areas where there are many office buildings, stores, and apartment houses. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement No special education is required for most cleaning jobs, but the begin ner should know simple arithmetic and be able to follow instructions. High school shop courses are helpful for minor plumbing or carpentry work. Most janitors and cleaners learn their skills on the job. Usually, Janitors and Cleaners (D.O.T. 323.687; 358.687-010; 381.687 except -010; 382.664-010; 389.667 010, .683-010; 739.687-198; 891.687-010 and -018; and 952.687-010) Nature of the Work Janitors or cleaners—also called building custodians—keep office buildings, hospitals, stores, apartment houses, hotels, and other types of buildings clean and in good condition. Some janitors only do cleaning; others have a wide range of duties. They may fix leaky faucets, empty trash cans, do painting and carpentry, replenish bath room supplies, mow lawns, and see that heating and air-conditioning equipment works properly. On a typical day, janitors may wet- or drymop floors, vacuum carpets, dust furniture, make minor repairs, and exterminate insects and rodents. In hospitals, they may also wash bed frames, brush mattresses, remake beds, and disinfect and sterilize equipment and supplies using germicides and sterilizing equipment. In hotels, aside from cleaning and maintaining the premises, they may deliver television sets, ironing boards, baby cribs, and rollaway beds to guests’ rooms. Janitors and cleaners use different equipment, tools, and cleaning materials. For one job, they may need a mop and bucket; for another, an electric polishing machine and a special cleaning solution. Improved building materials, chemical cleaners, and power equipment have made many tasks easier and less time consuming, but janitors must https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 315 r Many cleaners work evening hours. 316 Occupational Outlook Handbook beginners work with an experienced cleaner, doing routine cleaning. They are given more complicated work as they gain experience. In some cities, programs run by unions, government agencies, or employers teach janitorial skills. Students learn how to clean buildings thoroughly and efficiently, the correct way to clean different surfaces, and how to operate and maintain machines used on the job, such as wet and dry vacuums, buffers, and polishers. Instruction in minor electrical, plumbing, and other repairs may also be given. As part of their training, students learn to plan their work, to follow safety and health regulations, to deal with people in the buildings they clean, and to work without supervision. Those who come in contact with the public should have a pleasant personality and good communication skills. Janitors and cleaners usually find work by answering newspaper advertisements or applying directly to organizations where they would like to work or to a building maintenance service. They also get jobs through State employment service offices. Advancement opportunities for janitorial workers usually are limited because, in many buildings, the janitor is the only maintenance worker. Where there is a large maintenance staff, however, janitors can be promoted to supervisory jobs. A high school diploma improves the chances for advancement. Some janitors set up their own maintenance business. Job Outlook Employment of building janitors and cleaners is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as the number of office buildings, factories, hospitals, apartment houses, schools, and other buildings increases. Employment will grow much faster than average in firms supplying building maintenance services as more employers contract out their cleaning work. The need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force will create most job openings. This large occupation is easy to enter since there are few requirements for formal education and train ing, turnover is high, and part-time and temporary jobs are plentiful. New technology is expected to have little effect on employment of janitors and cleaners. Robots now under development are limited to performing a single cleaning task such as vacuuming and then only in large, uncluttered areas like airport terminals. Robots with multiple cleaning functions will probably not become available for some time, and, if they are expensive, it may not be practical to replace low-paid cleaning personnel with these machines. Even if these robots become affordable, they may not be usable in many places, particularly clut tered areas such as hotel and hospital rooms. Earnings Janitors and cleaners who usually worked full time averaged about $245 a week in 1988; the middle 50 percent earned between $185 and $325. Ten percent earned less than $145; 10 percent earned more than $425. In 1988, average straight-time hourly earnings of janitors and clean ers in metropolitan areas were $6.07, which is less than three-fourths as much as the average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. The average for janitors in manufac turing industries was $9.37 an hour and for nonmanufacturing indus tries, $5.40. Earnings, however, vary by industry and area of the country. Workers in large cities of the Northeast, North Central, and Western regions usually earn the highest wages. Many nonunion, part time workers earned the minimum wage. Most building service workers receive paid holidays and vacations and health insurance. Related Occupations Private household workers have job duties similar to janitors and cleaners. Workers who specialize in one of the many job functions of janitors and cleaners include refuse collectors, floor waxers, street sweepers, window cleaners, gardeners, boiler tenders, pest controllers, and general maintenance repairers. Sources of Additional Information Information about janitorial jobs may be obtained from a local State employment service office or from: wBuilding Service Contractors Association International, 10201 Lee Highway, Suite 225, Fairfax, VA 22030. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Private Household Workers (D.O.T. 301 except 687-018; 302.685.010, .687-010; 305; 309 except .354 010 and .677-014) Nature of the Work People employ private household workers to clean, do laundry, take care of children, plan and cook meals, and do numerous other tasks to ensure that the household runs smoothly. Many household workers work for two or more employers; others work for just one. Most household workers are general houseworkers and usually the only worker employed in the home. They dust and polish furniture; sweep, mop, and wax floors; vacuum; and clean ovens, refrigerators, and bathrooms. They also wash dishes, polish silver, and change and make beds. Some wash, fold, and iron clothes. A few wash windows. Other duties may include cooking, looking after a child or an elderly person, feeding pets, answering the telephone and doorbell, and calling and waiting for repair workers .Household workers may also take clothes and laundry to the cleaners, buy groceries, and do other errands. Household workers whose primary responsibility is taking care of children are called childcare workers. Those employed on an hourly basis are usually called babysitters. Childcare workers dress, feed, and bathe children; supervise their play, wash their clothes, and clean their rooms. They may also waken them and put them to sleep, take them for doctors’ visits, and discipline them. Those who are in charge of infants, sometimes called infant nurses or nannies, also prepare bottles and change diapers. Tutors or govern esses look after older children. They may help them with school work, teach them a foreign language, and guide them in their general upbring ing. (Childcare workers who work outside the child’s home are covered in the statement on childcare workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Those who assist elderly, handicapped, or convalescent people are called companions or personal attendants. Depending on the employ er’s needs, a companion or attendant might help with bathing and dressing, prepare and serve meals, and keep the house tidy. They also may read to their employers, write letters for them, play cards or games, and go with them on walks and outings. Companions may also accompany their employers to medical appointments and handle their social and business affairs. Households with a large staff may include a housekeeper or a butler, a cook, a caretaker, and a launderer. Housekeepers and butlers hire, supervise, and coordinate the work of the household staff and keep the household running smoothly. Butlers also receive and announce guests, answer telephones, deliver messages, serve food and drinks, chauffeur, or act as a personal attendant. Cooks plan and prepare meals, clean the kitchen, order groceries and supplies, and may also serve meals. Caretakers do heavy housework and general home main tenance. They wash windows, wax floors, and hang draperies. They maintain heating and other equipment and do light carpentry, painting, and odd jobs. They may also mow the lawn and do some gardening if the household does not have a gardener. Working Conditions Private household workers usually work in pleasant and comfortable homes or apartments. Most are dayworkers who live in their own homes and travel to work. Some live in the home of their employer, generally with their own room and bath. Live-ins usually work longer hours. However, if they work evenings or weekends, they may get other time off. Living in may isolate them from family and friends. On the other hand, they often become part of their employer’s family and may derive satisfaction from caring for them. Being a general houseworker can also be isolating, since work is usually done alone. Housekeeping is hard work. Both dayworkers and live-ins are on their feet most of the day and do much walking, lifting, bending, stooping, and reaching. In addition, some employers may be hard to please. Service Occupations i The demand for household help outstrips the supply. Employment Private household workers held about 902,000 jobs in 1988. More than half were general houseworkers, mostly day workers. About 40 percent were childcare workers, including babysitters. About 6 percent were housekeepers, butlers, cooks, and launderers. Most jobs are in big cities and their affluent suburbs. Some are on large estates or in resorts away from cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Private household workers generally do not need any special training. Individuals who cannot find other work because of limited language or other skills often turn to this work. Most jobs require the ability to clean well, cook, or take care of children. These skills are generally learned by young people while helping with housework at home. Some training takes place on the job. Employers show the household workers what they want done and how. For childcare workers and companions, general education, background, and ability to get along with the person they will care for are most important. Home economics courses in high schools and vocational and adult education schools offer training in cooking and childcare. Courses in child development, first aid, and nursing in postsecondary schools are also useful. A few special schools exist for butlers, nannies, and governesses. Private household workers must be honest, discreet, dependable, courteous, and neat. They need physical stamina. Opportunities for advancement within this occupation are limited. There are very few large households with big staffs where general houseworkers can advance to cook, executive housekeeper, or butler, and these jobs may require specialized training. Advancement usually consists of better pay and working conditions. Workers may move to similar jobs in hotels, hospitals, and restaurants, where the pay and fringe benefits are usually better. Others transfer into better paying unrelated jobs. Job Outlook Employment of private household workers is expected to decline through the year 2000. Jobs will be readily available, however, and prospects should be excellent for those interested in entering the field. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 317 Demand for household help has outstripped the supply of workers willing to take domestic jobs for many years. The imbalance is ex pected to persist—and possibly worsen—through the year 2000. On the one hand, demand is expected to grow as more women join the labor force and need help running their households. Demand for companions and personal attendants is also expected to rise due to projected rapid growth in the frail elderly population. The supply situation is not likely to improve. Unattractiveness of the work, low status, low pay, lack of fringe benefits, and limited advancement potential deter many prospective household workers. Demographic factors will take on added importance in constraining supply as the year 2000 approaches. The anticipated decline in the number of teenagers and young adults, the age group from which many childcare workers and babysitters come, will have a significant impact in the years immediately ahead. Moreover, recent changes in the immigration law may reduce the number of immigrants available for private household work. Due to the limited supply of household workers, many employers have turned to domestic cleaning firms, childcare centers, and tempo rary help firms to meet their needs for household help. This trend is expected to continue. (See the statements on janitors and cleaners, childcare workers, and homemaker-home health aides elsewhere in the Handbook.) Although employment of private household workers is not expected to grow, many jobs will be available because of the need to replace workers who leave this large occupation every year. Persons who are interested in this work and suited for it should have no trouble finding and keeping jobs. Earnings Earnings of private household workers depend on the type of work, the number of hours, household and staff size, geographic location, and experience. Nearly 2 out of 3 private household workers work part time, or less than 35 hours a week. Some work only 2 or 3 days a week, while others may work half a day 4 or 5 days a week. Earnings vary from about $10 an hour or more in a big city to less than the Federal minimum wage in some rural areas (some domestic workers are not covered by minimum wage laws). Those covered by the Federal minimum wage receive $3.80 an hour, rising to $4.25 an hour on April 1, 1991. Employers can pay workers younger than 20 years a lower training wage for up to 6 months. In addition, day workers often get carfare and a free meal. Live-in domestics usually earn more than dayworkers and also get free room and board. However, they often work longer hours. Babysitters usually have the lowest earnings. In 1988, median earnings for full-time private household workers were about $140 a week. The middle 50 percent earned from about $176 to $358 a week, while the top 10 percent earned about $514 a week or more. The median for cleaners was about $160 and for childcare workers, about $119 a week. Some full-time live-in housekeepers or butlers, nannies, and govern esses earn much higher wages than these. For instance, in New York City, an experienced cook or nanny may earn up to $900 a week. A major domo, or senior butler, who runs a large household and super vises a staff of six people or more may earn up to $1,000 a week. Most private household workers have very limited or no health insurance, retirement plans, or unemployment compensation. Related Occupations Other workers with similar duties are building custodians, hotel and restaurant cleaners, childcare workers in day care centers, home health aides, cooks, kitchen workers, waiters and waitresses, and bartenders. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities for private household workers is available from local private employment agencies and State employ ment service offices. Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, and Related Occupations Farm Operators and Managers (D.O.T. 180.117, . 161, .167 except -014, -022, -050, -054; 401.161; 402.161; 403.161; 404.161; 405.161. .361; 407.161; 410.161; 411.161; 412.161; 413.161; 421.161; and 446.161) Nature of the Work American farm operators and managers direct the activities of one of the world’s largest and most productive agricultural sectors. They produce enough food and fiber to meet the needs of our Nation and to export huge quantities to countries around the world. Farm operators. Farm operators may be farmer owners or tenant farmers (renters). Their specific tasks are determined by the type of farm they operate. On crop farms—farms growing grain, fiber, fruit, and vegetables—farm operators are responsible for planning, tilling, planting, fertilizing, cultivating, spraying, and harvesting. After the harvest, they make sure that the crops are packaged, loaded, and promptly marketed or stored for resale. On livestock, dairy, and poultry farms, farm operators must plan, feed, and care for the animals and keep barns, pens, coops, and other farm buildings clean and in repair. They also oversee breeding, some slaughtering, and marketing activities. On horticultural specialty farms, farm operators oversee the production of ornamental plants, nursery products—such as flowers, bulbs, shrubbery, and sod—and fruits and vegetables grown in green houses. Farm operators must make many managerial decisions. Their farm output is strongly influenced by the weather, disease, fluctuations in prices of domestic and foreign farm products, and, in some cases, Federal farm programs. Farm operators must determine the best time to seed, fertilize, cultivate, harvest, and market. They must carefully plan the combination of crops they grow so that, if the price of one crop drops, they will have sufficient income from another to make up for it. Also, prices of crops and livestock change from one month to another, and farm operators who plan ahead may be able to store their crops or keep their livestock to take advantage of better prices later in the year. Farm operators may have to secure loans from credit agencies to finance the purchase of machinery, fertilizer, livestock, and feed. They also keep extensive financial and inventory records of the farm operation and train and supervise workers in the use of equipment and the performance of farm work. Farm operators perform tasks ranging from setting up and operating machinery to erecting fences and sheds. The size of the farm often determines which of these tasks operators will handle themselves. Operators of large farms have employees who do much of the physical work that small-farm operators do themselves. Although employment on most farms is limited to the farm operator and one or two family workers or hired employees, some large farms have 100 or more full time and seasonal workers. Some of these workers are in nonfarm occupations, such as truckdriver, sales representative, bookkeeper, and computer specialist. Farm managers. The duties and responsibilities of farm managers vary widely. For example, the owner of a very large livestock farm may employ a farm manager to oversee a single activity such as feeding livestock. When managing a small crop farm for an absentee owner, on the other hand, the farm manager may assume all functions from planning the output to participating in planting and harvesting activi ties. Farm management firms and corporations involved in agriculture employ highly trained professional farm managers who may manage some or all farm operations or oversee tenant operators of several 318 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis farms. In these cases, farm managers may establish output goals, determine financial constraints, and monitor production and mar keting. Working Conditions Farming is attractive to persons who prefer a controlled pace and the more wholesome rural life to urban living. Even when farming generates a modest income, many farmers earn supplementary income from jobs in nearby cities or towns rather than leave farming. The topography of the land and the climate of an area generally determine the type of farming that is done. For example, wheat, com, and other grains are most efficiently grown on large farms on level land where large and sophisticated machinery can best be used. Thus, these crops are ideal for the prairies of Iowa and Illinois or the plains of Nebraska and Kansas. Crops that require longer growing seasons, such as cotton, tobacco, and peanuts, are grown chiefly in the South. Most of the country’s fruits and vegetables come from California, Texas, and Florida. Crops requiring a temperate climate—for exam ple, potatoes—come from Northern States such as Idaho, Washington, and Maine. Many dairy herds are found in the areas of good pastureland, such as Wisconsin, New York, and Minnesota. Livestock pro duction requires large tracts of land for grazing and feed grain produc tion and thus is concentrated in Texas, Nebraska, Iowa, and some Western States. Many types of farming are seasonal in nature. Although many farm operators and managers on crop farms work from sunup to sundown during the planting and harvesting seasons, they often work on the farm only 6 to 7 months a year, and many have second jobs off the farm. On farms that raise animals for meat or dairy products, work goes on constantly throughout the year. Because animals must be fed and watered every day and cows must be milked twice daily, operators of these farms rarely get the chance to be away. Farm work can be hazardous. Farmers may be injured by planting and harvesting machinery. They are subject to illnesses and diseases from improper handling and breathing of dangerous pesticides and chemicals and from handling crops that have been sprayed with insecti cides. On very large farms, farm operators spend substantial time meeting with farm managers or farm supervisors in charge of various activities. Professional farm managers overseeing several farms may divide their time between traveling to meet with farm operators and planning and scheduling farm operations while in their offices. Employment In 1988, farm operators and managers held about 1,272,000jobs. Most managed crop production activities while others managed livestock production activities. A relatively small number were involved in agricultural services such as contract harvesting and farm labor con tracting. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Growing up on a family farm and participating in farming programs for young people sponsored by the Future Farmers of America or the 4-H youth educational programs are important sources of training for prospective farmers. However, modem farming requires increasingly complex scientific, business, and financial decisions. Even young people who have lived on farms must acquire a strong educational background. Their high school training should include courses in mathematics and the sciences. Completion of a 2-year and preferably a 4-year program in a college of agriculture is becoming necessary. A Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, and Related Occupations 319 nected to telephones to get the latest information on prices of farm products and other agricultural news. s 11 Increasingly complex farming methods should spur demand for farm managers. bachelor’s degree in agriculture is essential for persons without farm experience who aspire to become farmers or farm managers. Students should select the college most appropriate to their specific interests and location. All States have land-grant universities that include a college of agriculture; their major programs of study include areas such as dairy science, agricultural economics and business, horticulture, crop and fruit science, soil science, and animal science. Also, colleges usually offer special programs of study concerning products important to the area in which they are located, such as animal science programs at colleges in the Western and Plains States. Whatever one’s interest, the college curriculum should include courses in farm management and in business, finance, and economics. Professional status can be acquired through certification as an ac credited farm manager (AFM) by the American Society of Farm Managers and Rural Appraisers. Applicants must have several years’ farm experience and the appropriate academic background—a bache lor’s degree or preferably a master’s degree in a field of agricultural science—and must pass courses and examinations relating to business, financial, and legal aspects of farm management. It is necessary to keep abreast of continuing advances in farming methods both in the United States and abroad. Farm operators should be willing to try new processes and adapt to constantly changing technologies to produce their crops or raise their livestock more effi ciently. Keeping abreast of changing foreign agricultural policies and international exchange rates is important to operators of farms produc ing internationally traded crops and livestock. Operators also must have enough technical knowledge of crops and growing conditions and plant and animal diseases to be able to make decisions that ensure the successful operation of their farms. Knowledge of the relationship between farm operations—for example, the use of pesticides—and environmental conditions is essential. They also must have the managerial skills necessary to organize and operate a business. Mechanical aptitude and the ability to work with tools of all kinds also are valuable skills for the operator of a small farm, who often must maintain and repair machinery or farm structures. A basic knowledge of accounting and bookkeeping can be helpful in keeping financial records, and a knowledge of credit sources is essential. Familiarity with computers is important, especially on large farms, since computers are used for recordkeeping and business analysis. For example, some farmers use personal computers con https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook The expanding world population is increasing the demand for food and fiber. However, increasing productivity in our highly efficient agricultural sector is expected to easily meet domestic and export requirements. Although requirements for machinery and equipment will remain stable or increase slightly, land and labor requirements in the agricultural sector will decrease. Thus, employment of farm operators and managers combined is expected to continue to decline through the year 2000, but at a slower rate than in the past. The overwhelming majority of job openings will result from the need to replace farmers who retire or leave the occupation for economic or other reasons. The trend toward fewer and larger farms, primarily through mergers, is expected to continue to reduce the number of jobs for farm operators. A farm can be acquired by inheritance; however, purchasing a farm is still expensive and requires substantial capital, even though prices of farm land and property have declined recently and loans have become easier to obtain. In addition, sufficient funds are required to withstand the adverse effects of climate and price fluctuations upon farm output and income and to cover operating costs—livestock, feed, seed, and fuel. Also, the complexity of modem farming and keen competition among farmers leave little room for the marginally successful farmer or the “gentleman” farmer who considers farming a hobby rather than a necessity. Small and medium-size farms, many of which do not generate sufficient income to support the desired standard of living, are expected to decrease in number. However, the small but increasing number of horticultural farms may provide some employment opportu nities. The increase in the average size of farms and in the complexity of farming are expected to spur demand for highly trained and experi enced farm managers. Additional demand will come from the increas ing number of absentee owners who, rather than work their farms, often hire farm managers to run the farm or oversee tenant farmers. Farms are decreasing in number but increasing in size. Number of farms (thousands) 2,400, Average size (acres) Soubce: U.S Department of Agriculture 320 Occupational Outlook Handbook Earnings Farmers incomes vary greatly from year to year, since prices of farm products fluctuate depending upon weather conditions that influence the amount and quality of farm output. A farm that shows a large profit in one year may show a loss in the following year. Many fanners— primarily small—have off-farm income often several times larger than their farm income. Farm income also varies greatly depending upon the type and size of farm. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, vegetable and melon, cotton, horticultural specialty, and rice farms generated an average income of over $100,000 in 1988. On the other hand, cattle, general crop, corn, tobacco, and other livestock farms generated less than $15,000 in income, on the average. Generally, large farms generate more income than small farms. Exceptions include some specialty farms producing low-volume but high-value horticultural and fruit products. Farm managers’ incomes also vary substantially. According to lim ited information, most farm managers earned between $15,000 and $30,000 in 1988. Farmers and self-employed farm managers make their own provis ions for fringe benefits. As members of farm organizations, they may derive benefits such as group discounts on health and life insurance premiums. Salaried farm managers may receive the usual fringe bene fits such as paid vacations and health insurance. Related Occupations Farmers and farm managers strive to improve the quality of agricultural products and the efficiency of farms. Workers with similar functions include agricultural engineers, agronomists, animal breeders, animal scientists, apiculturalists, botanists, county agricultural agents, dairy scientists, extension service specialists, farm worker supervisors, feed and farm management advisors, horticulturalists, plant breeders, poul try scientists, range managers, and soil conservationists. Sources of Additional Information For general information about farming and agricultural occupations, contact: ■-National FFA Organization, Box 15160, 5632 Mt. Vemon Memorial Hwy Alexandria, VA 22309. ' ■-American Farm Bureau Federation, 225 Touhy Ave., Park Ridge, IL 60068. For information about certification as an accredited farm manager, contact: ■-American Society of Farm Managers and Rural Appraisers, 950 South Cherry St., Suite 106, Denver, CO 80222. For general information about farm occupations and 4-H activities, contact your local County Extension Service office. For information about agricultural education, contact: ■-National Postsecondary Agricultural Student Organization, Box 279, Cobleskill, NY 12043. ■-Higher Education Program, Cooperative State Research Service, U.S. De partment of Agriculture, 14th and Independence Ave. SW., Washington DC 20250. Fishers, Hunters, and Trappers (D.O.T. 197.133-010, -018; 441; 442; 443; 447; 449.664, .667, .687; 461) Nature of the Work Fishers, hunters, and trappers gather marine and animal life for human consumption and for animal feed, bait, and other industrial uses, and manage animal life for research and control purposes. The range of occupational functions reflects the wide variety of marine and animal life and their environmental conditions. Gathering sea life hundreds of miles from shore with vessels—large fishing boats capable of hauling a catch of tens of thousands of pounds of fish—requires a crew of up to 30 fishers—a captain, or skipper, a https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis first mate and sometimes a second mate, and boatswains and other deckhands. The captain plans and oversees the fishing operation—the marine life to be sought, the location of the best fishing grounds, the method of capture, the duration of the trip, and the sale of the catch. The captain ensures that the fishing vessel is in suitable condition; oversees the purchase of supplies, gear, and equipment such as fuel, netting, and cables; and hires qualified crew members and assigns their duties. The vessel’s course is plotted with navigation aids such as compasses, sextants, and charts and maintained using electronic equipment such as autopilots, loran, and satellites to ascertain position, radar to avoid obstacles, plotters which display past and present courses, and depth sounders which indicate the water depth and the existence of marine life between the vessel and sea bottom. Radios and high frequency telephones are used to communicate with other ships and shore loca tions. The captain directs the fishing operation through his mates and other officers, and records all daily activities in the ship’s log. Upon returning to port, the captain arranges for the sale of the catch directly to buyers or through a fish auction and ensures that each crew member receives the prearranged portion of the adjusted net proceeds from the sale of the catch. The mate—the captain’s assistant, who must be familiar with navi gation requirements and the operation of all electronic equipment— assumes control of the vessel when the captain is off duty. These onoff periods, called watches, usually last 6 hours. The mate’s regular duty, with the help of the boatswain and under the captain’s oversight, is to direct the fishing operations and sailing responsibilities of the deckhands. These include the gathering, preservation, stowing, and unloading of the catch and the operation, maintenance, and repair of the vessel. Boatswains—highly experienced deckhands with supervisory re sponsibilities—and the other deckhands carry out the sailing and fish ing operations. Prior to departure, they load equipment and supplies, either manually or with hoisting equipment, and untie lines from other boats and the dock. When necessary, they repair fishing gear, equipment, nets, and accessories. They operate the fishing gear, letting out and pulling in nets and lines. They extract the catch—such as pollock, flounder, menhaden, and tuna—from the nets or lines’ hooks. Deckhands use dip nets to prevent the escape of small fish and gaffs to facilitate the landing of large fish. The catch is washed, salted, iced, put in containers, and stowed away. Additionally, deckhands are responsible for housekeeping; decks must be kept clear and clean. Deckhands repair and maintain the vessel’s engines and equipment. Upon return to port, they secure the vessel’s lines to and from the docks and other vessels. Unless lumpers, or laborers, are hired, the deckhands unload the catch. The crew usually includes deckhands who additionally work as a cook or an engineer. The larger the vessel and crew, the more time is spent on food preparation and related activities. The cook is often responsible for the procurement of foodstuffs and supplies and their loading on the vessel. Similarly, on larger vessels, more time is spent on the engineering tasks of operation, repair, and maintenance of the vessel’s engines and equipment to avoid returning to port for repairs. Disruption of fishing operations is also minimized by crew members with diving experience who disentangle fish nets, pick up dropped propellers, or make underwater repairs. Most full-time and virtually all part-time fishers work on motorboats in relatively shallow waters and often in sight of land. Navigation and communication needs are modest, and there is little need for much electronic equipment and provisions for long stays at sea. Crews are small—usually only one or two men—who collaborate on all aspects of the fishing operation. This includes placing gill nets across the mouths of rivers or inlets, entrapment nets in bays and lakes, and pots and traps for shellfish such as lobsters and crabs. Dredges and scrapes are also used to gather shellfish such as oysters and scallops. Motor boats may also be used for diving operations. Depending upon the water’s depth, divers—wearing a regulation diving suit with an umbili cal (air line) or a scuba outfit and equipment—use nets and other equipment to gather shellfish and marine life such as coral and sponges. Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, and Related Occupations In very shallow waters, fish are caught from small boats with an outboard motor, rowboats, or by wading. Fishers use a wide variety of hand-operated equipment—for example, nets, tongs, grabs, rakes, hoes, hooks, and shovels—to gather finfish and shellfish, catch water animals such as frogs and turtles, and harvest marine life such as Irish moss and kelp. Some fishers may use snorkeling equipment while spearing fish. In rare instances, fishers cast lines or nets from the shore, a dock, or a promontory. While most fishers are involved with commercial fishing, some captains and deckhands are primarily involved with recreational fish ing. Typically a group of people charter a fishing vessel—for periods ranging from several hours to a number of days—for sport fishing, socializing, and relaxation. Hunters track, stalk, and kill their quarry. They usually operate alone or as members of a very small hunting party and may use dogs to locate and comer the quarry. They use guns and bows and arrows to hunt predatory animals such as bears, eradicate animal pests such as coyotes, and control the population of large game animals such as deer. Divers hunt fish with spear guns or nets, and alligator hunters shoot their quarry after snaring it with baited hooks. Hunters may skin animals and treat pelts for marketing. A few hunters are involved in photographing or collecting animals for museums. Hunting activities are approved and monitored by the appropriate Federal, State, or local government agencies. Exceptions are made for American Indians on Indian reservations and native Alaskans, who may hunt uncondition ally on their own and their tribes' behalf. Trappers catch animals or birds using baited, scented, or camou flaged traps, snares, cages, or nets. Many trappers prepare and sell pelts and skins. Many trappers are also involved with animal damage control, wildlife management, disease control, and research activities. Animal damage control involves the disposition or relocation of ani mals which are a nuisance or pose a potential danger—for example, coyotes and bears. Wildlife management involves the relocation of animals—for example, muskrats and beavers—to deal with environ mental disruption or animal population imbalance. Disease control involves rabid animals that threaten public or animal health. Research activities include blood sampling for health determination and the banding of wildfowl to ascertain migratory movements. Working Conditions Fishing, hunting, and trapping operations are conducted under various environmental conditions. Fishing vessels may be hampered or even imperiled by sudden storms, fog, or wind. Divers are affected by murky water and unexpected shifts in underwater currents. Hunters and trappers are hampered or disrupted by rain or snow storms. Fishers, hunters, and trappers work under hazardous conditions, and often help is not readily available. Malfunctioning navigation or communication equipment may lead to collisions or even shipwrecks. Malfunctioning fishing gear poses a danger to the crew. Fishers must guard against entanglement in fishing nets and gear, slippery decks resulting from fish processsing operations, ice formation in the winter, or being swept overboard—a fearsome situation in stormy seas or at night. Treatment for serious injuries may have to await transfer to a hospital. Divers must guard against entanglement of air lines, malfunc tion of scuba equipment, decompression problems, or attacks by preda tory fish. Hunters and trappers face numerous hazards such as the unexpected assault of a predator or pest animal, falling branches and trees, slippery ground, falling through ice on ponds, hidden roots and vines, poisonous plants, and insect pests. Danger from incapacitating injuries is especially high, because these individuals usually work alone. A disabled vehicle or isolation because of a storm can also present serious problems. These activities entail strenuous work and long hours. Fishing trips may require a stay of several weeks or months hundreds of miles away from home port. The pace of work varies—intense while netting and hauling the catch aboard and relatively relaxed while traveling between home port and the fishing grounds. However, lookout watches— usually 6 hours long—are a regular responsibility and crew members must be prepared to stand watch at any prearranged times of the day https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis %. m ■yawtere-,,..,. a I 321 * ? ■ 'J'Siir m:, A' jjj, Fishing involves strenuous work and long hours. or night. Although fishing gear has improved and operations have become more mechanized, handling gear and processing fish are stren uous. Even though fishers on newer vessels may enjoy improved living quarters and amenities such as television and shower stalls, they still experience the aggravations of confined conditions, continuous per sonal contact, and the absence of family. Hunters and trappers may travel miles by car and then carry equipment and supplies on foot through swamps, forests, and over rugged terrain. Long hours—dawn to dusk—often are the rule, and many spend several lonely days camped out in sparsely populated forested or mountainous areas. Employment According to one source, fishers, hunters, and trappers held an esti mated 54,000 jobs in 1988. However, other sources estimated employ ment to be much higher. Over half were self-employed. Captains, mates, and deckhands on fishing vessels accounted for the majority of the jobs. Trappers, and to lesser extent hunters, ac counted for the remaining jobs. Many fishers, hunters, and trappers worked part time, particularly in the summer, when demand for these workers peaks. The overwhelming majority of fishers, hunters, and trappers work in the fishing, hunting, and trapping industry. Significant numbers of fishers are involved in sport fishing activities while others work for museums—primarily in aquariums, oceanariums, and marine muse ums. Small numbers are employed in many other industries. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Fishers generally acquire their occcupational skills through on-the-job experience, many as members of families involved in fishing activities. 322 Occupational Outlook Handbook No formal academic requirements exist. However, young persons can expedite their entrance into these occupations by enrolling in 2-year vocational-technical programs offered by secondary schools, primarily in coastal areas. In addition, the University of Rhode Island offers a bachelor’s degree program in fishery technology which includes courses in seamanship, vessel operations, marine safety, navigation, vessel repair and maintenance, health emergencies, and fishing gear technology, and is accompanied by hands-on experience. Experienced fishers may find short-term workshops offered through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and various postsecondary institutions especially useful. These programs provide a good working knowledge of electronic equipment used in navigation and communication and the latest improvements in fishing gear. Captains and mates on larger fishing vessels—at least 200 gross tons—must be licensed. Captains of sport fishing boats used for char ter, regardless of size, also must be licensed. Crew members involved in fish processing on fishing vessels of at least 100 tons may need a merchant mariner’s document. These documents and licenses are is sued by the U.S. Coast Guard to individuals who meet the stipulated health, physical, and academic requirements. Fishers must be in good health and possess physical strength. Coor dination and mechanical aptitude are necessary to operate, maintain, and repair the ship’s equipment and fishing gear. Fishers need persever ance to work long hours on the sea, often under difficult conditions. On larger vessels, they must be able to work as members of a team. They must be patient, yet always alert, to overcome the boredom of long watches when not engaged in fishing operations. The ability to assume any deckhand’s functions, on short notice, is important. Mates must have supervisory ability and be able to assume any deckhand’s and the captain’s duties, when necessary. The captain must be highly experienced, mature, determined, decisive, and possess the necessary business skills. Captains with initiative and the required capital often become boat owners. On fishing vessels, most fishers begin as deckhands. Deckhands whose experience and interest are in ship engineering—maintenance and repair of ship engines and equipment—can eventually become licensed chief engineers on large commercial vessels after meeting the U.S. Coast Guard’s experience, physical, and academic requirements. Divers in fishing operations can enter commercial diving activity— for example, ship repair and pier and marina maintenance—preferably after completion of a certified training program sponsored by an educa tional institution or industry association. Experienced, reliable deck hands who display supervisory qualities may become boatswains. Boatswains may, in turn, become second mates, first mates, and finally captains. Almost all captains become self-employed, and the overwhelming majority eventually own or have an interest in one or more fishing ships. Some may choose to run a sport or recreational fishing operation. After a long, hard career, or a career cut short by injury, several options exist. Experienced individuals may work in or, with the necessary capital, operate stores selling fishing and marine equipment and supplies. Captains with substantial sailing experience and intimate knowledge of a specific maritime area may become selfemployed harbor pilots in cooperation with an established group of pilots. Others may assume advisory or administrative positions in industry trade associations or government offices such as harbor devel opment commissions, or teaching positions in industry-sponsored workshops or in educational institutions. Hunters and trappers generally acquire their knowledge of wildlife and hunting and trapping equipment and supplies through experience. Most are members of rural families for whom hunting and trapping have been a way of life for generations. There is no formal training for hunters. Inexperienced individuals should join an established sports association to observe professional demonstrations and gain knowl edge of hunting weapons and related equipment and tracking and survival techniques. After acquiring the mandatory State hunting li cense, they should hunt with an experienced hunter. Trappers may undergo various forms of training. For those interested in the sale of animals and their skins, pelts, or furs, experience is https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis fundamental. Inexperienced trappers may serve an internship under the supervision of a professional trapper and take trapper education programs. Trapper education programs are offered by the State wildlife department or a State trappers association; in some States, these pro grams are mandatory. A trapper’s license, although not mandatory, permits the trapping of animals forbidden to unlicensed trappers. Trappers interested in research asssociated with control and manage ment of wildlife population and disease may take courses, or even complete a degree program, in wildlife biology, wildlife management, or related fields. Hunters and trappers must be in good health, possess physical strength and stamina, and have the desire, patience, and ability to work outdoors, sometimes for long periods, under difficult conditions. Maturity and judgment are important to deal with hazards. Good physical coordination and mechanical aptitude are necessary to safely and skillfully use hunting weapons and tracking equipment and to maintain camping and other gear. Hunters with extensive experience may work as guides for hunting parties. Those with initiative, business skills, and the required capital may become self-employed outfitters, some of whom own sites in the wilds. Outfitters organize hunting parties, select hunting areas, and assume responsibility for the hunting expedition—providing for equip ment and supplies, instructing the party members in hunting techniques and safety measures, and overseeing leisure activities during the expe dition. Experienced trappers with the appropriate academic background may enter other occupations, such as wildlife technician, wildlife biologist, or wildlife refuge manager. Professional trappers with busi ness skills and initiative may become self-employed fur trapperbuyers. Job Outlook Employment of fishers, hunters, and trappers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. However, projected growth varies among these occupations. Employment growth of captains and mates should be spurred by the expansion in commercial fishing operations, which is expected to occur off shore and require more large fishing vessels. Demand for skippers of sport fishing boats is expected to increase as recreational fishing activities continue to expand. In addition, fishing parties are increasingly utilizing chartered boats with experienced crews to navi gate and to provide instruction in and help with fishing activities. Employment growth of deckhands, on the other hand, may be re strained by the use of sophisticated electronic equipment for naviga tion, communication, and fish location and improvements in fishing gear, which have greatly increased the efficiency of fishing operations and have restrained the expansion in crew size. Also, little increase is expected in near-shore fishing operations, where the stock of fish is being adversely affected by overfishing and pollution. Barring legislation permitting expanded professional hunting and trapping activity, limited growth is expected in the employment of hunters and trappers. In addition, trapping activities are increasingly becoming ancillary duties of wildlife scientists and technicians and related workers. Earnings Earnings of fishers, hunters, and trappers are generally highest in the summer—when demand for their services peaks and environmental conditions are favorable—and lowest during the winter. Many full time workers and most part-time workers supplement their income by working in other activities during the off-season. For example, fishers may work in seafood processing plants, establishments selling fishing and marine equipment, or in construction. Hunters may work as selfemployed guides, for an outfitter, or in stores selling guns or hunting and related equipment. Trappers may work in stores selling trapping and related equipment. Earnings of fishers vary widely depending upon the specific occupa tional function, the size of the ship, and the amount and value of the catch. The costs of the fishing operation—operating the ship, repair Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, and Related Occupations and maintenance of gear and equipment, and the crew’s supplies—are deducted from the sale of the catch. The net proceeds are distributed among the crew members in accordance with a prearranged formula. Generally, the ship’s owner—usually its captain—receives half of the net proceeds, which covers any profit as well as the depreciation, maintenance, and replacement costs of the ship. In 1989, the annual income of most captains ranged from $20,000 to $80,000. Mates on these vessels generally earned less than one-half of this—slightly more than other crew members. Earnings of fishers on motorboats are substantially lower, on the average. Information about earnings of self-employed hunters and trappers is not available. During 1989, most hunters and trappers in the Federal Government started between $16,600 and $21,000 a year. Salaries in State and local governments generally were lower. Related Occupations Numerous occupations involve activities similar to those of fishers, hunters, and trappers. Among these are animal caretaker, animal control officer, aquarist, fish caretaker, fish farmer, fishing guide, fish hatchery worker, fish warden, game warden, harbor pilot, hunting guide, outfitter, pest control officer, shellfish grower and bed worker, and wildlife management specialist. Sources of Additional Information For general information about fishing occupations, contact: (•-National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Public Affairs, 1335 East-West Highway, Silver Spring, MD 20910. Information about sport or recreational fishing occupations is avail able from: ••-Sport Fishing Institute, 1010 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001. Names of postsecondary schools offering fishing and related marine educational programs are furnished by: (•-Marine Technology Society, Suite 203, 1825 K St. NW., Washington, DC 20006. Information on licensing of captains and mates and requirements for merchant mariner documentation is available from the U.S. Coast Guard Marine Inspection Office or Marine Safety Office in your State, or: ••-Merchant Vessel Personnel Division, U.S. Coast Guard, 2100 Second St. SW., Washington, DC 20593. For information about certified training programs for diving (umbili cal) careers, contact: ••-College of Oceaneering, International Diving School, 272 S. Fries Ave., Wilmington, CA 90744. Information about certified training programs for diving (scuba) careers is available from: ••-National Association of Underwater Instructors, NAUI Diving Association, P.O. Box 14650, Montclair, CA 91763. For information on careers and Federal and State licensing require ments for harbor pilots, contact any one of the American Pilots’ Association’s State Pilot Commissions, or: ••-American Pilots’ Association, 1055 Thomas Jefferson St. NW., Suite 404, Washington, DC 20007. For information on careers in hunting and related activities, contact: ••-National Rifle Association, Hunting Services Division, 1600 Rhode Island Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Information on careers in trapping is available from: ••-National Trappers Association, P.O. Box 3667, Bloomington, IL 61702. Timber Cutting and Logging Workers (D.O.T. 408.664, .667; 454 except .134; 455 except .134 and .367; 459.387, 687; 669.687-022; 921.364, .664-014, .667-014, .687-014, -030; 922.687 082; 929.683-010) Timber harvested from the Nation’s forests provides the raw material for countless consumer and industrial products. The timber cutting and logging process begins when foresters, aided by forest technicians, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 323 decide when and which trees will be harvested. The type of equipment, the means of access to the logging site, and the manner of transporting the cut timber (logs) to the landings (loading areas), yards (storage areas), or mill is usually determined by the logging contractor. Appropriate equipment is used to fell (cut down) trees and minimize damage to other trees and the forest floor. Suitable access to and from the logging sites expedites the transportation of logs and minimizes disruption of the forest ecology. Skid trails connecting the cutting operations and the landings are carefully constructed through the for est. Logs are hauled primarily by specially designed tractors called skidders or by tracked vehicles. In a few areas of the country, because of the long distances and the size of the trees, it is more economical to haul logs and pulpwood by railroad. In mountainous or marshy areas, a cable yarding system—consisting of one or more towers (either mobile cranes or fixed steel towers) interconnected by cables and fixed to the ground by guy wires and tree stumps—may be used. The logs are attached to the cables, which are reeled on and off drums by machines called yarders, and then forwarded from the felling site to the landing. On unusually steep slopes in remote areas, helicopters are used to transport logs and minimize environmental damage. Nature of the Work Timber cutting and logging operations are performed by a variety of workers. Fallers cut down trees with chain saws or mechanical felling equip ment. Buckers trim off the tops and branches and buck (cut) the resulting logs into specified lengths. These workers usually use gaspowered chain saws. Choker setters fasten chokers (steel cables or chains) around logs to be skidded (dragged) by tractors or forwarded by the cable yarding system to the landing. Included are riggers, who set up and dismantle the cables and guy wires of the cable yarding system. Logging tractor operators drive crawler or wheeled tractors to skid logs from the felling site to the landing. Some operate harvesters— tractors outfitted with specialized equipment that can cut and delimb trees. Others operate forwarders that haul the logs to the landing and load them onto trucks. Log handling equipment operators operate tracked or wheeled equipment to load or unload logs and pulpwood onto or off trucks or gondola railroad cars. Log graders and scalers inspect logs for defects, measure logs to determine their volume, and estimate the marketable content or value of logs or pulpwood. Other timber cutting and logging workers have a variety of responsi bilities. Cruisers hike through forests to assess logging conditions and estimate the volume of marketable timber. Brush clearing laborers clear areas of brush and other growth to prepare for logging activities and to promote growth of desirable species of trees. Tree trimmers prune tree tops and branches, using saws or pruning shears. Pickers select and place logs onto skidders and log blocks onto conveyors to be sent to other machines for further processing. Log markers deter mine the bucking points at which logs will be sawn into sections. Rivers use sledge hammers, mallets, wedges, and froes (cleaving tools) to split logs to form posts, pickets, shakes, and other objects. Rigging slingers determine the sequence of logs to be yarded by the cable yarding system. Chasers direct the placement of logs at landings and disengage their chokers. Pulp pilers stack pulpwood logs at land ings near logging roads. Although timber cutting and logging equipment has been greatly improved and operations substantially mechanized, many logging jobs are still labor intensive. These jobs require various levels of skill, ranging from manually moving logs, branches, and equipment to skillfully using chain saws, peavies (hooked poles), and log jacks to cut and position logs for further processing or loading. Skillful operation of vehicles and equipment is necessary to avoid accidents and to minimize damage to the equipment and environment. The knowledge to maintain and repair equipment is increasingly necessary to reduce costs and increase productivity. A skillful, experienced logger is expected to handle a variety of logging operations. 324 Occupational Outlook Handbook Weather can force curtailment of logging operations during the muddy spring season, dry summer periods, and cold winter months. Changes in the level of construction, particularly residential, also affect logging activities. In addition, logging operations must be relo cated when timber harvesting in a particular area has been completed. During prolonged periods of inactivity, some workers may stay on the job to maintain or repair logging machinery and equipment; others are forced to find jobs in other occupations or be without work. The timber cutting and logging industry is characterized by a large number of small crews of four or fewer workers—primarily fallers, buckers, choker setters, and others whose jobs are labor intensive. Most of these crews work for self-employed logging contractors who possess substantial logging experience, the capital to purchase equip ment, and the skills needed to run a small business successfully. Most contractors work alongside their crews as working supervisors. Many manage more than one crew and function as owner-supervisors. Crews may work directly or on a contractual basis for large logging compa nies, sawmills, or forest product companies. They may travel through out several States working at various sites. Working Conditions Most timber cutting and logging jobs involve lifting, climbing, and other strenuous activities. A few lumber camps, primarily in Alaska and Maine, house workers in bunkhouses or company towns. Workers in sparsely populated Western States daily commute long distances between their homes and logging sites. In the densely populated East ern States, commuting distances are much shorter. Loggers work outdoors under unusually hazardous conditions. Fall ing trees and branches are a constant menace, as arc the dangers associated with log handling operations and use of sawing equipment, especially delimbing devices. Strong winds require special care and can even halt operations. Slippery or muddy ground and hidden roots or vines not only reduce efficiency but present a constant danger, especially in the presence of moving vehicles and machinery. Poison ous plants and brambles are minor annoyances. Over long periods of time, if safety precautions are not taken, hearing may be impaired by the high noise level of sawing and skidding operations. Experience, exercise of caution, and use of proper safety measures and equip ment—such as hardhats, eye and hearing protection equipment, and safety clothing and boots—are extremely important to avoid injury. offer special programs, particularly for workers training to operate large, expensive machinery and equipment. Often, a representative of the manufacturer or company may spend several days in the field explaining and overseeing the operation of newly purchased machin ery. Safety training is a vital part of instruction for all logging workers. Experience in other occupations can expedite entry into various logging occupations. For example, woodworkers such as carpenters and sawyers can become buckers. Equipment operators such as truckdrivers and bulldozer and crane operators can assume skidding and yarding functions. Some loggers have worked in sawmills or on family farms with extensive wooded areas. Some logging contractors were formerly crew members of family-owned businesses operated over several generations. Generally, little formal education is required. However, many sec ondary schools, including vocational and technical schools, and a few community colleges offer courses in general forestry and forest harvesting. Courses in basic mathematics are recommended. A curric ulum which includes field trips to observe or participate in logging activities provides a particularly good background. Timber cutting and logging workers must have good health, physical strength and stamina, and the desire and ability to work outdoors every day under difficult conditions. The ability to work as part of a team is vital. Maturity and good judgment are important in making quick, intelligent decisions in dealing with hazards as they arise. Mechanical aptitude and coordination are necessary qualities for operators of ma chinery and equipment, who often are responsible for repair and maintenance as well. Initiative and managerial and business skills are necessary for success as a self-employed logging contractor. Employment Timber cutting and logging workers held about 106,000 jobs in 1988. Seven out of ten jobs were wage and salary positions in the following occupations: Fallers and buckers...................................................................... Logging tractor operators............................................................ Log handling equipment operators............................................ All other timber cutting and related logging occupations...... 36,000 29,000 17,000 24,000 Most salaried timber cutting and logging workers are employed in the logging camps and logging contractors industry. Others work in the sawmills and planing mills and arborist services industries. Although logging operations are found in most States, Oregon and Washington account for about 1 out of every 4 logging workers. Self-employed logging contractors account for about 3 out of every 10 logging workers—a much higher proportion of self-employment than for most occupations. While seasonal demand for logging workers varies slightly by re gion, employment generally is highest in the summer and lowest in the winter. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most timber cutting and logging workers develop their skills through on-the-job training. They must familiarize themselves with the charac ter and potential dangers of the forest environment and the operation of logging machinery and equipment. Instruction comes primarily from experienced workers. However, larger logging companies may https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Increased mechanization of logging operations will reduce demand for timber cutting and logging workers. Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, and Related Occupations Timber cutting and logging workers generally advance from occupations involving primarily manual labor to those involving the operation of expensive, sometimes complicated machinery and equipment. Inexperienced entrants begin as laborers, carrying tools and equipment, clearing brush, and loading and unloading logs and brush. For some, familiarization with logging operations may lead to jobs such as choker setter and log handling equipment operator. Further experience may lead to jobs involving the operation of more complicated machinery and yarding towers to transport, load, and unload logs. Those who have the motor skills required for the efficient utilization of power saws and other equipment may become fallers and buckers. Some logging workers who can readily assess the marketable volume of timber or identify defects in logs may become cruisers and graders. Job Outlook Employment of timber cutting and logging workers is expected to decline through the year 2000. Despite an increase in demand for lumber and wood products, increased mechanization of logging opera tions and improvements in logging equipment will reduce labor re quirements. In addition, forest conservation efforts may restrict the volume of public timber available for harvesting, further dampening demand for timber cutting and logging workers. However, many job openings are expected each year to replace workers who transfer to other jobs—often less physically demanding and dangerous—or leave the labor force. The rates of decline are expected to vary by occupation. Employ ment of fallers, buckers, choker setters, and other logging workers whose jobs are labor intensive should be most adversely affected by the introduction of safer, laborsaving machinery and equipment. Employment of machinery and equipment operators, such as logging tractor and log handling equipment operators, should be less adversely affected. Many logging workers experience periods of unemployment be cause of weather conditions, declines in construction activity, and relocation of logging operations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 325 Earnings In 1988, average annual earnings of full-time logging workers were $17,400. Generally, earnings of more skilled workers, such as fallers and yarder operators, are substantially higher than those of less skilled workers, such as laborers and choker setters. Earnings vary widely by size of establishment and geographic area. Earnings of workers in the largest establishments are much higher than those in the smallest establishments. Workers in Alaska and the Northwest earn substantially more than those in the South. Small logging contractors generally offer timber cutting and logging workers few fringe benefits. However, some employers offer full-time workers basic fringe benefits such as medical coverage and provide safety apparel and equipment. Many logging workers in the Northwest, where the larger establish ments are concentrated, are members of either of two unions—the International Woodworkers of America and the Western Council of Industrial Workers. Related Occupations Other occupations concerned with the care of trees and their environ ment include arborist, forest technician, forest worker, forester aide, gardener, groundskeeper, landscaper, nursery worker, range aide, soil conservation technician, and tree-farm worker. Sources of Additional Information For information about timber cutting and logging careers and second ary and postsecondary programs offering training for logging occupa tions, contact: w-Northeastem Loggers Association, P.O. Box 69, Old Forge, NY 13420. *-Timbcr Producers Association of Michigan and Wisconsin, P.O. Box 39, Tomahawk, W1 54487. ••-Pacific Logging Congress, 4494 River Rd. North, Salem, OR 97303. The school of forestry at your State land-grant college or university should also be able to provide useful information. Residents of Southern States may also contact their State forestry associations. Addresses are available in public libraries. Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers Aircraft Mechanics and Engine Specialists (D O T. 621.281 except-030, .381-010, -014, .684-014; 806.281-038, .684 110; 807.261, .381-014, .684-018) Nature of the Work Most travelers hardly think twice about flying thousands of feet above the ground. The confidence they have in aircraft is a tribute to the mechanics (also referred to as technicians) who keep them in top operating condition. Many mechanics specialize in scheduled maintenance required by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Following a schedule that is based on the number of hours flown, calendar days, cycles of operation, or a combination of these factors, mechanics inspect the engines, landing gear, instruments, pressurized sections, accesso ries—brakes, valves, pumps, and air-conditioning systems, for exam ple—and other parts of the aircraft and do the necessary maintenance. They may examine an engine through specially designed openings while working from ladders or scaffolds, or use hoists or lifts to remove the entire engine from the craft. After taking the engine apart, mechanics may use precision instruments to measure parts for wear, and use X-ray and magnetic inspection equipment to check for invisible cracks. Worn or defective parts are repaired or replaced. They also may repair sheet-metal or composite surfaces, measure the tension of control cables, or check for corrosion, distortion, and cracks in the fuselage, wings, and tail. Mechanics must test the equipment to make sure the repairs were made properly. Mechanics specializing in repair work rely on the pilot’s description of a problem to find and fix faulty equipment. For example, during a preflight check, a pilot may discover that the aircraft’s fuel gauge does not work. To solve the problem, mechanics may check the electrical connections, replace the gauge, or use electrical test equipment to make sure no wires are broken or shorted. They work as fast as safety permits so that the aircraft can be put back into service quickly. Mechanics may work on one or many different types of aircraft, such as jets, propeller-driven airplanes, and helicopters, or, for effi ciency, may specialize in one section of a particular type of aircraft, such as the engine, hydraulic, or electrical system. As a result of technological advances, mechanics spend an increasing amount of time repairing electronic systems such as computerized controls. In Mechanics inspect hydraulic system for problems. Digitized326 for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis small, independent repair shops, mechanics usually inspect and repair many different types of aircraft. Working Conditions Mechanics usually work in hangars or other indoor areas. However, if the hangars are full or if repairs must be made quickly, they may work outdoors, sometimes in unpleasant weather. This occurs most often to airline mechanics who work at airports because, to save time, minor repairs and preflight checks often are made at the terminal. Mechanics often work under the pressure of time to maintain flight schedules or, in general aviation, to keep from inconveniencing cus tomers. At the same time, mechanics must maintain safety standards. Frequently, mechanics must lift or pull as much as 50 pounds. They often stand, lie, or kneel in awkward positions and occasionally must work in precarious positions on scaffolds or ladders. Noise and vibra tion are common when testing engines. Aircraft mechanics generally work 40 hours a week on 8-hour shifts around the clock. Employment Aircraft mechanics held about 124,000 jobs in 1988. Over three-fifths of salaried mechanics worked for airlines, nearly one-fifth for aircraft assembly firms, and nearly one-sixth for the Federal Government. Most of the rest were general aviation mechanics, the majority of whom worked for independent repair shops or companies that operate their own planes to transport executives and cargo. Very few mechan ics were self-employed. Most airline mechanics work near large cities at the airlines’ main stops. Many are civilians employed by the Armed Forces and work at military aviation installations. Others work for the FAA, many in the headquarters at Oklahoma City. Mechanics for independent repair shops work at airports in every part of the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The majority of mechanics who work on civilian aircraft are certificated by the FAA as “airframe mechanic,” “powerplant mechanic,” or “re pairman.” Airframe mechanics are authorized to work on any part of the aircraft except the instruments, powerplants, and propellers. Powerplant mechanics are authorized to work on engines and to do limited work on propellers. Technicians called repairmen—who are employed by appropriately rated FAA-certificated repair stations and air carriers—do work on instruments and major work on propellers. Combination airframe-and-powerplant mechanics can work on any part of the plane, and those with an inspector’s authorization can certify inspection work completed by other mechanics. Uncertificated mechanics are supervised by those with certificates. The FAA requires at least 18 months of work experience for an airframe, powerplant, or repairman’s certificate. For a combined air frame-and-powerplant certificate, at least 30 months of experience working with both engines and airframes are required. To obtain an inspector’s authorization, a mechanic must have held an airframe-andpowerplant certificate for at least 3 years. Applicants for all certificates also must pass written and oral tests and demonstrate that they can do the work authorized by the certificate. Although a few people become mechanics through on-the-job train ing, most learn their job in the Armed Forces or in one of about 150 trade schools certified by the FAA. Student enrollment in these schools varies greatly; some have as few as 50 students while at least one school has about 1,000 students. Courses in these trade schools generally last from 2 years to 30 months and provide training with the tools and equipment used on the job. For an FAA certificate, attendance at such schools may substitute for work experience. However, these schools do not guarantee jobs or FAA certificates. Some aircraft mechanics in the Armed Forces acquire enough gen eral experience to satisfy the work experience requirements for the Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers FA A certificate, With additional study, they may pass the certifying exam. Generally, however, jobs in the military services are too special ized to provide the broad experience required by the FA A. Most have to complete the entire training program at a trade school, although a few receive some credit for the material they learned in the service. In any case, military experience is a great advantage when seeking employment; employers consider trade school graduates who have this experience to be the most desirable applicants. Courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, electronics, computer science, and mechanical drawing are helpful because many of their principles are involved in the operation of an aircraft and knowledge of the principles often is necessary to make repairs. Courses that develop writing skills are also important since mechanics are often required to submit reports. As new and more complex aircraft are designed, mechanics must update their skills. Recent technological advances in aircraft mainte nance necessitate a strong background in electronics—both for acquir ing and retaining jobs in this field. A working knowledge of composite materials such as graphite, fiberglass, and boron is also important, as such materials are increasingly being used in the construction of new aircraft. Many mechanics take courses offered by manufacturers or employers, usually through outside contractors. Aircraft mechanics must do careful and thorough work which requires high mechanical aptitude. Employers seek applicants who arc moti vated, enthusiastic, and able to diagnose and solve complex mechanical problems. Agility is important for the reaching and climbing necessary for the job. Aircraft mechanics must not be afraid of heights since they may work on the top of wings and fuselages on large jet planes. As aircraft mechanics gain experience, they have the opportunity for advancement. Opportunities are best for those who have an aircraft inspector’s authorization. A mechanic may advance to lead mechanic (or crew chief), inspector, lead inspector, and shop supervisor. In the airlines, where promotion is often determined by examination, supervisors may advance to executive positions. Those with broad experience in maintenance and overhaul may become inspectors with the FAA. With additional business and management training, some open their own aircraft maintenance facilities. Job Outlook Overall, aircraft mechanics—particularly those with work experi ence—are expected to have excellent job opportunities since the num ber of job openings is expected to exceed the supply of qualified applicants. Growth in demand for the services of aircraft mechanics coupled with an expected wave of retirements should provide many job openings. Job opportunities are likely to be best in general aviation. Since wages in small companies tend to be relatively low, there generally are fewer applicants for these jobs than for airline jobs. Also, some jobs will become available as experienced mechanics leave for better paying jobs with airlines or large private companies. Mechanics may face some competition for airline jobs because the high wages and travel benefits attract more qualified applicants. The number of job openings for aircraft mechanics in the Federal Government will fluctu ate with changes in defense spending. Mechanics who keep abreast of technological advances in electronics, composite materials, and other areas will be in greatest demand. The number of aircraft mechanics is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. A growing population and rising incomes are expected to stimulate the demand for airline transportation, and the number of aircraft is ex pected to grow. However, employment growth will be restricted some what by increases in productivity resulting from greater use of auto mated inventory control and modular systems which speed repairs and parts replacement. Most job openings are expected to arise from the need to replace mechanics who transfer to other fields of work or stop working altogether. Declines in air travel during recessions force airlines to curtail the number of flights, which results in less aircraft maintenance and, consequently, layoffs for aircraft mechanics. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 327 Earnings In 1988, the median annual salary of aircraft mechanics was about $26,000. Mechanics who worked on jets generally earned more than those working on other aircraft. The top 10 percent of all aircraft mechanics earned over $35,000 a year. Airline mechanics and their immediate families receive reduced fare transportation on their own and most other airlines. Earnings of airline mechanics generally are higher than mechanics working for other employers. Beginning aircraft mechanics employed by the airlines earned from $10 to $14 an hour in 1988, according to the Future Aviation Professionals of America. Earnings of experienced mechanics ranged from $14 to $23.50 an hour. Mechanics employed by the Federal Government averaged $12.17 an hour in 1988. Some mechanics, including those employed by some major airlines, are covered by union agreements. The principal unions are the Interna tional Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers and the Transport Workers Union of America. Some mechanics are repre sented by the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America. Related Occupations Workers in some other occupations that involve similar mechanical and electrical work are electricians, elevator repairers, and telephone maintenance mechanics. Sources of Additional Information Information about jobs in a particular airline may be obtained by writing to the personnel manager of the company. For addresses of airline companies and information about job opportunities and salaries, contact: w-Future Aviation Professionals of America, 4959 Massachusetts Blvd., At lanta, GA 30337. (This organization may be called toll free at 800-JET-JOBS.) For general information about aircraft mechanics, write to: •-Aviation Maintenance Foundation, P.O. Box 2826, Redmond, WA 98073. •-Professional Aviation Maintenance Association, 500 Northwest Plaza, Suite 401, St. Ann, MO 63074. For information on jobs in a particular area, contact employers at local airports or local offices of the State employment service. Automotive Body Repairers (D.O.T. 620.364, .684-034; 807.267; .281; .361-010; .381-010, -018, -022; .484; .684-010; 865.684-010) Nature of the Work Thousands of motor vehicles are damaged in traffic accidents every day. Although some are junked, most can be made to look and drive like new. Automotive body repairers straighten bent bodies, remove dents, and replace crumpled parts that are beyond repair. Usually, they can fix all types of vehicles, but most body repairers work on cars and smal 1 trucks. A few work on large trucks, buses, or tractor-trailers. When a damaged vehicle is brought into the shop, body repairers generally receive instructions from their supervisors, who have deter mined which parts are to be restored or replaced and how much time the job should take. Automotive body repairers use special machines to restore damaged metal frames and body sections to their original shape and location. They chain or clamp the frames and sections to alignment machines that usually use hydraulic pressure to align the damaged metal. For “unibody” designs, which are built without frames, they also use bench systems to return body sections to precise alignment. Body repairers remove badly damaged sections of body panels with a pneumatic metal-cutting gun or acetylene torch and weld in new sections to replace them. Repairers pull out less serious dents with a hydraulic jack or hand prying bar, or knock them out with handtools or pneumatic hammers. They smooth out small dents and creases in 328 Occupational Outlook Handbook the metal by holding a small anvil against one side of the damaged area while hammering the opposite side. They remove very small pits and dimples with pick hammers and punches. Body repairers also repair or replace the plastic body parts used increasingly on newer model vehicles. They remove the damaged panels and determine the type of plastic from which they are made. With most types, they can apply heat from a hot-air welding gun or by immersion in hot water, and press the softened panel back into its original shape by hand. They replace plastic parts which are more difficult to repair. Body repairers use plastic or solder to fill small dents which cannot be worked out of the plastic or metal panel. On metal panels, they then file or grind the hardened filler to the original shape and sand it before painting. In many shops, automotive painters do the painting. (These workers are discussed in the Handbook statement on painting and coating machine operators.) In smaller shops, workers often do both body repairing and painting. A few body repairers specialize in repairing fiberglass car bodies. In large shops, body repairers may specialize in one type of repair, such as frame straightening or door and fender repairing. Some body repairers also specialize in installing glass in automobiles and other vehicles. Glass installers remove broken, cracked, or pitted wind shields and window glass. Curved windows sometimes must be cut from a sheet of safety glass. Glass installers apply a moisture-proofing compound along the edges of the glass, place it in the vehicle, and install rubber strips around the sides of the windshield or window to make it secure and weatherproof. Body repair work has variety and challenge—each damaged vehicle presents a different problem. Repairers must develop appropriate meth ods for each job, using their broad knowledge of automotive construc tion and repair techniques. Body repairers usually work alone with only general directions from supervisors. In some shops, they may be assisted by helpers or apprentices. Working Conditions Most automotive body repairers work 40 to 48 hours a week. They work indoors in body shops which are noisy because of the banging of hammers against metal and the whir of power tools. Most shops are well ventilated to disperse dust and paint fumes. Body repairers often r * Automotive body repairers restore damaged body panels to their original shape and sand them before painting. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis work in awkward or cramped positions, and much of their work is strenuous and dirty. Hazards include cuts from sharp metal edges, bums from torches and heated metal, injuries from power tools, and fumes from paint. Employment Automotive body repairers held about 214,000 jobs in 1988. Most worked for shops that specialized in body repairs and painting, and for automobile and truck dealers. Others worked for organizations that maintain their own motor vehicles, such as trucking companies and automobile rental companies. A few worked for motor vehicle manu facturers. About 1 automotive body repairer out of 5 was self-em ployed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many automotive body repairers enter the occupation by transferring from related helper positions. Persons in good physical condition who know how to use handtools learn the trade as helpers, picking up skills on the job from experienced body repairers. Helpers begin by assisting body repairers in tasks such as removing damaged parts and installing repaired parts. They learn to remove small dents and to make other minor repairs. They then progress to more difficult tasks such as body straightening. Generally, skill in all aspects of body repair requires 3 to 4 years of on-the-job training. Although there is no formal educational requirement, most employ ers prefer to hire high school graduates. Good reading and basic mathematics skills are essential because restoring unubody automo biles to their original form requires such precision that body repairers often must follow instructions and diagrams in technical manuals and make very precise measurements of the position of one body section relative to another. Completion of a formal training program in automotive body repair is highly desirable because advances in technology in recent years have greatly changed the structure, the components, and even the materials used in automobiles. As a result, many new repair problems have been created and many new skills are required. For example, the bodies of newer automobiles are increasingly made of a combination of materials—the traditional steel, plus aluminum and a growing vari ety of metal alloys and plastics—each requiring the use of somewhat different techniques to reshape and smooth out dents and small pits. Automotive body repair training programs are offered by many high schools, vocational schools, private trade schools, and community colleges. Formal training in automotive body repair can enhance chances for employment and speed promotion to a journeyman po sition. Certification by the National Institute for Automotive Service Excel lence (ASE), which is voluntary, is recognized as a standard of achievement for automotive body repairers. To be certified, a body repairer must pass a written examination and must have at least 2 years of experience in the trade. Completion of a high school, vocational school, trade school, or community college program in automotive body repair may be substituted for 1 year of work experience. Automo tive body repairers must retake the examination at least every 5 years to retain certification. Automotive body repairers must buy their own handtools, but em ployers usually furnish power tools. Trainees generally accumulate tools as they gain experience, and many workers have thousands of dollars invested in tools. An experienced automotive body repairer with supervisory ability may advance to shop supervisor. Some workers open their own body repair shops. Others become automobile damage appraisers for insur ance companies. Job Outlook Employment of automotive body repairers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. As the number of motor vehicles in operation grows with the Nation’s population, the number damaged in accidents will increase as well. Requirements for body repairers will also increase because new, lighter Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers weight automotive designs are prone to greater collision damage than older, heavier designs and, consequently, are more time consuming to repair. In addition, new automobile designs increasingly have body parts made of steel alloys, aluminum, and plastics—materials that are more difficult to work with than the traditional steel body parts. Nevertheless, the need to replace experienced repairers who transfer to other occupations or retire or stop working for other reasons will still account for the majority of job openings. The automotive repair business is not very sensitive to changes in economic conditions, and experienced body repairers are rarely laid off. However, most employers hire fewer new workers during an economic slowdown. Although major body damage must be repaired if a vehicle is to be restored to safe operating condition, repair of minor dents and crumpled fenders can often be deferred. As a result, persons seeking to enter this occupation may face increased competition for jobs during recessions. Earnings Body repairers employed by automobile dealers in 18 large metropoli tan areas had average weekly earnings of $683 in 1988. Average earnings generally were highest in the South and lowest in the North east. Helpers and trainees usually earn from 30 to 60 percent of the earnings of skilled workers. The majority of body repairers employed by automotive dealers and repair shops are paid on an incentive basis. Under this method, body repairers are paid a predetermined amount for various tasks, and earnings depend on the amount of work assigned to the repairer and how fast it is completed. Employers frequently guarantee workers a minimum weekly salary. Helpers and trainees usually receive an hourly rate until they are skilled enough to be paid on an incentive basis. Body repairers who work for trucking companies, buslines, and other organizations that maintain their own vehicles usually receive an hourly wage. Many automotive body repairers are members of unions, including the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricul tural Implement Workers of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ Inter national Association; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America. Most body re pairers who are union members work for large automobile dealers, trucking companies, and buslines. Related Occupations Repairing damaged motor vehicles often involves working on their mechanical components as well as their bodies. Automotive body repairers often work closely with several related occupations including automotive and diesel mechanics, automotive repair service estima tors, painters, and body customizers. 329 Automotive Mechanics (D.O.T. 620.261-010, -012, -030, -034; .281-010, -026, -034, -038, -062, -066, -070; .381-010, -022; .684-018, -022; 706.381-046; 721.281-010; 806.361-026, .684-038; 807.664, .684-022; 825.381-014) Nature of the Work Automotive mechanics, often called automotive service technicians, repair and service automobiles and occasionally light trucks, such as vans and pickups, with gasoline engines. (Mechanics who work on diesel-powered trucks, buses, and equipment are discussed in the Handbook statement on diesel mechanics. Motorcycle mechanics— who repair and service motorcycles, motorscooters, mopeds, and occa sionally small all-terrain vehicles—are discussed in the Handbook statement on motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics.) Anyone whose car or light truck has broken down knows the impor tance of the mechanic’s job. The ability to diagnose the source of the problem quickly and accurately, one of the mechanic’s most valuable skills, requires good reasoning ability and a thorough knowledge of automobiles. In fact, many mechanics consider diagnosing “hard to find” troubles one of their most challenging and satisfying duties. When mechanical or electrical troubles occur, mechanics first get a description of the symptoms from the owner or, if they work in a dealership or large shop, the repair service estimator who wrote the repair order. The mechanic may have to test drive the vehicle or use testing equipment, such as engine analyzers, spark plug testers, or compression gauges, to locate the problem. Once the cause of the problem is found, mechanics make adjustments or repairs. If a part is damaged or worn beyond repair, or cannot be fixed at a reasonable cost, they replace it, usually after consultation with the vehicle owner. During routine service, mechanics inspect, lubricate, and adjust engines and other components, repairing or replacing parts before they cause breakdowns. They usually follow a checklist to be sure they examine all important parts, such as belts, hoses, steering systems, spark plugs, brake and fuel systems, wheel bearings, and other poten tially troublesome items. Mechanics use a variety of tools in their work. They use power tools such as pneumatic wrenches to remove bolts quickly; machine tools such as lathes and grinding machines to rebuild brakes and other parts; welding and flame-cutting equipment to remove and repair exhaust systems and other parts; jacks and hoists to lift cars and engines; and a growing variety of electronic service equipment, such as infrared engine analyzers and computerized diagnostic devices. They also use many common handtools such as screwdrivers, pliers, and wrenches to work on small parts and get at hard-to-reach places. Automotive mechanics in larger shops increasingly specialize. For Sources of Additional Information More details about work opportunities may be obtained from automo tive body repair shops and motor vehicle dealers; locals of the unions previously mentioned; or the local office of the State employment service. The State employment service also is a source of information about training programs. For general information about automotive body repairer careers, write to: (•-Automotive Service Association, Inc., P.O. Box 929, Bedford, TX 76021 0929. (•-Automotive Service Industry Association, 444 North Michigan Ave., Chi cago, IL 60611. For information on how to become a certified automotive body repairer, write to: (*-ASE, 13505 Dulles Technology Dr., Herndon, VA 22071-3415. For a directory of accredited private trade and technical schools that offer training programs in automotive body repair, write to: (•-National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, Department BL, P.O. Box 10429, Rockville, MD 20850. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Automotive mechanics find the cause of a car’s problem and make adjustments or repairs. 330 Occupational Outlook Handbook example, automatic transmission mechanics work on gear trains, cou plings, hydraulic pumps, and other parts of automatic transmissions. Because these are complex mechanisms, their repair requires consider able experience and training, including a knowledge of hydraulics. Tune-up mechanics adjust the ignition timing and valves, and adjust or replace spark plugs and other parts to ensure efficient engine perfor mance. They often use electronic test equipment to help them adjust and locate malfunctions in fuel, ignition, and emissions control systems. Automotive air-conditioning mechanics install and repair air-condi tioners and service components such as compressors and condensers. Front-end mechanics align and balance wheels and repair steering mechanisms and suspension systems. They frequently use special alignment equipment and wheel-balancing machines. Brake repairers adjust brakes, replace brake linings and pads, repair hydraulic cylin ders, turn discs and drums, and make other repairs on brake systems. Some mechanics specialize in both brake and front-end work. Automotive-radiator mechanics clean radiators with caustic solu tions, locate and solder leaks, and install new radiator cores or com plete replacement radiators. They also may repair heaters and airconditioners, and solder leaks in gasoline tanks. Working Conditions Most automotive mechanics work a standard 40-hour week, but some self-employed mechanics work longer hours. Generally, mechanics work indoors. Most repair shops are well ventilated and lighted, but some are drafty and noisy. Mechanics frequently work with dirty and greasy parts, and in awkward positions. They often must lift heavy parts and tools. Minor cuts, bums, and bruises are common, but serious accidents may be avoided when the shop is kept clean and orderly and safety practices are observed. Employment Automotive mechanics held about 771,000 jobs in 1988. The majority worked for automotive dealers, independent automotive repair shops, and gasoline service stations. Others were employed at automotive service facilities at department, automotive, and home supply stores, or maintained the automobile fleets of taxicab and automobile leasing companies, Federal, State, and local governments, and other organiza tions. Motor vehicle manufacturers employed some mechanics to ad just and repair cars at the end of assembly lines. Over 20 percent of automotive mechanics were self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Automotive technology is rapidly increasing in sophistication, and most training authorities recommend that persons seeking trainee auto motive mechanic jobs complete a formal training program after gradu ating from high school. However, some automotive mechanics still learn the trade solely by assisting and working with experienced me chanics. Automotive mechanic training programs are offered in high schools, community colleges, and public and private vocational and technical schools, but postsecondary programs generally provide more thorough career preparation than high school programs. High school programs, while an asset, vary greatly in quality. Some offer only an introduction to automotive technology and service for the future consumer or hobbyist, while others aim to equip graduates with enough skills to get a job as a mechanic’s helper or trainee mechanic after graduation. Postsecondary automotive mechanic training programs vary greatly in format, but generally provide intensive career preparation through a combination of classroom instruction and hands-on practice. Some trade and technical school programs concentrate the instruction in only 6 months or a year, depending on how many hours the student must attend each week. Community college programs normally spread the training out over 2 years, supplement the automotive training with instruction in English, basic mathematics, and other subjects, and award an associate degree. The various automobile manufacturers and their participating deal ers sponsor 2-year associate degree programs at about 80 community https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis colleges across the Nation. The manufacturers provide service equip ment and late model cars on which students practice new skills, and insure that the programs teach the latest automotive technology. Stu dents in these programs typically spend alternate 6- to 12-week periods attending classes full time and working full time in the service depart ments of sponsoring dealers. Because students spend time gaining valuable work experience, these programs may take as long as 4 years to complete, instead of the normal 2 years required to earn an associate degree in automotive service technology. However, they offer students the opportunity to earn money while going to school and promise a job upon graduation. Also, some sponsoring dealers provide students with financial assistance for tuition or the purchase of tools. The National Automotive Technicians Education Foundation, an affiliate of the National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence, certifies automobile mechanic training programs offered by high schools and postsecondary trade schools, technical institutes, and community colleges. While certification is voluntary, and many insti tutions have not sought it, certification does signify that the program meets uniform standards for instructional facilities, equipment, staff credentials, and curriculum. In late 1988, over 275 high school and postsecondary automotive mechanic training programs had been certi fied, and over 1,600 additional programs were in the process of becom ing certified. Knowledge of electronics is increasingly desirable for automotive mechanics because electronics is being used in a growing variety of automotive components. Engine controls and dashboard instruments were among the first components to use electronics, but now electron ics are being used in brakes, transmissions, steering systems, and a variety of other components. In the past, problems involving electrical systems or electronics were usually handled by a specialist, but elec tronics are becoming so commonplace that most automotive mechanics must be familiar with at least the basic principles of electronics in order to recognize when an electronic malfunction may be responsible for a problem, and to be able to test and replace electronic components. For trainee mechanic jobs, employers look for people with good reading and basic mathematics skills who can study technical manuals to keep abreast of new technology and learn new service and repair procedures and specifications. Trainees also must possess mechanical aptitude and knowledge of how automobiles work. Most employers regard the successful completion of a vocational training program in automotive mechanics at a postsecondary institution as the best preparation for trainee positions. Experience working on motor vehi cles in the Armed Forces or as a hobby is also valuable. Completion of high school is required by a growing number of employers. Courses in automotive repair, electronics, physics, chemistry, English, and mathematics can provide a good basic educational background for a career as an automotive mechanic. Beginners usually start as trainee mechanics, helpers, lubrication workers, or gasoline service station attendants and gradually acquire and practice their skills by working with experienced mechanics. Although a beginner can perform many routine service tasks and make simple repairs after a few months’ experience, it usually takes 1 to 2 years of experience to acquire adequate proficiency to become a journeyman service mechanic and quickly perform the more difficult types of routine service and repairs. However, graduates of the better postsecondary mechanic training programs are often able to earn pro motion to the journeyman level after only a few months on the job. An additional 1 to 2 years are usually required to become thoroughly experienced and familiar with all types of repairs. Difficult specialties, such as transmission repair, require another year or two of training and experience. In contrast, automotive radiator mechanics and brake specialists, who do not need an all-round knowledge of automotive repair, may learn their jobs in considerably less time. In the past, many persons have entered automotive mechanics through 3- or 4-year formal apprenticeship programs. However, as formal automotive training programs have increased in popularity, the number of employers willing to make such a long-term apprenticeship commitment has greatly declined. Mechanics usually buy their handtools, and beginners are expected Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers to accumulate tools as they gain experience. Many experienced me chanics have thousands of dollars invested in tools. Employers furnish power tools, engine analyzers, and other test equipment. Employers increasingly send experienced automotive mechanics to factory training centers to learn to repair new models or to receive special training in the repair of components such as electronic fuel injection or air-conditioners. Motor vehicle dealers may also send promising beginners to factory-sponsored mechanic training programs. Factory representatives come to many shops to conduct short training sessions. Voluntary certification by the National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE) is widely recognized as a standard of achievement for automotive mechanics. Mechanics are certified in one or more of eight different service areas, such as electrical systems, engine repair, and brakes, suspension, and steering. Master automotive mechanics are certified in all eight areas. For certification in each area, mechanics must have at least 2 years of experience and pass a written examination; completion of an automotive mechanic program in high school, vocational or trade school, or community or junior college may be substituted for 1 year of experience. Certified mechanics must retake the examination at least every 5 years. Experienced mechanics who have leadership ability may advance to shop supervisor or service manager. Mechanics who work well with customers may become automotive repair service estimators. Some with sufficient funds open independent repair shops. Job Outlook Job opportunities in automotive mechanics are expected to be plentiful for persons who complete training programs in high school, vocational and technical schools, or community colleges. Persons without formal mechanic training are likely to face competition for entry level jobs. Mechanic careers are attractive to many because they afford the oppor tunity for good pay and the satisfaction of skilled work with one’s hands. Employment of automotive mechanics is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Slow employment growth in gasoline service stations will offset growth in mechanic employment in automobile dealerships, independent auto motive repair shops, and other industries. Nevertheless, the number of mechanics is expected to increase because expansion of the driving age population will increase the number of motor vehicles on the road. The growing complexity of automotive technology, such as the use of electronic and emissions control equipment, increasingly necessitates that cars be serviced by skilled workers, contributing to growth in demand for highly trained mechanics. In addition, if the average age of automobiles in operation continues to increase, a growing proportion of vehicle operating costs will be spent on repairs, and less on the cost of the vehicle. However, improvements in the reliability of automobiles, together with less frequent requirements for routine service, are expected to dampen employment growth. More job openings are expected for automotive mechanics than for most other occupations because replacement needs, the main source of job openings, will be substantial, due in large part to the size of the occupation. Replacements will be needed as experienced workers transfer to other occupations or retire or stop working for other reasons. Most persons who enter the occupation may expect steady work because changes in economic conditions have little effect on the auto motive repair business. During a downturn, however, some employers may be more reluctant to hire inexperienced workers. Earnings Highly skilled automotive mechanics employed by automobile dealers in 18 metropolitan areas had average hourly earnings of $17.40 in 1988. Less skilled mechanics who perform routine service and make minor repairs had estimated average hourly earnings of $12.40; semi skilled mechanics, $8.70. Many experienced mechanics employed by automotive dealers and independent repair shops receive a commission related to the labor https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 331 cost charged to the customer. Under this method, weekly earnings depend on the amount of work completed by the mechanic. Employers frequently guarantee commissioned mechanics a minimum weekly salary. Some mechanics are members of labor unions. The unions include the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricul tural Implement Workers of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ Inter national Association; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America. Related Occupations Other workers who repair and service motor vehicles include diesel truck and bus mechanics, motorcycle mechanics, and automotive body repairers, painters, customizers, and repair service estimators. Sources of Additional Information For more details about work opportunities, contact local automotive dealers and repair shops, or the local office of the State employment service. The State employment service also may have information about training programs. Information on automotive mechanic training is available from: ••-Motor and Equipment Manufacturers Association, Technical Training Coun cil, 300 Sylvan Ave., Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632-0638. A list of certified automotive mechanic training programs may be obtained from: ••-National Automotive Technicians Education Foundation, 13505 Dulles Technology Dr., Herndon, VA 22071-3415. Information on automobile manufacturer sponsored 2-year associate degree programs in automotive service technology may be obtained from: •-ASSET Program, Training Department, Ford Parts and Service Division, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, MI 48121. •-Chrysler Dealer Apprenticeship Program, National C.A.P. Coordinator, 26001 Lawrence Ave., Center Line, MI 48015. •-General Motors Automotive Service Educational Program, National College Coordinator, General Motors Technical Service, 30501 Van Dyke Ave., War ren, MI 48090. Information on how to become a certified automotive mechanic is available from: •-ASE, 13505 Dulles Technology Dr., Herndon, VA 22071-3415. For general information about the work of automotive mechanics, write to: •-Automotive Service Association, Inc., P.O. Box 929, Bedford, TX 76021 0929. •-Automotive Service Industry Association, 444 North Michigan Ave., Chi cago, IL 60611. Commercial and Industrial Electronic Equipment Repairers (D.O.T. 638.261-026; 726.361-022, .381-014, .684-090; 828.251-010, .261 014, .281-010, -014, and -022) Nature of the Work Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers, also called industrial electronics technicians, install and repair electronic equip ment used in industrial automated equipment controls, missile control systems, radar systems, medical diagnostic equipment, transmitters, and antennas. (Workers who repair data processing equipment and home entertainment equipment are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Preventive maintenance is a major responsibility of electronics re pairers. They periodically check, clean, and repair equipment to detect and prevent major malfunctions. They may maintain a log on each piece of equipment to provide a history of calibrations, tests, perfor mance problems, and repairs. 332 Occupational Outlook Handbook ings usually are quiet, clean, and well lighted. Electronics repairers usually work with little supervision. Employment generally entails considerable walking, kneeling, bending, and reaching to install or repair equipment. Employment Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers held about 79,000 jobs in 1988. About 1 out of 4 repairers is employed by the Federal Government; the overwhelming majority of these work for the Department of Defense—mostly at military installations around the country. Repairers also are employed by electronic and transportation equip ment manufacturers, machinery and equipment wholesalers, telephone companies, hospitals, electronic repair shops and firms that provide maintenance under contract (called third-party maintenance firms). Wm W IS mm* Preventive maintenance is a major responsibility of electronics repairers. When an equipment breakdown does occur, repairers first determine that it is in an electronic component; they then check for common causes of trouble such as loose connections or obviously defective components. If routine checks do not locate the trouble, repairers refer to blueprint’s schmatics and manufacturers’ specifications that show connections and provide instruction on how to locate problems. They use voltmeters, ohmmeters, signal generators, ammeters, and oscillo scopes and may run diagnostic programs to pinpoint malfunctions. To make repairs, they may replace defective components, circuit boards or wiring, or adjust and calibrate equipment. It may take several hours to locate a problem, but only a few minutes to fix it. Commercial and industrial electronics technicians also install new equipment and do tests and calibrations to insure that it functions properly. In the Defense Department, they install radar, missile con trol, and communication systems on aircraft, ships, and tanks and in buildings and other structures. They install computer-assisted tomogra phy (CAT scan), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and similar equipment in hospitals. They set up and service industrial robotic and other electronic equipment and systems. They often coordinate their efforts with workers installing mechanical or electromechanical com ponents. (For a detailed description of the duties of these workers, see the statements on industrial machinery repairers and millwrights elsewhere in the Handbook.) They are often called field-service repre sentatives and may perform work closely related to that of electronics technicians. (See the discussion of engineering technicians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers generally work a 40-hour week. In industries that operate around the clock, repairers often rotate shifts, so they may work evenings, nights, week ends, or holidays. Repairers working for hospitals may have to work evenings and weekends to make emergency repairs to malfunctioning respirators and other life-support equipment. In less critical situations, electronics repairers may be on call during off-duty hours. Working conditions vary depending upon the job. On the factory floor, repairers may be exposed to heat, grease, and noise, and may have to work in cramped spaces. Sometimes work is done in electronic repair shops generally located off the factory floor. Here, as well as in hospitals, military installations, and other job settings, the surround https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications and Advancement Applicants for commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairer jobs generally need 2 years of post-secondary training in electronics. Formal course work should include electronics theory and technology, robotics, telemetry, digital switching, preventive maintenance, and troubleshooting techniques. They learn to read and understand sche matics and operational manuals. Most repairers attend either a public, private, or Armed Forces technical school. Some receive training through a 3- or 4-year apprenticeship program administered by employ ers. High school graduates who have had courses in mathematics and science are preferred for the apprenticeship program. Electronics repairers need good color vision, manual dexterity, and good eye-hand coordination. They should have an aptitude for mathematics and be able to do detailed work. Other qualifications include a good memory, recordkeeping ability and, the ability to do repetitive tasks. Repairers who test and repair marine, aviation, and certain other radio transmitting equipment, must hold a General Radiotelephone Operator License from the Federal Communications Commission. The Commission encourages its licensees who operate business and land mobile radios to employ repairers with voluntary certification. Volun tary programs for the certification of repairers are administered by the International Society of Certified Electronics Technicians and by the Electronics Technicians Association. In both programs, electronics repairers with 4 years’ experience may apply for certification as a Certified Electronics Technician. Certification, which is by examina tion, is offered in radio-TV, industrial and commercial repair, audio, and radar systems. Also, an Associate Level Test of basic electronics is available for students or beginning repairers who do not have the experience required for full certification. Some workers advance to jobs as electronics technicians or engineer ing assistants. Opportunities for advancement are improved by taking courses offered by employers, junior colleges, or technical schools. Some highly skilled repairers open their own repair businesses. Job Outlook Employment of commercial and industrial electronic equipment repair ers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupa tions through the year 2000. Employment in non-Defense industries is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations; because of cuts in the Defense Department budget, no employment growth is expected in this occupation in the Federal Government. In private industry, it is projected to grow faster than the average for all occupa tions. To boost productivity, more and more business and industrial firms are expected to install electronic equipment. In addition, more electronic equipment will be used in medicine, energy conservation, and pollution control. Besides employment growth, many job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Earnings Beginning commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers started at between $16,000 and $20,000 a year in 1988, according to Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers the limited information available. Experienced repairers earned from $20,000 to $24,000, while highly skilled specialists who can work on more than one type of equipment earned between $24,000 and $30,000; supervisors earned as much as $37,000 a year. The average annual salary of repairers who were employed by the Federal Government in 1988 was $28,000. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers repair electronic equipment in clude home appliance and power tool repairers, computer and office machine repairers, and electronic home entertainment equipment re pairers. Sources of Additional Information For career and certification information, contact: (•-The International Society of Certified Electronics Technicians, 2708 West Berry St., Fort Worth, TX 76109. For certification, career, and placement information, contact; (•-Electronics Technicians Association, 604 North Jackson, Greencastle, IN 46135. For information about the general radiotelephone operator license, write to: ••-Federal Communications Commission, 1919 M St. NW., Washington, DC 20554. Information about employment in the Federal Government may be obtained from the Office of Personnel Management Job Information Center in your location. Communications Equipment Mechanics (D.O.T. 722.281; 726.381-014; 822.261-010, .281-010, -014, -022, -026, -030 and -034, .361-014, .381-010, -018, -022, and .684-010; 823.261-010, -018, and -022, .281-010, -014, and -022; 825.261-010; and 829.281-022) Nature of the Work The telephone system in this country is the most technologically advanced in the world. New products are introduced at a dizzying pace. An example of a powerful new technology is the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), which computerizes telephone ser vice. Voice, data, and videotex! are sent over common telephone lines without the need for separate equipment for each type of signal. Installing, repairing, and maintaining the array of increasingly com plex and sophisticated communications equipment that make this pos sible are the responsibilities of communications equipment mechanics. Most communications equipment mechanics—sometimes referred to as telecommunication technicians—work either in telephone company central offices or on customers’ premises installing and repairing com plex telephone switching and transmission systems. Central office equipment installers, or equipment installation techni cians, set up, rearrange, and remove the complex switching and dialing equipment used in central offices. They install equipment in new central offices, add equipment in expanding offices, or replace outdated equipment. Installers follow work orders, blueprints, circuit diagrams, electrical schematics, and floor plans to position and wire equipment. They often use hoists to lift heavy items, and handtools, such as screwdrivers or soldering guns, to connect equipment once it is in place. For example, they construct and erect iron and steel frames and connect these to the central office equipment. The newer electronic equipment, however, comes in preassembled components and often requires only simple plug-in connections. After the new equipment has been put in place, installers connect the outgoing and incoming telephone trunklines, consulting diagrams to insure that connections are made correctly. Once this is completed, installers test and troubleshoot the system to see that everything is working correctly. They use communications testing equipment, such as pulsing test sets, oscilloscopes, ohmmeters, and voltmeters, to https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 333 measure the strength and consistency of the current flow. If the system is not functioning properly, they must determine the cause of the difficulty and correct the malfunction. Frame wirers, sometimes referred to as frame workers or frame attendants, connect, disconnect, inspect, and repair wires that run from telephone lines and cables to the central office. The frame has many terminal lugs mounted on it, each of which is assigned a specific telephone number. It also contains one pair of wires for each telephone that is connected to that central office. To connect a new telephone, the frame wirer attaches the customer’s pair of wires to a set of terminal lugs, using small handtools, such as pliers, screwdrivers, and soldering irons. To disconnect a telephone, the frame wirer melts the solder or otherwise removes the wires from the terminal. Frame wirers occasion ally are required to change a customer’s phone number, which they do by reconnecting the customer’s pair of wires to a different set of terminal lugs. Frame wirers inspect and repair all parts of the frames after checking for breaks or loose wires. They also may help other craft workers locate and correct malfunctions. To gain experience, frame wirers generally work on residential telephone service. Later, they may work on more complex special services, such as circuitry for large business systems, civil defense warning sirens, or burglar alarms. Central office repairers, often referred to as central office techni cians or switching equipment technicians, test, repair, and maintain all types of local and toll switching equipment that automatically connects lines when customers dial numbers. Most of these switching systems are electromechanical—that is, they contain moving parts and must be cleaned and oiled periodically. Newer switching systems, which utilize digital electronics and have no moving parts, must be checked occasionally for breakages. When customers report trouble with their telephones, trouble loca tors work at special switchboards—sometimes called testboards—to find the source of the problem. To do this, they have the telephone repairer connect a portable phone at various places on the customer’s line until a connection can be made to the central office. For a problem at the central office, the trouble locator repeats this procedure with a central office repairer. Trouble locators who work for cable television companies must insure that subscribers’ television sets receive the proper signal. They may work with cable installers to track down the cause of the interference and make repairs. Making repairs to sophisticated communications equipment may involve only changing a circuit board. 334 Occupational Outlook Handbook Within the last few years, most telephone companies have started replacing trouble locators with maintenance administrators. These workers perform many of the functions of trouble locators but generally do not have as much technical training. Their jobs are largely auto mated; instead of using testboards and associated equipment to perform the complex circuit testing, they do so by entering instructions into a computer terminal. Maintenance administrators also update and main tain computerized files of trouble status reports. PBX installers, also called systems technicians, specialize in com plex telephone system installations. These workers create switchboard systems for businesses with unique communications requirements. PBX and other systems are used to transmit both voice and data. Using equipment that includes handtools, signal generators, ohmmeters, os cilloscopes, and other specialized telephone test equipment, these workers connect wires from terminals to switchboards and power cabinets and make tests to check their installations. PBX repairers, with the assistance of trouble locators, locate the malfunction in customers' PBX, CENTREX, KEY, or other telephone systems and make the necessary repairs. They also maintain associated equipment such as batteries, relays, and powerplants. Some PBX repairers maintain and repair equipment for mobile radiophones, mi crowave transmission equipment, switching equipment, and data pro cessing equipment. Other communications equipment mechanics include instrument repairers, sometimes referred to as shop repairers or shop technicians, who use handtools and power tools to repair, test, and modify commu nications equipment such as telephones, teletypewriters, and switch boards. In addition, they may paint various types of equipment and cut and weld iron for special work equipment. Some mechanics spe cialize in working on telegraphic equipment. Called automatic equip ment technicians, telegraph plant maintainers, or teletype installers, these workers install, repair, and maintain a variety of transmitting and receiving equipment in telegraph company offices and on customers’ premises. Radio repairers and mechanics install and repair stationary and mobile radio transmitting and receiving equipment. Some of these workers repair intercommunication equipment such as microwave and fiber optics installations. Office electricians make operating adjust ments in submarine cable repeater and terminal circuits and related equipment. When trouble arises, they may rearrange cable connections to insure that service is not interrupted. Submarine cable equipment technicians repair, adjust, and maintain the machines and equipment used in submarine cable offices or stations to control cable traffic. Avionics technicians inspect and repair aircraft communication, navi gation, and flight control systems. Signal or track switch maintainers install electric gate crossings, signals, track switches, and intercommu nication systems in a railroad network. Working Conditions Many communications equipment mechanics work shifts, weekends, and holidays because most communications systems operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Shifts are generally assigned on the basis of seniority. Repairers are also usually subject to 24-hour call to cope with equipment failure emergencies. Mechanics generally work in clean, well-lighted, air-conditioned surroundings—most often a telephone company central office or the customer’s place of business. Depending on the job, they may have to stand for long periods, climb ladders, and do some reaching, stoop ing, and light lifting. They also must take precautions to avoid electri cal shocks. Some wear headsets most of the time and communicate with others over telephone circuits. Some headsets may produce a high-pitched, shrill noise known as “acoustic shock,” which over a prolonged period may lead to hearing loss. Because much of the older communications equipment continually produces sounds, these workers must learn to “block out” noise. Employment Communications equipment mechanics held about 113,000 jobs in 1988. Most worked for telephone and telegraph companies. A small https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis number worked for cable television and related companies, as well as for railroad companies and electrical repair shops. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In the past, trainees for positions as communications equipment me chanics were selected from both inside and outside the company. However, since the deregulation of the American Telephone and Tele graph Company (AT&T) in 1984, this pattern has changed. In the new competitive environment, larger companies increasingly are reducing the size of their internal training programs and looking for workers who already possess the skills to do the job. Most companies prefer workers who have developed these skills in another job, probably with a smaller company, or in the Armed Forces. For example, experience in data systems technology or computer maintenance is very good preparation for work with electronic switching systems. After relevant work experience, employers look for persons who have completed associate degree or postsecondary vocational school programs in tele communications technology, electronics, computer maintenance, or related subjects. When enough applicants with these preferred creden tials are unavailable, some of the larger companies still promote from within and provide training on company time. However, these compa nies are trying to reduce operating costs by minimizing in-house training, and the trend is clearly toward phasing out such training altogether. More and more telephone companies are already replacing their traditional classroom training programs with modular ones. Modular training programs include entry tests, videotapes, movies, computer terminals, and programmed workbooks that allow employees to learn new skills at their own pace, cover only the material they need, and provide tests upon completion of training. Although formal instruction is becoming rarer, it is still usually combined with on-the-job training. Trainees without experience or formal training gain practical experience by observing and helping experienced communications equipment mechanics. After 1 or 2 years of satisfactory performance, frame wirers, for example, may be se lected to train for a more skilled job, such as trouble locator, central office repairer, or instrument repairer. Some smaller companies still hire high school graduates with little or no specialized training or experience. These employees receive some formal training by the employer, but mainly they learn the necessary skills through on-the-job training. Employers may send them to classes offered by the equipment manufacturers in order to upgrade their skills. Workers in these small companies usually become a “jack of all trades” and can perform all aspects of a job. For example, a PBX installer who knows a rare system may lay cable, install and program the equipment, and teach the customer how to use and adapt the system. The installer may also teach a fellow employee about the system if he needs help with the job. The more demanding repair jobs usually are filled by workers who have previous electrical or electronic experience or appropriate train ing. Communications equipment mechanics must continue to study throughout their careers. They receive periodic training to leam about new types of equipment, which may include electronic switching systems, data transmission equipment, and picturephones. This train ing is offered by the employer or by equipment manufacturers. These workers have a number of opportunities for advancement, which usually involve further technical training. They may be pro moted to jobs maintaining more sophisticated equipment, or to jobs as engineering technicians. With enough training on one brand of equipment, usually through manufacturer’s training courses, commu nications equipment mechanics may advance to a sales position with that manufacturer. Persons considering a job as a communications equipment mechanic should have the analytical skills and judgment to resolve mechanical difficulties. Self-discipline is needed to follow detailed instmetions without close supervision. Prospective workers should be able to work as part of a team because cooperation with others often is essential in solving complex problems. Reading comprehension, logic, and arithmetic ability are necessary to understand company manuals and Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers circuit wiring diagrams. Verbal skills are needed for those jobs that require contact with the public and coordination of activities with other employees. Because wires usually are color coded, applicants must be able to distinguish colors. Physical strength and agility are needed for carrying equipment and climbing and working from ladders. These workers also need manual dexterity in order to handle small tools. Applicants generally must undergo a physical examination. For many jobs, driving may be necessary. If so, a valid State driver’s license and a good driving record are required. Job Outlook Employment of communications equipment mechanics is expected to decline through the year 2000 due to the tremendous productivity increases associated with computerization of this equipment. There fore, job openings will result exclusively from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The telephone industry is in the midst of a dramatic transformation from the traditional electromechanical system to a completely elec tronic one. This transition began some time ago and accelerated follow ing deregulation in 1984. While this change has had an impact on practically all occupations in the telephone industry, among the most affected have been communications equipment mechanics. Employment of these workers is expected to decline because the new technology and equipment make each worker much more produc tive. For example, once a digital electronic switching system has replaced an electromechanical one, fewer service technicians are needed for maintenance and repair because the new systems have fewer moving parts and are more reliable. Conversion to electronic switching requires fewer installers because much of this equipment is prefabricated and, therefore, is easier to install. Computerized equipment also permits a greater use of centralized maintenance. As telephone companies use more computer-based sup port programs to automate central offices, maintenance and repair personnel can be stationed at various control centers. Mobile crews of repairers then can provide the necessary modifications by rotating among several automated central offices. Considerably fewer mainte nance and repair workers will be needed with centralized maintenance. Moreover, these new, electronically equipped central offices use so phisticated, self-diagnosing test equipment that requires fewer repair and maintenance personnel. Such equipment detects the source of a problem and directs the technician to the defective part, which usually can simply be removed and replaced. Decreased labor requirements in central offices have caused layoffs in recent years. As technology continues to displace communications equipment mechanics, competition for available openings should in tensify, making it much more difficult for other telephone workers to move into these positions without experience or formal training and virtually impossible for “outsiders” without the necessary skills to compete for jobs. Earnings Wage rates for communications equipment mechanics vary by em ployer and locality; specific information may be obtained from local telephone companies. Central office installers, central office techni cians, and PBX installers employed by AT&T and the Bell Operating Companies and represented by the Communications Workers of America earned an average weekly salary of $650 in 1988; frame attendants averaged $550. Central office telephone craft workers and PBX installers and repairers usually earn more than other communica tions equipment mechanics. Most communications equipment mechanics are members of the Communications Workers of America or the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. For these workers, union contracts determine wage rates, wage increases, and the time needed to advance from one step to the next. Contracts also require extra pay for work beyond the normal 8 hours a day or 5 days a week, and for all work on Sundays and holidays. Additional pay for night work is provided for in most contracts. Paid vacations are based on time in service. Generally, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 335 contracts provide for a 1-week vacation beginning with 6 months of service; 2 weeks for 1 to 6 years; 3 weeks for 7 to 14 years; 4 weeks for 15 to 24 years; and 5 weeks for 25 years and over. Depending on the locality, holidays range from 9 to 12 days a year. Other contract provisions include the following: Paid sick leave; group life, medical, and dental insurance; vision care; sickness and accident benefits; edu cational benefits; retirement and disability pensions; a savings plan; and an employee stock ownership plan. Related Occupations Other workers who have the skills needed to do technical, manual work with tools and electrical or electronic machines include computer service technicians, office machine repairers, biomedical equipment technicians, electronics technicians, electricians, telecommunications technicians, and sound technicians. Sources of Additional Information For more details about employment opportunities, contact your local telephone or telegraph company. For more information on the telephone industry and career opportu nities in it, request copies of Phonefacts and Is It For You? A Career in the Telephone Industry from: w-United States Telephone Association, 900 19th St. NW., Suite 800, Wash ington, DC 20006. Computer and Office Machine Repairers (D.O.T. 633.261-010,-014, .281 except-026;706.381-010and-030; 828.261 014, .281-010, and -014) Nature of the Work Computers and other office equipment is essential to just about every organization. Communications, information processing, and the re cording of business transactions are all facilitated by these machines. Keeping these increasingly sophisticated machines working properly is the responsibility of computer and office machine repairers. These repairers (often called field engineers, customer service engi neers, or service technicians) may install new machines, do preventive maintenance, or correct emergency problems. Installing a typewriter may not require the service of a field technician, but more complex copiers and computers may need special cable and wiring to hook up electrical connections. Repairers work closely with electricians, who install the wiring for the new system to ensure proper layout. (A description of the work of electricians can be found elsewhere in the Handbook.) Technicians thoroughly test the equipment before the customer uses the machine. Large computer installations may take several days to install before they are fully operational. Field technicians visit the offices and stores of customers in their assigned area whenever emergencies arise and on a regular basis in order to do preventive maintenance according to manufacturer’s recommended maintenance schedules. The frequency of service de pends upon the type of equipment. For example, an electric or elec tronic typewriter may require preventive maintenance only three or four times a year, while a complex copier or computer would require much more frequent attention. During these calls, the servicer inspects the machine for unusual wear and replaces any worn or broken parts. Then all mechanical parts of the machine are cleaned, oiled, and adjusted to ensure peak operating efficiency and to prevent future, breakdowns. The repairer also may advise machine operators on how to use the equipment more efficiently and how to spot a problem in its early stages. Some technicians may be assigned to work full time at a client’s installation in order to maintain all of the equipment. Bench technicians work in central facilities where equipment or components are brought for major repairs. 336 Occupational Outlook Handbook this reason, someone must be available to make emergency repairs at any time, day or night. Assignments to be on call generally are made on the basis of seniority. Although some bending and lifting are necessary, the job is not strenuous. Servicers generally wear business clothes and do most of their work in the customer’s place of business. Work hazards are limited mainly to minor bums and electric shock, but these can be avoided if safety practices are followed. Repairers travel a great deal because they usually visit a number of customers each workday. For most field technicians, travel is local; they usually are not away from home overnight. Employers pay for travel, including reimbursement for job-related use of the technician’s car. Major equipment manufacturers usually provide vehicles for the technician’s use. Field technicians visit customers' offices to do repairs or preventive maintenance. Despite frequent maintenance, computers and business machines do break down. To locate the cause of failures for computers, technicians run special diagnostic programs that pinpoint malfunctions. Although some of the most modern and sophisticated computers have a selfdiagnosing capacity that directs the repairer to the exact source of the problem, computer repairers must know enough about systems software to determine if the malfunction is due to an error in the hardware or in the software. Once the problem has been located, fixing the equipment may take just a few minutes because most repairs merely involve the replacement of malfunctioning components. To correct an electronic problem, for example, the technician simply replaces the circuit board indicated by the diagnostic program. (This is often called board swapping and is made possible by the modular design of computer components.) Office machine repairers can usually correct most problems on the spot because they carry a sufficient number of replacement parts for such repairs. To repair mechanical parts, repairers use a variety of handtools, including needle-nosed pliers, wirestrippers, and soldering equipment. In addition, they use meters, oscilloscopes, and other types of testing equipment to check for malfunctions in electronic circuits. In more serious cases, technicians simply give the customer a new piece of equipment and take the malfunctioning one to a central facility for service. Computer and office machine repairers must be familiar with techni cal manuals and diagnostic programs for each piece of equipment. They also must keep up with the technical information and revised maintenance procedures issued periodically by equipment manufac turers. Technicians spend much of their time working with people. They listen to customers’ complaints, answer questions, and sometimes offer technical advice on ways to keep equipment in good condition. In many ways, technicians act as public relations workers for their employer, promoting customer satisfaction and good will. In addition, experienced technicians often help train new workers and sometimes have limited supervisory duties. Working Conditions The normal workweek for repairers is 40 hours. Many users of com puter systems, however, rely on their equipment around the clock, and working time lost because of a breakdown can be very expensive. For https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment Computer and office machine repairers held about 128,000 jobs in 1988. Approximately 71,000 worked mainly on computer equipment, and the other 57,000 repaired mainly office machines. Three of every four were employed by wholesalers of computers and other office equipment and by firms that provide maintenance services for a fee. The remainder worked for equipment manufacturers, retail establish ments, and organizations with enough equipment and funding to war rant a full-time service staff. Repairers work throughout the country. Even relatively small com munities have at least one or two repair shops. Most repairers, how ever, work in large cities, where computer and office equipment is concentrated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most new office machines are computerized and can be repaired either by those who specialize in office machine repair or computer repair or by those who service both office machines and computers. Because more complex training is required to repair computers, those who specialize in office machine repair usually do not have the training to service the higher technology of computers. Basic training in electron ics is applicable to the mechanically intensive office machines, but additional training in electronics is usually required to repair com puters. The amount of formal education required for entry level repairer jobs varies by the type of equipment to be repaired and by the employer. Some employers hire applicants with a high school education, while many others require at least 1 year of technical training in basic electricity or electronics. A high school student interested in becoming a computer service technician should take courses in mathematics and physics. High school courses in electronics and computer programming also are helpful. For technician jobs dealing mainly with computer equipment, most employers require applicants to have 1 to 2 years’ post-high school training in basic electronics, data processing equipment maintenance, or electrical engineering. This training may be from a public or private vocational school or a college or university. Basic electronics training offered by the Armed Forces and by some vocational high schools also is valuable preparation for this type of work. Many entrants to this occupation transfer from other occupations where they learned about electronics, such as television service techni cian, engineering technician, or industrial electronic equipment re pairer. Newly hired computer repairers usually receive 3 to 6 months of training from their employer. They may study elementary computer theory, computer math, and circuitry theory in addition to expanding their knowledge of basic electronics. Training includes hands-on expe rience with computer equipment, doing basic maintenance, and using diagnostic programs to locate malfunctions. The training generally occurs in a traditional classroom setting, but self-instruction or comput er-based training also may be utilized. Trainees who work for a franchised business machine dealer usually attend a school sponsored by the manufacturer. Training programs Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers at company schools usually last several weeks to several months, depending on the type of machine the repairer will service. These workers generally learn to service only the company’s line of equipment. Because small repair shops usually do not specialize in the more sophisticated types of equipment, they frequently offer less formal training, consisting of a self-study course plus on-the-job instruction under the supervision of an experienced worker. Depending on the type of repair business, repairers may be taught how to service older equipment if the need arises. In addition to formal instruction, trainees must complete 6 months to 2 years of on-the-job training. At first, they work closely with experienced technicians, learning to maintain relatively simple ma chines. Some companies have trainees gain experience by specializing in a certain type of equipment for a time. When trainees have mastered repair of that device, they specialize in another. This process continues until the technician can work with a variety of equipment. Because changing technology forces manufacturers to continually redesign equipment and develop new service procedures, experienced technicians must attend training sessions to keep up with these changes and to broaden their technical skills. Many technicians take advanced training in a particular computer system or type of repair. Instruction also may include programming, systems analysis, and other subjects that improve the technician’s general knowledge of the computer field. Applicants for entry jobs may have to pass tests that measure me chanical aptitude, knowledge of electricity or electronics, manual dexterity, and general intelligence. Good eyesight is needed to inspect and work on small, delicate parts. Persons considering this type of work should have good hearing to detect malfunctions that may be revealed by sound. Because field technicians usually handle jobs alone, they must have the initiative to work without close supervision. Also important are a pleasant personality, neat appearance,and the ability to communicate effectively because the work involves frequent contact with customers. Computer and office machine repairers must also be trustworthy because they may be exposed to money and other valuables in places like banks and securities offices. Some employers require that they be bonded. A security clearance may be required in cases where technicians regularly service machines located in restricted buildings, such as Federal Government installations engaged in classi fied activities. Bench technicians who repair broken parts or whole machines at a central facility have somewhat different responsibilities than field technicians. Because they must determine the exact source of a prob lem in the equipment, they do less customer service and more analysis of repair-cost feasibility. That is, they determine if it would be cheaper for the customer just to buy a new part or machine than to pay to fix the broken one. Mechanical aptitude and a detailed knowledge of the electronic parts of the specific machine are the major requirements for these technicians. Experienced technicians with advanced training may become spe cialists or troubleshooters who help technicians throughout their terri tory diagnose difficult problems. They also may work with engineers in designing equipment and developing maintenance procedures. Because of their familiarity with equipment, servicers are particu larly well qualified to advance to jobs as manufacturers’ sales workers. Workers who show managerial ability also may become service man agers or supervisors. Experienced workers sometimes open their own repair shops; those who work in manufacturers’ branch offices may become independent dealers or buy sales franchises from the company. Job Outlook Employment of computer and office machine repairers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Demand will be strongest for those who are able to repair computerized equipment. This reflects the higher level of technology found in newer office products. Sales of computer and other office equipment will increase as organi zations throughout the economy continue to automate their operations in search of greater productivity. The development of new applications https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 337 for computers will also spur demand. As prices continue to fall, sophisticated office equipment will become affordable to more and more small organizations. More service technicians will be needed to install, maintain, and repair the growing number of machines in use. Employment of these workers is not expected to grow as rapidly as the amount of equipment in use, however, due to improvements that make equipment more reliable and easier to repair. For example, the latest generation of computerized equipment can diagnose the cause of its own malfunctions. For some computer equipment, the diagnosis of the malfunction will be done by another computer via telephone hookup. Computer and office machine repairers have been less likely than other workers to be laid off during downturns in economic activity. However, firms do restrict hiring of new repairers during recessions, making it harder to enter the occupation. Technicians experienced in the service of several models and brands of equipment or with the most complex equipment generally will be in the greatest demand. Employers are placing increasing emphasis on formal education for computer repairers. Job applicants with a 2-year degree in electronics should have the competitive edge in landing jobs. Earnings Median annual earnings of full-time computer and office machine repairers were about $25,300 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $20,000 and $33,300. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,900 a year. Many of these probably were trainees. The top 10 percent earned $40,500. The median annual earnings for those who specialize in computer repairs were $26,700, and those in office ma chine repair earned $22,400. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who repair and maintain the circuits and mechanical parts of electronic equipment include appliance and powertool repairers, automotive electricians, electronic organ techni cians, instrument repairers, communications equipment mechanics, radio repairers, radar mechanics, and electronic home entertainment repairers. Sources of Additional Information For general information on careers in computer maintenance, contact the personnel department of computer manufacturers and computer maintenance firms in your area. For more details about job opportuni ties, contact local firms that manufacture, sell, or service computers and office machines and the local office of your State employment services. The State department of education in your State capital can furnish information about approved technical institutes, junior colleges, and other institutions offering postsecondary training in basic electronics. Diesel Mechanics (D.O.T. 620.281-046, -050, -058; 623.281-018, -026; 625.261, .281-010, -014, .361) Nature of the Work Diesel engines usually are more durable and thus usually are heavier than gasoline engines. In addition, they use fuel more efficiently than gasoline engines, in part because the higher compression ratios found in diesel engines help convert a higher percentage of the fuel into power. Because of their greater durability and efficiency, diesel en gines are used to power most of the Nation’s heavy vehicles and equipment. Diesel mechanics repair and maintain diesel engines that power transportation equipment, such as heavy trucks, buses, and locomo tives; construction equipment such as bulldozers, cranes, and road graders; and farm equipment such as tractors and combines. A small 338 Occupational Outlook Handbook number work on diesel-powered automobiles. Diesel mechanics also service a variety of other diesel-powered equipment, such as electric generators and compressors and pumps used in oil well drilling and in irrigation. Most diesel mechanics work on heavy trucks used in industries such as mining and construction to carry ore and building materials, and by private and commercial trucking lines for general freight hauling. Most light trucks are gasoline powered, and although some diesel mechanics may occasionally service gasoline engines, most work primarily on diesel engines. For information on mechanics who work primarily on gasoline engines, see the Handbook statement on automotive me chanics. Mechanics who work for organizations that maintain their own vehicles may spend much time doing preventive maintenance to assure safe operation, prevent wear and damage to parts, and reduce costly breakdowns. During a maintenance check on a truck, for example, they usually follow a regular checklist that includes the inspection of brake systems, steering mechanisms, wheel bearings, and other important parts. They usually can repair or adjust a part that is not working properly. Parts that cannot be fixed are replaced. In many shops, mechanics do all kinds of repairs, working on a vehicle’s electrical system one day and doing major engine repairs the next. In some large shops, mechanics specialize in one or two types of work. For example, one mechanic may specialize in major engine repair, another in transmission work, another in electrical systems, and yet another in suspension or brake systems. Diesel mechanics use a variety of tools in their work. They use power tools such as pneumatic wrenches to remove bolts quickly; machine tools such as lathes and grinding machines to rebuild brakes and other parts; welding and flame-cutting equipment to remove and repair exhaust systems and other parts; common handtools such as screwdrivers, pliers, and wrenches to work on small parts and get at .hard-to-reach places; and jacks and hoists to lift and move large parts. Diesel mechanics also use a variety of testing equipment, including ohmmeters, ammeters, and voltmeters when working on electrical systems and electronic components; and tachometers, dynamometers, and engine analyzers to locate engine malfunctions. For heavy work, such as removing engines and transmissions, two mechanics may work as a team, or a mechanic may be assisted by an apprentice or helper. Mechanics generally get their assignments from shop supervisors or service managers, who may check the mechanics’ work or assist in diagnosing problems. Working Conditions Diesel mechanics usually work indoors, although they may occasion ally make repairs on the road. They are subject to the usual shop hazards such as cuts and bruises. Mechanics handle greasy and dirty Diesel mechanics do preventive maintenance on trucks and heavy equipment to avoid breakdowns and prolong the life of the equipment. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis parts and may stand or lie in awkward or cramped positions to repair vehicles and equipment. Work areas usually are well lighted, heated, and ventilated, and many employers provide locker rooms and shower facilities. Employment Diesel mechanics held about 269,000 jobs in 1988. About one-third serviced trucks and other diesel-powered equipment for customers of vehicle and equipment dealers, leasing companies, and independent automotive repair shops. Nearly one-fourth worked for local and long distance trucking companies, and about one-fifth maintained the buses and trucks of buslines, public transit companies, school systems, and Federal, State, and local governments. The remainder maintained the fleets of trucks and other equipment of manufacturing, construction, and other companies. A relatively small number were self-employed. Diesel mechanics are employed in every section of the country, but most work in towns and cities where trucking companies, buslines, and other fleet owners have large repair shops. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most diesel mechanics learn their skills on the job. Beginners usually do tasks such as cleaning parts, fueling, lubricating, and driving vehicles in and out of the shop. As beginners gain experience and as vacancies become available, they usually are promoted to mechanics’ helpers. In some shops, beginners—especially those having automo bile service experience—start as mechanics’ helpers. Most helpers can make minor repairs after a few months’ experience and advance to increasingly difficult jobs as they prove their ability. After they master the repair and service of diesel engines, they learn to work on related components such as brakes, transmissions, or electrical systems. Generally, at least 3 to 4 years of on-the-job experi ence are necessary to qualify as an all-round diesel truck or bus mechanic. Additional training may be necessary for mechanics who wish to specialize in diesel equipment. For entry jobs, employers generally look for applicants who have mechanical aptitude and are at least 18 years of age and in good physical condition. Completion of high school is required by a growing number of employers. Courses in automotive repair, electronics, En glish, mathematics, and physics provide a good basic educational background for a career as a diesel mechanic. Good reading and basic mathematics skills are needed to study technical manuals to keep abreast of new technology and learn new service and repair procedures and specifications. A State chauffeur’s license is needed for test driving trucks or buses on public roads. Practical experience in automobile repair in a gasoline service station, in the Armed Forces, or from a hobby also is valuable. Many employers prefer graduates of formal training programs in diesel mechanics. These 1- to 2-year programs, given by vocational and technical schools and community and junior colleges, lead to a certificate of completion or an associate degree. They provide a foundation in the basics of the latest diesel technology, such as the use of electronics, and speed advancement to the journeyman mechanic level. A formal 4-year apprenticeship is another good way to learn diesel mechanics. Apprenticeships are becoming less common because em ployers are reluctant to make such a long-term investment in training, especially when graduates of postsecondary diesel mechanic programs are increasing in number. Competition for the limited number of apprenticeship slots is often extremely keen. Typical apprenticeship programs for diesel truck and bus mechanics consist of approximately 8,000 hours of practical experience working on transmissions, engines, and other components and at least 576 hours of formal instruction to learn blueprint reading, mathematics, engine theory, and safety. Frequently, these programs include training in both diesel and gasoline engine repair. Most mechanics must buy their own handtools. Experienced me chanics often have thousands of dollars invested in tools. Employers sometimes send experienced mechanics to special train ing classes conducted by truck, bus, diesel engine, parts, and equip Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers ment manufacturers where they learn the latest technology or receive special training in subjects such as diagnosing engine malfunctions. Mechanics also must read service and repair manuals to keep abreast of engineering changes. Voluntary certification by the National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE) is recognized as a standard of achievement for diesel mechanics. Mechanics may be certified as Master HeavyDuty Truck Technician or may be certified in one or more of six different areas of heavy-duty truck repair: Brakes, gasoline engines, diesel engines, drive trains, electrical systems, and suspension and steering. For certification in each area, mechanics must pass a written examination and have at least 2 years of experience. High school, vocational or trade school, or community or junior college training in gasoline or diesel engine repair may substitute for up to 1 year of experience. To retain certification, mechanics must retake the tests at least every 5 years. Experienced mechanics who have leadership ability may advance to shop supervisors or service managers. Mechanics who have sales ability sometimes become sales representatives. A few mechanics open their own repair shops. Job Outlook Employment of diesel mechanics is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as freight transportation by truck increases. More tmeks will be needed for both local and intercity hauling due to the increased production of goods. Additional diesel mechanics will be needed to repair and maintain growing numbers of buses and heavy construction graders, cranes, earthmovers, and other equipment. Due to the greater durability and economy of the diesel relative to the gasoline engine, buses and tmeks of all sizes are expected to be increasingly powered by diesels, also creating new jobs for diesel mechanics. The majority of job openings, nevertheless, will arise from the need to replace diesel mechanics who transfer to other occupations, retire, or stop working for other reasons. Careers in diesel mechanics are attractive to many because wages are relatively high and skilled repair work is challenging and varied. Opportunities will be best for persons who complete formal training in diesel mechanics at community and junior colleges and vocational and technical schools. Earnings Diesel mechanics employed by trucking companies, buslines, and other firms that maintain their own vehicles had average hourly earn ings of $13.35 in 1988. Earnings generally were highest in the West and Midwest and lowest in the South. They varied by industry as follows: Transportation............................................................................... $13.87 Wholesale trade............................................................................ 13.51 Manufacturing............................................................................... 12.97 Retail trade.................................................................................... 12.90 Services.......................................................................................... 12.05 Beginning apprentices usually earn from 50 to 75 percent of the rate of skilled workers and receive increases about every 6 months until they complete their apprenticeship and reach the rate of skilled me chanics. Most mechanics work between 40 and 48 hours per week. Those employed by truck and bus firms which provide service around the clock may work evenings, nights, and weekends. They usually receive a higher rate of pay for this work. Many diesel mechanics are members of labor unions, including the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Amalgamated Transit Union; the International Union, United Automo bile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Transport Workers Union of America^ the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association; and the International Brotherhood of Team sters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 339 Related Occupations Diesel mechanics repair trucks, buses, and other diesel-powered equip ment and keep them in good working order. Related mechanic occupa tions include aircraft mechanics, automotive mechanics, boat engine mechanics, farm equipment mechanics, mobile heavy equipment me chanics, and motorcycle mechanics and small-engine specialists. Sources of Additional Information More details about work opportunities for diesel mechanics may be obtained from local employers such as trucking companies, truck dealers, or bus lines; locals of the unions previously mentioned; or the local office of the State employment service. Local State employment service offices also may have information about apprenticeships and other training programs. For general information about careers as truck, bus, and diesel mechanics, write to: •-Automotive Service Industry Association, 444 North Michigan Ave., Chi cago, IL 60611. •"International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers, Apprentice ship Department, 1300 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Information on diesel mechanic training is available from: •-Motor and Equipment Manufacturers Association, Technical Training Coun cil, 300 Sylvan Ave., Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632-0638. For a directory of accredited private trade and technical schools with training programs for diesel mechanics, contact: •-National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, Department BL, P.O. Box 10429, Rockville, MD 20850. Information on how to become a certified heavy-duty diesel me chanic is available from: •-ASE, 13505 Dulles Technology Dr., Herndon, VA 22071-3415. Electronic Home Entertainment Equipment Repairers (D.O.T. 720.281, 726.381-014, 729.281-010, 730.281-018, 823.361-010, and 828.261-010) Nature of the Work Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers, also called service technicians, repair radios, television sets, stereo components, video and audio recorders, video cameras, compact disk players, video games, home security systems, microwave ovens, and electronic or gans. Some repairers specialize in one kind of equipment—for exam ple, television sets or car radios; others repair many types. Repairers first examine work orders, which indicate problems, or talk to customers, and then conduct a routine check for common sources of trouble, such as defective parts, faulty circuits, or poor connections. When routine checks do not locate the trouble, repairers refer to wiring diagrams and service manuals. They check circuits using testing equipment, such as voltmeters, oscilloscopes, signal generators, and frequency counters. For example, they may measure voltage or wave forms in the circuits of a television set for unusual or irregular patterns that indicate the trouble. They replace faulty parts or make adjustments, such as focusing and converging the picture or correcting the color balance of a television set. Repairers use pliers, soldering guns, wire cutters, and other handtools. Those who make customer service calls carry a variety of components, modules, and other parts that can be easily replaced in the customer’s home. Self-employed electronic home entertainment equipment repairers also have managerial responsibilities. They order equipment and sup plies, keep records, and supervise other technicians. Working Conditions Electronic home equipment repairers work in shops or customers’ homes, where working conditions generally are good. They usually 340 Occupational Outlook Handbook 11 i f 0T - Repairers check circuits using voltmeters, oscilloscopes, and frequency counters. work alone, with little supervision. Repairers who service electronic products in homes may do considerable driving. Potential hazards include electrical shock and strains from lifting and carrying heavy or unwieldy equipment. Repairers generally work 40 to 44 hours per week, usually in 5 or 5 1/2 days. Some work may be on weekends or evenings in order to better serve customers. Employment Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers held about 44,000 jobs in 1988. Nearly one-fourth were self-employed, a larger propor tion than in most other repairer occupations. Most repairers work in electronic repair shops or in stores that sell and service home electronic entertainment products. Geographically, employment is distributed in much the same way as the population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training in electronics—acquired formally or through on-the-job train ing in another, related occupation—is required for entry level jobs. The military services also offer training and work experience that are very useful in civilian electronics work. Formal training is offered by high schools, public vocational-techni cal schools, private vocational schools and technical institutes, junior and community colleges, and correspondence schools. Programs take 1 to 2 years. They include courses in mathematics, physics, schematic reading, electricity, electronics, and hands-on work with television https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis sets, radios, and other electronic equipment. Additional training is received on the job. A few repairers complete formal apprenticeship programs sponsored jointly by employers and locals of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. New repairers usually begin by working in the shop or in the field under the supervision of an experienced worker. Large repair stores may provide in-house training combined with home study to familiar ize new workers with particular brands and models of equipment. Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers must keep abreast of changes in technology. Manufacturers, employers, and trade associations conduct training seminars on servicing new models or products. Technicians also study manufacturers’ service manuals and technical magazines. Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers must be able to manipulate small parts and tools, and must have good eye-hand coordination, normal hearing, and good eyesight and color perception. Courtesy and tact are essential in dealing with customers. Connecticut, Indiana, Louisiana, Massachusetts, and Oregon re quire repairers to be certified. Applicants for certification must pass an examination covering electronic circuits and components and the use of test equipment. Repairers who work in large repair shops may be promoted to supervisor or service manager. Those interested in advancing to posi tions such as electronics “troubleshooters” can improve their opportu nities by taking courses in automatic controls, electronic engineering, television engineering, and mathematics. Some repairers open their own service shops. For these, business administration courses are helpful, particularly accounting and con sumer relations. Job Outlook Employment of electronic home entertainment equipment repairers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Population growth and rising personal incomes will result in many more television sets, video games, disk players, radios, phonographs, tape recorders, and other home entertainment products in use. However, improvements in technology should reduce service requirements so employment of repairers will not grow as fast as the amount of equipment in use. Opportunities for electronic home entertainment equipment repairers should be good, in large part be cause many people in this occupation transfer to other higher paying occupations requiring a knowledge of electronics, such as computer and office machine repairer. Earnings In 1988, repairers earned between $7 and S14 an hour, according to limited information available. The variation in wage rates reflects differences in skill level, type of employer, and geographic location. A few service technicians are members of labor unions. Most of these belong to the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers repair electronic equipment in clude home appliance and power tool repairers, computer and office machine repairers, commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers, and broadcast technicians. Sources of Additional Information Information about electronic home entertainment equipment repairers is available from: (•-Electronics Industries Association, 2001 Eye St. NW., Washington, DC 20006. (•-National Electronic Sales and Service Dealers Association and the Interna tional Society of Certified Electronics Technicians, 2708 West Berry St., Fort Worth, TX 76109. (•-Electronics Technicians Association, 604 North Jackson, Greencastle, IN 46135. Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers Also, contact shops and stores that service radio and television sets and other electronic equipment, technical and vocational schools that offer courses in radio and television repair, locals of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, and offices of your State employ ment service. Elevator Installers and Repairers (D.O.T. 825.261-014; .281-030, -034; and .361-010) Nature of the Work Elevator installers and repairers—also called elevator constructors or mechanics—assemble, install, and replace elevators, escalators, and similar equipment in new and old buildings. Once the equipment is in service, they maintain and repair it. In order to install, repair, and maintain modem elevators, which are almost all electronically controlled, elevator constructors must have a thorough knowledge of electronics, electricity, and hydraulics. Most elevators today are installed with microprocessors, which are pro grammed to constantly analyze traffic conditions to dispatch elevators in the most efficient manner. With these computer controls, it is now possible to get the greatest amount of service with the least number of cars. Elevator constructors begin by studying blueprints to determine the layout of the framework to install rails, motors, pumps, cylinders, and plunger foundations. Once the layout is completed, mechanics prepare the shaft through which the elevator runs. Working on scaffolding or working platforms, crews bolt or weld steel rails to the walls of the shaft to guide the elevator up and down. To install electrical wires and controls, mechanics run tubing called conduit along the shaft’s walls from floor to floor and then pull plasticcovered electrical wires through it. They install all electrical compo nents and related devices as required at each floor and at the main control panel in the machine room. Mechanics bolt or weld together the steel frame of the elevator car at the bottom of the shaft, install the car's platform, walls, and doors, and attach guide shoes and rollers which minimize the lateral motion of the car as it travels through the shaft. Mechanics also install the outer doors and door frames at the elevator entrances on each floor. For cable elevators, workers install a winch, an electrically powered spool which simultaneously winds and unwinds a heavy steel cable that connects the elevator car to a counterweight. The counterweight moves in the opposite direction from the car and aids in its swift and smooth movement. These workers also install elevators in which a car sits on a long hydraulic cylinder that is driven by a hydraulic pump. Instead of pulling the car upward, the cylinder pushes the elevator car from underneath, like a lift in an auto service station. Elevator constructors also install escalators. They put in place the steel framework, the electrically powered stairs, and the huge oval tracks on which they rotate, and install associated motors and electrical wiring. In addition to elevators and escalators, elevator constructors install devices such as dumbwaiters and material lifts, which are similar to elevators in design, and powered walkways, which more closely resemble escalators. Elevator constructors usually specialize in installation, mainte nance; or repair work. Maintenance and repair workers generally need more knowledge of electricity and electronics than installers because a large part of maintenance and repair work is troubleshooting. Simi larly, construction “adjustors,” who fine-tune the newly installed equipment, need a thorough knowledge of electricity, electronics, and computers. Maintenance mechanics, unlike most elevator constructors, are on their own most of the day and typically service the same elevators periodically. They generally do preventive maintenance—oiling and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 341 greasing moving parts, replacing worn parts, testing equipment with meters and gauges, and adjusting equipment for optimal performance. They also do emergency repairs. A repair crew usually handles major repairs—for example, repairing and setting doors back on their tracks. This may require a welding machine, cutting torches, and rigging equipment—tools the mainte nance mechanic doesn’t normally carry. Repair crews also do major modernization and alteration work such as moving and replacing elec trical motors, hydraulic pumps, and control panels. Working Conditions Most elevator constructors work a 40-hour week. However, mainte nance and repair mechanics often work overtime when repairing essen tial elevator equipment. They are at times on 24-hour call. Elevator installers lift and carry heavy equipment and parts and are exposed to falls and electrical shocks. They may also work in cramped spaces or awkward positions. Since their work is performed indoors in buildings under construction or in existing buildings, they lose less worktime due to inclement weather than other building trades workers. Employment Elevator installers and repairers held about 13,000 jobs in 1988. Most were employed by special trade contractors. Some were employed by field offices of elevator manufacturers; small, local elevator mainte nance and repair contractors; or by government agencies or businesses that do their own elevator maintenance and repair. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Almost all elevator constructors learn their trade in programs adminis tered by joint committees of employers and locals of the International Union of Elevator Constructors. These programs, through which the trainee learns everything from installation to repair, combine on-thejob training with classroom instruction in electrical and electronic theory, mathematics, applications of physics, and safety. Most trainees or helpers assist experienced elevator mechanics. Beginners carry materials and tools, bolt rails to walls, and assemble elevator cars. Eventually, they learn to do more difficult tasks, such as wiring, which requires a knowledge of local and national electrical codes. Generally, trainees must complete a 60-day probationary period. After successful completion, trainees qualify as helpers after 6 months .... 5 igygwt IfHmM Postsecondary training in electronics is increasingly important for elevator installers and repairers. 342 Occupational Outlook Handbook and become fully qualified constructors within 4 years. Many continue to receive training from their employers to become familiar with the company’s particular equipment and to keep up with the rapid pace of technological developments in the industry. Some States and cities require elevator constructors to pass a licensing examination. Applicants for trainee positions must be at least 18 years old, have a high school education, and pass an aptitude test; courses in electricity, mathematics, and physics can provide a useful background. As elevators become increasingly sophisticated, workers may find it necessary to acquire more advanced formal education—forexample, in postsecond ary technical school or junior college—with an emphasis on electronics. Good physical condition and mechanical aptitude are also important. Some installers advance to mechanics-in-charge, supervisors, or elevator inspectors. Others may move into different aspects of the business such as management, sales, or product design. Job Outlook Employment of elevator installers and repairers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. The job outlook for these workers is largely dependent on activity in the construction industry. Growth will occuras the construction of buildings with elevators and escalators increases and as the stock of equipment needing maintenance grows. In addition, demand will be spurred by the need to modernize older equipment. There also will be many job openings to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupa tions or leave the labor force. Job prospects should be particularly favor able for those with postsecondary training in electronics. Opportunities for elevator installers may fluctuate from year to year as conditions change in the construction industry. Economic downturns generally have less adverse affects on maintenance and repair mechan ics because the equipment must still be kept in operating condition. More maintenance and repair work will also be needed as elevators become increasingly complex. The more intricate the equipment, the more maintenance it requires to keep it running smoothly. Earnings Weekly earnings for elevator installers and repairers were about $670 in 1989, according to data from the International Union of Elevator Constructors. Probationary helpers started at about 50 percent of the rate for experienced elevator mechanics, or $330 per week, while non probationary helpers earned 70 percent of this rate, or $470 per week. Mechanics-in-charge earned a weekly salary of approximately $750. Elevator installers and repairers receive a basic fringe benefit pack age including medical and dental benefits and a pension plan. Virtually all elevator constructors are members of the International Union of Elevator Constructors (AFL-CIO). Related Occupations Elevator constructors combine electrical and mechanical skills with construction skills such as welding, rigging, measuring, and blueprint reading. Other occupations that require many of these skills are boiler maker, electrician, industrial machinery repairer, millwright, sheetmetal worker, and structural ironworker. Sources of Additional Information For further details about opportunities as an elevator installer and repairer, contact elevator manufacturers, elevator repair and mainte nance contractors, a local of the International Union of Elevator Con structors (AFL-CIO), or the nearest local public employment service office. Farm Equipment Mechanics (D.O.T. 624.281. .361-014, .381, .684; 629.281-018) Nature of the Work In today’s world of large-scale, mechanized agriculture, few if any types of farming can be done economically without specialized ma https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis chines. Farm equipment has grown enormously in size, complexity, and variety. Many farms have several tractors equipped with from 40- to 300-horsepower diesel engines. Self-propelled combines, hay balers, swathers, crop dryers, planters, tillage equipment, and eleva tors are common. As farm machinery has grown larger with more electronic and hydraulic controls, farmers have increasingly turned to farm equipment dealers for service and repair of the machines they sell. Almost every dealer employs farm equipment mechanics, often called service techni cians, to do this work and to maintain and repair the smaller lawn and garden tractors many dealers also sell to suburban homeowners. Mechanics spend much of their time repairing and adjusting mal functioning equipment that has been brought to the shop. But during planting and harvesting, they may travel to farms to make emergency repairs on equipment so that critical farming operations are not unduly delayed. Mechanics also perform preventive maintenance. Periodically, they test, adjust, and clean parts and tune engines. In large shops, mechanics may specialize in certain types of work, such as diesel engine overhaul, hydraulics, or clutch and transmission repair. Others specialize in repairing the air-conditioning units often included in the cabs of com bines and large tractors, or in repairing certain types of equipment such as hay balers. Some mechanics also repair milking, irrigation, and other equipment on farms. In addition, some mechanics who work for dealers and equipment wholesalers assemble new implements and machinery and sometimes do body work, repairing dented or tom sheet metal on tractors or other machinery. Mechanics use many basic handtools, including wrenches, pliers, hammers, and screwdrivers. They also may use precision equipment, such as micrometers and torque wrenches; engine testing equipment, such as dynamometers, to measure engine performance; engine analy sis units and compression testers, to find worn piston rings or leaking cylinder valves. They may use welding equipment or power tools to repair broken parts. Working Conditions Generally, farm equipment mechanics work indoors. Modern farm equipment repair shops are well ventilated, lighted, and heated, but older shops may not offer these advantages. Farm equipment mechan ics come in contact with grease, gasoline, rust, and dirt, and there is danger of injury when they repair heavy parts supported on jacks or by hoists. Care must also be used to avoid burns from hot engine parts, cuts from sharp edges of machinery, and hazards associated with farm chemicals. As with most agricultural occupations, the hours of work of farm equipment mechanics vary according to the season of the year. During the busy planting and harvesting seasons, mechanics often work 6 or 7 days a week, 10 to 12 hours daily. In winter months, however, mechanics may work less than 40 hours a week and some may be laid off. Employment Farm equipment mechanics held nearly 54,000 jobs in 1988. Most worked in service departments of farm equipment dealers. Others worked in independent repair shops, and in shops on large farms. Most farm equipment mechanics worked in small repair shops. About 1 out of 10 farm equipment mechanics was self-employed. Because some type of farming is done in nearly every area of the United States, farm equipment mechanics are employed throughout the country. Employment is concentrated in small cities and towns, making this an attractive career choice for people who do not wish to live in a large city. However, many mechanics work in the rural fringes of metropolitan areas, so farm equipment mechanics who prefer the conveniences of city life need not live in rural areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Farm equipment mechanics must have an aptitude for mechanical work. With the development of more complex farm implements, technical training has become more important. A growing number of Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers employers prefer to hire trainee farm equipment mechanics who have completed a 1- or 2-year training program in agricultural or diesel me chanics at a vocational or technical school or community or junior col lege . In general, employers seek persons with training or previous expe rience in diesel and gasoline engines, the maintenance and repair of hydraulics, and welding—subjects that may be learned in many high schools and vocational schools. Mechanics also need a basic knowledge of electronics and must be able to read circuit diagrams and blueprints in order to make complex repairs to electrical and other systems. Most farm equipment mechanics enter the occupation as trainees and become proficient in their trade by assisting experienced mechan ics. The length of training varies with the helper’s aptitude and prior experience. At least 2 years of on-the-job training usually are necessary before a mechanic can efficiently do the more routine types of repair work, and additional training and experience are required for highly specialized repair and overhaul jobs. Many farm equipment mechanics enter this occupation from a related occupation. For instance, they may have experience working as diesel mechanics, mobile heavy equipment mechanics, or automotive me chanics. A farm background is an advantage since working on a farm usually provides experience in basic farm equipment repairs. Persons who enter from related occupations also may start as trainees or helpers, but they may not require as long a period of on-the-job training. A few farm equipment mechanics learn the trade by completing an apprenticeship program, which lasts from 3 to 4 years and includes on-the-job as well as classroom training in all phases of farm equipment repair and maintenance. Applicants for these programs usually are chosen from shop helpers. Keeping abreast of changing farm equipment technology requires a great deal of careful study of service manuals and analysis of complex diagrams. Many farm equipment mechanics and trainees receive re fresher training in short-term programs conducted by farm equipment manufacturers. These programs usually last several days. A company service representative explains the design and function of equipment and teaches maintenance and repair on new models of farm equipment. In addition, some dealers may send employees to local vocational schools that hold special weeklong classes in subjects such as air conditioning repair or hydraulics. Persons considering a career in this field should have the manual dexterity needed to handle tools and equipment. Occasionally, strength is required to lift, move, or hold heavy parts in place. Difficult repair jobs require problem-solving abilities to diagnose the source of the machine’s malfunction. Experienced mechanics should be able to work independently with minimum supervision. Farm equipment mechanics usually must buy their own handtools, although employers furnish power tools and test equipment. Trainee mechanics are expected to accumulate their own tools as they gain experience. Experienced mechanics have thousands of dollars invested in tools. Farm equipment mechanics may advance to shop supervisor, service manager, or manager of a farm equipment dealership. Some mechanics open their own repair shops. A few farm equipment mechanics advance to service representatives for farm equipment manufacturers. Job Outlook Little change is expected in the employment of farm equipment me chanics through the year 2000. The increasing complexity of equip ment will force more farmers to rely on mechanics for service and repairs, but the continued consolidation of farmland will allow equip ment to be used more efficiently. Most job openings will arise from the need to replace experienced mechanics who transfer to other occu pations, retire, or stop working for other reasons. Opportunities should be good for persons who have completed formal training in farm equipment repair or diesel mechanics, but persons without such train ing are expected to encounter increasing difficulty entering mechanic jobs due to the growing technological complexity of the equipment. The increasing sophistication of farm equipment will make it more difficult for farmers to do their own repairs, forcing them to rely more on skilled mechanics in the future. For instance, many newer tractors https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 343 HBi The increasing complexity offarm equipment will force more farmers to rely on farm equipment mechanics for service and repairs. have much larger, electronically controlled engines and air-condi tioned cabs, which have improved the comfort of the operator, and feature advanced transmissions with many speeds. New planting equipment uses electronics to spread seeds more uniformly, and elec tronic controls help harvesters reduce waste. New equipment with advanced technology will only gradually re place older, less complex equipment. Farm machinery is expensive and generally designed and manufactured to withstand many years of rugged use. Some farmers are eager to adopt new technology while others only replace old equipment when increasingly frequent break downs and expensive repairs force them to do so. Continued consolidation of farmland into fewer and larger farms and the withdrawal of land from agricultural production are expected to dampen the demand for farm equipment and slow the growth of farm equipment mechanic employment. The absence of growth in the amount of farm equipment in operation should restrain growth in the employment of mechanics, even though a growing number of large farms are expected to employ their own mechanics. Sales of smaller lawn and garden equipment have increased vastly over the past decade and are expected to continue to do so. Most of the large manufacturers of farm equipment now offer a line of these smaller tractors and sell them through their established dealerships. Although relatively few mechanics service this equipment, more will be needed. The agricultural equipment industry experiences periodic declines— mostly in sales. Layoffs of mechanics, however, are uncommon be cause farmers often elect to repair old equipment rather than purchase new equipment. Earnings Farm equipment mechanics had median hourly earnings of about $8.30 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $5.90 and $10.90 an hour. The top 10 percent earned over $12.40 an hour. Most farm equipment mechanics also have the opportunity to work overtime during the planting and harvesting seasons, for which they generally are paid time and one-half. Very few farm equipment mechanics belong to labor unions, but those who do are members of the International Association of Machin ists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automo bile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehouse men and Helpers of America. Related Occupations Other workers who repair large mobile machinery include aircraft mechanics, automotive mechanics, diesel mechanics, and mobile heavy equipment mechanics. 344 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information Details about work opportunities may be obtained from local farm equipment dealers and local offices of the State employment service. For general information about the occupation, write to: •■-North American Equipment Dealers Association, 10877 Watson Rd., St. Louis, MO 63127. For general information on training, contact: •■-Motor and Equipment Manufacturers Association, Technical Training Coun cil, 300 Sylvan Ave., Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632-0638. General Maintenance Mechanics (D.O.T. 899.281-014; 899.381-010) Nature of the Work Most craft workers specialize in one kind of work; general maintenance mechanics are jacks-of-all-trades. They repair and maintain machines, mechanical equipment, and buildings, and work on plumbing, electri cal, and air-conditioning and heating systems. They build partitions, make plaster or dry wall repairs, and fix or paint roofs, windows, doors, floors, woodwork, and other parts of building structures. They also install, maintain, and repair specialized equipment and machinery found in cafeterias, laundries, hospitals, stores, offices, and factories. Typical duties include replacing faulty electrical switches, repairing air-conditioning motors, and unclogging drains. Those in small establishments, where they are often the only mainte nance worker, do all repairs except for very large or difficult jobs. In larger establishments, their duties may be limited to a few tasks. General maintenance mechanics inspect and diagnose problems and plan how work will be done, often checking blueprints, repair manuals, and parts catalogs. They obtain supplies and repair parts from distribu tors or storerooms. They use common hand and power tools such as screwdrivers, saws, drills, wrenches, and hammers as well as specialized equipment and electronic test devices. They replace or fix worn or broken parts, where necessary, or make adjustments. They also do routine preventive maintenance to correct defects before equipment breaks down or buildings deteriorate. They may follow a check list, inspecting belts, checking fluid levels, replacing filters, and so forth. Maintenance mechanics also keep records of maintenance and repair work. Working Conditions General maintenance mechanics often do a variety of tasks in a single day, generally at a number of different locations in a building, or in several buildings. They may have to stand for long periods, lift heavy objects, and work in uncomfortably hot or cold environments. Like other maintenance craft workers, they may work in awkward and cramped positions or on ladders. They are subject to electrical shock, bums, falls, and cuts and bruises. Most general maintenance workers work a 40-hour week. Some work evening or night shifts or on weekends, or may be on call for emergency repairs. Those employed in small establishments, where they may be the only maintenance worker, often operate with only limited supervision. Employment General maintenance mechanics held about 1.1 million jobs in 1988. They worked in almost every industry. Nearly 3 out of 10 worked in service industries; most worked for elementary and secondary schools, colleges and universities, hospitals and nursing homes, and hotels. About one-fourth were employed in manufacturing industries. Others worked for real estate firms that operate office and apartment buildings and for wholesale and retail firms, government agencies, and gas and electric companies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most general maintenance mechanics learn their skills informally on the job. They start as helpers, watching and learning from skilled https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis General maintenance mechanics may work with limited supervision. maintenance workers. Helpers begin by doing simple jobs such as fixing leaky faucets and replacing light bulbs and progress to more difficult tasks such as overhauling machinery or building walls. Others learn their skills by working as helpers to other repair or construction workers such as carpenters, electricians, or machinery repairers. Necessary skills can also be learned in high school shop classes and postsecondary trade or vocational schools. It generally takes from 1 to 4 years of on-the-job training or school, or a combina tion of both, to become fully qualified, depending on the skill level required. Graduation from high school is preferred, but not always required, for entry into this occupation. High school courses in mechanical drawing, electricity, woodworking, blueprint reading, science, and mathematics are useful. Mechanical aptitude, ability to use shop math, and manual dexterity are important. Good health is necessary because the job involves much walking, standing, reaching, and heavy lifting. Difficult jobs require problem-solving ability, and many positions require the ability to work without direct supervision. Some general maintenance mechanics in large organizations ad vance to maintenance supervisor or to one of the crafts such as electri cian, heating/air-conditioning mechanic, or plumber. In small organi zations, promotion opportunities are limited. Job Outlook Employment of general maintenance mechanics is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Employment is related to the number of buildings and amount of equipment needing maintenance and repair. Growth will occur as the number of office and apartment buildings, stores, schools, hospitals, hotels, and factories increases. In addition to jobs created by increased demand for maintenance mechanics, many more openings will arise as experienced workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. General maintenance mechanics who work in manufacturing indus tries may be laid off during recessions. Most mechanics, however, work in relatively stable nonmanufacturing industries and are not usually subject to layoff. Earnings Earnings vary widely by industry, geographic area, and skill level but generally were between $6 and $13 an hour in 1988. Wages generally Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers 345 are highest in transportation companies and public utilities and lowest in service firms. On average, workers in the Midwest and Northeast earned more than those in the West and South. Mechanics earn over time pay for work in excess of 40 hours per week. Some general maintenance mechanics are members of unions, in cluding the American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees and the United Automobile Workers. Related Occupations Some of the work of general maintenance mechanics is similar to that of carpenters, plumbers, industrial machinery mechanics, electricians, and air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating mechanics. „> la Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local em ployers and local offices of the Job Service. Heating, Air-Conditioning, and Refrigeration Mechanics (D O T. 637.261-014, -026,-030 and -034, and .381; 827.361-014; 862.281 018, .361-010; and 869.281-010) Nature of the Work What would those living in Minneapolis do without heating, those in Atlanta do without air-conditioning, or hospitals in all parts of the country do without refrigeration? People always have sought ways to make their environment more comfortable. Today, heating and air conditioning systems control the temperature, humidity, and the total air quality in residential, commercial, industrial, and other buildings. In addition, refrigeration systems make it possible to store and transport food, medicine, and other perishable items. Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics, also known as technicians, install, main tain, and repair such systems. Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration systems consist of many mechanical and electrical components, including motors, compres sors, pumps, fans, switches, ducts, and pipes. In central heating systems, for example, a furnace heats the air that is then distributed throughout the building via a system of metal or fiberglass ducts. Mechanics must be able to maintain, diagnose, and correct problems within the entire system—the ducts as well as the other components. They adjust system controls to recommended settings and test the performance of the entire system using special tools and test equipment. Mechanics may specialize in installation or in maintenance and repair. They may further specialize in one type of equipment, such as oil burners or commercial refrigerators. However, more and more technicians do both installation and servicing, and work with heating, cooling, and refrigeration equipment. The following describes some of the specific jobs in this field. Furnace installers, also called heating equipment technicians, follow blueprints or other specifications to install oil, gas, electric, solid-fuel, and multifuel heating systems. After putting the equipment in place, they may install fuel and water supply lines, air ducts and vents, pumps, and other components. They may connect electrical wiring and controls, and check the unit for proper operation. To insure the proper functioning of the system, furnace installers often use combus tion test equipment such as carbon dioxide and oxygen testers. After a furnace has been installed, the mechanic often performs routine maintenance and repair in order to keep the system operating efficiently. During the fall and winter, when the system is needed most, they service and adjust burners. If the system is not operating properly, mechanics check the thermostat, burner nozzles, controls, and other parts to diagnose the problem. The mechanic corrects the problem by adjusting or replacing parts. During the summer, mechan ics do maintenance work, such as replacing filters and vacuum-clean https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis An air-conditioning mechanic tests the system to locate the malfunction. ing vents, ducts, and other parts of the heating system that may accumulate soot, ash, and dust during the operating season. Air-conditioning and refrigeration mechanics install and service central air-conditioning systems and a variety of refrigeration equip ment. Mechanics follow blueprints, design specifications, and manu facturers’ instructions to install motors, compressors, condensing units, evaporators, and other components. They connect this equip ment to the duct work, refrigerant lines, and electrical power source. After making the connections, they charge the system with refrigerant and check it for proper operation. When air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment breaks down, technicians diagnose the problem and make repairs. To find defects, they test parts such as compressors, relays, and thermostats. During the winter, air-conditioning mechanics inspect the systems and do required maintenance, such as overhauling compressors. Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration technicians use a variety of tools, including hammers, wrenches, metal snips, electric drills, pipe cutters and benders, and acetylene torches, to work with refriger ant lines and air ducts. They use voltmeters, thermometers, pressure gauges, manometers, and other testing devices to check air flow, refrigerant pressures, electrical circuits, burners, and other compo nents. Cooling and heating systems sometimes are installed or repaired by other craft workers. For example, on a large air-conditioning installa tion job, especially where workers are covered by union contracts, duct work might be done by sheet-metal workers; electrical work by electricians; and installation of piping, condensers, and other compo nents by plumbers and pipefitters. Room air-conditioners and house 346 Occupational Outlook Handbook hold refrigerators are serviced by home appliance repairers. Additional information about these occupations appears elsewhere in the Handbook. Working Conditions Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics work in homes, office buildings, factories—anywhere there is climate control equip ment. They may be assigned to specific job sites at the beginning of each day or they may be dispatched to jobs by radio or telephone. Mechanics may work outside in cold or hot weather or in buildings that are uncomfortable because the air-conditioning or heating equip ment is broken. In addition, mechanics often work in awkward or cramped positions and sometimes are required to work in high places. Hazards include electrical shock, bums, muscle strains, and other injuries from handling heavy equipment. Mechanics usually work a 40-hour week, but during peak seasons they often work overtime or irregular hours. Maintenance workers, including those that provide maintenance services under contract, often work evening or weekend shifts, and are on call. Most employers try to provide a full workweek the year round by doing both installation and maintenance work. Therefore, in most shops that service both heating and air-conditioning equipment, employment is very stable throughout the year. Employment Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics held about 225,000 jobs in 1988. About half worked for cooling and heating contractors. The remainder were employed in a wide variety of indus tries. Some worked for fuel oil dealers, utilities companies, and re frigeration and air-conditioning service and repair shops. Others were employed by the Federal Government, hospitals, office buildings, and other organizations that operate large air-conditioning, refrigeration, or heating systems. Approximately 1 of every 7 mechanics was selfemployed . Jobs are found throughout the country, reflecting our depen dence on climate control systems. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because of the increased sophistication of heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration systems, employers prefer to hire those with technical school or apprenticeship training. A sizable number of these workers, however, still learn the trade informally on the job. Many secondary and postsecondary technical schools, junior and community colleges, trade associations, and the Armed Forces offer programs in heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration. Students study theory, design, and equipment construction, as well as electron ics. They also learn the basics of installation, maintenance, and repair. Apprenticeship programs are frequently run by joint committees representing local chapters of the Air-Conditioning Contractors of America, the Mechanical Contractors Association of America, and locals of the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association or the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry of the United States and Canada. Other appren ticeship programs are sponsored by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors and the Home Builders Institute of the Na tional Association of Home Builders. These programs generally last 3 or 4 years and combine on-the-job training with 144 hours of classroom instruction each year in related subjects, such as the use and care of tools, safety practices, blueprint reading, and air-conditioning theory. Applicants for these programs must have a high school diploma or its equivalent. Those who acquire their skills on the job usually begin by assisting experienced mechanics and doing simple jobs. They may carry materi als, insulate refrigerant lines, or clean furnaces. In time, they do more difficult jobs, such as cutting and soldering pipes and sheet metal and checking electrical and electronic circuits. In 4 to 5 years, new mechanics should be able to do all types of repair and installation. Courses in shop math, mechanical drawing, applied physics and chemistry, electronics, and blueprint reading provide a good back ground for those interested in entering this occupation. A basic under https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis standing of microelectronics is becoming more important because of the increasing use of this technology in solid-state equipment controls. Because mechanics frequently deal directly with the public, they should be courteous and tactful, especially when dealing with an aggravated customer. They also should be in good physical condition because they sometimes have to lift and move heavy equipment. To keep up with changes in technology and to expand their skills, experienced mechanics may take courses offered by heating and air conditioning equipment manufacturers and by associations such as the Refrigeration Service Engineers Society and the Air Conditioning Contractors of America. Advancement usually takes the form of higher wages. Some me chanics advance to positions as supervisors. Those with sufficient money and managerial skill can open their own contracting business. Job Outlook Employment of heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. As the population and economy expand and new residential, commercial, and industrial structures are built, more mechanics will be needed to install and maintain climate control systems. In addition, growing concern about energy management and conservation should prompt installation of new energy-saving heating and air-conditioning systems in existing homes and buildings. Those who specialize in the installation of new systems may experi ence periods of unemployment when the level of construction activity declines. On the other hand, employment of those doing maintenance work is relatively stable—people and businesses depend on their cli mate control systems regardless of economic conditions. Overall op portunities for air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration mechanics should be very good, although job availability will vary considerably based on local economic conditions. In addition to jobs created by economic growth, many opportunities will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Although relatively few heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics transfer to other occupa tions—reflecting their lengthy investment in training and the relatively high wages and benefits in this trade—the number of retirements is expected to rise dramatically as more and more of these workers reach retirement age. Workers under 25 years of age have traditionally filled most training slots, a group that is expected to shrink through the year 2000. If employers and unions aren’t successful in attracting more applicants to training programs, serious shortages of qualified workers could develop. Earnings Median weekly earnings of air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration mechanics who were wage and salary workers were $414 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $322 and $567. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $265 a week, and the top 10 percent earned more than $726 a week. Apprentices usually begin at about 50 percent of the wage rate paid to experienced workers. As they gain experience and improve their skills, they receive periodic increases until they reach the wage rate of experienced workers. Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration technicians enjoy a vari ety of employer-sponsored benefits. In addition to some typical benefits like health insurance and pension plans, some employers pay for workrelated training and provide uniforms, company vans, and a few tools. Related Occupations Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics work with sheet metal and piping, and repair machinery, such as electrical motors, compressors, and burners. Other workers who have similar skills are boilermakers, electrical appliance servicers, electricians, plumbers and pipefitters, and sheet-metal workers. Sources of Additional Information For more information about employment and training opportunities in this trade, contact local vocational and technical schools; local heating, Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers 347 air-conditioning, and refrigeration contractors; a local of the unions previously mentioned; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; a local chapter of the Associated Builders and Contractors; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State appren ticeship agency. For information on career opportunities and training, write to: ••-Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. ••-Refrigeration Service Engineers Society, 1666 Rand Rd., Des Plaines, IL 60016. ••-National Association of Home Builders, Home Builders Institute, 15th and M Sts. NW., Washington, DC 20005. ••-National Association of Plumbing, Heating, and Cooling Contractors, P.O. Box 6808, Falls Church, VA 22046. ••-New England Fuel Institute, P.O. Box 888, Watertown, MA 02272. ■j&L* Home Appliance and Power Tool Repairers (D.O.T. 637.261-010 and-018; 723.381 and .584; 729.281-022; and 827.261, .464, and .661) Nature of the Work Household chores such as cooking, cleaning, or yardwork that once took a great deal of time and physical effort are today much simpler to do—thanks to a variety of laborsaving appliances. They include kitchen appliances, ovens, washers and dryers, vacuum cleaners, lawnmowers, and power tools. Installing and servicing these machines is the job of home appliance and power tool repairers—some times called service technicians. Repairers in large shops generally specialize. For example, some service small appliances such as microwaves and vacuum cleaners; others specialize in major appliances such as refrigerators, freezers, washers, and dryers; and others may handle power tools such as lawnmowers, drills, and saws. Some technicians specialize in either gas or electric appliances; others handle both types. When repairers install gas appliances, they first turn off the gas. Then they measure, cut, and thread pipe and connect it to a feeder line and to the appliance. To install piping to a gas main with the least waste of pipe, repairers first measure and mark the layout of the piping. They may saw holes in walls or the floor and may hang steel supports from beams or joists to hold the pipe in place. Once the gas line is in place, they turn on the flow of gas and check for leaks. Portable appliances are worked on in shops. Major appliances usu ally are repaired in customers’ homes by appliance repairers who carry their tools and a number of commonly used parts with them in a truck or van. To determine why an appliance or power tool fails to operate prop erly, repairers look for frequent sources of trouble, such as faulty electrical connections, and consult service manuals and troubleshoot ing guides. They may disassemble the appliance or tool to examine its parts. To check electrical systems, repairers follow wiring diagrams and use testing devices, such as ammeters, voltmeters, and wattmeters. After identifying the problem, the repairer makes the necessary repairs or replacements. To fix a portable appliance such as a toaster oven, the repairer may replace a defective heating element. To fix a major appliance such as a washer, the repairer may replace worn bearings, transmission belts, or gears. To remove old parts and install new ones, repairers use common handtools, including screwdrivers, soldering guns, files, pliers, and special tools designed for particular appliances. When servicing appliances with electronic parts, the re pairer may just replace a circuit board or other electronic component. After completing a repair, appliance repairers operate the appliance to check their work. When answering service calls for gas appliances, repairers may check the heating unit and replace pipes, thermocouples, thermostats, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Home appliance repairers may disassemble the appliance to examine its parts. valves, and indicator spindles. Repairers also answer emergency calls, such as a report of a gas leak. Repairers answer customers’ questions and complaints about appli ances and advise customers about their care and use. For example, they may demonstrate how to load automatic washing machines, ar range dishes in dishwashers, or sharpen the blade on a chain saw. Repairers may provide customers with estimates on the cost of repairs. They keep records of parts used and hours worked on each job and, when completed, they calculate all charges and collect payment. Working Conditions Repair shops generally are quiet, well lighted, and adequately venti lated. Working conditions outside the shop vary. For example, repair ers sometimes work in cramped and uncomfortable positions amidst dirt and dust. They also may have to deal with customers who are very upset over a malfunctioning appliance. Those who repair appliances in homes may spend several hours a day driving. The work generally is safe, but repairers must exercise care and follow safety precautions when handling electrical parts and lifting and moving large appliances. When servicing gas appliances and microwave ovens, they must be aware of the dangers of gas and radiation leaks. Home appliance and power tool repairers generally work a 40-hour week, but, in order to meet the needs of the growing number of families where no one is home during working hours, many work early mornings, evenings, and Saturdays. Home appliance and power tool repairers usually work with little or no direct supervision, a feature of the job that appeals to many people. Employment Home appliance and power tool repairers held about 79,000 jobs in 1988. About 7 out of 10 worked in retail trade establishments such as department stores, household appliance stores, and dealers that sell or service appliances and power tools. Others worked for gas and electric utility companies, wholesalers, and electrical repair shops. About 1 out of 10 repairers was self-employed. Appliance and power tool repairers are employed in almost every community, but are concentrated in the more highly populated areas. 348 Occupational Outlook Handbook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Some entrants to this occupation acquire their skills in other jobs and transfer into appliance repair. Many others complete formal training in appliance repair and related subjects in high schools, private vocational schools, and community colleges. No matter how their basic skills are developed, repairers usually get additional training from their employer. The type of training provided by employers varies among compa nies. In shops that fix portable appliances, new employees work on a single type of appliance, such as vacuum cleaners, until they master its repair. Trainees then move on to work on a different type of appliance; this process continues until they can repair a variety of appliances. In companies that repair major appliances, beginners may learn by accompanying experienced repairers during visits to custom ers’ homes. In other cases, they are taught in the shop to locate basic controls from a schematic drawing, to analyze and determine whether to repair or replace specific parts, and to learn precautions to be taken during removal and replacement of controls. Up to 3 years of on-thejob training may be needed to become skilled in all aspects of repair of the more complex appliances. Some large companies such as appliance and power tool manufactur ers and department store chains have formal training programs, which include home study courses and shop classes, where trainees work with demonstration appliances and other training equipment. Many repairers receive supplemental instruction through seminars that are conducted periodically by appliance and power tool manufac turers. These seminars usually last 1 or 2 weeks and deal with the repair of one of the manufacturer’s appliances or tools. To become familiar with new appliances and power tools and the proper ways to repair them, experienced repairers attend training classes or study service manuals. Persons who want to become home appliance and power tool repair ers generally must have a high school diploma. Courses in basic electricity and electronics are desirable because most repairs involve work with electrical equipment, and more and more appliances have electronic components. Employers prefer to hire people with some vocational school training in appliance repair and electronics. Mechan ical aptitude also is desirable. Technicians who work in customers’ homes must be courteous and tactful. Some States and areas require repairers who service gas appliances to be licensed or registered. Applicants for licensure must meet certain minimum standards of education, training, and experience. They also must pass an examination, which can be written, practical, or a combination, depending upon the requirements of the licensing authority. Repairers in large shops or service centers may be promoted to supervisor, assistant service manager, or service manager. A few may advance to managerial positions such as regional service manager or parts manager for appliance or tool manufacturers. Preference is given to those who demonstrate their technical compe tence and show an ability to get along with coworkers and customers. Experienced repairers who have sufficient funds and knowledge of small business management may open their own appliance store or repair shop. Job Outlook Little or no change is expected in the employment of home appliance and power tool repairers through the year 2000. Although the number of home appliances and power tools in use is expected to increase as the number of households grows and new and improved appliances and tools are introduced, increasing use of electronic parts such as solid-state circuitry, microprocessors, and sensing devices in appli ances tends to reduce the frequency of repairs. Virtually all openings for appliance repairers will arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment is relatively steady because the demand for appliance repair services continues even during economic downturns. Prospects should be very good for applicants with a strong background in elec tronics. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings Earnings of home appliance and power tool repairers vary widely according to skill level, geographic location, and the type of equipment serviced. According to the limited data available, average annual salaries for experienced technicians ranged from $15,000 to $24,000. Trainees earned less and senior technicians earned more. Salaries tend to be highest in large firms and for those servicing gas appliances. Some home appliance and power tool repairers belong to the Interna tional Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Related Occupations Other workers who service electrical and electronic equipment include heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics; pinsetter me chanics; office machine and cash register servicers; electronic home entertainment equipment repairers; and vending machine servicers and repairers. Sources of Additional Information For information about jobs in the home appliance and power tool repair field, contact local appliance repair shops, appliance dealers, and utility companies, or the local office of the State employment service. Information about training programs or work opportunities also is available from: ••-Appliance Service News, P.O. Box 789, Lombard, IL 60148. Industrial Machinery Repairers (D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 463.) Nature of the Work When a machine breaks down in a plant or factory, not only is the machine idle, but raw materials and human resources are wasted. It is the industrial machinery repairer’s job to prevent these costly break downs and to make repairs as quickly as possible. Industrial machinery repairers—often called maintenance mechan ics—spend much of their time doing preventive maintenance. This includes keeping machines and their parts well oiled, greased, and cleaned. Repairers regularly inspect machinery and check perfor mance. They use tools such as micrometers, calipers, and depth gauges to measure and align all parts. For example, forearms on industrial robots in motor vehicle manufacturing plants need frequent adjust ment, and gears, bearings, and other mechanical parts have to be aligned and lubricated. By keeping complete and up-to-date records, mechanics try to anticipate trouble and service the machinery before factory production is interrupted. The maintenance mechanic must be able to spot minor problems and correct them before they become major ones. For example, after Repairers disassemble equipment and replace parts. Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers hearing a vibration from a machine, he or she must decide whether it is due to worn belts, weak motor bearings, or some other problem. Computerized maintenance-management systems are making this task easier. Self-diagnostic features on new industrial machinery can deter mine the cause of a malfunction and, in some cases, can alert the mechanic to potential trouble spots before symptoms develop. After diagnosing the problem, the mechanic disassembles the equip ment and repairs or replaces the necessary parts. The final step is to test the machine to ensure that is running smoothly. When repairing electronically controlled machinery, these mechanics may work closely with electronic repairers or electricians who maintain the ma chine’s electronic parts. Additional information about commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers and electricians appears elsewhere in the Handbook. A wide range of tools may be used when doing preventive mainte nance or making repairs. For example, repairers may use a screwdriver and wrench to adjust an engine, or a hoist to lift a printing press off the ground. When replacements for broken or defective parts are not readily available, or when a machine must be quickly returned to production, repairers may sketch a part that can be fabricated by the plant’s machine shop. Repairers use catalogs to order replacement parts and often follow blueprints and engineering specifications in maintaining and fixing equipment. Some of the industrial machinery repairer’s duties may be performed by millwrights. (See the statement on millwrights elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Repairers may work in stooped or cramped positions, to reach the underside of a generator, for example. They also may work from the top of a ladder when repairing a large machine. These workers are subject to common shop injuries such as cuts and bruises. Because factories and other organizations cannot afford breakdowns in indus trial machinery, industrial machinery repairers may be called to the plant at night or on weekends for emergency repairs. Employment Industrial machinery repairers held about 463,000 jobs in 1988. Re pairers work in every industry where a lot of machinery is used. Most work in manufacturing industries, primarily food processing, transportation equipment, textile mill products, chemicals and allied products, machinery, fabricated metal products, and primary metals. Others work for government agencies, public utilities, and mining companies. Because industrial machinery repairers work in a wide variety of plants, they are employed in every section of the country. Employment is concentrated, however, in heavily industrialized areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most workers who become industrial machinery repairers start as helpers and pick up the skills of the trade informally and by taking courses offered by machine manufacturers. Some learn the trade through apprenticeship programs sponsored by the International Asso ciation of Machinists and Areospace Workers, the United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America, and the International Union of Electronic, Electrical, Salaried, Machine, and Furniture Workers. This training usually lasts 4 years and consists of on-the-job training and 144 hours of related classroom instruction each year. Apprentices learn from experienced repairers how to operate, disassemble, repair, and assemble machinery. Classroom instruction focuses on subjects such as shop mathematics, shop theory, blueprint reading, welding, and safety. Electronics training is offered as a part of the apprenticeship program but is not required. However, a growing number of employers prefer this background. Graduation from high school is preferred, but not always required, for entry into this occupation. However, participants in apprenticeship programs must have a high school diploma or the equivalent. High school courses in mechanical drawing, mathematics, blueprint read ing, physics, and electronics are useful. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 349 Mechanical aptitude and manual dexterity are important qualifica tions for workers in this trade. Good physical condition and agility are also necessary because repairers sometimes have to lift heavy objects or climb to reach equipment located high above the floor. Opportunities for advancement are limited. Industrial machinery repairers advance either by working with more complicated equipment or by becoming a supervisor. Some of the most highly skilled repairers can be promoted to master mechanic or can become a machinist or a tool and die maker. Job Outlook Employment of industrial machinery repairers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. U.S. firms, to remain competitive in world markets, are expected to introduce more automated production equipment. These machines, which require much preventive maintenance, will stimulate demand for repairers to keep them in good working condition. Many additional job openings will result from the need to replace repairers who transfer to other occupations or retire. Industrial machinery repairers are not usually affected by seasonal changes in production. During slack periods, when some plant workers are laid off, repairers often are retained to do major overhaul jobs. Although these workers may face layoff or a reduced workweek when economic conditions are particularly severe, they generally are less affected than other workers because machines have to be maintained regardless of the level of production. Earnings Median hourly earnings of most industrial machinery repairers were $11.23 in 1988; the middle 50 percent earned between $8.55 and $14.08 per hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.95, and die top 10 percent earned more than $17.35. This is in sharp contrast to the average hourly wage for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming, which was $9.29. Earnings vary by industry. On average, industrial machinery repair ers earn the highest wages in transportation and public utilities and the lowest in services. Earnings also vary by geographic region. Average hourly earnings of industrial machinery repairers in 11 cities that represent various regions of the country are shown in table 1. Table 1. Average hourly earnings of industrial machinery repairers, selected areas, 1988 Area Hourly rate San Francisco................ Detroit........................... Chicago.......................... Houston.......................... Baltimore....................... New Orleans................. Philadelphia.................. Boston........................... Miami............................. Atlanta........................... ...... $17.02 ...... 16.28 ...... 14.19 ...... 14.16 ...... 13.83 ...... 13.62 ...... 13.32 ...... 12.72 ..... 12.66 ...... 12.50 SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics Labor unions to which most industrial machinery repairers belong include the United Steelworkers of America; the United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Inter national Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; and the International Union of Electronic, Electrical, Salaried, Machine, and Furniture Workers. Related Occupations Other occupations that involve repairing machinery include aircraft mechanics and engine specialists, automotive and motorcycle mechan- 350 Occupational Outlook Handbook ics, bowling-pin-machine mechanics, diesel mechanics, farm equip ment mechanics, machinists, millwrights, tool and die makers, and vending machine mechanics. Sources of Additional Information Information about employment and apprenticeship opportunities in this field may be obtained from local offices of the State employment service or from: ^-International Union of Electronic, Electrical, Salaried, Machine, and Furni ture Workers, 1126 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Line Installers and Cable Splicers (D.O.T. 821.261-010, -014, -022, and -026, .281-010, .361-010, -018, -022, -026, -030, and -038, .687-010; 822.381-014; 823.261-014; 829.361-010 and -014; and 959.367-010) Nature of the Work A vast network of wires and cables links the electric power produced in generating plants to individual customers, connects telephone central offices to customers’ telephones and switchboards, and extends cable TV to residential and commercial customers. This network is con structed and maintained by line installers and cable splicers and their helpers. To install new electric power or telephone lines, line installers, often referred to as outside plant technicians or construction line Line installers and cable splicers work with telephone, cable TV, or electric power lines. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis workers, install poles and terminals and place wires and cables that lead from the source of the transmission to the customers’ premises. They usually use power-driven equipment to dig holes and set in the poles that support cables. Line installers climb the poles or use truckmounted buckets (aerial work platforms) and then use various handtools to attach the cables. When working with electric power lines, installers must bolt or clamp insulators onto the pole before the cable can be attached. They may add other equipment to the erected poles and towers, such as lightning arrestors, transformers, circuit breakers, or switches. In cities where power and telephone lines are below the streets, installers use trenchers, plows, and other special power-driven equip ment to bury cable directly underground. These underground lines require less maintenance because they are protected from adverse weather conditions. Line installers also lay cable television lines underground or hang them on poles with the telephone and utility wires. These lines transmit the broadcast signal from a microwave tower to the customer’s home. Cable television installers and repairers connect the customer’s televi sion set to the cable television line by installing a coaxial drop wire with connectors to the building. Sometimes additional wiring must be installed in the house or building so the cables can connect the outside line to one or more television sets. After telephone line installers place cables on poles, towers, or in underground conduits and trenches, cable splicers, also referred to as cable splicing technicians, generally complete the line connections. (Electric power line workers must install and splice the cables simulta neously.) Splicers connect individual wires or fibers within the cable and rearrange wires when lines have to be changed. They must first read and interpret service orders and circuit diagrams in order to determine the proper splicing specifications. Splices are then made by twisting, soldering, or joining wires and cables with small handtools, epoxy, and even with mechanical equipment. At each splice, they place insulation over the conductor, and seal the splice with a lead sleeve or cover the splice with some other type of protective covering. They may fill the cable sheathing on critical transmission routes with compressed air so that leaks in the sheathing can be monitored and repaired. Splicers work on poles, aerial ladders and platforms, in manholes, or in basements of large buildings. New fiber optic cables are being used to replace worn copper cables. These tiny hair-thin strands of glass are able to carry more signals per cable because they transmit pulses of light instead of electricity. Splices of fiber optic cables are completed in a van positioned near the splice point. These vans house workshops that contain all the necessary equipment, such as machines that heat the glass fibers so they can be joined. Line installers and cable splicers also maintain and repair telephone, power, and cable television lines. In some areas, this is done by a separate group of workers called cable repair technicians or cable service technicians. Service technicians do preventive maintenance by periodically checking to make sure lines are clear of tree limbs or other obstructions that could cause problems. They also routinely check to make sure that insulation on cables is in good condition and that insulators and other equipment on line poles are working properly. This preventive maintenance is extremely important, because a single defect in a cable may interrupt service for many customers. When wires or cables break, or when poles are knocked down or underground ducts collapse, these workers must make emergency repairs as rapidly as possible. These repairs are most common in parts of the country that have hurricanes, tornadoes, earthquakes, lightning storms, and heavy snowfalls. Working Conditions Because telephone, electric, and television cables are strung from utility poles or are laid underground, line installers and cable splicers must do a lot of climbing and lifting or work in stooped and cramped positions. They usually work outdoors in all kinds of weather and are subject to 24-hour call. For example, when severe weather damages transmission and distribution lines, they may be called upon to work Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers long and irregular hours to restore service. At times, they may travel to distant locations—and occasionally stay for a lengthy period to help restore damaged facilities or build new ones. Line installers and cable splicers face many situations in which safety procedures must be followed. They must wear safety equipment when entering manholes and are required to test for the presence of gas before going underground. They may be exposed to hazardous chemicals from the solvents and plugging compounds that they use when splicing cables. Electric power line workers have the most hazardous jobs. They typically work at higher elevations because the electric cable is always above telephone and cable TV lines. Moreover, all of the voltages electric power line workers come in contact with can cause death if safety procedures are not followed. Employment Line installers and cable splicers held about 231,000 jobs in 1988. Nearly all worked full time for telephone companies, cable television companies, publicly and privately owned power companies, and con struction companies specializing in power line and cable TV con struction. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Line installers are often hired initially as helpers or ground workers. Although local hiring policies vary, most employers prefer high school graduates with specific qualifications for these positions. High school courses help develop the reading and arithmetic skills essential for understanding company manuals and work orders. Many employers test applicants for basic verbal, arithmetic, and abstract reasoning skills. In addition, there are entry tests of physical ability such as balance, coordination, and strength. Because the work entails a lot of climbing, applicants should have stamina and must be unafraid of heights. Applicants also may be tested for mechanical aptitude. Knowl edge of the basic principles of electricity and training in installing telephone systems obtained in the Armed Forces or vocational educa tion programs may be helpful. The ability to distinguish colors is necessary because wires and cables usually are coded by color. Motiva tion, self-discipline, and the ability to work as part of a team are needed to work efficiently and safely. Once the trainees are hired, the types of training programs they receive vary by the nature of the work and by the employer. Line installers and cable splicers in electric companies and construction firms specializing in cable installation generally complete a formal apprenticeship program. These are administered jointly by the em ployer and the union representing the workers, either the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers or the Communications Workers of America. These programs last several years and combine formal instruction with on-the-job training. Although workers in telephone companies usually do not go through a formal apprenticeship, they generally receive several years of informal on-the-job training, in some cases learning other skills like telephone installation and repair. In addition to the training by employers, line and cable workers may attend a training school provided by manufacturers who sell cable installation equipment to telephone, electric power, or cable TV com panies. At other times, manufacturers send instructors to the job site. A growing number of employers are using other teaching aids to supplement or replace classroom instruction. These may include computer-assisted instruction, video cassettes, movies, or “pro grammed” workbooks. Some classrooms are equipped with actual equipment, such as poles, cable-supporting clamps, and other fixtures, to simulate working conditions as closely as possible. Trainees learn to work on poles while keeping their hands free. In one classroom exercise, for example, they play catch with a basketball while on the poles. Trainees also are taught safety procedures to avoid falls and contact with power wires. Some small companies, particularly those in rural areas, do not have adequate facilities to train their employees. Therefore, they may rely on local vocational and technical schools to provide classroom training to their workers. Formal training, which also may include instruction in electrical codes, blueprint reading, and beginning electrical theory, is followed https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 351 by informal, on-the-job training. Trainees are assigned to work with a crew of experienced line installers under a line supervisor. Line installers and cable splicers continue to receive training throughout their careers to qualify for more difficult assignments and to keep up with technological changes. For example, crews of cable splicers who work for telephone companies are introduced to the techniques of fiber optic cable splicing by spending several days in training and several additional days of field supervision. Because there have been fewer changes in electric power line installation and repair, less training is needed to update utility line workers. Since deregulation of the telephone industry, many telephone com panies have reduced the scope of their training programs in order to reduce their costs and to remain competitive. As a result, fewer courses are offered to prepare workers for higher level telephone jobs. Increas ingly, workers interested in advancing are responsible for getting their own training to develop new skills. Necessary training not provided by the employer has to be obtained at employee expense from community colleges and postsecondary vocational schools. For installers in the telephone industry, advancement may come about through promotion to splicer, or to a higher level occupation such as engineering assistant. Promotion to a supervisory position also is possible. In the electric industry, promotion is usually to a supervisory position. Cable splicers may transfer to other highly skilled jobs—in the telephone industry, for example, cable splicers can advance to engi neering assistants or may move into other kinds of work, such as sales. Promotion to crew supervisor or instructor of new employees also is possible. Job Outlook Overall employment of line installers and cable splicers is expected to decline through the year 2000. Job openings will result entirely from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. A growing and increasingly mobile population will require addi tional telephone, electric power, and cable television lines. However, technological advances will result in divergent trends within this occu pation. On the one hand, employment of electrical power line installers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations in order to meet the growing demand for electricity. No new technologies are on the horizon that would significantly increase worker produc tivity. On the other hand, employment of telephone and cable TV line installers and repairers is expected to decline. In fact, there already have been layoffs of telephone line workers, and more are anticipated. This is due to the increased efficiency being built into telephone systems. New ways of transmitting information—satellites, micro wave towers, and underground fiber optic cable, for example—are not as vulnerable to adverse weather conditions as aerial wires, and fewer workers are needed to maintain them. Fiber optic cables will continue to replace copper cables, and this will generate short-term demand for installers. Over the longer term, however, demand will fall due to reduced maintenance requirements. Improved splicing techniques as well as new power tools and equipment also will continue to improve the efficiency of cable splicers. Finally, most areas of the country that can economically be served by cable TV have already been wired and this will limit the demand for installers. Job prospects will be best for line workers employed by electric utilities and construction firms doing electrical work because the im pact of technology is expected to be less severe in these industries than in telephone communication. In telephone companies, technicians who combine knowledge of line installation, fiber optic or copper cable splicing, telephone installation, and repair of many brands of equip ment should enjoy better prospects than those with limited skills because they will be more valuable to employers. Earnings Pay rates for line installers and cable splicers vary greatly across the country and depend on length of service; specific information may be 352 Occupational Outlook Handbook obtained from local telephone, electric power, and cable TV compa nies. It generally takes about 5 years to go from the bottom to the top of the pay scale. In 1988, line installers and repairers earned a median weekly wage of $547. The middle 50 percent earned between $419 and $656. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $301; the top 10 percent earned more than $721 a week. Line installers employed by AT&T and the Bell Operating Companies and represented by the Communications Workers of America earned an average weekly salary of $650 in 1988; cable splicers also averaged $650. Because of low job turnover in these occupations, many workers earn salaries near the top of the pay scale. Cable splicers working on fiber optics cables tend to earn more than those working on copper cables. Most line installers and cable splicers belong to unions, principally the Communications Workers of America and the International Broth erhood of Electrical Workers. For these workers, union contracts set wage rates, wage increases, and the time needed to advance from one step to the next. These contracts require extra pay for overtime and for all work on Sundays and holidays. Most contracts provide for additional pay for night work. Time in service determines the length of paid vacations. Depending on the locality, there are 9 to 12 holidays a year. Other provisions in contracts include many or all of the follow ing; Paid sick leave; group life, medical, and dental insurance; sickness and accident benefits; vision care; retirement and disability pensions; a savings plan; educational benefits; and an employee stock ownership plan. Related Occupations Workers in other skilled crafts and trades who do manual work with tools and machines include communications equipment mechanics, biomedical equipment technicians, telephone installers and repairers, electricians, and sound technicians. Sources of Additional Information For more details about employment opportunities, contact the tele phone or electric power company in your community. For additional information on the telephone industry and career opportunities in it, request copies of Phonefacts and Is It for You? A Career in the Telephone Industry from: w-United States Telephone Association, 900 19th St. NW., Suite 800, Wash ington, DC 20006. Millwrights (D.O.T. 638.261-010, -014, -018, .281-018, and -022) Nature of the Work Millwrights install and dismantle the machinery and heavy equipment used in almost every industry. The millwright’s responsibilities begin when machinery arrives at the job site. The new equipment must be unpacked and unloaded, inspected for damaged and missing parts, and then moved into position. To lift and move light machinery, millwrights may use rigging and hoisting devices such as pulleys and cables. Moving machinery may sometimes require the assistance of a hydraulic lift-truck operator. In cases where machinery and parts are too heavy for handtools and lift-trucks, millwrights rely on crane operators to position the machinery in its new site. Because millwrights often decide what device to use for moving machinery, they must know the load-bearing properties of ropes, cables, hoists, and cranes. For example, when installing a new lathe in a manufacturing plant, a millwright sets up steel cables and a small hoist to move the lathe from the truck on which it arrived to the conveyor that will carry it into the plant. The lathe is then lifted, with other hoisting devices and perhaps the aid of a crowbar for leverage, onto a dolly and taken to the foundation for proper positioning. New machinery sometimes requires a new foundation. Because millwrights either personally prepare the foundation or supervise its https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis construction, they must know how to read blueprints and work with building materials such as concrete, wood, and steel. When assembling machinery, millwrights fit bearings, align gears and wheels, attach motors, and connect belts according to the manufac turer’s blueprints and drawings. Precision leveling and alignment are important in the assembly process; millwrights must have good mathe matical skills so that they can measure angles, material thickness, and small distances with tools such as squares, calipers, and micrometers. In some cases, particularly when lining up conveyor machinery or tracks, a millwright may use laser equipment to “shoot” a straight line over long distances. Millwrights also use hand and power tools, cutting torches, welding machines, and soldering guns. Some millwrights use metalworking lathes to grind or turn parts to specifications. A growing number of millwrights are involved in the installation of industrial robots and other automated equipment in manufacturing plants. To prepare for the new equipment, millwrights may rearrange existing machinery, install conveyors and tracks, or reroute them in order to make better use of available space. Robots are complex machines that combine electronic and mechanical components. Mill wrights install, inspect, and adjust the mechanical components; they work closely with the manufacturer’s representatives, electronic re pairers, or electricians who set up and maintain the electronic control ler. Additional information about commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers and electricians appears elsewhere in the Handbook. A millwright often is called a “jack of all trades” because of the variety of skills the job entails. In addition to installing and dismantling machinery, many millwrights repair and maintain equipment. This includes preventive maintenance, such as lubrication, and fixing or replacing worn parts. (For further information on machinery mainte nance, see the statement on industrial machinery repairers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Millwrights employed by contract installation and construction com panies must know how to do a variety of installation work. Those employed in factories usually need to be familiar with only the particu lar types of machinery used by their employers. Working Conditions Millwrights employed by factories ordinarily work year round. Those employed by construction companies may experience periods of unem ployment; however, they usually are compensated with a higher hourly wage rate. Millwrights who work for companies that manufacture and install machinery may travel extensively. Millwrights are subject to the usual shop hazards, such as cuts and bruises, associated with working around machinery. Injury from falling objects or machinery that is being moved, and from falls from scaffolding and catwalks, can be avoided or reduced by the use of protective devices such as safety belts and hard hats. A millwright is often called a “jack of all trades" because of the variety of skills the job entails. Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers Employment Millwrights held about 77,000 jobs in 1988. Almost three quarters worked in manufacturing, primarily in durable goods industries such as blast furnaces and basic steel products, motor vehicles and equip ment, and fabricated metal products; those in nondurable goods manu facturing were concentrated in industries producing paper and chemi cals. Most of the rest were employed by firms involved in construction and those providing millwright services on a contract basis. Although millwrights work in every State, employment is concentrated in heavily industrialized areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most millwrights start as helpers to skilled workers and learn the trade informally on the job. This process can take from 6 to 8 years. Others learn through 4-year formal apprenticeship programs that combine onthe-job training with classroom instruction. Apprenticeship programs include training in dismantling, moving, erecting, and repairing ma chinery. Apprentices also may work with concrete and receive instruc tion in related skills such as carpentry, welding, and sheet-metal work. Classroom instruction is given in shop mathematics, blueprint reading, hydraulics, electricity, and safety. Applicants for apprentice or helper jobs must be at least 17 years old. Most employers prefer applicants with a high school diploma or its equivalent. Courses in science, mathematics, mechanical drawing, and machine shop practice are useful. Because millwrights often take apart complicated machinery, mechanical aptitude is important. Strength and agility also are important, because the work can require a considerable amount of lifting and climbing. Advancement for millwrights usually takes the form of higher wages. Some advance to supervisor. Job Outlook Employment of millwrights is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Millwrights will be needed to maintain and repair existing machinery, to dismantle old machinery, and to install and maintain new equipment. In addition, many openings will arise annually as experienced millwrights transfer to other occupations or retire. Employment of millwrights is somewhat sensitive to changes in economic conditions. In the construction industry, for example, em ployment fluctuates with the level of commercial and industrial build ing activity. When construction activity falls, jobs are scarce, and even experienced millwrights may face layoffs or shortened work weeks. They are also subject to seasonal layoffs caused by snow, rain, and other bad weather conditions. Millwrights who work in manufacturing plants are not subject to seasonal layoffs and are not as likely to be laid off in downturns in the economy because, even though employers are not installing new equipment, existing machinery still needs to be maintained and repaired. Some layoffs may occur, how ever, and new jobseekers may find few opportunities for employment. Efforts to reduce operating costs and increase productivity by con tracting out for millwright services may limit opportunities in many industries. However, this should be offset by increased demand by firms providing the service. Earnings Median hourly earnings of full-time millwrights were $12.65 in 1988; the middle 50 percent earned between $10.10 and $15.50 per hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.80, and the top 10 percent earned more than $19.20. In contrast, the average hourly wage for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming, was $9.29. Earnings for millwrights in areas that represent various regions of the country appear in table 1. Many millwrights belong to labor unions. Most belong to the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America. Others belong to the United Steelworkers of America; International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; United Paperworkers International Union; International https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 353 Table 1. Average hourly earnings of millwrights, selected areas, 1988 Area Hourly rate Indianapolis.................................................................................... $16.49 Detroit............................................................................................ 15.97 Chicago........................................................................................... 15.83 Baltimore........................................................................................ 15.51 Milwaukee..................................................................................... 15.12 St. Louis......................................................................................... 14.10 SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; and International Brotherhood of Firemen and Oilers. Related Occupations To set up machinery for use in a plant, millwrights must know how to use hoisting devices and how to assemble, disassemble, and in some cases repair machinery. Other workers with similar job duties are industrial machinery mechanics, mobile heavy equipment mechanics, aircraft mechanics and engine specialists, diesel mechanics, farm equipment mechanics, ironworkers, and machine assemblers. Sources of Additional Information For further information on apprenticeship programs, write to the Ap prenticeship Council of your State’s labor department, a local of one of the unions listed above, local offices of your State employment service, local firms that employ millwrights, or: (•-Associated General Contractors of America, 1957 E St. NW., Washington, DC 20006. Mobile Heavy Equipment Mechanics (D.O.T. 620.261-022, .281-042, .381-014) Nature of the Work Mobile heavy equipment is indispensable to construction, logging, surface mining, and other industrial activities. Mobile heavy equip ment mechanics service and repair the engines, transmissions, hydrau lics, electrical systems, and other components of equipment such as motor graders, trenchers and backhoes, crawler-loaders, and stripping and loading shovels. (Mechanics who specialize in servicing only diesel engines are discussed in the Handbook statement on diesel mechanics.) Mobile heavy equipment mechanics perform routine maintenance on the diesel engines that power most heavy equipment, and, if an operator reports a malfunction, they search for its cause. First, they inspect and operate the equipment to diagnose the nature of the repairs required. They may partially dismantle the engine, examining parts for damage or excessive wear. Then they repair, replace, clean, and lubricate the parts as necessary, and reassemble and test the engine for operating efficiency. If repairs to the drive train are needed, me chanics may remove and repair the transmission or differential. Many types of mobile heavy equipment use hydraulics to raise and lower movable parts such as scoops, shovels, log forks, or scraper blades. Repairing malfunctioning hydraulic components is an impor tant responsibility of mobile heavy equipment mechanics. When the hydraulic apparatus loses power, mechanics examine it for hydraulic fluid leaks and replace ruptured hoses or worn gaskets on fluid reser voirs. Occasionally, more extensive repairs are required, such as replacing a defective hydraulic pump. Mobile heavy equipment mechanics perform a variety of other types of repairs. They diagnose and correct electrical problems and replace 354 Occupational Outlook Handbook defective electronic components. They also may disassemble and re pair crawler undercarriages and track assemblies. Occasionally, me chanics may weld broken body and structural parts, using electric or gas welders. Many mechanics work in small repair shops of construction contrac tors, logging and mining companies, and local government road main tenance departments. They typically perform routine maintenance and minor repairs necessary to keep the equipment in operation. Mechanics in larger repair shops—particularly those of mobile heavy equipment dealers and the Federal Government—perform more difficult repairs, such as rebuilding or replacing engines, repairing hydraulic fluid pumps, or correcting electrical problems. Mechanics in some large shops specialize in one or two types of work, such as hydraulics or electrical systems. Mobile heavy equipment mechanics use a variety of tools in their work, including common handtools such as pliers, wrenches, and screwdrivers and power tools such as pneumatic wrenches. They use micrometers and gauges to measure wear on parts, and a variety of testing equipment. For example, they often use tachometers and dynamometers to locate engine malfunctions; when working on electri cal systems, they may use ohmmeters, ammeters, and voltmeters. Working Conditions Most mobile heavy equipment repair shops are well ventilated, lighted, and heated. Many mechanics work mostly indoors in shops, but others work as field service mechanics and spend much of their time away from the shop working outdoors. When mobile heavy equipment breaks down at a construction site, it may be too difficult or expensive to bring it into a repair shop, so a field service mechanic is sent to the job site to make repairs. Generally, the most experienced mobile heavy equipment mechanics specialize in field service; they usually drive specially equipped trucks and sometimes must travel many miles to reach disabled machinery. For many mechanics, the independence and challenge of field work outweigh the occasional long hours or bad weather, but other mechanics are more comfortable with the routine of shop work and the opportunity to work as part of a team. Mechanics handle greasy and dirty parts and often work in awkward or cramped positions. They sometimes must lift heavy tools and parts. Mechanics must be careful to avoid bums, bruises, and cuts from hot engine parts and sharp edges of machinery. However, serious accidents may be prevented when the shop is kept clean and orderly and safety practices are observed. Employment Mobile heavy equipment mechanics held about 108,000 jobs in 1988. Half worked for mobile heavy equipment dealers and construction contractors. Nearly one-fifth were employed by Federal, State, and local governments; the Department of Defense is the primary Federal employer. Other mobile heavy equipment mechanics worked for sur face mine operators, public utility companies, logging camps and contractors, and heavy equipment rental and leasing companies. Still others repaired equipment for machinery manufacturers, airlines, rail roads, steel mills, and oil and gas field companies. Fewer than 1 out of 10 mobile heavy equipment mechanics was self-employed. Mobile heavy equipment mechanics are employed in every section of the country, but most work near cities and towns, where most construction takes place. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For trainee jobs, employers hire persons with mechanical aptitude who are high school graduates and at least 18 years of age. They seek persons knowledgeable about the fundamentals of diesel engines, transmissions, electrical systems, and hydraulics. Although some per sons are able to acquire these skills on their own or by working as helpers to experienced mechanics, most employers prefer to hire graduates of formal training programs in diesel or heavy equipment mechanics. Training programs in diesel and heavy equipment mechanics are given by vocational and technical schools and community and junior https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis |4*AfiNiNCi. When construction machinery breaks down at a work site, it is often easier for a mobile heavy equipment mechanic to repair it on the site than to bring it into the shop. colleges. Some 1- to 2-year programs lead to a certificate of comple tion; others lead to an associate degree if they are supplemented with additional academic courses. They provide a foundation in the basics of diesel and heavy equipment technology, including hydraulics, and enable trainee mechanics to advance more rapidly to the journeyman, or experienced worker, level. Training in the fundamentals of electron ics is also essential because new mobile heavy equipment increasingly features electronic controls and sensing devices. High school courses in automobile mechanics, physics, chemistry, and mathematics are a useful background. Good reading and basic mathematics skills and a basic understanding of scientific principles can help a mechanic learn important job skills and keep abreast of new technology through the study of technical manuals. Experience working on diesel engines and heavy equipment acquired in the Armed Forces also is valuable. Persons who learn the basics of mobile heavy equipment mechanics largely on the job start as helpers—cleaning parts, lubricating, fueling equipment, and cleaning up the shop. By studying training and techni cal manuals and observing and working with experienced mechanics, they may earn promotion to a trainee mechanic position. Through a combination of formal and on-the-job training, trainee mechanics acquire the knowledge and skills to efficiently service and repair the particular types of equipment handled by the shop. Beginners are assigned relatively simple service and repair tasks. As they gain experience and become more familiar with the equipment, they are assigned increasingly difficult jobs, and are exposed to a greater variety of equipment. Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers Many employers send trainee mechanics to training sessions con ducted by heavy equipment manufacturers. These sessions, which typically last up to 1 week, provide intensive instruction in the repair of a manufacturer’s equipment. Some sessions focus on particular components found in all of the manufacturer’s equipment, such as diesel engines and transmissions or electrical systems. Other sessions focus on particular types of equipment, such as crawler-loaders and crawler-dozers. As they progress, trainees may periodically attend additional training sessions. Experienced mechanics also occasionally attend training sessions to gain familiarity with new technology or with types of equipment they may never have repaired. Mobile heavy equipment mechanics usually must buy their own handtools, although employers furnish powertools and test equipment. Trainee mechanics are expected to accumulate their own tools as they gain experience. Many experienced mechanics have thousands of dollars invested in tools. Experienced mechanics may advance to field service jobs, where they have greater opportunity to tackle problems independently and earn overtime pay. Mechanics who have leadership ability may become shop supervisors or service managers. Some mechanics open their own repair shops. Job Outlook Employment of mobile heavy equipment mechanics is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Increasing numbers of mechanics will be required in repair shops of construction contractors, equipment dealers, and rental and leasing companies. Growing numbers of mechanics also will be needed by all levels of government to service construction equipment and, at the Federal level, defense-related equipment. Nevertheless, the majority of job openings will result from the need to replace mechanics who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Opportuni ties should generally be good for persons who have completed formal training programs in diesel or heavy equipment mechanics. Persons without formal training are expected to encounter growing difficulty entering this occupation. As the economy grows, growth of construction activity should result in the use of more mobile heavy equipment, which would increase the requirements for periodic service and repair. Various kinds of equipment will be needed in increasing numbers to grade construction sites, excavate basements, lay water and sewer lines, and put in streets. In addition, construction of new highways and bridges and repair or rebuilding of existing ones will also require more mechanics for servic ing the equipment. Since construction and mining are sensitive to changes in the level of economic activity, mobile heavy equipment may be idled during downturns. In addition, winter is traditionally the slack season for construction activity, particularly in colder regions. Fewer mechanics may be needed during periods when equipment is used less intensively, but employers usually try to retain experienced workers. However, employers may be reluctant to hire inexperienced workers during slack periods. Earnings Median hourly earnings of mobile heavy equipment mechanics were about $12 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned from around $9.25 to $15 an hour; the lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.40 an hour, while the top 10 percent earned over $19 an hour in 1988. Some mobile heavy equipment mechanics are members of unions. The unions include the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union of Operating Engineers; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Ware housemen and Helpers of America. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who repair and service diesel-powered vehicles and heavy equipment include railcar repairers and diesel, farm equipment, and mine machinery mechanics. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 355 Sources of Additional Information More details about work opportunities for mobile heavy equipment mechanics may be obtained from local mobile heavy equipment deal ers, construction contractors, surface mining companies, and govern ment agencies. Local offices of the State employment service may also have information on work opportunities and training programs. For general information about the work and training of mobile heavy equipment mechanics, contact: ••-Motor and Equipment Manufacturers Association, Technical Training Coun cil, 300 Sylvan Ave., Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632-0638. Motorcycle, Boat, and Small-Engine Mechanics (D.O.T. 620.281-054, .684-026; 623.261, .281-038, -042; 625.281-018, -026, -030, -034, .381; 721.281-022) Nature of the Work Although the engines that power motorcycles, boats, and lawn and garden equipment are usually smaller than those that power automo biles and trucks, they have many things in common, including break downs. Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics repair and service power equipment ranging from chain saws to yachts. Small engines, like larger engines, require periodic servicing to minimize the possibility of breakdowns and keep them operating at peak efficiency. At routine intervals, mechanics adjust, clean, lubri cate, and, when necessary, replace worn or defective parts such as spark plugs, ignition points, valves, and carburetors. Routine mainte nance is normally a major part of the mechanic’s work. When breakdowns occur, mechanics diagnose the cause and repair or replace the faulty parts. The mark of a skilled mechanic is the ability to diagnose mechanical and electrical problems and to make repairs in a minimum of time. A quick and accurate diagnosis requires problem solving ability as well as a thorough knowledge of the equipment’s operation. The mechanic first obtains a description of the symptoms of the problem from the owner, and then, if possible, operates the equipment to observe the symptoms. The mechanic may have to use special testing equipment and disassemble some components for further examination. After pinpointing the cause of the problem, the needed adjustments, repairs, or replacements are made. Some jobs require only the adjustment or replacement of a single item, such as carburetor or fuel pump, and may be completed in less than an hour. In contrast, a complete engine overhaul may require a number of hours, because the mechanic must disassemble and reassemble the engine to replace worn valves, pistons, bearings, and other internal parts. Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics use common handtools such as wrenches, pliers, and screwdrivers, as well as powertools such as drills and grinders. Engine analyzers, compression gauges, ammeters and voltmeters, and other testing devices help mechanics locate faulty parts and tune engines. Hoists may be used to lift heavy equipment such as motorcycles, snowmobiles, or boats. Mechanics often refer to service manuals for detailed directions and specifications while performing repairs. Mechanics usually specialize in the service and repair of one type of equipment, although they may work on closely related products. Motorcycle mechanics repair and overhaul motorcycles, motor scoot ers, mopeds, and all-terrain vehicles. Besides engines, they may work on transmissions, brakes, and ignition systems, and make minor body repairs. Because many motorcycle mechanics work for dealers that service only the products they sell, mechanics may specialize in servic ing only a few of the many makes and models of motorcycles. Motorboat mechanics repair and adjust the engines and electrical and mechanical equipment of inboard and outboard marine engines. Most small boats have portable outboard engines that can be removed and brought into the repair shop. Larger craft, such as cabin cruisers 356 Occupational Outlook Handbook and commercial fishing boats, are powered by diesel or gasoline inboard or inboard-outdrive engines, which are only removed for major overhauls. Motorboat mechanics may also work on propellers, steering mechanisms, marine toilets, and other boat equipment. Small-engine mechanics service and repair outdoor power equip ment such as lawnmowers, garden tractors, and chain saws. They also may occasionally work on portable generators, go-carts, and snowmobiles. Working Conditions Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics usually work in repair shops that are well lighted and ventilated, but which are sometimes noisy when engines are being tested. However, motorboat mechanics may work outdoors in all weather when repairing inboard engines aboard boats; they may have to work in cramped or awkward positions to reach a boat’s engine. In northern States, motorcycles, boats, lawnmowers, and other equipment are used less during the winter, and mechanics may work fewer than 40 hours a week; a relatively small number are laid off. Some of the winter slack is taken up by scheduling time-consuming engine overhauls and working on snowmobiles and snowblowers. Many mechanics may work considerably more than 40 hours a week when the weather is warmer in the spring, summer, and fall. Employment Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics held about 58,000 jobs in 1988. About 15,000 were motorcycle mechanics, while the remainder specialized in the repair of boats or outdoor power equip ment such as lawnmowers, garden tractors, and chain saws. More than one-third of all motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics worked for boat, motorcycle, and miscellaneous vehicle dealers. Others were employed by independent repair shops, marinas and boat yards, equip ment rental companies, and hardware and lawn and garden stores. About one-third were self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics leam their skills on the job. For trainee jobs, employers hire persons with mechanical aptitude who are knowledgeable about the fundamentals of small 2and 4-cycle engines. Many trainees develop an interest in mechanics and acquire some basic skills through working on automobiles, motor cycles, boats, or outdoor power equipment as a hobby, or through mechanic vocational training in high school, vocational and technical schools, or community colleges. Some also prepare for their careers by completing training programs in motorcycle, marine, or smallengine mechanics, but only a relatively small number of such special ized programs exist. Trainees begin by learning routine service tasks under the guidance of experienced mechanics, such as replacing ignition points and spark plugs, or taking apart, assembling, and testing new equipment. Equip ment manufacturers’ service manuals are an important training tool. As trainees gain experience and proficiency, they progress to more difficult tasks, such as diagnosing the cause of breakdowns or overhaul ing engines. Up to 3 years of training on the job may be necessary before an inexperienced beginner becomes skilled in all aspects of the repair of some motorcycle and boat engines. Employers sometimes send mechanics and trainees to special train ing courses conducted by motorcycle, boat, and outdoor power equip ment manufacturers or distributors. These courses, which can last as long as 2 weeks, are designed to upgrade the worker’s skills and provide information on repairing new models. Most employers prefer to hire high school graduates for trainee mechanic positions, but will accept applicants with less education if they possess adequate reading, writing, and arithmetic skills. Many equipment dealers employ students part time and during the summer to help assemble new equipment and perform minor repairs. Helpful high school courses include small-engine repair, automobile mechan ics, science, and business arithmetic. Knowledge of basic electronics is increasingly desirable for motor https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis cycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics. Electronics are increasingly being used in engine controls, instrument displays, and a variety of other components of motorcycles, boats, and outdoor power equip ment. Mechanics should be familiar with at least the basic principles of electronics in order to recognize when an electronic malfunction may be responsible for a problem, and be able to test and replace electronic components. Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics are often required to furnish their own handtools. Employers generally provide some tools and test equipment, but beginners are expected to gradually accumulate handtools as they gain experience. Some experienced mechanics have thousands of dollars invested in tools. Some mechanics are able to use skills learned through repairing motorcycles, boats, and outdoor power equipment to advance to higher paying jobs as automobile, truck, or heavy equipment mechanics. In larger shops, mechanics with leadership ability can advance to supervisory positions such as shop supervisor or service manager. Mechanics who are able to raise enough capital may open their own repair shops or equipment dealerships. Job Outlook Job opportunities for motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics are expected to be plentiful for persons who complete mechanic train ing programs in high school, vocational schools, or community col leges. Employment of motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Although little change is expected in the employment of motorcycle mechanics, it will be more than offset by average growth in the greater number of mechanics needed to work on boats and the small engines of lawn and garden equipment. In addition, many job opportunities are expected because a large number of experienced motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics leave each year to transfer to other occupations, or retire or stop working for other reasons. Growth of personal disposable income over the 1988-2000 period should provide consumers with more discretionary dollars to buy boats, lawn and garden power equipment, and motorcycles—requiring more mechanics to keep the growing amount of equipment in opera tion. However, growth in the number of motorcycles will be limited due to the shrinking number of persons between the ages of 18 and 24, - The increasing complexity of motorcycle technology makes the work of motorcycle mechanics more difficult. J Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers the age group with the greatest proportion of motorcycle enthusiasts. Recreational boating is expected to continue to be popular, and con struction of new single-family houses will result in an increase in the lawn and garden equipment in operation, increasing the need for mechanics. The continuing shift of the Nation’s population to the South and West where warm weather seasons are longer—and equipment use greater—should also contribute to an increase in demand for mechanics. In addition, more mechanics may be required if the grow ing complexity of the engines of motorcycles and boats forces more consumers to turn to professional mechanics for maintenance and repair services. Earnings Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics who usually worked full time had median earnings of about $8.10 an hour in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.20 and $10.50 an hour. The lowest paid 10 percent earned $5.20 an hour or less, while the highest paid 10 percent earned $14.70 an hour or more. Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics tend to receive few fringe benefits in small shops, but those employed in larger shops often receive paid vacations and sick leave and health insurance. Some employers also pay for work-related training and provide uniforms. Related Occupations The work of motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics is closely related to that of mechanics and repairers who work on other types of mobile equipment powered by internal combustion engines. Related occupations include automotive mechanic, diesel mechanic, farm equipment mechanic, and mobile heavy equipment mechanic. Sources of Additional Information For more details about work opportunities, contact local motorcycle, boat, and lawn and garden equipment dealers, and boat yards and marinas. Local offices of the State employment service also may have information about employment and training opportunities. Information about motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanic training is available from: «*-Motor and Equipment Manufacturers Association, Technical Training Coun cil, 300 Sylvan Ave., Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632-0638. 357 any of its thousands of wooden, steel, iron, ivory, and felt parts. Piano repairers locate and correct these problems. Repairers also tune pianos. To diagnose problems, repairers talk with customers and partially dismantle pianos to inspect parts. Repairers may realign action parts or they may replace old or worn parts. Sometimes technicians completely rebuild pianos. Repairers use common handtools as well as special ones, such as regulating, repinning, and restringing tools. Although organs and pianos look somewhat alike, they operate differently, and few tuners and repairers work on both. Moreover, people who service organs specialize in either pipe or electronic or gans. (Repairers who service electronic organs are included in the statement on electronic home entertainment equipment repairers else where in the Handbook.) Pipe-organ repairers tune, repair, and install organs that make music by forcing air through flue pipes or reed pipes. The flue pipe sounds when a current of air strikes a metal lip in the side of the pipe. The reed pipe sounds when a current of air vibrates a brass reed inside the pipe. To tune an organ, repairers first match the pitch of the “A” pipes with that of a tuning fork. The pitch of other pipes is set by comparing it with that of the “A” pipes. To tune a flue pipe, the technician moves the metal slide that increases or decreases the pipe’s “speaking length.” To tune a reed pipe, the technician alters the length of the brass reed inside the pipe. A day or more may be needed to do this because most organs have hundreds of pipes. Pipe-organ repairers locate problems in the organ’s components and repair or replace the worn parts. Repairers also do maintenance work, such as cleaning the pipes, on a regular schedule. Repairers also assemble organs onsite in churches and auditoriums. They follow blueprints and use hand and power tools to install and connect the air chest, blowers, air ducts, pipes, and other components. Technicians may work in teams or be assisted by helpers. A job may take several weeks or even months, depending on the size of the organ. Violin repairers adjust and repair bowed instruments, such as vio lins, violas, and cellos, using a variety of handtools. They find defects by inspecting and by playing the instrument. They remove cracked or broken sections, replace defective parts, and restring instruments. They also fill in scratches with putty, sand rough spots, and apply paint or varnish. Brass and wind instruments include trumpets, comets, tubas, clari- Musical Instrument Repairers and Tuners (D.O.T. 730.281-014, -026, -038, -050, -054, .361, .381-010, -026, -034, -038, -042, -058, .681-010, .684-022, -026, and -094) Nature of the Work Musical instruments are a source of entertainment and recreation for millions of people. Maintaining these instruments so they perform properly is the job of musical instrument repairers and tuners. The occupation includes piano and pipe-organ tuners and repairers (often called piano technicians), and brass, wind, and string instrument re pairers. Piano tuners adjust piano strings to the proper pitch. When a piano key is struck, a felt-covered wooden hammer strikes one or more strings, causing them to vibrate and produce sound. The frequency with which the string vibrates is called its pitch. Tuners adjust the pitch of the “A” string. Striking the key, the tuner compares the string’s pitch with that of a tuning fork. Using a tuning hammer (also called a tuning lever or wrench), the tuner turns a steel pin to tighten or loosen the string until its pitch matches that of the tuning fork. The pitch of all the other strings is set in relation to the “A” string. The standard 88-key piano has 230 strings and can be tuned in about an hour and a half. The performance of the piano also can be affected by problems in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Musical instrument repairers dean, adjust, and repair woodwind instruments. 358 Occupational Outlook Handbook nets, flutes, and saxophones. Brass and wind instrument repairers clean, adjust, and repair these instruments. They move mechanical parts or play scales to find defects. They may unscrew and remove rod pins, keys, and pistons, and remove soldered parts using gas torches. They repair dents in metal instruments using mallets or burnishing tools. They fill cracks in wood instruments by inserting pinning wire and covering them with filler. Working Conditions The work of musical instrument repairers and tuners is relatively safe, although they may suffer small cuts and bruises. Work is performed in shops, music stores, homes, and public buildings, such as churches and schools, where working conditions usually are good. Employment Musical instrument repairers and tuners held about 7,500 jobs in 1988. Most worked on pianos. Eight of every ten salaried repairers and tuners worked in music stores. Most of the rest worked in repair shops or for musical instrument manufacturers. About half of all musical instrument repairers and tuners are selfemployed. Most repairers and tuners work in large metropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer people who have had post-high school training in music repair technology. Some musical instrument repairers and tuners learn their trade on the job. Some music stores, large repair shops, and self-employed technicians hire inexperienced people as trainees. Trainees may be sales people or may do general cleanup work, help move and install instruments, and do other routine tasks. Some repair ers are also musicians. Trainees tune and repair instruments under the supervision of experienced workers. Usually 2 to 5 years of training and practice are needed to become a competent musical instrument repairer. For those people who are interested in piano tuning and repair, a small number of technical schools and colleges offer courses in piano technology that last 6 months to 2 years. Home-study (correspondence school) courses in piano technology cover practice tuning and piano repair. Graduates of these courses generally are encouraged to refine their skills by working for a time with an experienced tuner or tech nician. A few music repair schools offer a 1- or 2-year course in repair and overhauling of brass, woodwind, string, and electronic musical instruments. Beginners may also learn these skills as apprentices under the supervision of experienced technicians. Music courses help develop the student’s ear for tonal quality. Courses in woodworking also may be useful because many instruments are made of wood. People interested in a career in these fields should have good hearing, mechanical aptitude, and manual dexterity. For those doing work in the customers’ home, a neat appearance and a pleasant, cooperative manner also are important. Ability to play the instrument is sometimes helpful. Musical instrument repairers keep up with new developments in their fields by studying trade magazines and manufacturers’ service manuals. The Piano Technicians Guild helps its members improve their skills through training programs conducted at local chapter meet ings and at regional and national seminars. Guild members also can take a series of tests to earn the title Registered Piano Tuner-Techni cian. The title is an acknowledgment of the technician’s skills. Repairers and technicians who work for large dealers or repair shops can advance to supervisory positions. Some go into business for themselves. Self-employed tuners and repairers operate out of their own homes and use either a car or a small truck for service calls. Job Outlook Employment of musical instrument repairers and tuners is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. The number of students playing musical instruments is expected to grow only slowly, as is the number of people employed https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis as musicians. Most job openings will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who leave the occupation. Since this is a very small occupation, the overall number of job openings will be small. Individuals who have taken music repair technology courses should have good employment prospects, particularly those who have been trained in electronic instrument repair. During poor economic conditions, tuners and repairers may lose income because their customers put off tuning and repairing instru ments. People wishing to enter the trade usually find music store owners and self-employed repairers and technicians especially reluc tant to hire trainees when business is slow. Earnings According to the limited data available, apprentices generally earned from $8,000 to $10,000 a year in 1988. Beginner repairers and tuners earned $12,000 to $18,000. Experienced workers generally earned between $20,000 and $40,000 annually. Earnings of the self-employed depend on their ability to attract and keep customers, their operating expenses, and the amount of competition from other tuners and re pairers. Related Occupations Mechanical aptitude and manual dexterity are qualities that are needed in musical instrument repair. Other workers who possess these traits are electronic home entertainment equipment repairers, vending ma chine servicers and repairers, pinsetter mechanics, home appliance and power tool repairers, and computer and office machine repairers. Sources of Additional Information Details about job opportunities may be available from local music instrument dealers and repair shops. For general information about piano technicians and a list of schools offering courses in piano technology, write to: •-Piano Technicians Guild, 9140 Ward Pky., Kansas City, MO 64114. For general information on musical instrument repair, write to: . ••-National Association of Professional Band Instrument Repair Technicians (NAPBIRT), P.O. Box 51, Normal, IL 61761. Telephone Installers and Repairers (D.O.T. 822.261-022 and .281-018) Nature of the Work Telephone installers and repairers install, service, and repair tele phones and other communications equipment on customers’ property. When customers move or request new types of service, installers relocate telephones or make changes on existing equipment. For exam ple, they may install a pay telephone in a store or change a two-party line to a single-party line in a residence. Installers also may add an extension in another room or replace an old telephone with a new model. In a home under construction, they install all the necessary wiring and telephone jacks in the desired locations. Telephone installers, sometimes called station installers or service technicians, assemble equipment and install wiring at the customers’ premises using a variety of handtools. They connect telephones to outside service wires and sometimes must climb poles or ladders to make these connections. Occasionally, especially in apartment build ings, the service wires or terminals are in the basement of the building. In many large building complexes, these wires or terminals are located in wire closets. After installation, they test the equipment to make sure that it is working properly. To make repairs on equipment or changes to existing wiring, they usually travel to customers’ homes and offices in vehicles equipped with telephone tools and supplies. Before making any installations or repairs, they read and interpret service orders, technical manuals, and circuit wiring diagrams. Then they test, clean, fix, or replace faulty Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers 359 as on rooftops, ladders, and telephone poles. Because they work around electrical circuits, they must take precautions to avoid shocks. Employment Telephone installers and repairers held about 58,000 jobs in 1988. More than 9 out of 10 worked full time for telephone companies. Telephone installers and repairers test connections to ensure proper telephone service. equipment or wiring. Working closely with trouble locators in the central office, they locate and analyze trouble on customers’ equipment and in public facilities. Repairers find the source of the problem by connecting a test set to the customer’s telephone line and then testing in conjunction with the trouble locator in the central office. They also keep detailed and accurate records of all work activity. Some experienced service technicians have learned additional skills in line installation and cable splicing. Technicians with multiple skills can handle some emergencies more quickly than would otherwise be possible; these workers are considered especially valuable by many small companies. Many installers and repairers promote improved customer service by demonstrating various kinds of telephone equip ment or services. In some areas, these workers may handle special cases such as complaints to public service commissions, illegal or unauthorized use of equipment, and electric or acoustic shocks. Working Conditions Telephone installers and repairers work in many kinds of places, both indoors and outdoors and in all kinds of weather. Because telephone service must be maintained at all times, these workers are subject to 24-hour call, as are all telephone company employees. Often this means working under adverse weather conditions, such as when a snowstorm knocks out telephone service. Workers also may be re quired to work evening and night shifts because breakdowns in lines or equipment can occur at any time. Work on holidays and on nonscheduled days may also be required. Their work involves lifting, climbing, reaching, stooping, crouch ing, and crawling. They must not be afraid to work in high places such https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers’ preferences are changing markedly in the telephone indus try. Before the breakup of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T), most trainees were chosen from the ranks of telephone company employees. This was viewed as a good way to build employee loyalty and to increase morale. With divestiture, how ever, competition has forced companies to reduce costs. As a result, companies increasingly are looking for applicants who already possess the required skills. Instead of testing for aptitude, as they traditionally have, larger companies arc moving toward a policy of testing for skills. They seek persons who have developed these skills in another job or in military service as well as graduates of associate degree or postsecondary vocational school programs in telecommunications technology or in electronics. When sufficient numbers of such applicants are not available, some companies still promote from within and provide training on company time. However, companies are trying to cut operating costs by minim izing in-house training, and the trend is clearly toward phasing out such training altogether. Smaller companies encourage employees to learn additional skills and become “jacks of all trades” so they can respond to surges in demand for various jobs. Some technicians in larger companies qualified for their jobs on the basis of this experience. All applicants must have good eyesight and the ability to distinguish colors. Physical examinations may be required because the work may involve strenuous activities such as climbing poles and lifting and carrying heavy objects. Good balance is necessary in order to work in high places and for crouching or stooping in cramped areas. Practical problem-solving ability is essential, as in all repair jobs. Because these workers deal with the public, a pleasant and patient disposition is an advantage. Applicants for telephone installer or repairer jobs in smaller compa nies must have the ability to learn a craft, and some may have to take a mechanical aptitude test as well as tests that measure mathematical skills. Workers in these jobs must be adept at handling small tools, such as pliers and screwdrivers, and be able to read blueprints, interpret work orders and circuit diagrams, and understand company manuals and directions for telephone installation and repair. Most employers require a high school diploma or the equivalent. Many telephone companies now use modular training programs for their workers. Modular training is used to supplement or replace other, more traditional forms of training. Training modules may include some or all of the following: Entry tests; video modules such as computer terminals, movies, and video cassettes; programmed work books; exit tests; and skill mastery tests where the trainee demonstrates the skills he or she has learned. Workers using training modules can leam various aspects of their craft at their own convenience and pace. Because many small telephone companies, especially in rural areas, do not have training facilities, they use community colleges and voca tional technical schools in these areas to train telephone installers and repairers. If travel is required during training—to a regional training school, for example—the company pays the cost. Telephone installers and repairers receive training throughout their careers in order to qualify for more responsible assignments and to keep up with technological changes. Courses are offered by colleges, universities, private firms, and State telephone associations, as well as by the telephone companies themselves. With further training, telephone installer-repairers can advance to supervisor, to sales and customer service jobs or, with additional study of electronics, to more advanced technical jobs such as PBX installer or switching equipment technician. 360 Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Outlook Employment of telephone installers and repairers is expected to decline through the year 2000. Employment will fall as technological improve ments make this work less labor intensive. For example, changes such as prewired buildings that enable customers to select telephones, take them home, and plug them into prewired jacks, have effectively elimi nated the functions of the installer. The modular assembly of tele phones, where components plug in and out, also has reduced the time and skills needed for repair. Also, fewer repairs are being made because it often costs as much to fix a phone as it does to buy a new one. Productivity also has been increased by measures taken to eliminate downtime. The use of computers has enabled companies to schedule installers’ and repairers’ service calls so that travel time is minimized. In addition, they have equipped many of these workers with portable electronic terminals so that they can hook directly into the company’s electronic testing system and test the telephones automatically. With employment projected to decline, job openings will result exclusively from the need to replace persons who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Traditionally, most openings for telephone installers and repairers have been filled by workers in other telephone jobs, with the remainder being filled by persons without telephone company experience. This mix has shifted in recent years and will continue to change as companies curtail their training activities and put more of the burden of training on their workers. As technology continues to displace telephone workers, competition for available openings should intensify, making it more difficult for telephone work ers without additional training and virtually impossible for “outsiders” without the necessary skills to compete for jobs. Earnings Pay scales vary greatly across the country; specific information may be obtained from local telephone companies. Earnings also depend on length of service. Generally, it takes about 5 years to progress from the beginning rate to the top of the pay scale. Telephone installers and repairers employed by AT&T and the Bell Operating Companies and represented by the Communications Workers of America earned an average weekly salary of $640 in 1988. Most telephone installers and repairers belong to unions, principally the Communications Workers of America and the International Broth erhood of Electrical Workers. Union contracts govern wage rates, wage increases, and the time needed to progress from one grade to the next. Contracts stipulate extra pay for work performed beyond the normal 8 hours a day or 5 days a week, as well as for that performed on holidays and Sundays. Most contracts provide a pay differential for nightwork. Paid vacations are granted according to length of service. Normally, contracts provide for a 1-week vacation beginning with 6 months of service; 2 weeks for 1 to 6 years; 3 weeks for 7 to 14 years; 4 weeks for 15 to 24 years; and 5 weeks for 25 years and over. Depending on the locality, holidays range from 9 to 12 days a year. Other benefits include the following; Paid sick leave; group life, medical, and dental insurance; vision care; sickness and accident benefits; retirement and disability pensions; a savings plan; and an employee stock ownership plan. Vending Machine Servicers and Repairers (D.O.T. 319.464-014 and 639.281-014) Nature of the Work Coin-operated vending machines have become a familiar sight in places of recreation, work, and education. These machines dispense many types of refreshments, from a cold soft drink to a hot meal. Vending machine servicers and repairers install, service, and stock these machines and keep them in good working order. Servicers make sure machines operate correctly. When checking complicated electrical and electronic machines, such as beverage dis pensers, they make sure that the machines mix drinks properly and that refrigeration and heating units work correctly. On the relatively simple gravity-operated machines, servicers check handles, springs, plungers, and merchandise chutes. They also test coin and change making mechanisms. When installing the machines, they make the necessary water and electrical connections and recheck the machines for proper operation They also repair microwave ovens used to heat food dispensed from machines. If a machine breaks down, repairers inspect it for obvious problems, such as loose electrical wires, malfunctions of the coin mechanism, and leaks. If the problem cannot be readily located, they may refer to troubleshooting manuals and wiring diagrams and use testing devices such as electrical circuit testers to find defective parts. Repairers may fix faulty parts at the site, but they often install replacements and take broken parts to the company shop for repair. When servicing electronic machines, repairers may only have to replace a circuit board or other component. Preventive maintenance—avoiding trouble before it starts—is a major job of these workers. For example, they periodically clean refrigeration condensers, lubricate mechanical parts, and adjust ma chines to perform properly. In repair and maintenance work, repairers use pipe cutters, soldering guns, wrenches, screwdrivers, and electronic testing devices. In the repair shop, they may use power tools, such as grinding wheels, saws, and drills as well as voltmeters, ohmmeters, oscilloscopes, and other testing equipment. Because many vending machines dispense food, these workers must comply with State and local public health and sanitation standards. They also must comply with local plumbing and electrical codes. Vending machine servicers and repairers also do clerical work, such as filing reports, preparing repair cost estimates, and ordering parts. Those employed by small companies may fill machines on a regular Related Occupations Other skilled workers whose jobs require manual dexterity and techni cal knowledge of tools and machines include communications equip ment mechanics, biomedical equipment technicians, electricians, sound technicians, line installers, and cable splicers. Sources of Additional Information For more details about employment opportunities, contact the tele phone company in your community. For additional information on the telephone industry and career opportunities in it, request copies of Phonefacts and Is It for You? A Career in the Telephone Industry from; •-United States Telephone Association, 900 19th St. NW., Suite 800, Wash ington, DC 20006. . https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Vending machine repairers test coin and change-making mechanisms. Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers basis. These combination servicers-repairers stock machines, collect money, fill coin and currency changers, and keep daily records of merchandise distributed. However, many of the new computerized machines will minimize some of the paperwork that a servicer per forms, such as keeping daily records of merchandise distributed. Working Conditions Some servicers and repairers work in company repair shops, others work in the field, but many do both. Because vending machines can be operated around the clock, repairers often work at night and on weekends and holidays. Vending machine repair shops generally are quiet, well lighted, and have adequate work space. However, when servicing machines on location, the work may be done where pedestrian traffic is heavy, such as in a busy supermarket. Repair work is relatively safe, although repairers and servicers are subject to hazards such as electrical shocks and cuts from sharp tools and metal objects. They also must know and follow safety procedures, especially when lifting heavy objects and working with electricity and radiation from microwave ovens. Employment Vending machine servicers and repairers held about 27,000 jobs in 1988. Most repairers work for vending companies that sell food and other items through machines. Others work for soft drink bottling companies that have their own coin-operated machines. Some work for companies that own video games, pin-ball machines, juke boxes, and similar types of amusement equipment. Although vending machine servicers and repairers are employed throughout the country, most are located in areas with large populations where there are many coin and vending machines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Some vending machine repairers enter the occupation as general shop helpers or route drivers, where they learn informally on the job by observing, working with, and receiving instruction from experienced repairers. However, employers prefer trainess to have post-high school training in electronics. Trainees do simple jobs such as cleaning or painting machines. They then learn to rebuild machines—removing defective parts, repairing, adjusting, and testing the machines. Next, they accompany an experienced repairer on service calls, and then go out on their own. This learning process takes from 6 months to 3 years, depending on the individual’s abilities, previous education, types of machines, and the quality of instruction. Many beginners are high school graduates, but employers may not require a diploma. High school or vocational school courses in electricity, refrigeration, and machine repair help beginners to qualify for entry jobs. Some vocational high schools and junior colleges offer 1- to 2-year training programs in basic electronics for vending machine servicers and repairers. The National Automatic Merchandising Association has established an apprenticeship program. Apprentices receive 144 hours of homestudy instruction in subjects such as basic electricity and electronics, blueprint reading, customer relations, and safety. The apprenticeship program lasts from 6 months to 3 years; at the end of the program, the employee can earn certification by passing performance and written tests. To learn about new machines, repairers and servicers sometimes https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 361 attend manufacturer-sponsored training sessions, which may last from a few days to several weeks. Both trainees and experienced workers may take evening courses in basic electricity, electronics, microwave, refrigeration, and other related subjects. Employers require applicants to demonstrate mechanical ability, either through their work experience or by scoring well on mechanical aptitude tests. Because vending machine servicers and repairers some times handle thousands of dollars in merchandise and cash, employers want applicants who have a record of honesty and respect for the law. The ability to deal tactfully with people also is important. A commercial driver’s license and a good driving record are essential for most vending machine repairer jobs. Skilled servicers and repairers may be promoted to supervisory jobs. Job Outlook Employment of vending machine servicers and repairers is expected to show little or no change through the year 2000. More vending machines are likely to be installed in industrial plants, hospitals, stores, and other business establishments to meet the public demand for vending machine items. In addition, the range of products and services dispensed by machine also can be expected to increase. However, improvements in technology should reduce breakdowns, so the em ployment of repairers will not grow. Some job openings will arise as experienced workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Persons with some background in electronics should have the best job prospects because electronic components increasingly are being used in vending machines. If firms cannot find trained or experienced workers, they are likely to train qualified route drivers or hire inexperi enced people who have acquired some mechanical, electrical, or elec tronic aptitude by taking high school or vocational courses. Earnings Wage rates for experienced vending machine servicers and repairers generally ranged from $7 to $14 an hour in 1988, depending on the size of the firm and the region of the country. Most vending machine repairers work 8 hours a day, 5 days a week, and receive premium pay for overtime. Some union contracts stipulate higher pay for nightwork and for emergency repair jobs on weekends and holidays. Some vending machine repairers and servicers are members of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America. Related Occupations Other workers who repair equipment with electrical and electronic components include bowling-pin-machine mechanics, home appliance and power tool repairers, laundry machine repairers, maintenance mechanics, computer and office machine repairers, and sewing ma chine repairers. Sources of Additional Information Further information on job opportunities in this field can be obtained from local vending machine firms and local offices of the State employ ment service. For general information and a list of schools offering courses in vending machine repair, write to: ••-National Automatic Merchandising Association, 20 N. Wacker Dr., Chi cago, IL 60606. Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations Bricklayers and Stonemasons (D.O.T. 779.684-058, 861.361-010 and -014, .381-010 through -042. except -034, .684-010 and -014, and 899.364-010) Nature of the Work Bricklayers and stonemasons work in closely related trades that pro duce attractive, durable surfaces. Bricklayers build walls, floors, parti tions, fireplaces, and other structures with brick, cinder or concrete block, and other masonry materials. They also install firebrick linings in industrial furnaces. Stonemasons build stone walls as well as set stone exteriors and floors. They work with two types of stone—natural cut, such as marble, granite, and limestone; and artificial stone made from cement, marble chips, or other masonry materials. Because stone is expensive, stonemasons work mostly on high-cost buildings, such as churches, hotels, and office buildings. In putting up a wall, bricklayers usually use plumblines and a level to build straight comers. They then stretch a line from comer to comer to guide each course or layer of brick. Bricklayers spread a bed of mortar (cement mixture) with a trowel (a flat, metal tool with a handle), place the brick on the mortar bed, and then tap it into place. As blueprints specify, they cut bricks with a hammer and chisel to fit around windows, doors, and other openings. Mortar joints are finished with jointing tools to leave a neat and uniform appearance. Although bricklayers generally use steel supports at window and door openings, they sometimes build brick arches that enhance the beauty of the brickwork. Bricklayers are assisted by hod carriers, or helpers, who supply bricks and other materials, mix mortar, and set up and move scaf folding. Stonemasons often work from a set of drawings in which each stone has been numbered for identification. Helpers may locate and bring the prenumbered stones to the masons. A derrick operator using a hoist may be needed to lift large pieces into place. When building a stone wall, masons set the first course of stones into a shallow bed of mortar. They align the stones with plumblines and levels, and adjust them into position with a hard rubber mallet. Masons build the wall by alternating layers of mortar and stone. As the work progresses, they fill the joints between stones and use a pointed metal tool, called a tuck pointer, to smooth the mortar to an attractive finish. To hold large stones in place, stonemasons attach brackets to the stone and weld or bolt them to anchors in the wall. Finally, masons wash the stone with a cleansing solution to remove stains and dry mortar. When setting stone floors, which often consist of large and heavy pieces of stone, masons first trowel a layer of damp mortar over the surface to be covered. Using crowbars and hard rubber mallets for aligning and leveling, they then set the stone in the mortar bed. To finish, workers fill the joints and wash the stone slabs. Masons use a special hammer to cut stone. They cut it along the grain to make various shapes and sizes. Valuable pieces often are cut with a saw that has a diamond blade. Some masons specialize in setting marble which, in many respects, is similar to setting large pieces of stone. Bricklayers and stonemasons also repair imperfections and cracks or replace broken or missing masonry units in walls and floors. Refractory repairers or masons are bricklayers who install firebrick and refractory tile in high-temperature boilers, furnaces, cupolas, ladles, and soaking pits in industrial establishments. Most work in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis steel mills, where molten materials flow on refractory beds from furnaces to rolling machines. Many masons are qualified to work with a variety of materials and, in areas that experience little demand for full-time stone and marble masons, bricklayers also will install these materials. Working Conditions Bricklayers and stonemasons usually work outdoors. They stand, kneel, and bend for long periods and may have to lift heavy materials. They also are subject to injuries from tools and falls from scaffolds. However, these workers are less likely to be injured than other con struction workers. Employment Bricklayers and stonemasons held about 167,000 jobs in 1988. The vast majority were bricklayers. Workers in these crafts are employed primarily by special trade, building, or general contractors. Workers in these trades are employed throughout the country but, like the general population, are concentrated in metropolitan areas. About 3 of every 10 bricklayers and stonemasons are self-employed. Many of the self-employed specialize in contracting on small jobs such as patios, walks, and fireplaces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most bricklayers and stonemasons pick up their skills informally by working as helpers or hod carriers and by observing and learning from experienced workers. The remainder learn their skills through apprenticeship programs, which generally provide the most thorough training. Individuals who learn the trade informally usually start as helpers or laborers. They carry materials, move scaffolds, and mix mortar. When the opportunity arises, they are taught to spread mortar, lay Bricklayers spend much of their time standing, kneeling, or bending. Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations brick and block, or set stone. As they gain experience, they make the transition to full-fledged craft workers. The learning period generally lasts much longer than an apprenticeship program, however. Apprenticeships for bricklayers and stonemasons usually are spon sored by local contractors or by local union-management committees. The apprenticeship program requires 3 years of on-the-job training in addition to a minimum 144 hours of classroom instruction each year in subjects such as blueprint reading, mathematics, layout work, and sketching. Apprentices often start by working with laborers, learning the basics of supplying materials, mixing mortar, and building scaffolds. This period generally lasts about a month and familiarizes them with job routines and materials. Next, they learn to lay, align, and join brick and block. Apprentices often learn to work with stone, plaster, and concrete, which enables them to be certified to work with more than one masonry material. Applicants for apprenticeships must be at least 17 years old and in good physical condition. A high school education is preferable, and courses in mathematics, mechanical drawing, and shop are helpful. Experienced workers can advance to supervisory positions or be come estimators. They also can open contracting businesses of their own. Job Outlook Employment of bricklayers and stonemasons is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Population and business growth will create a need for new factories, offices, schools, hospitals, and other structures. Also stimulating de mand will be the increasing use of brick for decorative work on building fronts and in lobbies and foyers. Employment of bricklayers who specialize in refractory repair will decline, along with employment in other occupations in the primary metal industries. Although some jobs will be created by an increase in demand for these workers, most openings will result from the need to replace bricklayers and stonemasons who retire, transfer to other occupations, or leave the trades for other reasons. Employment of bricklayers and stonemasons, like that of many other construction workers, is sensitive to changes in the economy. When the level of construction activity falls, workers in these trades can experience periods of unemployment. Earnings Median weekly earnings for bricklayers and stonemasons were about $448 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $315 and $588 weekly. The highest 10 percent earned more than $694 weekly; the lowest 10 percent, less than $231. Earnings for workers in these trades may be reduced on occasion because poor weather and downturns in construction activity limit the time they can work. In each trade, apprentices or helpers start at about 50 percent of the wage rate paid to experienced workers. The rate increases as they gain experience. A large number of bricklayers and stonemasons are members of the International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen. Related Occupations Bricklayers and stonemasons combine a thorough knowledge of brick, stone, and marble with manual skill to erect very attractive yet highly durable structures. Workers in other occupations involving similar skills include concrete masons, plasterers, terrazzo workers, and tilesetters. Sources of Additional Information For details about apprenticeships or other work opportunities in these trades, contact local bricklaying, stonemasonry, or marble setting contractors; a local of the union listed above; a local joint unionmanagement apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 363 For general information about the work of either bricklayers or stonemasons, contact: ••-International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen, International Ma sonry Institute Apprenticeship and Training, 815 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. Information about the work of bricklayers also may be obtained from: (•-Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Washing ton, DC 20006. ••-Brick Institute of America, 11490 Commerce Park Dr., Reston, VA 22091. Carpenters (D.O.T. 860.281-010 through .684-014 except .381-010; 863.684-010; and 869.361-018, .381-010, -034, .684-018, -034, and -042) Nature of the Work Almost all construction projects employ carpenters, the largest group of building trade workers. The duties of carpenters vary by type of employer. A carpenter employed by a special trade contractor, for example, may specialize in setting forms for concrete construction, while one who is employed by a general building contractor may perform many tasks, such as framing walls and partitions, putting in doors and windows, and installing paneling and tile ceilings. Although each carpentry task is somewhat different, most tasks involve the following steps. Working from blueprints or instructions from supervisors, carpen ters first do the layout—measuring, marking, and arranging materials. Local building codes often dictate where certain materials can and cannot be used, and carpenters have to know these requirements. Carpenters cut and shape materials, such as wood, plastic, ceiling tile, fiberglass, and dry wall with hand and power tools, such as chisels, planes, saws, and drills. Carpenters then join the materials with nails, screws, staples, or glue. They check the accuracy of their work with levels, mles, plumb bobs, and framing squares. Carpenters may work in teams or be assisted by a helper. Carpenters employed outside the construction industry are involved in a variety of installation and maintenance work. They may replace panes of glass, ceiling tiles, and doors, as well as repair desks, cabi nets, and other furniture. Depending on the employer, carpenters may install partitions, doors, and windows; change locks; and repair broken furniture. In manufacturing firms, carpenters may assist in moving or installing machinery. (For more information on workers who install this machinery, see the statements on industrial machinery repairers and millwrights elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions As in other building trades, carpentry work is active and sometimes strenuous. Prolonged standing, climbing, bending, and kneeling often are necessary. Carpenters risk injury from slips or falls, from working with sharp or rough materials, and from the use of sharp tools and power equipment. Many carpenters work outdoors. Some carpenters change employers each time they finish a construc tion job. Others alternate between working for a contractor and work ing as contractors themselves on small jobs. Employment Carpenters held about 1,106,000 jobs in 1988. Seven of every ten worked for contractors who build, remodel, or repair buildings and other structures. Most of the remainder worked for manufacturing firms, government agencies, wholesale and retail establishments, and schools. About 1 out of 3 was self-employed. Carpenters are employed throughout the country in almost every community. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Carpenters learn their trade through on-the-job training and through formal training programs. Many pick up skills informally by working 364 Occupational Outlook Handbook homebuilding may only provide training in rough framing. In contrast, a large general contractor may provide training in several carpentry skills. A high school education is desirable, including courses in carpentry, shop, mechanical drawing, and general mathematics. Manual dexter ity, eye-hand coordination, good physical condition, and a good sense of balance are important. The ability to solve arithmetic problems quickly and accurately is helpful. Carpenters may advance to carpentry supervisors or general con struction supervisors. Carpenters usually have greater opportunities than most other construction workers to become general construction supervisors because they are exposed to the entire construction process. Some carpenters become independent contractors. Carpenters risk injury from the use of power equipment. under the supervision of experienced workers. Some acquire skills through vocational education. Others participate in employer training programs or apprenticeships. Most employers recommend an apprenticeship as the best way to learn carpentry. Because the number of apprenticeship programs is limited, however, only a small proportion of carpenters learn their trade through these programs. Apprenticeship programs are administered by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors, Inc., and local chapters of the Associated General Contractors, as well as by local joint union-man agement committees of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America and the Associated General Contractors or the National Association of Home Builders. These programs combine onthe-job training with related classroom instruction. Apprenticeship applicants generally must be 17 years old and meet local requirements. For example, some locals test an applicant's aptitude for carpentry. The length of the program, usually about 3 to 4 years, varies with the apprentice’s skill. On the job, apprentices learn elementary structural design and be come familiar with common carpentry jobs such as form building, rough framing, and outside and inside finishing. They also learn to use the tools, machines, equipment, and materials of the trade. Appren tices receive classroom instruction in safety, first aid, blueprint reading and freehand sketching, basic mathematics, and different carpentry techniques. Both in the classroom and on the job, they learn the relationship between carpentry and the other building trades. Informal on-the-job training usually is less thorough than an appren ticeship. The degree of training and supervision often depends on the size of the employing firm. A small contractor who specializes in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of carpenters is expected to increase as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Construction activity should increase in response to demand for new housing and commercial and industrial plants and the need to renovate and modernize existing structures. In addition to the jobs resulting from increased demand for carpen ters, many openings will occur as carpenters transfer to other occupa tions or leave the labor force. The total number of job openings for carpenters each year usually is greater than for other craft occupations because the occupation is large and turnover is high. Since there are no strict training requirements for entry, many people with limited skills take jobs as carpenters but eventually leave the occupation because they find they dislike the work or cannot find steady em ployment. Although employment of carpenters is expected to grow over the long run, people entering the occupation should expect to experience periods of unemployment. This results from the short-term nature of many construction projects and the cyclical nature of the construction industry. Building activity depends on many factors—interest rates, availability of mortgage funds, government spending, and business investment—that vary with the state of the economy. During economic downturns, job openings for carpenters are reduced. The introduction of new and improved tools, equipment, techniques, and materials has vastly increased carpenters’ versatility. Therefore, carpenters with all round skills will have better opportunities than those who can only do relatively simple, routine tasks. Job opportunities for carpenters also vary by geographic area. Con struction activity parallels the movement of people and businesses and reflects differences in local economic conditions. Therefore, the number of job opportunities and apprenticeship opportunities in a given year may fluctuate widely from area to area. Earnings Median weekly earnings of carpenters who were not self-employed were $381 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $282 and $516perweek. Weekly earnings for the top 10 percent of all carpenters were more than $676; the lowest 10 percent earned less than $215. Earnings may be reduced on occasion because carpenters lose work time in bad weather and when jobs are unavailable. Maintenance carpenters, who generally have more steady employment, averaged $14.00 an hour in 1988, according to a survey of selected metropolitan areas. A large proportion of carpenters are members of the United Brother hood of Carpenters and Joiners of America. Related Occupations Carpenters are skilled construction workers. Workers in other skilled construction occupations include bricklayers, concrete masons, electri cians, pipefitters, plasterers, plumbers, stonemasons, and terrazzo workers. Sources of Additional Information For information about carpentry apprenticeships or other work oppor tunities in this trade, contact local carpentry contractors, a local of the Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations 365 union mentioned above, a local joint union-contractor apprenticeship committee, or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about this trade, contact: ••“Associated Builders and Contractors, Inc., 729 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. ••-Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Washing ton, DC 20006. ••-Home Builders Institute, Educational Arm of the National Association of Home Builders, 15th and M Sts. NW., Washington, DC 20005. ••-United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001. Carpet Installers (D.O.T. 864.381-010) Nature of the Work Many homes, offices, stores, restaurants, and other buildings have carpeting that was installed by a carpet installer. Before installing the carpeting, carpet installers first inspect the floor to determine its condition and, if necessary, correct any imperfections that could show through the carpet. Then they measure the area to be carpeted and plan the layout of the carpet, keeping in mind expected traffic patterns and placement of seams for best appearance and long wear. For wall-to-wall carpet, installers first lay and tack or tape a padding or underlay—usually a foam rubber or fiber pad !4 to 'h inch thick. Next, they roll out, measure, mark, and cut the carpet, allowing for 3 to 4 inches of extra carpet on each side for the final fitting. Then they lay the carpet by stretching it to fit evenly on the floor and snugly against each wall and door threshold, and trim the excess. Finally, they attach the carpet to tackless stripping to hold it in place. Because most carpet comes in 12-foot widths, wall-to-wall installa tions require installers to sew or tape sections together for large rooms. They join the seams by sewing them with a large, curved needle and special thread or by using heat-taped seams (a special plastic tape made to join seams when activated with heat). For precut, edge-bound carpet, installers lay out a base pad, roll the carpet over it, and sometimes apply tape with adhesive on both sides to hold the pad and carpet in place. Carpet installers use handtools such as hammers, drills, staple guns, and rubber mallets. They also use carpet-laying tools, such as carpet knives, knee kickers, and power stretchers. Working Conditions Installers work under better conditions than most other construction workers. Because carpets are installed in finished or nearly finished structures, work areas usually are clean, well lighted, safe, and com fortable. Installers kneel, reach, bend, stretch, and frequently lift heavy rolls of carpet. Installers generally work regular daytime hours. However, when recarpeting stores or offices, they may work evenings and weekends to avoid disturbing customers or employees. Employment Carpet installers held about 56,000 jobs in 1988. Many worked for flooring contractors or floor covering-retailers. Many carpet installers are self-employed. Installers are employed throughout the Nation, but are concentrated in urban areas that have high levels of construction activity. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The vast majority of carpet installers learn their trade informally on the job as helpers to experienced installers. Others learn through formal apprenticeship programs, which include on-the-job training as well as related classroom instruction. Informal training programs usually are sponsored by individual https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Carpet installers constantly bend and kneel. contractors and generally last about 1 Vi to 2 years. Helpers begin with simple assignments, such as installing tackless stripping and padding, and helping stretch newly installed carpet. With experience, helpers take on more difficult assignments, such as measuring, cutting, and fitting materials. Apprenticeship programs and some contractor-sponsored programs provide comprehensive training in all phases of carpet laying. Unionsponsored apprenticeship progams usually consist of weekly classes that usually last 3 years. Helpers and apprentices should be 18 years old and have manual dexterity. Employers also want individuals who are courteous and tactful. A high school education is preferred, though not necessary. Courses in general mathematics and shop may be helpful. A driver’s license is usually required. Carpet installers may advance to supervisors or installation manag ers for large floor-laying firms. Some installers become salespersons or estimators. Many installers also go into business for themselves as independent subcontractors. Job Outlook Employment of carpet installers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 in response to the continued need to renovate and refurbish existing structures and a growing demand for carpeting in new industrial plants, schools, hospi tals, and other structures. The use of carpet as a floor covering continues to increase. In the many houses built with plywood rather than hardwood floors, wall-towall carpet is a necessity. Similarly, offices, hotels, motels, and shopping centers often cover concrete floors with wall-to-wall carpet. 366 Occupational Outlook Handbook Carpet will continue to be used extensively in renovation work. More over, new fibers that are more durable and stain resistant and that come in fashionable colors will contribute to the growing demand for carpeting and, consequently, for carpet installers. However, most openings will arise as experienced installers transfer to other occupa tions or leave the labor force. This occupation is less sensitive to changes in economic conditions than most other construction crafts. Because much of their work is done in existing buildings, employment generally remains stable even when new construction activity declines. Earnings According to limited information available, carpet installers earned between $25,000 and $50,000 a year in 1988. Starting wage rates for apprentices and other trainees usually are about half of the experienced worker’s rate. Most installers are paid by the hour. However, some receive a monthly salary or are paid according to the amount of carpet they install. Some installers belong to the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America or the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades. Related Occupations Carpet installers measure, cut, and fit carpet materials. Workers in other occupations involving different materials but which require simi lar skills include carpenters, concrete masons, dry wall installers, floor layers, lathers, painters and paperhangers, roofers, sheet-metal work ers, terrazzo workers, and tilesetters. Sources of Additional Information For details about apprenticeships or work opportunities, contact local flooring contractors or retailers; locals of the unions previously men tioned; or the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency or the State employment service. For general information about the work of carpet installers, contact: w-Floor Covering Installation Contractors Association, P.O. Box 2048, Dalton, GA 30722. Concrete Masons and Terrazzo Workers (D.O.T. 844.364-010, -014, .461-010, .684-010; and 861.381-046, and -050) Nature of the Work Concrete—a mixture of portland cement, sand, gravel, and water—is used for many types of construction projects. These range from small jobs such as patios and floors to huge dams or miles of roadway. Concrete masons place and finish the concrete for these projects. They also may color concrete surfaces, expose aggregate (small stones) in walls and sidewalks, or fabricate concrete beams, columns, and panels. Terrazzo workers create attractive walkways, floors, patios, and panels by exposing marble chips and other fine aggregates on the surface of finished concrete. Much of the preliminary work of terrazzo workers is similar to that of concrete masons. In preparing a site for placing concrete, masons set the forms for holding the concrete for the desired pitch and depth and properly align them. They then direct the placing of the concrete and supervise laborers who use shovels or special tools to spread the concrete. Masons then guide a straightedge back and forth across the top of the forms to level the freshly placed concrete. Immediately after leveling the concrete, masons carefully sweep the concrete surface with a long-handled tool about 8 by 48 inches (called a bull float) to cover coarser materials and bring a rich mixture of fine concrete to the surface. After the concrete has been leveled and swept, finishers press an https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis edger between the forms and the concrete and guide it along the edge and the surface. This produces slightly rounded edges and helps prevent chipping or cracking. They use a special tool to make joints or grooves at specific intervals that help control cracking. Next, finishers trowel the surface with a powered trowel or by hand with a small, smooth, rectangular metal tool. This troweling embeds the heavier material deeper into the concrete, removes most imperfec tions, and brings the finer material—sand and cement—to the surface. As the final step, masons retrowel the concrete surface back and forth with powered and hand trowels to create a smooth finish. For a coarse, nonskid finish, masons brush the surface with a broom or stiffbristled brush. For a pebble finish, they embed small gravel chips into the surface. They then wash any excess cement from the exposed chips with a mild acid solution. For color, they sprinkle on a powdered dye which they work into the surface with float and trowel. On concrete surfaces that will remain exposed after forms are stripped, such as columns, ceilings, and wall panels, concrete masons cut away high spots and loose concrete with hammer and chisel, fill any large indentations with a mortar mixture, and smooth the surface with a rubbing brick. Finally, they coat the exposed area with a rich cement mixture using either a special tool or a coarse cloth to rub the concrete to a uniform finish. Attractive, marble-chipped terrazzo requires three layers of materi als. First, concrete masons or terrazzo workers build a solid, level concrete foundation that is 3 to 4 inches deep. After the forms are removed from the foundation, workers place a 1-inch deep mixture of sandy concrete. Before this layer sets, terrazzo workers partially embed metal ferrule strips into the concrete wherever there is to be a joint or change of color in the terrazzo. These strips separate the different designs and colors of the terrazzo panels and help prevent cracks. For the final layer, terrazzo workers blend and place a fine marble chip mixture that may be color-dyed into each of the panels, then hand trowel each panel until it is level with the tops of the ferrule strips. While the mixture is soft, workers toss additional marble chips of various colors into each panel and roll a lightweight roller over the entire surface. When the terrazzo is thoroughly dry, helpers grind it with a terrazzo grinder (somewhat like a floor polisher, only much heavier). Slight depressions left by the grinding are filled with a matching grout mate rial and hand troweled for a smooth, uniform surface. Terrazzo workers then clean, polish, and seal the dry surface for a rich, lustrous finish. Working Conditions Concrete or terrazzo work is fast paced and strenuous. Since most finishing is done at floor level, workers must bend and kneel. Some jobs are outdoors, but work is generally halted during rain or freezing weather. To avoid chemical burns from uncured concrete and sore knees from frequent kneeling, many workers wear kneepads. Workers usually wear water-repellent boots while working in wet concrete. ----- Concrete work is fast paced and strenuous. Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations Employment Concrete masons and terrazzo workers held about 114,000 jobs in 1988; terrazzo workers accounted for a very small proportion of the total. Most concrete masons work for concrete contractors or for general contractors on projects such as highways, bridges, shopping malls, or large buildings such as factories, schools, and hospitals. A small number are employed by firms that manufacture concrete prod ucts. Most terrazzo workers work for special trade contractors who install decorative floors and wall panels. About 1 out of 14 concrete masons and terrazzo workers is selfemployed, a smaller proportion than in other building trades. Most self-employed masons specialize in small jobs, such as driveways, sidewalks, and patios. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Concrete masons and terrazzo workers learn their trades either through on-the-job training as helpers or through 2- or 3-year apprenticeship programs. Many masons first gain experience as construction laborers. On-the-job training programs consist of informal instruction from experienced workers in which helpers leam to use the tools, equipment, machines, and materials of the trade. They begin with tasks such as edging and jointing and using a straightedge on freshly placed concrete. As they progress, assignments become more complex, and trainees usually can do finishing work within a short time. Two- and three-year apprenticeship programs, usually jointly spon sored by local unions and contractors, provide on-the-job training in addition to a recommended minimum of 144 hours of classroom instruction each year. A written test and a physical exam may be required. In the classroom, apprentices learn applied mathematics and safety. Apprentices generally receive special instruction in layout work and cost estimating. When hiring helpers and apprentices, employers prefer high school graduates who are at least 18 years old, in good physical condition, and licensed to drive. The ability to get along with others also is important because concrete masons work in teams. High school courses in shop mathematics and blueprint reading or mechanical drawing provide a helpful background. Experienced concrete masons or terrazzo workers may advance to supervisors or contract estimators. Some open concrete contracting businesses. Job Outlook Employment of concrete masons and terrazzo workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. As the population and the economy grow, more masons will be needed to help build highways, bridges, industrial plants, office buildings, hotels, shopping centers, schools, hospitals, and other struc tures. The greater use of concrete as a building material—particularly in nonresidential construction—also will add to the demand for these workers. Although many job openings will be created by increased demand for concrete masons and terrazzo workers, most openings will arise as experienced workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment of concrete masons and terrazzo workers, like that of many other workers, is sensitive to ups and downs in the economy. Workers in these trades can experience periods of unemployment when the level of nonresidential construction falls. On the other hand, shortages of these workers may occur in some areas during peak periods of building activity. Earnings Median weekly earnings for concrete masons were about S391 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $290 and $507 weekly. The top 10 percent earned more than $684 a week and the bottom 10 percent, less than $224. Nonunion workers generally have lower wage rates than union workers. Apprentices usually start at 50 to 60 percent of the rate paid to experienced workers. Concrete masons often work overtime, with premium pay, because once concrete has been placed, the job must be completed. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 367 Earnings for concrete masons and terrazzo workers may be reduced on occasion because bad weather and downturns in construction activ ity limit the time they can work. Many concrete masons and terrazzo workers belong to the Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ International Association of the United States and Canada, or to the International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen. Related Occupations Concrete masons and terrazzo workers combine skill with knowledge of building materials to construct buildings, highways, and other structures. Other occupations involving similar skills and knowledge include bricklayer, form builder, marble setter, ironworker, plasterer, stonemason, and tilesetter. Sources of Additional Information For information about apprenticeships and work opportunities, contact local concrete or terrazzo contractors; locals of unions previously mentioned; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State employment service or apprenticeship agency. For general information about concrete masons and terrazzo work ers, contact: (•-Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Washing ton, DC 20006. (•-International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen, International Ma sonry Institute Apprenticeship and Training, 815 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. (•-Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ International Association of the United States and Canada, 1125 17th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. (•-Portland Cement Association, 5420 Old Orchard Rd., Skokie, IL 60077. (•-National Terrazzo and Mosaic Association, 3166 Des Plaines Ave., Des Plaines, IL 60018. Drywall Workers and Lathers (D.O.T. 842.361-010 and -014, .381-010, .664-010, .681-010, and 869.684 050) Nature of the Work Drywall, a substitute for wet plaster, consists of a thin layer of gypsum sandwiched between two layers of heavy paper. It is used today for walls and ceilings in most buildings because it is both faster and cheaper to install than plaster. Drywall installers and drywall finishers work with this material. Installers, also called applicators, fasten drywall panels to the inside framework of residential houses and other buildings. Finishers, or tapers, prepare these panels for painting by taping and finishing joints and imperfections. Because drywall panels are manufactured in standard sizes—usually 4 feet by 8 or 12 feet—installers must measure, cut, and fit some pieces around doors and windows. They also saw or cut holes in panels for electrical outlets, air-conditioning units, and plumbing. After mak ing these alterations, installers may glue, nail, or screw the wallboard panels to the wood or metal framework. Because drywall is heavy and cumbersome, a helper generally assists the installer in positioning and securing the panel. A lift is often used when placing ceiling panels. After the drywall is installed, finishers fill joints between panels with a joint compound. Using the wide, flat tip of a special trowel, they spread the joint compound into and along each side of the joint with brushlike strokes. They immediately use the trowel to press a paper tape—used to reinforce the drywall and to hide imperfections— into the wet compound and to smooth away excess material. Nail and screw depressions also are covered with this compound. On large commercial projects, finishers may use automatic taping tools to apply the joint compound and tape in one step. Finishers apply second and third coats to fill any depressions and imperfections to make a smooth 368 Occupational Outlook Handbook worker or lather employed full time, the work is usually done by carpenters and painters. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most drywall and lathing workers start as helpers and learn their skills on the job. Installer and lather helpers start by carrying materials, lifting and holding panels, and cleaning up debris. Within a few weeks, they learn to measure, cut, and install materials. Eventually, they become fully experienced workers. Finisher apprentices begin by tap ing joints and touching up nail holes and scrapes. They soon learn to install corner guards and to conceal openings around pipes. At the end of their training, they learn to estimate the costs of installing and finishing drywall and gypsum lath. Some installers and lathers learn their trade in an apprenticeship program. The United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, in cooperation with local contractors, administers an appren ticeship program in carpentry that includes instruction in drywall and lath installation. In addition, local affiliates of the Associated Builders and Contractors conduct a similar training program for nonunion work ers. The International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades con ducts a 2-year apprenticeship program for drywall finishers. Employers prefer high school graduates who are in good physical condition, but they frequently hire applicants with less education. High school or vocational school courses in carpentry provide a helpful background for drywall work. Regardless of educational background, installers must be good at simple arithmetic. Drywall workers and lathers with a few years’ experience and leadership ability may become supervisors. Some workers start their own contracting businesses. Drywall is used for walls and ceilings. surface. They then sand the treated areas to make them as smooth as the rest of the wall surface. Some finishers apply textured surfaces to walls and ceilings with trowels, brushes, or spray guns. Finishers also repair imperfections caused by the installation of air-conditioning vents and other fixtures. Lathers apply metal or gypsum lath to walls, ceilings, or ornamental frameworks to form the support base for plaster coatings. Gypsum lath is similar to a drywall panel, but smaller. Metal lath is used where the plaster application will be exposed to weather or water, or for curved or irregular surfaces for which drywall is not a practical material. Lathers usually nail, screw, staple, or wire-tie the lath directly to the structural framework. Working Conditions As in other construction trades, drywall and lathing work sometimes is strenuous. Applicators, tapers, finishers, and lathers spend most of the day on their feet, either standing, bending, or kneeling. Some finishers use stilts to tape and finish ceiling and angle joints. Installers have to lift and maneuver heavy panels. Hazards include falls from ladders and scaffolds, and injuries from power tools. Because sanding joint compound to a smooth finish may create a great deal of dust, some finishers wear masks for protection. Employment Drywall workers and lathers held about 152,000 jobs in 1988. Most worked for contractors who specialize in drywall or lathing installation; others worked for contractors who do many kinds of construction. Most installers, finishers, and lathers are employed in urban areas. In other areas, where there may not be enough work to keep a drywall https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of drywall workers and lathers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as the level of construction activity increases. Besides workers hired to fill openings arising from increased demand, many will be needed to replace those who transfer to jobs in other occupations or leave the labor force. Drywall installation, finishing, and lathing are usually completed indoors. Unlike some other construction trades workers, these workers seldom lose time because of bad weather. However, they may be unemployed between construction projects and during downturns in construction activity. Earnings Median weekly earnings for drywall workers and lathers were about $382 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $294 and $554 weekly. Trainees start at about half the rate paid to experienced workers. Some contractors pay these workers according to the number of panels they install or finish per day; others pay an hourly rate. A 40hour week is standard, but sometimes the workweek may be longer. Those who are paid hourly rates receive premium pay for overtime. Related Occupations Drywall workers and lathers combine strength and dexterity with precision and accuracy to make materials fit according to a plan. Other occupations that require similar abilities include insulation workers, floor covering installers, plasterers, and form builders. Sources of Additional Information For information about work opportunities in drywall application and finishing, contact local drywall installation contractors; a local of the unions previously mentioned; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; a State or local chapter of the Associated Builders and Contractors; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations For details about job qualifications and training programs in dry wall application and finishing, write to: (•-Associated Builders and Contractors, Inc., 729 15th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20005. (•"International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006. ••-National Joint Painting, Decorating, and Drywall Apprenticeship and Train ing Committee, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006. For information on training programs in drywall application and lathing, write to: (•-United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001. m- National Association of Home Builders, Home Builders Institute, 15th and M Sts., NW., Washington DC, 20005. Electricians (D.O.T. 729.381-018; 822.361-018, -022; 824.261, .281-010, -018, .381, .681; 825.381-030, -034, 829.281-014 and 952.364 and .381) Nature of the Work Electricity is essential for light, power, air-conditioning, and refrigera tion. Electricians install and maintain electrical systems for a variety of purposes, including climate control, security, and communications. They also may install and maintain the electronic controls for machines in business and industry. Although most electricians specialize in either construction or maintenance, a growing number do both. Electricians work with blueprints when they install electrical sys tems in factories, office buildings, homes, and other structures. Blue prints indicate the location of circuits, outlets, load centers, panel boards, and other equipment. Electricians must follow the National Electric Code and comply with State and local building codes when they install these systems. In factories and offices, they first place conduit (pipe or tubing) inside designated partitions, walls, or other concealed areas. They also fasten to the wall small metal or plastic boxes that will house electrical switches and outlets. They then pull insulated wires or cables through the conduit to complete circuits between these boxes. In lighter construction, such as residential, plas tic-covered wire usually is used rather than conduit. Regardless of the type of wire being used, electricians connect it to circuit breakers, transformers, or other components. Wires are joined by twisting ends together with pliers and covering the ends with special plastic connectors. For additional strength, electricians may use an electric “soldering gun” to melt metal onto the twisted wires, which they then cover with durable electrical tape. When the wiring is finished, they test the circuits for proper connections. In addition to wiring a building’s electrical system, electricians may install coaxial or fiber optic cable for computers and other telecommu- Electricians use handtools such as screwdrivers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 369 nications equipment. A growing number of electricians install tele phone and computer wiring and equipment. They also may connect motors to electrical power and install electronic controls for industrial equipment. Maintenance work varies greatly, depending on where the electri cian is employed. Electricians who specialize in residential work may rewire a home and replace an old fuse box with a new circuit breaker to accommodate additional appliances. Those who work in large factories may repair motors, transformers, generators, and electronic controllers on machine tools and industrial robots. Those in office buildings and small plants may repair all kinds of electrical equipment. Maintenance electricians spend much of their time in preventive maintenance. They periodically inspect equipment and locate and correct problems before breakdowns occur. When breakdowns occur, they must make the necessary repairs as quickly as possible in order to minimize the inconvenience to the customer. Electricians may replace items such as circuit breakers, fuses, switches, electrical and electronic compo nents, or wire. When working with complex electronic devices, they may work with engineers, engineering technicians, or industrial ma chinery repairers. (For information about these occupations, see the statements located elsewhere in the Handbook.) Electricians also may advise management whether continued operation of equipment could be hazardous. When needed, they install new electrical equipment. Electricians use handtools such as screwdrivers, pliers, knives, and hacksaws. They also use power tools and testing equipment such as oscilloscopes, ammeters, and test lamps. Working Conditions Electricians’ work is sometimes strenuous. They may stand for long periods and frequently work on ladders and scaffolds. They often work in awkward or cramped positions. Electricians risk injury from electrical shock, falls, and cuts; to avoid injuries, they must follow strict safety procedures. Most electricians work a standard 40-hour week, although overtime may be required. Those in maintenance work may have to work nights, on weekends, and be on call. Employment Electricians held about 542,000 jobs in 1988. Slightly more than half were employed in the construction industry. Others worked as maintenance electricians and were employed in virtually every indus try. In addition, about 1 out of 11 electricians was self-employed. Because of the widespread need for electrical services, jobs for electricians are found in all parts of the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The best way to learn the electrical trade is by completing a 4-year apprenticeship program. Apprenticeship gives trainees a thorough knowledge of all aspects of the trade and generally improves their ability to find a job. Although more electricians are trained through apprenticeship than workers in other construction trades, some still learn their skills informally on the job. Large apprenticeship programs are usually sponsored by joint com mittees made up of local unions of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers and local chapters of the National Electrical Contractors Association, by company management committees of indi vidual electrical contracting companies, and by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors. Because of the comprehensive training received, those who complete apprenticeship programs qualify to do both maintenance and construction work. The typical program provides at least 150 hours of classroom instruction each year and 8,000 hours of on-the-job training over the course of the apprentice ship. In the classroom, apprentices learn blueprint reading, electrical theory, electronics, mathematics, electrical code requirements, and safety and first aid practices. On the job, under the supervision of experienced electricians, apprentices must demonstrate mastery of the electrician’s work. At first, they drill holes, set anchors, and set up conduit. Later, they measure, bend, and install conduit, as well as install, connect, and test wiring, outlets, and switches. They also leant to set up and draw diagrams for entire electrical systems. 370 Occupational Outlook Handbook Those who do not enter a formal apprenticeship program can begin to learn the trade informally by working as helpers for experienced electricians. While learning to install conduit, connect wires, and test circuits, helpers also are taught safety practices. Many helpers supplement this training with trade school or correspondence courses. Regardless of how one learns the trade, previous training is very helpful. High school courses in mathematics, electricity, electronics, mechanical drawing, science, and shop provide a good background. Special training offered in the Armed Forces and by postsecondary technical schools also is beneficial. All applicants should be in good health and have at least average physical strength. Agility and dexterity also are important. Good color vision is needed because workers frequently must identify electrical wires by color. Most apprenticeship sponsors require applicants for apprentice posi tions to be at least 18 years old and have a high school diploma or its equivalent. High school equivalency certificates are not accepted by joint union-management programs. For those interested in becoming maintenance electricians, a background in electronics is increasingly important because of the growing use of complex electronic controls on manufacturing equipment. Most localities require electricians to be licensed. Although licens ing requirements vary from area to area, electricians generally must pass an examination that tests their knowledge of electrical theory, the National Electrical Code, and local electric and building codes. Experienced electricians periodically take courses offered by their employer or union to keep abreast of changes in the National Electrical Code, new materials, materials or methods of installation. Experienced electricians can become supervisors. Those with suffi cient capital and management skills may start their own contracting business. In many areas, however, a contractor must have an electrical contractor’s license. Job Outlook Employment of electricians is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. As the population and the economy grow, more electricians will be needed to install and maintain electrical devices and wiring in homes, factories, offices, and other structures. New technologies also are expected to continue to stimulate the demand for these workers. Buildings will be prewired during construction to accommodate use of computers and telecommu nications equipment. More and more factories will be using robots and automated manufacturing systems. Installation of this equipment, which is expected to increase sharply, should generate many job opportunities. Although the employment outlook for electricians is expected to be good over the long run, people wishing to become construction electricians should be prepared to experience periods of unemploy ment. These result from the limited duration of construction projects and the cyclical nature of the construction industry. During economic downturns, job openings for electricians are reduced as the level of construction declines. Apprenticeship opportunities also are less plentiful during these periods. Although employment of maintenance electricians is steadier than that of construction electricians, those working in the automotive, metalworking, and other industries that are sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy may be laid off during recessions. Also, efforts to reduce operating costs and increase productivity through the increased use of contracting out for electrical services may limit opportunities for maintenance electricians in many industries. However, this should be partially offset by increased demand by electrical contracting firms. Job opportunities for electricians also vary by geographic area. Employment opportunities follow the movement of people and busi nesses among States and local areas and reflect differences in local economic conditions. The number of job opportunities in a given year may fluctuate widely from area to area. Some parts of the country may experience an oversupply of electricians, for example, while others may have a severe shortage. In addition to jobs created by increased demand for electrical work, many openings will occur each year as electricians transfer to other https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The unemployment rate for electricians generally is lower than the rate for other construction workers. Percent unemployed, 1988 / 3.9 ^/ 5.2 mi ^/ 10.2~^/ 13.1 ^/ 15.3 ^ Iiiim Source Bureau of Labor Statistics occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Because of their lengthy training and relatively high earnings, a smaller propor tion of electricians than other craft workers leave their occupation each year. The number of retirements is expected to rise, however, as more electricians reach retirement age. Young adults have traditionally filled apprenticeship and other training slots, a group that is expected to shrink through the year 2000. If employers and unions aren’t successful in attracting more applicants to training programs, widespread short ages of qualified electricians could develop. Earnings Median weekly earnings for full-time electricians who were not selfemployed were $478 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $332 and $612 weekly. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $254, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $740. Maintenance electricians in metropolitan areas earned about $14.90 an hour in 1988 compared to $9.29 an hour for all production and nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Those who work in the Midwest and West generally earn more than those in the Northeast and South. Annual earnings of electricians also tend to be higher than those of other building trades workers because electri cians are less affected by the seasonal nature of construction. Depending on experience, apprentices usually start at 35 to 50 percent of the rate paid to experienced electricians. As they become more skilled, they receive periodic increases throughout the course of the apprenticeship program. Electricians receive a variety of employer-provided benefits. Al though benefits for unionized electricians usually are more generous, most electricians receive health insurance. Many employers also pro vide training opportunities for experienced electricians to improve their skills. Many construction electricians are members of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Among unions organizing mainte nance electricians are the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; the International Union of Electronic, Electrical, Salaried, Machine, and Furniture Workers; the International Association of Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; and the United Steelworkers of America. Related Occupations To install and maintain electrical systems, electricians combine manual skill and a knowledge of electrical materials and concepts. Workers in other occupations involving similar skills include air-conditioning mechanics, cable installers and repairers, electronics mechanics, and elevator constructors. Sources of Additional Information For details about apprenticeships or other work opportunities in this trade, contact local electrical contractors; local chapters of the Indepen dent Electrical Contractors, Inc., the National Electrical Contractors Association, or the Associated Builders and Contractors; a local union of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; a local unionmanagement electrician apprenticeship committee; local firms that employ maintenance electricians; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about the work of electricians, contact: •-Independent Electrical Contractors, Inc., 1101 Connecticut Ave. NW., Suite 700, Washington, DC 20036. •"International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 1125 15th St. NW., Wash ington, DC 20005. •-National Electrical Contractors Association, 7315 Wisconsin Ave., Bethesda, MD 20814. •-Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. For some jobs, the glazier must cut the glass manually at the work site. To prepare the glass for cutting, glaziers rest it either on edge on a rack or A-frame or flat against a cutting table. They then measure and mark the glass for the cut. Glaziers cut glass with a special tool that has a very hard metal wheel about 1/6 inch in diameter. Using a straightedge as a guide, the glazier presses the cutter’s wheel firmly on the glass, guiding and rolling it carefully to make a score just below the surface. To help the cutting tool move smoothly across the glass, workers brush a thin layer of oil along the line of the intended cut or dip the cutting tool in oil. Immediately after cutting, the glazier presses on the shorter end of the glass to break it cleanly along the cut. In addition to handtools such as glasscutters, suction cups, and glazing knives, glaziers use power tools such as saws, drills, cutters, and grinders. Working Conditions Glaziers often work outdoors—sometimes in inclement weather. Sometimes they work on scaffolds at great heights. The job requires a considerable amount of bending, kneeling, lifting, and standing. Glaziers may be injured by broken glass or cutting tools, falls from scaffolds, or from lifting heavy glass panels. Employment Glaziers held about 49,000 jobs in 1988. The majority worked for glazing contractors engaged in new construction, alteration, and repair. Others worked for retail glass shops that install or replace glass and wholesale distributors of products containing glass. Glaziers work Glaziers (D.O.T. 865.361 and .381) Nature of the Work Glass serves many uses in modern buildings. Insulating glass keeps in warmed or cooled air; tempered and laminated glass makes doors and windows more secure; and large glass panels give skyscrapers a distinctive look while reducing the need for artificial lighting. Glaziers select, cut, install, and remove all types of glass as well as plastics and similar materials used as glass substitutes. They also install mir rors, shower doors and bathtub enclosures, and glass for table tops and display cases. They may mount steel and aluminum sashes or frames and attach locks and hinges to glass doors. For most jobs, the glass is precut and mounted in frames at a factory or a contractor’s shop. It arrives at the job site ready to be positioned and secured in place by glaziers. These workers may use a crane or hoist with suction cups to lift large, heavy pieces of glass. They then gently guide the glass into position by hand. Once glaziers have the glass in place, they secure it with mastic or a pastelike cement, bolts, rubber gaskets, glazing compound, metal clips, or metal or wood molding. When they use a rubber gasket—a thick, molded rubber half-tube with a split running its length—to secure glass, they first secure the gasket around the perimeter within the opening, then set the glass into the split side of the gasket, causing it to clamp to the edges and hold the glass firmly in place. When they use metal clips and wood molding, glaziers first secure the molding to the opening, place the glass in the molding, and then force springlike metal clips between the glass and the molding. The clips exert pressure and keep the glass firmly in place. When a glazing compound is used, glaziers first spread it neatly against and around the edges of the molding on the inside of the opening. Next, they install the glass. Pressing it against the compound on the inside molding, workers screw or nail outside molding that loosely holds the glass in place. To hold it firmly, they pack the space between the molding and the glass with glazing compound and then trim any excess material with a glazing knife. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 371 Z'lt * wm Glaziers often work in pairs. 372 Occupational Outlook Handbook throughout the country, but jobs are concentrated in metropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers recommend that glaziers learn the trade through an appren ticeship program that lasts 3 to 4 years. Apprenticeship programs, which are administered by the National Glass Association, and local union-management committees or local contractors’ associations, con sist of on-the-job training as well as 144 hours of classroom instruction or home study each year. On the job, apprentices learn to use the tools and equipment of the trade; handle, measure, cut, and install glass and metal framing; cut and fit moldings; and install and balance glass doors. In the classroom, they are taught basic mathematics, blueprint reading and sketching, general construction techniques, safety practices, and first aid. Many glaziers learn the trade informally on the job. These workers usually start by carrying glass and cleaning up debris in glass shops. They often practice cutting on discarded glass. After a while they are given an opportunity to cut glass for a job. Eventually, helpers assist experienced workers on a simple installation job. Learning the trade this way may not provide training as complete as an apprenticeship program, however, and may take longer. Local apprenticeship administrators determine how apprentices are recruited and selected. Applicants for apprenticeships generally must be in good physical condition and at least 17 years old. In some areas, applicants must take mechanical aptitude tests. Persons applying for helper positions will find that employers prefer high school or voca tional school graduates. Courses in general mathematics, blueprint reading or mechanical drawing, general construction, and shop provide a good background. Advancement consists of increases in pay for most glaziers; some may advance to supervisory jobs. Some glaziers become contractors or estimators. Job Outlook Employment of glaziers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 in response to anticipated growth in new commercial and industrial construction and a need to modernize and repair existing structures. Glass is expected to remain popular in building design, causing demand for glaziers to grow. Although the employment outlook for glaziers is expected to be good over the long run, people wishing to become construction glaziers should expect to experience periods of unemployment. These result from the limited duration of construction projects and the cyclical nature of the construction industry. During bad economic times, job openings for glaziers are reduced as the level of construction declines. Because construction activity varies from area to area, job openings, as well as apprenticeship opportunities, fluctuate with local economic conditions. Consequently, some parts of the country may experience an oversupply of these workers while others may have a shortage. Employment opportunities should be greatest in metropolitan areas, where most glazing contractors and glass shops are located. In addition to jobs created by increased demand for glaziers, open ings will occur each year from the need to replace experienced workers who leave the occupation for other jobs and because of retirements. The number of retirements is expected to increase significantly as more and more glaziers reach retirement age. Workers under 25 years of age have traditionally filled most apprenticeship slots. This pool of young workers is expected to shrink through the year 2000. If employ ers and unions aren’t successful in attracting more applicants to training programs, serious shortages of qualified glaziers could develop. Earnings According to the limited information available, average hourly wages for glaziers vary widely by geographic location. In 1988, union jour neyman glaziers earned between $12 and $18 an hour in the South, $14 and $20 in the Northeast and Midwest, and $13 and $24 in the West. Glaziers in construction, who are unionized, generally earn https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis more than glaziers in retail and wholesale trade. Apprentice wage rates usually start at 50 to 60 percent of the rate paid to experienced glaziers and increase every 6 months. Because glaziers can lose time due to weather conditions and fluctuations in construction activity, their over all earnings may be lower than their hourly wages would indicate. Many glaziers employed in construction are members of the Interna tional Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades. Related Occupations Glaziers use their knowledge of construction materials and techniques to install glass. Other construction workers whose jobs also involve skilled, custom work are bricklayers, floor layers, paperhangers, terrazzo workers, and tilesetters. Sources of Additional Information For more information about glazier apprenticeships or work opportuni ties, contact local glazing or general contractors; a local of the Interna tional Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades; a local joint unionmanagement apprenticeship agency; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about the work of glaziers, contact: (•-International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006. For information concerning training for glaziers, contact: (•-Membership Services, National Glass Association, 8200 Greensboro Dr., McLean, VA 22102. w-National Glaziers’ Architectural Metal and Glassworkers’ Industries Appren ticeship Training and Journeymen Education Fund, 9030 Red Branch Rd., Columbia, MD 21045. Insulation Workers (D.O.T. 863.364-010 and -014, .381-010 and -014, .664-010, and .685-010) Nature of the Work Properly insulated buildings reduce energy consumption by keeping heat in during the winter and out in the summer. Meat storage rooms, vats, tanks, vessels, boilers, and steam pipes also are insulated to prevent the wasteful transfer of heat. Insulation workers install this insulating material. Insulation workers paste, staple, wire, tape, or spray insulation. When covering a steam pipe, for example, insulation workers measure and cut a tube of insulation to the proper length, stretch it open along a cut that runs the length of the tube, and slip it over the pipe. They wrap and fasten wire bands around the insulation, tape it, or wrap a cover of tar paper, cloth, or canvas over it and sew or staple the cover in place. Sometimes insulation workers weld sheet metal around insulated pipes to waterproof the insulation. When covering a wall or other flat surface, workers may use a hose to spray foam insulation onto a wire mesh. The wire mesh provides a rough surface to which the foam can cling and adds strength to the finished surface. Workers may then apply a final coat for a finished appearance. In attics or exterior walls of uninsulated buildings, workers blow in loose-fill insulation. A helper feeds a machine with shredded fiber glass, cellulose, or rock wool insulation while another worker blows the insulation from the compressor hose into the attic or between the interior and exterior walls. In new construction or major renovations, insulation workers staple fiberglass batts to exterior walls and ceilings before drywall, paneling, or plaster walls are put in place. Insulation workers use common handtools—trowels, brushes, knives, scissors, sewing equipment, and stapling guns. They use power saws to cut insulating materials, welding machines to join sheet metal or secure clamps, and compressors for blowing or spraying insulation. Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations Working Conditions Insulation workers generally work indoors. They spend most of the workday on their feet, either standing, bending, or kneeling. Some times they work from ladders or in tight spaces. However, the work is not strenuous; it requires more coordination than strength. Insulation work is often dusty and dirty. The minute particles from insulation materials, especially when blown, can irritate the eyes, skin, and respiratory system. Removing cancer-causing asbestos insulation—at one time the most common form of insulation but rarely used today— is a hazardous task and is done by specially trained workers. To protect themselves from the dangers of asbestos and irritants, workers follow strict safety guidelines, wear protective masks and clothing, and keep work areas well ventilated. Employment Insulation workers held about 65,000 jobs in 1988; most worked for insulation or other construction contractors. Others worked for the Federal Government, in shipbuilding, and in other manufacturing industries, such as chemicals and petroleum refining, that have exten sive installations for power, heating, and cooling. Most worked in urban areas. In other areas, insulation work may be done by carpenters, heating and air-conditioning installers, or drywall installers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most insulation workers learn their trade informally on the job. Train ees are assigned to experienced insulation workers for instruction and supervision. They begin with simple tasks, such as supplying insulation to experienced workers or holding material while it is fas tened in place. On-the-job training can take up to 2 years, depending on the work. Learning to install insulation in homes generally requires less training than insulation application in commercial and industrial settings. As they gain experience, trainees receive less supervision, more responsibility, and higher pay. In contrast, trainees in formal apprenticeship programs receive in depth instruction in all phases of insulation. Apprenticeship programs may be provided by a joint committee of local insulation contractors and the local union of the International Association of Heat and Frost Insulators and Asbestos Workers, to which many insulation workers belong. Programs normally consist of 4 years of on-the-job training coupled with classroom instruction, and trainees must pass practical and written tests to demonstrate a knowledge of the trade. For entry jobs, insulation contractors prefer high school graduates who are in good physical condition and licensed to drive. High school courses in blueprint reading, shop math, sheet-metal layout, and gen eral construction provide a helpful background. Applicants seeking apprenticeship positions must have a high school diploma or its equiva lent, and be at least 18 years old. Skilled insulation workers may advance to supervisor, shop superin 373 tendent, insulation contract estimator, or set up their own insulation business. Job Outlook Employment of insulation workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. The need to insulate boilers and pipes in new factories, powerplants, and office and apartment buildings will stimulate employment growth. Moreover, existing buildings that need extra insulation and the need to remove and replace asbestos insulation will add to employment requirements. Despite this growth in demand, replacement needs will account for most job openings. This occupation has the highest separation rate of all the construction trades. Each year thousands of jobs will become available as insulation workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Since there are no strict training requirements for entry, many people with limited skills work as insulation workers for a short time and then move on to other types of work, creating many job openings. Insulation workers in the construction industry may experience periods of unemployment because of the short duration of many con struction projects and the cyclical nature of construction activity. Workers employed in industrial plants generally have more stable employment because maintenance and repair must be done on a contin uing basis. Unlike other construction occupations, insulation workers usually do not lose work time when weather conditions are poor. Most insula tion is applied after buildings are enclosed. Earnings According to the Engineering News Record, union insulation workers received an average hourly wage of $25.08 in 1988, including fringe benefits. Wages ranged from a low of $17.17 an hour in Denver to a high of $34.77 in New York City. Insulation workers doing commer cial and industrial work earn substantially more than those working in residential construction, which does not require as much skill. Related Occupations Insulation workers combine a knowledge of insulation materials with their skills of cutting, fitting, and installing materials. Workers in occupations involving similar skills include carpenters, carpet install ers, drywall applicators, floor layers, roofers, and sheet-metal workers. Sources of Additional Information For information about training programs or other work opportunities in this trade, contact a local insulation contractor; a local of the International Association of Heat and Frost Insulators and Asbestos Workers; the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency, or: (•-National Insulation and Abatement Contractors Association, 99 Canal Center Plaza, Suite 222, Alexandria, Va 22314. Painters and Paperhangers (D.O.T. 840.381, .681, and .684; 841.381; and 845.681) i l ▼ 7 Most insulation workers learn their trade on the job. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Paint and wall coverings make surfaces more attractive and bright. In addition, paints and similar coverings protect outside walls from wear caused by weather and aging. Although some people do both painting and paperhanging, each requires different skills. Painters apply paint, stain, varnish, and other finishes to buildings and other structures. They choose the right paint or finish for the surface to be covered, taking into account customers’ wishes, durabil ity, ease of handling, and method of application. They first prepare surfaces to be covered so paint will adhere properly. They sometimes remove the old coating by stripping, sanding, wire brushing, burning, 374 Occupational Outlook Handbook or sandblasting. They also wash walls and trim to remove dirt and grease, fill nail holes and cracks, sandpaper rough spots, and brush off dust. On new surfaces, they apply a primer or sealer to prepare them for the finish coat. Painters also mix paints and match colors, relying on knowledge of paint composition and color harmony. Painters use brushes, rollers, and spray guns to apply paint, depend ing on the surface to be covered. When working on tall buildings, painters erect scaffolding, includ ing “swing stages” (scaffolds suspended by ropes or cables attached to roof hooks). When painting steeples and other conical structures, they use a “bosun chair” (a swinglike device). Paperhangers cover walls and ceilings with decorative wall cover ings made of paper, vinyl, or fabric. They first prepare the surface to be covered by applying “sizing,” which seals the surface and makes the covering stick better. When redecorating, they may first remove the old covering by soaking, steaming, or applying solvents. When necessary, they patch holes and take care of other imperfections before hanging the new wall covering. After the surface has been prepared, paperhangers measure the area to be covered, cut the covering into strips of the proper size, check the covering for flaws, and closely examine the pattern to match it when the strips are hung. Paperhangers first prepare paste or other adhesives and brush or roll them on the covering. They place the strips on the wall or ceiling, making sure the pattern is matched, the strips are hung straight, and the edges butted together to make tight, closed seams. Finally, they smooth the strips to remove bubbles and wrinkles and trim the top and bottom with a razor knife. Working Conditions Painters and paperhangers must stand for long periods. Their jobs also require a considerable amount of climbing and bending. These workers must have stamina because much of the work is done with arms raised overhead. Painters and paperhangers risk injury from slips or falls off ladders and scaffolds. Painters often work outdoors, but seldom in wet, cold, or inclement weather. Some painting jobs can leave a worker covered with paint; some can be hazardous if masks are not worn or if ventilation is poor. Employment Painters and paperhangers held about 431,000 jobs in 1988; most were held by painters. Many painters and paperhangers work for contractors engaged in new construction, repair, restoration, or remodeling work. In addition, organizations that own or manage large buildings, such as hotels, offices, and apartment complexes, employ maintenance painters, as do some schools, hospitals, and factories. More than 2 of every 5 painters and paperhangers are self-employed, compared to 1 out of 4 other building trades workers. Many painters work part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Painting and paperhanging are learned through apprenticeship or infor mal, on-the-job instruction. Training authorities recommend comple tion of an apprenticeship as the best way to become a painter or paperhanger. However, many learn on the job. Few opportunities for informal training exist for paperhangers because most paperhangers do not have a need for helpers. The apprenticeship for painters and paperhangers consists of 3 years of on-the-job training, in addition to 144 hours of related classroom instruction each year. Apprentices receive instruction in color har mony, use of tools, surface preparation, application of coating, paint mixing and matching, care of tools and equipment, staining, glazing, gold leafing, blueprint reading, use of ladders and scaffolding, wood finishing, and safety. On-the-job instruction covers similar skills for apprentices and help ers. Under the direction of experienced workers, trainees carry sup plies, erect scaffolds, and do simple painting tasks while they learn about paint and painting equipment. Within 2 or 3 years, trainees learn to prepare surfaces for painting and paperhanging, to mix paints, and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Self-employment in construction craft occupations is highest among painters and paperhangers. Percent self-employed, 1988 Source. Bureau of Labor Statistics to apply paint and wall coverings efficiently. Near the end of their training, they may learn decorating concepts, color coordination, and cost-estimating techniques. Apprentices or helpers generally must be at least 16 years old and in good physical condition. A high school education or its equivalent that includes courses in mathematics is generally required to enter apprenticeships. Applicants should have manual dexterity and a good color sense. Painters and paperhangers may advance to supervisory or estimating jobs with painting and decorating contractors. Many establish their own painting and decorating businesses. Job Outlook Employment of painters and paperhangers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as the level of new construction activity increases and the stock of structures that require maintenance and repair grows. Replacement needs will account for most of the job openings for painters and paperhangers. Each year, thousands of jobs will become available as painters transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Since there are no strict training requirements for entry, many people with limited skills work as painters for a short time and then move on to other types of work, creating many job openings. Because the number of paperhangers is relatively small, fewer openings will exist in this occupation. Painters and paperhangers may experience periods of unemployment because of the short duration of many construction projects and the cyclical and seasonal nature of construction activity. However, remod eling, restoration, and maintenance projects provide many jobs for painters and paperhangers even when new construction activity de clines. The most versatile painters and paperhangers are most apt to be kept on the payroll during downturns in the economy. Earnings Median weekly earnings for painters who were not self-employed were about $328 in 1988. Most earned between $238 and $451 weekly. The Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations 375 For general information about the work of painters and paperhangers, contact: •-Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. •-International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006. Plasterers (D.O.T. 842.361-018, -022, and -026, and .381-014) Many painters work part time. top 10 percent earned over $633, and the bottom 10 percent earned less than $185 a week. In general, paperhangers earn more than painters. The average hourly rate for painters who do primarily maintenance tasks was $14.19 in 1988. In comparison, the average rate for all nonsupervisory or production workers in private industry, except farm ing, was $9.29 an hour. Earnings for painters may be reduced on occasion because of bad weather and the short-term nature of many construction jobs. Hourly wage rates for apprentices usually start at 40 to 50 percent of the rate for experienced workers and increase periodically. Many painters and paperhangers are members of the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades. Some maintenance painters are members of other unions. Related Occupations Painters and paperhangers apply various coverings to decorate and protect wood, metal, and other surfaces. Other occupations in which workers apply paints and similar finishes include billboard posterers, shipyard painters, metal sprayers, undercoaters, and transportation equipment painters. Sources of Additional Information For details about painting and paperhanging apprenticeships or work opportunities, contact local painting and decorating contractors; a local of the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; or an office of the State apprenticeship agency or State employment service. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Plastering is one of the oldest crafts in the building trades. It has evolved into a skilled craft through the development of many new and improved materials and techniques. Plasterers finish interior walls and ceilings with plaster materials that form fire-resistant and relatively soundproof surfaces. They also apply durable cement plasters, poly mer-based acrylic finishes, and stucco to exterior surfaces, and may cast ornamental designs in plaster. Drywall workers and lathers—a related occupation—use drywall instead of plaster when erecting inte rior walls and ceilings. (See the statement on drywall workers and lathers elswehere in the Handbook.) When plasterers work with interior surfaces such as cinder block and concrete, they first apply a brown coat that provides a base; and then a second or finish coat (also called white coat), which is a limebased plaster. When plastering metal lath (supportive wire mesh) foundations, they apply a preparatory or scratch coat with a trowel. They spread a rich plaster mixture into and over the metal lath. Before the plaster sets, they scratch its surface with a rake-like tool to produce ridges so the brown coat will cling to it tightly. Laborers prepare a thick, smooth plaster for the brown coat. Plaster ers spray or trowel this mixture onto the surface. They then finish by smoothing it to an even, level surface. For the finish coat, plasterers prepare a mixture of lime, portland cement, and water. They quickly apply this onto the brown coat using a hawk (a light, metal plate with a handle), trowel, brush, and water. This mixture, which sets very quickly, produces a very smooth, dura ble finish. Plasterers also work with a plaster material that can be finished in a single coat. This thin-coat or veneer plaster is made of lime and plaster of pads and is mixed with water on the job site. It provides a smooth, durable finish on interior masonry surfaces, special wallboard, or drywall prepared with a bonding agent. Plasterers may create decorative surfaces as well. For example, they press a brush or trowel firmly against the soft plaster surface and use a circular hand motion to create decorative swirls. For exterior work, plasterers usually apply a mixture of portland cement and sand—stucco—over cement, concrete, masonry, and lath. Stucco is also applied directly to a wire lath scratch coat and brown coat. They may also embed marble or gravel chips into the finish coat to achieve a uniform, pebblelike, decorative finish. Increasingly today, plasterers apply insulation to the exteriors of new and old buildings. They cover the outer wall with rigid foam insulation board and fiberglass cloth and then trowel on a polymerbased scratch coat. They apply an additional coat of this material with a decorative finish. Plasterers sometimes do complex decorative and ornamental work that requires special skill and creativity. For example, they may mold intricate wall and ceiling designs. Following an architect’s blueprint, they may pour a special plaster into a mold and allow it to set. Workers then remove the molded plaster and put it in place according to the plan. Working Conditions Most plastering jobs are indoors; however, plasterers work outside when applying stucco. Because plaster can freeze, heat is usually 376 Occupational Outlook Handbook blueprint reading, and safety. Some apprenticeship programs also allow individuals to obtain training in related occupations such as cement masonry and bricklaying. Those who learn the trade informally as helpers usually start by carrying materials, setting up scaffolds, and mixing plaster. Later they learn to apply the scratch, brown, and the finish coats. Applicants for apprentice or helper jobs generally must be at least 17 years old, be in good physical condition, and have manual dexterity. Applicants who have a high school education are preferred. Courses in general mathematics, mechanical drawing, and shop provide a useful background. Plasterers may advance to supervisors, superintendents, or estima tors for plastering contractors, or may become self-employed con tractors. Most plasterers work indoors. necessary to complete plastering jobs in cold weather. Sometimes plasterers work on scaffolds high above the ground. Plastering is physically demanding—requiring considerable stand ing, bending, lifting, and reaching overhead. The work can be dusty and dirty; plaster materials also soil shoes and clothing and can irritate skin and eyes. Employment Plasterers held about 27,000 jobs in 1988. Most plasterers work on new construction, particularly where special architectural and lighting effects are part of the work. Some repair and renovate older buildings. Many plasterers are employed in Florida, California, and the South west, where exterior plasters with decorative finishes are very popular. Most plasterers work for independent contractors. About 1 out of every 6 plasterers is self-employed. Training, Other Qualification, and Advancement Although most employers recommend apprenticeship as the best way to learn plastering, many people learn the trade by working as helpers to experienced plasterers. Apprenticeship programs, sponsored by local joint committees of contractors and unions, generally consist of 2 or 3 years of on-thejob training, in addition to at least 144 hours annually of classroom instruction in drafting, blueprint reading, and mathematics for layout work. In the classroom, apprentices start with a history of the trade and the industry. They also learn about the uses of plaster, estimating materials and costs, and casting ornamental plaster designs. On the job, they learn about lath bases, plaster mixes, methods of plastering, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of plasterers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. In past years, employment of plasterers declined as more builders switched to dry wall construction. This decline has halted, however, and employment of plasterers is expected to rebound as a result of greater appreciation for the durability and hardness that troweled fin ishes provide. Thin-coat plastering, in particular, may gain greater acceptance as more builders recognize its ease of application, durabil ity, and quality of finish. New polymer-based acrylic exterior insulat ing finishes are also gaining popularity, not only because of their durability, attractiveness, and insulating properties but also because of their low cost. In addition, plasterers will be needed to renovate plaster work in older structures and create special architectural effects such as curved surfaces, which are not practical with drywall materials. Most plasterers work in construction, where prospects fluctuate from year to year due to changing economic conditions. Bad weather affects plastering less than other construction trades because most work is indoors. On exterior surfacing jobs, however, plasterers may lose time because materials cannot be applied under wet or freezing conditions. Best employment opportunities are expected in Florida, California, and the Southwest, where exterior plaster and decorative finishes are expected to continue to be popular. Earnings According to the limited information available, average hourly earn ings—including fringe benefits—for plasterers who belonged to a union and worked full time were $21.98 in 1988. Apprentice wage rates start at about half the rate paid to experienced plasterers. How ever, annual earnings for plasterers and apprentices may be less than the hourly rate would indicate because poor weather and periodic declines in construction activity may limit their work time. Many plasterers are members of unions. They are represented by the Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ International Associa tion of the United States and Canada, or the International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen. Related Occupations Other construction workers who use a trowel as their primary tool include drywall finishers, bricklayers, concrete masons, marble set ters, stonemasons, terrazzo workers, and tilesetters. Sources of Additional Information For information about apprenticeships or other work opportunities, contact local plastering contractors; locals of the unions previously mentioned; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency or the State employment service. For general information about the work of plasterers, contact: (•-International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen, 815 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. ••-Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ International Association of the United States and Canada, 1125 17th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations 377 Plumbers and Pipefitters (D.O.T. 806.381-062, 862.261, .281-010, -014, and -022, .361-014, -018, and -022, and .381 except -010 and -038, .681, .682-010, and .684-034) Nature of the Work Most people are familiar with the plumber who comes to their home to unclog a drain or install an appliance. In addition to this, however, plumbers and pipefitters install, maintain, and repair many different types of pipe systems. For example, some systems move water to a municipal water treatment plant, and then to residential, commercial, and public buildings. Others dispose of waste. Some bring in gas for stoves and furnaces. Others supply air-conditioning. Pipe systems in powerplants carry the steam that powers huge turbines. Pipes also are used in manufacturing plants to move material through the production process. Although plumbing and pipefitting sometimes are considered a sin gle trade, workers generally specialize in one or the other. Plumbers install and repair the water, waste disposal, drainage, and gas systems in homes and commercial and industrial buildings. They also install plumbing fixtures—bathtubs, sinks, and toilets—and appliances such as dishwashers and water heaters. Pipefitters install and repair both high- and low-pressure pipe systems that are used in manufacturing, in the generation of electricity, and in heating and cooling buildings. Some pipefitters specialize in only one type of system. Steamfitters, for example, install pipe systems that move liquids or gases under high pressure. Sprinklerfitters install automatic fire sprinkler systems in buildings. Plumbers and pipefitters use many different materials and construc tion techniques, depending on the type of project. Residential water systems, for example, use copper, plastic, and steel pipe that can be handled and installed by one or two workers. Municipal sewerage systems, on the other hand, are made of large cast iron pipe; installation normally requires crews of pipefitters. Despite these differences, all plumbers and pipefitters must be able to follow building plans or blueprints and instructions from supervisors, lay out the job, and work efficiently with the materials and tools of the trade. The following example illustrates how plumbers install piping in a house. Construction plumbers work from blueprints or drawings that show the planned location of pipes, plumbing fixtures, and appliances. They lay out the job to fit the piping into the structure of the house with the least waste of material and within the confines of the structure. They measure and mark areas where pipes will be installed and connected. They check for obstructions, such as electrical wiring, and, if neces sary, plan the pipe installation around the problem. Sometimes they have to cut holes in walls, ceilings, and floors. For some systems, they may have to hang steel supports from ceilings to hold the pipe in place. To assemble the system, plumbers cut and bend lengths of pipe using saws, pipe cutters, and pipe-bending machines. They connect lengths of pipe with fittings; the method depends on the type of pipe used. For copper pipe, plumbers slide fittings over the end of the pipe and solder the fitting in place with a torch. For plastic pipe, plumbers connect the sections and fittings with adhesives. After the piping is in place, plumbers install the fixtures and appli ances and connect the system to the outside water and sewer lines. Using pressure gauges, they check the system to insure that the plumb ing works properly. Working Conditions Physical stamina is required for plumbing and pipefitting work because these workers frequently must lift heavy pipes, stand for long periods, and sometimes work in uncomfortable or cramped positions. They also may have to work outdoors in inclement weather. They can be injured by falls from ladders, cuts from sharp tools, and bums from hot pipes or from soldering equipment. Plumbers and pipefitters engaged in construction generally work a https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis pr-v Av * e: 1 Plumbers cut and bend lengths of pipe before assembling the system. standard 40-hour week; those involved in maintaining pipe systems, including those who provide maintenance services under contract, may have to work evening or weekend shifts, as well as be on call. These maintenance workers may spend quite a bit of time traveling to and from work sites. Employment Plumbers and pipefitters held about 396,000 jobs in 1988. About twothirds worked for mechanical and plumbing contractors engaged in new construction, repair, modernization, or maintenance work. Others did maintenance work for a variety of industrial, commercial, and government employers. For example, pipefitters were employed as maintenance personnel in the petroleum and chemical industries, where manufacturing operations require the moving of liquids and gases through pipes. One of every five plumbers and pipefitters is selfemployed. Jobs for plumbers and pipefitters are distributed across the country in about the same proportion as the general population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Virtually all plumbers undergo some type of apprenticeship training. Some are administered by local union-management committees com prising members of the United Association of Journeymen and Appren tices of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry of the United States and Canada, the Mechanical Contractors Association of America, Inc., the National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors, or the National Fire Sprinkler Association, Inc. Nonunion apprenticeship programs are administered by local chap ters of the Associated Builders and Contractors, the National Associa tion of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors, and the National Asso ciation of Home Builders, Home Builders Institute. Apprenticeships consist of 4 years on-the-job training, in addition to at least 144 hours annually of related classroom instruction. Classroom subjects include drafting and blueprint reading, mathematics, applied physics and chemistry, safety, and local plumbing codes and regula tions. On the job, apprentices first learn basic skills such as identifying grades and types of pipe, the use of the tools of the trade, and the safe unloading of materials. As apprentices gain experience, they learn how to work with various types of pipe and to install different piping systems and plumbing fixtures. Apprenticeship gives trainees a thor 378 Occupational Outlook Handbook ough knowledge of all aspects of the trade. Although most plumbers are trained through appenticeship, some still learn their skills infor mally on the job. Applicants for union or nonunion apprentice jobs must be at least 16 years old and in good physical condition. Apprenticeship commit tees may require applicants to have a high school diploma or its equivalent. Armed Forces training in plumbing and pipefitting is con sidered very good preparation. In fact, persons with this background may be given credit for previous experience when entering a civilian apprenticeship program. Secondary or postsecondary courses in shop, plumbing, general mathematics, drafting, blueprint reading, and phys ics also are good preparation. Although there are no uniform national licensing requirements, most communities require plumbers to be licensed. Licensing requirements vary from area to area, but most localities require workers to pass an examination that tests their knowledge of the trade and of local plumb ing codes. Some plumbers and pipefitters may become supervisors for mechan ical and plumbing contractors. Others go into business for themselves. Job Outlook Employment of plumbers and pipefitters is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 in response to anticipated growth in residential, industrial, and commercial con struction. Building renovation and maintenance of powerplants, water and wastewater treatment plants, pipelines, office buildings, factories, and other projects that have large pipe systems, as well as maintenance of existing residential systems, also are expected to spur the demand for these workers. Traditionally, many organizations with pipe systems have employed their own plumbers and pipefitters to maintain their equipment and keep everything running smoothly. In order to reduce their labor costs, a growing number of these firms are relying on workers provided, under service contracts, by plumbing and pipefitting contractors. If this trend continues, employment of plumbers and pipefitters is expected to grow more rapidly in contracting firms than in other types of firms. Because of the temporary nature of construction projects, plumbers and pipefitters may experience short bouts of unemployment when the project on which they are working ends. Because construction activity varies from area to area, job openings, as well as apprenticeship opportunities, fluctuate with local economic conditions. Consequently, some parts of the country may experience an oversupply of these workers while others may have a shortage. Employment of these workers generally is less sensitive to changes in economic conditions than in some of the other construction trades. Maintenance and rehabilitation of existing piping systems provide jobs for many plumbers and pipefitters even when construction activity declines. In addition to jobs created by increased demand for plumbers and pipefitters, many openings will occur each year from the need to replace experienced workers who leave the occupation. Although relatively few plumbers and pipefitters transfer to other occupations— reflecting their lengthy investment in training and the relatively high wages and benefits in this trade—the number of retirements is expected to rise dramatically as more and more plumbers and pipefitters reach retirement age. Workers under 25 years of age have traditionally filled most apprenticeship slots. This pool of young workers is expected to shrink through the year 2000. If employers and unions aren’t successful in attracting more applicants to training programs, serious shortages of qualified plumbers and pipefitters could develop. Earnings Median weekly earnings for plumbers and pipefitters who are not selfemployed were $461 in 1988. Most earned between $318 and $609 weekly. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $248; the highest 10 percent earned more than $787. In 1988, hourly wage rates for maintenance pipefitters in metropoli tan areas were about $15.48. In comparison, the average wage for all nonsupervisory and production workers in private industry, except https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis farming, was $9.29. In general, wage rates tend to be higher in the West than in the Northeast and South. Plumbers and pipefitters enjoy a variety of employer-provided bene fits. Although benefits for unionized plumbers usually are more gener ous, most plumbers receive health insurance and some type of pension plan. Many employers also provide training opportunities for experi enced plumbers to improve their skills. Apprentices usually begin at about 50 percent of the wage rate paid to experienced plumbers or pipefitters. This increases periodically as they improve their skills. After an initial waiting period, apprentices receive the same benefits as experienced plumbers and pipefitters. Many plumbers and pipefitters are members of the United Associa tion of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers install and repair mechanical systems in buildings are boilermakers, stationary engineers, electri cians, elevator installers, heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics, industrial machinery repairers, millwrights, and sheetmetal workers. Sources of Additional Information For information about apprenticeships or work opportunities in plumb ing and pipefitting, contact local plumbing, heating, and air-condition ing contractors; a local chapter of the Mechanical Contractors Associa tion; a local of the union mentioned above; a local joint unionmanagement apprenticeship committee; the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency; or the National Association of Home Builders, Home Builders Institute, 15th and M Sts. NW., Washington, DC 20005. For general information about the work of plumbers, pipefitters, and sprinklerfitters, contact: •-National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors, P.O. Box 6808, Falls Church, VA 22046. •-Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. •-National Fire Sprinkler Association, P.O. Box 1000, Patterson, NY 12563. •-Mechanical Contractors Association of America, 5410 Grosvenor Lane, Suite 120, Bethesda, MD 20814. Roofers (D.O.T. 866.381-010, -014, and .684-010) Nature of the Work A leaky roof can damage ceilings, walls, and furnishings. To keep out water, roofers repair and install roofs of tar or asphalt and gravel, rubber, thermoplastic, and metal; and shingles made of slate, asphalt, fiberglass, wood, or tile. Repair and reroofing—replacing old roofs on existing buildings—provide many work opportunities for these workers. Roofers also may waterproof foundation walls and floors. There are two types of roofs, flat and pitched (slanted). Most com mercial, industrial, and apartment buildings have flat or slightly slop ing roofs. Most houses have pitched roofs. Some roofers work with both types; others specialize. Most flat roofs are covered with several layers of materials. Roofers first put a layer of insulation on the roof deck. They then spread a coat of molten bitumen (a tar-like substance) over the insulation. Next, they install partially overlapping layers of roofing felt (fabric saturated in bitumen) over the insulation surface and use a mop to spread hot bitumen over and under it. This seals the seams and makes the surface watertight. Roofers repeat these steps to build up the desired number of layers (called plies). The top layer is either glazed to make a smooth finish, or has gravel embedded in the hot bitumen for a rough surface. Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations An increasing number of flat roofs are covered with a single-ply membrane of waterproof rubber or thermoplastic compounds. Roofers roll these sheets over the roofs insulation and seal the seams. Adhe sive, mechanical fasteners, or stone ballast hold the sheets in place. The building must be of sufficient strength to hold the ballast. Most residential roofs are covered with shingles. To apply shingles, roofers first lay, cut, and tack 3-foot strips of roofing felt lengthwise over the entire roof. Then, starting from the bottom edge, they nail overlapping rows of shingles to the roof. Workers measure and cut the felt and shingles to fit intersecting roofs, and to fit around vent pipes and chimneys. Wherever two roof surfaces intersect or shingles reach a vent pipe or chimney, roofers cement or nail flashing (strips of metal or shingle) over the joints to make them watertight. Finally, roofers cover exposed nailheads with cement to prevent water leakage. Some roofers also waterproof and dampproof masonry and concrete walls and floors. To prepare surfaces for waterproofing, they hammer and chisel away rough spots or remove them with a rubbing brick before applying a coat of liquid waterproofing compound. They also may paint or spray surfaces with a waterproofing material or attach waterproofing membrane to surfaces. When dampproofing, they usu ally spray a bitumen-based coating on interior or exterior surfaces. Working Conditions Roofers’ work is strenuous. It involves heavy lifting, as well as climb ing, bending, and kneeling. Roofers risk injuries from slips or falls from scaffolds, ladders, or roofs, and burns from hot bitumen. In fact, of all construction industries, the roofing industry has one of the highest accident rates. Roofers work outdoors in all types of weather, particularly when making repairs. Roofs are extremely hot during the summer. Employment Roofers held about 123,000 jobs in 1988. Most roofers work for roofing contractors. Three of every ten roofers are self-employed. Many self-employed roofers specialize in residential work. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most roofers acquire their skills informally by working as helpers for roofers. They start by carrying equipment and material and erecting scaffolds and hoists. Within 2 or 3 months, they are taught to measure, '■^"prr tjt 379 cut, and fit roofing materials and then to lay asphalt or fiberglass shingles. It can take 5 years or more to get experience installing all types of roofing materials, because some materials are not used frequently. Some roofers train through 3-year apprenticeship programs adminis tered by local union-management committees. The apprenticeship program generally consists of a minimum of 1,400 hours of on-thejob training annually, plus 144 hours of classroom instruction a year in subjects such as tools and their use, arithmetic, and safety. On-thejob training for apprentices is similar to that for helpers, except that the apprenticeship program is more structured. Apprentices also learn to dampproof and waterproof walls. Good physical condition and good balance are essential. A high school education or its equivalent is helpful, as are courses in mechani cal drawing and basic mathematics. Most apprentices are at least 18 years old. Roofers may advance to supervisor or estimator for a roofing con tractor or become contractors themselves. Job Outlook Employment of roofers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Roofs deteriorate faster than most other parts of buildings and periodically need to be repaired or replaced. About 70 percent of roofing work is repair and reroofing, a higher proportion than in most other construction work. The stock of existing buildings is expected to grow substantially over the period, and therefore more roofers will be needed for repair and reroofing. Because turnover is high, the need to replace experienced roofers who leave the occupation will account for most job openings. Jobs should be easiest to find during spring and summer, when most roofing is done. Earnings Median weekly earnings for roofers working full time were about $312 a week in 1988. One-half earned between $245 and $421 a week. The top 10 percent earned more than $581 weekly and the lowest 10 percent, less than $196. Earnings for roofers are reduced on occasion because poor weather often limits the time they can work. Some roofers are members of the United Union of Roofers, Waterproofers & Allied Workers. Related Occupations Roofers use shingles, bitumen and gravel, single-ply plastic or rubber sheets, or other materials to waterproof building surfaces. Workers in other occupations who cover surfaces with special materials for protection and decoration include carpenters, concrete masons, drywall applicators, floor covering installers, plasterers, terrazzo workers, and tilesetters. Sources of Additional Information For information about roofing apprenticeships or work opportunities in this trade, contact local roofing contractors; a local of the union previously mentioned; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For information about the work of roofers, contact; w-National Roofing Contractors Association, 6250 River Rd., Rosemont, 1L 60018. wUnited Union of Roofers, Waterproofers & Allied Workers, 1125 17th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Roustabouts (D.O.T. 869.684-046 and 939.687-018) Many flat roofs are covered with a single-ply membrane of waterproof rubber or plastic. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Much of the routine physical labor and maintenance in and around oil fields and pipelines is performed by roustabouts. They dig ditches or 380 Occupational Outlook Handbook trenches for foundations or for drainage, load and unload trucks and boats, mix concrete, paint equipment, cut down trees and brush, and connect pipes and hydraulic hoses using handtools. They also may assemble and perform minor repairs on oil field machinery and equip ment—such as pumps, boilers, valves, and steam engines. With in creasing mechanization in the oil industry in recent years, roustabouts must learn to operate new equipment such as motorized lifts, power tools, electronic testers, and hand-held computers for reading tanks. With such laborsaving equipment, roustabouts have time to assume more maintenance responsibilities. Most roustabouts work with crews around existing oil wells. Others work for companies engaged in drilling wells, almost all of which is done by specialized companies known as drilling contractors. Roustabouts frequently assist skilled workers such as welders, elec tricians, and mechanics. They generally work under the supervision of a maintenance superintendent. Working Conditions Working outdoors in all kinds of weather, roustabouts on offshore rigs and platforms can experience strong ocean currents, tides, and storms. Because roustabouts work around heavy materials and equipment such as drill rigs and cranes, their work is fairly strenuous and requires frequent bending, stooping, climbing, and heavy lifting. They also are subject to falls from rigs or derricks and other platforms, injuries from falling objects, cuts and abrasions from various tools and equipment, and sore or strained muscles from heavy lifting. Those who work on offshore drilling rigs generally work 7 days a week, 12 hours a day, and then have 7 days off. They live on the Roustabouts perform a wide variety of laborer and maintenance duties. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis drilling platform for a week at a time and return to shore by helicopter or crewboat. In comparison, those who work onshore in oil production operations generally work regular 5-day, 40-hour weeks. Many drilling operations continue 24 hours a day until oil is discovered or the location is abandoned as a dry hole. This requires three 8-hour shifts or “tours,” 7 days a week. Roustabouts working with drilling crews may expect to move from place to place since their work in a particular field may be completed in a few weeks or months. Those who work on production wells usually remain in the same location for long periods. Employment Roustabouts held about 39,000 jobs in 1988. Over 70 percent of all jobs were in the oil and gas field services industry. The remaining jobs were in the crude petroleum and natural gas industry. Although drilling for oil and gas is done in a large number of States, nearly 90 percent of all workers are employed in eight States. Texas leads in the number of oil field jobs, followed by Louisiana, Oklahoma, California, Colo rado, Wyoming, Alaska, and New Mexico. Most jobs are full-time, permanent positions. However, some roust abouts are temporary workers, such as students during the summer. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement People with little or no formal training or work experience can get jobs as roustabouts. However, with extremely keen competition for jobs in recent years, an increasing proportion of entrants to this occupa tion have previous work experience as a roustabout or a 2-year degree in petroleum technology—providing knowledge of oil field operations and familiarity with automated equipment. Applicants must be physically fit and able to pass a physical exami nation. Employers seek candidates who have mechanical ability, agil ity, coordination, and good eyesight. Some companies also administer aptitude tests to prospective employees. Roustabouts usually are hired in the field by the maintenance super intendent or by a local company representative. Companies generally hire workers who live near the work site. Employers are often reluctant to invest in training because of the relatively high turnover rate among roustabouts. However, some em ployees are offered an opportunity to take basic self-study courses offered by the American Petroleum Institute or courses offered by various junior colleges. In some companies, roustabouts participate in educational assistance programs that pay for job-related courses taken on the employee’s own time. New hirees without postsecondary training or previous work experi ence learn through on-the-job training under the supervision of a more skilled worker. Roustabouts start by performing basic laborer tasks such as unloading trucks and digging trenches. As they gain experi ence, they progress to more complex tasks such as fixing a motor or repairing a pump. During their training, they learn about the safety and maintenance of equipment and machinery and general oil field operations. Roustabouts on maintenance and operation crews can advance to jobs as switcher, gauger, pumper, lease operator, or, for those who demonstrate leadership qualities, to chief operator or maintenance superintendent. Those on drilling crews may advance to roughneck, floor hand, or rotary helper in 3 to 6 months. (Roughnecks guide pipe sections to and from oil well openings and help operate drilling machinery.) Roughnecks and other crew members may advance to derrick operator and, after several years, to driller. A driller can advance to tool pusher in charge of one or more drilling rigs. Roustabouts who are graduates of petroleum technology pro grams—generally 2 years long—can advance to engineering techni cian or related jobs. Some attend company schools where they receive specialized training in electricity, welding, or other subjects, and later advance to various craft jobs—electrician, welder, or pipefitter, for example. During periods of rapid growth in the oil industry, advancement opportunities are plentiful for capable workers. Because new jobs have Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations been scarce in recent years, however, advancement opportunities have been limited. Job Outlook Job opportunities for roustabouts are expected to be limited. Employ ment of roustabouts is expected to show little or no change through the year 2000 as a result of reduced exploration and production in the domestic oil industry and the increasing automation of oil field operations. Replacement needs will account for virtually all job openings in this occupation. Characteristic of entry level occupations, turnover among roustabouts is relatively high, particularly for those workers involved in offshore drilling. Some roustabouts find the work too strenuous or dirty and leave the occupation. Many people take roustabout jobs to earn money for a specific purpose—for example, a college education— and quit after a short time. Still others stay only long enough to acquire the minimum skills to advance into more highly skilled jobs. During the middle to late 1970’s, a worldwide shortage of oil gave U.S. firms the incentive to increase the supply of oil and resulted in massive hirings of new workers. However, more recent years have been characterized by a worldwide surplus of oil. Major oil finds around the world and increased production by key oil producers such as the Middle Eastern and North Sea nations have increased the supply of oil while conservation of oil by industry and the public has reduced the demand for oil. This surplus has resulted in lower oil prices and a reduced incentive for exploration and drilling. Many “stripper” oil wells—labor-intensive operations that employ many roustabouts— have been forced to close down, resulting in layoffs of some roust abouts. In an effort to cut costs, oil companies have streamlined operations and maintained their production levels with fewer workers. Unless domestic oil prices rise, few, if any, new roustabout jobs are expected in the foreseeable future, and employers can continue to be selective in hiring. Job opportunities will be best for persons with previous experience as a roustabout or formal training in petroleum technology. Job opportunities are expected to be better on offshore rigs than in onshore activities. Employment of roustabouts is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy, particularly to the level of activity in the oil industry. During a slowdown in activity, roustabouts are subject to layoffs. Earnings In 1988, earnings for roustabouts averaged $11.14 an hour. Roust abouts in the oil and gas field industry averaged $12.44 an hour. Those working offshore had an hourly rate of $13.41, while onshore workers earned $11.69 an hour. Roustabouts working in the contract drilling industry averaged $9.21; those working onshore earned $9.87 and offshore workers earned $9.06. Average earnings for roustabouts vary by area—ranging from $9.56 in the Middle Atlantic States to $11.88 in the Western Mountain States. Most roustabouts are not members of unions. Only about one-fourth of all firms employing field operation workers and less than 5 percent of firms employing contract drilling workers were covered by union contracts. Workers in establishments with collective bargaining agree ments were represented either by independent unions such as the Associated Petroleum Employees Union or by the Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers International Union, an AFL-CIO affiliate. Fringe benefits for roustabouts tend to be similar to those offered most workers—vacation and sick leave, health and life insurance, and retirement plans. Some firms also pay for job-related training and provide uniforms and tools. Related Occupations Roustabouts assist skilled oil field workers. Other laborers who assist skilled workers include blacksmith helper, construction laborer, dockhand, and material handler. Sources of Additional Information Information on job opportunities as a roustabout is available from local offices of the State employment service or oil companies and drilling https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 381 contractors. The names and addresses of oil companies are listed in either the U.S.A. Oil Industry Directory or the Time Oil and Gas Directory. Sheet-Metal Workers (D.O.T. 804.281-010 and -014) Nature of the Work Sheet-metal workers make, install, and maintain air-conditioning, heating, ventilation, and pollution control duct systems; roofs; siding; rain gutters and downspouts; skylights; restaurant equipment; outdoor signs; and many other building parts and products made from metal sheets. They may also work with fiberglass and plastic materials. Although some workers specialize in fabrication, installation, or main tenance, most do all three jobs. (This statement does not include workers employed in the mass production of sheet-metal products.) Sheet-metal workers usually fabricate their products at a shop away from the construction site. They first study blueprints to determine the kind and quantity of materials they will need. They then measure, cut, bend, shape, and fasten pieces of sheet metal to make duct work, counter tops, and other custom products. In an increasing number of shops, sheet-metal workers use computerized metalworking equip ment. This enables them to experiment with different layouts and to select the one that results in the least waste of material. They cut or form the parts with computer-controlled saws, shears, and presses. In some shops, workers cut parts with computer-controlled lasers. In shops without computerized equipment and for products that cannot be made on such equipment, sheet-metal workers use hand calculators to make the required calculations and use tapes, rulers, and other measuring devices for layout work. They then cut or stamp the parts on machine tools. Before assembling the pieces, sheet-metal workers check each part for accuracy and, if necessary, finish it by using hand, rotary, or squaring shears and hacksaws. After the parts have been inspected, workers fasten the seams and joints together with welds, bolts, cement, rivets, solder, specially formed sheet-metal drive clips, or other con necting devices. They then take the parts to the construction site where they further assemble the pieces as they install them. These workers install finished ducts, pipes, and tubes by joining them end to end and hanging them with metal hangers secured to a ceiling or a wall. They also use shears, hammers, punches, and drills to make parts by hand at the worksite and to alter parts made in the shop. Some jobs are done completely at the job site. When installing a roof, for example, sheet-metal workers measure and cut the roofing panels that are needed to complete the job. They secure the first panel in place and interlock and fasten the grooved edge of the next panel into the grooved edge of the first. Then they nail or weld the free edge of the panel to the structure. This two-step process is repeated for each additional panel. Finally, they fasten machine-made molding at joints, along comers, and around windows and doors for a neat, finished effect. In addition to installation, some sheet-metal workers specialize in testing, balancing, adjusting, and servicing existing air-conditioning and ventilation systems to make sure they are functioning properly and to improve their energy efficiency. Sheet-metal workers may also perform safe removal of asbestos and toxic materials. Working Conditions Sheet-metal workers usually work a 40-hour week. Those who fabri cate sheet-metal products work in shops that are well lighted and well ventilated. They stand for long periods and may have to lift heavy materials and finished pieces. Sheet-metal workers must follow safety practices because working around high-speed machines can be danger ous. They may be subject to cuts from sharp metal, bums from soldering and welding, and falls from ladders and scaffolds. They 382 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sheet-metal workers do considerable bending and squatting in close quarters. often wear safety glasses and must not wear jewelry or loose-fitting clothing that could easily get caught in a machine. Those doing installation work do considerable bending, lifting, standing, climbing, and squatting, sometimes in close quarters or in awkward positions. Although installing duct systems and kitchen equipment is done indoors, the installation of siding, roofs, and gutters involves much outdoor work, requiring sheet-metal workers to work in all kinds of weather. Employment Sheet-metal workers held about 97,000 wage and salary jobs in the construction industry in 1988. Three of every four worked for plumb ing, heating, and air-conditioning contractors; one of every five worked for roofing and sheet-metal contractors; and the rest worked for general contractors engaged in residential and commercial building. Unlike many other construction trades, very few sheet-metal workers are selfemployed. Jobs for sheet-metal workers are distributed throughout the country in about the same proportion as the total population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Sheet-metal contractors consider apprenticeship the best way to learn this trade. The apprenticeship program consists of 4 or 5 years of onthe-job training and a minimum of 144 hours per year of classroom instruction. It provides comprehensive instruction in both sheet-metal fabrication and installation. The programs are administered by joint committees of locals of the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Associ ation and local chapters of the Sheet Metal and Air-Conditioning Contractors’ National Association, or by local chapters of the Associ ated Builders and Contractors. On the job, apprentices learn the basics of pattern layout and how to cut, bend, fabricate, and install sheet metal. They begin with basic ductwork and gradually advance to more difficult jobs, such as making more complex ducts, fittings, and decorative pieces. They also use materials such as fiberglass, plastics, and acoustical tile, which some times are substituted for metal. In the classroom, apprentices learn drafting, blueprint reading, trigo nometry and geometry applicable to layout work, the use of computer ized equipment, welding, and the principles of heating, air-condition ing, and ventilating systems. Safety is stressed throughout the program. In addition, apprentices learn the relationship between sheetmetal work and other construction work. A relatively small number of persons pick up the trade informally, usually by working as helpers to experienced sheet-metal workers. Most begin by carrying metal and cleaning up debris in a metal shop while they learn about materials and tools and their uses. Later, they learn to operate machines that bend or cut metal. In time, helpers go out on the job site to learn installation. Those who acquire their skills https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis this way often take vocational school courses in mathematics or sheetmetal fabrication to supplement their work experience. Helpers usually must pass an exam to be promoted to the journeyman level. Applicants for jobs as apprentices or helpers should be in good physical condition and have mechanical and mathematical aptitude. Good eye-hand coordination, spatial and form perception, and manual dexterity are also important. Local apprenticeship committees require a high school education or its equivalent. Courses in trigonometry, geometry, mechanical drawing, and shop provide a helpful background for learning the trade. Experienced sheet-metal workers often take additional training to improve existing skills or to acquire new ones. This training is often provided by the union or by their employer. Sheet-metal workers may advance to supervisory jobs. Some take additional training in welding and do more specialized work. Others go into the contracting business for themselves. Because a sheet-metal contractor must have a shop with equipment to fabricate products, this type of contracting business is more expensive to start than other types of construction contracting. Job Outlook Employment of sheet-metal workers in construction is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Demand for sheet-metal installation should increase as more commercial, industrial, and residential structures are built. Growing demand for more energy-efficient air-conditioning, heating, and ventilation systems in existing buildings and other types of renova tion and maintenance work also should boost employment opportuni ties. In addition, the greater use of decorative sheet-metal products and increased architectural restoration are expected to add to the demand for sheet-metal workers. Despite this growth in demand, most job openings will arise as experienced workers retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. Job prospects should be favorable over the long run, although workers may experience periods of unemployment when construction projects end and when economic conditions reduce the amount of construction activity. Because local economic conditions can vary so widely, there can be shortages of experienced workers in some areas and an oversupply in other parts of the country. Nevertheless, employ ment of sheet-metal workers is less sensitive to declines in new con struction than employment of some other construction workers, such as carpenters. Maintenance of existing equipment—which is less af fected by economic fluctuations than new construction—makes up a large part of the work done by sheet-metal workers. Installation of new air-conditioning and heating systems in existing buildings also continues during construction slumps as individuals and businesses seek more energy-efficient equipment to cut utility bills. Because a large proportion of sheet-metal installation and maintenance is done indoors, these workers usually lose less work time due to bad weather than other construction workers. Apprenticeship opportunities also should be plentiful as unions and employers strive to meet the rising demand for skilled workers. How ever, the availability of training slots fluctuates with economic condi tions, so the number of openings may vary from year to year and by geographic area. Earnings According to data from the Sheet Metal Workers National Training Fund, union sheet-metal workers’ average earnings were $18.82 per hour in 1987. Apprentices generally start at about 40 percent of the rate paid to experienced workers. Throughout the course of the appren ticeship program, they receive periodic increases as they acquire the skills of the trade. In addition to their hourly wage, sheet-metal workers usually receive fringe benefits supplied by either the local union or their employer. Typical benefits include health and life insurance, a pension plan, and training opportunities. In addition, union workers in some areas receive supplemental wages from the union when they are on layoff or short ened workweeks. Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations A large proportion of sheet-metal workers are members of the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association. Related Occupations To fabricate and install sheet-metal products, sheet-metal workers combine metalworking skills and knowledge of construction materials and techniques. Other occupations in which workers lay out and fabricate metal products include layout workers, machinists, metal fabricators, metal patternmakers, shipfitters, and tool and die makers. Construction occupations requiring similar skills and knowledge in clude heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration installers and gla ziers. Sources of Additional Information For more information about apprenticeships or other work opportuni ties, contact local sheet-metal contractors or heating, refrigeration, and air-conditioning contractors; a local of the union mentioned above; a local of the Sheet-Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’ National Association; a local joint union-management apprenticeship commit tee; or the nearest office of the State employment service or apprentice ship agency. For general information about sheet-metal workers, contact: •■-National Training Fund for the Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Industry, Edward F. Carlough Plaza, 601 N. Fairfax St., Suite 240, Alexandria, VA 22314. •■-Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. •■-The Sheet-Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’ National Association, 8224 Old Courthouse Rd., Vienna, VA 22180. Structural and Reinforcing Ironworkers (D.O.T. 801.361-014, -018, -022, .381-010, .684-026, and 809.381-010) Nature of the Work Materials made from iron and steel are used extensively in the construc tion of highways, bridges, power transmission towers, and many large buildings. These structures have frames made of steel columns, beams, and girders. In addition, reinforced concrete—concrete containing steel bars or wire fabric—is an important material in buildings, brid ges, and other structures. The steel gives the concrete additional strength. Metal stairways, catwalks, floor gratings, ladders, and win dow frames, as well as lampposts, railings, fences, and decorative ironwork are used to make these structures more functional and attrac tive. Structural and reinforcing ironworkers fabricate, assemble, and install these products. These workers also repair, renovate, and main tain older buildings and structures such as steel mills, utility plants, automobile factories, highways, and bridges. Before construction can begin, ironworkers must erect the steel frames and assemble the cranes and derricks that move structural steel, reinforcing bars, buckets of concrete, lumber, and other materials and equipment around the construction site. This equipment arrives at the construction site in sections. There it is lifted into position by a mobile crane. Ironworkers then connect the sections and set up the cables that do the hoisting. Once this job has been completed, ironworkers at the construction site begin to connect steel columns, beams, and girders according to blueprints and instructions from supervisors. Structural steel, reinforc ing rods, and ornamental iron generally are delivered to the construc tion site ready for assembly—cut to the proper size with holes drilled for bolts and numbered for assembly. This work is done by ironworkers in fabricating shops located away from the construction site. There they lay out the raw steel received from a steel mill and cut, bend, drill, bolt, and weld each piece according to the specifications for that https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 383 particular job. Ironworkers at the construction site unload and stack the fabricated steel so it can be hoisted easily when needed. To hoist the steel, ironworkers attach cables from the crane or derrick. One worker directs the hoist operator with hand signals. Another worker holds a rope attached to the steel to prevent it from swinging. The steel is hoisted into place in the framework, where several workers using handtools position it with connecting bars and jacks. Workers use driftpins or the handle of a spud wrench—a long wrench with a pointed handle—to align the holes in the steel with the holes in the framework. Then they bolt the piece in place temporarily, check vertical and horizontal alignment with plumb bobs, laser equip ment, or levels and then bolt or weld it permanently in place. Reinforcing ironworkers set the bars in the forms that hold concrete, following blueprints that show the location, size, and number of reinforcing bars. They fasten the bars together by tying wire around them with pliers. When reinforcing floors, workers place blocks or metal chairs under the reinforcing bars to hold them off the deck. Although these materials usually arrive ready to use, ironworkers may occasionally have to cut the bars with metal shears or acetylene torches, bend them by hand or machine, or weld them with arc-welding equip ment. Some concrete is reinforced with welded wire fabric. Workers cut and fit the fabric and, while a concrete crew places the concrete, ironworkers use hooked rods to position it properly in the concrete. Ornamental ironwork and related pieces are installed after the exte rior of the building has been completed. As the pieces are hoisted into position, ironworkers bring them into position, make sure they fit correctly, and bolt, braze, or weld them for a secure fit. They also erect metal tanks used to store petroleum, water, or other fluids and assemble prefabricated metal buildings according to plans or specifica tions. Working Conditions Structural and reinforcing ironworkers usually work outside in all kinds of weather. However, those who work at great heights do not work when it is wet, icy, or extremely windy. Ironworkers may be injured in falls. However, they use safety devices such as safety belts, scaffolding, and nets to reduce the risk of injuries. Employment Structural and reinforcing ironworkers held about 91,000 jobs in 1988. Almost all of these workers were employed in the construction indus try. About 5 of every 10 worked for structural steel erection contrac tors; most of the remainder worked for a variety of contractors special izing in the construction of homes, factories, commercial buildings, churches, schools, bridges and tunnels, and water, sewer, communica tions, and power lines. A few worked for government agencies, utilit ies, and manufacturing firms that do some of their own construction work. Very few are self-employed. m'ir <*!&■ mi Structural and reinforcing ironworkers usually work outside in all kinds of weather. 384 Occupational Outlook Handbook Ironworkers are employed in all parts of the country, but most work in metropolitan areas, where most commercial and industrial construction takes place. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers recommend apprenticeship as the best way to learn this trade. Apprenticeship programs are usually administered by joint union-management committees made up of representatives of local unions of the International Association of Bridge, Structural and Orna mental Ironworkers and local chapters of contractors’ associations. The apprenticeship consists of 3 years of on-the-job training and a minimum of 144 hours a year of classroom instruction. In the classroom, apprentices study blueprint reading, mathematics for layout work, the basics of structural erecting, rigging, reinforcing, welding and burning, ornamental assembling, and the care and safe use of tools and materials. On the job, apprentices work in all aspects of the trade, such as unloading and storing materials at the job site, rigging materials for movement by crane or derrick, connecting struc tural steel, and welding. Some ironworkers learn informally on the job. These workers gener ally do not receive classroom training, although some large contractors have extensive training programs. They usually begin by assisting experienced ironworkers by doing simple jobs like carrying various materials. With experience, they perform more difficult tasks like cutting and fitting different parts. Learning through work experience alone may not provide training as complete as an apprenticeship pro gram, however, and generally takes longer. Ironworkers generally must be at least 18 years old. A high school diploma may be preferred by employers and may be required by some local apprenticeship committees. Courses in general mathematics, mechanical drawing, and shop are helpful. Because materials used in ironworking are heavy and bulky, iron workers must be in good physical condition. They also need agility, balance, good eyesight, and spatial perception in order to work at great heights on narrow beams and girders. Ironworkers should not be afraid of heights or suffer from dizziness. Some experienced workers become supervisors. Others may go into the contracting business for themselves. Job Outlook Employment of structural and reinforcing ironworkers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 to meet rising demand for nonresidential buildings, power transmission towers, and highway and bridge construction, rehabilita tion, and maintenance—types of construction that require extensive use of structural steel and reinforced concrete. However, most open ings will result from the need to replace experienced ironworkers who transfer to other fields of work or leave the labor force. The number of retirements is expected to rise significantly as more and more ironworkers reach retirement age. Workers under 25 years of age have traditionally filled most apprenticeship slots. This pool of young workers is expected to shrink through the year 2000. If employers and unions aren’t successful in attracting more applicants to training programs, widespread shortages of qualified ironworkers could de velop. The number ofjob openings fluctuates from year to year as economic conditions and the level of construction activity change. Similarly, job opportunities for ironworkers may vary widely by geographic area. Job openings for ironworkers usually are more abundant during the spring and summer months, when the level of construction activity increases. Earnings Median weekly earnings for ironworkers were about $506 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $377 and $618 weekly. Apprentices usually start at 40 to 60 percent of the wages paid to experienced workers. Earnings for ironworkers may be reduced on occasion be cause work can be limited by bad weather and the short-term nature of construction jobs. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Many workers in this trade are members of the International Associa tion of Bridge, Structural and Ornamental Ironworkers. Related Occupations Structural and reinforcing ironworkers play an essential role in erecting buildings, bridges, highways, powerlines, and other structures. Other workers important in these types of construction are operating engi neers, concrete masons, welders. Sources of Additional Information For more information on apprenticeships or other work opportunities, contact local general contractors; a local of the International Associa tion of Bridge, Structural and Ornamental Ironworkers; a local joint ironworkers’ union-management apprenticeship committee; a local or State chapter of the Associated B uilders and Contractors, or the nearest office of the State employment service or apprenticeship agency. For general information about ironworkers, contact: (•-Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957ESt. NW., Washing ton, DC 20006. (•-International Association of Bridge, Structural and Ornamental Iron Workers (AFL-CIO), 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006. (•-National Erectors Association, 1501 Lee Highway, Arlington, VA 22209. (•-National Association of Reinforcing Steel Contractors, 10382 Main St., Fairfax, VA 22030. Tilesetters (D.O.T. 861.381-054, -058, and .684-018) Nature of the Work In ancient Egypt and Rome, tile was used for mosaics—an art form using small, decorative ceramic squares. Over the years, tile has been a popular building material because it is durable, impervious to water, and easy to clean. It is used today, for instance, in shopping centers, tunnels, lobbies of buildings, restrooms, food preparation areas, and hospitals. Tilesetters, like the ancient artists, apply tile to floors, walls, and ceilings. To set tile, which generally ranges in size from 1 inch to 6 inches square, they use cement or mastic (a very sticky paste). When using cement, tilesetters tack a support of metal mesh to the wall or ceiling to be tiled. They use a trowel to apply a cement plaster, called a scratch coat, onto the metal screen and a small tool, similar to a rake, to scratch the surface of the soft plaster. After the scratch coat has dried, tilesetters apply a rich coat of cement to the back of the tile and place it onto the surface. To set tile in mastic or a cement adhesive (called thin set), tilesetters need a flat, solid surface such as drywall, concrete, plaster, or wood. Many tilesetters are self-employed. Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations They use a tooth-edged trowel to spread mastic on the surface or apply cement adhesive to the back of the tile and then properly position it. Because tile varies in color, shape, and size, workers sometimes prearrange tiles on a dry floor according to a specified design. This allows workers to examine the pattern and make changes. In order to cover all exposed areas, including in comers and around pipes, tubs, and wash basins, tilesetters cut tiles to fit with a machine saw or a special cutting tool. Once the tile is placed, they gently tap the surface with their trowel handle or a small block of wood to seat the tiles evenly. When the cement or mastic has set, tilesetters fill the joints with grout—a very fine cement. They then scrape the surface with a rubberedged device called a squeegee to dress the joints and remove excess grout. Before the grout sets, they finish the joints with a damp sponge for a uniform appearance. Working Conditions Tilesetters generally work indoors. Because most of the structure has been completed, the work area is relatively clean and uncluttered. Much of the workday is spent bending, kneeling, and reaching, activi ties that require endurance but not exceptional strength. To protect their knees, some workers wear kneepads. Although workers are subject to cuts from tools or materials, falls from ladders, and strained muscles, the occupation is not as hazardous as some other construction occupations. Employment Tilesetters held about 26,000 jobs in 1988. Most were employed by tilesetting contractors who work mainly on nonresidential construction projects, such as schools, hospitals, and office buildings. About onefourth of all tilesetters are self-employed, compared to about one-fifth of all construction workers. Tilesetters are employed throughout the country but are found largely in urban areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers recommend completion of a 3-year apprenticeship pro gram, which consists of on-the-job training and related classroom instruction in subjects such as blueprint reading, layout, and basic mathematics. In practice, however, most tilesetters acquire their skills informally by working as helpers to experienced workers. They begin by familiar izing themselves with the tools of the trade. They are taught to mix and apply cement and to apply mastic. Then they learn to cut and install tile, apply grout, and do finishing work. When hiring apprentices or helpers, employers usually prefer high school graduates who have had courses in general mathematics, me https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 385 chanical drawing, and shop. Good physical condition, manual dexter ity, and a good sense of color harmony also are important assets. Skilled tilesetters may become supervisors or estimators or may start their own contracting businesses. Job Outlook Employment of tilesetters is expected to increase faster than the aver age for all occupations through the year 2000. Population and business growth, which results in an increase in construction of shopping malls, hospitals, schools, restaurants, and other structures where tile is used extensively, will stimulate demand for tilesetters. Tile is also more likely to be used in more expensive homes, and construction of these homes is expected to increase. Increasing popularity of tile as a build ing material is also expected to increase the demand for tilesetters. In addition to new jobs created by the growth in demand, many jobs will result from the need to replace tilesetters who retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. Employment of tilesetters, like that of many construction occupa tions, is sensitive to changes in the economy. Workers in this trade can experience periods of unemployment when construction activity is down. Earnings According to the limited information available, hourly rates for jour neyman tilesetters ranged from $11 to $20 in 1989. Apprentices usually start earning 50 percent of journeymen’s wages. Earnings vary greatly by geographic location. They tend to be highest in the North and lowest in the South. The principal union organizing workers in this trade is the Interna tional Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen. Some tilesetters also belong to the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America. Related Occupations Tilesetters use their knowledge of tools and masonry materials along with skill and dexterity to produce attractive, durable surfaces. Other workers with similar abilities include bricklayers, concrete masons, marblesetters, plasterers, stonemasons, and terrazzo workers. Sources of Additional Information For details about apprenticeship or other work opportunities in this trade, contact local tilesetting contractors; locals of the unions pre viously mentioned; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about the work of tilesetters, contact: (•-International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen, International Ma sonry Institute Apprenticeship and Training, 815 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. (•-United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, Tile, Marble, Terrazzo Finishers Division, 101 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001. Production Occupations Assemblers Precision Assemblers (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 463.) < .si Nature of the Work Workers who put together the parts of manufactured articles are called assemblers. In some instances, hundreds of assemblers work on a single product; in others, a single assembler is responsible for each product. Assembly work varies from simple, repetitive jobs that are relatively easy to learn to those requiring great precision and many months of experience and training. It is this latter group that is de scribed in this statement. The work of precision assemblers requires a high degree of accuracy. Workers must be able to interpret detailed specifications and instruc tions and apply independent judgment. Some experienced assemblers work with engineers and technicians, assembling prototypes or test products. Precision assemblers involved in product development must know how to read blueprints and engineering specifications and how to use a variety of tools and precision measuring instruments. Precision assemblers may work on subassemblies or the complete final assembly of finished products or components of products such as electronic equipment, machinery, or aircraft. For example, precision electrical and electronic equipment assemblers put together or modify prototypes or final assemblies of items such as missile control systems, radio and test equipment, computers, machine-tool numerical controls, radar, sonar, telemetering systems, and appliances. Precision electro mechanical equipment assemblers prepare and test equipment or de vices such as dynamometers, ejection seat mechanisms, magnetic drums, and tape drives. Precision machine builders construct, assem ble, or rebuild engines, turbines, office machines, and construction, oil field, rolling mill, textile, woodworking, paper, printing, and food wrapping machinery. Precision aircraft assemblers put together and install parts of airplanes such as wings or landing gear. Precision structural metal fitters align and fit structural metal parts according to blueprints prior to welding or riveting. The manufacturing process is changing. Flexible manufacturing systems, which include the manufacturing applications of robotics, computers, and various sensing technologies, are changing the way goods are made and affecting the jobs of those who make them. As manufacturing firms strive for greater precision and productivity, jobs that can be performed more economically or more accurately by auto mated equipment will be restructured; many of them will disappear. Until recently, relatively few precision assembly jobs have been eliminated by automation. The need for precision, independent judg ment, and knowledge has placed many jobs beyond the capabilities of robots. However, recent advances in robotics and in vision and touch sensing systems and artificial intelligence/expert systems have made automation of many precision assembly jobs a viable alternative. Completely automated assembly lines already exist. Because much precision assembly work is done in difficult-to-reach locations unsuited for robots—inside airplane fuselages or inside gear boxes, for exam ple—replacement of these workers by automated processes will be slower and less comprehensive than replacement of welders and painters. Electrical and electronic machinery and equipment...................... Machinery, except electrical............................................................ Transportation equipment.................................................................. Professional and scientific instruments........................................... Fabricated metal products................................................................. Working Conditions The conditions under which precision assemblers work depend on the manufacturing plant where they are employed. Electronics and watch Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Precision assemblers often are promoted from the ranks of workers in less skilled jobs in the same firm. Sometimes, outside applicants may 386 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sometimes hundreds of assemblers work in one room. assemblers sit at tables in rooms that are clean, well lighted, and free from dust. Assemblers of aircraft and industrial machinery, however, usually come in contact with oil and grease, and their working areas may be quite noisy. They may have to lift and fit heavy objects. Work schedules of assemblers may vary at plants with more than one shift. Workers can accept or reject a certain job on a given shift, usually in order of seniority. Employment Virtually all of the 354,000 precision assembler jobs in 1988 were in plants that manufacture durable goods. About 4 of every 10 jobs involved assembly of electronic and electrical machinery, equipment, and supplies including electrical switches, welding equipment, electric motors, lighting equipment, household appliances, and radios and television sets. More than 1 out of 4 involved assembly of nonelectrical machinery (diesel engines, steam turbine generators, farm tractors, mining and construction machinery, and office machines). The following tabulation lists the industries that provided most wage and salary jobs for precision assemblers in 1988: Percent Total.................................................................................................. 100 38 25 19 12 4 Production Occupations be hired if they possess suitable experience. The ability to do accurate work at a rapid pace is a key job requirement. A high school diploma is helpful but usually is not required. For some precision assembly jobs, applicants may need specialized training. For example, employers may require that applicants for electrical or electronic assembler jobs be technical school graduates or have equivalent military training. Good eyesight, with or without glasses, is required for assemblers who work with small parts. In plants that make electrical and electronic products, which may contain many different colored wires, applicants often are tested for color vision. As precision assemblers become more experienced, they may pro gress to jobs that require more skill and be given more responsibility. Experienced assemblers who have learned many assembly operations and understand the construction of a product may become product repairers. These workers fix assembled articles that inspectors have identified as defective. Assemblers also may advance to inspector or be promoted to supervisor. In some firms, assemblers can become trainees for one of the skilled trades. Those with a background in math, science, and computers amy advance to programmers of complicated production systems. Job Outlook Employment of precision assemblers is expected to decline through the year 2000 as increasing use of automation and “outsourcing”— the practice of moving assembly operations to countries where labor is cheaper—take their toll of assembly jobs in manufacturing. Despite the expected decline in employment, many job openings will occur as workers transfer to another occupation or leave the labor force. The effect of automation on precision assembler employment will depend on how rapidly and extensively new manufacturing technologies are adopted. Certainly, not all precision assemblers can be replaced efficiently by automated processes. Flexible manu facturing systems are expensive, and a large volume of work is required to justify their purchase. They may not be economical in small operations with perhaps only one shift per day. Also, where the assembly parts involved are irregular in size, new technology is only now beginning to make inroads. For example, robot assembly works best where products are designed specifically to be assembled by robots. In addition, manufacturers are seldom willing to invest 387 in product and equipment redesign as long as existing operations are profitable. Although technological change can be expected in a growing number of industries, the impact of automation should be greatest in motor vehicle, electronics, communications, and computer equipment manu facturing industries, where firms are best suited for automation. Given the characteristics of these industries, electrical and electronic assem bly jobs are expected to be more adversely affected than other precision assembler jobs. An alternative to automation for many firms is to outsource their assembly functions to countries where labor is cheaper. Many firms that could not compete in the marketplace have chosen this alternative. If this trend continues, outsourcing of assembly work may well cost more jobs than robots or other automated manufacturing systems. Earnings Earnings information is somewhat limited for precision assemblers. Full-time workers who assemble electrical and electronic equipment had median weekly earnings of $283 in 1988. Most earned between $214 and $379; the lowest 10 percent earned less than $175 a week and the highest 10 percent, over $457. Wage rates for aircraft assemblers working under union contracts ranged from $10.33 to $15.38 an hour in 1988. Beginners earned wages around the lower rate and, after 2 years, typically earned about $14 an hour. Some assemblers are paid incentive or piecework rates, and, therefore, can earn more by working faster. Many assemblers are members of labor unions. These unions include the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; the United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Work ers of America; the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; and the United Steelworkers. Related Occupations Other occupations that involve operating machines and tools and as sembling things are welders, ophthalmic laboratory technicians, and operators of drill presses, laminating machines, and riveting machines. Sources of Additional Information Information about employment opportunities for assemblers is avail able from local offices of the State employment service and from locals of the unions mentioned earlier. Blue-Collar Worker Supervisors (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 463.) Nature of the Work For the millions of workers who assemble manufactured goods, service motor vehicles, lay bricks, load trucks, or perform thousands of other activities, a blue-collar worker supervisor is the boss. These supervi sors ensure that workers, equipment, and materials are used properly and efficiently. They make sure machinery is set up correctly and schedule or perform repairs and maintenance work. Supervisors tell other workers what to do and make sure it is done safely, correctly, and on time. For example, manufacturing supervisors may inspect products to make sure they conform to customer specifications and company standards. Loading supervisors assign workers to load trucks, and check that they are loaded correctly. Supervisors make work schedules and keep production and em ployee records. They plan employees’ activities and make adjustments for absent workers and machine breakdowns. Supervisors teach em https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ployees safe work practices and enforce safety rules and regulations. They also may help workers do their jobs better and train new workers, generally by assigning them to help experienced workers. Blue-collar worker supervisors are often responsible for very expensive and com plex systems or equipment. Many supervisors use computers to schedule workflow in their unit, monitor the quality of their workers’ output, keep track of materials used and update their inventory control system, and perform other supervisory tasks. Blue-collar worker supervisors tell their subordinates about com pany plans and policies; recommend good performers for wage in creases, awards, or promotions; and deal with poor performers by outlining expectations, counseling them in proper methods, issuing warnings, or recommending that they be disciplined. In companies with labor unions, supervisors follow the provisions of labor-manage ment contracts. Supervisors also meet with managers to discuss goals, company operations, and performance. Blue-collar worker supervisors may have other titles, such as firstline supervisors, foremen, or forewomen. In the textile industry, they 388 Occupational Outlook Handbook ployers emphasize the ability to motivate employees, maintain high morale, command respect, communicate effectively, and get along with people. Most supervisors rise through the ranks—that is, they are promoted from jobs where they operated or repaired machinery, worked on an assembly line, or worked at a construction craft. This work experience gives them the advantage of knowing how jobs should be done and what problems may arise. Newly appointed supervisors may take company-sponsored training to help develop supervisory skills. Completion of high school is often the minimum educational re quirement for supervisors. In high-technology industries, such as aero space and electronics, employers might require some college or techni cal school background. Employers generally prefer a background in engineering, mathematics, science, business administration, or indus trial relations. A business or engineering degree may be needed to advance to jobs such as department head or production manager. Supervisors in the construction industry may use the experience and skills they gain to become contractors, while supervisors in factories or repair shops may open their own factory or shop. SSH Wi§\:£. « Experienced workers may be promoted to blue-collar worker supervisor. may be referred to as second hands; on ships, boatswains; in the construction industry, they may be called superintendents or crew chiefs; and in oil drilling, toolpushers or gang pushers. Working Conditions Many blue-collar worker supervisors work in a normal shop environ ment. They may be on their feet much of the time overseeing the work of subordinates and may be subjected to the noise and grime of machinery. Other supervisors, such as those in construction and oil exploration and production, may work outdoors and are subject to all kinds of weather conditions. Supervisors may be on the job before other workers arrive and stay after they leave. Some supervisors work in plants that operate around the clock and may work any one of three shifts as well as on weekends and holidays. In some cases, supervisors work all three shifts on a rotating basis; in others, shift assignments are made on the basis of seniority. Employment Blue-collar worker supervisors held about 1.8 million jobs in 1988. Although they were found in almost all industries, more than 4 in 10 worked in manufacturing—supervising the production of industrial machinery, motor vehicles, appliances, and thousands of other prod ucts. About 1 in 7 worked in the construction industry and 1 in 10 in wholesale and retail trade. Others were in public utilities, repair shops, transportation, and government agencies. Employment is distributed in much the same way as the population, and jobs are located in all cities and towns. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement When choosing supervisors, employers generally look for experience, job knowledge, organizational skills, and leadership qualities. Em https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of blue-collar worker supervisors is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Their number is expected to decline in most manufacturing industries since the number of blue-collar workers, whom they super vise, is expected to decline as technological changes increase the amount that each worker can produce. In addition, more advanced production technology and programs to give workers more autonomy may mean workers assume some of the duties now handled by supervi sors. This would also lower supervisor employment. In construction and most other nonmanufacturing industries, employment of bluecollar worker supervisors, and other blue-collar workers, will increase about as fast as the average for all workers. In addition, many openings will arise from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Because of their skill and seniority, blue-collar worker supervisors are often protected from layoffs during a recession. However, some in the highly cyclical construction industry may be laid off when construction activity declines. Earnings Median weekly earnings for blue-collar worker supervisors were about $525 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $395 and $705. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $290, and the highest 10 percent earned over $895. Most supervisors earn about 20 to 40 percent more than their subordinates. While most blue-collar workers are paid by the hour, most supervisors receive an annual salary. Some supervisors receive extra pay when they work overtime. Related Occupations Other workers with supervisory duties include those who supervise professional, technical, sales, clerical, and service workers. Some of these are retail store or department managers; sales managers, clerical supervisors, bank officers, and head tellers; hotel managers; postmas ters and line supervisors; head cooks; head nurses; and surveyors. Sources of Additional Information Information on management occupations is available from: •-American Management Association, 135 West 50th St., New York, NY 10020. Food Processing Occupations Butchers and Meat, Poultry, and Fish Cutters (D.O.T. 316.681-010, .684-018 and -022; 525.361-010 through .664-010, .684-010 through -058, and .687-010, -066, and -074) Nature of the Work Butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters reduce animal carcasses into small pieces of meat suitable for sale to consumers. In meatpacking plants, butchers slaughter cattle, hogs, goats, and sheep and cut the carcasses into large wholesale cuts such as rounds, loins, ribs, and chucks to facilitate handling, distribution, and marketing. Meat trim mings are used to prepare sausages, luncheon meats, and other fabri cated meat products. Butchers usually work on assembly lines, with each individual responsible for only a few of the many cuts needed to process a carcass. Depending on the type of cut, they may use knives, cleavers, meat saws, bandsaws, and other equipment. In grocery stores and wholesale establishments that supply meat to restaurants and institutional food service facilities, meatcutters sepa rate the wholesale cuts of meat into retail cuts or individual size servings. They cut the meat into steaks and chops using knives and electric saws, shape and tie roasts, and grind beef for sale as hamburger meat. Boneless cuts are prepared using knives, slicers, or power cutters, while bandsaws are required on bone-in pieces. Meatcutters in retail food stores also may weigh, wrap, and label the cuts and arrange them in refrigerated cases for display to customers. They also may prepare special cuts of meat ordered by customers. Poultry cutters slaughter and cut up chickens, turkeys, and other types of poultry. However, these tasks are increasingly being per formed by machines, and some modem poultry processing plants use hand cutters only for tasks, such as de-boning breast meat, that are difficult for machines to perform with precision. Fish cleaners cut, scale, and dress fish in fish processing plants and r 4i- r„ Meatcutters in grocery stores separate wholesale cuts of meat into steaks, roasts, and chops to be sold to customers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis wholesale and retail fish markets. They remove the head, scales, and other inedible portions and cut the fish into steaks or boneless fillets. In markets, they may wait on customers and clean fish to order. Working Conditions Working conditions vary by the type and the size of establishment. In meatpacking plants and larger retail food establishments, butchers and meatcutters work in large meatcutting rooms equipped with power machines and conveyors. In small retail markets, the meatcutter or fish cleaner may work in a space behind the meat counter. Health and safety standards require that work areas be clean and sanitary. Butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters often work in refrigerated rooms to help prevent meat from spoiling. The low temperature, combined with the need to stand for long periods of time, makes the work tiring. Butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters have a greater incidence of injury than most other workers. Besides injuries that occur when insufficient care is used when working with knives, cleavers, and power tools, the repetitive nature of their work makes them susceptible to cumulative trauma injuries, such as carpal tunnel syndrome. Employment Butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters held about 368,000 jobs in 1988. Over four-fifths worked in meatpacking and poultry and fish processing plants and retail grocery stores, while others were employed by meat and fish markets, restaurants, hotels, and wholesale establish ments. The majority of the 258,000 skilled butchers and meatcutters worked in retail grocery stores, while most of the semiskilled meat, poultry, and fish cutters worked in meatpacking and poultry and fish processing plants. Skilled butchers and meatcutters are employed in almost every city and town in the Nation, while semiskilled meat, poultry, and fish cutter jobs are concentrated in communities with food processing plants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters acquire their skills informally on the job or through apprenticeship programs. A few learn their basic skills by attending trade and vocational schools. However, graduates of these schools may need additional on-the-job training and experience to work as butchers and meatcutters. Generally, on-the-job trainees begin by doing minor jobs, such as removing bones. Under the guidance of experienced workers, they learn the proper use of tools and equipment and how to prepare various cuts of meat. After demonstrating skill with tools, they learn to divide quarters into wholesale cuts and wholesale cuts into retail and individual portions. Trainees may learn to roll and tie roasts, prepare sausage, and cure meat. Those in retail food establishments may learn marketing operations such as inventory control, meat buying, and recordkeeping. Meatcutters who learn the trade through apprenticeship programs generally complete 2 years of supervised on-the-job training supple mented by classroom work. At the end of the training period, appren tices must pass a meatcutting test. In some areas, apprentices may become meatcutters without completing the entire training program if they can pass the test. Skills important in meat, poultry, and fish cutting are manual dexter ity, good depth perception, color discrimination, and good eye-hand coordination. Also, strength is needed to lift and move heavy pieces of meat. Meatcutters and fish cleaners who wait on customers must have a pleasant personality, a neat appearance, and the ability to communicate clearly. A health certificate may be required for em ployment. Butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters may progress to supervisory jobs, such as meat or seafood department managers in 389 390 Occupational Outlook Handbook supermarkets. A few become meat or seafood buyers for wholesalers and supermarket chains. Some become grocery store managers or open their own meat or fish markets. In processing plants, butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters can move up to supervisory positions. Job Outlook Employment of butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000, primarily due to slower than average growth for skilled butchers and meatcutters. Semiskilled meat, poultry, and fish cutter jobs should grow about as fast as the average as more meat cutting is done in meatpacking plants and less in grocery stores. Nevertheless, job opportunities should be good because thousands of jobs will be available each year due to the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. As the Nation’s population grows, the demand for meat should in crease. However, an ongoing shift in meat consumption from red meats to poultry should slow the growth of employment of butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters. Poultry and fabricated poultry products are increasingly processed using machines instead of by hand. Automation has progressed rapidly in poultry processing plants because producers have been successful in raising chickens and turkeys of standard sizes suitable for machine processing. The greater variation among cattle and hogs limits automation, and red meats are cut largely by hand. Although automation is expected to increase, processing of red meats should con tinue to require a significant amount of hand cutting. Employment growth of butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters is expected to be concentrated in meatpacking plants through the year 2000. Employment in poultry processing should continue to decline, while limited growth is expected in the employment of meatcutters in grocery stores. At present, most red meat arrives at the grocery store partially cut up. The retail meatcutter performs the final processing— cutting wholesale meat cuts into steaks, chops, and roasts and packag ing them for sale. In the future, more meat will be completely processed and packaged at the meatpacking plant and arrive at the grocery store ready for sale to the consumer. Employment of fish cleaners is expected to increase slowly due to slow growth in the supply of edible fish available for processing. Although the supply of fish raised in ponds and salt water pens through aquaculture is increasing rapidly, most fish continue to be landed by domestic and foreign commercial fishing fleets. Growth in the supply of commercially landed fish is limited by lack of growth in the stock of edible fish in the oceans of the world. Earnings Butchers and meatcutters had median hourly earnings of $7.40 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $5.30 and $11.10 an hour. The highest paid 10 percent earned over $14.10 an hour. Meatcutters employed by retail grocery stores generally earned between $12 and $15 an hour in early 1989, according to a survey of union wage rates for grocery store employees in 25 of the Nation’s largest metropolitan areas. Butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters generally received paid vacation and sick leave, health insurance, and life insurance. Union meatcutters employed by grocery stores also had pension plans. Many butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters are members of the United Food and Commercial Workers International Union. Related Occupations Butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters must be skilled at both hand and machine work and must have some knowledge of processes and techniques involved in handling and preparing food. Other occupa tions in food preparation which require similar skills and knowledge include bakers, chefs and cooks, and food preparation workers. Sources of Additional Information Information about work opportunities can be obtained from local employers or local offices of the State employment service. For infor mation on training and other aspects of the trade, contact: (•-United Food and Commercial Workers International Union, 1775 K St. NW„ Washington, DC 20006. Inspectors, Testers, and Graders (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 463.) Nature of the Work Inspectors, testers, and graders ensure that products meet quality standards. They may compare products to samples or to specifications in blueprints or graphs to make sure they are free from defects or other problems. Virtually all manufactured products, including foods, textiles, clothing, glassware, automotive components and completed vehicles, electronic components, computers, and structural steel, are inspected. Inspectors generally visually check and may also listen to or feel products, or even taste or smell them. They verify dimensions, color, weight, texture, strength, or other physical characteristics of objects and look for imperfections such as cuts, scratches, bubbles, missing pieces, mis weaves, or crooked seams. Many inspectors also use gauges, tools, and test machinery. Inspectors use micrometers, elec tronic equipment, calipers, alignment gauges, and other instruments to check the dimensions of parts and the distances between reference points. Those testing electrical devices may use voltmeters, ammeters, and oscilloscopes to test the insulation, current flow, and resistance. Machinery testers generally check that parts fit and move correctly and are properly lubricated, check the pressure of gases and the level of liquids, test the flow of electricity, and do a test run to check for proper operation. Some jobs involve only a quick visual inspection; others https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis tJ r .. JI ri h: "T ff' Inspectors check products to ensure that they meet quality standards. require a much longer detailed one. Senior inspectors may also set up tests and test equipment. Some inspectors examine materials received from a supplier before sending them on to the production line. Others inspect components, subassemblies, and assemblies or perform a final check on the finished product. Production Occupations Inspectors mark, tag, or note problems. They may reject defective items outright, send them for rework, or, in the case of minor problems, fix them themselves. If the product checks out, they may screw on a nameplate, tag it, stamp a serial number, or certify it in some other way. Inspectors also may calibrate precision instruments as part of the final inspection. Inspectors, testers, and graders record the results of their inspec tions, compute the percentage of defects and other statistical parame ters, prepare inspection and test reports, notify supervisors of prob lems, and may help analyze and correct problems. Working Conditions Working conditions vary from industry to industry. Some inspectors examine similar products for an entire shift; others examine a variety of items. Most remain at one work station, but some travel from place to place to do inspections. Some are on their feet all day; others sit. In some industries, inspectors are exposed to the noise and grime of machinery; in others, they work in a clean, quiet environment. Some may have to lift heavy objects. Some inspectors work evenings, nights, or weekends. In these cases, shift assignments generally are made on the basis of seniority. Overtime may be required to meet production goals. Employment Inspectors, testers, and graders held about 675,500 jobs in 1988. Over 8 of every 10 worked in manufacturing industries, including motor vehicles and equipment; electronic components and accessories; com munications equipment; apparel; aircraft and parts; plastic products; and office, computing, and accounting machines. Some worked in wholesale trade, transportation, testing and photofinishing labs, engi neering services, and government agencies. Although they are em ployed throughout the country, most jobs are in large metropolitan areas where many large factories are located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school diploma is helpful and may be required for some jobs. Simple jobs are generally filled by beginners with a few days’ training. More complex ones are filled by experienced assemblers, machine operators, or mechanics who already have a thorough knowledge of the products and production processes. In-house training for new inspectors may cover the use of special meters, gauges, computers, or other instruments; quality control tech niques, blueprint reading, and reporting requirements. There are some postsecondary training programs in testing, but most employers prefer to train inspectors themselves. 391 Inspectors, testers, and graders need mechanical aptitude, good hand-eye coordination, and good vision. Advancement for these workers frequently takes the form of higher pay. However, they also may advance to inspector of more complex products, supervisor, or quality control technician. Job Outlook Employment of inspectors, testers, and graders is expected to decline through the year 2000 even though the volume of manufactured goods will grow. Because the occupation is large, however, many job open ings will arise each year from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment will decline for several reasons. For one thing, manu facturers are taking steps to improve production methods—relying on computers and statistical analysis. This should result in fewer defects and reduced requirements for inspectors. In some cases, machines will alert workers when items approach limits so that problems can be corrected before defects occur. In addition, more firms are holding assemblers, machine operators, and other production workers respon sible for quality, and having them correct problems as they occur. Also, better inspecting machinery will improve inspectors’ speed and accuracy, so fewer of them will be needed, and, in some cases, completely automated equipment will eliminate the need for in spectors. Employment of inspectors shoud increase in nonmanufacturing in dustries, where testing and inspection are more difficult to automate. Earnings Inspectors, testers, and graders had median weekly earnings of about $415 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned from about $310 to $540 a week. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $235 a week; the highest 10 percent earned more than $610. Related Occupations Other workers who inspect products or services are construction and building inspectors and inspectors and compliance officers, except construction, which includes consumer safety, environmental health, agricultural commodity, immigration, customs, postal, motor vehicle, safety, and other inspectors. Sources of Additional Information For general information about this occupation, contact: a*-The National Tooling and Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Ft. Washington, MD 20744. •r-The American Society for Quality Control, Membership Department, 310 West Wiconsin Ave., Milwaukee, WI 53203. Metalworking and Plastic-Working Occupations Boilermakers (D.O.T. 805.261 .361, and .381) Nature of the Work Boilermakers and boilermaker mechanics construct, assemble, and repair boilers, vats, and other large vessels that hold liquids and gases. Boilers supply steam to drive huge turbines in electric power plants and to provide heat or power in buildings, factories, and ships. Tanks and vats are used to process and store chemicals, oil, beer, and hundreds of other products. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Following blueprints, boilermakers locate and mark reference points for installing boilers and other vessels, using straightedges, squares, transits, and tape measures. They attach rigging and signal crane operators to lift heavy frame and plate sections and other parts into place. They align sections, using plumb bobs, levels, wedges, and tumbuckles; use hammers, files, grinders, and cutting torches to re move irregular edges so they fit properly; and bolt or weld them together. Boilermakers align and attach water tubes, stacks, valves, gauges, and other parts and test complete vessels for leaks or other defects. Usually they assemble large vessels temporarily in a fabrica tion shop to insure a proper fit and again on their permanent site. Boilermaker mechanics maintain and repair boilers and similar ves sels. They clean or direct others to clean boilers and inspect tubes, fittings, valves, controls, and auxiliary machinery. They repair or 392 Occupational Outlook Handbook replace defective parts, using power saws, gas torches, and arc welding equipment, and may operate metalworking machinery to repair or make parts. They also dismantle leaky boilers, patch weak spots with metal stock, replace defective sections, or strengthen joints. Working Conditions Boilermakers often use potentially dangerous equipment, such as acet ylene torches and power grinders, handle heavy parts, and work on ladders or on top of large vessels. Work may be done in cramped quarters inside boilers, vats, or tanks that often are damp and poorly ventilated. To reduce the chance of injuries, they may wear hardhats, harnesses, respirators, and safety glasses and shoes. Boilermakers usually work a 40-hour week but, to meet construction or production deadlines, occasionally work overtime. Employment Boilermakers held about 25,000 jobs in 1988. Over one-half worked in the construction industry, assembling and erecting boilers and other vessels. About 1 out of 4 worked in manufacturing, primarily in boiler manufacturing shops, iron and steel plants, petroleum refineries, chemical plants, and shipyards. Some also work for boiler repair firms, railroads, and in Navy shipyards and Federal power facilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities recommend a formal apprenticeship to learn this trade. Nevertheless, many people become boilermakers by work ing as helpers to experienced boilermakers. Helpers who learn by working with experienced boilermakers generally lack the wide range of skills acquired through apprenticeship, however. Apprenticeship programs are administered by joint union-management committees and usually consist of 4 years of on-the-job training, supplemented by about 48 hours of classroom instruction each year in subjects such as blueprint reading, shop mathematics, and welding. When hiring helpers, employers prefer high school or vocational school graduates. Courses in shop, mathematics, blueprint reading, welding, and machine metalworking are useful. Mechanical aptitude and the manual dexterity needed to handle tools also are important. Some boilermakers advance to supervisory positions; because of their broader training, apprentices generally have an advantage in promotion. Job Outlook Employment of boilermakers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Most openings will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who leave the occupation. Slow growth in the construction of new electric power plants and factories which use boilers and other vessels, the trend to repair rather than replace existing boilers—which takes fewer workers—and the use of smaller boilers—which require less on-site assembly—all should limit growth. Most of the industries that purchase boilers are sensitive to economic conditions. Therefore, during economic downturns, construction boil ermakers may be unemployed. However, because boilers are main tained and repaired even during economic downturns, boilermaker mechanics generally have more stable employment. Earnings According to the limited data available, boilermakers who usually worked full time averaged about $550 per week in 1988. Most boilermakers belong to labor unions. The principal union is the International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Shipbuilders, Blacksmiths, Forgers, and Helpers. Others are members of the Interna tional Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; United Auto mobile, Aerospace, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; and the United Steelworkers of America. Related Occupations Workers in a number of other occupations assemble, install, or repair metal equipment or machines. These include assemblers, blacksmiths, instrument makers, ironworkers, machinists, millwrights, patternmak ers, plumbers, sheet-metal workers, tool and die makers, and welders. Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding boilermaking apprenticeships or other training opportunities, contact local offices of the unions pre viously mentioned, local construction companies and boiler manufac turers, or the local office of the State employment service. Jewelers (D.O.T. 700.281-010, -014, -022, and .381-030, -042, and -046) IHHKp. rnrnm f- jtr- i I Many boilermakers are trained through apprenticeship programs. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work For thousands of years, people have worn and admired jewelry made from precious metals and stones, such as gold and diamonds. Jewelers use such materials to make, repair, and adjust rings, necklaces, brace lets, earrings, and other jewelry using a variety of tools and materials. They use drills, pliers, jeweler’s soldering torches, saws, jeweler’s lathes, and a variety of other handtools to mold and shape metal and to set precious and semiprecious stones. They also may use chemicals and polishing compounds, such as flux for soldering and tripoli and rouge for finishing. Jewelers’ work varies by the type of establishment in which they are employed. Regardless of the work setting, however, their work requires a high degree of skill and attention to detail. Those working in retail stores and repair shops spend much of their time repairing or adjusting jewelry. Typical work includes enlarging or reducing rings, resetting stones, and replacing broken clasps and mountings. Some jewelers also may design, make, and sell their own jewelry. Following their own designs or those created by designers or customers, they begin by carving the metal or by shaping wax to make a mold for casting the metal. The individual parts are then soldered together, and the jeweler may mount a diamond or other stone or may engrave a design into the metal. A small number of jewelers are qualified gemologists, who appraise the quality and value of diamonds, other gemstones, and gem materials. Production Occupations Those who own or manage stores or shops hire and train employees; order, market, and sell merchandise; and perform other managerial duties. Most of those in manufacturing specialize in a single operation. Some jewelers may make models or tools for the jewelry that is to be produced. Others do finishing work, such as setting stones or engrav ing. A growing number of jewelers use lasers to engrave letters and designs into gold, silver, or other metals. Working Conditions Jewelers usually do most of their work seated in comfortable surround ings, and the trade involves few physical hazards. While the work is not physically strenuous, there is a lot of work with detail and intricate designs which may be tiring to some. Caution must be taken because the chemicals, sawing and drilling tools, and torches a jeweler uses can cause serious injury. In addition, doing delicate work while trying to satisfy demands for speed and quality from customers and employers can cause stress, and bending over a workbench for long periods can be uncomfortable. Because many of the materials with which they work are very valuable, those working in retail stores must observe strict security procedures. These may include locked doors that are only opened by a buzzer, barred windows, burglar alarms, and armed guards. The additional responsibility also may create stress. In repair shops, jewelers generally work alone with little supervi sion. However, in retail stores, they may talk with customers about repairs, perform custom design work, and even do some sales work. In some plants manufacturing precious jewelry, the workweek is 35 hours. During slack periods, however, jewelers may have shortened Jewelers in retail stores repair and adjust jewelry. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 393 workweeks or be laid off. Most jewelers in stores and repair shops work 40 to 48 hours a week, including evenings and Saturday. During peak sales seasons, such as Christmas, they often work longer hours, but are compensated for overtime. Employment Jewelers held about 35,000 jobs in 1988. About two-fifths of all jewelers were self-employed; many operated their own store or repair shop, and some specialized in designing and creating custom jeweliy. Roughly half of all salaried jewelers worked in retail establishments, while approximately one-third were employed in manufacturing plants. Although jewelry stores and repair shops can be found in every city and many small towns, most job opportunities are in larger metropolitan areas. Those employed in manufacturing are likely to work in New York, California, or Rhode Island, States where produc tion is concentrated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Jewelers’ skills usually are learned in technical schools, through corre spondence courses, or informally on the job. Colleges and art schools also offer programs which can lead to a bachelor's or master’s degree of fine arts in jewelry design. For those interested in working in a jewelry store or repair shop, technical schools are the best source of training. In these programs, which vary in length from 6 months to 3 years, students leant the use and care of jewelers’ tools and machines and basic jewelry making and repairing skills, such as design, casting, stone setting, and polishing. Technical school courses also cover topics like blueprint reading, math, and shop theory. Store and shop owners prefer graduates of these programs because they already have the basic skills of the trade. Nevertheless, most employers feel that graduates need an additional 3 or more years of supervised on-the-job training to refine their repair skills and to learn more about the operation of the store or shop. In addition, some employers encourage workers to improve their skills by enrolling in short-term technical school courses such as sample making, wax carving, or gemology. Many pay all or part of the cost of this additional training. In jewelry manufacturing plants, workers traditionally have devel oped their skills through informal on-the-job training programs. This training may last 3 to 4 years, depending on the difficulty of the specialty. Training usually focuses on casting, stonesetting, or engrav ing. In recent years, a growing number of technical schools have begun to offer training designed for jewelers working in manufacturing. Like employers in retail trade, those in manufacturing prefer graduates of technical school programs because they are familiar with the produc tion process and the in-house training can be shortened significantly. A high school education has become very important for those inter ested in learning the trade. To enter most technical school programs, a high school diploma or its equivalent usually is required. Courses in art, math, mechanical drawing, and chemistry are useful. Since computer-aided design (CAD) is being increasingly utilized in the jewelry field, it is recommended that students—especially those inter ested in design and manufacturing—obtain training in CAD. The precise and delicate nature of jewelry work requires finger and hand dexterity, good eye-hand coordination, patience, and concentra tion. Artistic ability is a major asset, because jewelry must be stylish and attractive. Those who work in jewelry stores have frequent contact with customers and should be neat and personable. In addition, em ployers require a good character because jewelers work with very valuable materials. Advancement opportunities are limited and greatly dependent on an individual’s skill and initiative. In manufacturing, some jewelers advance to supervisory jobs, but for most, advancement takes the form of higher pay for doing the same job. Jewelers who work in jewelry stores or repair shops may become salaried managers; some Often their own businesses. For those interested in starting their own business, a substantial financial investment is needed to acquire the necessary inventory. Also, because the jewelry business is highly competitive, jewelers 394 Occupational Outlook Handbook who plan to open their own store should have experience in selling, as well as knowledge of marketing and business management. Courses in these areas often are available from technical schools and community colleges. Job Outlook Employment of jewelers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Job opportunities for jewelers depend largely on jewelry sales and on demand for jewelry repair services. Jewelry is considered a luxury item and demand for it is affected by the amount of disposable income people have. Jewelry sales are expected to remain strong, fueled by increases in the number of affluent individuals, working women, double-income families, and fashion-conscious men. Opportunities should be good for graduates from jeweler training programs. The job outlook will be best in jewelry stores and repair shops. Increased retail jewelry sales can be expected to create addi tional job opportunities for retail jewelers. In addition, demand for jewelry repair will increase as the stock of jewelry continues to rise. Maintaining and repairing this jewelry will create job opportunities for jewelry repairers. Those interested in pursuing a career in jewelry manufacturing will face keen competition. Many jewelry manufacturers have curtailed their operations because of increased jewelry imports. Jewelers may also face competition from nontraditional stores such as department stores and catalog showrooms, since these stores often hire clerks rather than jewelers to service customers. Regardless of the industry, job openings also will result from the need to replace experienced jewelers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Earnings Depending on the employer, jewelers may receive commissions on what they sell or bonuses for outstanding work. According to the Jewelers' Circular-Keystone annual salary survey, jewelers in retail stores earned a median salary of approximately $22,000 in 1987, while jewelry repair workers earned a median salary of $25,000. For those in manufacturing, earnings of experienced, unionized jewelry workers ranged from about $9.50 to $13.25 an hour, according to the limited information available. Beginners in jewelry factories generally start at considerably less than experienced workers; as they become more proficient, they receive periodic raises up to the mini mum union wage for their job. Most jewelers enjoy a variety of fringe benefits. For example, the majority of jewelers receive annual vacations, health insurance, and reimbursement from their employers for work-related courses. In addi tion, some companies allow their employees to buy jewelry at cost or at substantially reduced prices. Related Occupations Other skilled workers in jewelry manufacturing or repair include pol ishers, lappers, gemcutters, gemologists, hand engravers, model mak ers, and watch repairers. Sources of Additional Information For information on job opportunities in jewelry stores, as well as information on training programs, contact: «r-Jewelers of America, Time-Life Building, Suite 650, 1271 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Machinists (D.O.T. 600.260-018, .280-022, -026, -030, -034, -038, -042, .281-010, .380 010; 693.281-026; and 714.281-018) Nature of the Work Precision metal parts are essential for the production of industrial machinery, aircraft, automobiles, and other durable and nondurable https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis goods. Machinists are skilled workers who produce metal goods that are made in numbers too small to produce with automated machinery. They set up and operate most types of machine tools, and they also must know the working properties of metals such as steel, cast iron, aluminum, and brass. Using their skill with machine tools and their knowledge of metals, machinists plan and carry out the operations needed to make machined products that meet precise specifications. Machinists do much of their work independently. First, they review blueprints or written specifications for a job. Next, they select tools and materials for the job and plan the sequence of cutting and finishing operations. They also must calculate where to cut or bore into the workpiece, how fast to feed the metal into the machine, and how much metal to remove. They then mark the metal stock to show where these cuts should be made. After this layout work is completed, they perform the necessary machining operations. Machinists position the metal stock on the machine tool, set the controls, and make the cuts. During the machin ing process, they must constantly monitor the feed and speed of the machine. Because the machining of metal products generates a significant amount of heat, machinists must ensure that the workpiece is being properly lubricated and cooled. When the machining operations are completed, machinists use preci sion instruments, such as micrometers, to make sure their work meets specifications. Then they finish and assemble the pieces. In some shops, where the parts being produced are very complex and require significant amounts of machining, employers prefer to have machinists, rather than numerical-control (NC) machine-tool operators, operate and tend numerically controlled machines. (For additional information on numerical-control machine-tool operators, see the statement elsewhere in the Handbook.) In these cases, the machinist’s skills are needed to assist in the creation and “debugging” of the program, to ensure the part is machined properly, and to inspect the final product. However, because those operating numerically con trolled machine tools are used to doing much of this machining by hand, they may find NC operation monotonous. In addition to creating new products, some machinists do mainte nance work—repairing or making new parts for existing machinery. These workers utilize many of the same skills as precision machinists. In order to repair a broken part, the maintenance machinist may have to refer to the original blueprints and perform many of the same machining operations that were needed to create the part. They must be familiar with the various metals, coolants, and their qualities, as well as the operation and maintenance of the machine tools. Like precision machinists, maintenance machinists also adjust, inspect, and test the machined parts. Working Conditions Most machine shops are well lighted and well ventilated. Working around high-speed machine tools, however, presents certain dangers, and workers must follow safety practices. Machinists must wear pro tective equipment such as safety glasses to shield against bits of flying metal and earplugs to protect against the noise from machinery. They cannot wear jewelry or loose-fitting clothes that might get caught in the machine. They must exercise caution when cleaning and disposing of coolants and lubricants because many of these materials can be hazardous. The job requires stamina because machinists stand most of the day and may lift moderately heavy workpieces. In some shops, machinists may have to work evening or Saturday shifts. Overtime is common during peak production periods. Employment Machinists held about 397,000jobs in 1988. Most precision machinists worked in small machining shops or in manufacturing firms that pro duce durable goods such as metalworking and industrial machinery, aircraft, or motor vehicles. Maintenance machinists were employed in just about every industry that uses production machinery, including both wholesale trade and services. Although machinists work in all parts of the country, jobs are most plentiful in areas where manufacturing is concentrated. Production Occupations Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers consider a formal apprenticeship program the best way to learn the machinist trade. Typical machinist apprentice pro grams consist of shop training and related classroom instruction. In shop training, apprentices lcam chipping, filing, handtapping, dowel fitting, riveting, and the operation of various machine tools. In addi tion, as machine shops have increased their use of computer-controlled equipment, apprenticeship programs have expanded training in opera tion and programming of numerically controlled machine tools. Class room instruction, which is usually held 2 nights per week, includes blueprint reading, mechanical drawing, shop mathematics, and shop practices. Machinists also may learn the trade informally on the job. Nonapprentice training varies by establishment. Although a few employers may have a structured training program, most have informal programs without any classroom instruction. However, many encourage their workers to take courses at local community colleges or vocational schools. Some even provide reimbursement for job-related classes. Persons interested in becoming a machinist should have manual dexterity and be mechanically inclined in order to use the tools and machines required to build complex parts. They also should be able to work independently and do highly accurate work that requires concentration as well as physical effort. A high school or vocational school education, including mathemat ics, blueprint reading, metalworking, physics, and drafting, is desir able. A basic knowledge of computers and electronics is helpful be cause of the increased use of computer-controlled machine tools. Experience with machine tools also is helpful. In fact, many of the people who enter the occupation have previously worked as machinetool operators or setters. Some companies send their experienced machinists for additional coursework in mathematics and electronics at company expense to become familiar with newer metalworking technologies, such as nu merically controlled machine tools. In addition, when new machinery is introduced, machinists receive training in its operation—usually from a representative of the equipment manufacturer. Machinists may become supervisors. Others take additional training and become numerical-control machine-tool operators, tool program mers, or tool-and-die or instrument makers. A few skilled machinists 395 open their own shops, but this requires a sizable investment in ma chinery. Job Outlook Employment of machinists is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. As the economy expands, so will the demand for goods that traditionally have had machined metal parts. Although output is expected to increase, the demand for machinists will be moderated by increased consumption of imported products, improvements in metalworking technology, and growing substitution of nonmetal for metal parts. Nevertheless, many openings will arise each year from the need to replace experienced machinists who transfer to other occupations or retire. Employment of machinists is more sensitive to the level of imports than many other occupations. Unlike occupations that are affected by an increase in imports of a particular product, employment of machin ists can be affected by import growth of a variety of products, from automobiles to machine tools, because the goods that machinists manu facture often are components of other products. In addition to growing import pressure, improvements in technology, such as the use of computer-controlled machine tools, reduce the time required for ma chining operations, thereby increasing machinists’ productivity. Fi nally, the increased use of plastics, ceramics, and composites is ex pected to further reduce demand for precision metal products and, thus, for machinists. Employment of machinists fluctuates with economic conditions. When demand for machined goods falls—which can be caused either by growing imports or by a domestic recession—machinists involved in production may be laid off or be forced to work fewer hours. Apprenticeship opportunities also decline. On the other hand, with the rising demand for machined goods in the last few years, employers have reported difficulties in attracting qualified candidates. Employ ment of machinists involved in plant maintenance is often more stable because proper maintenance and repair of costly equipment remain vital concerns even when production levels fall. Earnings In 1988, median weekly earnings for machinists were about $435. Most earned between $331 and $538. Ten percent of all machinists had median weekly earnings of less than $246, while the 10 percent with the highest earnings made more than $663 a week. The earnings of machinists compare favorably with those of other skilled workers. Maintenance machinists employed in metropolitan areas had estimated average hourly earnings of $13.71 in 1988. In comparison, the average hourly rate for all production workers in private industry, except farming, was $9.29. Average hourly rates in 10 areas, selected to show how rates differ in various parts of the country, appear in the accompanying table. Table 1. Average hourly earnings of maintenance machinists, selected areas, 1988 Most employers consider apprenticeships the best way to learn the machinist trade. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Area Hourly rate Milwaukee ................... New York..................... Chicago.......................... Detroit........................... Atlanta........................... Baltimore....................... Cincinnati ..................... Pittsburgh....................... Orlando.......................... Scranton........................ ...... $16.75 ...... 15.82 ...... 14.63 ...... 14.24 ...... 13.95 ...... 13.20 ...... 12.15 ...... 11.64 ...... 11.43 ...... 10.84 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 396 Occupational Outlook Handbook Although many machinists are employed by small machining shops, their benefits compare favorably with those in larger firms. Most employers offer paid holidays, vacations, and health insurance. A retirement plan also may be available, but larger firms generally have more generous plans. Many machinists are members of unions, including the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; and the United Steelworkers of America. Related Occupations Occupations most closely related to that of machinist are, of course, the other machining occupations. These include tool and die maker, numerical-control machine-tool operator, tool programmer, and instru ment maker. Workers in other occupations that require precision and skill in working with metal include arc cutter, blacksmith, gunsmith, locksmith, metal patternmaker, and welder. Sources of Additional Information For information about machinist apprenticeships or other work oppor tunities in this trade, contact local machine shops, a local of one of the unions mentioned above, or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For information on opportunities in precision machining, contact: «*-The National Screw Machine Products Association, 6700 W. Snowville Rd., Breckville, OH 44141. For general information about this occupation, contact: «*-The National Machine Tool Builders, 7901 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102. a*-The National Tooling and Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Fort Washington, MD 20744. «-The Tooling and Manufacturing Association, 1177 South Dee Rd., Park Ridge,IL 60068. Metalworking and Plastic-Working Machine Operators Nature of the Work Think of the components of an automobile—the metal ball bearings, the plastic knobs on the radio, and the steel hood, just to name a few. These and many other metal and plastic parts are products on which most of us rely daily. Metalworking and plastic-working machine operators run the machines that produce these and thousands of other parts that are used in automobiles and nearly every other manufactured product. Before production can begin, the machine must be readied. Some metalworking and plastic-working machine workers, called setters or setup operators, prepare the machines prior to production or for a new job and make adjustments to the machines during production. Because they must know how the machine operates, these workers are more highly skilled and have more training than those who operate or tend the machinery. Operators and tenders monitor the machinery during operation. They may load or unload the machine or make minor adjustments to the controls. Both setters and operators can be divided into three groups: Those who work in metalworking machine shops; those who work in plastics production facilities: and those who work with iron and steel. These workers usually are identified by the kind of machine they run, such as screw machine operator, plastic-molding machine setup operator, or furnace operator. Although some are qualified to work with a variety of machines, most specialize in one or two types. Their duties usually vary by the type of firm and type of machine on which they work. More detail on the specific duties of metalworking and plastic https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis working machine operators is given in the separate statements that follow. Working Conditions Most metalworking and plastic-working machine shops are well lighted and well ventilated. Older steel mills, on the other hand, tend to be hot, poorly lit, and not well ventilated. However, modem mills are well designed and are equipped with the most advanced engineering and computer-controlled operations. Regardless of setting, all of these workers operate powerful, high-speed machines that can be dangerous if strict safety rules are not observed. Operators must wear protective equipment that varies by the work setting. For example, operators in most settings wear safety glasses and earplugs to protect against flying particles of metal or plastic and noise from the machines. Workers in the plastics industry who work near materials that emit dangerous fumes or dust must wear face masks. In addition, metalworkers in the steel industry wear protective thermal and burn-resistant clothing to shield them from the intense heat, and steel-toed shoes with a rein forced sole to protect their feet from the materials and machinery with which they work. Because all of these machines run at very high speeds, operators cannot wear loose-fitting clothes or jewelry that might get caught in the machine. The work requires stamina because operators are on their feet much of the day and may do moderately heavy lifting. Most metalworking and plastic-working machine operators work a 40-hour week, but overtime may be common during periods of increased production. Factories producing plastic products and pri mary metal usually operate around the clock. As a result, operators work one of three shifts—day, evening, or night. Those working the night shift may receive a shift differential. Metalworking machine shops, on the other hand, tend to be small and usually operate only one shift. Employment Metalworking and plastic-working machine operators held about 1,405,000 in 1988. The distribution of employment among specific operator occupations is presented in the following tabulation: Percent Total................................................................................................. 100 Metalworking machine operators..................................................... Plastic-working machine operators.................................................. Steel workers...................................................................................... 87 10 3 J t- Most operators work in factories that produce fabricated metal products, nonelectrical machinery, rubber and plastics products, steel products, and transportation equipment. Those working in metalwork ing machine shops are most likely to be found in the midwestem, northeastern, and far west sections of the country, where such manu facturing activity is centered. Because plastics production is located throughout the country, employment of plastic-working machine oper ators is distributed much like the population as a whole. Traditionally, iron and steel plants were concentrated in Pennsylva nia, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan, near the abundant iron deposits of the Great Lakes area and the nearby coal deposits of West Virginia. Although many integrated mills are still found in this area, minimills, which are not dependent on the supply of iron ore, are located in all parts of the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most operators learn their skills on the job. Beginners usually start by observing experienced operators at work. When trainees first operate a machine, they are supervised closely by more experienced workers. After gaining some experience, beginners take over more of the duties of operating the machines. Individual ability and effort largely determine the time required to become an operator. Most operators learn the basic machine operations and functions in a few months, but becoming a skilled setup operator " - * * Production Occupations often requires 1 to 2 years. Some companies have formal training programs for new employees that combine classroom instruction with on-the-job training. Although no special education is required, persons interested in these occupations can improve their opportunities by completing high school courses in shop, mathematics, and blueprint reading. In hiring beginners, employers often look for persons with communications skills, mechanical aptitude, and some experience in working with machinery; in addition, a working knowledge of the properties of metals and plastics is highly prized. Physical stamina also is important because much time is spent standing. Advancement opportunities in these occupations are limited. Ad vancement usually takes the form of higher pay. Operators can advance to setup operator. Some workers advance to supervisory jobs or transfer to trainee jobs for skilled occupations such as machinist or mold maker. Job Outlook Employment of metalworking and plastic-working machine operators as a whole is expected to remain unchanged through the year 2000. The outlook for individual occupations depends in large measure on the condition of the industries where they are concentrated. For example, employment of operators in the steel industry is likely to decline at a faster rate than for those in metalworking occupations because of further declines in domestic steel production and increasing automa tion, while employment of those in the plastics industry should increase as this industry continues to expand. The following tabulation presents the expected job growth for the various metalworking and plastic working machine operators. Percent All metalworking and plastic-working machine operators .... —3 Plastic-working machine operators................................................. 22 Metalworking machine operators................................................... —6 Steel workers.................................................................................... —12 Although few new jobs are expected in these occupations, many openings will be created as operators transfer to other fields of work or leave the labor force. The demand for metal and plastic parts and for steel products is expected to increase as the economy expands. However, foreign com petition and improvements in manufacturing technology will prevent employment from keeping pace with this demand. Many of the indus tries that employ metalworking and plastic-working machine operators face increasing competition from foreign firms. In industries such as motor vehicle and steel manufacturing, foreign firms have captured a significant proportion of the market, and U.S. firms have had to cut production capability and lay off workers. In addition, many U.S. firms have moved production operations to other countries in order to reduce costs. Such moves have lowered employment opportunities in these occupations. In order to remain competitive, many U.S. firms are adopting technologies that increase productivity. Improvements that are ex pected to increase operator productivity include computer-controlled equipment, robots, and automated materials handling machinery. In addition, new machinery is often easier to set up, thus reducing the amount of time setup workers spend on each machine. Another factor that is expected to reduce demand for metalworking machine operators is the increased substitution of nonmetal for metal products in the production of both durable and nondurable goods. Although this will benefit those working in industries producing plas tic, ceramic, and composite materials, job opportunities are expected to decline for those in the metalworking and steel industries. Workers with a thorough background in machine operations, mathe matics, blueprint reading, and a good working knowledge of the properties of metals and plastics will be best able to adjust to the changing job requirements that will result from technological ad vances. In addition, those skilled in the setup of metalworking and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 397 plastic-working machines should fare better than those whose responsi bilities solely include tending and operating machinery. Earnings Information on earnings of metalworking and plastic-working machine operators is limited. Nevertheless, available data show significant differences by industry. For example, production workers who worked in blast furnaces and steel mills averaged $14.72 an hour in 1988, and those in plastics processing plants, $8.49. This compares to the average hourly rate for all production workers of $9.29. Machine-tool operators who work on either metal or plastic materials had average earnings of $14.61. Hours worked also vary. Plastics production workers average 41 hours a week, compared to 44 hours for steel workers. Those who work more than 40 hours receive overtime pay, usually one and onehalf their hourly rate. Those assigned to evening or weekend shifts usually receive a shift differential. Benefits also vary by type and size of firm. Those who work in steel production usually receive a generous benefits package that includes health and life insurance, a pension plan, supplemental unemployment insurance, and paid vacation and sick leave. In other industries, many work for small machine shops or plastics producers whose benefits are not as generous as those of the large employers. However, most still receive paid holidays, vacations, sick leave, and medical insurance. Many metalworking and plastic-working machine operators belong to unions, including the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the United Steelworkers of America; the Interna tional Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Imple ment Workers of America; the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Related Occupations Workers in occupations closely related to metalworking and plastic working machine occupations include numerical-control machine-tool operators, machinists, tool and die makers, extruding and forming machine operators producing synthetic fibers, woodworking machine operators, blacksmiths, gunsmiths, locksmiths, metal patternmakers, and welders. Sources of Additional Information For information about work opportunities in these occupations, contact local employers, the nearest office of the State employment service, or a local of one of the labor unions previously listed. For general information about the metalworking trades, contact: wThe National Machine Tool Builders, 7901 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102. «r-The National Tooling and Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Fort Washington, MD 20744. ••-The Tooling and Manufacturing Association, 1177 South Dee Rd., Park Ridge, IL 60068. Information on educational programs in plastics technology and polymer sciences is available from: w-The Society of Plastics Engineers, 14 Fairfield Dr., Brookfield Center, CT 06804. Metalworking Machine Operators (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 463.) Nature of the Work Metalworking machine operators set up, operate, and tend the ma chines which form all types of metal parts used in nearly any type of manufactured product. Metalworking machine operators can be separated into two groups: Those who set up the machine tool for operation and those who tend the machine during operation. Setup workers plan and set up the correct sequence of operations 398 Occupational Outlook Handbook according to blueprints, layouts, or other instructions. They adjust speed, feed, and other controls, and select the proper instruments or tools for each operation. Using micrometers, gauges, and other preci sion measuring instruments, they compare the completed work with the tolerance limits stated in the specifications. They also may select coolants to keep the workpiece from getting too hot, and lubricants to keep the machine tools running smoothly. Although there are many different types of metalworking machine tools that perform a wide spectrum of operations, operators perform many similar tasks. Most operators only tend machines, performing simple, repetitive operations that can be learned relatively quickly. Typically, these workers place metal stock in a machine on which the speeds and operation sequence already have been set. Operators may watch one or more machines and make minor adjustments according to their instructions. For example, some workers tend grinding ma chines that remove excess material from the surface of machined products, others operate drill presses that are used to drill holes in a variety of products, while still others oversee machines that extrude metal through a die to form slugs or wire. Regardless of the type of machine they operate, machine tenders depend on skilled setup work ers for major adjustments when the machines are not operating properly. In addition to the general requirements of machine setup and opera tion, each machine tool has specific operating instructions. For exam ple, coating machine operators must check the temperature, concentra tion level, and quality of the coating material and the product being coated; monitor the production rate and the amount produced; and if necessary, make any adjustments to the controls. Employment Metalworking machine operators held about 1,252,000 jobs in 1988. The distribution of employment among specific operator occupations is presented in the following tabulation: Percent Total................................................................................................. 100 Machine tool cutting and forming machine setters, setup operators, operators, and tenders..................................... Sheet-metal workers.......................................................................... Combination machine tool setters, setup operators, operators, and tenders................................................................... Electrolytic plating and coating machine operators and tenders, setters, and setup operators........................................... Metal molding machine operators and tenders, setters, and setup operators....................................................................... Metal fabricators, structural metal products.................................. Heat treating, annealing, and tempering machine operators and tenders.................................................................... All other metalworking machine operators and tenders, setters, and setup operators......................................................... 63 10 7 4 3 2 Manufacturers demand versatile workers. Job Outlook Employment of metalworking machine operators as a whole is ex pected to decline through the year 2000. Increased automation, import competition, and substitution of plastics and other advanced materials for metals are expected to reduce demand for operators. The outlook for individual occupations varies. For example, em ployment of operators who are able to set up and operate several different types of machines is expected to increase as manufacturers demand a more versatile work force. On the other hand, employment of machine operators and tenders is expected to decline as firms automate their production facilities. Employment of metalworking machine operators is very dependent on conditions in the industries in which they are employed. When output declines, due to rising imports or adverse economic conditions, demand for these workers drops. Despite the projected employment decline, numerous opportunities will arise from the need to replace experienced operators who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force. (See introductory part of this section for information on working conditions, earnings, and sources of additional information.) 2 Plastic-Working Machine Operators 10 Most operators worked in factories that produce fabricated metal products, transportation equipment, and machinery. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Beginners usually start by observing experienced operators at work. When trainees first operator a machine, they are supervised closely by more experienced workers. After some experience, beginners take over more duties of operating the machines. For example, they may learn to adjust feed speeds and cutting edges instead of calling upon other workers to perform these tasks. Some also learn to read blue prints, plan the sequence of work, and learn to use measuring instru ments to check work. Although there are no specific educational requirements, employers prefer those with good communication and mathematical skills. In addition, courses in metalworking and blueprint reading are helpful. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis IP®®San (D.O.T. 556.380-010, .382-014, .385-010, .665-010, -014, -018, .682-014, .685-022, -038, -082, -086, .635-090; 600.380-014; and 690.685-090) Nature of the Work Plastic-working machine operators tend machines that produce a vari ety of consumer and industrial goods. Plastics are used both in every day items such as soft drink containers and in specialized products such as artificial heart valves. Regardless of the type of product for which they are used, plastics are known for their durability and versa tility. There are numerous methods by which plastic products can be made, but all are created from resins. Produced in chemical plants, resins are made from chemicals, such as carbon, oxygen, or nitrogen, according to a manufacturer’s specifications. Resins in the form of powder, pellets, or syrup are then shipped to plastics plants for transformation into all types of goods, such as toys, tubing, or coatings. Production Occupations ijgyw Ml* • tr « Plastic-working machine operators check the feed of the materials and the temperature and pressure of the machine. Although molding is the most common plastics-forming method, there are several different types of molding. The process varies by the type of product being produced. For example, many kitchen products are produced through a procedure known as injection molding. The resin which has been combined with other materials to give it particular properties, such as color or texture, is fed into a hopper. This material is heated and then forced into a mold by a rotating screw. As the material cools inside the mold, it forms into the desired product. When the piece has hardened, the mold opens and the piece is released. During this process, plastic-working machine operators check the feed of the materials, temperature and pressure of the machine, and rate at which the piece hardens. Depending on the type of equipment in use, they may load material into the hopper, make manual adjust ments to the machinery, and then unload and inspect the finished product. In computer-controlled systems, they have very little interac tion with the machinery or materials. Rather, these workers monitor computers that control the loading, forming, and unloading processes. For most operators, however, the job duties are a combination of manual and monitoring tasks. In general, plastic-working machine operators specialize in the oper ation of one type of machine. For example, extruding machine opera tors tend machines which force the resin through a die that contains several openings. As the material moves through the die, it is shaped and formed. Blow molding machine operators, on the other hand, tend machines which force hot air into a mold which contains a plastic tube. As the air moves into the mold, the plastic tube is inflated to the shape of the mold and a plastic container is formed. Plastic-working machine operators also remove clogged material from the mold or die to get the system operating again. Molds and dies are quite costly, and operators must exercise proper care and maintenance to avoid damaging them. In addition to their regular duties, most plastic-working machine operators are responsible for keeping their work area neat and clean. Employment Plastic molding and casting machine operators held about 144,000 jobs in 1988. The vast majority were employed by plastics processing firms that produce all types of plastic forms, such as sheet, rod, and film. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Trainees begin by observing and assisting other operators. They may supply material, remove finished products from the machine, and perform simple inspecting. As they gain experience, they advance to more difficult tasks until they are responsible for their own machine or set of machines. Some may specialize in the preparation and setup of machinery. Most of these workers learn the basic machine opera tions or job tasks in a few months. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 399 There are no specific requirements for these jobs. Although employ ers prefer candidates with a high school diploma, it is not a require ment. Those interested in this field should have good coordination, manual dexterity, and the ability to work under supervision. Job Outlook Employment of plastic-working machine operators is expected to in crease faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to increasing demand for plastic products. In addition to new jobs arising from increased demand, numerous openings will occur as workers transfer to other occupations, retire, or stop working for other reasons. Both industrial and commercial uses for plastic have expanded dramatically over the last 20 years. Demand is expected to continue to increase as new applications are developed and consumption of existing products increases. One area of new growth will be in the field of composites. Composites are very strong, but extremely lightweight materials that are made from fiber-reinforced resins. They are used in products as varied as tennis rackets and airplane wings. As costs decrease, production is expected to expand, thus creating new opportu nities for plastic-working machine operators. Employment growth will also result from expanding uses of existing products. The widespread use of computers has increased demand for plastic coatings and wirings. The use of plastics has also expanded in the automotive industry; in addition, most artificial limbs are now made with a variety of plastic parts. One factor that will constrain consumption of plastics is concern over their disposal. Although the industry is working on developing degradable products, many that are currently used are not easily recy clable like metal or glass. (See introductory part of this section for information on working conditions, earnings, and sources of additional information.) Steel Workers (D.O.T. 502.664-014; 512.362-010, -014, -018, .382-010, .662-010, .685 010, -022; 514.684-010, -014, -022; 553.685-014, -114; 613.362-010, .462 014; and 619.682-022) Nature of the Work Steel is essential for any industrialized economy. Few products in daily use are not made from steel or processed by machinery made of steel. Steel workers operate and tend the machinery that produces this vital commodity. Steel is made by heating iron or scrap steel to remove some of the carbon and other impurities and by adding alloying chemical agents, such as silicon and manganese. By varying the amount of carbon and chemical agents contained in the final product, thousands of different types of steel can be made—each with specific properties that are suited for a particular product. Steel is produced both in integrated mills, which make steel from iron ore, coke, and limestone, and in minimills, which use scrap steel as the input. At an integrated mill, production begins when material moving equipment operators load iron ore, coke, and limestone into the top of a blast furnace, a large steel cylinder lined with heat-resistant brick. As the material makes its way down, hot air is blown into the bottom of the furnace, causing the coke to bum. The hot air is generated by giant stoves operated by stove tenders. These workers monitor the controls that indicate the temperature of the air inside the stove. When the air reaches the correct temperature, the tender opens the valves on the stove and the hot air is released into the furnace. The extreme heat generated by this process initiates a chemical reaction between the coke and the iron ore, freeing the iron from other elements in the ore. The overall operation of the blast furnace is directed by blowers, who are responsible for the quality and quantity of the iron produced and for supervising keepers and their helpers. Keepers operate the 400 Occupational Outlook Handbook equipment that is used to tap the liquid iron and to remove impurities from the furnace. The molten iron is now ready to be transformed into steel. Steel is made in three types of furnaces: Basic oxygen, electric arc, and open hearth. Although the steelmaking procedure varies with the type of furnace used, the jobs associated with the various processes are similar. Since basic oxygen furnaces account for most of U.S. steel production, the jobs connected with them will be used as an illustration. Melters supervise the workers who control the furnace, furnace operators and their assistants. Melters receive information on the characteristics of the raw materials they will be using and the type and quality of the steel they are expected to produce. These workers direct the loading of the furnace with raw materials and supervise the taking of samples to ensure that the steel has the desired qualities. They also coordinate the loading and melting of raw materials with the steel molding or casting operation to avoid delays in production. Furnace operator assistants use controls to tilt the furnace to receive the raw materials. Once they have righted the furnace, the furnace operator uses levers and buttons to control the flow of oxygen and other materials into the furnace. During the production process, the assistants routinely take samples to be analyzed. Based on this analysis, the operator determines how much longer the steel must be processed or what materials must be added to meet specifications. Operators also must pay close attention to the conditions within the furnace and correct any problems that may arise during the production process. Traditionally, liquid steel was then moved from the furnace into a ladle from which it was poured into ingots. However, steel producers increasingly are using a process known as continuous casting. This allows firms to produce steel ready for final processing directly from liquid steel, thus eliminating many of the steps involved in pouring and rolling ingots. Molding and casting machine operators tend ma chines that release the molten steel from the ladle into water-cooled molds at a controlled rate. The molded steel then is cut to the desired lengths as it emerges from the rolls. During this process, operators monitor the flow of raw steel and the water supply. In plants where continuous casting is not in use, the steel ingots require further processing. Most steel that is processed in steel mills is shaped by rolling. In this method, heated steel ingots are squeezed into longer and flatter shapes between two massive cylinders or “roll ers.” Before ingots can be rolled, however, they must be heated in furnaces called soaking pits. Heaters and their helpers control the soaking pit operations. They adjust controls which regulate the flow of air and fuel to the burners, and they monitor equipment that indicates when the ingot is uniformly heated to the required temperature. Rollers operate equipment that rolls the steel ingots into semifinished shapes, such as blooms, billets, or slabs. The quality of the product and the speed at which the ingot is rolled depend on the roller’s skills. Manipulator operators tend the machinery which controls the position of the ingot on the roller. The placement of the ingot and the positioning of the rollers are very important, for they control the product’s final shape, and improperly adjusted equipment may damage the rollers or gears. After the steel is rolled, it is ready to be finished. Finishing is done in finishing mills and varies by the end use of the product. rienced workers. As they acquire experience, they move to operations requiring progressively greater skill. For example, at a basic oxygen furnace, a worker may begin by doing general cleanup work and then advance to furnace hand, second assistant, first assistant, furnace operator, and possibly melter. Although training for some of the skilled or supervisory jobs, such as melter, may take 4 or 5 years, these workers often have to wait much longer before openings occur. In recent years, the steel industry has been phasing out obsolete equipment and introducing new automated machinery. To retrain em ployees, firms provide on-the-job training, usually by a representative of the machinery manufacturer. Job Outlook Employment in the steel industry is expected to decline through the year 2000. A limited number of job openings can be expected, how ever, due to the need to replace experienced workers who change occupations or retire. In recent years, employment has been adversely affected by declin ing steel consumption and a massive restructuring of the industry. As steel consumption dropped in the early 1980’s because of a stagnant economy coupled with increased substitution of other products, such as plastic, for steel, employment declined. Problems were further compounded by the growth of imports. In response to import growth, the Federal Government in 1984 enacted a series of voluntary restraint agreements with foreign steel producers. The aim of this program was to give the domestic industry a chance to restructure and modernize without losing some markets to foreign producers. Steel companies closed older, inefficient mills and invested in continuous casting, automated materials handling, and other laborsaving technology. As a result, the industry has experienced a net job loss of 290,000 since 1979, primarily in production occupations. Steel companies are expected to continue restructuring through the next decade. More firms are expected to install continuous casting equipment and the industry is investigating the feasibility of direct steelmaking. This technique would eliminate many of the processing operations now found in steel production. In addition, minimills, which have lower labor requirements, are expected to capture a larger share of the domestic market. (See introductory part of this section for information on working conditions, earnings, and sources of additional information.) Employment In 1988, about 8,900 workers were involved in the production of steel. Five of every ten were furnace operators, two of every ten controlled the soaking pits and other heating equipment, and the remainder operated pouring and casting equipment. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement New workers in the processing operations usually are hired as unskilled laborers. Openings for higher rated jobs, such as second or first helper, often are filled by promoting workers from lower grade jobs. Length of service with the company and job performance are the major factors considered when selecting workers for promotion. Trainees begin by performing simple tasks and assisting more expe https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Restructuring is expected to change labor requirements in the steel industry. Production Occupations Numerical-Control Machine-Tool Operators (D.O.T. 604.362; 605.360, .380; 606.362, .382-014; 609.662; and 617.280) Nature of the Work People generally associate manufacturing with mass production. How ever, the manufacture of industrial equipment, aircraft, and many other products involves machining—cutting or forming metal or plastic workpieces into parts for final products—that is done in small batches. For decades, batch production was done by precision machinists using machine tools such as milling machines and lathes. Today, numerically controlled machine tools—machine tools that can be programmed to make parts of different dimensions automatically—bring the benefits of automation to batch production. Numerically controlled machine tools have two major components: An electronic controller (a type of computer) and a machine tool. The controller directs the mechanisms of the machine tool through the positioning and machining described in the computer program for the job. A program, for example, could contain commands that cause the controller to move a drill bit to certain spots on a workpiece and drill a hole at each spot. Many types of machine tools—milling machines, lathes, punch presses, and others—can be numerically controlled. Each does certain types of machining, and a piece might have to be worked on by several machines before it is finished. Although the machining is done automatically, numerically controlled machine tools must be set up and used properly in order to obtain the maximum benefit from their use. These tasks are the responsibility of numericalcontrol machine-tool operators. In addition to being used alone, numerically controlled machines increasingly are being used as part of flexible machining systems. In these systems, automated materials-handling equipment moves pieces through a series of work stations. At each work station, a robot loads the piece onto a numerically controlled machine and removes it when the machining is complete. The piece is then moved to the next work station for further processing. The duties of numerical-control machine-tool operators vary. In some shops, operators merely tend one machine. In others, they might program and tend machines, operate more than one machine at a time, or operate more than one type of machine. As a result, the skill requirements of these workers vary from job to job. Although there are many variations in operators’ duties, they generally involve many of the tasks described below. Working from written instructions or directions from supervisors, operators must load the program into the controller, attach the neces sary tools, position the workpiece, and check the coolants and lubri cants. The way a program is loaded into a controller depends on how it is stored. If the program is stored on a paper or magnetic tape, the tape must be run through a tape reader that transmits the program to the controller. Increasingly, machine-tool controllers are connected to minicomputers. Operators load programs that are stored on floppy disks or on tapes directly into the controller via the computer. During the setup and running of a job, operators must install the proper tools in the machine. Many numerically controlled machines are equipped with automatic tool changers, so operators have to load several tools in the proper sequence. Because the machine tool cannot “see” the workpiece—it moves and operates in relation to a fixed starting point on the piece—it is critical that operators position the workpiece correctly or all subsequent machining will be wrong. Opera tors also must secure the piece to the worktable correctly, so the piece does not move while it is machined. In addition, because the heat generated by machining could damage the cutting tools and the part being machined, operators must insure that the proper coolants and lubricants are being used. Loading the tools and positioning and secur ing the workpiece may take from a few minutes to several hours, depending on the size of the workpiece and complexity of the job. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 401 The first time a program is run, it must be “debugged,” or corrected. If the tool moves to the wrong position or makes a cut that is too deep, for example, the program must be changed so the job is done properly. Some employers have numerical-control machine-tool operators debug the program. Others have tool programmers handle the first run. (For more information about this occupation, see the statement on tool programmers, numerical control, elsewhere in the Handbook.) The level of operator involvement depends on the type of job as well as the type of equipment being used. Some numerically controlled machine tools have adaptive controls—sensors that automatically monitor and adjust machine operations—that enable operators to tend more than one machine. When the job has been properly set up and the program has been checked, the operator may only need to monitor the machine as it operates. In these cases, the operator may set up and monitor other machines, finish or inspect completed parts, or do other tasks. Other jobs require frequent loading and unloading, changing of tools, or constant attention to insure that the machining is proceeding properly. Regardless of the type of run, operators check the finished part using micrometers, gauges, or other precision inspection equip ment to insure that it meets specifications. Because the initial invest ment in numerically controlled machine tools is substantial, operators must always be on the lookout for situations that could result in costly downtime or damage to the cutting tools or machinery. Working Conditions Numerical-control machine-tool operators work in machine shops where they are on their feet most of the day and may have to lift moderately heavy workpieces. Machine shops usually are well lighted and ventilated, and the machines on which they work have guards and shields that minimize the operators’ exposure to moving parts. Because of flying bits of metal and noise from the machinery, however, safety glasses and earplugs must be worn. Operators also must exercise caution around the coolants and lubricants used during the machining process because some of these liquids may be hazardous. In addition, operators cannot wear loose-fitting clothes or jewelry that might get caught in the machines. Although numerical-control machine-tool operators generally work 40 hours a week, overtime is common during periods of high manufac turing activity. Employment Numerical-control machine-tool operators held about 64,000 jobs in 1988. Most worked in industries that manufacture durable goods, such as aircraft, electrical and metalworking machinery, and construction and general industrial equipment. Although jobs are found throughout the country, employment is concentrated in metropolitan areas in the northeastern and midwestem parts of the country, where durable goods manufacturing is centered. -SSOQVj Operators must wear safety glasses to protect against bits offlying metal. 402 Occupational Outlook Handbook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement This generally is not an entry level job. Employers prefer to promote machinists or to hire those with technical school training. Occasion ally, they select machine operators or shop helpers who have some experience in machine-tool operation and have demonstrated good work habits and mechanical aptitude. Courses in shop math, plane geometry, and blueprint reading may improve an employee’s chances of getting selected for an operator job. Working under a supervisor or an experienced operator, trainees learn to set up and run one or more kinds of numerically controlled machine tools. Trainees usually learn the basics of their job within a few months. However, the length of the training period varies with the number and complexity of the machine tools the operator will run and with the individual’s ability. If the employer expects operators to write programs, trainees may attend programming courses offered by machine-tool manufacturers or technical schools. These courses usually last 1 to 2 weeks. Because programming languages may vary by machine, operators usually receive additional training when new equipment is introduced. Most often, this is conducted at the plant by a representative of the machinery manufacturer. Numerical-control machine-tool operators may advance to supervi sory jobs. Operators who get sufficient training in numerical-control programming can move to the higher paying job of tool programmer. Job Outlook Employment of numerical-control machine-tool operators is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Although the use of numerically controlled machine tools is expected to expand, greater operator productivity and import growth will moderate employment. However, many job openings are expected to arise from the need to replace operators who retire or transfer to other occupations. Although numerically controlled machine tools have been available since the 1950’s, few companies used them until the late 1970’s. Few firms were willing to invest in an unfamiliar technology. Increasing competition from foreign companies, however, has forced American manufacturers to install numerically controlled machine tools and other equipment that enables them to control costs and improve quality. The increased use of numerically controlled machines is expected to increase the demand for operators. However, employment of numer ical-control machine-tool operators is not expected to increase as fast as the use of numerically controlled machine tools because of advances in technology, such as the use of adaptive controls, which make operators more productive. Improvements in the controllers and in the software used for programming them also are likely to increase opera tor productivity and limit the rate of employment growth somewhat. Another factor limiting employment growth of numerical-control machine-tool operators will be economic conditions in the industries in which they work. Demand for these workers depends on the produc tion of manufactured products. As manufacturing activity falls—be cause of economic slowdowns or rising imports—so does employment of numerical-control machine-tool operators. Earnings In 1988, numerical-control machine-tool operators earned about $10.50 an hour, according to the limited data available. This is slightly higher than the average hourly earnings for all production workers in manufacturing but lower than the hourly rates of skilled machining workers such as machinists and tool and die makers. Because many numerical-control machine-tool operators work for medium-size and large firms, they usually receive a wide variety of benefits—including health and life insurance, a pension plan, and vacation and sick leave. Related Occupations Numerical-control machine-tool operators use their skill and knowl edge of machines and processes to set up and operate one or more types of automatically controlled machine tools. Other occupations in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis which workers use machines to cut or form metal and plastic include machinists, bending machine operators, brake operators, drill press operators, grinder operators, milling machine operators, and shear operators. Sources of Additional Information For information about job opportunities in this occupation, contact the nearest office of the State employment service. For information on opportunities in high production precision ma chining, contact: (•-National Screw Machine Products Association, 6700 West Snowville Rd., Brecksville, OH 44141. For general information about this occupation, contact: w-The National Machine Tool Builders, 7901 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22103. (•-The National Tooling and Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Ft. Washington, MD 20744. (•-The Tooling and Manufacturing Association, 1177 South Dee Rd., Park Ridge, IL 60068. Tool and Die Makers (D.O.T. 601.280 except -054, .281-010, -014, and -026, .380-010, .381 except -018 and -038; and 739.381-018 and -022) Nature of the Work Tool and die makers are highly skilled workers who produce tools, dies, and special guiding and holding devices that are used in machines that produce a variety of products—from clothing and furniture to heavy equipment and parts for aircraft. Toolmakers craft precision tools which are used to cut, shape, and form metal and other materials. They also produce jigs and fixtures (devices that hold metal while it is bored, stamped, or drilled) and gauges and other measuring devices. Diemakers construct metal forms (dies) that are used to shape metal in stamping and forging operations. They also make metal molds for diecasting and for molding plastics, ceramics, and composite materials. In addition, tool and die makers may repair worn or damaged tools, dies, gauges, jigs, and fixtures, and help design tools and dies. Tool and die makers must have a much broader knowledge of machining operations, mathematics, and blueprint reading than most other machining workers. They use almost every type of machine tool and precision measuring instrument. Because they work with all the metals and alloys commonly used in manufacturing, these workers must be familiar with the machining properties, such as hardness and heat tolerance, of a wide variety of metals and alloys. Working from blueprints or instructions from supervisors, tool and die makers plan the sequence of operations necessary to manufacture the tool or die. They measure and mark the pieces of metal that will be cut to form parts of the final product. They then do the cutting, boring, or drilling that is required. They check the accuracy of what they have done to insure that the final product will meet specifications. Then they assemble the parts and perform finishing jobs such as filing, grinding, and smoothing surfaces. In shops that use numerically controlled (NC) machine tools, tool and die makers’ duties may be slightly different. For example, although they still manually check and assemble the tool or die, each of its components may be produced on an NC machine. In addition, they often assist tool programmers in planning and writing NC programs. Tool and die makers work with little direct supervision. Although they must produce extremely precise parts, they also must work quickly and economically. Taking too much time or wasting materials can reduce their employer’s profit. Working Conditions Tool and die makers usually work in “toolrooms,” which are quieter than the production floor because there are not as many machines in Production Occupations use at one time. Machines have guards and shields that minimize the exposure of workers to moving parts. Tool and die makers, however, must follow safety rules and wear protective equipment. For example, they must wear safety glasses in order to shield against bits of flying metal and earplugs to protect against machine noise. In addition, they cannot wear jewelry or loose-fitting clothing that might get caught in the machines. These workers are on their feet most of the day and may do moderately heavy lifting. Most companies employing tool and die makers operate one shift per day. However, overtime and Saturday work are common, especially during peak production periods. Employment Of the 152,000 tool and die makers employed in 1988, the majority worked for small firms. Most worked in industries that manufacture metalworking machinery and equipment, motor vehicles, aircraft, and plastics products. Although they are found throughout the country, jobs are most plentiful in the Midwest and Northeast, where many of the metalworking industries are located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers consider a formal apprenticeship program the best way to learn all aspects of tool and die making. Many tool and die makers, however, learn the trade informally on the job. Most employers prefer persons with a high school or vocational school education and mechanical ability. Prior to hiring, some employ ers test applicants to determine their mechanical aptitude and mathe matical ability. Thus, courses in shop math, blueprint reading, metal- * -* Most tool and die makers work for small firms. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 403 working, physics, and drafting, as well as machine shop experience, may be helpful. Most of the 4 or 5 years of a tool and die apprenticeship are spent in practical shop training. Apprentices learn to operate milling machines, lathes, grinders, and other machine tools. They also learn to use handtools in fitting and assembling tools, gauges, and other mechanical equipment, and they study heat treating and other metal working processes. Classroom training, which may be several nights a week, consists of shop mathematics, mechanical drawing, tool de signing, tool programming, and blueprint reading. Several years of experience after apprenticeship often are necessary to qualify for the most difficult tool and die work. In addition, some companies have separate apprenticeship programs for toolmaking and for diemaking. Workers who become tool and die makers without completing for mal apprenticeships generally acquire their skills through informal onthe-job programs. They often begin as machine operators and are gradually given more difficult assignments. They also may take some vocational school training in shop math, blueprint reading, and related subjects. Because tools and dies must meet strict specifications—precision to one ten-thousandth of an inch is not uncommon—the work of tool and die makers requires a high degree of patience and attention to detail. Good eyesight is essential. There are several ways for skilled workers to advance. Some move into supervisory and administrative positions in their firms; others become tool designers or tool programmers. A few open their own tool and die shops, but this requires a significant capital outlay to get started as well as business skills in order to be successful. Job Outlook Employment of tool and die makers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. As the economy grows, the demand for motor vehicles, aircraft, machinery, and other products that use machined metal parts will increase. Rising demand for these goods will increase the need for tools and dies and the workers who make them. Employment growth, however, will be limited by increased use of numerically controlled machine tools and imports of machined products. The greater use of NC machine tools has reduced the number of operations done by hand. Producers obtain high-quality precisioned parts with fewer workers. In addition, because precision metal products are a primary component of manufacturing machinery, increased imports of finished goods, as well as precision metal products, affect employment demand for tool and die makers. Because of the lengthy training and higher than average earnings, tool and die makers have a strong attachment to their job. However, a relatively large proportion of tool and die makers are 50 years of age or older. Currently, employers in many locations are finding it difficult to attract enough qualified candidates, and training program enrollments have not increased enough to satisfy the growing demand. As these older workers begin to leave the occupation, employers in certain parts of the country may face more pronounced shortages. Jobseekers with the appropriate skills and background should find excellent opportunities. Employment of tool and die makers is less sensitive to fluctuations in the business cycle than many other production occupations. Because these workers are highly skilled and not easily replaced, employers are reluctant to lay them off even when production is cut back. However, apprenticeship opportunities usually are limited during these periods because of the need to economize. Earnings Median weekly earnings for tool and die makers who worked full time were $575 in 1988. Most earned between $433 and $680 a week. Ten percent earned less than $335 a week, while the 10 percent with the highest weekly earnings made more than $818. In 1988, tool and die makers employed in metropolitan areas had average earnings of $15.35 an hour. In comparison, the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming, was $9.29. Table 1 presents average hourly rates in 13 areas selected to 404 Occupational Outlook Handbook Related Occupations The occupations most closely related to the work of tool and die makers are, of course, the other machining occupations. These include machinist, mold maker, instrument maker, metalworking machine operator, and tool programmer. Other occupations that require precision and skill in working with metal include arc cutter, blacksmith, gunsmith, locksmith, metal pat ternmaker, and welder. the flame from burning gases melts the metal. In arc and gas welding, filler materials, called welding electrodes or welding rods, are melted and added to the weld puddle to fill the joint, giving it greater strength. The welder controls the amount of heat and the size of the melted area and adds the proper amount of filler material to form a strong joint. Technological advances have resulted in faster, more efficient meth ods of welding—laser beam, electron beam, and inertia welding. It is expected that these methods will be increasingly used as they become less expensive. Skilled welders use all types of welding equipment in a variety of positions, such as flat, vertical, horizontal, and overhead. They generally plan work from drawings or specifications or by analyzing damaged metal, using their knowledge of welding and metals. They select and set up welding equipment and may also examine welds to insure they meet standards or specifications. Some welders have more limited duties. They perform routine production work that has already been planned and laid out. These jobs do not require knowledge of all welding techniques. In many production processes—where the work is repetitive and the items to be welded are relatively uniform—automatic welding machines are used. Welding machine operators set up and operate welding machines as specified by layouts, work orders, or blueprints. Operators set machine controls, place the parts to be joined in fixtures on the machine, and push a button. The machine clamps the parts in place, positions them, and makes the weld. When the welding opera tion is completed, operators remove the welded pieces from the ma chine. These workers may be designated according to the type of machine they operate, such as automatic arc, electron beam, resistance welding, gas welding, and laser beam machine operator. The work of arc, plasma, and flame cutters is closely related to that of welders. Cutters use heat from burning gases or an electric arc to cut and trim rather than join metal. Some operate cutting machines. Sources of Additional Information For information about tool and die apprenticeships or other work opportunities in this trade, contact local tool and die shops or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about this occupation, contact: Working Conditions Welders and cutters frequently are exposed to potential hazards. They use protective clothing, safety shoes, goggles, helmets with protective lenses, and other devices to prevent burns and eye injuries and to protect them from falling objects. Welding machine operators are not exposed to as many hazards. A face shield or goggles generally provide Table 1. Average hourly earnings of tool and die makers, selected areas, 1988 Area Hourly rate San Jose......................................................................................... $17.63 Detroit........................................................................................... 16.30 St. Louis......................................................................................... 16.04 Boston........................................................................................... 15.44 Atlanta........................................................................................... 15.24 Cleveland....................................................................................... 14.93 New York...................................................................................... 13.51 Houston.......................................................................................... 12.89 Scranton-Wilkes-Barre .............................................................. 12.50 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics show how wage rates for tool and die makers differ in various parts of the country. In addition to their hourly wage, tool and die makers usually enjoy a variety of benefits, including health and life insurance, vacation and sick leave, and a retirement plan. ••-The National Machine Tool Builders, 7901 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102. ••-The National Tooling and Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Ft. Washington, MD 20744. ••-The Tooling and Manufacturing Association, 1177 South Dee Rd., Park Ridge IL 60068. ?.3K Welders, Cutters, and Welding Machine Operators (D.O.T. 553.684-010; 613.667-010; 614.684-010; 709.684-086; 727.662, .684-022; 810; 811; 812; 813.684-010; 814; 815; 816 except .482; 819.281 010, -014, -022, .361, .381, .384, .684, and .685) Nature of the Work Welding is the most common way of permanently joining metal parts. Heat is applied to the pieces to be joined, melting and fusing them to form a permanent bond. Because of its strength, welding is used to construct and repair parts of ships, automobiles, spacecraft, and thousands of other manufactured products. Welding is also used to join beams and steel reinforcing rods in buildings, bridges, and other structures. There are three common ways to create the heat for welding. In electric arc welding, the most frequently used process, heat is created as electric current flows through an arc between the tip of a welding electrode and the metal. In resistance welding, heat is created in the weld metal as current flows through it. In gas welding, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis It takes several years of school or on-the-job training to become skilled in all phases of welding. Production Occupations adequate protection. Although lighting and ventilation usually are adequate, some metals give off toxic gases and fumes as they melt. Workers often are in contact with rust, grease, and dirt on metal surfaces. Some welders are isolated for short intervals while they work in booths constructed to contain sparks and glare. Employment Welders, cutters, and welding machine operators held about 424,000 jobs in 1988. About 3 out of 4 jobs were held by welders and cutters, while welding machine operators held about 1 out of 4. About 6 out of 10 welders jobs were in plants that manufacture boilers, construction equipment, motor vehicles, machinery, ships, appliances, and other metal products. Most others were in firms that construct bridges, large buildings, pipelines, and other structures or were in repair shops. All welding machine operators were in manufac turing industries, primarily machinery, motor vehicles, and fabricated metal products. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although it takes several years of school or on-the-job training to become skilled in all phases of welding, machine operators and welders doing routine work can learn their jobs in a few weeks or months. For more skilled jobs, employers prefer applicants who have high school, vocational school, or post-secondary training in welding. High school courses in shop mathematics, mechanical drawing, blueprint reading, physics, and chemistry also are helpful. Post-secondary school welding training is available in public voca tional education programs, private vocational-technical institutes, and in community colleges. The Armed Forces operate welding schools as well. Some employers provide training to help welders improve their skills. Welders and cutters need manual dexterity, good eyesight, and good eye-hand coordination. They should be able to concentrate on detailed work for long periods and be able to bend, stoop, and work in awkward positions. Welders who work on aircraft, boilers, buildings, bridges, pipelines, Employment of welders, cutters, and welding machine operators will decline in manufacturing but will increase in other industries. Percent change in employment, 1988-2000 industries Manufacturing Construction Repair and other services Wholesale trade 405 and other jobs where the strength of the weld is critical for safety must pass employer performance tests or standard tests to become certified. Experienced welding machine operators or welders doing routine work who take additional courses or receive on-the-job training in welding can advance to more skilled jobs. Welders may be promoted to welding supervisors, inspectors, or technicians. Some experienced welders open their own repair shops. Job Outlook Overall, employment of welders, cutters, and welding machine opera tors is expected to decline through the year 2000. However, in certain industries, employment of welders and cutters will increase. Most job openings will arise because of the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment of welders and cutters in construction is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations. Growth is also expected in wholesale trade and in repair and other services. The level of construction is expected to expand, as is the number of metal products needing repair, increasing the need for welding and cutting. The work is generally less routine and more difficult to automate than other welding jobs. The output of manufactured goods is expected to grow. However, greater use of welding robots and other technologies, as well as the substitution of high-strength composite materials and plastics for met als, should cause employment of welders and welding machine opera tors in manufacturing to decline. Robot welding systems have already eliminated some routine jobs, and this trend is expected to continue. However, welders will still be needed for the maintenance, repair, and other work in manufacturing that cannot be automated. Welders, cutters, and welding machine operators in construction and manufacturing are vulnerable to periodic layoffs due to economic downturns. Earnings Median earnings for welders and welding machine operators were about $400 a week in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $300 and $500. The top 10 percent more than $615, and the lowest 10 percent earned less than $225. Over one-third of welders belong to unions. Among these are the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Ship Builders, Black smiths, Forgers and Helpers; the International Union, United Automo bile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada; and the United Electrical, Radio, and Machine Workers of America. Related Occupations Welders and cutters are skilled metal workers. Other metal workers are blacksmiths, forge shop workers, all-round machinists, machinetool operators, tool-and-die makers, millwrights, sheet-metal workers, boilermakers, and metal sculptors. Welding machine operators run machines that weld metal parts. Others who run metalworking machines include lathe and turning, milling and planing, punching and stamping press, and rolling machine operators. Sources of Additional Information For information on training opportunities and jobs for welders, cutters, and welding machine operators, contact local employers or the local office of the State employment service. A one-page brochure on welding is available free of charge from: •-American Welding Society, 550 NW. LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126. For a list of certified schools that offer training in welding, contact: Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis w-National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, P.O. Box 10429, Department BL, Rockville, MD 20850. Plant and Systems Operators showing the status of transmission circuits and connections with sub stations and large industrial users. Dispatchers anticipate power needs such as those caused by changes in the weather; they call control room operators to start or stop boilers and generators to bring production into balance with needs. They handle emergencies such as transformer or transmission line failures and route current around affected areas. They also operate and monitor equipment in substations, which step up or step down voltage, and operate switchboard levers to control the flow of electricity in and out of substations. Electric Power Generating Plant Operators and Power Distributors and Dispatchers (D.O.T. 820.662-010; 952.167-014, .362, .367-014; and .382) Nature of the Work Electricity is taken for granted, but it takes more than the turning on of a switch to produce it. Powerplant operators control the machinery that generates electricity. Power distributors and dispatchers oversee the flow of electricity through substations and over a network of transmission and distribution lines to users. Electric power generating plant operators who work in plants fueled by coal, oil, or natural gas regulate and monitor boilers, turbines, generators, auxiliary equipment, and switching gear. They operate switches to distribute power demands among generators, combine the current from several generators, and regulate the flow of electricity into powerlines. When power requirements change, they start or stop generators and connect or disconnect them from circuits. Operators monitor instruments to see that electricity is flowing from the plant properly and that voltage is maintained. They also keep records of switching operations and loads on generators, lines, and transformers and prepare reports of unusual incidents or malfunctioning equipment during their shift. Operators who work in newer plants work mainly in a central control room and usually are called control room operators and control room operator trainees or assistants. In older plants, operators work through out the plant, operating and monitoring valves, switches, and gauges, so job titles may be more varied than in newer plants. Auxiliary equipment operators work throughout the plant, while switchboard operators control the flow of electricity from a central point. Operators of nuclear powerplants are licensed by the Nuclear Regu latory Commission (NRC). NRC-licensed reactor operators are author ized to operate all equipment in a nuclear powerplant. In addition, an NRC-licensed senior reactor operator acts as the supervisor of the plant for each shift. Power distributors and dispatchers, also called load dispatchers or systems operators, control the flow of electricity through transmission lines to users. They operate current converters, voltage transformers, and circuit breakers. Dispatchers monitor equipment and record read ings at a pilot board, which is a map of the transmission system ... . A power dispatcher makes adjustments in a control room at an electric power generating plant. Digitized406 for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 8WV*-" .'-iV Working Conditions Electricity is provided around the clock so operators, distributors, and dispatchers often work nights and weekends, usually on rotating shifts. Shifts are usually 8 hours long, with three shifts per day. Workers usually rotate to a different daily shift schedule periodically so that duty on less desirable shifts is shared by all operators. Work on rotating shifts can be stressful and fatiguing because of the constant change in living and sleeping patterns. Operators, distributors, and dispatchers who work in control rooms generally sit or stand at a control station. This work is not physically strenuous, but requires constant attention. Operators who work outside the control room may be exposed to danger from electric shock, falls, and bums. Nuclear powerplant operators are subject to random drug tests. Employment Electric power generating plant operators and power distributors and dispatchers held about 45,000 jobs in 1988. Most worked for electric utility companies and government agencies that produced electricity. Some worked for manufacturing establishments that produce electric ity for their own use. Jobs are located throughout the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers generally seek high school graduates for entry level opera tor, distributor, and dispatcher positions. Those with strong math and science skills are preferred. College level courses or prior experience in a mechanical or technical job may be helpful. Many employers start new workers in helper or laborer jobs in powerplants or in other areas of the utility such as powerline construction. Workers may be assigned to train for any one of many utility positions in operations, mainte nance, or other areas. Assignments depend on the results of aptitude tests, worker preferences, and availability of openings. Workers selected for training as a power distributor or powerplant operator at a conventionally fueled powerplant undergo extensive onthe-job and classroom training provided by the employer. Several years of training and experience are required to become a fully qualified control room operator or power distributor. With further training and experience, workers may advance to shift supervisor. Most advance ment opportunities are within a plant or utility; opportunities to advance by moving to another employer are limited. Entrants to nuclear powerplant operator trainee jobs must have strong math and science skills. Experience in other powerplants or with Navy nuclear propulsion plants also may be helpful. Extensive training and experience are necessary to pass the NRC’s examination for licensed reactor operator, including on-the-job training, classroom instruction, and individual study. With further training and experience, reactor operators may advance to senior reactor operators, who act as shift supervisors. In addition to preliminary training as a powerplant operator or power distributor or dispatcher, most workers are given periodic refresher training. Nuclear powerplant operators are usually given frequent refresher training, often on a plant simulator. Job Outlook Employment of electric power generating plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all Production Occupations occupations through the year 2000. The demand for electric power should grow substantially as the economy expands. However, with the increasing use of automatic controls and more efficient equipment, employment needs will not grow as rapidly. Few, if any, new nuclear powerplants are likely to be ordered before the year 2000. However, some additional operators will be needed to staff plants now under construction. Furthermore, due to NRC regulations, the number of nuclear powerplant operators needed at all nuclear powerplants will increase. Most job openings will occur as workers transfer to other occupa tions or leave the labor force. People hired by electric power companies generally have relatively secure jobs. Even during downturns in the economy, these companies seldom lay off employees. Earnings Earnings in the electric utility industry are relatively high. According to the limited information available, median weekly earnings for pow erplant operators were about $630 in 1988. Related Occupations Other workers who monitor and operate plant and systems equipment include stationary engineers, water and sewage treatment plant opera tors, waterworks pump-station operators, chemical operators, and re finery operators. Sources of Additional Information For information about employment opportunities, contact local electric utility companies, locals of unions mentioned below, or an office of the State employment service. For general information about powerplant and nuclear reactor opera tors and power distributors and dispatchers, contact: •■-Edison Electric Institute, 1111 19th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. ••"International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 1125 15th St. NW., Wash ington, DC 20005. •-Utility Workers Union of America, 815 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20006. make repairs, ranging from a complete overhaul to replacing defective valves, gaskets, or bearings. Stationary engineers also perform routine maintenance, such as removing soot and corrosion that can reduce operating efficiency. They also may test boiler water and add necessary chemicals to prevent corrosion and buildup of harmful deposits. Increasingly, computers are being used to help stationary engineers perform their duties better. Much of the instrumentation on the equip ment they operate is now computer controlled. This allows the station ary engineer to monitor the system from a central location and reduces the time necessary to check each piece of equipment. The engineer must read the computer’s output to determine if the system is operating properly. If the automated systems malfunction, the stationary engi neer must manually control the equipment. In a large building or industrial plant, a stationary engineer may be in charge of all mechanical systems in the building or an industrial powerplant or engine room. The engineer might direct the work of assistant stationary engineers, turbine operators, boiler tenders, and air-conditioning and refrigeration operators and mechan ics. In a small building or industrial plant, there may be only one stationary engineer operating and maintaining the equipment at one time. Working Conditions Stationary engineers generally have steady year-round employment. They usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week. Many work one of three daily 8-hour shifts, and weekend and holiday work often is required. Engine rooms, powerplants, and boiler rooms usually are clean and well lighted. Even under the most favorable conditions, however, some stationary engineers are exposed to high temperatures, dust, dirt, and high noise levels from the equipment. General maintenance duties may cause contact with oil and grease, as well as fumes or smoke. Workers spend much of their time on their feet; they also may have to crawl inside boilers and work in crouching or kneeling positions to inspect, clean, or repair equipment. Because stationary engineers work around boilers as well as electri cal and mechanical equipment, they must be alert to avoid bums, electric shock, and injury from moving parts. Stationary Engineers (D.O.T. 950.362-014, .382 except -014 and -022) Nature of the Work Large buildings require a considerable amount of equipment to provide heating, air-conditioning, and ventilation. Industrial plants often have machinery to provide electrical power, steam, or other services in addition to heating and ventilation. Stationary engineers operate and maintain this equipment, which can include boilers, air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment, diesel engines, turbines, generators, pumps, condensers, and compressors. These workers are called sta tionary engineers because much of the equipment they operate is similar to the equipment operated by locomotive or marine engineers except that it is not in a moving vehicle. Stationary engineers start up and shut down equipment in order to meet demands for heating, cooling, or power. They insure that equipment is operating safely and economically and within established limits by monitoring meters, gauges, and other instruments attached to equipment. They make adjustments and perform repairs and mainte nance whenever necessary. They also keep a log of all relevant facts about the operation and maintenance of the equipment. On a steam boiler, for example, they observe, control, and keep records of steam pressure, temperature, water level, power output, and the amount of fuel consumed. These workers must detect, identify, and correct any trouble that develops. They watch and listen to their machinery and routinely check safety devices. Stationary engineers often use hand or power tools to https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 407 Stationary engineers operate and maintain heating, air conditioning, and ventilation equipment in large buildings and industrial plants. 408 Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment Stationary engineers held about 36,000 jobs in 1988. They worked in a wide variety of places, including office and apartment buildings, hospitals, schools, factories, shopping malls, and hotels. Although employment of stationary engineers is distributed through out the country, most work in the more heavily populated areas, where large industrial and commercial establishments are usually located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most stationary engineers acquire their skills through a formal apprenticeship program or through informal on-the-job training which usually is supplemented by courses at trade or technical schools. In addition, a good background can be obtained in the Navy because of the similarity of marine engineering plants to many stationary power and heating plants. The increasing complexity of the equipment with which these operators work has made a high school diploma or its equivalent necessary; many stationary engineers have some college education. Apprenticeship programs are sponsored by the International Union of Operating Engineers, the principal union to which stationary engi neers belong. In selecting apprentices, most local labor-management apprenticeship committees prefer applicants who have received in struction in mathematics, computers, mechanical drawing, machineshop practice, physics, and chemistry. Mechanical aptitude, manual dexterity, and good physical condition also are important qualifica tions. The apprenticeship usually .lasts 4 years. In addition to on-thejob training, apprentices receive classroom instruction in practical chemistry, elementary physics, blueprint reading, applied electricity, instrumentation, electronics, and other technical subjects. Those who acquire their skills on the job usually start as helpers to experienced stationary engineers or as boiler tenders. This practical experience may be supplemented by postsecondary vocational training in computerized controls and instrumentation. However, becoming a stationary engineer without going through a formal apprenticeship program usually requires many years of work experience. Skill-improvement training varies by the size and type of establish ment. Most large and some small employers encourage and pay for additional training for their employees. Additional training is almost always provided, usually by a representative of the machinery manu facturer, when new equipment is introduced. Most States and cities have licensing requirements for stationary engineers. Although requirements differ from place to place, appli cants usually must be at least 18 years of age, reside for a specified period in the State or locality, meet the experience requirements for the class of license requested, and pass a written examination. Because of regional differences in licensing requirements, a stationary engineer who moves from one State or city to another may have to pass an examination for a new license. Generally, there are several classes of stationary engineer licenses. Each class specifies the type of equipment or the steam pressure or horsepower of the equipment the engineer can operate without supervision. A first-class license permits the stationary engineer to operate equipment of all types and capacities. An applicant for this license may be required to have a high school education, apprentice ship or on-the-job training, and several years of experience. Lower class licenses limit the types or capacities of equipment the engineer may operate without the supervision of a higher rated engineer. Stationary engineers advance to more responsible jobs by being placed in charge of larger, more powerful, or more varied equipment. Generally, engineers advance to these jobs as they obtain higher class licenses. Advancement, however, is not automatic. For example, an engineer who has a first-class license may work for some time as a boiler tender or an assistant to another first-class engineer before a vacancy occurs. Some stationary engineers eventually advance to jobs as boiler inspectors, chief plant engineers, building and plant superin tendents, or building managers. A few obtain jobs as examining engi neers or technical instructors. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Little change in employment of stationary engineers is expected through the year 2000. Although increased commercial and industrial development will increase the amount of equipment to be operated and maintained, automated and computerized controls will make newly installed equipment more efficient and reduce the number of stationary engineers needed. Nevertheless, the need to replace experienced work ers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force will account for a significant number of job openings. Due to the increasing complexity of power-generating systems, job opportunities will be best for those with apprenticeship training or vocational school courses in computerized controls and instrumen tation. Earnings In 1988, the median weekly earnings for stationary engineers who worked full time were about $497. The middle 50 percent earned between $374 and $657 a week; 10 percent earned less than $271 a week; and 10 percent earned more than $789. According to a survey of metropolitan areas, stationary engineers had average hourly earnings of $14.58 in 1988. This was about 50 percent higher than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Average hourly rates in 10 areas, selected to show how rates differ in various parts of the country, appear in the accompanying table. In addition to wages, stationary engineers usually receive a variety of benefits, such as health and life insurance, reimbursement for work-related courses, and vacation and sick leave. Related Occupations Other workers who monitor and operate stationary machinery include nuclear reactor operators, power station operators, water and wastewa ter treatment plant operators, waterworks pump-station operators, chemical operators, and refinery operators. Sources of Additional Information Information about training or work opportunities is available from local offices of State employment services, locals of the International Union of Operating Engineers, and from State and local licensing agencies. Specific questions about the occupation should be addressed to: (•-International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St. NW., Washing ton, DC 20036. (•-National Association of Power Engineers, Inc., 2350 East Devon St., Suite 115, Des Plaines, IL 60018. Table 1. Average hourly earnings of stationary engineers, selected areas, 1988 Area Hourly rate San Francisco................................................................................ $18.99 New York...................................................................................... 16.78 Detroit............................................................................................ 15.77 St. Louis......................................................................................... 15.38 Atlanta............................................................................................ 14.51 Milwaukee.................................................................................... 14.43 Minneapolis-St. Paul................................................................... 14.18 Washington ................................................................................... 13.85 Pittsburgh....................................................................................... 13.62 Houston.......................................................................................... 13.06 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics Production Occupations 409 Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators (D.O.T. 954.382-010, -014; and 955.362, .382, and .585) Nature of the Work Clean water is essential for many things: Health and recreation; the existence of fish and wildlife; and the functioning of industries. Water treatment plant operators treat water so that it is safe to drink. Wastewa ter treatment plant operators remove harmful domestic and industrial pollution from wastewater. Water is pumped from wells, rivers, and streams to water treatment plants. Waste materials are carried by water through sewer pipes to wastewater treatment plants. Operators in both types of plants control processes and equipment to remove solid materials, chemicals, and micro-organisms from the water or to render them harmless. By opera ting and maintaining the pumps, pipes, valves, and processing equip ment of the treatment facility, operators move the water or wastewater through the various treatment processes. Operators read and interpret meters and gauges to make sure plant equipment and processes are working properly and adjust controls as needed. They operate chemical-feeding devices; take samples of the water or wastewater and perform chemical and biological laboratory analyses; and test and adjust the level of chlorine in the wastewater. Operators also make minor repairs to valves, pumps, and other equip ment. They use gauges, wrenches, pliers, and other common handtools, as well as special tools. Water and wastewater treatment plant operators increasingly are rely ing on computers to help them monitor equipment and processes. They may use specialized software to store sampling results. When problems occur, operators may retrieve data in order to determine the cause of the malfunction. As computers are increasingly used in data collection and analysis, familiarity with these systems becomes essential. Occasionally operators must work under emergency conditions. A heavy rainstorm, for example, may cause large amounts of wastewater to flow into sewers, exceeding a plant’s treatment capacity. Emergen cies also can be caused by conditions inside a plant, such as chlorine gas leaks or oxygen deficiencies. During these periods, operators may have to work under extreme pressure to correct the problem as quickly as possible. These periods often create dangerous working conditions and operators must be extremely cautious. The specific duties of plant operators depend on the type and size of plant. In smaller plants, one operator may control all machinery, perform tests, keep records, handle complaints, and do repairs and maintenance. Some operators may handle both a water treatment and a wastewater treatment plant. In larger plants with many employees, operators may be assigned to one process or one station, and the staff may include chemists, engineers, laboratory technicians, mechanics, helpers, supervisors, and a superintendent. Water pollution standards have become increasingly stringent since adoption of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972, which implemented a national system of uniform controls on the discharge of pollutants. Under the 1972 law and subsequent reauthorizations in 1977 and 1987, it is illegal to discharge any pollutant without a permit. Industrial facilities that send their wastes to municipal treatment plants must meet certain minimum standards and insure that these wastes have been adequately pretreated so that they do not damage municipal treatment facilities. Municipal treatment plants also must meet dis charge standards. Operators must be familiar with the guidelines estab lished by the Clean Water Act and how they affect their plant. In addition to Federal regulations, operators also must be aware of any guidelines imposed by the State or locality in which the plant operates. Working Conditions Water and wastewater treatment plant operators work both indoors and outdoors and may be exposed to noise from machinery and unpleasant https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis \ ^ :-«/Sfes*5a; Frequent sampling and testing are necessary to meet Federal standards. odors, although chlorine and other chemicals are used to minimize these. Persons with allergies might suffer due to dust and other sub stances in the air. Operators have to stoop, reach, and climb and often get their clothes dirty. They must pay close attention to safety procedures for they may be confronted with hazardous conditions, such as slippery walkways, dangerous gases, and malfunctioning equipment. Because plants operate around the clock, operators work one of three shifts and on a rotational basis, weekends and holidays. Whenever emergencies arise, operators are required to work overtime. Employment Water and wastewater treatment plant operators held about 76,000 jobs in 1988. The vast majority worked for local governments; some worked for private water supply and sanitary services companies, many of which provide operation and management services to local governments on a contract basis. Water and wastewater treatment plant operators are employed throughout the country. Geographically, employment is distributed much like the Nation’s population, with most jobs in larger towns and cities. Although the vast majority of water and wastewater treatment plant operators work full time, those who work in small towns may only work part time at the water or wastewater treatment plant—the remainder of their time may be spent handling other municipal duties. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Trainees usually start as attendants or operators-in-training and learn their skills on the job under the direction of an experienced operator. 410 Occupational Outlook Handbook They learn by observing the processes and equipment in operation and by doing routine tasks such as recording meter readings; taking samples of wastewater and sludge; and doing simple maintenance and repair work on pumps, electric motors, and valves. They also clean and maintain plant equipment and property. Larger treatment plants gener ally combine this on-the-job training with formal classroom or selfpaced study programs. Operators need mechanical aptitude and should be competent in basic mathematics. Because of the introduction of computer-controlled equipment and more sophisticated instrumentation, a high school di ploma generally is required. In addition, employers prefer those who have had high school courses in chemistry and biology. Some positions, particularly in larger cities and towns, are covered by civil service regulations, and applicants may be required to pass written examinations testing elementary mathematics skills, mechani cal aptitude, and general intelligence. Operators must be agile, since they have to climb ladders and move easily around heavy machinery. Some 2-year programs leading to an associate degree in wastewater technology and 1-year programs leading to a certificate are available; these provide a good general knowledge of water pollution control as well as basic preparation for becoming an operator. Because plants are becoming more complex, completion of such courses increases an applicant’s chances for employment and promotion. Most State water pollution control agencies offer training courses to improve operators’ skills and knowledge. These courses cover principles of treatment processes and process control, laboratory proce dures, odors and their control, safety, chlorination, sedimentation, biological oxidation, sludge treatment and disposal, and flow measure ments .Some operators take correspondence courses on subjects related to wastewater treatment, and some employers pay part of the tuition for related college courses in science or engineering. Some operators are promoted to plant supervisor or superintendent, while others advance by transferring to a larger facility. Some postsec ondary training in water and wastewater treatment coupled with increas ingly responsible experience as an operator may be sufficient to qualify for superintendent of a small plant, since at many small plants the super intendent also serves as an operator. However, educational requirements are rising as larger, more complex treatment plants are built to meet new water pollution control standards. Superintendents of large plants generally need an engineering or science degree. A few operators get jobs with State water pollution control agencies as technicians, who monitor and provide technical assistance to plants throughout the State. Vocational-technical school or community college training generally is preferred for technician jobs. Experienced operators may transfer to related jobs with industrial wastewater treatment plants, companies sell ing wastewater treatment equipment and chemicals, engineering con sulting firms, or vocational-technical schools. In 47 States, operators must pass an examination to certify that they are capable of overseeing wastewater treatment plant operations. Voluntary certification programs are in effect in the remaining States. Water plant operators must be certified in 45 States. Of the remaining States, two have voluntary certification programs, and three do not have any certification requirements. The District of Columbia does not require certification for either water or wastewater treatment plant operators. Typically, there are different classes of certification for different size treatment plants, and certification requirements vary by https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis State. An operator’s certification is usually valid for several years; at the end of that time period, the operator must renew the certification. Although most jurisdictions do not require the operator to retake the examination, they do require proof of participation in continuing education programs. There is no national certification program for operators, and reloca tion may mean having to become certified in a new location. However, several States have begun their own reciprocity programs. Those contemplating relocation should keep in mind that requirements vary from State to State. Job Outlook Employment of water and wastewater treatment plant operators is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. The expanding population and growth of the economy are expected to increase demand for water and wastewater treatment services. As new plants are constructed to meet this demand, employment of water and wastewater treatment plant operators should increase. In addition, many job openings will occur as experienced operators transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Although local government traditionally has been the largest em ployer of water and wastewater treatment plant operators, increased reliance on private firms specializing in the operation and management of water and wastewater treatment facilities should shift some employ ment demand to these companies. Increased pre-treatment activity by manufacturing firms should also create new job opportunities. Water and wastewater treatment plant operators generally have steady employment because the services they provide are essential even during economic downturns. Earnings According to a survey conducted by the Water Pollution Control Federation, annual salaries of wastewater treatment plant operators averaged $21,300 in 1988; salaries of supervisors averaged $27,200. Salaries depend, among other things, on the size of the plant, the complexity of the operator’s job, and the operator’s level of certifi cation. In addition to their annual salaries, water and wastewater treatment plant operators generally receive benefits that include health and life insurance, a retirement plan, and educational reimbursement for jobrelated courses. Related Occupations Other workers whose main activity consists of operating a system of machinery to process or produce materials include boiler operators, gas-compressor operators, powerplant operators, power reactor opera tors, stationary engineers, and turbine operators. Sources of Additional Information For information on certification, contact; (•-Association of Boards of Certification, P.O. Box 786, Ames, IA 50010. Additional information is available from; (•-Water Pollution Control Federation, 601 Wythe St., Alexandria, VA 22314. For information on jobs, contact State or local water pollution control agencies or local offices of the State employment service. Printing Occupations Bindery Workers (D.O.T. 640.682-018, .685-010; 641.682-014; 649.685-066 and -090; 653.360-010, -014, and -018, .380, .382, .562, .585, .662, .680, .682-010, -014, -018, -022, .685-010, -014, -018, -022, -026, and-030; .686-010, -014, -018, -022, and -026, .687-010; 659.686-010; 692.685-146; 794.687-026; 795.684-010 and -022, .687-010; 977.381, .684-010, -018, -022, .687) Nature of the Work The process of transforming printed sheets into finished products such as books, magazines, catalogs, folders, or directories is known as “binding.” Binding involves operations such as cutting, folding, gath ering, gluing, stitching, trimming, sewing, wrapping, and other fin ishing operations. Depending on the kind of material being bound, job duties may vary. In firms that do edition binding, for example, workers bind books produced in large numbers or “runs,” while job binding workers bind books produced in smaller quantities. In firms that specialize in library binding, workers repair books and provide other specialized binding services to libraries. Pamphlet binding workers produce leaflets and folders, while manifold binding workers bind business forms such as ledgers and books of sales receipts. Blankbook binding workers bind blank pages to produce notebooks, checkbooks, address books, diaries, calendars, and note pads. Some bindery work consists of only one step. Preparing leaflets or newspaper inserts, for example, requires only folding. Binding of books, on the other hand, requires a number of steps. These are summarized below. Bookbinders assemble books from large, flat, printed sheets of paper. Skilled bookbinders operate machines that first fold printed sheets into units known as “signatures” so that the pages will be in the proper order. They then insert illustrations that may have been printed separately, gather and assemble signatures in proper order, and sew them together. They shape the book bodies with presses and trimming machines and reinforce them with glued fabric strips. Covers, which are created sepa rately, are glued or pasted onto the book bodies, and then the books undergo a variety of finishing operations, often including wrapping in paper jackets. Machines are used extensively throughout the process. Many skilled bookbinders also bind magazines. Bookbinding workers seldom perform all the different binding tasks, although some have training in all of them. Some workers specialize in adjusting and preparing equipment to perform a particular job. Others operate specific equipment such as folding or gathering ma chines. In large shops, bookbinding workers may be assigned to one or a few operations, most often to the operation of complicated ma chines, such as a large papercutter or a folding machine. When neces sary, they repair and adjust bindery equipment. In many shops, much of the work is done by bindery workers who are trained to perform tasks assigned by an experienced worker. For example, semiskilled bindery workers perform such tasks as fastening sheets or signatures together using a machine stapler and feeding signatures into various machines for stitching, folding, or gluing. A small number of bookbinders work in hand binderies. These highly skilled workers design original or special bindings for limited editions or restore and rebind rare books. The work requires creative ability, knowledge of materials, and a thorough background in the history of binding. Hand bookbinding is perhaps the only kind of binding that gives the individual an opportunity to work at a variety of jobs. Working Conditions The job can be fairly strenuous, as bindery workers do considerable lifting, standing, and carrying. Bindery work may also require stoop ing, kneeling, and crouching. Bindery work often resembles an assem https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Bookbinders assemble books from large, flat printed sheets of paper. bly line; someone seeking a bindery position should not mind perform ing repetitive tasks. Binderies are often noisy. Employment In 1988, bindery workers held about 73,000 jobs, which were distrib uted as follows; Bindery machine operators, setters, and setup operators ...... 63,000 Bookbinders................................................................................... 10,000 Although some bindery workers are employed by large libraries and others work for book publishers, most jobs are in commercial printing plants. Since few publishers maintain their own manufacturing facili ties, the printing and assembly of books are often contracted out to commercial printing plants or bindery trade shops. Bindery trade shops, which specialize in binding, are the second largest employer of bindery workers. Firms in this industry sector serve printers without binderies as well as firms whose printing capabilities outstrip their binding capabilities. Although bindery workers are found in all parts of the country, employment is concentrated near large metropolitan areas such as New York, Chicago, Washington, D.C., Los Angeles, Philadelphia, and Dallas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most bindery workers learn the craft through on-the-job training. Inexperienced workers usually start by doing simple tasks such as moving paper from cutting machines to folding machines. At this stage, workers learn the basics, including the characteristics of paper and how to cut large sheets of paper into different sizes with the least amount of waste. As workers gain experience, they advance to more difficult tasks and may leant how to operate one or more pieces of equipment. Generally, it takes 1 to 3 months to train on the simpler machines, but it can take up to 1 year to learn how to operate the more complex equipment. As in most occupations, employers prefer hiring experienced indi viduals, so those with some knowledge of binding operations are likely to have an advantage in being accepted for employer-provided training. High school students interested in bindery careers can gain some exposure to the industry by taking shop courses or attending a vocation al-technical high school. Occupational skill centers, usually operated by a labor union, also provide an introduction to the industry. Postsecondary programs in the graphic arts are offered by vocation al-technical institutes, skill updating or retraining programs, and com 411 412 Occupational Outlook Handbook munity and junior colleges. Four-year college programs help prepare people who may eventually move into management positions in the graphic arts industry. Some updating and retraining programs require students to have bindery experience; other programs are available for union members. To keep pace with ever-changing technology, retraining will become increasingly important. Formal apprenticeships, while not as common as they used to be, are still available and enable workers to acquire the high levels of specialization and skill needed for some jobs. A 4-year apprenticeship usually is necessary to teach workers how to restore rare books and to produce valuable collectors’ items. Accuracy, patience, neatness, and good eyesight are among the qualities needed by bindery workers. Finger dexterity is essential for those who count, insert, paste, and fold, while mechanical aptitude is required of individuals operating the newer, more automated equip ment. Artistic ability and imagination are required for hand bookbind ing. Employers look for individuals with basic mathematics and lan guage skills. Advancement opportunities are limited. In large binderies, experi enced bookbinders may advance to supervisory positions. Job Outlook Employment of bindery workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 in response to anticipated growth in the printing industries. Commercial printers are expected to hire more bindery workers as the volume of printed mate rial grows due to economic expansion and increased reliance on cata logs, newspaper inserts, and direct mail advertising to spur consumer demand. Continued growth in book publishing is expected as school enrollments swell and the burgeoning of the middle-aged and older population makes leisure reading more attractive. As in other occupa tions, however, most job openings will result from the need to replace experienced workers who change jobs or leave the labor force. Emphasis on improving productivity is expected to continue in bindery operations. While no radical technological changes are on the horizon, the binding process is becoming increasingly mechanized. New “in-line” equipment performs a number of operations in sequence beginning with raw stock at one end and ending with a complete finished product at the other end. As a result, labor requirements have been reduced, and the jobs of many bindery workers who assisted skilled bookbinders in the past have already been eliminated. Opportunities for hand bookbinders are limited by the small number of establishments that do this highly specialized work. Earnings The basic wage rate for skilled bookbinders varies across the country. Based on limited available data, inexperienced bindery workers gener ally start at the minimum wage, which was $3.35 in 1988. Workers beginning in union shops might start at slightly higher levels. Accord ing to the Graphic Communications International Union, hourly wage rates for bookbinders in unionized firms in 1988 were $13.70 for journeyman level I and $9.65 for level II. Related Occupations Other workers who set up and operate production machinery include papermaking machine operators, press operators, and precision ma chine operators. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeships and other training opportunities may be obtained from local bookbinding shops, local offices of the Graphic Communications International Union, or local offices of the State employment service. For general information on bindery occupations, write to: ••-Education Council of the Graphic Arts Industry, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pitts burgh, PA 15213. ••-Graphic Communications International Union, 1900 L St. NW., Washing ton, DC 20036. ••-Binding Industries of America, 70 East Lake St., Chicago, IL 60601. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Compositors and Typesetters (D.O.T. 203.362-018, .382-018, -026, .582-042, -046, -062, -074; 208.382 010; 650.582-010, -014, -018, -022, .682-010, .685-010; 652.585-010, .685 106; 973.381-010, -014, -018, -022, -026, -030; 979.381-018, -022) Nature of the Work In small shops, one person may do everything needed to complete a printing job. In large shops, however, the work is divided among specialists. Among these are compositors and typesetters, who set type, style, and format. New printing technologies have changed the role of compositors. Today, virtually all composition work is done with computers and “cold type” technology. Cold type, which refers to any method used to create type without molten lead, uses photographic principles to create positive images on paper. The images are assembled into page format and then used to create film negatives from which the actual printing plates are made. This process of readying text for printing is called phototypesetting. In the method known as “hot type,” molten lead is used to create individual letters, paragraphs, and full pages of text. However, this printing method is well along the road to extinction. In a common form of phototypesetting, text is entered into a com puter that is programmed to hyphenate, space, and create columns of text. Keyboarding of text may be done by typesetters or data entry clerks at the printing establishment or, increasingly, by the author before the job is sent out for composition. The computer stores the text on magnetic tape, floppy disk, or hard disk. The magnetically encoded text is then transferred to a typesetting machine which uses photography, a cathode-ray tube, or a laser to create an image on typesetting paper or film. Once it has been developed, the paper or film is sent to a lithographer who makes the actual printing plate. In another type of composition, a computer produces text on special paper in the desired format. In newspapers, for instance, text is printed in long columns. Workers called “paste-up artists” cut and arrange the columns of text and illustrations onto a special illustration board called a “mechanical.” The special paper adheres easily to the board, yet is designed to allow easy removal and recentering. Once the text is arranged in final form, the board is sent to the camera department where a photographic negative used to create printing plates is produced. The most advanced method of typesetting, called electronic pagina tion, is in limited commercial use at present. Using computers, an operator utilizes a keyboard to select the size and style of type, the column width, and appropriate spacing, as well as to enter and store each character in a computer. The computer then displays and arranges columns of type on a screen that is similar to a TV screen. An entire newspaper page—complete with artwork and graphics—can be made up on the screen exactly as it will appear in print. Operators check the text and make any required corrections. The information is then transmitted for production into film and then into plates, or directly into plates, eliminating the role of paste-up artists. Emerging technologies are also affecting the roles of other composi tion workers. Laser printers, for instance, are likely to play an increas ing role in the printing process. These devices essentially read text from computer memory and then “beam” it directly onto film, paper, or plate, bypassing the slower photographic process now being used. The individuals who operate these machines need good technical skills. Working Conditions Compositors and phototypesetters usually work in clean, air-condi tioned offices with little noise. Workers may be subject to eyestrain from working in front of a video display terminal, as well as musculo skeletal problems, such as backaches. In addition, the job can be stressful since workers are often subject to the pressures of deadlines and tight work schedules. Hot type compositors and typesetters work with noisy machines and because they use molten lead are subject to spillage hazards. Production Occupations 413 All composing room workers may be required to work overtime to meet publication deadlines; some regularly work evening or night shifts. Those employed by newspapers may work holidays and weekends. as skilled compositors, but they must be familiar with printing terms and measures. As workers gain experience, they may advance to positions with greater responsibility. Some move into supervisory positions. Employment Composing room workers held about 86,000 jobs in 1988. Employ ment was distributed as follows; Job Outlook Employment of compositors and typesetters is expected to show little or no change through the year 2000 despite anticipated expansion of the printing industry. Productivity gains associated with new tech nologies are the principal reason; Fewer workers will be needed as computerized equipment simplifies or eliminates many of the time consuming keystroking tasks traditionally performed by compositors and typesetters. The number of jobs would shrink still more were it not for the prospect of greatly increased demand for printed materials in the years ahead. Job prospects for compositors and typesetters vary by industry. For example, changes in technology have shifted many employment opportunities away from the traditional printing plant into advertising agencies, public relations firms, and large corporations. Many compa nies are turning to in-house typesetting or “desk-top publishing” due to the advent of inexpensive personal computers with graphic capabili ties. Corporations are finding it more profitable to print their own newsletters and other reports rather than sending them out to trade shops. Nonetheless, most future openings will result from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. In commercial printing plants, greatly increased demand for newspa per inserts, catalogs, and direct mail advertisements is expected to help sustain employment in the composition area. By introducing equipment that reduces the time needed to complete a printing job, commercial printers have begun to make inroads into new markets, iiparticular those that require fast turnaround because of the time-sensi tive nature of their business. The expanding market for print advertis ing should spur growth in the number of small commercial printing plants, each of which will offer some composition jobs. Newspapers, currently the largest employer of compositors and typesetters, will continue to be hard hit by changes in printing technol ogy. Computerized equipment that allows reporters and editors to specify type, style, and format pages at a desktop computer terminal has already eliminated many typesetting and composition jobs, and more are certain to disappear in the years ahead. Restructuring of the newspaper industry due to mergers, closings, and consolidation will also cause the number of composing room jobs to shrink. Compositors and typesetters whose jobs are adversely affected face the prospect of stiff competition for any available openings, or of retraining for another printing job or leaving the industry altogether. Inexperienced workers will have difficulty finding a composition or typesetting job in this industry. The printing trade services industry is another area where new Typesetting and composing machine operators and tenders................................................................................ 39,000 Compositors, typesetters, and arrangers.................................. 26,000 Data entry keyers, composing.................................................... 21,000 About 36 percent of all salaried jobs were in newspaper plants, and 29 percent were in commercial printing plants. The remainder were in other kinds of printing and publishing firms; in business firms, includ ing mailing, reproduction, commercial art, and stenographic service establishments; and in a wide range of firms that do their own printing. Composing room workers are located in almost every community throughout the country, but they are concentrated in large printing centers such as New York, Los Angeles, Washington, D.C., Philadel phia, Chicago, and Dallas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In the past, almost all compositors were trained through some type of apprenticeship program. This has changed with the introduction of new technologies which have lowered skill requirements. Today, most compositors bypass the traditional apprenticeship and learn the craft on the job. Employers prefer to hire and train individuals already familiar with the industry. If an experienced worker cannot be found, employers may promote from within, selecting for training such workers as messengers or stock clerks, provided their work attitude and past performance suggest they can master the necessary printing skills. Formal graphic arts programs, offered by community and junior colleges and some 4-year colleges, provide an introduction to the industry. Such programs provide job-related training, and enrolling in one of them demonstrates interest in the graphic arts industry, a factor likely to impress an employer favorably. Bachelor's degree programs in graphic arts generally enroll students who may eventually move into management positions, while 2-year associate degree programs are designed to produce skilled workers. Courses in various aspects of printing are also available at vocation al-technical institutes, industry-sponsored update and retraining pro grams, and private trade and technical schools. Job applicants should be high school graduates with good communi cations skills, both oral and written. It is important for the candidate to be a good speller. This will save the time and expense of having to correct mistakes later on. Applicants also need basic skills in arithme tic. In small shops, workers may help take customer orders. The ability to add, subtract, multiply, divide, and compute ratios is important in order to properly estimate job costs. Mathematical skills are also essential for doing conversions. Compositors often have to change points (type size) to picas (line length) to inches (page length) to determine the best page layout. Individuals interested in working for firms that utilize advanced printing technology need sufficient knowledge of electronics and com puters to indicate an aptitude for mastering computerized composition equipment. Manual dexterity and the ability to pay attention to detail and to work independently are important qualities for compositors who do layout work. Good eyesight, including visual acuity, depth perception, field of view, color vision, and the ability to focus quickly, is an asset. Artistic ability is often a plus, as is a basic knowledge of photography since an operator may be required to assemble developed film into pages. Persons with good typing skills can learn to be keyboard operators in a relatively short period of time. These workers need not be trained https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Technological advances have eliminated many jobs for compositors and typesetters. 414 Occupational Outlook Handbook technology has reduced labor requirements. Establishments in this industry typically perform custom typesetting and composition work for printers who lack the time or equipment to do their own work. As newer technologies become cheaper to acquire, more printing establishments will begin to do their own work. Competition for composition and typesetting jobs is expected to intensify through the year 2000. Opportunities should be best for experienced workers. New entrants can improve their chances by completing postsecondary programs in printing and computer graphics technology such as those offered by community colleges and vocation al-technical institutes. When hiring inexperienced applicants, many employers prefer individuals who have completed these programs because the comprehensive training they receive helps them learn composing room trades and adapt to new processes and techniques more rapidly. A basic knowledge of electronics and an aptitude for computers can also enhance an applicant’s employment opportunities. Earnings Earnings of compositors and typesetters vary widely, reflecting differ ences in industry, skill level, and region of the country. The median weekly annual earnings of full-time compositors and typesetters were about $328 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $251 and $474. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $188, while the highest 10 percent earned over $589. Related Occupations Other workers who operate machines equipped with keyboards include clerk-typists, computer terminal system operators, keypunch opera tors, and telegraphic-typewriter operators. Lithographic and photoengraving workers are responsible for a variety of tasks, from photographing text and pictures to making the final printing plates. In small shops, a single worker may handle every step in the printing process. In large companies, lithographic workers tend to specialize, and have job titles such as camera operator, stripper, dot etcher, scanner operator, or platemaker. Camera operators—who generally are classified as line camera operators, halftone operators, or color separation photographers—start the process of making a lithographic plate by photographing and developing negatives of the material to be printed. Continuous-tone photographs cannot be reproduced by most printing processes. There fore, halftone camera operators photograph pictures that are broken into dots which can be reproduced. Operators adjust light and expose film for a specified length of time, and then develop film in a series of chemical baths. Camera operators may also mount unexposed film in machines that automatically develop and fix the image. Color separa tion photography is more complex. During this process, camera opera tors produce four-color separation negatives from a continuous-tone color print or transparency which is being reproduced. More of this separation work will be done electronically in the future on scanners. Scanner operators use computerized equipment to create film negatives or positives of photographs or art. The operator reviews all work to determine if corrections to the original are necessary and adjusts the equipment accordingly. The operator then uses a densitometer to measure the density of the colored areas, and the scanner is adjusted to obtain the best results. Once the settings are entered, the scanner is started. To reproduce color, an original color photograph or transparency is scanned for each color to be printed. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeship and other training opportunities may be obtained from local employers such as newspapers and printing shops or the local office of the State employment service. For general information on composing room occupations, write to: •-Education Council of the Graphic Arts Industry, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pitts burgh, PA 15213. •-National Composition Association of the Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N. Lynn St., Arlington, VA 22209. •-Graphic Communications International Union, 1900 L St. NW., Washing ton, DC 20036. Lithographic and Photoengraving Workers (D.O.T. 652.665-014, .685-022, -086; 970.281-026, .361-014, .381-030; 971.261, .381 except-042,-046,-058, .382, .685; 972.281, 282-010 -014 .381, .382; 979.381-018, -022, .382-022, .682-014) Nature of the Work Lithography, also called offset printing, is the dominant method of printing. In this process, lithographers photograph or scan the material to be printed to produce film negatives or positives which are assembled into flats that are used to expose printing plates. When inked, the plates transfer the image to be printed to a rubber blanket. The rubber blanket in turn transfers the ink onto paper. In photoengraving, a similar process, photoengravers etch metal letterpress plates or gra vure-etched cylinders for reproduction of copy. The plates are carefully engraved with the image to be printed. Once the plates are installed in the press, ink collects in the engraved recesses and is held there until transferred onto paper. Lithography has replaced photoengraving for most purposes, although the latter is still used for high-quality magazines and other specialty printing jobs. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 3rnmmmmtn: f s I 1 -• Photoengraving is used for high-quality magazines and other specialty printing jobs. Production Occupations Each scan produces a dotted image of the original in one of four basic colors: Yellow, magenta, cyan, and black. The images are used to produce printing plates that will print each of these colors, one at a time. The printing is done with primary colors because, when combined in the proper order, they will produce all the colors and hues of the original photograph. The computer controls the scanning process, correcting for mistakes or compensating for deficiencies in the original. Negatives may need retouching. Lithographic dot etchers take care of this by sharpening or reshaping images on the negatives. They do the work by hand, using chemicals, dyes, and special tools. Dot etchers must know the characteristics of all types of paper and must produce fine shades of color. Like camera operators, they are usually assigned to only one phase of the work, and may have job titles such as dot etcher, retoucher, or letterer. Strippers cut the film to required size and arrange and tape the negatives onto “flats,” or layout sheets, used by platemakers to make press plates. When completed, flats resemble large film negatives of the text in its final form. In large printing establishments like newspa pers, arrangement is done automatically. Platemakers use a photographic process to make printing plates. The film assembly or flat, which closely resembles a photographic negative of the text, is placed on top of a thin metal plate treated with a light-sensitive chemical. Exposure to ultraviolet light activates the chemical in those regions not protected by the film’s dark areas. The plate is then developed in a special solution that removes the unexposed non-image area, exposing bare metal. The chemical on areas of the plate exposed to the light hardens and becomes water repellent. The hardened parts of the plate form the text. In a growing number of printing plants, platemakers use machines that process the plates automatically. Entering, storing, and retrieving information from computer-aided equipment require technical skills. In addition to operating and maintaining the equipment, lithographic platemakers must make sure that plates meet quality standards. During the printing process, the plate is first covered with a thin coat of water. The water adheres only to the bare metal non-image areas, and is repelled by the hardened areas that were exposed to light. Next, the plate comes in contact with a rubber roller covered with an oil-based ink. Because oil and water do not mix, the ink is repelled by the water-coated area and sticks to the hardened areas. The ink covering the hardened text can now be transferred to paper. New technologies are greatly affecting every aspect of the printing process, particularly the prepress stage, where there is a trend toward complete digitized imaging. Digitized imaging is the technology by which the material to be printed is processed directly from computer to plate; this may eventually eliminate the use of film in printing. However, film is still the most economical and efficient data storage and retrieval medium in use. Some technological advances during the past 10 years include digital color scanners with electronic dot generation, electronic color page makeup systems, electronic page layout systems, and off-press color proofing systems. Electronic imaging is primarily limited to larger, more advanced printing shops, but this process will become more prevalent as costs decline and quality improves. The effect these innovations will have on employment is uncertain at this time. Working Conditions Although lithographic and photoengraving workers stand most of the time, the work is not physically demanding. Some light lifting may be required. Lithographic artists and strippers may find working with fine detail tiring and fatiguing to the eyes. Platemakers, who work with toxic chemicals in both processes, face the hazard of skin irrita tions. Work areas usually are well lighted and air-conditioned. Lithographic and photoengraving workers generally work an 8hour day but sometimes have to work overtime to meet publication deadlines. Some workers—particularly those employed by newspa pers—work night shifts, weekends, and holidays. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 415 Employment Lithographic and photoengraving workers held about 67,000 jobs in 1988. Employment was distributed as follows: Lithographic and photoengraving workers, precision............. 44,000 Photoengraving and lithographic machine operators and photographers.................................................................... 23,000 Most jobs are in commercial printing plants, newspapers, printing trade service firms, and “in-plant” operations. Although these workers are located in all parts of the country, most are employed in large printing centers such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, Washington, D.C., and Dallas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most lithographic and photoengraving workers begin as helpers or “gofers.” They may be hired to work on the loading dock, for example, or help clean up. When the need arises, helpers who have proved their reliability and interest may be selected for on-the-job training in lithography or photoengraving and begin their instruction with experienced craft workers. Advancement is based on an individual’s demonstrated mastery of skills at each level of instruction. Years of onthe-job training are required to become a skilled worker, and frequent retraining is needed to keep abreast of the latest technology. Apprenticeship provides another way of becoming a skilled worker, although few apprenticeships have been offered in recent years. Ap prenticeship programs may emphasize a specific craft, such as camera operator, stripper, lithographic etcher, scanner operator, or platemaker, but the apprentice is introduced to all phases of the operation. Usually, job applicants must be high school graduates, at least 18 years of age, and in good physical condition. Good oral and writing skills also are required. Applicants should be able to compute percent ages and be familiar with weights and measures. Those employed in small shops may be called upon to take customer orders or make cost estimates. In such cases, workers need enough mathematics skills to factor in such items as the costs of labor, paper, ink, and the time needed to do a job. A knowledge of color composition is an asset, as is evidence of an aptitude for mastering the computer-assisted equipment used in graphic preparatory work. Prospective camera operators should have an understanding of chemistry, optics, and the entire printing and photographic process. Precision, patience, good eyesight and color vision, artistic skills, and manual dexterity are desirable qualifications for prospective litho graphic artists and strippers. Employers also seek candidates who are even tempered and adaptable. Workers must be able to handle the pressure of meeting deadlines and the challenge of learning how to operate new equipment. Vocational-technical institutes, community and junior colleges, and 4-year colleges offer 2-year programs in printing technology which provide a valuable background for persons interested in learning litho graphic crafts. High school and vocational school training in printing, photography, mathematics, chemistry, physics, mechanical drawing, and art also is helpful. „ Unions, industry groups, and equipment manufacturers also provide training in new techniques and equipment for individuals with some experience. As workers acquire experience and training, they may advance to positions of greater responsibility. Some become supervisors. Job Outlook Overall, employment of lithographic and photoengraving workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. While employment of lithographic workers is expected to grow faster than the average, employmer of photoengrav ing workers is expected to decline. These divergent trends reflect the fact that offset printing methods—which involve lithography—are replacing letterpress printing, which requires photoengraving skills. Rapidly rising demand for printed material is the principal factor underlying projected growth in employment of lithographic workers. 416 Occupational Outlook Handbook Output of printed materials is expected to grow substantially by the year 2000 in response to demand generated by an expanding economy, increased school enrollments, and more middle-aged and older readers. In addition, new printing technologies are expected to spur demand by creating new markets for printed matter, effectively capturing some of the advertising dollars currently allotted to nonprint media. Work previously requiring a week or more can now be completed in several days. Much faster turnaround time will permit printers to compete with nonprint media for time-sensitive business, providing advertisers with specialty advertisements used to target specific market segments, for example. Although expansion of the printing industry is expected to create more jobs for lithographic workers, employment growth between now and the year 2000 is not likely to keep pace with future increases in the output of printed materials, in view of the laborsaving nature of new printing technologies. In addition to jobs created by industry growth, many openings will result from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Many new jobs will be in commercial printing establishments. These firms produce a wide variety of printed materials, including pamphlets, brochures, newspaper inserts, and direct mail advertisements. Because small establishments predominate, commercial printing should provide the best opportunities for inexperienced workers looking to gain a good background in all facets of lithography. Employment opportunities for inexperienced individuals should be best for those who have completed postsecondary programs in printing technology. Many employers prefer to hire applicants who have com pleted these programs because the comprehensive training they receive helps them learn lithography and adapt more rapidly to new processes and techniques. Earnings The basic wage rate for a lithographic or photoengraving worker varies according to the job, level of experience and training, location and size of the firm, and whether employees are unionized. According to the Graphic Communications International Union, experienced litho graphers operating a scanner earned approximately $19.80 an hour in 1988, while color strippers earned $16.00 an hour. Related Occupations Lithographic and photoengraving workers use artistic skills in their work. These skills are also essential for sign painters, jewelers, decora tors, and engravers. Sources of Additional Information Details on apprenticeship and other training opportunities in lithogra phy and photoengraving are available from local employers such as newspapers and printing shops, local offices of the Graphic Communi cations International Union, or the local office of the State employment service. For information on schools that offer courses in printing technology, write to: ••-Education Council of the Graphic Arts Industry, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pitts burgh, PA 15213. For general information on lithographic occupations, write to: ••-Graphic Communications International Union, 1900 L St. NW., Washing ton, DC 20036. Printing Press Operators (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 463.) Nature of the Work Printing press operators prepare and operate the printing presses in a pressroom. They are responsible for the preparation, operation, and maintenance of the press. Press operators are generally classified according to the type of press they operate—offset, gravure, flexogra https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Printing press operators must make sure that paper and ink meet specifications. phy, screen printing, or letterpress—and duties vary accordingly. Offset is the dominant printing process and is expected to remain so into the next century. During this period, gravure and flexography will increase in use, while letterpress is being phased out and will no longer rank as a major printing process in the next few years without major breakthroughs in plate technology. Preparation involves installing and adjusting the printing plate, mixing fountain solution, adjusting pressure, inking presses, loading paper, and adjusting the press to paper size. Press operators must make sure that paper and ink meet specifications, and they adjust control margins and the flow of ink to the inking roller accordingly. They then feed paper through the press cylinders, and adjust feed and tension controls. Operation involves running the press and maintaining the feeders. Press operators monitor the presses as they run, correcting uneven ink distribution, speed, and temperatures in the drying chamber, if the press has one. If the paper should jam or tear, which can happen with some offset presses, the press stops. The operator then quickly corrects the problem to minimize downtime. Similarly, operators working with other high-speed presses constantly look for problems, making quick corrections to avoid expensive losses of paper and ink. Throughout the run, operators must also pull sheets to check for any imperfections and make adjustments accordingly. In many shops, press operators are responsible for preventive main tenance. Press operators oil and clean the presses and make minor repairs to keep presses running smoothly. Operators who work with large presses have assistants and helpers. Press operators’ jobs differ from one shop to another because of differences in the kinds and sizes of presses. Small commercial shops generally have relatively small presses operated by one individual and capable of printing only one or two colors at a time. Large newspaper, magazine, and book printers use giant “in-line web” presses that require a crew of several press operators and press assistants. These presses are fed paper in big rolls, called “webs,” up to 50 inches or more in width. Presses print the paper on both sides; trim, assemble, score, and fold the pages; and count the finished sections as they come off the press. Many modem plants have installed printing presses that incorporate computers and sophisticated instrumentation which control press oper ations, making it possible to set up for another job in much less time. Production Occupations With this equipment, the press operator operates a control panel that monitors the printing process. To adjust the press, the operator pushes the proper button on the control panel. Working Conditions Operating a press can be physically and mentally demanding. Press operators are on their feet most of the time. Most printing presses are capable of high printing speeds, and adjustments must be made quickly to avoid waste. Pressrooms are noisy, and workers in certain areas wear ear protectors. Because press operators are subject to hazards when working near machinery, employers emphasize safe work habits. Often, operators work under pressure to meet deadlines. Many press operators work evening, night, and overtime shifts. Employment Press operators held about 239,000 jobs in 1988. Employment was distributed as follows: Printing press machine setters.................................................. 108,000 Offset lithographic operators ................................................... 91,000 Letterpress operators.................................................................. 22,000 All other....................................................................................... 18,000 Most jobs were in newspaper plants or in firms that handle commer cial or business printing. Commercial printing firms print newspaper inserts, catalogs, pamphlets, and the advertisements found in your mailbox, while business form establishments print items such as sales receipts and paper used in computers. Additional jobs were in the “in-plant” section of organizations and businesses that do their own printing—among them, banks, insurance companies, and government agencies. The printing and publishing industry is one of the most geographi cally dispersed in the United States, and press operators can find jobs throughout the country. However, jobs are concentrated in large printing centers such as New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Philadel phia, Washington, D.C., and Dallas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement As is the case in other printing occupations, entry level workers, even those with formal training, generally start at the bottom and work their way up. Beginning duties may include loading, unloading, and cleaning the presses. With time, workers move up to operating onecolor sheet-fed presses and may eventually advance to multicolor presses. Operators are likely to gain experience on many kinds of printing presses during the course of their career. Apprenticeship, once the dominant method of preparing for this occupation, is becoming less prevalent as formal programs of retrain ing and skill updating for experienced operators take on greater impor tance. In the future, it is expected that workers will need to retrain several times during their career. The apprenticeship period in com mercial shops is 4 years for press operators. In addition to on-the-job instruction, the apprenticeship includes related classroom or corre spondence school courses. Courses in printing provide a good back ground. Because of technical developments in the printing industry, courses in chemistry, electronics, color theory, and physics are helpful. Postsecondary education is increasingly important because of the theo retical knowledge needed to operate advanced equipment. Press operators need good mechanical aptitude in order to make press adjustments and repairs. An ability to visualize color is essential for work on color presses. Oral and writing skills also are required. Applicants should be able to compute percentages, weights, and mea sures, and should possess enough mathematics skills to calculate the amount of ink and paper needed to do a job. Technological changes have had a tremendous effect on the skills needed by press operators. Printing plants that change from sheet-fed offset presses to web-offset presses have to retrain the entire press crew because the skill requirements for the two types of presses are very different. Web-offset presses, with their faster operating speeds, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 417 require faster decisions, monitoring of more variables, and greater physical effort. Press operators may advance in pay and responsibility by taking a job working on a more complex printing press. For example, a onecolor sheet-fed press operator may, through experience and demon strated ability, become a four-color sheet-fed press operator. Others may advance to pressroom supervisor and be responsible for the work of the entire press crew. Job Outlook Employment of press operators is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 because of anticipated growth in the demand for printed materials. However, employment growth will vary among various press operator jobs. Employment of offset, gravure, and flexographic operators will in crease, while employment of letterpress operators will decline. Many additional openings will result from replacement needs. Most new openings will result from industry expansion due to rising demand for printed material associated with demographic trends, U.S. expansion into foreign markets, and growing use of print media by advertisers. Changes in the age structure of the population are expected to spur demand for books and magazines as school enrollments rise, even as substantial growth in the middle-aged and older population spurs adult education and leisure reading. Additional growth should stem from increasing foreign demand for domestic trade publications, professional and scientific works, and mass-market books such as paperbacks. Much of the growth in commercial printing, however, will be spurred by increased expenditures for print advertising aimed at particular market segments. New market research techniques are expected to lead advertisers to increase spending on messages targeted to specific audiences. This in turn will stimulate demand for a wide variety of newspaper inserts, catalogs, direct mail enclosures, and other kinds of print advertising, Other areas such as the newspaper, book, and periodical industries will also provide jobs. Most of these, however, will be filled by experienced individuals because many employers are under severe pressure to meet deadlines and have limited time to train new em ployees. Major laborsaving technological advances, similar to those now affecting the prepress area, are not expected in the press area. Current efforts aimed at achieving higher press speeds and reduced setup time are not expected to affect employment adversely. Apprenticeship training is more likely to be required of individuals entering this occupation than other printing occupations. They will face stiff competition for jobs from experienced workers and workers who have completed retraining programs. Earnings The basic wage rate for a press operator depends on the type of press being run and the area of the country in which the work is located. According to data from the Printing Industries of America, the average wage rate for two-color sheet-fed press operators was $16.98 an hour in 1988; for four-color sheet-fed press operators, $18.06 an hour. Related Occupations Other workers who set up and operate production machinery are papermaking machine operators, shoemaking machine operators, bindery machine operators, and precision machine operators. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeships and other training opportunities may be obtained from local employers such as newspapers and printing shops, local offices of the Graphic Communications International Union, local affiliates of Printing Industries of America, or local offices of the State employment service. For general information about press operators, write to: •-Graphic Communications International Union, 1900 L St. NW., Washing ton, DC 20036. •-Education Council of the Graphic Aits Industry, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pitts burgh, PA 15213. Textile, Apparel, and Furnishings Occupations Apparel Workers (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 463.) Nature of the Work Apparel workers transform cloth, as well as leather and fur, into clothing and other consumer products that we use every day. Many of these workers are also involved in the care and alteration of these products. Some items that we think of as apparel, such as socks or pantyhose, are produced in knitting mills. Workers who are employed in these factories are classified as textile rather than as apparel workers. (A separate statement on textile machinery operatives is presented in this section of the Handbook.) Apparel production begins with a design, created by a designer, that has been made into a sample product by a custom tailor or a hand sewer, also known as a sample maker. (A separate statement on designers is presented elsewhere in the Handbook.) Because these goods are to be mass produced, a master pattern must be developed. This is the responsibility of patternmakers. From the sample, they create pattern pieces that will complement the fabric and minimize the number of sewing operations. In many instances, different sizes of a shirt or other product are required. Instead of creating several patterns, the patternmaker or grader reduces or enlarges the master pattern for different sizes. In many large firms, this now is done with the aid of a computer. Once the pattern has been created, layout workers begin the produc tion process. Spreaders, one type of layout worker, spread out layers of material on the cutting table. The number of layers depends on the number of products needed, as well as on the weight and quality of the material. Material must be laid out evenly and to a specified length on the table or problems will arise when cutting begins. Specialized spreading machines enable layout workers to accomplish this with a high degree of precision. Other layout workers known as markers must determine the best arrangement of the pattern pieces to minimize waste. In most plants, this step depends on the judgment of the layout worker. Increasingly in large firms, however, computers are used to determine the optimum arrangement of the pattern pieces. After the pattern has been positioned, its outline is drawn with chalk on the top layer of material. Using an electric knife or other cutting tool, portable machine cutters cut out the various pieces of material following the outline of the pattern. On especially delicate or valuable items, this may be done by hand cutters. These workers must pay close attention to detail because a mistake in the cutting process can ruin many yards of material. Once the material has been cut, it is ready to be assembled into a shirt, knapsack, dress, or other product. Before being sent to the sewing room, the products’ parts and accessories are bundled together. Colors, sizes, and fabric designs are matched, and chalk or another substance is used to mark locations for pockets, buttonholes, zippers, or decorative trim. Most sewing is done on a machine by sewing machine operators, who are classified by the type of machine and the type of product on which they work. Because each product requires a variety of sewing operations—and all of these cannot be done on the same machine— companies producing apparel must have several different types of sewing machines. Sewing machine operators’ skills vary by the type of machine on which they work. Sewing machine operators also can be categorized by the specific product they produce, such as women’s outerwear or men’s suits. The most basic division, however, is between those who produce clothing and those who produce nonapparel items. Garment sewing machine 418 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis operators sew clothing for men, women, and children. They usually specialize in a single operation, such as shoulder seams, cuffs, or hems. Like garment sewing machine operators, nongarment sewing machine operators specialize in a single operation, but they sew other products, such as towels, sheets, or curtains. Because of the value and delicate nature of some materials, sewing may be done by hand rather than on a machine. Hand sewers are highly skilled workers who may specialize in a particular operation, such as sewing buttonholes or adding lace or other trimming. They also may work with the designer to make a sample of a new product. When all sewing operations have been completed, hand cutters and trimmers remove loose threads, basting stitching, and lint from the finished product. The shape and appearance of certain finished products depend, to a large extent, on the pressing that is done at different stages of produc tion. Pressing may be done by hand pressers using a hand iron or on pressing machines that are monitored by pressing machine operators. Some pressers specialize in a particular garment part; others are respon sible for the final pressing before the product is shipped to the store. Not all apparel goods are mass produced. Some people prefer or require clothing made especially for them. Custom tailors and sewers make garments from start to finish—including taking measurements and helping the customer select the right fabric—and must be knowl edgeable in all phases of clothing production. Many work in retail outlets, where they make alterations and adjustments to ready-to-wear clothing. Inspectors are found in all stages of the production process. (For a more detailed discussion of this occupation, see the statement on inspectors elsewhere in the Handbook.) They may mark defects in uncut fabric so that layout workers can position the pattern to avoid them, or they may mark defects in semifinished garments, which they may repair themselves or send back to be mended by a hand sewer. Many apparel workers are employed by small firms that lack the capital resources to invest in new, more efficient equipment. Because of this, the nature of the work for the majority of apparel workers has not been affected by the increased use of technology. Nevertheless, in larger firms that have modernized their facilities, some operations are computerized, and some of the product-moving operations are done by automated material-handling systems. In addition, many of these larger firms are increasingly using modular manufacturing systems. In these systems, which often reduce production time while increasing product quality, several operators work together as a team, and each is trained on the various operations the group performs. Not only do operators have more communication with other workers, but they are more involved in correcting problems. Rather than send a garment to a mending area for correction, repairs are made by a member of the work group. Working Conditions Working conditions in apparel production vary by establishment and by the type of job being done. Older factories tend to be congested and poorly lit and ventilated, but more modem facilities are usually better planned, have more work space, and are well lighted and venti lated. In either case, conditions in the pattemmaking and cutting areas tend to be better than those in the sewing and pressing areas. Sewing and pressing areas usually are crowded and noisy, whereas pattemmak ing and spreading areas are quieter because they often are separate from the production floor. Laundries and drycleaners often are hot and noisy; retail stores, on the other hand, generally are relatively quiet and comfortable. Most persons in apparel occupations work a 5-day, 40-hour week, although overtime may be necessary when production deadlines have to be met. For the convenience of customers, evening and weekend hours may be necessary for those employed in retail stores and in laundry and drycleaning establishments. Production Occupations Apparel production work can be taxing. Some workers sit for long periods, and others spend a lot of time on their feet, leaning over cutting tables or operating pressing machines. Those who work on a piece-rate basis are under constant pressure to improve their rate of production. The work is not especially dangerous, but workers must be attentive when operating their machines. Those who operate ma chines that run at high speeds, such as sewing machine operators, must not wear clothing or jewelry that can get caught in moving parts. In addition, those in the cutting areas must be careful with electric knives and other sharp instruments. Employment Apparel operatives held 1,104,000 jobs in 1988. Production jobs are concentrated in California, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Georgia, and Tennessee. Most of these jobs are in the production of apparel or textile products, except for pressers and custom tailors. Although pressing operations are an integral part of the apparel produc tion process, more than one-half of all pressers are employed in the laundry and drycleaning industry. In addition, more than 6 of every 10 custom tailors and sewers work in retail clothing establishments; many others are self-employed. For both of these occupations, jobs are found in every part of the country. The following tabulation shows the distribution of apparel workers by occupation: Percent Total................................................................................................. 100 Garment sewing machine operators................................................. Nongarment sewing machine operators......................................... Custom tailors and sewers................................................................ Pressing machine operators and tenders ........................................ Hand cutters and trimmers............................................................... Hand pressers...................................................................................... Hand sewers....................................................................................... Portable machine cutters................................................................... Patternmakers and layout workers.................................................. 56 13 12 8 6 2 1 1 I Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements vary by industry. In the apparel industry, for example, few employers require a high school diploma or previous work experience. Nevertheless, entrants with secondary or postsecond ary vocational training or previous work experience in apparel produc tion usually have a better chance of getting a job and advancing to a supervisory position. Retailers prefer to hire custom tailors and sewers with previous experience in apparel manufacture, design, or alterations. Knowledge of fabrics and clothing design is very important. Although laundries and dry cleaners prefer entrants with previous work experience, em ployers routinely hire inexperienced workers. Apparel workers need good eye-hand coordination and the ability to perform a very repetitious task for long periods. Apparel workers need good eye-hand coordination and dexterity. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 419 Regardless of setting, workers usually begin by performing some of the simpler tasks and by helping and observing more experienced workers. As they gain experience, they are assigned more difficult operations. Further advancement is limited, however. Some produc tion workers may become first-line supervisors, but the majority re main on the production line. Occasionally, a patternmaker may ad vance to designer, but usually only after additional training at a design school. Some experienced custom tailors open their own tailoring shop. This can be done fairly easily because it does not require a large capital investment. Custom tailoring is a very competitive field, however, and training in small business operation can mean the differ ence between success and failure. Skill improvement training is not common for these operatives, but when new machinery is introduced, workers must be trained in its operation. Training usually is conducted by a machinery manufactur er’s representative or another employee who has been trained in the operation of the machine. However, as machinery in the industry continues to become more complex, apparel workers will need more training, especially in the areas of computers and electronics. In addi tion, operators in factories using modular manufacturing systems must be trained on all the machines in the work group. As a result, operators may spend several hours a week learning other functions from a more experienced operator before being assigned to a work group. Job Outlook Employment of apparel workers is expected to decline through the year 2000. The job outlook depends largely on conditions in the apparel industry, where most apparel workers are employed. Increased imports, use of offshore assembly, and greater productivity through the introduction of laborsaving machinery should reduce demand for these workers. Because of the large size of this occupation, however, many thousands of job openings will arise each year from the need to replace persons who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Employment in the domestic apparel industry has declined in recent years as foreign producers have gained a greater share of the U.S. market. In the face of this growing competition, some domestic pro ducers have had to cut production and lay off workers. If the level of imports continues to rise, as is expected, there will be further cuts in production, and more jobs will be lost. One strategy that domestic manufacturers have adopted to reduce costs is the use of offshore assembly. For example, a manufacturer may cut the pieces of fabric in the United States and ship them to a Caribbean country for assembly. This enables the most labor-intensive step in the production process—sewing—to be done at much lower wage rates. This trend is expected to continue, and should curtail job opportunities for hand sewers and sewing machine operators. Despite advances in technology, extensive use of automated equip ment is difficult because of the variety of items produced and the frequent style and seasonal changes. However, some of the larger firms and those that produce a standardized item have been able to automate their facilities. Technological developments such as comput er-aided marking and grading, laser cutters, semiautomatic sewing and pressing machines, and automated material-handling systems have increased output while reducing the need for workers. Opportunities should be best for those interested in a job as a custom tailor or pressing machine operator. Many of these workers are employed by retail establishments and by laundries and drycleaners, employers that are unaffected by imports and are unable to move operations abroad. Employers in some locations are having difficulty attracting enough of these workers; as a result, those with the appro priate skills and background should find ample opportunities. Earnings Earnings of apparel workers vary by industry and by occupation. Average weekly earnings of production workers in the apparel industry were $6.10 in 1988, compared to $10.17 for production workers in all manufacturing industries. However, earnings vary significantly depending on the product being manufactured. As table 1 illustrates, 420 Occupational Outlook Handbook average weekly earnings ranged from a low of $5.47 in firms producing children’s outerwear to a high of $7.32 in establishments making curtains and draperies, garment bags, and similar products. Table 1. Average hourly earnings of production workers in se lected apparel manufacturing industries, 1988 Industry Hourly rate Miscellaneous fabricated textile products.................................. Men’s and boys’ suits and coats.................................................. Miscellaneous apparel and accessories........................................ Women’s and misses’ outerwear.................................................. Women’s and children’s undergarments..................................... Men’s and boys’ furnishings........................................................ Children’s outerwear...................................................................... $7.32 6.87 5.95 5.90 5.68 5.60 5.47 SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics Sewing machine operators and pressing machine operators—ac counting for 8 of every 10 apparel workers—had median weekly earnings of $193 and $190, respectively, in 1988. Most custom tailors working in department stores earned between $7.87 and $8.82 an hour. Table 2 provides more occupational detail for one sector of the apparel industry. Table 2. Average hourly earnings for selected occupations in men’s and boys’ shirt and nightwear manufacturing, 1988 Occupation Hourly rate Machine cutters................................................................................ $6.60 Markers............................................................................................. 5.71 Spreaders.......................................................................................... 5.44 Finish machine pressers................................................................ 5.07 Sewing machine operators............................................................ 5.01 Finish hand pressers....................................................................... 4.88 Thread trimmers............................................................................. 4.19 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics Because many production workers in apparel manufacturing are paid according to the number of acceptable pieces they produce, their total earnings depend on skill, speed, and accuracy. Benefits also vary. Those offered by large employers usually include paid holidays and vacations, health and life insurance coverage, and in an increasing number, childcare. Those employed in retail trade also may receive a discount of 10 to 30 percent on their purchases. In addition, some of the larger manufacturers operate company stores, where employees can purchase apparel products at significant dis counts. Some small firms, however, may offer only limited benefits. In addition to employer-sponsored benefits, the two principal unions, the Amalgamated Clothing and Textile Workers Union and the Interna tional Ladies Garment Workers Union, provide benefits to their members. Related Occupations The work of apparel workers varies from that requiring very little skill and training to that which is highly complex, requiring several years of training. Those operating machinery and equipment, such as press ing or sewing machine operators, perform duties similar to metalwork ing and plastic-working machine operators, textile operatives, and shoe sewing machine operators. Other workers who perform handwork are precision woodworkers, precision assemblers, and shoe and leather workers. Those requiring an in-depth knowledge of the materials with which they work include upholsterers, tool and die makers, and precision welders. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information Information regarding careers in apparel may be obtained from numer ous colleges and universities that have specialized textile and apparel programs. A list of these can be found in college guides. In addition, the local office of the State employment service or an apparel manufac turer can provide information on job opportunities in a specific area. For general information on the apparel industry, write to: (•-American Apparel Manufacturers Association, 2500 Wilson Blvd., Suite 301, Arlington, VA. 22201. For information on opportunities in hosiery manufacturing, write to: (•-National Association of Hosiery Manufacturers, 447 Sharon Amity Rd., Charlotte, NC 28211. Shoe and Leather Workers and Repairers (D.O.T. 365.361; 780.381-030; 781.381-018; 783.361-010, and .381-018 through 026; 788.261-010 and .381) Nature of the Work Creating stylish and durable leather products is the job of precision shoe and leather workers; keeping them in good condition is the work of repairers. Among the workers who do leather work and repair are custom luggage makers and orthopedic shoemakers, saddlemakers, and hamessmakers. Job duties of these workers are similar, even though the finished products differ. Depending on the size of the factory or shop, a leather worker may perform one or many of the steps that it takes to complete the product. First, the worker checks the leather for texture, color, and strength. Then the worker places a pattern of the item being produced on the leather, traces the pattern onto the leather, cuts the pattern along the outline, and sews the pieces together by hand or with a machine. At this point, the work varies according to the item being produced. Shoemakers attach the insoles to shoe lasts (a wooden form shaped like a foot), affix the shoe uppers, and apply heels and outsoles. They shape the heels with a knife and then sand them on a buffing wheel for smoothness. Finally, they dye the shoes, and polish them by holding them against a rotating brush. Saddlemakers, on the other hand, then apply leather dyes and liquid top coats to produce gloss, and decorate the saddle surface either by hand stitching or stamping the leather with decorative patterns and design. Luggage makers fasten the leather to the frame and attach handles and other hardware. They also cut and secure linings inside the frames, and then sew or stamp decorations onto the luggage. Custom shoe workers not only make shoes from scratch, but modify existing footwear for people with foot problems and special needs. Workers may prepare inserts, heel pads, and lifts from casts of custom ers’ feet. In smaller factories, one worker may perform all of these tasks. More commonly, however, workers specialize in different steps. At times, they may move from one task to another in order to learn and master different skills in the production of the leather good. Shoe and leather repairers use their knowledge of leatherworking and shoe construction to give worn shoes and other leather goods extended wearability. The most common type of shoe repair is replac ing soles and heels. Repairers place the shoe on a last and remove the old sole and heel with a knife or pliers or both. They attach new soles and heels to shoes either by stitching them in place or by using cement or nails. Repairers, as with custom shoemakers, also sand the sides of the heels with sanding or buffing wheels. Leather workers and repairers use handtools and machines. The most commonly used handtools are knives, hammers, awls (used to poke holes in leather to make sewing possible), and skivers (for splitting leather). Power-operated equipment includes sewing ma chines, heel nailing machines, hole punching machines, and sole stitchers. Production Occupations Self-employed shoe repairers and owners of custom-made shoe and leather shops have managerial responsibilities in addition to their regular duties. They must maintain good relations with their customers, make business decisions, and keep accurate records. Working Conditions Working conditions of leather workers vary according to the type of work performed, the size of the factory or business, and the particular place of employment. Workers employed in relatively large custom leather goods manu facturing establishments (20 employees or more) work in large rooms. Repairers generally work in smaller rooms. Rooms may be crowded and noisy because of the machines used to prepare and repair leather. Odors from leather dyes and stains are often present. The work is not strenuous and hazards are few if safety precautions arc followed. Employment Shoe and leather workers and repairers held about 31,500 jobs in 1988. Self-employed individuals, who typically own and operate small shoe repair shops or specialty leather manufacturing firms, held about 12,000 of these jobs. The rest were employed in the manufacture of leather goods, such as shoes, luggage, and apparel. Other areas of employment include large shops doing shoe and leather repair and repair shops operated by shoe stores, department stores, and diycleaning establishments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Precision shoe and leather workers and repairers generally leam their craft on the job, either through in-house training programs or working as helpers to experienced workers. Helpers generally begin by perform ing simple tasks, either in the creation or repair of a leather good, and then perform more difficult projects such as sewing, cutting, or stitching leather. Trainees generally become fully skilled in 6 months to 2 years; the length of training varies greatly according to the aptitude and dedication of the individual and the nature of the work (manufac ture or repair). A limited number of schools nationwide offer vocational training in shoe repair and leather work, including saddlemaking. These programs may last from 6 months to I year and impart basic skills including leather cutting, stitching, and dying. Students leam shoe construction, practice shoe repair, and study the fundamentals of running a small 421 business. Graduates are encouraged to gain additional training by working with an experienced leather worker or repairer. National and regional associations offer training seminars and workshops in shoe repair and leather work. Manual dexterity and the mechanical aptitude to work with handtools and machines are important in the shoe repair and leatherworking occupations. Shoe and leather workers who produce custom-made goods should have artistic ability as well. These workers must have self-discipline to work alone under little supervision. In addition, leather workers and repairers who own shops must have a pleasant manner when dealing with customers and knowledge of business practices and management. Many individuals who begin as workers or repairers advance to salaried supervisory and managerial positions, or open their own shop or business. Job Outlook Little or no change in employment of shoe and leather workers is expected through the year 2000. Since these workers do custom and hand work, automation and imports will not significantly affect em ployment. Most job openings will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who change occupations or stop working. Prospects for workers employed in the manufacture and modification of custom-made molded or orthopedic shoes are better than those for most other leather workers. Substantial growth is expected in the population age 75 and above. Since this age group is most likely to suffer from footwear problems that require molded or orthopedic shoes, the need for custom shoe workers should increase. Employment of shoe repairers is expected to remain stable or in crease slightly through the year 2000. This occupation is subject to conflicting forces. “While-you-wait” repair shops will continue to stimulate demand for shoe repairers because of the convenience to customers. However, the widespread availability of low-cost shoes and the increase in cushion-soled footwear that is not practical to repair will counterbalance the increase in demand for shoe repairers, resulting in little employment change. In custom shoe manufacturing and shoe repair, prospects are ex pected to be good for people with knowledge of the trade or a demon strated aptitude for mastering the requisite skills. Once trained, work ers are likely to find employment with relatively little difficulty. Earnings In 1988, the average salary of shoe and leather workers and repairers was about $8 to $11 per hour. Beginning workers could start at $6, but could advance in just a few months. Owners of shoe repair and custom shoe manufacturing shops earned substantially more. Related Occupations Other workers who make or repair items using handtools and machin ery include dressmakers, designers and patternmakers, rug repairers, and furriers. Sources of Additional Information For information about the custom-made prescription shoe business, and about training opportunities in this field, contact: «r-Prescription Footwear Association, 9861 Broken Land Pkwy., Columbia, MD 21046. Information about employment and training opportunities is avail able from State employment service offices. Shoe repair shops and shoe service wholesalers in the community are another source of information about job openings. Textile Machinery Operators (List of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 463.) Almost half of alt shoe and leather workers are self-employed. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Textile machinery operators tend machines that manufacture textile goods used in all types of consumer and industrial products. Sweaters, 422 Occupational Outlook Handbook parachutes, and tire cord are just some of the many end products made from textiles. There are many phases in the textile production process, and operators’ duties and responsibilities depend on the product and the type of machinery in use. Some workers oversee machinery that creates manufactured fibers. These fibers, used to make clothing, home furnishings, and many industrial products, are created from materials that, unlike cotton, wool, and flax, are not fibrous in their natural form. To make fiber, these materials—wood pulp or chemical compounds—are melted or dissolved in a liquid, and the resulting liquid fiber base is extruded or forced through holes in a metal plate, called a spinneret. Because the shape imparts particular characteristics to the fiber, the size and shape of the holes in the spinneret determine the form and the uses of the fiber. To give the fiber a particular quality, such as flameresistance or color, chemicals are added to the fiber base before it is extruded. Extruding and forming machine operators and tenders maintain the machinery that produces manufactured fiber. They may adjust the flow of fiber base through the spinneret, repair breaks in the fiber, or make minor adjustments to the machinery. Because this fiber is created by a chemical process, the majority of these workers are employed by chemical companies. The textile production process begins with the preparation of manu factured or natural fibers for spinning. Textile machine operators and tenders operate the machinery that opens, cleans, cards, combs, and draws the fiber; spins the fiber into yam; and weaves, knits, or tufts the yarn into textile products. They are responsible for several machines that they must start, stop, clean, and monitor for proper functioning. Natural and manufactured fibers are prepared for production by very different processes. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Fibers are cleaned and aligned through carding and combing. Partic ularly short fibers and any foreign matter are removed, and the fibers are drawn into a form called sliver. This is done to prepare the fiber for the spinning process. Operators must constantly monitor their machines during this stage, checking the movement of the fiber, removing and replacing canisters of sliver, repairing breaks in the sliver, and making minor repairs to the machinery. The full canisters of sliver are then taken to the spinning area. Spinning draws and twists the sliver through rotating rollers to create yam. To create different yam qualities, producers may combine cotton and polyester slivers during the spinning process. Once the yam has been spun, it is wound onto conical structures called bobbins. Depend ing upon its use, the yarn may then be treated to reduce breaks during the weaving process. When the yam is ready, it is taken to be woven, knitted, or tufted. Each of these processes produces a different type of textile product and requires a different type of machine. For example, woven fabrics are made on looms that interlace the yam. On the other hand, knit products, such as socks or women’s hosiery, are produced by inter meshing loops of yam. Carpeting is made through the tufting process, whereby the loops of yam are pushed through a material backing. Although the operators work with various machines, many of their responsibilities are similar. Each operator oversees several machines— repairing breaks in the yam, monitoring the supply of yam, and making any minor repairs to the machinery. Textile machine setters and setup operators prepare the machinery prior to a production ran. They also maintain this equipment. For example, they may adjust the timing on a machine, feed in the point paper that creates patterns on towels and other textile goods, or repair a loom. Because of the complexity of textile machinery, these workers usually specialize in one type of machine. Many setters and setup operators have advanced from the ranks of textile machine operators and tenders, so they are familiar with the production process and the machinery. They must work closely with textile machine operators and tenders to determine the cause of a problem and to correct it as quickly as possible. Once the yam has been woven, knitted, or tufted, the resulting fabric is ready to be dyed and finished either at the textile mill or at a plant specializing in textile finishing. Textile bleaching and dyeing machine operators and tenders oversee machines that finish the textile product before it is shipped to the consumer. Because of the variety of consumer preferences, manufacturers must print and dye textiles in thousands of different designs and colors. Depending upon the end use of the yam, it may be dyed before or after it is woven, knitted, or tufted. Some fabric is treated before it is dyed to remove other chemical additives that could affect the quality of the dyed product. Dyeing and printing can be done by several methods. For example, smaller dyeing jobs may be done by submerging several bobbins of yam into a vat of dye. One of the most common methods of printing is by rotary screen, whereby a porous cylinder (screen) holds the print design. Dye in the cylinder is forced through the screen as the cylinder rolls over the cloth, leaving the print. Consistency of color is very important in textile manufacturing. Dyers must check to see if the yam or the fabric has the same quality of color throughout. If not, they must make adjustments to correct the problem. In addition to dyeing and printing, finishing often may involve treating the fabric to prevent excessive shrinkage, to strengthen it, or to provide it with a silky luster. In the production of hosiery and socks, for example, the stocking or sock is placed on a form and then exposed to steam and heat to give the product shape. Working Conditions Most textile machine operators work in a textile mill or a chemical plant. Working conditions depend upon the age of the facility and its degree of modernization. Newer buildings have better ventilation and temperature control equipment that reduce some of the problems caused by dust and fumes. Workers in areas with high levels of these Production Occupations airborne materials use protective glasses and masks that cover their nose and mouth. Although some of the newer machinery has reduced the level of noise, workers in some areas still must wear earplugs. Because many of the machines operate at high speeds, workers must be careful not to wear clothing or jewelry that could get caught in moving parts. In addition, extruding and forming machine operators may wear protec tive shoes and clothing when working with some types of chemical compounds. The average workweek for textile production workers is 40 hours. Fiber-producing plants and an increasing number of textile mills oper ate 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. As a result, operators are assigned to one of three shifts, usually based on their seniority. Operators are on their feet moving between machines during most of their shift. Employment Textile machinery operators held about 310,000 jobs in 1988. The following tabulation shows the percent distribution of employment among specific operator occupations: Percent Total................................................................................................. 100 Textile draw-out and winding machine operators and tenders...................................................................................... Textile machine setters andsetup operators.................................... Textile bleaching and dyeing machine operators and tenders...................................................................................... Extruding machineoperators............................................................. 73 12 8 7 The majority of these workers were employed in weaving, finishing, yarn, and thread mills. Other significant employers were knitting mills and manufactured fiber producers. Nearly three-fourths of all those employed in the textile industry work in North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Virginia, and Al abama. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Good coordination and eyesight, physical stamina, manual dexterity, and reading and writing skills are important requirements for these jobs. Previously, many textile mills hired workers without a high school diploma. As textile machinery has become more complex and sophisticated, however, an increasing number of employers now re quire a high school degree. Jobs in fiber production also require graduation from high school. Regardless of where they work, textile machinery operators gener ally learn their skills on the job. Beginners start by observing experi enced workers either on the production floor or in a specially designated training area. Operators leant how to operate the machinery and to perform other tasks. In mills that have computerized production sys tems, they are taught what the computer does and how to retrieve data from the terminal. Once they have learned the basics of machine operation, they are put on the production floor, where they are closely supervised. As they master the job, they are given less supervision and more responsibility. Training periods vary significantly from job to job and from mill to mill. For example, training may be as short as a few days for a cleaner or as long as several months for a machine tender. Workers receive additional training whenever new machinery is introduced. An experienced worker usually will attend training classes sponsored by the machinery manufacturer, then will teach other em ployees through an in-house program. Some companies offer on-site training programs in which courses are taught by textile college faculty or machinery manufacturers either during or after shift hours. Textile machinery operatives can advance in several ways. Some workers become instructors and train new employees. Others advance by taking positions requiring higher skills and greater responsibility. Since machine setters and setup operators are the most highly skilled operatives, first-line supervisory positions usually are filled from their https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 423 ranks. Most companies have training programs to help interested employees advance; many pay all or part of the tuition for work-related courses. Job Outlook Employment of textile machinery operators is expected to decline through the year 2000. Greater productivity through the introduction of laborsaving machinery, coupled with continued growth in imported textile products, is expected to reduce the demand for these workers. In recent years, the textile industry has undergone considerable change. Increased import competition, investment in new machinery and equipment, and mergers of firms have transformed the industry. As imports have increased, domestic producers have lost some of their share of the market, and employment has declined. To become more competitive, many firms have invested in new technology, such as shuttleless looms, computer-controlled machinery, and automated ma terial-handling equipment, that has improved product quality and in creased operator productivity. They have also closed antiquated mills and sold marginal operations. These changes have enabled domestic firms to recapture some of the market, but it has been done without corresponding increases in employment, due to increased productivity. Although employment will continue to decline in the years ahead, job opportunities will arise from the need to replace persons who transfer to other occupations or who retire or stop working for other reasons. Opportunities will be best in industries with the least foreign competition, such as hosiery and floor covering mills. Earnings Average weekly earnings for production workers in the textile and manufactured fiber industries were $303 in 1988, compared to $418 for production workers in all manufacturing industries. As shown in table 1, earnings vary significantly depending upon the type of mill. In addition, earnings usually vary by shift, job specialty, and seniority. Table 1. Average weekly earnings of production workers in the textile and manufactured fiber industries, 1988 Organic fibers, noncellulosic.......................................................... $535 Miscellaneous textile goods............................................................... 358 Weaving and finishing mills, wool................................................ 335 Weaving mills, synthetics................................................................ 333 Floor covering mills............................................................................ 329 Textile finishing, except wool.......................................................... 327 Weaving mills, cotton..................................................................... 316 Yarn and thread mills....................................................................... 288 Narrow fabric mills............................................................................ 284 Knitting mills....................................................................................... 265 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics Benefits usually include paid holidays and vacations, health and life insurance, a retirement plan, sick and funeral leave, and educational reimbursement. Some firms even provide on-site daycare facilities. Additionally, many companies operate outlet stores in which employ ees receive additional discounts on the goods the company produces. Related Occupations Metalworking and plastic-working machine operators perform similar duties and have the same entry and training requirements as extruding and forming machine operators and tenders; textile machine operators and tenders; and textile bleaching and dyeing machine operators. Setters and setup operators in other industries, such as metal fabrication and plastics manufacturing, perform comparable duties to those of textile machine setters and setup operators. 424 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities in textile and manmade fiber production is available from local employers or local offices of the State employment service. For general information on careers in textiles, write to: ••-American Textile Manufacturers Institute, Inc., 1801 K St. NW., Suite 900, Washington, DC 20006. Additional information on opportunities in fiber manufacturing is available from: ••-American Fiber Manufacturers Association, Inc., 1150 17th St. NW., Suite 310, Washington, DC 20036. Information on opportunities in hosiery production is available from: ••-National Association of Hosiery Manufacturers, 447 South Sharon Amity Rd., Charlotte, NC 28211. Upholsterers (D.O.T. 780.381 except -030 and -034; 681-010; 684-122) Nature of the Work Upholsterers are skilled craft workers who make new furniture and recondition old furniture. Whether making a new piece of furniture, restoring a treasured antique, or simply giving an ordinary living room couch a facelift, upholsterers combine knowledge of fabrics and other materials with artistic flair and manual skill. Some repair and replace automobile upholstery and convertible and vinyl tops. Upholsterers who make new furniture start with the bare wooden frame. Those who recondition old furniture first remove the old cover, padding, and springs, using hammers and tack pullers. They remove the burlap and padding that cover the arms, back, sides, and seat. They examine the springs and replace broken or bent ones. The springs sit on a cloth mat called webbing that is attached to the frame. If webbing is worn, upholsterers remove all the springs and webbing. Upholsterers may reglue loose sections of the frame and refinish exposed wood. The first step in upholstering new furniture or reupholstering old pieces is to install webbing. Upholsterers tack webbing to one side of the frame, stretch it tight, and tack it to the opposite side. Other webbing is woven across the first row of webbing and attached to the frame to form a new mat. After putting springs on the mat so they compress evenly, upholsterers sew or staple each spring to the webbing or frame and tie each spring to the ones next to it. Burlap then is stretched over the springs, cut and smoothed, and tacked to the frame. To form a smooth rounded surface over the springs and other parts of the frame, upholsterers cover the furniture with filling material, cover this with a layer of felt and heavy cloth, and tack the cloth to the frame. Upholsterers measure and cut fabric for arms, backs, and other sections with as little waste as possible. They temporarily stitch pieces together for fitting and after assuring tight and smooth fit of the cover— or noting where adjustments are necessary—they remove it, sew it together, and tack, staple, or glue it to the frame. To complete the job, upholsterers sew, tack, or glue on fringe, buttons, or other ornaments. Upholsterers use common handtools, including tack hammers, sta ple guns, tack and staple removers, pliers, and shears, and special tools such as webbing stretchers and upholstery needles. They also use sewing machines. Sometimes upholsterers pick up and deliver furniture or help cus tomers select new furniture coverings. Those who manage an uphol stery shop order supplies and equipment and keep business records. Working Conditions Most upholsterers work inside a shop or factory. Working conditions in these facilities vary—many are spacious, adequately lighted, well ventilated, and well heated; others are small and dusty. Upholsterers stand while they work and do a considerable amount of stooping, bending, and heavy lifting. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment Furniture upholsterers held about 73,000 jobs in 1988. Most worked in upholstery shops. About 2 out of 5 were self-employed. More than 1 in 5 was a salaried worker in an upholstery repair, auto repair, or furniture store. About 1 in 3 worked in furniture manufacturing. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The best way to learn repair work is on the job as a helper to an experienced worker. Usually about 2 to 6 years of on-the-job training are required to become a fully skilled upholsterer. Training on the job in a factory usually is much shorter. When hiring helpers, employers generally prefer people with some knowledge of the trade. Inexperienced persons may get basic training in upholstery in high school, vocational and technical schools, and some community colleges. Programs include sewing machine opera tion, measuring, cutting, springing, frame repair, tufting, and channel ing; as well as business and interior design courses. However, addi tional training and experience usually are required before graduates can perform as quickly and efficiently as experienced upholsterers. Upholsterers should have manual dexterity, good coordination, and strength to lift heavy furniture. An eye for detail and flair for color and creative use of fabrics are helpful. The major form of advancement for upholsterers is opening their own shop. It is easy to open a shop because a small investment in handtools and a sewing machine are all that is needed. However, the upholstery business is extremely competitive, so operating a shop successfully is difficult. Experienced, highly skilled upholsterers in large shops and factories may become supervisors. Job Outlook Employment of upholsterers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Almost all growth will be in manufacturing. Most job openings will arise because of the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Demand for reupholstering will not keep pace with the growth in manufacturing because, increasingly, consumers replace worn furniture rather than reupholster it. Each upholstery job is unique and therefore upholstery work does not lend itself to automation; consequently, technology is not expected to have any impact on employment of upholsterers. Opportunities for experienced upholsterers should be good. The number of upholsterers with experience is limited because few young people want to enter the occupation and because few shops are willing to train people. Earnings Median weekly earnings of upholsterers who usually worked full time were $390 in 1988; the middle 50 percent earned between $260 and Most upholsterers work in small shops. Production Occupations $445 per week. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $220, and the top 10 percent earned more than $550. Earnings of self-employed upholsterers depend not only on the size and location of the shop but also on the number of hours worked. Related Occupations Other workers who combine manual skills and knowledge of materials 425 such as fabrics and wood are fur cutters, furniture finishers, and pattern and model makers. Sources of Additional Information For details about work opportunities for upholsterers in your area, contact local upholstery shops, the local office of the State employment service, or a local of the Upholstery Division of United Steel Workers of America. Woodworking Occupations (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 463.) Nature of the Work Wood is one of the oldest, most basic building materials. Woodworkers comprise a variety of occupations, from those who produce the struc tural elements of buildings to those who make fine furniture. Produc tion woodworkers are found in primary industries such as sawmills and plywood mills, as well as in secondary manufactures such as furniture, kitchen cabinets, musical instruments, and other fabricated wood products. Precision woodworkers are found in small shops mak ing architectural woodwork, furniture, and many other specialty items. Woodworkers take raw wood and cut and assemble it to make the doors, windows, cabinets, trusses, plywood, flooring, paneling, molding, and trim that are components of most homes. They fashion home accessories such as beds, sofas, tables, dressers, and chairs. They also make sporting goods items, including baseball bats, rac quets, skis, oars, and surfboards, as well as musical instruments, toys, caskets, tool handles, and thousands of other wooden items. Working from blueprints, and instructions from supervisors, or shop drawings—often developed by themselves—woodworkers determine the method of shaping and sequence of assembling parts. To begin, they do a layout—measuring and marking the materials to be cut. They set up and operate woodworking machines, such as power saws, planers, sanders, lathes, jointers, and routers, to cut and shape compo nents from lumber, plywood, and other wood panel products. Wood workers verify dimensions to adhere to specifications and may trim parts to insure a tight fit, using handtools such as planes, chisels, or wood files and sandpaper. They nail, glue, fit, and clamp parts and subassemblies together to form a complete unit and, after sanding, may stain or paint pieces and install hardware. Woodworkers may work in teams or be assisted by a helper. Precision or custom woodworkers, such as cabinetmakers, wood pattern and model makers, wood machinists, and furniture and wood finishers, work on a customized basis, often building one-of-a-kind items. For this reason, they normally need substantial training and an ability to work from detailed instructions and specifications. They often are required to exercise independent judgment when undertaking an assignment. Precision woodworkers generally perform a complete cycle of cut ting, shaping, surface preparation, and assembling prepared parts of complex wood components into a finished wood product, such as a piece of furniture. For example, a cabinetmaker may begin by studying a blueprint or drawing of the object to be constructed or repaired to determine the sequence of cutting or shaping operations to be per formed. After making the outline, the cabinetmaker matches materials for color, grain, or texture. He or she operates various machines to cut and shape parts from wood stock. Cabinetmakers assemble the parts to form a complete unit, which usually must be sanded, scraped, and finished with a protective or decorative material such as stain, varnish, or paint. Less skilled woodworkers set up, operate, or tend production equip ment or machinery. They generally operate a specific woodworking https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis machine, such as a lathe, router, planer, or cut-off saw. Some wood machine operators set up their equipment, cut and shape wooden parts, and verify dimensions using a template, calipers, or rule. Other operators may press a switch on a woodworking machine and monitor or tend the automatic operation. Wood machine operators in sawmills cut logs into planks, timbers, or boards. In planing mills, they cut veneer sheets from logs for making plywood. And in furniture plants, they make furniture components such as table legs, drawers, rails, and spindles. Many companies have installed machines which incorporate com puters to control the woodworking process. The introduction of com puters is a function of a major change in furniture, cabinet, and case construction. The use of drilling machinery with the capacity for precise part location fostered the use of computers in the woodworking I** r AT'iP*1 A woodworker puts finishing touches to a chair. 2 %V 426 Occupational Outlook Handbook process. This integration of computers with equipment has improved production speeds and capabilities and has simplified setup and mainte nance requirements. With computerized numerical controls, an opera tor can program a machine to perform a sequence of operations auto matically, resulting in greater precision and reliability. The use of computers has also increased the demand for workers with improved mathematical skills. Working Conditions Work areas are usually well lighted, but noisy because of machinery and power tools being used nearby. Depending on the job, wood dust may be a problem, so workers wear masks for protection. Rigid adherence to safety precautions minimizes risk of injury from contact with rough woodstock, and from the use of sharp tools and power equipment, such as chisels, routers, saws, planers, and lathes. Pro longed standing and lifting and fitting heavy objects are often nec essary. Employment Workers in woodworking occupations held about 376,000 jobs in 1988. Over 10 percent, mostly cabinetmakers and furniture and wood finishers, were self-employed. Employment was distributed as follows: Woodworkers, precision............................................................ 227,000 Woodworking machine settersand operators.......................... 149,000 Head sawyers.......................................................................... 80,000 Woodworking machine operators.......................................... 69,000 About 85 percent of all salaried woodworkers worked in manufactur ing industries. Approximately 24 percent were employed in establish ments fabricating household and office furniture; 24 percent were in establishments making millwork, plywood, and structural wood members, used primarily in construction; and 12 percent worked in sawmills and planing mills manufacturing a variety of raw, intermedi ate, and finished woodstock. Woodworkers also were employed by wholesale and retail lumber dealers, furniture stores, reupholstery and furniture repair shops, and construction firms. Woodworking jobs are found throughout the country. Custom shops can be found everywhere, but are generally concentrated in or near highly populated areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most woodworkers learn their jobs through on-the-job training, pick ing up skills informally from experienced workers. Some acquire skills through vocational education or by working as carpenters on construction jobs. Others may attend colleges or universities which offer programs that prepare students for supervisory or managerial positions. Beginners usually observe and help experienced machine operators. They may supply material, remove fabricated products from the ma chine, and stack them. Trainees do simple machine operating jobs, supervised closely by experienced workers. As they gain experience, they perform more complex jobs with less supervision. Some may learn to read blueprints, set up machines, and plan the sequence of their work. Most woodworkers learn the basic machine operations or job tasks in a few months, but becoming a skilled woodworker often requires 2 years or more. However, many firms hire workers to perform special ized tasks on a machine. These jobs may offer little opportunity to develop all-round skills. Although a high school education was seldom required in the past, persons seeking woodworking jobs can improve their opportunities by completing high school including courses in blueprint reading, woodworking, and shop mathematics. However, in the future, employ ers may place a greater emphasis on education as more manufacturers install computerized equipment. Employees may be required to have a working knowledge of computers and strong mathematical skills. Employers often look for persons with mechanical ability, manual dexterity, and the ability to pay attention to detail. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Advancement opportunities are often limited, and depend upon availability, seniority, and a worker’s skills and initiative. Experienced woodworkers may become inspectors or supervisors responsible for the work of a group of woodworkers. Those with all-round skills may set up their own woodworking shops. Job Outlook Employment in the woodworking occupations is expected to grow, but more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. As the Nation’s population, personal income, and business expenditures grow, the demand for wood products will increase. De mand for wood products is also being stimulated by the rising demand for repair and renovation of residential and commercial property. Many homeowners have decided to improve their current homes rather than purchase new ones, while many businesses such as department stores and hotels have turned to woodworkers to give their stores a facelift. As a result, opportunities for architectural woodworkers, those that specialize in such items as moldings, cabinets, stairs, and windows, should be particularly good. However, several factors may limit the growth of woodworking occupations. Materials such as metal, plastic, and fiberglass are used as alternatives to wood in many products, primarily because they are cheaper, stronger, or easier to shape. In addition, some jobs may be lost to imports. The use of improved machinery, tools, and other technological advances also will prevent employment from rising as fast as the demand for wood products, particularly in the mills and manufacturing plants where many of the processes can be automated. Although employment growth will be modest, thousands of open ings will arise each year because of the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment of woodworkers, like that of many other manufactur ing workers, is sensitive to cyclical changes in the economy. Earnings Median weekly earnings for salaried full-time precision woodworkers were about $290 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $220 and $410. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $180, while the highest 10 percent earned over $530. Median weekly earnings for full time woodworking machine operators were around $270 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $200 and $340. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $ 160, while the highest 10 percent earned over $420. Earnings were substantially higher in mills in the Northwest. Pay rates also depend on skill level or the type of machinery operated. Woodworkers usually receive a basic benefit package including medical and dental benefits and a pension plan. Some woodworkers are members of the International Woodworkers of America, the United Furniture Workers of America, and the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, all AFL-CIO affiliates. Related Occupations Many woodworkers follow blueprints and work drawings and use machines to shape and form raw wood into a final product. Workers who perform similar functions working with other materials include precision metalworkers, metalworking and plastic-working machine operatives, metal fabricators, molders and shapers, and leather workers. Sources of Additional Information For information about woodworking occupations, contact local furni ture manufacturers, sawmills and planing mills, cabinetmaking or millwork firms, lumber dealers, a local of one of the unions mentioned above, or the nearest office of the State employment service. For general information about furniture woodworking occupations, contact: ••-American Furniture Manufacturers Association, Manufacturing Services Di vision, P.O. Box HP-7, High Point, NC 27261. ••-Institute for Woodworking Education, 1012 Tenth St., Manhattan Beach, CA 90266. Miscellaneous Production Occupations Dental Laboratory Technicians (D.O.T. 712.281-010 and .381-014, -018, -022, -026 and -030) Nature of the Work Although dentures, bridges, crowns, and other dental prosthetics are fitted by dentists, they are actually made by skilled craftworkers known as dental laboratory technicians or simply dental technicians. Some technicians specialize, as their job titles indicate. Orthodontic techni cians, for example, make appliances for straightening teeth and treat ing speech impediments, and removable partial denture technicians make and repair contoured metal frames and retainers for teeth used in removable partial dentures. Most dental laboratory technicians do not specialize, however. A technician might work on a cap for a front tooth one day and a full set of dentures the next. Regardless of the device being made, the basic steps are the same. All work is performed at the request of a dentist, who sends the technician a specification of the item to be produced along with an impression (mold) of the patient’s mouth or teeth. The impression, made from a rubber or silicon-based substance, is in effect the negative from which the prosthetic device is developed. Upon receiving the impression from the dentist, the technician creates a model of the patient’s mouth by pouring plaster into the impression and allowing it to set. The model is placed on an apparatus which mimics the bite and movement of the patient’s jaw. The model serves as the basis of the prosthetic device. The technician examines the model, noting the size and shape of the adjacent teeth or gaps within the gumline. Based upon these observations and the dentist’s specifications, the technician builds and shapes a wax tooth or teeth using small hand instruments called wax spatulas and wax carvers. This wax model is used to cast the metal base of the prosthetic device. The work is extremely delicate and quite time consuming. More over, precision is of the utmost importance. The false teeth must match the model exactly. Every contour within the tooth must be duplicated so that the prosthetic will fit the patient’s mouth. Once the wax tooth has been formed, the cast is poured and the metal base is made. Using a small hand-held drill, the technician makes grooves in the base to allow the metal and porcelain to bond. The technician then applies porcelain in layers to arrive at the precise shape and color of the tooth. After the application of each layer of porcelain, the tooth is placed in a furnace or kiln and the porcelain is baked on. The false tooth is then glazed to achieve a lacquered finish. The primary objective of the dental laboratory technician is to create an exact replica of the tooth or teeth lost. Depending on the size of the dental laboratory and the technician’s experience, job duties may vary. In some laboratories, technicians are responsible for many stages of the work, while in others, each techni cian may have a specific duty. Working Conditions Dental laboratory technicians generally work in clean, well-lighted, and well-ventilated areas. Technicians usually have their own work benches, which may be equipped with Bunsen burners, grinding and polishing machines, and handtools. The work is not strenuous, although there may be pressure to meet dentists’ deadlines. Salaried technicians usually work 40 hours a week, but self-employed technicians frequently work longer hours. Employment Dental laboratory technicians held about 51,000 jobs in 1988. Most jobs were in commercial dental laboratories, which usually are small, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis MR Dental laboratory technicians make dentures, bridges, crowns, and orthodontic appliances. privately owned businesses with fewer than five employees. However, a few laboratories are much larger and employ over 50 technicians. About 6,000 dental laboratory technicians worked in dentists’ of fices. Others worked for hospitals that provide dental services, includ ing Veterans Administration hospitals and clinics. More than 1 technician in 5 is self-employed, a higher proportion than in most other occupations. Some technicians work in home dental laboratories in addition to their regular job. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most dental laboratory technicians learn their craft on the job. They begin by performing rather simple tasks such as pouring plaster into an impression, and progress to more complex procedures. Becoming a fully trained technician requires an average of 3 to 4 years depending upon the individual’s aptitude and ambition. Some dental laboratory technicians learn the basics of the craft by enrolling in formal programs. Training in dental laboratory technology is available through community and junior colleges, vocational-techni cal institutes, and trade schools; high school vocational education programs; apprenticeships; and the Armed Forces. Formal training programs vary greatly both in length and the level of skill they impart. Accredited programs generally take 2 years to complete and lead to an associate degree, although some lead to a certificate or diploma. In 1987,55 programs in dental laboratory technology were approved (accredited) by the Commission on Dental Accreditation in conjunction with the American Dental Association (ADA). These programs pro vide classroom instruction in dental law and ethics, materials science, oral anatomy, fabrication procedures, and related subjects. In addition, each student is given supervised practical experience in the school or an associated dental laboratory. A few employers prefer to hire formally trained technicians but onthe-job training is very important in this field. Each dental laboratory owner operates in a different way, and classroom instruction does not necessarily expose students to techniques and procedures favored by individual laboratory owners. Students who have taken enough courses to learn the basics of the craft generally are considered good candidates 427 428 Occupational Outlook Handbook for training, regardless of whether they have completed the formal program. Moreover, even graduates of 2-year training programs need to gain additional hands-on experience to become fully qualified in the craft. Military personnel who receive dental laboratory training in the Armed Forces qualify for civilian jobs as dental laboratory technicians. Certification, which is voluntary, is offered by the National Board for Certification in five specialty areas: Crown and bridge, ceramics, partial dentures, complete dentures, and orthodontics. Certification is increasingly important as evidence of a technician's competence. In larger dental laboratories, technicians may advance by moving into supervisory or managerial positions. For some, career advance ment means shifting to a related job in the dental field. Experienced technicians may become instructors in dental laboratory training pro grams, for example, or take jobs with dental suppliers in such areas as product development, marketing, or sales. Still, for most technicians, advancement in this field means opening one’s own laboratory and enjoying the higher earnings that can accompany ownership. Among the personal traits important in this occupation are a high degree of manual dexterity, good vision, and the ability to recognize very fine color shadings and variations in shape. These attributes must be combined with the ability to follow instructions and an inclination for detailed and precise work. High school students interested in careers in this occupation are advised to take courses in art, crafts, metal shop, metallurgy, and sciences. Those wishing to operate their own businesses also should consider management and business courses. Job Outlook Employment of dental laboratory technicians is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Conflicting forces will shape the outlook for this occupation. The number of middle-aged baby-boomers will increase dramatically through the year 2000, as will the aged who will continue to increase more rapidly than the overall population. These demographic trends are expected to create some new jobs since people over 50 have a relatively high level of need for prosthetic devices such as crowns, dentures, and bridges. Furthermore, more Americans will be able to afford dental care as a result of rising personal incomes and broader dental insurance coverage. While these factors point toward solid growth, other factors are likely to constrain the rate of job growth. The fluoridation of drinking water, which has reduced the incidence of dental caries, and greater emphasis on preventive dental care since the early 1960’s have im proved the overall dental health of the population. As a result, people are keeping their teeth longer. Instead of full or partial dentures, most people will need a bridge or crown. This means less work for the dental laboratory technician, who may only need to fabricate three or four teeth rather than a whole set of false teeth for a particular patient. Computer-aided design and manufacturing instruments are in the experimental stage. When and if they come into widespread use, however, they should significantly improve productivity of dental laboratory technicians, thereby lowering the demand for these workers. Currently, the production of any prosthetic device is highly labor intensive, requiring hours of work by the technician. Computer-aided equipment is capable of measuring a patient’s mouth and fabricating the required prosthetic device. While not replacing the technician, such equipment would considerably reduce the amount of time required to produce the prosthetic. Like other skilled craftworkers, dental laboratory technicians tend to remain in the field longer than the average worker. Replacement needs, therefore, are less important as a source of jobs in this occupation than in most others. Nonetheless, job opportunities should be favorable for persons suited for this type of work. Employers are finding it difficult to fill trainee positions. Relatively low entry level salaries and lack of familiarity with the occupation may explain why qualified applicants are in short supply. Persons interested in entering the field should have little trouble finding or keeping jobs. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Experienced technicians who have built up a favorable reputation with area dentists should have good opportunities for establishing laboratories of their own. However, to become successful in the busi ness, good management skills are just as essential as technical skills. Earnings Dental laboratory technicians who worked full time in commercial laboratories earned betweeen $15,000 and $25,000 a year in 1988, according to the limited data available. Generally, education and experience, along with a specialized skill, bring higher earnings . Large dental laboratories employ supervisors or managers, who usually earn more than technicians. In general, earnings of self-employed techni cians considerably exceed those of salaried workers. Many technicians in commercial laboratories receive paid holidays and vacations, and some also receive paid sick leave, bonuses, and other fringe benefits, including continuing education opportunities. Related Occupations Dental laboratory technicians fabricate artificial teeth, crowns and bridges, and orthodontic appliances following the specifications and instructions provided by the dentist. Other workers who make medical devices include arch-support technicians, orthotics technicians (braces and surgical supports), prosthetics technicians (artificial limbs and appliances), opticians, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians. Sources of Additional Information For information about training and a list of approved schools, contact: •-Commission on Dental Accreditation, American Dental Association, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, IL 60611. Information on scholarships is available from dental technology schools. For information on career opportunities in commercial laboratories and requirements for certification, contact: •-National Association of Dental Laboratories, 3801 Mt. Vernon Ave., Alex andria, VA 22305. Ophthalmic Laboratory Technicians (D.O.T. 711.381-010; 713.261-010 and -014, .381-010, .681-010; 716.280 008, -010, and -014, .381-014, .382-010, -014, -018, and -022, .462-010, .681-010, and -018, and .682-018) Nature of the Work Ophthalmic laboratory technicians—also known as manufacturing opticians, optical mechanics, or optical goods workers—are the people who make prescription eyeglass lenses. Prescription lenses are curved in such a way that light is correctly focused onto the retina of the patient’s eye, thereby improving vision. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians cut, grind, edge, and finish lenses according to specifications provided by dispensing opticians, optometrists, or ophthalmologists, and then assemble the lenses with frames to produce finished glasses. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians should not be confused with workers in other vision care occupations. Ophthalmologists and optometrists are the “eye doctors” who examine patients’ eyes, diagnose vision problems, and prescribe corrective lenses. Dispens ing opticians, who may also do work described here, help patients select suitable frames and adjust finished eyeglasses. (See the statement on physicians, which includes ophthalmologists, and the statements on optometrists and dispensing opticians elsewhere in the Handbook.) When technicians receive an order for a pair of prescription glasses, they read the specifications and select a standard glass or plastic lens blank. The blank is then marked to indicate where the curves specified on the prescription-should be ground. Once marked, the blank is ready for grinding. The technician places Production Occupations the lens into the lens grinder, sets the dials for the correct degree of curvature, and starts the machine. After a minute or so, the lens is ready to be “finished,” a process in which an oscillating machine rotates the lens against a fine abrasive to grind the lens and smooth out rough edges. The lens is then placed in a polishing machine where the technician applies an even finer abrasive to polish the lens to a smooth, bright finish. Next, the technician exams the lens through a lensmeter, an instru ment similar in shape to a microscope, and checks the degree and placement of the curve on the lens. The degree of curvature and placement must fit the prescription exactly. If not, another lens must be prepared. Once the lens meets prescription specifications, it is ready to be fitted into the frame. The technician cuts the lenses and bevels the edges to fit the frame. If the prescription calls for tinted lenses, the technician dips each lens into dye. Finally, the lenses and frame parts are assembled into a finished pair of glasses. In small laboratories, technicians generally handle every phase of the operation. In large laboratories, the production process is broken down into a number of steps, and technicians generally specialize in one or more tasks, assembly-line style. Working Conditions Ophthalmic laboratory technicians work in relatively clean and welllighted laboratories and have 1 imited contact with the public. Surround ings are relatively quiet despite the humming of machines used by the technicians. At times, technicians may need to wear goggles to protect their eyes, and may spend a great deal of time standing. Most ophthalmic laboratory technicians work a 5-day, 40-hour week, which may include weekend and evening work and occasionally some overtime. Some ophthalmic laboratory workers work part time. Employment Ophthalmic laboratory technicians held about 26,000 jobs in 1988. About half of these jobs were in retail stores that manufacture prescrip tion glasses and sell them directly to the public—mostly optical goods store chains or independent retailers. Most of the rest were in optical laboratories. These laboratories manufacture eyewear for dispensing by retail stores that sell but do not fabricate prescription glasses, and 429 by ophthalmologists and optometrists. A few work for optometrists or ophthalmologists who dispense glasses directly to patients. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Nearly all ophthalmic laboratory technicians learn their skills on the job. Employers filling entry level jobs prefer applicants who are high school graduates. Courses in science and mathematics are valuable, while manual dexterity and the ability to do precision work is essential. Entry level workers start out as technician trainees performing sim ple tasks such as marking or blocking lenses for grinding. With experi ence, they progress to operations such as lens grinding, lens cutting, edging, beveling, and eyeglass assembly. Depending on the individu al’s aptitude, it may take 6 to 18 months to become proficient in all phases of the work; a single phase of work can usually be learned in much less time. Some ophthalmic technicians learn their trade in the Armed Forces. Others attend one of the small number of formal programs in optical technology offered by vocational-technical institutes or trade schools. These programs have classes in optical theory, surfacing and lens finishing, and the reading and applying of prescriptions. Programs vary in length from 6 months to 1 year, and graduates earn certificates or diplomas. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians can become supervisors and managers. Some technicians become dispensing opticians, although the trend is to train specifically for optician jobs. Job Outlook Employment of ophthalmic laboratory technicians is expected to in crease faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to rising demand for corrective lenses. Nonetheless, most job openings will come from the need to replace experienced technicians who retire or leave the job for other reasons. Demographic trends make it likely that many more Americans will wear glasses in the years ahead. Not only will the population grow, but the number of middle-aged and older adults will grow particularly rapidly. Middle age is a time when many people use corrective lenses for the first time, and older persons require appreciably more vision care than the rest of the population. The public’s heightened awareness of vision care should also in crease demand for corrective lenses. Also, eyewear’s emergence as a fashion item—eyewear now comes in a assortment of attractive shapes and colors—has been enticing many people to purchase two or three pair of glasses rather than just one. Most new jobs for ophthalmic laboratory technicians will be in retail optical chains that manufacture prescription glasses on the premises and provide fast service. As with many occupations, a large number of jobs will become available as experienced workers either advance or leave the occupation. Earnings According to the limited information available, most ophthalmic labo ratory technicians earned between $10,000 and $15,000 a year in 1988. Trainees are generally paid the minimum wage, with periodic salary increases as they develop proficiency in the trade. Related Occupations Workers in other precision production occupations include biomedical equipment technicians, calibrators, dental laboratory technicians, orth odontic technicians, orthotics technicians, prosthetics technicians, in strument repairers, and locksmiths. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians grind and polish glass and plastic to make eyeglass lenses. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information For general information about a career as an ophthalmic laboratory technician and for a list of accredited programs in ophthalmic labora tory technology, contact: •-Commission on Opticianry Accreditation, 10111 Martin Luther King, Jr., Hwy., Suite 110, Bowie, MD 20715. 430 Occupational Outlook Handbook Painting and Coating Machine Operators (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 463.) Nature of the Work Paints and coatings are an important part of most products. In manufac turing, everything from cars to candy is covered by either paint, plastic, varnish, chocolate, or some special coating solution. Often the paints and coatings are merely intended to enhance the products’ appeal to consumers, as with the chocolate coating on candy. More often, the protection provided by the paint or coating is essential to the product, as with the coating of insulating material covering wires and other electrical and electronic components. Many paints and coatings have dual purposes, such as the paint finish on an automobile, which heightens the visual impact of the vehicle while providing protection from corrosion. Painting and coating machine operators control the machinery and equipment that applies the many types of paints and coatings to a wide range of manufactured products. Workers use several basic methods to apply paints and coatings to manufactured articles. For example, dippers or impregnators immerse racks or baskets of articles in vats of paint, liquid plastic, or other solutions using a power hoist. Tumbling barrel painters deposit articles of porous materials in a barrel of paint, varnish, or other coating, which is then rotated to insure thorough coverage. The most common method of applying paints and coatings is by spraying the article with the solution. Spray-machine operators use equipment with spray guns to coat metal, wood, ceramic, fabric, paper, and even food products with paint and other coating solutions. Following a formula, operators fill the equipment’s tanks with a mixture of paints or chemicals, adding prescribed amounts or proportions. They screw nozzles onto the spray guns and adjust them to obtain the proper dispersion of the spray, and hold or position the guns to direct the spray onto the article. The pressure of the spray is regulated by adjusting valves. Operators check the flow and viscosity of the paint or solution, and visually inspect the quality of the coating. They may also regulate the temperature and air circulation in drying ovens. In response to concerns about air pollution, manufacturers are increasingly using new types of paints and coatings on their products instead of high-solvent paints, which more easily evaporate. The switch to new types of paints is often accompanied by a switch to newer, more automated painting equipment that the operator sets and monitors, instead of wielding a spray gun. Operators position the automatic spray guns, set the nozzles, and synchronize the speed of the conveyor carrying articles through the machine with the action of the guns and drying ovens. The machine mixes the paint or coating solution. During operation, the operator attends the machine, observing gauges on the control panel and randomly checking articles for evidence of any variation of the coating from specifications. Painting and coating machine operators use various types of spray machines to coat a wide range of products. Often their job title reflects the specialized nature of the machine or coating they apply. For example, paper coating machine operators spray “size,” a coating mixture, on the surface of paper to give it its gloss or finish. Silvering applicators spray silver, tin, and copper solutions on glass in the manufacture of mirrors. Enrobing machine operators coat, or “en robe,” confectionery, bakery, and other food products with melted chocolate, cheese, oils, sugar, and other substances. Although the majority of painting and coating machine operators are employed in manufacturing, the largest, best known group of them work in automotive body repair and paint shops repainting old and damaged cars, trucks, and buses. Automotive painters are among the most highly skilled painting and coating machine operators because, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis when painting only the repaired portions of a vehicle, they often have to mix paint to match the original color, which can be very difficult if the color has faded. To prepare a vehicle for painting, automotive painters or their helpers use power sanders and sandpaper to remove the original paint or rust, and fill small nicks and scratches with body putty. They also remove or mask parts they do not want painted, such as chrome trim, headlights, windows, and mirrors. Automotive painters use a spray machine to apply several coats of paint. They apply lacquer or, in most cases, enamel primers to vehicles with metal bodies and flexible primers to newer vehicles with plastic body parts. Aiming the spray gun by hand, they apply successive coats of paint until the finish of the repaired sections of the vehicle matches that of the original undamaged portions. To speed drying between coats, they may place the freshly painted vehicle under heat lamps or in a special infrared oven. After each coat of primer dries, they sand the surface to remove any irregularities and to help the next coat adhere better. Final sanding of the primers may be done by hand with a fine grade of sandpaper. A sealer is then applied and allowed to dry, followed by the final topcoat. When lacquer is used, painters or their helpers usually polish the finished surface after the final coat has dried; enamel dries to a high gloss and usually is not polished. Working Conditions Painting and coating machine operators work indoors and may be exposed to dangerous fumes from paint and coating solutions. How ever, most operators wear masks or respirators which cover their nose and mouth, and painting is usually done in special ventilated booths that protect the operators from these hazards. Operators have to stand for long periods of time and, when using a spray gun, they may have to bend, stoop, or crouch in uncomfortable positions to reach all parts of the article. Most operators work a normal 40-hour week, but selfemployed automotive painters sometimes work more than 50 hours a week, depending on the number of vehicles customers bring in to be repainted. Employment Painting and coating machine operators held about 159,000 jobs in 1988. The great majority worked in manufacturing establishments— in the production of motor vehicles and related equipment, fabricated rJf Painting and coating machine operators must be careful to avoid exposure to dangerous fumes from toxic solutions. Production Occupations metal products, household and office furniture, and plastics, wood, and paper products, for example. Others included automotive painters employed by independent automotive repair shops and body repair and paint shops operated by retail automotive dealers. Fewer than 1 paint ing and coating machine operator in 10 was self-employed; most were automotive painters. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most painting and coating machine operators acquire their skills on the job, usually by watching and helping experienced operators. For most operators, training lasts from a few days to several months. However, becoming skilled in all aspects of automotive painting usu ally requires 3 to 4 years of on-the-job training. Most automotive painters start as helpers and gain their skills infor mally by working with experienced painters. Beginning helpers usually remove trim, clean and sand surfaces to be painted, mask surfaces that they do not want painted, and polish finished work. As helpers gain experience, they progress to more complicated tasks, such as mixing paint to achieve a good match and using spray guns to apply primer coats or final coats to small areas. Instructional programs in automotive painting are offered at a grow ing number of community and junior colleges and vocational and technical schools. Completion of such a program enhances one’s employment opportunities and can speed promotion to the journeyman level. The quality of formal automotive painting programs varies greatly, however. Better programs provide a thorough background in the latest automotive painting technology, such as the use of acrylic paints, and include substantial practical experience essential to becom ing proficient as an automotive painter. Painters should have good health, keen eyesight, and a good color sense. Courses in automobile-body repair offered by high schools, vocational schools, and community colleges are helpful. Completion of high school generally is not required but usually is an advantage. Voluntary certification by ASE (the National Institute for Automo tive Service Excellence) is recognized as the standard of achievement for automotive painters. For certification, painters must pass a written examination and have at least 2 years of experience in the field. High school, trade or vocational school, or community or junior college training in automotive painting and refinishing may substitute for up to 1 year of experience. To retain certification, painters must retake the examination at least every 5 years. Experienced painting and coating machine operators with leadership ability may advance to supervisory jobs. Some automotive painters open their own shops. Job Outlook Employment of painting and coating machine operators is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. A decline in the employment of operators in manufacturing is expected to be offset by growth in the employment of automotive painters in the body repair and paint shops of retail automotive dealers and independent automotive repair establishments. Most job openings for painting and coating machine operators are expected to arise as experienced operators transfer to other occupations or retire or stop working for other reasons. Employment of operators is expected to decline in manufacturing due to the increasing automation of the application of paints and coatings. The advent of industrial robots has greatly expanded the variety of manufactured articles that can be painted or coated using automatic equipment. Automation of the painting and coating of many articles that formerly could not be adequately covered by traditional machines is now possible due to the ability of robots to move and aim spray guns much like a human operator. Employment of automotive painters should grow as the number of cars, trucks, and buses damaged in traffic accidents increases with the motor vehicle population. Automotive painters also will be needed to repaint older vehicles which have rust or faded paint. Also expected to contribute to growth will be the continuing emphasis on building https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 431 lighter weight cars that achieve high gasoline mileage, but which are prone to greater damage in major collisions. However, job growth will be limited somewhat by the increased use of plastic body panels that reduce minor collision damage. In general, the diversity of vehicles that automotive painters repaint makes their work unsuitable for auto mation. The number of job openings for painting and coating machine operators may fluctuate from year to year due cyclical changes in economic conditions. When demand for manufactured goods slackens, production may be suspended or reduced, and workers may be laid off or face a shortened workweek. However, automotive painters can expect relatively steady work because automobiles damaged in accidents require repair and refinishing regardless of the state of the economy. Earnings Painting and coating machine operators who usually worked full time had median weekly earnings of $312 in 1988. The middle 50 percent had usual weekly earnings between $244 and $420, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $605 weekly. Experienced automotive painters employed by automobile dealers in 18 large metropolitan areas had average hourly earnings of $17.90 in 1988. Their average hourly earnings were highest in the Southern and Midwestern States and lowest in the Western and Northeastern States. Beginning automotive painter apprentices usually start at about half the hourly rate of fully qualified painters. As they progress, their wages gradually approach those of experienced automotive painters. Helpers start at lower wage rates. Many automotive painters employed by automobile dealers and independent repair shops receive a commission based on the labor cost charged to the customer. Under this method, earnings depend largely on the amount of work a painter does and how fast it is completed. Employers frequently guarantee commissioned painters a minimum weekly salary. Helpers and apprentices usually receive an hourly rate until they become sufficiently skilled to work on a commission basis. Trucking companies, buslines, and other organizations that repair their own vehicles usually pay by the hour. Employers of many painting and coating machine operators provide health insurance benefits and paid vacation and sick leave, and contrib ute to a retirement plan on their behalf. Many painting and coating machine operators belong to unions, including the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Sheet Metal Work ers’ International Association; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America. Most union operators work for manufacturers and the larger automobile dealers. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers apply paints and coatings include construction and maintenance painters, electrolytic metal platers, and hand painting, coating, and decorating occupations. Sources of Additional Information For more details about work opportunities, contact local manufactur ers, automotive-body repair shops, and automotive dealers; locals of the unions previously mentioned; or the local office of the State employment service. The State employment service also may be a source of information about training programs. For general information about a career as an automotive painter, write to: ••-Automotive Service Industry Association, 444 North Michigan Ave., Chi cago, IL 60611. •-Automotive Service Association, Inc., P.O. Box 929, Bedford, TX 76021 0929. Information on how to become a certified automotive painter is available from: wASE, 13505 Dulles Technology Dr., Herndon, VA 22071-3415. 432 Occupational Outlook Handbook Photographic Process Workers (D.O.T. 962.361-010; 970.281-010 and -018. .381-010 and -034; 976.361 010, .380-010, .381-010 and -018, .382-014 and -018, .665-010, .681-010, .682-010 through -018, .684-014, .685-014, -018, -022, -026, and -030) Nature of the Work If the developing of film and printing of pictures were left to the average photographer, few photographs would be taken. Instead, professionals and amateurs alike generally rely on workers in photofinishing or custom photo laboratories to develop film, make prints and slides, and do related tasks such as enlarging and retouching photographs. Some photographic process workers operate machinery that automatically develops and prints film. Others, commonly known as all-round dark room technicians, perform delicate tasks by hand. Developing and printing film are processes that vary with factors such as the film’s sensitivity to light and the type of printing paper being used. Most important, however, is whether the film being developed is black-and-white or color. Color film requires very expensive equip ment and careful control over the developing and printing processes; this puts it beyond the means of most individuals. Color film is most often processed by color film operators using specialized machines in professional photo processing labs. Workers known as developers produce negatives following a se quence of five steps: Developer, stop bath, fixing bath, washing, and drying. Those making prints from the negatives follow a similar sequence but add a few more steps. First, the printer operator focuses light through a negative onto light-sensitive paper. The paper is then put through several baths, one to start a chemical reaction designed to bring out the image, another to stop the reaction, a third to fix the image, and finally a rinse to wash off excess chemicals before drying the picture. The process of transferring an image from a negative onto paper is performed with what is commonly known as an enlarger. An enlarger consists of a fixture for holding negatives and light-sensitive photo graphic paper, an electric lamp, and a magnifying lens. The printer operator places the negative between the lamp and the lens, and places the paper below the lens. When the lamp is turned on, light passes through the negative and lens and records a magnified image of the negative on the paper. During custom printing, the technician may vary the contrast of the image or remove unwanted background either by using paper patterns to shade part of the photographic paper from the projected image or by adjusting the height of the lens above the paper. After removing the exposed photographic paper from the printer, the technician devel ops it. If the customer desires, the technician mounts the finished print in a frame or on a paper or cardboard back. Some darkroom technicians specialize in precision photographic processing work. Usually, only professional photographers require the services of these specialized workers, who eliminate minor imperfec tions from important photographs such as wedding photos and com mercial art. For example, airbrush artists restore damaged and faded photographs. They also color drawings to simulate photographs. Pho tographic retouchers alter photographic negatives and prints to accen tuate the desired features of a subject or remove undesirable ones. Colorists apply oil colors to portrait photographs to create a natural, lifelike appearance. Photographic spotters cover or spot out imperfec tions on photographic prints, taking care to protect the print from oil or acid by making changes with a gloved finger, or a brush or pencil. Color laboratory technicians produce color prints, negatives, and slides by hand, or operate automated machines. In addition to working in the laboratory, darkroom technicians in photographic studios may set up lights and cameras or otherwise assist photographers. Many technicians, particularly those in portrait studios who aspire to become professional photographers, divide their time between taking and processing pictures. In commercial laboratories and photofinishing minilabs where film https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A photographic process worker prepares the final wash of a print. developing is largely automated, darkroom technicians supervise oper ators whose assignments require only a limited knowledge of develop ing and printing. Included are film developers, who operate equipment that develops still or motion picture film automatically; color-printer operators, who control the equipment used to produce color prints from negatives; automatic print developers, who operate machines that develop strips of exposed photographic paper; takedown sorters, who sort processed film; and automatic mounters, who tend the auto matic mounting presses that cut slide film into individual transparencies and seal them in mounting frames. Because photo processing equip ment typically incorporates microelectronic components, it is easy to operate and requires only routine maintenance. Working Conditions Contrary to popular belief, little photographic processing is done in darkrooms anymore. The work is generally performed in clean, appro priately lighted, well-ventilated, and air-conditioned photofinishing laboratories. Photographic processing is demanding in that many workers, espe cially those in large laboratories, must do repetitious work at a rapid pace without any loss of accuracy. Paying close attention to detail while working rapidly can contribute to mental strain. Workers per forming detailed tasks, such as airbrush artists and photographic spot ters, may be subject to eye fatigue. Some photographic process workers are exposed to the chemicals and fumes associated with the developing and printing of film and photographs. These workers wear aprons and rubber gloves and take other precautions against chemical hazards, when needed. Most photo laboratory employees work a 40-hour week. In labora tories that specialize in processing film for amateur photographers, employees may work a considerable amount of overtime, at premium pay, during peak seasons. Some individuals work at home doing airbrushing, spotting, or negative retouching for professional labs. Most work on a piecework basis—being paid by the picture instead of by the hour. Employment Photo process workers held about 67,000 jobs in 1988. About half worked in large photofinishing laboratories that serve drag stores and grocery stores, or in minilabs that process film at the customer’s convenience. Many others worked in photo laboratories operated by portrait and commercial art studios or for motion picture producers, photo equipment manufacturers, and other organizations. Some dark room technicians work in commercial laboratories that specialize in processing the work of professional photographers. Photo process workers are employed in all parts of the country but are concentrated in large population centers. Employment fluctuates over the course of the year; the peak period is around Christmas time. Production Occupations Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most photo process workers learn their skills on the job. Beginners start as helpers and gradually learn to develop and print film by assisting experienced technicians. It generally takes 2 to 3 years to become a fully qualified darkroom technician. Some helpers specialize in a particular activity, such as printing or developing. Generally, only a few months’ training time is required to become a specialist. When hiring darkroom technician helpers, employers prefer appli cants who are high school graduates. Courses in chemistry and mathe matics are recommended for people interested in this field. Experience gained through processing film as a hobby is helpful, as are courses in photography that include the basics of film processing. Photography courses are widely available, through high schools, vocational-techni cal institutes, private trade schools, and adult education programs. Many colleges, universities, community colleges, and vocational schools offer courses or degree programs in photography. The curricu lum generally includes instruction on developing and printing blackand-white film and, on occasion, the more expensive color film. On-the-job training for workers in specialized photo process occupa tions ranges from a few weeks for print developers and automatic mounters to several months for airbrush artists, spotters, and negative retouchers. Some workers attend week-long seminars offered by orga nizations, associations, and experienced individuals. For many jobs, manual dexterity, good vision, including normal color perception, and good hand-eye coordination are important qualifications. Photo process workers generally advance by moving from entry level jobs as machine operators to more skilled technician positions. Some darkroom technicians eventually become professional photogra phers. (See the statement on photographers and camera operators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Others advance to supervisory positions in laboratories. Job Outlook Employment of photo process workers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000 due to rising demand for photographs from individuals as well as businesses. Many additional openings will result from the need to replace experienced workers who change occupations or stop working. Demand for film processing is expected to increase due to a greater interest in amateur photography. Spurring this interest are greater affluence and improvements in camera technology that now enable amateurs to take high-quality pictures with completely automated, low-priced pocket cameras. Businesses and government also are ex pected to contribute to the demand for film processing through ex panded use of photography to illustrate printed materials. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 433 Increased amateur and commercial interest in photography will generate jobs for photo process workers at all skill levels. The greatly increased volume of film to be processed should ensure continued job growth for machine operators despite laborsaving advances in photographic processing machinery; automated equipment permits fewer workers to process a given amount of film. However, the growth of multiple minilabs as either stand-alone units or as part of large chain stores tends to offset the labor- reducing effect of automation since each location needs a minimum number of workers. Technological change is unlikely to affect demand for precision photo process workers; the fine adjustments they make to photographs do not lend themselves to mechanization. Despite improvements in the performance of cameras, none of them is able to produce the perfect shot of a wedding or a scene for an advertisement without some precision work. Photographic services are luxuries, and job prospects may fluctuate with the business cycle. Generally, however, prospects for photo graphic process workers are expected to be good—reflecting projected industry employment growth as well as replacement needs, which are relatively high in machine operator jobs. Earnings Earnings of photo process workers vary greatly depending on skill level, experience, and geographic location. Median earnings for full time photo process workers in 1989 were about $275 a week. The middle 50 percent earned between $207 and $400 a week. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $177 a week; the highest 10 percent, more than $525. Related Occupations The more highly skilled photo process workers—all-round darkroom technicians and color laboratory technicians, for example—need a specialized knowledge of the photodeveloping process. Other workers who apply specialized technical knowledge include chemical labora tory technicians, crime lab analysts, food testers, medical laboratory assistants, metallurgical technicians, quality control technicians, en gravers, sign painters, stencil cutters, and some of the printing occupa tions such as photolithographers. Sources of Additional Information For information about employment opportunities in photographic labo ratories and schools that offer degrees in photographic technology, write to: w-Photo Marketing Association International, 3000 Picture Place, Jackson, MI 49201. Transportation and Material Moving Occupations Busdrivers (D.O.T. 909.663; 913.363, .463-010, and .663-014) Nature of the Work Busdrivers provide transportation for millions of Americans every day. Intercity busdrivers transport people between regions of a State or of the country; local transit busdrivers, within a metropolitan area or county; and school busdrivers, to and from schools and related events. They follow time schedules and routes over highways and city and suburban streets to provide passengers with an alternative to the automobile and other forms of transportation. Busdrivers report to their assigned terminal or garage, where they receive tickets and transfers and prepare trip report forms. Drivers check their vehicle’s tires, brakes, windshield wipers, lights, oil, fuel, water, and safety equipment, such as fire extinguishers, first aid kits, and emergency reflectors. Drivers pick up and discharge passengers at bus stops or stations, or, in the case of students, at comers or in front of houses. Intercity and local transit busdrivers collect fares, answer questions about schedules, routes, and transfer points, and sometimes announce stops. Busdrivers’ days are mn by the clock, as they must adhere to schedules. Drivers must try to keep up when traffic is heavier than normal, yet operate safely. However, they cannot let light traffic put them ahead of schedule so that they miss passengers. Busdrivers must be alert to prevent accidents, especially in heavy traffic or in bad weather, and to avoid sudden stops or swerves which jar passengers. School busdrivers must exercise particular caution when children are getting on or off the bus. Bus routes vary. Local transit busdrivers may make several trips each day over the same city and suburban streets, stopping as fre quently as every few blocks. School busdrivers also drive the same routes each day, stopping frequently to pick up pupils in the morning and return them to their homes in the afternoon. School busdrivers may also transport students and teachers on field trips or to sporting events. Intercity busdrivers may make only a single one-way trip to a distant city or a round trip each day, stopping at towns just a few miles apart or only at large cities hundreds of miles apart. Drivers who operate chartered buses pick up groups, take them to their destination, and generally remain with them until they return. Trips frequently last more than 1 day, and if they are assigned to a tour, they may be away for a week or more. Busdrivers submit daily trip reports with a record of tickets and fares received, trips made, and significant delays in schedule, and report mechanical problems. They also fill out accident reports, when necessary. Intercity drivers that drive across State or National bound aries must comply with U.S. Department of Transportation require ments, such as completing vehicle inspection reports and recording distances traveled and the periods of time they spend driving, perform ing other duties, and off duty. Working Conditions Driving a bus through heavy traffic while dealing with passengers is not physically strenuous, but it can be stressful and fatiguing. On the other hand, many drivers enjoy the opportunity to work without direct supervision, with full responsibility for the bus and passengers. Intercity busdrivers may work nights, weekends, and holidays and often spend nights away from home, where they stay at hotels at 434 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis company expense. Senior drivers with regular routes have regular weekly work schedules, but others do not have regular schedules and must be prepared to report for work on short notice. They report for work only when called for a charter assignment or to drive extra buses on a regular route. Intercity bus travel and charter work tend to be seasonal, so, from May through August, drivers may work the maxi mum number of hours per week that regulations allow. During winter, less senior drivers may work infrequently, except for busy holiday travel periods, and may be furloughed for periods of time. School busdrivers work only when school is in session. Most work 20 hours a week or less, driving one or two routes in the morning and afternoon. Drivers taking field or athletic trips or who also have midday kindergarten routes may work more hours a week. Regular local transit busdrivers usually have a 5-day workweek; Saturdays and Sundays are considered regular workdays. Some drivers work evenings and after midnight. To accommodate commuters, many work “split shifts,” for example, 6 a.m. to 10 a.m. and 3 p.m. to 7 p.m., with time off in between. Employment Busdrivers held about 506,000 jobs in 1988. Most worked part time. About 7 out of 10 drivers worked for school systems or companies that provide school bus services under contract, as shown in the accompanying chart. Most of the remainder worked for private and local government transit systems; some worked for intercity and charter buslines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Busdriver qualifications and standards are established by State and Federal regulations. Federal regulations require drivers who operate Most busdrivers operate school buses. Distribution of wage and salary employment, 1988 School busdrivers 70 percent Local transit busdrivers 18 percent Other's, busdrivers,6 percent Source Bureau of Labor Statistics Transportation and Material Moving Occupations vehicles designed to transport 16 or more passengers to obtain a Commercial Driver’s License (CDL) from the State in which they live by April 1, 1992. In order to be licensed, applicants for a CDL must take and pass a knowledge test and demonstrate that they have the skills necessary to operate a commercial motor vehicle safely. Trainees must be accompanied by another driver who has a CDL until they are issued a CDL. In addition, interstate busdrivers must meet additional qualifications. For example, they must be at least 21 years old and pass a physical examination. State agencies and municipalities may also have additional requirements for drivers who operate within their jurisdictions. Drivers should be in good health and have at least 20/40 vision with or without glasses, good hearing, and normal use of their arms and legs. Many employers prefer high school graduates and require a physical examination and a written test of ability to follow complex bus schedules. Many intercity and public transit bus companies prefer applicants who are at least 24 years of age; some require several years of bus or truck driving experience. Public transit and interstate busdrivers are also required to submit to drug screening as a condition of employment. In some States, school busdrivers must pass a back ground investigation to uncover any criminal record or history of mental problems. Since busdrivers deal with passengers, they must be courteous. They need an even temperament and emotional stability because driving in heavy, fast-moving, or stop-and-go traffic and dealing with passengers can be stressful. Most intercity bus companies and local transit systems give driver trainees 2 to 8 weeks of classroom and “behind-the-wheel” instruction. In the classroom, trainees learn U.S. Department of Transportation and company work rules, safety regulations, State and municipal driving regulations, and safe driving practices. They also learn to read schedules, determine fares, keep records, and deal courteously with passengers. School busdrivers are also required to obtain a Commercial Driver’s License from the State in which they live by April 1, 1992. Many persons who enter school busdriving have never driven any vehicle larger than an automobile. They receive up to 1 week of driving instruction plus classroom training on State and local laws, regulations, and policies of operating school buses; safe driving practices; driverpupil relations; first aid; and emergency evacuation procedures. During training, busdrivers practice driving on set courses. They practice turns and zigzag maneuvers, back up, and drive in narrow lanes. Then they drive in light traffic and, eventually, on congested highways and city streets. They also make trial runs, without passen gers, to improve their driving skills and learn the routes. Local transit trainees memorize and drive each of the runs operating out of their assigned garage. New drivers begin with a “break-in” period. They make regularly scheduled trips with passengers, accompanied by an New regulations require that busdrivers obtain a Commercial Driver's License. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 435 experienced driver who gives helpful tips, answers questions, and evaluates the new driver’s performance. New intercity and local transit drivers usually are placed on an “extra” list to drive charter runs, extra buses on regular runs, special runs (for example, during morning and evening rush hours and to sports events), and substitute for regular drivers who are ill or on vacation. New drivers remain on the extra list, and may work only part time, perhaps for several years, until they have enough seniority to get a regular run. Senior drivers may bid for runs they prefer, such as those with more work hours, lighter traffic, weekends off, or, in the case of intercity busdrivers, higher earnings or fewer workdays per week. Opportunities for promotion generally are limited. However, experi enced drivers may become supervisors or dispatchers, who assign buses to drivers, check whether drivers are on schedule, reroute buses to avoid blocked streets or other problems, and dispatch extra vehicles and service crews to scenes of accidents and breakdowns. In transit agencies with rail systems, drivers may become train operators or station attendants. A few drivers become managers. Promotion in publicly owned bus systems is often by competitive civil service examination. Job Outlook Employment of busdrivers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000. The number of school busdrivers is expected to increase as a result of growth in elementary and secondary school enrollments. In addition, as more of the Nation’s population is concentrated in suburban areas—where students generally ride school buses—and less in the central cities— where transportation is not provided for most pupils—more school busdrivers will be needed. Employment of local transit and intercity drivers will grow as bus ridership increases. Local and intercity travel is expected to increase, as the population and labor force grow and incomes rise, but most growth will probably be in more expensive air and automobile transpor tation rather than in bus travel. Some growth of ridership is expected, however, in rapidly growing Sunbelt States. Opportunities for busdriver jobs should generally be good for per sons with good driving records who are able to qualify for a Commer cial Driver’s License. Opportunities should be best in metropolitan areas that are growing rapidly. School busdriving jobs should be easiest to get, since most are part time and have higher turnover. There may continue to be competition for local transit and intercity busdriver jobs in some areas, since many of these positions offer relatively high wages and attractive benefits. Full-time busdrivers are rarely laid off during recessions. However, part-time local transit and intercity busdrivers may be if bus ridership decreases, since fewer extra buses would be needed. Seasonal layoffs are common. Many intercity busdrivers with little seniority, for exam ple, are furloughed during the winter when regular schedule and charter business falls off; school busdrivers seldom work during the summer or school holidays. Earnings Median weekly earnings of busdrivers who worked full time were $360 in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between about $260 and $510 a week. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $205 a week, while the highest tenth earned more than $595 a week. According to the American Public Transit Association, local transit busdrivers in areas with more than 1 million inhabitants had a median hourly wage rate of $13.30 in early 1989; in areas with fewer than 100,000 inhabitants, drivers had a median hourly rate of $9. The average starting rate in most cities was 75 percent of the top rate. Generally, drivers could reach the top rate in 3 or 4 years. Earnings of intercity busdrivers depend primarily on the number of miles they drive. In 1988, beginning intercity drivers worked about 6 months out of the year and earned about $20,000 while many senior drivers who worked year round earned more than $40,000. According to a survey by the Educational Research Service, the 436 Occupational Outlook Handbook average rate for school busdrivers employed by public school systems was $8.78 an hour during the 1988-89 school year, with most earning between $7.74 and $9.79 an hour. The fringe benefits that busdrivers receive from their employers vary greatly. Most intercity and local transit busdrivers receive paid health and life insurance, sick leave, and free bus rides on any of the regular routes of their line or system. Drivers who work full time also get as much as 4 weeks of vacation annually. Most local transit busdrivers are also covered by dental insurance and pension plans. School busdrivers get sick leave, and most are covered by health and life insurance and pension plans, but because they do not work when school is not in session, they do not get vacation leave. In a number of States, local transit and school busdrivers who are employed by local governments are covered by a State-wide public employee pen sion system. Most intercity and many local transit busdrivers are members of the Amalgamated Transit Union. Local transit busdrivers in New York and several other large cities belong to the Transport Workers Union of America. Some drivers belong to the United Transportation Union and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Ware housemen and Helpers of America. Related Occupations Other workers who drive vehicles on highways and city streets are taxidrivers, truckdrivers, and chauffeurs. Sources of Additional Information For further information on employment opportunities, contact local transit systems, intercity buslines, school systems, or the local offices of the State employment service. General information on local transit busdriving is available from: «r-American Public Transit Association, 1201 New York Ave. NW., Suite 400, Washington, DC 20005. Material Moving Equipment Operators (List of D.O.T. codes available on request. See p. 463.) Nature of the Work Material moving equipment operators use machinery to move construc tion materials and other manufactured goods, earth, logs, petroleum products, grain, coal, and other heavy materials. Generally they move materials over short distances—around a factory, construction site, or on or off trucks and ships. Operators control equipment by moving levers or foot pedals, operating switches, or turning dials. They may also set up and inspect equipment and make adjustments and minor repairs. Material moving equipment operators usually are classified by the type of machines they operate. Those who operate bulldozers, cranes, loaders, and similar equipment are often called construction equipment operators even though they work in the mining, logging, utilities, and other industries as well as the construction industry. Others operate industrial trucks and tractors and similar equipment in manufacturing plants and warehouses. Some operate many kinds of equipment; others only one. Crane and tower operators operate mechanical boom and cable or tower and cable equipment to lift and move materials, machinery, or other heavy objects. Although many cranes are used on construction sites, others are used in manufacturing and other industries. Excavation and loading machine operators operate and tend machin ery equipped with scoops, shovels, or buckets to excavate earth at construction sites and to load and move loose materials, mainly in the mining and construction industries. Grader, dozer, and scraper operators operate vehicles equipped with blades to remove, distribute, level, and grade earth. In addition to the familiar bulldozers, they operate trench excavators, road graders, and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis similar equipment. Although many work in the construction industry, grader, dozer, and scraper operators also work for State and local governments, mainly in maintenance and repair work, and in the mining and logging industries. Hoist and winch operators operate or tend machines which lift and pull loads using power-operated cable equipment. Most work in loading operations in manufacturing, mining, or logging. Operating engineers are qualified to operate more than one type of the construction equipment discussed above, although the term operating engineer often is applied to many construction machine operators. Industrial truck and tractor operators drive and control industrial trucks or tractors. A typical industrial truck, often called a forklift, has a hydraulic lifting mechanism and forks. Industrial truck operators use them to carry loads on a skid or pallet around a factory or ware house. Industrial tractor operators pull trailers loaded with materials, goods, or equipment between factories, warehouses, and outdoor stor age areas. Other material moving equipment operators tend air compressors or pumps at construction sites. Some operate oil or natural gas pumps and compressors at oil and gas wells and on oil and gas pipelines, and others operate ship loading and unloading equipment, conveyors, hoists, and other kinds of specialized material handling equipment such as mine or railroad tank car unloading equipment. Material moving equipment operators may keep records of materials moved and do some manual loading and unloading. They also may clean and service their equipment. Working Conditions Many material moving equipment operators work outdoors, in hot and cold weather, and sometimes in rain or snow. Industrial truck and tractor operators work mainly indoors, in warehouses or manufacturing plants. Some machines, particularly bulldozers and scrapers, are noisy and shake or jolt the operator. To avoid injury while operating an industrial truck, operators must take care to keep objects being lifted from falling. While operating a bulldozer, care must be taken to keep it from overturning on a steep slope. However, these jobs have become much safer with the adoption of overhead guards on forklift trucks and roll bars on construction machinery. As with most machinery, most accidents can be avoided when proper operating procedures and safety practices are observed. Employment Material moving equipment operators held over 1 million jobs in 1988. The following tabulation shows the makeup of this occupational group. Industrial truck and tractor operators...................................... 421,000 Operating engineers................................................................... 158,000 Grader, dozer, and scraper operators..................................... 86,000 Excavation and loading machine operators........................... 76,000 Crane and tower operators........................................................ 60,000 Hoist and winch operators........................................................ 13,000 All other material moving equipment operators.................... 197,000 The largest proportion—nearly one-third—of material moving equipment operators worked in manufacturing; most of these were industrial truck and tractor operators. More than one-fifth worked in the constmction industry. Significant numbers worked in State and local governments and in the trucking and warehousing, wholesale trade, and mining industries. Very few material moving equipment operators were self-employed. Material moving equipment operators work in every section of the country. Some work in remote locations on large construction projects, such as highways and dams, or in factory or mining operations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Operation of material moving equipment is usually learned on the job. Operators need a good sense of balance and the ability to judge distance as well as good eye-hand-foot coordination. Employers of material Transportation and Material Moving Occupations moving equipment operators prefer to hire high school graduates, although, for some equipment, persons with less education may occa sionally be accepted. Mechanical aptitude and high school training in automobile mechanics are helpful because workers may perform some maintenance on their machines. Experience operating mobile equip ment, such as farm tractors or heavy equipment in the Armed forces, is an asset. Beginning material moving equipment operators handle light equip ment under the guidance of an experienced operator. Later, they may operate heavier equipment such as bulldozers and cranes. However, some construction equipment operators are trained in a 3-year appren ticeship program administered by union-management committees of the International Union of Operating Engineers (AFL-CIO) and the Associated General Contractors of America. Since apprentices learn to operate a wider variety of machines than other beginners, they usually have better job opportunities. Apprenticeship programs consist of at least 3 years or 6,000 hours of on-the-job training and 144 hours a year of related classroom instruction. Private vocational schools offer instruction in the operation of cer tain types of construction equipment. Completion of such a program may help a person get a job as a trainee or apprentice. However, persons considering such training should check the reputation of the school among employers in the area. Job Outlook Employment of material moving equipment operators is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Equipment improvements, growing automation of material handling in factories, and the general lack of employment growth in m aj* goods-producing industries are expected to restrain growth of this occupation. Nevertheless, many openings will arise as experienced workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment of industrial truck and tractor operators—by far the largest occupation in this group—is expected to decline as a result of automation, improved manueverability and efficiency of trucks, and, in part, because 3 out of 5 workers in this occupation are concentrated in manufacturing—an industry sector for which little employment change is expected. While the volume of goods to be moved will increase as the economy grows, material handling systems in large factories and warehouses will continue to become more automated, resulting in fewer operator jobs. Some systems use computerized dispatching to enable industrial truck and tractor operators to move greater quantities of goods more efficiently. In other systems, industrial trucks and tractors are replaced by computer-controlled conveyor belts, lift mechanisms, and automated vehicles that don’t require operators. Employment of material moving equipment operators other than industrial truck and tractor operators is expected to grow more slowly than the average because many work in industries, such as mining, manufacturing, and State and local government, which are expected to slowly expand or remain relatively unchanged. The construction and manufacturing industries are very sensitive to changes in economic conditions, so the number of job openings for material moving equipment operators in these industries may fluctuate widely from year to year. Earnings Earnings for material moving equipment operators vary considerably. In 1988, median earnings of all material moving equipment operators were $385 a week; the middle 50 percent earned between $280 and $510. Ten percent earned less than $210 and 10 percent more than $660. Median weekly earnings of crane and tower operators were $440 in 1988; excavation and loading machine operators, $430; grader, dozer, and scraper operators, $390; industrial truck and tractor opera tors, $340; operating engineers, $450; and other material moving equipment operators, $380. Pay scales generally are higher in metro politan areas. Annual earnings of some workers may be lower than weekly rates would indicate because the amount of time they work can be limited by bad weather. Fringe benefits received by material moving equipment operators varied greatly. While paid vacation and sick leave are uncommon in the construction industry, these are generally provided by employers in other industries. Some employers also provided operators health, dental, vision, and life insurance, and made contributions on their behalf to a retirement plan. Related Occupations Other workers who operate mechanical equipment include truck and bus drivers, manufacturing equipment operators, and farmers. fO1 V4 437 Sources of Additional Information For further information about apprenticeships or work opportunities for construction equipment operators, contact a local of the International Union of Operating Engineers (AFL-CIO); a local apprenticeship com mittee; or the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency. In addition, the local office of the State employment service may provide information about apprenticeship and other training programs. For general information about the work of construction equipment operators, contact: f-E.vr: ■ ?STv: ••■Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. (•-Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957ESt. NW., Washing ton, DC 20006. (•-International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St. NW., Washing ton, DC 20036. Information on industrial truck and tractor operators is available from; Crane operators must be able to judge distance very well. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis w-Industrial Truck Association, 1750 K St. NW., Suite 210, Washington, DC 20006. 438 Occupational Outlook Handbook Rail Transportation Workers (D O T. 198; 850.663-018; 910.137-022, .362, .363, .364, .367-010, -022, .382, .583, .664, .667-026, .683-010, -014, -022; 913.463-014; .919.663 014, .683-018, -026; 932.664-010) Nature of the Work Rail transportation workers facilitate the movement of passengers and cargo by our Nation’s trains, subways, and streetcars. Railroad transportation workers. Locomotive engineers and rail yard engineers are among the most highly skilled workers on the railroad. They must have a thorough knowledge of the signal systems, yards, and terminals along their route and be constantly aware of the condition and makeup of the train. Trains react differently to acceleration, braking, and curves, depending on the number of cars, the ratio of empty to loaded cars, and the amount of slack in the train. Engineers operate locomotives in yards, stations, and on the road between stations. Locomotive engineers transport cargo and passen gers between stations, while rail yard engineers move cars within yards to assemble or disassemble trains. In addition to those engineers who work for railroads, some engineers called dinkey operators work at industrial sites or mines operating engines that help transport coal, rock, or supplies. Most engineers run diesel locomotives; a few run electric locomotives. Engineers operate the throttle to start and accelerate the train and use airbrakes or dynamic brakes to slow and stop it. They also watch gauges and meters that measure speed, fuel, temperature, battery charge, and air pressure in the brake lines. Both on the road and in the yard, they watch for signals that indicate track obstructions, other train movements, and speed limits. Before and after each run, engineers check locomotives for mechani cal problems. Minor adjustments are made on the spot, but major defects are reported to the engine shop supervisor. In an effort to reduce costs, most railroads are phasing out assistant engineers, also known as firers, to monitor locomotive instruments and signals and to observe the track for obstructions. Most of these duties are now performed by brake operators. Road conductors and yard conductors are in charge of train and yard crews. Conductors assigned to freight trains keep records of each car’s contents and destination and make sure that cars are added and removed at the proper points along the route. Conductors assigned to passenger trains collect tickets and fares and assist passengers. At stops, they signal engineers when to pull out of the station. Before a train leaves the terminal, the conductor receives instruc tions on the train’s route, timetable, and cargo from the dispatcher and — Locomotive engineers must carefully monitor the track ahead for any hazards. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis discusses these with the engineer. On many trains, conductors receive additional information by radio while underway. This may include information about track conditions ahead or instructions to pull off at the next available stop to let another train pass. During the run, conductors use two-way radios to contact engineers. They pass on instructions received from dispatchers and remind engineers of stops, reported track conditions, and the presence of other trains. Conductors regularly receive information from brake operators re garding needed repairs while underway or the removal of defective cars at the nearest station or stop. They inform dispatchers of any problems using a radio or wayside telephone. Yard conductors supervise the crews that assemble and disassemble trains. Some cars are sent to special tracks for unloading, while the rest are moved to other tracks to await being made into trains destined for different cities. Conductors tell engineers where to move cars and tell brake operators which cars to couple and uncouple and which switches to throw to divert the locomotive or cars to the proper track. In yards that have automatic classification systems, conductors use electrical controls to operate the track switches that route cars to the correct track. Brake operators play a pivotal role in making locomotives and cars into trains. Working under the direction of conductors, they do the physical work involved in adding and removing cars at railroad stations and assembling and disassembling trains in railroad yards. Frieght train crews include either one or two brake, signal, and switch operators—one in the locomotive with the engineer and another in the rear car. Many freight trains use only one operator in the locomotive as new visual instrumentation and monitoring devices have eliminated the need for rear brake operators. Before departure, brake operators inspect the train to make sure that all couplers and airhoses are fastened, that handbrakes on all the cars are released, and that the airbrakes are functioning properly. While underway, they regularly look for smoke, sparks, and other signs of sticking brakes, overheated axle bearings, and other faulty equipment. They may make minor repairs to airhoses and couplers. In case of unexpected stops, brake operators set up signals to protect both ends of the train. When freight trains approach an industrial site, the brake operator in the locomotive gets off the train and runs ahead to switch the train to the proper track. They uncouple the cars and throw track switches to route them to certain tracks if they are to be unloaded, or to an outgoing train if their final destination is further down the line. They also set handbrakes to secure cars. Many smaller railroads operate with only two crew members—an engineer and a conductor. Most passenger trains no longer employ brake operators but employ assistant conductors to help conductors collect tickets and assist passengers. Subway and streetcar operators. Subway operators guide subway trains, observing the signal system. They start, slow, or stop the subway on signal. Subway operators make announcements, open and close doors, and ensure that passengers get on and off the subway safely. Operators should have a basic understanding of the operating system and be able to diagnose the causes of minor problems. When emergencies occur, operators contact the appropriate officials and may have to evacuate subway cars. Operators also ensure that subways stay on their predetermined schedules. Streetcar operators drive electric-powered streetcars to transport passengers, collect fares from passengers, and issues change and transfers. They also answer questions from passengers concerning fares, schedules, and routes. Working Conditions Since most trains operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, many rail transportation employees often work nights, weekends, and holidays. Some subway operators work multiple shifts some days. Undesirable shifts are assigned to persons who have the least seniority. Most freight trains are unscheduled, so few workers on these trains have scheduled assignments. Instead, their names are placed on a list, and when their turn comes they are assigned to the next train, usually Transportation and Material Moving Occupations on short notice and often at odd hours. Because road service personnel often work on trains that operate between stations that are hundreds of miles apart, they may spend several nights a week away from home. Freight and yard conductors and brake operators spend most of their time outdoors in all kinds of weather. The work of brake operators on local runs—where trains frequently stop at stations to pick up and deliver cars—is physically demanding. Climbing up and down and getting off moving cars is strenuous and can be dangerous. Employment Rail transportation workers held about 106,000 jobs in 1988—includ ing 37,000 brake operators, 27,000 conductors, 16,000 locomotive engineers, and 10,000 rail yard engineers and dinkey operators. Sub way and streetcar operators accounted for over 8,000 jobs; other rail vehicle workers, the remaining 9,000 jobs. Railroads employ about 90 percent of all rail transportation workers. State and local govern ments and mining and manufacturing establishments that operate their own railroad cars to carry freight employ the remainder. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most railroad transportation workers begin as trainees for either engi neer or brake operator jobs. Railroads prefer that applicants have a high school education. Applicants must have good hearing, eyesight, and color vision, as well as good eye-hand coordination, manual dexterity, and mechanical aptitude. Physical stamina is required for brake operator jobs. Most employers require that applicants for railroad transportation jobs pass a physical examination and tests that screen for drug use. Railroads prefer that applicants for engineering jobs be at least 21 years old. Engineering jobs are frequently filled by experienced railroad operating workers such as brake operators or conductors. Most beginning engineers undergo 6-month training programs. These programs include classroom and on-the-job instruction in loco motive operation. At the end of the training period, aspiring engineers take qualifying tests covering locomotive equipment, airbrake sys tems, fuel economy, train handling techniques, and operating rules and regulations. On most railroads, beginning brake operators make several trips with conductors and experienced operators to become familiar with the job. On some railroads, however, new brake operators undergo extensive training, including instruction in signaling, coupling and uncoupling cars, throwing switches, and boarding moving trains. As engineers and brake operators are needed, newly trained workers who have the most seniority are placed on the “extra board.” Extra board engineers and brake operators substitute for regular workers who are absent because of vacation, illness, or other personal reasons. Extra board engineers and brake operators frequently must wait a number of years before accumulating enough seniority to get a regular assignment. Seniority rules also may determine the type of service. For instance, an engineer may move from an initial regular assignment in yard service to road service. Engineers must pass periodic physical examinations which deter mine their fitness to operate locomotives. In some cases, engineers who fail to meet the physical standards are restricted to yard service; in other instances, they may be discharged or trained to perform other work. Jobs as conductors generally are filled from the ranks of experienced brake operators who have passed tests covering signals, timetables, operating rules, and related subjects. Some companies require that these tests be passed within the first few years of employment. Until permanent positions become available, new conductors are put on the extra board—where they substitute for experienced conductors who are absent. On most railroads, conductors on the extra board may work as brake operators if there are not enough conductor runs available for them that month. Seniority usually is the main factor in determining promotion from brake operator to conductor and from the extra board to a permanent position. Advancement to conductor jobs is limited since there are many more brake operators than conductors. Most railroads maintain separate seniority lists for road service and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 439 yard service conductors. Conductors usually remain in one type of service for their entire career. On some railroads, however, conductors start in the yards, then move to freight service, and finally to passenger service. Some conductors advance to managerial or administrative positions. Subway transit systems prefer applicants with a high school educa tion for subway operator jobs. Some transit systems require subway operators to work as busdrivers for a specified period of time. Appli cants must be in good health, articulate, and able to make quick, responsible judgments. New operators generally are placed in classroom and on-the-job training programs which last from a few weeks to 6 months. At the end of the training period, most operators must pass qualifying examinations covering the operating system, troubleshooting, and evacuation and emergency procedures. Some operators with sufficent seniority can advance to station managers. Job Outlook Job opportunities for railroad transportation workers are expected to be extremely limited through the year 2000 as the steady decline in railroad industry employment since the end of World War II continues. The decline in employment stems in part from decreasing demand for railroad freight and passenger services primarily due to increasing competition from other modes of transportation such as trucking, shipping, and airlines. While railroad operating costs were rising— resulting in increased costs to users—operating costs of competing modes of transportation were falling. As a result, businesses increas ingly used other means of transportation to carry their goods. Also, there has been a slowdown in the rate of growth of heavy goods industries—such as coal, grain, food products, and lumber—which typically are major users of railroad freight services. The decline in the number of railroad transportation workers has also resulted from innovations such as larger, faster, more fuel-efficient trains and computerized classification yards that make it possible to move passengers and freight more efficiently. Computers are used to keep track of freight cars, match empty cars with the closest loads, and dispatch trains. Also, computer-assisted devices alert engineers to train malfunctions, eliminating the need for brake operators in the rear car. Employment is expected to continue to decline due to these innovations and new work rules that allow trains to operate with twoor three-person crews instead of the traditional five-person crews formerly required. Many railroad transportation positions will not be filled as people leave the occupation or will be filled by persons already employed in the industry. Employment opportunities should be somewhat better for locomotive and yard engineers, who should be less affected than other workers by technological changes and reductions in crew size. On the other hand, employment of brake operators should be the most adversely affected as visual instrumentation and monitoring devices have eliminated the need for rear brake operators. While railroads have faced tremendous problems, intracity rail sys tems have grown rapidly as more cities have built new subway systems and have added new lines to existing systems. This trend is expected to continue. As a result, employment of subway operators is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations. Because subway operator is a well-paying occupation with limited educational requirements, however, many applicants can expect to face consider able competition for available positions. Earnings Earnings of railroad transportation workers depend on the size of the train and type of service. According to union data, annual earnings of yard engineers averaged about $41,300 in 1988. Locomotive engineers in passenger service averaged $54,600, while those in freight service averaged $54,500. Conductors in passenger service averaged $47,200 a year, while those in freight service averaged $50,800. Brake opera tors averaged $44,700 in freight service and $34,300 in yard service. Based on limited information, annual earnings of subway operators ranged from $27,000 to $31,000 in 1988. 440 Occupational Outlook Handbook Most rail transportation employees in yards work 40 hours a week and receive extra pay for overtime. Most railroad workers in road service are paid acccording to miles traveled or hours worked, which ever leads to higher earnings. Full-time employees have steadier work, more regular hours, and higher earnings than those assigned to the extra board. Fringe benefits for rail transportation workers tend to be similar to those offered most workers: Vacation and sick leave, health and life insurance, and retirement plans. There are many railroad unions representing various crafts on the railroads. However, most railroad engineers are members of the Broth erhood of Locomotive Engineers, while most other railroad transporta tion workers are members of the United Transportation Union. Many subway operators are members of the Amalgamated Transit Union, while others belong to the Transport Workers Union of North America. Sources of Additional Information Information on employment opportunities for railroad transportation workers may be obtained from the employment offices of the various railroads. A list of the main offices for the major railroads may be obtained from: ••-Association of American Railroads, 50 F St. NW., Washington, DC 20001. For additional information on employment opportunities in rail transportation, contact local offices of rail transit systems and the State employment service. On long-distance runs, often one truckdriver drives while another sleeps in a berth behind the cab. Truckdrivers (D.O.T. 292.353, .363, .463, .483, and .667; 900.683 through 905.683; 906; 909.663; 919.663-018, -022, -026; and 953.583) Nature of the Work Nearly all goods are transported by truck during some of their journey from producers to consumers. Goods may also be shipped between terminals or warehouses in different cities by train, ship, or plane. But truckdrivers usually make the initial pickup from factories, consolidate cargo at terminals for intercity shipment, and deliver goods from terminals to stores and homes. Before leaving the terminal or warehouse, truckdrivers check their trucks for fuel and oil. They also inspect the trucks they will drive to make sure the brakes, windshield wipers, and lights are working and see that a fire extinguisher, flares, and other safety equipment are aboard and in working order. Drivers adjust mirrors so that both sides of the truck are visible from the driver’s seat, and make sure the cargo has been loaded properly so it will not shift during the trip. Drivers report to the dispatcher any equipment that does not work, or is missing, or cargo that is not loaded properly. Once underway, drivers must be alert to prevent accidents and to drive their trucks efficiently. Because drivers of large tractor-trailers sit higher than cars, pickups, and vans, they can see far down the road. They seek traffic lanes that allow them to move at a steady speed, and, when going downhill, they may increase speed slightly to gain momentum for a hill ahead. Long-distance runs vary widely. On short “turnarounds,” truckdriv ers deliver a load to a nearby city, pick up another loaded trailer, and drive it back to their home base the same day. Other runs take an entire day, and drivers remain away from home overnight. On longer runs, drivers may haul loads from city to city for a week or more before returning home. Some companies use two drivers on very long runs. One drives while the other sleeps in a berth behind the cab. “Sleeper” runs may last for days, or even weeks, usually with the truck stopping only for fuel, food, loading, and unloading. Some long-distance drivers who have regular runs transport freight to the same city on a regular basis. Because shippers request varying amounts of service to different cities every day, many drivers have https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis unscheduled runs. Dispatchers tell these drivers when to report for work and where to haul the freight. After long-distance truckdrivers reach their destination, or at the end or their operating shift, they complete reports about the trip and the condition of the truck, as required by the U.S. Department of Transportation. They must give a detailed report of any accident. Long-distance truckdrivers spend most of their working time behind the wheel but may be required to unload their cargo. Drivers hauling some specialty cargo often load or unload their trucks, since they may be the only one at the destination familiar with this procedure. Auto transport drivers, for example, drive and position the cars on the trailers and head ramps and remove them at the final destination. When picking up or delivering furniture, drivers of long-distance moving vans hire local workers to help them load or unload. When local truckdrivers receive assignments from the dispatcher to make deliveries, pickups, or both, they also get delivery forms. Before the drivers arrive for work, material handlers generally have loaded the trucks and arranged the items in order of delivery to minimize handling of the merchandise. At the customer’s place of business, local truckdrivers generally load or unload the merchandise. If there are heavy loads or many deliveries to make during the day, drivers may have helpers. Customers must sign receipts for goods and drivers may receive money for material delivered. At the end of the day, they turn in receipts, money, and records of deliveries made and report any mechanical problems they have discovered with their trucks. The work of local truckdrivers varies, depending on the product they transport. Produce truckers usually pick up a loaded truck in the early morning and spend the rest of the day delivering produce to many different grocery stores. Lumber truckdrivers, on the other hand, make several trips from the lumber yard to one or more construction sites. Gasoline tank truckdrivers attach the hoses and operate the pumps on their trucks to transfer the gasoline to gas stations’ storage tanks. Some local truckdrivers have sales and customer relations responsi bilities. These drivers—called driver-sales workers or route drivers— are primarily responsible for delivering their firm’s products, but they also represent the company. Their reaction to customer complaints and requests for special services can make the difference between a larger order and losing a customer. Route drivers also may use their selling ability to increase sales and to gain additional customers. Transportation and Material Moving Occupations The duties of driver-sales workers vary according to the industry in which they are employed, the policies of their particular company, and how strongly their sales responsibilities are emphasized. Most have wholesale routes—that is, they deliver to businesses and stores rather than homes. A few deliver various foods to homes, or pick up and deliver drycleaning, but retail routes are now rare. Wholesale bakery driver-sales workers, for example, deliver and arrange bread, cakes, rolls, and other baked goods on display racks in grocery stores. Paying close attention to the items that are selling well and those just sitting on the shelves, they estimate the amount and variety of baked goods that will be sold. They may recommend changes in a store’s order or may encourage the manager to stock new bakery products. From time to time, they try to get the business of new stores along their route. Driver-sales workers employed by laundries that rent linens, towels, work clothes, and other items visit businesses regularly to replace soiled laundry. Vending machine driver-sales workers service machines in factor ies, schools, and other buildings. They check items remaining in the machines, replace stock, and remove money deposited in the cash boxes. They also examine each vending machine to see that merchan dise and change are dispensed properly, make minor repairs, and clean machines. After completing their route, driver-sales workers order items for the next day which they think customers are likely to buy, based primarily on what products have been selling well, the weather, time of year, and any discussion they may have had with customers. Working Conditions Truckdriving has become less physically demanding because most trucks now have more comfortable seats, better ventilation, and im proved cab designs. However, driving for many hours at a stretch, unloading cargo, and making many deliveries can be tiring, and driving in bad weather, heavy traffic, or mountains can be nerve racking. Local truckdrivers, unlike long-distance drivers, usually can return home in the evening. Some self-employed long distance truckdrivers who own as well as operate their trucks spend over 200 days a year away from home. Local truckdrivers frequently work 48 hours or more a week. Many who handle food for chain grocery stores, produce markets, or bakeries drive at night or early in the morning. Although most drivers have a regular route, some have different routes each day. Many local truckdrivers—particularly driver-sales workers—load and unload their own trucks, which require considerable lifting, carrying, and walking. The U.S. Department of Transportation governs work hours and other matters of trucking companies engaged in interstate commerce. For example, a long-distance driver cannot be on duty for more than 60 hours in any 7-day period and cannot drive more than 10 hours following at least 8 consecutive hours off duty. Many drivers, particu larly on long runs, work close to the maximum hours permitted. Drivers on long runs may face boredom, loneliness, and fatigue. Although many drivers work during the day, travel at night and on holidays and weekends is frequently necessary in order to avoid traffic delays and deliver cargo on time. Employment Truckdrivers held over 2.6 million jobs in 1988. Jobs are concentrated in and around large cities. Some drivers are employed in almost all communities, however. Trucking companies employed nearly one-third of all truckdrivers, and another one-third worked for companies engaged in wholesale or retail trade, such as auto parts stores, oil companies, lumber yards, or distributors of food and grocery products. The rest were scattered throughout the economy, including government agencies. Fewer than 1 out of 10 truckdrivers is self-employed; of these, a significant number are owner-operators, who either operate indepen dently, serving a variety of businesses, or lease their services and their trucks to a trucking company. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 441 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Qualifications and standards for truckdrivers are established by State and Federal regulations. States must meet Federal standards, and some States have more stringent regulations. All truckdrivers must have a driver’s license issued by the State in which they live, and most employers strongly prefer a good driving record. By April 1, 1992, all drivers of trucks designed to carry at least 26,000 pounds—which includes most tractor-trailers as well as bigger straight trucks—are required to obtain a special Commercial Driver’s License (CDL) from the State in which they live; a regular driver’s license will continue to be sufficient for driving light trucks and vans in many States. All truckdrivers who operate trucks that carry hazardous materials also must obtain a CDL. To qualify for a Commercial Driver’s License, applicants must pass a knowledge test and demonstrate that they can operate a commercial truck safely. A national data bank permanently records all driving violations incurred by persons who hold commercial licenses, so driv ers whose commercial license is suspended or revoked in one State may not be issued a new one in another State. Trainees must be accompanied by a driver with a CDL until they get their own CDL. Information on how to apply for a Commercial Driver’s License can be obtained from State motor vehicle administrations. The U.S. Department of Transportation establishes minimum quali fications for truckdrivers who are engaged in interstate commerce. A driver must be at least 21 years old and pass a physical examination, which the employer usually pays for. Good hearing, 20/40 vision with or without glasses or corrective lenses, normal use of arms and legs (unless a waiver is obtained), and normal blood pressure are the main physical requirements. Persons with epilepsy or diabetes controlled by insulin are prohibited, and drivers may not use any controlled sub stances unless prescribed by a licensed physician. In addition, drivers must take a written examination on the Motor Carrier Safety Regula tions of the U.S. Department of Transportation. Many trucking operations have higher standards than those de scribed. Many firms require that drivers be at least 25 years old, be able to lift heavy objects, and have driven trucks for 3 to 5 years. Many prefer to hire high school graduates and require annual physical examinations. Increasingly, employers are requiring that drivers sub mit to periodic drug screening as a condition of employment. Since drivers often deal directly with the company’s customers, they must get along well with people. For jobs as driver-sales workers, an ability to speak well and a neat appearance are particularly impor tant, as are self-confidence, initiative, and tact. For all truckdriver jobs, employers also look for responsible, self-motivated individuals, since drivers work with little supervision. Driver-training courses are a desirable method of preparing for truckdriving jobs and obtaining a Commercial Driver’s License. High school driver-training courses are an asset, and courses in automotive mechanics may help drivers make minor roadside repairs. Many pri vate and public technical-vocational schools offer tractor-trailer driver training programs. Students learn to inspect the trucks and freight, to drive large vehicles on crowded streets and in highway traffic, and to comply with Federal, State, and local regulations. However, some programs provide only a limited amount of actual driving experience, and completion of a program does not assure a job. Persons interested in attending one of these schools should check with local trucking companies to make sure the school’s training is acceptable to them, or seek a school certified by the Professional Truck Driver Institute as providing training that meets Federal Highway Administration guide lines for training tractor-trailer drivers. Training given to new drivers by employers usually is informal and may consist only of a few hours of instruction from an experienced driver, sometimes on the new employee’s own time. New drivers also may ride with and observe experienced drivers before being assigned their own runs. Additional training may be given if they are to drive a special type of truck. Some companies give 1 to 2 days of classroom instruction which covers general duties, the operation and loading of a truck, company policies, and the preparation of delivery forms and company records. Driver-sales workers also receive training on the 442 Occupational Outlook Handbook various types of products they carry so they will be more effective sales workers and better able to handle customer requests. Very few people enter truckdriving directly from school; most truckdrivers previously held jobs in other occupations. Consideration is given to driving experience in the Armed Forces. In some instances, a person also may start as a truckdriver’s helper, driving part of the day and helping to unload and load freight. When driving vacancies occur, senior helpers usually are promoted. New drivers sometimes start on panel or other small “straight” trucks. As they gain experience and show good driving skills, they may advance to larger and heavier trucks, and finally to tractor-trailers. Although most new truckdrivers are assigned immediately to regular driving jobs, some start as extra drivers, who substitute for regular drivers who are ill or on vacation. They receive a regular assignment when an opening occurs. Advancement of truckdrivers is generally limited to driving runs that provide increased earnings or preferred schedules and working conditions. For the most part, a local truckdriver may advance to driving heavy or special types of trucks, or transfer to long-distance truckdriving. Working for companies that also employ long-distance drivers is the best way to advance to these positions. A few truckdrivers may advance to dispatcher, to manager, or to traffic work—for exam ple, planning delivery schedules. Some long-distance truckers purchase a truck and go into business for themselves. Although many of these owner-operators are success ful, others fail to cover expenses and eventually lose their trucks. Owner-operators should have good business sense as well as truckdriv ing experience. Courses in accounting, business, and business arithme tic are helpful, and knowledge of truck mechanics can enable owneroperators to perform their own routine maintenance and minor repairs. Job Outlook Employment of truckdrivers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2000 as the economy grows and the amount of freight carried by trucks increases. Average growth of local and long-distance truckdriver employment should outweigh the slow growth in driver-sales worker jobs. The number of truckdrivers with sales responsibilities is expected to increase slowly because companies are increasingly splitting their responsibilities among other workers, shifting sales, ordering, and customer service tasks to sales and office staffs, and using regular truckdrivers to make deliveries to customers. Opportunities should be favorable for persons who are interested in entering truckdriving. This occupation has among the largest number of job openings each year. Although thousands of openings will be created by growth in demand for drivers, the majority will occur as experienced drivers transfer to other fields of work or retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. However, truckdriver jobs vary greatly in terms of earnings, weekly work hours, number of nights that must be spent “on the road,” and the quality of equipment operated. Since truckdriving does not require education beyond high school, competition is expected for jobs with the most attractive earnings and working conditions. Job opportunities may vary from year to year because the amount of freight moved by trucks fluctuates with the economy. Many new truckdrivers are hired when the economy and the volume of freight are expanding, but fewer when these decline. During economic slow downs, some truckdrivers are laid off and others have decreased earnings because of reduced hours or miles driven. Independent owneroperators are particularly vulnerable to slowdowns. Truckdrivers em ployed in industries such as wholesale food distribution, which is usually not affected much by recessions, are less likely to be laid off. Earnings As a rule, local truckdrivers are paid by the hour and receive extra pay for working overtime, usually after 40 hours. Long-distance drivers are generally paid primarily by the mile, and their rate per mile can vary greatly from employer to employer; their earnings increase with mileage driven, seniority, and the size and type of truck. Most driver https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis sales workers receive a commission based on their sales, in addition to an hourly wage. In 1988, truckdrivers had average straight-time hourly earnings of $11.60. Depending on the size of the truck, average earnings were as follows: Medium trucks............................................................................. $12.38 Tractor-trailers............................................................................... 12.24 Heavy straight trucks................................................................... 10.64 Light trucks................................................................................... 7.64 Drivers employed by trucking companies had the highest earnings, averaging about $13.50 an hour in 1988. Truckdrivers in the Northeast and Midwest had the highest earnings; those in the South had the lowest. Most long-distance truckdrivers operate tractor-trailers, and their earnings vary widely, from as little as $20,000 to over $50,000 annu ally. Most self-employed truckdrivers are primarily engaged in long distance hauling, and earnings of $20,000 to $25,000 a year are common, after deducting their living expenses and the costs associated with operating their trucks. Many truckdrivers are members of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America. Some truckdrivers employed by companies outside the trucking indus try are members of unions that represent the plant workers of the companies for which they work. Related Occupations Other driving occupations include ambulance driver, busdriver, chauf feur, and taxi driver. Sources of Additional Information Information on truckdriver employment opportunities is available from local trucking companies and local offices of the State employment service. Information on career opportunities in truckdriving may be obtained from: ••-American Trucking Associations, Inc., 2200 Mill Rd., Alexandria, VA 22314. The Professional Truck Driver Institute of America, an organization established by trucklines and private shippers that employ truckdrivers, has begun certifying truckdriver training programs that meet industry standards. The Institute has available for $4 Checklist For Quality Programs in Tractor Trailer Driver Training, a do-it-yourself guide for evaluating the quality of a truckdriver training program. This publication, as well as a free list of certified tractor-trailer driver training programs, may be obtained from: ••-Professional Truck Driver Institute of America, 8788 Elk Grove Blvd., Suite M, Elk Grove, CA 95624. Water Transportation Occupations (D.O.T 197.130-010, .133 except-010 and-018, .137-010, .161-010, .163 010, -014, -018, .167 except -014; 911.131-010, .133-010, .137-010, -014, .263-010, .363-010, -014, .364-010, .584-010, .664-010, -014, .687-022 and -030; 951.685-018) Nature of the Work Workers in water transportation occupations operate and maintain deep sea merchant ships, tugboats, towboats, ferries, dredges, research vessels, and other waterborne craft on the oceans and the Great Lakes, in harbors, on rivers and canals, and on other waterways. (Fishers, who are described elsewhere in the Handbook, also operate water vessels in the course of their work.) Captains or masters supervise the operation of a vessel and the work of the other officers and the crew. They set course and speed, maneuver to avoid hazards and other ships, and determine their posi Transportation and Material Moving Occupations tion, using navigation aids, celestial observations, and charts. They signal or command crew members to steer the vessel, operate engines, signal to other vessels, attach lines, or operate towing or dredging gear. They insure that proper procedures and safety practices are being followed, check that machinery and equipment are in good working order, and oversee the loading and unloading of cargo or passengers. They also maintain logs and other records of ships’ movements and cargo carried. On large vessels, captains are assisted by deck officers or mates. Merchant marine vessels—those carrying cargo overseas—have a chief or first mate, a second mate, and a third mate. Mates stand watch for specified periods, usually 4 hours on and 8 off, overseeing the operation of the vessel. On smaller vessels, there may be only one mate (called a pilot on some inland vessels) who alternates watches with the captain. Engineers or marine engineers operate, maintain, and repair propul sion engines, boilers, generators, pumps, and other machinery. Mer chant marine vessels usually have four engineering officers: A chief engineer and a first, second, and third assistant engineer. Assistant engineers stand periodic watches, overseeing the operation of engines and machinery. Seamen, also called deckhands, particularly on inland waters, help navigate the vessel, operate deck equipment, and keep the nonengi neering areas in good condition. They stand watch, looking out for other vessels, obstructions in the ship’s path, and aids to navigation. They also measure water depth in shallow water, steer the ship, and maintain and operate deck equipment such as life boats, anchors, and cargo-handling gear. When docking or departing, they handle lines. They also perform maintenance chores such as repairing lines, chip ping rust, and painting and cleaning decks and other areas. Seamen may also load and unload cargo. On vessels handling liquid cargo, they hook up hoses, operate pumps, and clean tanks. Deckhands on tugboats or tow vessels tie barges together into tow units, inspect them periodically, and break them apart when the destination is reached. They also handle lines when maneuvering large oceangoing vessels. Larger vessels have a boatswain or head seaman. Marine oilers lubri cate gears, shafts, bearings, and other moving parts of engines and motors, read pressure and temperature gauges and record data, and may repair and adjust machinery. A typical deep sea merchant ship has a captain, three deck officers or mates, a chief engineer and three assistant engineers, plus six or more seamen and oilers. Depending on their size, vessels operating in harbors, rivers, or along the coast may have a crew comprising only a captain and one deckhand, or as many as a captain, a mate or pilot, an engineer, and seven or eight seamen. Large vessels also have a full-time cook and helper, while on small ones, a seaman does the cooking. Merchant mariners also have an electrician, machinery me chanics, and a radio officer. Pilots guide ships in and out of harbors, through straits, and on rivers and other confined waterways where a familiarity with local winds, tides, currents, and hazards such as reefs and shoals is critical. Pilots on river and canal vessels usually are regular crew members, like mates. Harbor pilots are generally independent contractors, who are assigned to vessels entering or leaving port. They may pilot many ships in a single day. Working Conditions Merchant mariners are away from home for extended periods, but earn long leaves. Most are hired for one voyage, with no job security after that. At sea, they usually stand watch for 4 hours and are off for 8 hours, 7 days a week. Those employed on Great Lakes ships work 60 days and have 30 days off, but do not work in the winter when the lakes are frozen over. Workers on rivers and canals and in harbors are more likely to have year-round work. Some work 8- or 12- hour shifts and go home every day. Others work steadily for a week or month and then have an extended period off. When working, they are usually on duty for 6 or 12 hours and are off for 6 or 12 hours. People in water transportation occupations work in all weather conditions and face injury or death from fire, collision, sinking, or https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 443 Ill® Deckhands prepare to dock a ferry. falling overboard, or working with machinery, heavy loads, and dan gerous cargo. Newer vessels are air-conditioned, soundproofed from noisy machinery, and have comfortable living quarters. Nevertheless, some find the long periods away from home and the confinement aboard ship difficult. Employment Water transportation workers held about 49,000 jobs in 1988. The following tabulation shows the makeup of this occupational group: Captains and pilots....................................................................... 14,400 Mates............................................................................................... 5,600 Engineers........................................................................................ 6,800 Seamen and marine oilers........................................................... 22,500 Some of the captains and pilots were self-employed, operating their own vessel, or were pilots who were independent contractors. About 33 percent of all water transportation workers (16,000) were employed on board merchant marine ships or U.S. Navy Military Sealift ships operating on the oceans or Great Lakes. (Many merchant marine officers and seamen worked only part of the year; the total number who worked some time during the year was substantially greater than 16,000.) Almost half worked on tugs, towboats, ferries, dredges, and other watercraft in harbors, on rivers and canals, and other waterways. Others worked in water transportation services such as boatyards and marinas; boat chartering; piloting services; and marine construction, salvaging, and surveying. Training and Other Qualifications Entry, training, and educational requirements for most water transpor tation occupations are established and regulated by the U.S. Coast Guard, but differ somewhat between the merchant marine and others. Deck and engineering officers in the merchant marine must be licensed. To qualify for a license, applicants must have graduated from the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy, or one of the six State academies, and pass an exam, or have 3 years of appropriate sea experience and pass an exam. Since seamen may work 6 months a year or less, it can take 5 to 8 years to accumulate the necessary experience. It is difficult to pass the exam without substantial formal schooling or independent study. The academies offer 4-year bachelor’s degree programs (one offers a 3-year associate program) in nautical science or marine engi neering to prepare students to be third mates or third assistant engi neers. With experience and passing of additional exams, third officers may qualify for higher rank. Because of keen competition, however, officers may have to take jobs below the grade they are qualified for. For employment in the merchant marine as an unlicensed seaman, a merchant mariner’s document is needed. Applicants must be U.S. citizens, have a medical certificate of excellent health, and a U.S. Public Health Service certificate attesting to vision, color perception, 444 Occupational Outlook Handbook and general physical condition. While no experience or formal school ing is required, training at a union-operated school is helpful. Begin ners are classified as ordinary seaman and may be assigned to the deck or engineering department. With experience at sea, and perhaps unionsponsored training, an ordinary seaman can pass the able seaman exam. Merchant marine officers and seamen (experienced and beginners) are hired for voyages through union hiring halls or directly by shipping companies. Harbor pilot training is usually an apprenticeship with a shipping company or a pilot employees’ association. Entrants may be able seamen or licensed officers. No training or experience is needed to become a seaman or deckhand on vessels operating in harbors or on rivers or other waterways. Newly hired workers generally learn skills on the job. With experience, they are eligible to take a Coast Guard exam to qualify as a mate, pilot, or captain. Substantial knowledge gained through experience, courses in seamanship schools, and independent study are needed to pass the exam. Job Outlook Overall, employment of water transportation occupations is projected to decline through the year 2000, but will vary by sector. Employment in deep sea shipping is expected to continue its long term sharp decline as U.S.-manned ships carry an even smaller propor tion of international cargo. (In 1987, only 4 percent of our imports and exports were carried on U.S.-manned ships.) Only new Federal legislation and subsidies would stop the decline, and these are not likely. The decline in jobs has created competition for jobs, with many experienced merchant mariners going for long periods without work. As a result, unions generally have not accepted new members. Also, many merchant marine academy graduates have not found licensed shipboard jobs in the U.S. merchant marine, although most do find related jobs. All are commissioned as ensigns in the U.S. Naval Reserve, and many go on active duty in the Navy. Some find jobs on https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis tugboats or other watercraft or on foreign-flag vessels, or take jobs as seamen on U.S. flag ships. Some take land-based jobs with shipping companies, marine insurance companies, manufacturers of boilers or related machinery, civilian jobs with the U.S. Navy, or other related jobs. Unless the number of people seeking merchant marine jobs declines sharply, the present keen competition is likely to continue. Vessels on rivers and canals and on the Great Lakes carry bulk products such as coal, ore, petroleum, sand and gravel, grain, and chemicals. Shipments of these products are expected to grow moder ately through the year 2000, but, because of productivity increases, employment is expected to decline. Employment in water transporta tion services is likely to show little or no change. Earnings Water transportation workers who usually worked full time had median earnings of $26,000 a year in 1988. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,000 and $38,000. The top 10 percent, most of whom probably were captains or harbor pilots, earned more than $52,000. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $14,000. Those who did not work a full year obviously earned less. Related Occupations Workers in occupations having duties and responsibilities similar to these occupations include fishing vessel captains, ferryboat operators, and hatchtenders. Sources of Additional Information A pamphlet entitled Information Concerning Employment and Train ing in the U.S. Merchant Marine is available from: ••-Maritime Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, 400 7th St. SW., Washington, DC 20590. Individuals interested in attending the U.S. Merchant Marine Acad emy should contact: •-Admissions Office, U.S. Merchant Marine Academy, Kings Point, NY 11024. Handlers, Equipment Cleaners, Helpers, and Laborers (A list of D.O.T. codes is available on request. See page 463.) Nature of the Work Employers in almost all industries hire individuals at the entry level to assist more skilled workers or to perform tasks that do not require significant training. Most are handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers. They perform a broad array of jobs, ranging from moving boxes and feeding machines to cleaning equipment and work areas. Many do tasks needed to make the work of more skilled employees flow smoothly. These workers often do routine, physical work under close supervision. They generally follow oral or written instructions from supervisors or more experienced workers, with little opportunity to make decisions. Helpers and laborers must be familiar with the duties of workers they help, as well as with the materials, tools, and machinery they use, in order to perform their jobs effectively. Freight, stock, and material movers include stock handlers and baggers, machine feeders and offbearers, stevedores, and related occu pations. They move materials to and from storage areas, loading docks, delivery vehicles, ships’ holds, machines, and containers either manually or with forklifts, dollies, handtrucks, or carts. Their specific duties vary by industry and work setting. In factories, they may move raw materials, components, and finished goods to and from machines, storage areas, and loading docks. They receive and sort materials and supplies and prepare them according to work orders for delivery to work or storage areas. In grocery stores, they stock shelves, bag groceries, carry packages to customers’ cars, and return shopping carts to designated areas. In film production companies, handlers may unload cameras and other film equipment from vans and trucks and move the equipment into position for filming. Helpers assist construction trades workers, mechanics and repairers, and workers in production and extractive occupations. (Information on these occupations is given elsewhere in the Handbook.) They aid machine operators and tenders by moving materials, supplies, and tools to and from work areas. They help set up and adjust machines, and may tend the machines during operation if an operator is out. Helpers may sort finished products, keep records of machine processes, report malfunctions to operators, and clean machinery after use. Me chanics’ helpers assist workers who repair motor vehicles, industrial machinery, and electrical, electronic, and other equipment. They fur nish tools, materials, and supplies; hold materials or tools; take apart defective equipment; remove rivets; prepare replacement parts; and clean work areas. Construction laborers provide much of the routine physical labor at building sites. They supply tools, materials, and equipment to carpenters, electricians, masons, plumbers, and other construction workers. Some have job titles that indicate the work they do. Tenders for bricklayers and plasterers mix and supply materials, set up and move scaffolding, and provide other services. Laborers dig trenches, set braces to support the sides of excavations, and clean up rubble and debris. They may operate jackhammers, earth tampers, cement mixers, buggies, front-end loaders, “walk-behind” ditchdiggers, small me chanical hoists, and laser beam equipment to align and grade ditches and tunnels. Hand packers and packagers manually package or wrap materials. They may inspect items for defects, label cartons and stamp informa tion on products, keep records of items packed, and stack packages on loading docks. Refuse collectors collect trash and garbage and drive garbage trucks. Service station attendants fill fuel tanks, wash windshields, change oil, repair tires, and replace belts, lights, windshield wipers, and other https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis accessories on automobiles, buses, trucks, and other vehicles. Parking lot attendants assist customers in parking their cars in lots or storage areas and collect fees from customers. Vehicle washers and equipment cleaners clean machinery, vehicles, storage tanks, pipelines, and similar equipment using water and other cleaning agents, vacuums, hoses, brushes, cloths, and other cleaning equipment. Working Conditions Most handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers do repetitive, physically demanding work. They may lift and carry heavy objects, and stoop, kneel, crouch, and crawl in awkward positions. Some work at great heights, or outdoors in all weather conditions. Some jobs expose workers to harmful chemicals, fumes, odors, or dangerous machinery, so these employees may need to wear safety clothing and observe safety procedures. In factories, handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers may work evening or “night-owl” shifts. Handlers may stock shelves at night in grocery stores. Garbage collectors often work early morning shifts, starting at 5:00 or 6:00 A.M. CY. Positions for handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers are generally entry level. 445 446 Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers held about 4,894,000 jobs in 1988. The following tabulation shows the makeup of this occupational group: Freight, stock, and material movers, hand........................ 884,000 635,000 Hand packers and packagers................................................ Construction trades helpers................................................... 555,000 Service station attendants...................................................... 308,000 Machine feeders and offbearers........................................... 249,000 Vehicle washers and equipment cleaners........................... 215,000 Refuse collectors.................................................................... 126,000 Parking lot attendants............................................................ 47,000 All other helpers, laborers, and material movers, hand..................................................................... 1,875,000 They were employed throughout the country in virtually all indus tries, with the greatest numbers in manufacturing, construction, and wholesale and retail trade. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For most of these jobs, employers will hire people without work experience or specific training. Some require a high school diploma, others do not. For those jobs requiring physical exertion, employers look for physically fit workers and may require that they pass a physical exam. For all jobs, employers look for people who are reliable and hard working. For those jobs that involve dealing with the public, such as grocery store helpers and garage and parking lot attendants, workers should be pleasant and tactful. Generally, handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers pick up skills informally from more experienced workers or supervisors. In many of these jobs, workers may become trainees or qualify directly for jobs as construction trades or production workers; transportation, material moving equipment, or vehicle operators; or mechanics or repairers. Some become supervisors of handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers. In fact, many employers do not hire workers for mechanic, construction trade, production, or similar occupations. Rather, they only hire handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers, and promote qualified workers as openings arise. Job Oulook Little or no change in employment of handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers is expected through the year 2000. Job openings should be numerous, however, because the occupation is very large and turnover is high. These jobs are often the most easily replaced by new machines and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis equipment. Automated material handling equipment, such as conveyor belts and computer-controlled lift mechanisms and machines that auto matically load, unload, and package materials, will be increasingly used, eliminating some helper, handler, and hand packer and packager jobs. In addition, as more skilled jobs become automated or partially automated, such as those of assemblers, the number of employees needed to assist these workers will be reduced. Jobs for service station attendants will grow more slowly than average as more repair and maintenance work is done outside of gasoline service stations—the major employer of these workers. Em ployment of handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers in construction will grow about as fast as the average because of growth expected in the construction industry and because many of these tasks are nonrepetitive and difficult to automate. Growth in wholesale and retail trade will be about average because of the average overall employment growth projected for these industries. Employment of parking lot attendants is also expected to increase as fast as the average for all occupations because parking lots are difficult to automate. Earnings Median weekly earnings for handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers in 1988 were about $275. The middle 50 percent earned from about $200 to $400 weekly. The top 10 percent earned about $510 weekly, and the bottom 10 percent earned about $155 weekly. Construction laborers have higher weekly earnings than other workers in this group. However, they may be more likely to lose work time because of bad weather and the cyclical nature of construction work. Equipment cleaners and garage and service station attendants have the lowest weekly earnings of workers in this group. Related Occupations Other entry level workers who perform mostly physical work are roustabouts in the oil industry, certain timber cutting and logging occupations, and groundskeepers. The jobs of handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers are often similar to those of the more experienced workers they assist, including machine operators, craft workers, assemblers, mechanics, and repairers. Sources of Additional Information For information about jobs as handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers, contact local building or construction contractors, manu facturers, and wholesale and retail establishments, or the local office of the State employment service. For general information about the work of construction laborers, contact: ••-Laborers’ International Union of North America, 905 16th St. NW., Wash ington, DC 20006. Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces Nature of the Work The mission of the Armed Forces is to deter aggression and defend the Nation in times of conflict. The Army prepares for land-based defense, while the Air Force provides for air and space defense. The Navy organizes and trains forces primarily for sea defense, while the Marine Corps, part of the Department of the Navy, prepares for land invasions in support of naval or amphibious operations. The Coast Guard, under the Department of Transportation (except in wartime, when it serves with the Navy), enforces Federal maritime laws, rescues distressed vessels and aircraft at sea, operates aids to navigation, and prevents smuggling. Together, the Armed Forces constitute America’s largest employer. Because maintaining a strong defense encompasses everything from running a hospital to operating a nuclear reactor, military service provides educational opportunities and work experience in literally thousands of occupations. Military personnel hold managerial and administrative jobs; professional, technical, and clerical jobs; con struction jobs; electrical and electronics jobs; mechanical and repair jobs; and many others. The military provides job training and work experience for people who can serve for a relatively brief period (2 to 6 years of active duty) or embark on a career that lasts 20 years or more. There are more than 2,000 basic and advanced military occupational specialties for enlisted personnel and 1,600 for officers. Over 75 percent of these occupational specialties have civilian counterparts. A brief discussion of the major military occupational groups follows. Those in electrical and mechanical equipment repair occupations maintain aircraft, motor vehicles, and ships. Officers manage the maintenance of aircraft, missiles, conventional and nuclear-powered ships, trucks, earth-moving equipment, and other vehicles. Enlisted personnel serve as mechanics, engine men, and boiler technicians. Skills obtained in these jobs are readily transferable to those in the civilian sector. Infantry, gun crews, and seamanship specialists are the backbone of the Armed Forces. Officers plan and direct military operations, oversee security activities, and serve as combat troop leaders. Enlisted About a third of all enlisted personnel are equipment repairers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis personnel serve as infantrymen, gunners’ mates, weapons specialists, armored vehicle operators, demolition experts, artillery crew, rocket specialists, special operations forces, and combat engineers. Although these functions are unique to the Armed Forces, some involve skills that can be applied to a number of civilian occupations such as police officers, firefighters, and heavy equipment operators. In addition, people in this category learn how to work as team members and can develop leadership, managerial, and supervisory skills. Functional support and administrative jobs in military service require the same skills as similar jobs in private businesses and government agencies. Officers in this category work as directors, executives, adjutants, administrative officers, personnel managers, training administrators, budget officers, finance officers, accountants, hospital administrators, inspectors, computer systems managers, and lawyers. Enlisted personnel in this category work as accounting clerks, payroll clerks, personnel clerks, computer programmers, computer operators, electric accounting machine operators, chaplain assistants, counseling aides, typists, stenographers, storekeepers, and other clerks. Military personnel assigned to electronic equipment repair occupa tions are responsible for maintaining and repairing many different types of equipment. Officers manage those who repair avionic, com munications, radar, and air traffic control equipment. Enlisted person nel repair radio, navigation, and flight control equipment as well as telephone, teletype, and data processing equipment. Many of these skills are directly transferable to jobs in the civilian sector. Communications and intelligence specialists in the military have civilian scientific and engineering counterparts. Officers serve as cryptologists, information analysts, science and engineering researchers, and in related intelligence occupations. Enlisted personnel work as mapping technicians, computer programmers, air traffic controllers, interpreters and translators, and radio and radar operators. Military personnel in service and supply occupations handle food service, security, and personal services and supply. Officers work as logistics officers, supply managers, transportation and traffic manag ers, and procurement officers. Enlisted personnel include military police, correction specialists, detectives, firefighters, and food prepa ration and other service workers. They operate transportation equip ment such as trucks, ships, boats, airplanes, and helicopters, and act as quartermasters, supply specialists, and cargo specialists. Many of these skills can be transferred to civilian occupations. Military medical and dental occupations all have civilian counter parts. Holding the rank of medical officer are physicians, dentists, optometrists, nurses, therapists, veterinarians, pharmacists, and others in health diagnosing and treating occupations. Enlisted personnel are trained to work as medical laboratory technologists and technicians, radiologic technologists, emergency medical technicians, dental assis tants, pharmaceutical assistants, sanitation specialists, and veterinary assistants. Health professions training obtained in the military is usu ally recognized in the civilian sector; service-trained health profession als are eligible to apply for certification or registration, a hiring prereq uisite in many civilian health settings. Military personnel assigned to craft occupations are skilled craft workers. Officers serve as civil engineers and architects and manage the work of enlisted personnel who work as carpenters, construction equipment operators, metalworkers, machinists, plumbers, welders, electricians, and heating and air-conditioning specialists. They also work as dental laboratory technicians, opticians, and shipfitters. Military experience in other technical and allied specialty occupa tions is often directly transferable to civilian life. Officers in this field work as television and motion picture directors, public affairs officers, and band directors. Enlisted personnel are trained to work as musi cians, photographers, graphic designers and illustrators, writers and editors, and motion picture camera operators. 447 448 Occupational Outlook Handbook Those aboard ship, on air crews, and others travel regularly, while others in the military are stationed at bases throughout the Country or overseas. Distribution of Military Personnel In 1988, nearly 2.2 million persons were on active duty in the Armed Forces—about 772,000 in the Army; 576,000 in the Air Force; 593,000 in the Navy; 197,000 in the Marine Corps; and 38,000 in the Coast Guard. About 10 percent of those on active duty were women. Military personnel are stationed throughout the United States and in many countries around the world. About 518,000 are stationed outside the United States. Over 344,000 of these are stationed in Europe (mainly in Germany); large numbers also are in the Western Pacific area. Table 1 shows the occupational composition of enlisted personnel in 1989.Nearly 1 out of3held jobs that involved electrical, electronics, mechanical, and related equipment, a reflection of the highly technical nature of the fighting forces today. Officers—who accounted for about 14 percent of all military personnel—are concentrated in administra tive, medical, and dental specialties, as well as combat activities, where they serve as ships’ officers, aircraft pilots and crew members, and infantry or artillery officers. The Marine Corps has a wide variety ofjob classifications, including one for photographers. Working Conditions Joining the Armed Forces is a big decision and should not be taken lightly. Military life is more regimented than civilian life, and some people have trouble adapting to the discipline. Many others adapt quite easily, and some make a career of military service. It is important to remember that by signing an enlistment contract, you sign a legal document that obligates you to serve for a specified period of time. Generally, there is no backing out. Dress and grooming requirements are more stringent than in most civilian occupations, and rigid formalities govern many aspects of everyday life. For instance, officers and enlisted personnel do not socialize together, and superior commissioned officers are saluted and addressed as “sir” or “ma’am.” These and other rules encourage respect for superiors whose commands must be obeyed immediately and with out question. The needs of the military always come first. As a result, hours and working conditions can vary substantially. However, most military personnel usually work 8 hours a day, 5 or 5-1/2 days a week. Some assignments, however, require night and weekend work, or require people to be on call at all hours. All may require substantial travel. Many require long periods at sea, sometimes in cramped quarters, or lengthy overseas assignments in countries offering few amenities. Some jobs are in isolated areas subject to extreme cold or heat. Others, such as carrier flight deck duty, are hazardous even in noncombat situations. During times of conflict, many are in combat. Noncombatants may also face danger if their duties bring them close to the combat zone. They may also participate in dangerous training activities. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Qualifications, Training, and Advancement General enlistment qualifications. As it has since 1973, the military expects to continue to meet its personnel requirements through volun teers. Enlisted members must enter a legal agreement called an enlist ment contract, which usually involves a commitment to 8 years of service. Depending on the terms of the contract, 2 to 6 years are spent on active duty, the balance in the reserves. The enlistment contract obligates the service to provide the agreed-upon options—job, rating, pay, cash bonuses for enlistment in certain occupations, medical and other benefits, occupational training, and continuing education. In return, the enlistee must serve satisfactorily for the specified period of time. Requirements for each service vary, but certain qualifications for enlistment are common to all branches. Enlistees must be between the ages of 17 and 35, must be a U.S. citizen or immigrant alien holding permanent resident status, they must not have a felony record, and must possess a birth certificate. Applicants who are 17 must have the consent of a parent or legal guardian before entering the service. Air Force enlisted personnel must enter active duty before their 28th birthday. Applicants must pass both a written examination, the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB), and meet certain minimum physical standards such as height, weight, vision, and over all health. All branches prefer high school graduation or its equivalent and require it for certain enlistment options. In 1988, 94 percent of all Table 1. Military enlisted personnel by broad occupational category, 1989 (Percent distribution) All personnel (thousands)......................................................... 1,795 Percent.............................................................................................. Electrical and mechanical equipment repairers.......................... Infantry, gun crews, and seamanship specialists....................... Functional support and administrative personnel....................... Electronic equipment repairers..................................................... Communications and intelligence specialists ............................. Service and supply handlers......................................................... Medical and dental specialists....................................................... Craftsmen......................................................................................... Other technical and allied specialists........................................... All other........................................................................................... Source: U.S. Department of Defense jqq 21 17 15 10 10 9 6 4 2 g Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces enlisted personnel were high school graduates. Single parents are generally not eligible to enlist. People thinking about enlisting in the military should learn as much as they can about military life before making a decision. This is especially important if you are thinking about making the military a career. Speaking to friends and relatives with military experience is a good idea. Determine what the military can offer you—and what it will expect in return. Then talk to a recruiter, who can determine if you qualify for enlistment; explain the various enlistment options; and tell you which military occupational specialties currently have openings for trainees. Bear in mind that the recruiter’s job is to recruit promising applicants into the military, so the information he or she gives you is likely to stress the positive aspects of military life. Ask the recruiter to assess your chances of being accepted for training in the occupation or occupations of your choice, or, better still, take the ASVAB to see how well you score. The military uses the ASVAB as a placement exam, and test scores largely determine an individual’s chances of being accepted into a particular training program. Selection for a particular type of training depends on general and technical aptitudes, personal preference, and the needs of the service. Since all prospective recruits are required to take the ASVAB, those who do so before committing themselves to enlist have the advantage of knowing in advance whether they stand a good chance of being accepted for training in a particular specialty. The recruiter can schedule you for the ASVAB without any obligation. Many high schools offer the ASVAB as an easy way for students to explore the possibility of a military career. Enlistment contract. If you decide to join the military, the next step is to pass the physical and then enter into the enlistment contract. This involves choosing, qualifying, and agreeing on a number of enlistment options such as length of active duty time, which may vary according to the enlistment option. (Most active duty programs have enlistment options ranging from 3 to 6 years, although there are some 2-year programs.) The contract will also list the date of enlistment and other options such as bonuses and types of training to be received. If the service is unable to fulfill its part of the contract (such as providing a certain kind of training) the contract may become null and void. All services offer a “delayed entry program” by which an enlistee can delay entry into active duty for up to 1 year. High school students can enlist during their senior year and enter a service after graduation. Other enlistees choose this program because the job training they An Air Force pilot reviews procedures before a training mission. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 449 desire is not currently available but will be within the coming year, or because they need time to arrange personal affairs. Women are eligible to enter almost 90 percent of all military special ties. In addition to serving in the more traditional roles of secretary and nurse, women work as mechanics, missile maintenance technicians, heavy equipment operators, airplane pilots, and intelligence officers. Only occupations involving a high probability of direct exposure to combat are excluded—for example, fighter pilot, artilleryman or infan tryman, and submariner. People planning to apply the skills gained through military training to a civilian career should look into several things before selecting their military occupation. First, they should determine how good the prospects are for civilian employment in jobs related to the military specialty which interests them. Second, they should know the prerequi sites for the related civilian job. Many occupations require a license, certification, or a minimum level of education. In such cases, it is important to determine whether military training is sufficient to enter the civilian equivalent or, if not, what additional training will be required. Other Handbook statements discuss the job outlook for civilian occupations for which military training is helpful. Additional informa tion often can be obtained from schools, unions, trade associations, and other organizations in the field of interest, or from a school counselor. Training programs for enlisted personnel. Following enlistment, new members of the Armed Forces undergo recruit training. Better known as “basic” training, recruit training provides a 6- to 11-week introduction to military life with courses in health, first aid, and military skills and protocol. Days and nights are carefully structured and include rigorous physical exercises designed to improve strength and endurance. Following basic training, most recruits take additional training at technical schools that prepare them for a particular military occupa tional specialty. The formal training period generally lasts from 10 to 20 weeks, although training for certain occupations—nuclear powerplant operator is an example—may take as much as 1 year. Recruits not assigned to classroom instruction receive on-the-job training at their first duty assignment. In addition to on-duty training, military personnel may choose from a variety of educational programs. Most military installations have tuition assistance programs for people wishing to take courses during off-duty hours. These may be correspondence courses or degree pro grams offered by local colleges or universities. Also available are courses designed to help service personnel earn high school equiva lency diplomas. Each service branch provides opportunities for full time study to a limited number of exceptional applicants. Military personnel accepted into these highly competitive programs receive full pay, allowances, tuition, and related fees. In return, they must agree to serve an additional amount of time in the service. Other very selective programs enable enlisted personnel to qualify as commis sioned officers through additional military training. Officer training. Officer training in the Armed Forces is provided through the Federal service academies (Military, Naval, Air Force, and Coast Guard); the Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC); Officer Candidate School (OCS); the National Guard (State Officer Candidate School programs); the Uniformed Services University of Health Sci ences; and other programs. All are very selective and are good options for those wishing to make the military a career. Federal service academies provide a 4-year college program leading to a bachelor of science degree. The midshipman or cadet is provided free room and board, tuition, medical care, and a monthly allowance. Graduates receive regular commissions and have a 5-year active duty obligation, or longer if entering flight training. To become a candidate for appointment as a cadet or midshipman in one of the service academies, most applicants obtain a nomination from an authorized source (usually a Member of Congress). Candidates do not need to know a Member of Congress personally to request a nomination. Nominees must have an academic record of the requisite quality, college aptitude test scores above an established minimum, 450 Occupational Outlook Handbook and recommendations from teachers or school officials; they also must pass a medical examination. Appointments are made from the list of eligible nominees. Appointments to the Coast Guard Academy are made strictly on a competitive basis. A nomination is not required. ROTC programs train students in about 1,000 Army, 65 Navy and Marine Corps, and 600 Air Force units at participating colleges and universities. Trainees take 2 to 5 hours of military instruction a week in addition to regular college courses. After graduation, they serve as officers on active duty for a stipulated period of time. Students in the last 2 years of an ROTC program receive a monthly allowance while attending school and additional pay for summer training. ROTC schol arships for 2, 3, and 4 years are available on a competitive basis. All scholarships pay for tuition and have allowances for subsistence, textbooks, supplies, and other fees. College graduates can earn a commission in the Armed Forces through OCS programs in the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, Coast Guard, and National Guard. Persons with training in certain health professions may qualify for direct appointment as officers. In the case of health professions stu dents, financial assistance and internship opportunities are available from the military in return for specified periods of military service. Prospective medical students can apply to the Uniformed Services University of Health Sciences, which offers free tuition in a program leading to an M.D. degree. In return, graduates must serve for 7 years in either the military or the Public Health Service. Direct appointments also are available for those qualified to serve in other special duties, such as the judge advocate general (legal) or chaplain corps. Flight training is available to commissioned officers in each branch An Army recruit practices rappelling. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis of the Armed Forces. In addition, the Army has a direct enlistment option to become a warrant officer aviator. Advancement opportunities. Each service has different criteria for promoting personnel. Generally, the first few promotions for both enlisted and officer personnel come easily. Subsequent promotions are much more competitive. Criteria for promotion may include time in service and grade, job performance, a supervisor’s recommendation, and written examinations. Increasingly, people who are continually passed over for promotion are eventually encouraged to leave the military. Job Outlook Job opportunities should be excellent in all branches of the Armed Forces through the year 2000 as the prime recruiting age population declines. In recent years, about 300,000 enlisted personnel and 25,000 officers have been recruited annually to replace those who leave. If the size of the Armed Forces remains at 1988 levels, about the same number will be needed in the future. If the Armed Forces are reduced, fewer will be needed, of course. Educational requirements are rising as military jobs become more technical and complex; high school graduates and applicants with some college background will be sought to fill the ranks of enlisted personnel. Officers must have at least a 4-year college degree. Certain occupational specialties require advanced degrees or degrees in a particular field. As a result of a sharp decline in the birth rate during the 1970’s, military personnel needs will be filled from a declining pool of 18- to 24-year-olds until the late 1990’s, when the recruiting age population will again begin to grow. To avoid shortages, the military is expected to strengthen incentives for enlistment and reenlistment. Under consid eration are enlistment bonuses, improved pay, better job training for recruits, and more generous veterans’ benefits. More attention may be paid to the quality of military life as all branches of the Armed Forces look for ways to improve retention rates. Shorter periods at sea and childcare facilities for single parents are just two approaches under consideration. Active recruitment of women will continue, although their represen tation in the Armed Forces is not expected to expand significantly in the years ahead. Military personnel enjoy more job security than their civilian coun terparts. Satisfactory job performance generally assures one of steady employment and earnings. Earnings, Allowances, and Benefits Starting salaries. Starting annual salaries of military personnel are shown in table 2. Most enlisted personnel started at Grade E-l in 1989; however, those with special skills or above-average education started as high as Grade E-3. Most warrant officers started at Grade W-l or W-2, depending upon their occupational and academic qualifications and the branch of service. Most commissioned officers started at Grade O-l; highly trained officers—for example, physicians, engineers, and scientists—started as high as Grade 0-3 or 0-4. Allowances. In addition to basic pay, military personnel receive free room and board (or a housing and subsistence allowance), medical and dental care, a military clothing allowance, military supermarket and department store shopping privileges, 30 days of paid vacation a year, and travel opportunities. Athletic and other recreational facilities—such as libraries, gymna siums, tennis courts, golf courses, bowling centers, and movies—are available on many military installations. Help with personal or finan cial problems is available from personal affairs officers, legal assis tance officers, counselors, and chaplains, as well as supporting agen cies such as the USO. Special pay generally is awarded for unusually demanding or hazard ous duties, assignment to duties requiring skills in which there is a shortage, assignment to certain areas outside the continental United States, and outstanding performance evaluations. Military personnel are eligible for retirement benefits after 20 years of service. Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces Table 2. Military basic pay by grade for active duty personnel with less than 2 years of service, 1989 Pay grade Basic monthly pay Enlisted personnel: E-l1 .................................................. ..................................... $646.20 E-1 .......................... ..................................... 699.00 E-2 ........................................ ..................................... 783.60 ........................ 814.20 E-3 ............................. ............................ 864.30 E-4 ............................. Warrant officers: W-l .................................................. ..................................... 1,195.20 W-2.................................................. ..................................... 1,434.30 Commissioned officers: O-l.................................................... ..................................... 0-2.................................................... ..................................... 0-3.................................................... ..................................... 0-4.................................................... ..................................... 1,338.90 1,542.30 1,768.80 1,903.50 'Less than 4 months of service. Source: U.S. Department of Defense Annual earnings. In 1989, the average compensation of all military personnel—including basic pay and housing and subsistence allow ances—was $23,675. Enlisted personnel averaged $20,524; warrant officers averaged $34,870; and commissioned officers averaged $43,151. Veterans’ benefits. The Veterans Administration (VA) provides numerous benefits to those who have served at least 2 years in the Armed Forces. Veterans are eligible for free care in VA hospitals for all service-connected disabilities regardless of time served; those with other medical problems are eligible for free VA care if they are unable to pay the cost of hospitalization elsewhere. Admission to a VA medical center depends on the availability of beds, however. Veterans https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 451 are also eligible for certain loans, including home loans. Veterans, regardless of health, can convert a military life insurance policy to an individual policy with any participating company in the veteran’s State of residence. In addition, job counseling, testing, and placement services are available. Veterans who participate in the New Montgomery GI Bill Program receive educational benefits. Under this program, Armed Forces per sonnel may elect to deduct from their pay $100 a month for 12 months to put toward their future education. Depending on the length of enlistment, the Government will contribute up to $9,600, until the combined contributions reach a maximum of $10,800. In addition, each service may provide its own additional contributions to put toward future education. This sum becomes the service member’s educational fund. Upon separation from active duty, the fund can be used to finance an education at any VA-approved institution. VA-approved schools include many vocational, correspondence, business, technical, and flight training schools; community and junior colleges; and col leges and universities. Information on educational and other veterans’ benefits is available from VA offices located throughout the country. Sources of Additional Information The Department of Defense publishes the Military Career Guide to provide students with information about job opportunities in each of the services. In addition, each of the military services publishes handbooks, fact sheets, and pamphlets that describe entrance require ments, training and advancement opportunities, and other aspects of military careers. These publications are available at all recruiting stations, most State employment service offices, and in high schools, colleges, and public libraries. For additional information, write to: ••-Department of the Army, HQUS Army Recruiting Command, Fort Sheridan, IL 60037. «*-USAF Recruiting Service, Directorate of Advertising and Publicity, Ran dolph Air Force Base, TX 78150. ••-Commandant of the Marine Corps, Fleadquarters, Washington, DC 20380 0001. wNavy Recruiting Command, 4015 Wilson Blvd., Arlington, VA 22203 1991. ••-Commandant (G-PRJ), U.S. Coast Guard, Washington, DC 20590. Summary Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail Employment in the approximately 250 occupations that are discussed in the main body of the Handbook accounts for about 101 million or 86 percent of all jobs in the economy. Although occupations covering the full spectrum of work are included, generally those that require lengthy education or training are given the most attention. This appendix presents summary data on 80 additional occupations for which employment projections are prepared but for which detailed occupational information is not developed. These occupations account for about 5 percent of all jobs. For each occupation, a brief description of the nature of work, the number of jobs in 1988, and a phrase describing the projected employment change from 1988 to 2000 are presented. For guidelines underlying this descriptive phraseology, refer to the How to Get the Most From the Handbook section. The approximately 9 percent of all jobs not covered either in the detailed occupational descriptions in the main body of the Handbook or in the summary data presented in this appendix are mainly residual categories, such as managers and administrators, not specified, for which little if any meaningful information could be developed. search findings and procedures to solve problems and provide in struction and training in the development of products, sales, and the use of machinery and equipment. 1988 employment: 23,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: About as fast as average Teachers, preschool Teach preschool pupils basic physical, mental, and developmental skills in public or private schools. 1988 employment: 238,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Faster than average Technicians and Related Support Occupations Title examiners, searchers, and clerks Plan, organize, direct, control, or coordinate management activities related to: Communications by telephone, telegraph, radio, or televi sion; transporting people or goods by air, highway, railway, water, or pipeline; transportation facilities, such as airports, harbors, or termi nals; warehousing and storage facilities; and electricity, gas, water, steam, or sanitation services. Title examiners: Search public records and examine titles to deter mine legal status of property titles. Copy or summarize (abstract) recorded documents, such as mortgages, trust deeds, and contracts, affecting title to property. May prepare and issue policy that guarantees legality of title. Abstractors: Summarize pertinent legal or insurance details or sections of statutes or case law from reference books for purpose of examination, proof, or ready reference. Search out titles to determine if title deed is correct. Searchers: Compile lists of mortgages, deeds, contracts, judgments, and other instruments pertaining to titles by searching public and private records for real estate or title insurance company. 1988 employment: 166,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: About as fast as average 1988 employment: 27,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: About as fast as average Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations Commmunications, transportation, and utilities operations managers Loan officers and counselors Evaluate, authorize, or recommend commercial or real estate loans and credit loans, or advise borrowers on financial status and methods of payment. 1988 employment: 172,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Faster than average Professional Specialty Occupations Directors, religious education and activities Direct and coordinate activities of a denominational group to meet religious needs of students and plan, organize, and direct religious school programs designed to promote religious education. Provide counseling and guidance relative to marital, health, financial, and re ligious problems. 1988 employment: 56,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Slower than average Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical Advertising clerks Receive orders for classified advertising from customers in person or by telephone for newspapers or magazines. Examine and mark classi fied advertisements of newspapers according to copy sheet specifica tions to guide composing room in assembling type. Verify confor mance of published advertisements to specifications for billing purposes. 1988 employment: 18,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Faster than average Correspondence clerks Compose letters to reply to requests for merchandise, damage claims, credit information, delinquent accounts, incorrect billing, or unsatis factory service, or to request information. Duties may include typing correspondence and gathering data to formulate reply. Farm and home management advisors Advise, instruct, and assist individuals and families engaged in agricul ture and related processes or home economics activities. Apply re 452 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1988 employment: 29,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Faster than average Summary Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail Court clerks Perform clerical duties in court of law; prepare docket of cases to be called; secure information forjudges; and contact witnesses, attorneys, and litigants to obtain information for court, 1988 employment: 42,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Faster than average 453 Proofreaders and copy markers Read transcript or proof of type setup to detect and mark for correction any grammatical, typographical, or compositional errors. 1988 employment: 33,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Expected to decline Real estate clerks Interview applicants for water, gas, electric, or telephone service. Talk with customers by phone or in person and receive orders for in stallation, turn-on, discontinuance, or change in service. Perform duties concerned with rental, sale, and management of real estate such as typing copies of listings, computing interest owed or penalty payments, holding collateral in escrow, and checking due notices on taxes and renewal dates of insurance and mortgage loans. 1988 employment: 102,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: About as fast as average 1988 employment: 28,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Slower than average Duplicating, mail, and other office machine operators Statistical clerks Customer service representatives, utilities Duplicating machine operators: Operate one or a variety of duplicating machines to make copies of data. Machines frequently used are Dualith, Multilith, Masterlith, Mimeograph, Dupligraph, Multigraph, Compotype, and Xerox. Transit clerks'. Sort, record, proof, and pre pare transit items for mailing to or from out-of-city banks to insure correct routing and prompt collection. 1988 employment: 164,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Slower than average Compile and compute data according to statistical formulas for use in statistical studies. May also perform actuarial computations using algebra and trigonometry and compile charts and graphs for uses by actuaries. 1988 employment: 77,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Little change Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping Read electric, gas, water, or steam consumption meters and record volume used by residential and commercial customers. Duties involve weighing, measuring, and checking materials, supplies, and equipment for the purpose of keeping relevant records. Also may collect and keep record of samples of products or materials. 1988 employment: 49,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Expected to decline 1988 employment: 40,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: About as fast as average Meter readers, utilities Municipal clerks Duties include drafting agendas for town or city council, recording minutes of council meetings, answering official correspondence, keep ing fiscal records and accounts, and preparing reports on civic needs. 1988 employment: 19,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Slower than average Procurement clerks Service Occupations Ambulance drivers and attendants Drive ambulance or assist ambulance driver in transporting sick, in jured, or convalescent persons. Assist in lifting patients and rendering first aid. May be required to have Red Cross first-aid training cer tificate. Compile information and records to draw up purchase orders for procurement of material. 1988 employment: 13,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Slower than average 1988 employment: 42,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Slower than average Amusement and recreation attendants Production, planning, and expediting clerks Duties involve coordinating and expediting the flow of work and materials within or between departments of an establishment according to production schedule. This includes reviewing and distributing pro duction schedules and work orders, conferring with department super visors to determine progress of work and completion dates, and compil ing reports on progress of work and production problems. Duties may also include scheduling workers and estimating costs, routing and delivering parts to insure production quotas are met, and scheduling shipment of parts. May keep inventory of material in de partments and insure that merchandise is shipped by vendor on promised date. May write special orders for services and merchandise. 1988 employment: 229,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Slower than average https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Perform one or more of the following duties at amusement or recreation facilities: Schedule use of recreation facilities, allocate equipment to participants in sporting events or recreational pursuits, collect fees, set pins, prepare billiard tables, provide caddying and other services for golfers, or operate carnival rides and amusement concessions. 1988 employment: 175,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Faster than average Baggage porters and bellhops Carry baggage for travelers at transportation terminals or for guests at hotels or similar establishments. Perform additional duties, such as assisting handicapped persons, running errands, delivering ice, and directing people to their desired destinations. 1988 employment: 32,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Faster than average 454 Occupational Outlook Handbook Crossing guards Guide or control vehicular or pedestrian traffic at such places as street and railroad crossings and construction sites. 1988 employment: 57,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Slower than average Detectives and investigators, except public Protect property, merchandise, and money of store or similar establish ment by detecting theft, shoplifting, or other unlawful practices by public or employees. Perform necessary action to preserve order and enforce standards of decorum established by management. Conduct private investigations, such as obtaining confidential information, seeking missing persons, or investigating crimes and thefts. 1988 employment: 47,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Much faster than average Housekeepers, institutional Supervise work activities of cleaning personnel to insure clean, or derly, and attractive rooms in hotels, hospitals, educational institu tions, and similar establishments. Assign duties, inspect work, investi gate complaints regarding housekeeping service and equipment, and take corrective action. May purchase housekeeping supplies and equip ment and take periodic inventories. May screen applicants, train new employees, and recommend dismissals. 1988 employment: 138,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Much faster than average Occupational therapy assistants and aides Assist occupational therapists in administering medically oriented oc cupational program to assist in rehabilitating patients in hospitals and similar institutions. 1988 employment: 8,700 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Much faster than average Sheriffs and deputy sheriffs Enforce law and order in rural or unincorporated districts or serve legal processes of courts. May patrol courthouse, guard court or grand jury, or escort defendants. 1988 employment: 63,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Little change Ushers, lobby attendants, and ticket agents Assist patrons at entertainment events, such as sporting events and motion picture performances. May assist in finding seats, searching for lost articles, and locating rest rooms and telephones. Collect ad mission tickets and passes from patrons. 1988 employment: 44,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Slower than average Agricultural, Forestry, and Fishing Occupations Farm workers Perform a variety of the following duties: Plant, cultivate, harvest, and store crops; tend livestock and poultry; operate and maintain farm machinery; and maintain structures. May haul livestock and produce to market or terminal shipping point. 1988 employment: 938,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Expected to decline Forest and conservation workers Develop, maintain, and protect forests and woodlands through such activities as raising and transporting tree seedlings; combating insects, pests, and diseases harmful to trees; and controlling erosion and leach ing of forest soil. Includes occupations such as forester aides, seedling pullers, and tree planters. 1988 employment: 40,000 Projected 1988—2000 employment change: About as fast as average Pest controllers and assistants Spray or release chemical solutions or toxic gases and set mechanical traps to kill pests and vermin, such as mice, termites, and roaches, that infest buildings and surrounding areas. Nursery workers 1988 employment: 48,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: About as fast as average 1988 employment: 46,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Faster than average Pharmacy assistants Supervisors, agricultural, forestry, fishing, and related occupations Mix pharmaceutical preparations under direction of pharmacist. Duties include issuing medicine, labeling and storing supplies, and cleaning equipment and work areas. 1988 employment: 70,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Faster than average Work in nursery facilities planting, cultivating, harvesting, and trans planting trees, shrubs, or plants. Directly supervise and coordinate the activities of agricultural, for estry, fishing, and related workers. May supervise helpers as signed to these workers. 1988 employment: 79,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Slower than average Physical and corrective therapy assistants and aides Prepare patients and/or administer physical therapy treatment, such as massages, heat, light and sound treatments, and traction. Instruct, motivate, and assist patients with learning and improving functional activities. Normally work under the direction of a physical or corrective therapist. 1988 employment: 39,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Much faster than average https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations Highway maintenance workers Maintain highways, municipal and rural roads, airport runways, and rights-of-way in safe condition by patching broken or eroded pavement or erecting and repairing guard rails, highway markers, and snow fences. May also clear brush or plant trees along rights-of-way. Summary Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail 1988 employment: 175,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Slower than average 455 Electromedical and biomedical equipment repairers Test, adjust, and repair electromedical equipment. Mining, quarrying, and tunneling occupations Rock splitters, quarry : Separate blocks of rough dimension stone from quarry mass using jackhammer, wedges, and feathers. Roof bolters: Operate self-propelled machine to install roof support bolts in under ground mine. Mining machine operators: Operate mining machines, such as self-propelled or truck-mounted drilling machines, continuous mining machines, channeling machines, and cutting machines to ex tract coal, metal and nonmetal ores, rock, stone, or sand from under ground or surface excavation. Continuous mining machine operators: Operate self-propelled mining machine that rips coal from the face and loads it onto conveyors or into shuttle cars in a continuous operation. Mine cutting and channeling machine operators: Cut or channel along the face or seams of coal, quarry stone, or other mining surfaces to facilitate blasting, separating, or removing minerals or materials from mines or from the earth’s surface. 1988 employment: 24,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Expected to decline Paving, surfacing, and tamping equipment operators Operate equipment used for applying concrete, asphalt, or other mate rials to roadbeds, parking lots, or airport runways and taxiways or equipment used for tamping gravel, dirt, or other materials. 1988 employment: 70,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: About as fast as average Pipelayers and pipelaying fitters Pipelayers: Lay glazed or unglazed clay, concrete, plastic, or castiron pipe for storm or sanitation sewers, drains, water mains, and oil or gas lines, performing any combination of the following tasks: Grade trenches or culverts, position pipe, or seal joints. Pipelaying fitters: Align pipeline section preparatory to welding. Signal tractor driver in placing pipeline sections in proper alignment and insert steel spacers. 1988 employment: 52,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: About as fast as average 1988 employment: 7,400 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Much faster than average Precision instrument repairers Install, test, repair, maintain, and adjust indicating, recording, teleme tering, and controlling instruments used to measure and control vari ables such as pressure, flow, temperature, motion, force, and chemical composition. 1988 employment: 46,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Slower than average Riggers Set up or repair rigging for ships and shipyards, manufacturing plants, logging yards, construction projects, and for the entertainment indus try—for example, motion picture production. Select cables, ropes, pulleys, winches, blocks, and sheaves according to weight and size of load to be moved. Coordinate and direct other workers and the move ment of equipment to accomplish the task. 1988 employment: 15,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Little change Tire repairers and changers Repair and replace tires, tubes, treads, and related products on auto mobiles, buses, trucks, and other vehicles. Duties include mounting tires on wheels, balancing tires and wheels, and testing and repairing damaged inner tubes. 1988 employment: 88,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: About as fast as average Watchmakers Repair, clean, and adjust mechanisms of instruments such as watches, time clocks, and timing switches. 1988 employment: 9,500 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Slower than average Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers Bicycle repairers Repair and service bicycles using handtools. Production Occupations Bakers, manufacturing 1988 employment: 15,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Slower than average Camera and photographic equipment repairers Mix and bake ingredients according to recipes to produce breads, pastries, and other baked goods. Goods are produced in large quantities for sale through establishments such as grocery stores. Generally, high-volume production equipment is used. Repair and adjust cameras and photographic equipment, including motion picture cameras and equipment, using specialized tools and testing devices. 1988 employment: 41,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Little change 1988 employment: 6,300 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: About as fast as average Boiler operators and tenders, low pressure Install electric meters on pole or customer’s premises, test meters, make necessary repairs, and turn current on/off by connecting or disconnecting service drop. Operate or tend low-pressure stationary steam boilers and auxiliary steam equipment, such as pumps, compressors, and air-conditioning equipment, to supply steam heat for office buildings, apartment houses, or industrial establishments; to maintain steam at specified pressure aboard marine vessels; or to generate and supply compressed air for operation of pneumatic tools, hoists, and air lances. 1988 employment: 17,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: About as fast as average 1988 employment: 21,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Little change Electric meter installers and repairers https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 456 Occupational Outlook Handbook Cannery workers Perform any of a variety of routine tasks in canning, freezing, pre serving, or packing food products. Duties may include sorting, grad ing, washing, peeling, trimming, or slicing agricultural produce. 1988 employment: 71,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Little change Cementing and gluing machine operators and tenders Operate or tend cementing and gluing machines to join together items, such as veneer sheets into plywood; paper to glass-wool, cardboard, or paper; rubber and rubberized fabric parts; plastic; and simulated leather or other materials, to form completed product or to form product for further processing. 1988 employment: 40,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Expected to decline Chemical equipment controllers, operators, and tenders Controllers and operators: Control or operate equipment to control chemical changes or reactions in the processing of industrial or con sumer products. Typical types of equipment are reaction kettles, cat alytic converters, continuous or batch treating equipment, saturator tanks, electrolytic cells, reactor vessels, recovery units, and fermenta tion chambers. Tenders: Tend equipment in which a chemical change or reaction takes place. Typical types of equipment are devulcanizers, batch stills, fermenting tanks, steam-jacketed kettles, and reactor ves sels, to process chemical substances into industrial or consumer products. 1988 employment: 70,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Expected to decline Chemical plant and system operators Control and operate an entire chemical process or system of machines, such as reduction pots and heated air towers, through the use of panelboards, controlboards, or semiautomatic equipment. 1988 employment: 35,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Expected to decline Coil winders, tapers, and finishers By the use of coil winding machines, wind wire coils used in the manufacturing of electrical components, such as resistors and trans formers, and electrical equipment, such as field cores, bobbins, and armature cores; and by the use of coil making machines, form coils for electrical motors, generators, and control equipment. 1988 employment: 24,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Expected to decline Crushing and mixing machine operators and tenders Crushing, grinding, and polishing machine operators: Operate or tend machines to crush or grind a wide variety of materials, such as coal, glass, plastic, dried fruit, grain, stone, chemicals, food, or rubber, or operate or tend machines that buff and polish materials or products, such as stone, glass, slate, plastic or metal trim, bowling balls, or eyeglasses. Mixing and blending machine operators and tenders: Op erate or tend machines to mix or blend any of a wide variety of materials such as spices, dough batter, tobacco, fruit juices, chemicals, livestock feed, food products, color pigments, or explosive ingre dients. 1988 employment: 136,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Expected to decline Cutting and slicing machine operators, tenders, and setters Cutting and slicing machine operators and tenders: Operate or tend machines to cut or slice any of a wide variety of products or materials, such as tobacco, food, paper, roofing slate, glass, stone rubber, cork, and insulating material. Cutting and slicing machine setters and setup operators: Set up or set up and operate machines that cut or slice materials, such as glass, stone, cork, rubber, crepe, wallboard, and fibrous insulating board, to specified dimensions for further pro cessing. 1988 employment: 91,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Expected to decline Dairy processing equipment operators and tenders Set up, operate, or tend continuous flow or vat-type equipment to process milk, cream, or other dairy products following specified meth ods and formulas. 1988 employment: 17,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Expected to decline Electrical and electronics assemblers Perform work at a level less than that required of the precision level. Includes such occupations as electronics wirers, armature connectors, electric motor winders, skein winders, carbon brush assemblers, bat tery parts assemblers, electric sign assemblers, and electronics as semblers. 1988 employment: 237,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Expected to decline Electronic semiconductor processors 1988 employment: 23,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Expected to decline Cooking, roasting, baking, and drying machine operators and tenders Cooking machine operators and tenders: Operate or tend cooking equipment, such as steam cooking vats, deep fry cookers, pressure cookers, kettles, and boilers, to prepare food products, such as meats, sugar, cheese, and grain. Roasting, baking, and drying machine opera tors and tenders: Operate or tend roasting, baking, or drying equip ment, such as hearth ovens, kiln driers, roasters, char kilns, steam ovens, and vacuum drying equipment, to reduce moisture con tent of food or tobacco products such as tobacco, cocoa and coffee beans, macaroni, and grain; to roast grain, nuts, or coffee beans; to bake bread or other bakery products; or to process food preparatory to canning. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Process materials used in the manufacture of electronic semiconduc tors; load semiconductor material into furnace; saw formed ingots into segments; load individual segment into crystal-growing chamber and monitor controls; locate crystal axis in ingot using X-ray equipment and saw ingots into wafers; clean, polish, and load wafers into series of special-purpose furnaces, chemical baths, and equipment used to form circuiting and change conductive properties. May scribe or sepa rate wafer into dice. 1988 employment: 38,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Expected to decline Extruding and forming machine operators, tenders, and setters Extruding and forming machine operators and tenders: Operate or tend machines to shape and form any of a wide variety of manufactured Summary Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail products, such as glass bulbs, molded food and candy, rubber goods, clay products, wax products, tobacco plugs, cosmetics, or paper prod ucts, by means of extruding, compressing, or compacting. Extruding andforming machine setters and setup operators'. Set up or set up and operate machines such as glass forming machines, plodder machines, and tuber machines, to manufacture any of a wide variety of products, such as soap bars, formed rubber, glassware, soft candy, brick, and tile, by extruding, compressing, or compacting op erations. 1988 employment: 100,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Slower than average Furnace, kiln, or kettle operators Oven operators or tenders: Operate or tend heating equipment other than basic metal or plastic processing equipment. Perform such opera tions as baking fiberglass or painted products, fusing glass or enamel to metal products, carbonizing coal, or curing rubber or other products. Furnace operators or tenders: Perform such operations as annealing glass, roasting sulfur, converting chemicals, or processing petroleum. Kettle operators and tenders: Perform such operations as boiling soap or melting antimony or asphalt materials. Drier operators and tenders: Perform such operations as removing moisture from paper, chemicals, ore, clay products, or slurry. Kiln operators and tenders: Perform such operations as heating minerals, drying lumber, firing greenware, annealing glassware, or baking clay products. 1988 employment: 62,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Expected to decline 457 1988 employment: 47,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Expected to decline Motion picture projectionists Set up and operate motion picture projection and sound-reproducing equipment to produce coordinated effects on screen. 1988 employment: 12,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Little change Packaging and filling machine operators Operate or tend machines such as filling machines, casing running machines, ham rolling machines, preservative filling machines, baling machines, wrapping machines, and stuffing machines to prepare indus trial or consumer products, such as gas cylinders, meat and other food products, tobacco, insulation, ammunition, stuffed toys and athletic equipment, and upholstered pads, as end products or for storage and shipment. 1988 employment: 286,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Expected to decline Painting, coating, and decorating workers, hand Paint, coat, and decorate using handtools or hand-held power tools a wide variety of manufactured items, such as furniture, glass and plateware, lamps, jewelry, books, or leather products. 1988 employment: 45,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Expected to decline Gas and petroleum plant and systems occupations Gaugers: Gauge and test oil in storage tanks and regulate flow of oil into pipelines at wells, tank farms, refineries, and marine and rail terminals following prescribed standards and regulations. Petroleum refinery and control panel operators: Analyze specifications or follow process schedules to operate and control using panelboards and contin uous petroleum refining and processing units. Gas plant operators: Distribute or process gas for utility companies and others. Distribute the gas for an entire plant or process, often using panelboards, controlboards, or semiautomatic equipment. Petroleum pump systems opera tors: Operate and control manifold and pumping systems to circulate liquids through petroleum refinery. 1988 employment: 30,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Expected to decline Grinders and polishers, hand Grind and polish, using handtools or hand-held power tools, a wide variety of metal, stone, clay, plastic, and glass objects or parts. 1988 employment: 84,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Expected to decline Laundry and drycleaning machine operators and tenders, except pressers Operate and tend washing or drycleaning machines to clean or dryclean commercial, industrial, or household articles, such as suede, leather, and cloth garments, furs, blankets, draperies, fine linens, rugs, and carpets. Paper goods machine setting and setup operators Set up or set up and operate paper goods machines that perform a variety of functions, such as converting, sawing, corrugating, banding, wrapping, boxing, stitching, forming, or sealing paper or paperboard sheets into products such as toilet tissue, towels, napkins, bags, enve lopes, tubing, cartons, wax rolls, and containers. 1988 employment: 54,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Slower than average Screen printing setters and setup operators Set up or set up and operate screen printing machines to print designs onto articles and materials such as glass or plastic ware or containers, cloth, and paper. 1988 employment: 21,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: About as fast as average Separating and still machine operators and tenders Operate or tend machines, such as filter presses, shaker screens, centrifuges, condensor tubes, precipitator tanks, fermenting tanks, evaporating tanks, scrubbing towers, and batch stills, to extract, sort, or separate liquids, gases, or solid materials from other materials in order to recover a refined product or material. 1988 employment: 23,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Expected to decline Shipfitters 1988 employment: 169,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Faster than average Machine assemblers Lay out and fabricate metal structural parts, such as plates, bulkheads, and frames, and brace them in position within hull or ship for riveting or welding. May prepare molds and templates for fabrication of non standard parts. Perform work at a level less than that required of the precision level. Include such occupations as air-conditioning coil assemblers, ball bearing ring assemblers, fuel injection assemblers, and subassemblers. 1988 employment: 14,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Expected to decline https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 458 Occupational Outlook Handbook Shoe sewing machine operators and tenders products or components as specified by work orders, blueprints, and layout specifications. Operate or tend single, double, or multiple-needle stitching ma chines to join or decorate shoe parts, reinforce shoe parts, or attach buckles. 1988 employment: 10,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Expected to decline 1988 employment: 21,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Expected to decline Tire building machine operators Solderers and brazers Join together metal parts, components of metal products, or fill holes, indentations, and seams of fabricated metal products using hand solder ing and brazing equipment according to specification of job order, work layout, or blueprint. 1988 employment: 29,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Expected to decline Soldering and brazing machine operators, tenders, setters, and setup operators Operators and tenders: Operate or tend soldering and brazing machines that braze, solder, or spot-weld fabricated metal products or compo nents as specified by work orders, blueprints, and layout specifications. Setters and setup operators: Set up and operate soldering or brazing machines to bronze, solder, heat-treat, or spot-weld fabricated metal https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Operate machines, such as collapsible drum devices, to build pneu matic tires from rubber components, such as beads, ply stock, tread, and sidewalls. 1988 employment: 14,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Expected to decline Transportation and Material Moving Occupations Taxi drivers and chauffeurs Drive automobiles, limousines, custom-built sedans, or hearses. May drive automobiles for delivery. 1988 employment: 109,000 Projected 1988-2000 employment change: Faster than average Assumptions and Methods Used in Preparing Employment Projections Occupational statements in the Handbook use one of six phrases to describe projected change in employment. (See figure on page 2.) The phrases are based on numerical projections developed using the Bureau’s employment projections model system. The employment projections are the final output of the system, which also projects the size and composition of the labor force, the level of gross national product (GNP)—the total output of goods and services in the econ omy—the output of goods and services by industry, and employment by industry. A full description, including numerical projections of employment, appears in the November 1989 Monthly Labor Review, and in Outlook 2000, Bulletin 2352. The fall 1989 Occupational Outlook Quarterly presents the projections in a series of charts. The projections reflect the knowledge and judgment of the staff of the Bureau’s Office of Employment Projections, who prepared them, and of knowledgeable people from other offices in the Bureau, other government agencies, colleges and universities, industries, unions, professional societies, and trade associations, who furnished data and information, prepared reports, or reviewed the projections. The Bu reau, of course, takes full responsibility for them. Assumptions. Because the future course of the economy is uncer tain, the Bureau prepared three scenarios of future economic growth, with varying assumptions about growth of the labor force, output, productivity, inflation, and unemployment. The information in the Handbook is based on the moderate-growth scenario, which is charac terized by higher productivity than in the past, slowing labor force growth, a roughly constant unemployment rate, and an improving foreign trade situation. Other assumptions include no increase in de fense spending, slow growth in spending on cars and trucks, and no increase in spending on gasoline and oil. Spending on food and bever ages will grow more slowly than the average for all consumer expendi tures, while spending on health care and on other services, such as entertainment, recreation, and financial services, will grow faster. Investment in production equipment, including that for factory automa tion, communication, and computer items, will grow rapidly. Housing construction is expected to increase slowly, but fast growth is expected for other construction. While the Bureau considers these assumptions reasonable, the econ omy may well follow a different course, resulting in a different pattern of occupational growth. Growth could also be different-from that projected here because most occupations are sensitive to a much wider variety of factors than those considered in the various models. Unfore seen changes in consumer, business, or government spending patterns and in the way goods and services are produced could greatly alter the growth of individual occupations. Methods. This section summarizes the steps by which the Bureau ar rives at projections of employment by occupation. BLS uses Bureau of the Census projections of the population by age, sex, and race, combined with projections of labor force participa tion rates, to arrive at estimates of the civilian labor force. The projections of the labor force and assumptions about other demographic variables, fiscal policy, foreign economic activity, and energy prices and availability form the input to the macroeconomic model. This model provides a balanced and internally consistent repre https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis sentation of the U.S. economy. It projects GNP and the distribution of GNP by its major demand components—consumer expenditures, investment, government, and net exports. These are broken down by detailed component, such as health or housing. The resulting estimates of demand for goods and services are used, in conjunction with detailed input-output tables, to project industry output of final products as well as of products required in the production process. Industry output of goods and services is then converted to industry employment. Studies of trends in productivity and technology are used to estimate future output per worker hour, and regres sion analysis is used to estimate worker hours. These estimates, along with output projections, are used to develop the final industry employment projec tions. An industry-occupation matrix is used to project employment for wage and salary workers. The matrix shows occupational staffing patterns—each occupation as a percent of the work force in every industry. It includes 258 detailed industries and 491 detailed occupa tions. Data for current staffing patterns in the matrix come primarily from the Bureau’s Occupational Employment Statistics surveys, which collect data from employers on a 3-year cycle. The occupational staffing patterns for each industry were projected based on anticipated changes in the way goods and services are pro duced, then applied to projected industry employment, and the result ing employment summed across industries to get total wage and salary employment by occupation. Using this method, employment is pro jected to grow faster than average in those occupations concentrated in fast-growing industries and more slowly in slow-growing industries. For example, health care workers are expected to grow rapidly, as the health care industries grow rapidly. Employment in an occupation may also grow or decline as a result of changes in the way industries produce goods and services. For example, automation causes employment of engineers, technicians, and computer special ists to grow faster than the average for all occupations and become a larger proportion of the work force in most industries. It causes the employment of some clerical workers, machine operators, and assemblers to increase more slowly—or even decline—and lowers their proportion of the work force. The projected-year matrix incorporates these expected changes. In some cases, employment was projected using an independent variable rather than the model. For example, projections of school enrollments and class size were used to project employment of elemen tary school teachers. Data on self-employed workers in each occupation come from the Current Population Survey. Self-employed workers were projected separately. Replacement needs. Replacement openings occur as people leave occupations. Some individuals transfer to other occupations as a step up the career ladder or to change careers. Some stop working temporar ily, perhaps to return to school or care for a family. And some leave the labor force permanently—retirees, for example. In most occupations, replacement needs provide more job openings than does growth. A discussion of replacements, including separation rates for selected occupations, is presented in Occupational Projections and Training Data, 1990 Edition, BLS Bulletin 2351. 459 Sources of State and Local Job Outlook Information State and local job market and career information is available from State employment security agencies and State Occupational Informa tion Coordinating Committees (SOICC’s). State employment security agencies develop occupational employment projections and other job market information. SOICC’s provide or help locate labor market and career information. The following list provides the title, address, and telephone number of State employment security agency directors of research and SOICC directors. Alabama Chief, Research and Statistics, Alabama Department of Industrial Relations, Industrial Relations Bldg., 649 Monroe St., Room 427, Montgomery, AL 36130. Phone: (205)261-5461. Director, Alabama Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Bell Bldg., 207 Montgomery St., Suite 400, Montgomery, AL 36130. Phone: (205) 261-2990. Alaska Chief, Research and Analysis Section, Alaska Department of Labor, P.O. Box 25501, Juneau, AK 99802-5501. Phone: (907) 465-4500. Coordinator, Alaska Department of Labor, Research and Analysis Section, P.O. Box 25501, Juneau, AK 99802-5501. Phone: (907) 465-4518. American Samoa Program Director, American Samoa State Occupational Information Coordinat ing Committee, Office of Manpower Resources, American Samoa Government, Pago Pago, AS 96799. Phone: (684) 633-2153. Arizona Research Administrator, Arizona Department of Economic Security, P.O. Box 6123, Site Code 733A, Phoenix, AZ 85005. Phone: (602) 255-3616. Executive Director, Arizona Occupational Information Coordinating Commit tee, P.O. Box 6123, Site Code 897J, Phoenix, AZ 85005. Phone: (602) 542 6466. Arkansas Manager, Labor Market Information - UI/BLS, Employment Security Division, P.O. Box 2981, Little Rock, AR 72203. Phone: (501) 371-1541. Executive Director, Arkansas Occupational Information Coordinating Commit tee, Research and Analysis Section, Arkansas Employment Security Division, P.O. Box 2981, Little Rock, AR 72203. Phone: (501) 682-3159. California Chief, Employment Data and Research Division, Employment Development Department, P.O. Box 944216, MIC-57, Sacramento, CA 94244-2160. Phone: (916) 427-4675. Executive Director, California Occupational Information Coordinating Com mittee, 800 Capitol Mall, MIC-67, Sacramento, CA 95814. Phone: (916) 323 6544. Colorado Director, Labor Market Information, Colorado Division of Labor and Employ ment, 1330 Fox St., Suite 801, Denver, CO 80203. Phone: (303) 866-6316. Director, Colorado Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, State Board Community College, 1391 Speer Blvd., Suite 600, Denver, CO 80204 2554. Phone: (303) 866-4488. Connecticut Acting Director, Research and Information, Employment Security Division, 200 Folly Brook Blvd., Wethersfield, CT 06109. Phone: (203) 566-2120. Executive Director, Connecticut Occupational Information Coordinating Com mittee, Connecticut Department of Education, 25 Industrial Park Rd., Middle ton, CT 06457. Phone: (203) 638-4042. Delaware Chief, Office of Occupational and Labor Market Information, Delaware Depart 460 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ment of Labor, P.O. Box 9029, Newark, DE 19714-9029. Phone: (302) 368 6962. Executive Director, Office of Occupational and Labor Market Information, Delaware Department of Labor, University Office Plaza, P.O. Box 9029, Newark, DE 19714-9029. Phone: (302) 368-6963. District of Columbia Chief, Labor Market Information and Analysis, District of Columbia Depart ment of Employment Services, 500 C St. NW., Room 201, Washington, DC 20001. Phone: (202) 639-1642. Executive Director, District of Columbia Occupational Information Coordinat ing Committee, Department of Employment Security, 500 C St. NW., Room 207, Washington, DC 20001. Phone: (202) 639-1090. Florida Chief, Bureau of Labor Market Information, Florida Department of Labor and Employment Security, 2574 Seagate Dr., Room 203, Tallahassee, FL 32399 0674. Phone: (904) 488-1048. Manager, Florida Occupational Information System, Bureau of Labor Market Information, Department of Labor and Employment Security, 1320 Executive Center Dr., Atkins Bldg., Suite 210, Tallahassee, FL 32399-0674. Phone: (904) 488-7397. Georgia Director, Labor Information Systems, Georgia Department of Labor, 148 International Blvd. NE., Atlanta, GA 30303. Phone: (404) 656-9639. Executive Director, Georgia Occupational Information Coordinating Commit tee, 148 International Blvd., Sussex Place, Atlanta, GA 30303. Phone: (404) 656-9639. Guam Administrator, Department of Labor/Bureau of Labor Statistics, Government of Guam, P.O. Box 944216 (GMF), Tamuning, GU 96911-290. Executive Director, Guam State Occupational Information Coordinating Com mittee, Human Resource Development Agency, P.O. Box 2817, Agana, GU 96910. Phone: (871) 646-9341. Hawaii Chief, Research and Statistics Office, Department of Labor and Industrial Relations, 830 Punchbowl St., Room 304, Honolulu, HI 96813. Phone: (808) 548-7639. Executive Director, Hawaii Occupational Information Coordinating Commit tee, 830 Punchbowl St., Room 315, Honolulu, HI 96813. Phone: (808) 548 3496. Idaho Acting Chief, Research and Analysis, Idaho Department of Employment, P.O. Box 35, Boise, ID 83735. Phone: (208) 334-2755. Director, Idaho Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Len B. Jordan Bldg., Room 301,650 West State St., Boise, ID 83720. Phone: (208) 334-3705. Illinois Director, Economic Information and Analysis, Illinois Department of Employ ment Security, 401 South State St., 2 South, Chicago, IL 60605. Phone: (312) 793-2316. Executive Director, Illinois Occupational Information Coordinating Commit tee, 217 East Monroe, Suite 203, Springfield, IL 62706. Phone: (217) 785 0789. Indiana Manager, Statistical Services, Indiana Department of Employment and Train ing, 10 North Senate Ave., Indianapolis, IN 46204. Phone: (317) 232-7701. Executive Director, Indiana Occupational Information Coordinating Commit tee, 10 North Senate Ave., Room 101, Indianapolis, IN 46204. Phone: (317) 232-8547. Sources of State and Local Job Outlook Information Iowa Chief, Audit and Analysis, Iowa Department of Employment Services, 1000 East Grand Ave., Des Moines, 1A 50319. Phone: (515) 281-8181. 461 Director. Missouri Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 421 East Dunklin St., Jefferson City, MO 65101. Phone: (314) 751- 3800. Montana Executive Director, Iowa Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 200 East Grand Ave., Des Moines, IA 50309. Phone: (515) 281-8075. Chief, Research and Analysis, Department of Labor and Industry, P.O. Box 1728, Helena, MT 59624. Phone: (406) 449-2430. Kansas Program Manager, Montana Occupational Information Coordinating Commit tee, P.O. Box 1728, Helena, MT 59624. Phone: (406) 444-2741. Chief, Research and Analysis, Kansas Department of Human Resources, 401 Topeka Ave., Topeka, KS 66603. Phone: (913) 296-5061. Nebraska Director, Kansas Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 401 To peka Ave., Topeka, KS 66603. Phone: (913) 296-1865. Administrator, Labor Market Information, Nebraska Department of Labor, P.O. Box 94600, Lincoln, NE 68509-4600. Phone: (402) 475-8451. Kentucky Administrator, Nebraska Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 94600, State House Station, Lincoln, NE 68509-4600. Phone: (402) 471-4845. Acting Manager, Labor Market Research and Analysis, Department for Em ployment Services, 275 East Main St., Frankfort, KY 40621-0001. Phone: (502) 564-7976. Nevada Information Liaison/Manager, Kentucky Occupational Information Coordinat ing Committee, 275 East Main St., 2 Center, Frankfort, KY 40621-0001. Phone: (502) 564-4258. Chief, Employment Security Research, Nevada Employment Security Depart ment, 500 East Third St., Carson City, NV 89713. Phone: (702) 885-4550. Louisiana Executive Director, Nevada Occupational Information Coordinating Commit tee, 1923 North Carson St., Suite 207, Carson City, NV 89710. Phone: (702) 885-4577. Director, Research and Statistics Section, Louisiana State Department of Labor, P.O. Box 94094, Baton Rouge, LA 70804-9094. Phone: (504) 342-3141. Coordinator, Louisiana Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 94094, Baton Rouge, LA 70804-9094. Phone: (504) 342-5149. Maine New Hampshire Director, Economic Analysis and Reports, New Hampshire Department of Employment Security, 32 South Main St., Concord, NH 03301. Phone: (603) 224-3311. Director, Division of Economic Analysis and Research, Maine Department of Labor, 20 Union St., Augusta, ME 04330. Phone: (207) 289-2271. Director, New Hampshire Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 64B Old Suncook Rd., Concord, NH 03301. Phone: (603) 228-9500. Executive Director, Maine Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, State House Station 71, Augusta, ME 04333. Phone: (207) 289-2331. New Jersey Maryland Director, Division of Planning and Research, New Jersey Department of Labor, P.O. Box 2765, Trenton, NJ 08625. Phone: (609) 292-2643. Director, Research and Analysis Division, Maryland Department of Employ ment and Training, 1100 North Eutaw St., Baltimore, MD 21201. Phone:(301) 383-5000. Staff Director, New Jersey Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 1008 Labor and Industry Bldg., CN 056, Trenton, NJ 08625-0056. Phone: (609) 292- 2682. Executive Director, Maryland Occupational Information Coordinating Com mittee, Department of Employment and Training, 1100 North Eutaw St., Room 600, Baltimore, MD 21201. Phone: (301) 333-5476. Chief, Economic Research and Analysis, (6097), Employment Security Depart ment, P.O. Box 1928, Albuquerque, NM 87103. Phone: (505) 841-8645. Massachusetts Director of Research, Massachusetts Division of Employment and Training, Charles F. Hurley Bldg., Boston, MA 02114. Phone: (617) 727-6556. Director, Massachusetts Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Massachusetts Division of Employment Security, Charles F. Hurley Bldg., 2nd Floor, Government Center, Boston, MA 02114. Phone: (617) 727- 6718. Michigan Director, Bureau of Research and Statistics, Michigan Employment Security Commission, 7310 Woodward Ave., Room 516, Detroit, MI 48202. Phone: (313) 876-5445. Executive Coordinator, Michigan Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 310 Hollister Bldg., 106 W. Allegan, Box 30015, Lansing, MI 48909. Phone: (517) 373-0363. Minnesota Director, Research and Statistics Office, Minnesota Department of Jobs and Training, 390 North Robert St., 5th Floor, St. Paul, MN 55101. Phone: (612) 296-6545. Director, Minnesota Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Min nesota Department of Economic Security, 690 American Center Bldg., 150 East Kellogg Blvd., St. Paul, MN 55101. Phone: (612) 296-2072. Mississippi New Mexico Director, New Mexico Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Tiwa Bldg., 401 Broadway NE., P.O. Box 1928, Albuquerque, NM 87103. Phone: (505) 841-8636. New York Director, Division of Research and Statistics, New York Department of Labor, State Campus, Bldg. 12, Room 400, Albany, NY 12240-0020. Phone: (518) 457-6181. Executive Director, New York Occupational Information Coordinating Com mittee, Department of Labor, Research and Statistics Division, State Campus, Bldg. 12, Room 400, Albany, NY 12240-0020. Phone: (518) 457-6182. North Carolina Director, Labor Market Information Division, Employment Security Commis sion of North Carolina, P.O. Box 25903, Raleigh, NC 27611. Phone: (919) 733-2936. Director, North Carolina Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 1311 St. Mary’s St., Suite 250, P.O. Box 27625, Raleigh, NC 27611. Phone: (919) 733-6700. North Dakota Chief, Research and Statistics, Job Service of North Dakota, P.O. Box 1537, Bismarck, ND 58502-1537. Phone: (701) 224-2825. Chief, Labor Market Information Division, Mississippi Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 1699, Jackson, MS 39215-1699. Phone: (601) 961 7424. Coordinator, North Dakota Occupational Information Coordinating Commit tee, 1600 East Interstate, Suite 14, P.O. Box 1537, Bismarck, ND 58502 1537. Phone: (701) 224-2197. Executive Director, Mississippi Occupational Information Coordinating Com mittee, P.O. Box 771, Suite 1005, Jackson, MS 39205. Phone: (601) 359 3412. Acting Director, Labor Market Information Division, Ohio Bureau of Employ ment Services, P.O. Box 1618, Columbus, OH 43216. Phone: (614) 466-8806. Missouri Chief, Research and Analysis, Missouri Division of Employment Security, P.O. Box 59, Jefferson City, MO 65104. Phone: (314) 751- 3591. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Ohio Director, Ohio Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Division of LMI, Ohio Bureau of Employment Services, 1160 Dublin Rd., Bldg. A, Columbus, OH 43215. Phone: (614) 644-2689. 462 Occupational Outlook Handbook Oklahoma Director, Research and Planning Division, Oklahoma Employment Security Commission, 2401 N. Lincoln, Room 310, Oklahoma City, OK 73105. Phone: (405) 557-7105. Executive Director, Oklahoma Occupational Information Coordinating Com mittee, Department of Voc/Tech Education, 1500 W. 7th Ave., Stillwater, OK 74074. Phone: (405) 377-2000. Oregon Assistant Administrator, Research and Statistics, Oregon Department of Human Resources, 875 Union St. NE., Room 207, Salem, OR 97311. Phone: (503) 378-3220. Executive Director, Oregon Occupational Information Coordinating Commit tee, 875 Union St. NE., Salem, OR 97311. Phone: (503) 378-8146. Pennsylvania Chief, Research and Statistics Division, Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry, Seventh and Forster Sts., Room 1216, Harrisburg, PA 17121. Phone: (717) 787-3265. Director, Texas Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, TEC Bldg., Room 526T, 15th and Congress, Austin, TX 78778. Phone: (512) 463 2399. Utah Director, Labor Market Information Services, Utah Department of Employment Security, P.O. Box 11249, Salt Lake City, UT 84147-0249. Phone: (801) 533 2014. Executive Director, Utah Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 11249, 174 Social Hall Ave., Salt Lake City, UT 841147-0249. Phone: (801) 533-2028. Vermont Chief, Research and Analysis, Vermont Department of Employment and Train ing, P.O. Box 488, Montpelier, VT 05602-0488. Phone: (802) 229- 0311. Director, Vermont Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Green Mountain Dr., P.O. Box 488, Montpelier, VT 05602-0488. Phone: (802) 229 0311. Director, Pennsylvania Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry, 1224 Labor and Industry Bldg., Harrisburg, PA 17120. Phone: (717) 787-8646. Virginia Puerto Rico Executive Director, Virginia Occupational Information Coordinating Commit tee, Virginia Employment Commission, 703 East Main St., P.O. Box 1358, Richmond, VA 23211. Phone: (804) 786-7496. Director of BLS, Department of Labor and Human Resources, Research and Analysis Division, 505 Munoz Rivera Ave., 17th Floor, Hato Rey, PR 00918. Phone: (809) 754-5339. Director, Economic Information Services, Virginia Employment Commission, P.O. Box 1358, Richmond, VA 23211. Phone: (804) 786-5670. Virgin Islands Executive Director, Puerto Rico Occupational Information Coordinating Com mittee, 202 Del Cristo St., P.O. Box 6212, San Juan, PR 00936-6212. Phone: (809) 723-7110. Acting Director, Virgin Islands Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statis tics, Research and Analysis Section, P.O. Box 3359, St. Thomas, United States VI 00801-3359. Phone: (809) 776-3700. Rhode Island Coordinator, Virgin Islands Occupational Information Coordinating Commit tee, P.O. Box 3359, St. Thomas, United States VI 00801-3359. Phone: (809) 776-3700. Acting Supervisor, Employment Security Research, Rhode Island Department of Employment Security, 24 Mason St., Providence, RI 02903. Phone: (401) 277-3704. Director, Rhode Island Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 22 Hayes St., Room 133, Providence, RI 02908. Phone: (401) 272-0830. South Carolina Director, Labor Market Information Division, South Carolina Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 995, Columbia, SC 29202. Phone: (803) 758 8983. Washington Director, Labor Market and Economic Analysis Branch, Washington Employ ment Security Department, 605 Woodview Dr., Olympia, WA 98503. Phone: (206) 438-4804. Director, Washington Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 212 Maple Park, MS KG-11, Olympia, WA 98504-5311. Phone: (206) 438-4803. West Virginia Director, South Carolina Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 1550 Gadsden St., P.O. Box 995, Columbia, SC 29202. Phone: (803) 737 2733. Director, Labor and Economic Research Section, West Virginia Department of Employment Security, 112 California Ave., Charleston, WV 25305. Phone: (304) 348-2660. South Dakota Executive Director, West Virginia Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 1600 1/2 Washington St. East, Charleston, WV 25311. Phone: (304) 348-0061. Director, Labor Market Information Center, Department of Labor, P.O. Box 4730, Aberdeen, SD 57401. Phone: (605) 622-2314. Executive Director, South Dakota Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, South Dakota Department of Labor, 607 North 4th St., Box 1730, Aberdeen, SD 57401. Phone: (605) 622-2314. Wisconsin Director, Labor Market Information Bureau, Department of Industry, Labor and Human Relations, P.O. Box 7944, Madison, WI 53707. Phone: (608) 266 7034. Tennessee Director, Research and Statistics Division, Tennessee Department of Employ ment Security, 500 James Robertson Pky., 11th Floor, Nashville, TN 37245 1000. Phone: (615) 741-2284. Executive Director, Wisconsin Occupational Information Coordinating Coun cil, Division of Employment and Training Policy, 201 East Washington Ave., P.O. Box 7972, Madison, WI 53707. Phone: (608) 266-8012. Director, Tennessee Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 500 James Robertson Pky., 11th Floor Volunteer Plaza, Nashville, TN 37219. Phone: (615) 741-6451. Chief, Research and Analysis Section, Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 2760, Casper, WY 82602. Phone: (307) 235-3646. Texas Chief, Economic Research and Analysis, Texas Employment Commission, Room 208-T, 1117 Trinity St., Austin, TX 78778. Phone: (512) 463-2616. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Wyoming Director, Wyoming Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Occu pational Information Program, Herschler Bldg., 2nd Floor East, Cheyenne, WY 82002. Phone: (307) 777-7340. Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage The Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) was designed to pro vide detailed standardized occupational information to facilitate public employment service activities involving classification and placement of jobseekers. Its coding structure also is used to help bridge or relate to other occupational classification systems used in collection of employment data. Columns 1 and 3 below list the numbers and titles, respectively, from the Fourth Edition of the D.O.T., 1977, and its 1986 Supplement. Column 4 gives the page of the Handbook on which the D.O.T. number appears. Nearly all occupational statements in the Handbook list the D.O.T. codes that relate to or match the definitions used in the Bureau’s Occupational Employment Statistics Survey—the major source of occupational staffing patterns used in the Occupational Out look Program. However, the D.O.T. numbers associated with the following occupations are too numerous to list: Apparel workers Blue-collar worker supervisors Clerical supervisors and managers General managers and top executives Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers Industrial machinery repairers Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction Inspectors, testers, and graders Manufacturers' and wholesale sales representatives Material moving equipment operators Metalworking machine operators Painting and coating machine operators Precision assemblers Printing press operators Retail sales workers Science technicians Textile machinery operators Woodworking occupations These, nevertheless, are available on request from the Chief, Division of Occupational Outlook, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, DC 20212. Numbers in column 2 refer to the coding structure of the 1980 Standard Occupational Classification Manual (S.O.C.). The S.O.C. is the basis for the occupational arrangement used in the National Industry-Occupation Employment Matrix—the Handbook’s source of data on current and projected employment. D.O.T. Number SOC Code D O T. Title 001061010 001061018 001167010 001261010 001261014 002061010 002061014 002061018 002061022 002061026 002061030 002167010 002167014 002167018 002261010 002280010 002281010 003061010 003061014 1610 1610 1610 3720 3720 1622 1622 1622 1622 1622 1622 1622 1622 1622 3720 3719 3719 1633 1633 Architect.......................................................................... Landscape architect....................................................... School-plant consultant................................................ Drafter, architectural..................................................... Drafter, landscape......................................................... Aerodynamist................................................................. Aeronautical engineer................................................... Aeronautical test engineer.......................................... Aeronautical-design engineer...................................... Aeronautical-research engineer.................................. Stress analyst................................................................... Cost-analysis engineer.................................................. Field-service engineer.................................................. Aeronautical project engineer.................................... Drafter, aeronautical..................................................... Research mechanic........................................................ Flight-test-data transcriber.......................................... Electrical engineer......................................................... Electrical test engineer................................................ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Page 71 72 71 217 217 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 217 219 219 66 66 D.O.T. Number SOC Code D.O.T. Title 003061018 003061022 003061026 003061030 003061034 003061038 003061042 003061046 003061050 003131010 003161010 003161014 003161018 003167010 003167014 003167018 003167022 003167026 003167030 003167034 003167038 003167042 003167046 003167050 003167054 003167058 003167062 003167066 003167070 003187010 003187014 003187018 003261010 003261014 003261018 003261022 003281010 003281014 003362010 005061010 005061014 005061018 005061022 005061026 005061030 005061034 005061038 005061042 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 3720 3711 3711 3711 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1260 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1636 1633 1260 1633 1633 1633 3711 3720 3720 3720 3720 3720 3719 1628 1628 1628 1628 1628 1628 1628 1628 1628 005167010 005167014 005167018 005167022 005167026 005261010 005261014 005281010 005281014 006061010 006061014 006061018 006061022 006261010 007061010 007061014 007061018 007061022 007061026 007061030 007061034 007061038 007061042 007161010 007161014 007161018 1260 1628 1628 1134 1634 3719 3710 3720 3720 1623 1623 1623 1623 3719 1635 1635 1635 1635 1635 1635 1635 1635 1635 3720 3720 3720 Page Electrical-design engineer....................................... 66 Electrical-prospecting engineer............................... 66 Electrical-research engineer.................................... 66 Electronics engineer................................................ 66 Electronics-design engineer.................................... 66 Electronics-research engineer.................................. 66 Electronics-test engineer........................................ 66 Illuminating engineer.............................................. 66 Planning engineer, central office facilities............ 66 Supervisor, drafting and printed circuit design.... 217 Electrical technician................................................ 219 Electronics technician.............................................. 219 Technician, semiconductor development.............. 219 Cable engineer, outside plant................................ 66 Distribution-field engineer...................................... 66 Electrical engineer, power system......................... 66 Electrolysis-and-corrosion-controlengineer............ 66 Engineer of system development........................... 66 Engineer-in-charge, studio operations................... 66 Engineer-in-charge, transmitter............................. 28 Induction-coordination power engineer................. 66 Outside-plant engineer............................................ 66 Power-distribution engineer.................................... 66 Power-transmission engineer................................. 66 Protection engineer.................................................. 66 Supervisor, microwave........................................... 66 Systems engineer, electronic dataprocessing........ 77 Transmission-and-protection engineer................... 66 Engineering manager, electronics......................... 28 Central-office equipment engineer......................... 66 Commercial engineer.............................................. 66 Customer-equipment engineer................................ 66 Instrumentation technician...................................... 219 Controls designer.................................................... 217 Integrated circuit layout designer........................... 217 Printed circuit designer........................................... 217 Drafter, electrical.................................................... 217 Drafter, electronic.....................................................217 Design technician, computer-aided..........................219 Airport engineer...................................................... 65 Civil engineer.......................................................... 65 Hydraulic engineer.................................................. 65 Irrigation engineer................................................... 65 Railroad engineer.................................................... 65 Sanitary engineer.................................................... 65 Structural engineer.................................................. 65 Transportation engineer......................................... 65 Waste-management engineer, radioactive materials............................................................. 65 Chief engineer, waterworks................................... 28 Drainage-design coordinator................................... 65 Forest engineer........................................................ 65 Highway-administrative engineer........................... 28 Production engineer, track...................................... 67 Engineering technician........................................... 219 Civil engineering technician................................... 219 Drafter, civil........................................................... 217 Drafter, structural................................................... 217 Ceramic design engineer........................................ 68 Ceramic engineer.................................................... 68 Ceramic research engineer..................................... 68 Ceramics test engineer............................................ 68 Scientific glass blower............................................ 219 Automotive engineer............................................... 67 Mechanical engineer............................................... 67 Mechanical-design engineer, facilities.................. 67 Mechanical-design engineer, products.................. 67 Tool designer........................................................... 67 Tool-designer apprentice........................................ 67 Utilization engineer................................................ 67 Applications engineer, manufacturing.................. 67 Stress analyst........................................................... 67 Die designer............................................................ 217 Die-designer apprentice......................................... 217 Engineering assistant, mechanicalequipment........ 217 463 464 Occupational Outlook Handbook D.O.T. Number SOC Code 007161022 007161026 007161030 007161034 007161038 007167010 007167014 007167018 007167022 007181010 007261010 007261014 007261018 007261022 007267010 007281010 008061010 008061014 008061018 008061022 008061026 008061030 008167010 008261010 010061010 010061010 010061014 010061018 010061022 1635 3713 3713 1635 1635 3713 1260 3974 3713 3713 3720 3720 3720 3720 1635 3720 1626 1626 1626 1626 1626 1626 1260 3719 1625 1625 1624 1625 1624 010061022 1624 010061026 010061030 010061030 010161010 010161014 010167010 010167014 010167018 010261010 010261026 010281010 010281014 010281018 011061010 011061014 011061018 011061022 011061026 011161010 011261010 011261014 011261018 011281010 011281014 011361010 012061018 012067010 012167010 012167014 012167018 012167030 012167038 012167042 012167046 012167050 012167054 012167058 012167062 012167066 012167070 012167074 012167078 012187010 012187014 012261014 012267010 013161010 014281010 015061010 1624 1624 1624 1625 1260 1625 1625 1260 3719 3719 3720 3720 3720 1623 1623 1623 1623 1623 1260 3719 3719 3990 3719 3719 3719 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 7100 1712 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 3890 3712 3719 3720 1627 D.O.T. Title Page Mechanical research engineer................................. 67 Mechanical-engineering technician......................... 219 Optomechanical technician.................................... 219 Test engineer, mechanical equipment.................... 67 Solar-energy-systems designer............................... 67 Die-drawing checker............................................... 219 Plant engineer......................................................... 28 Tool programer, numerical control........................ 224 Tool-drawing checker.............................................. 219 Heat-transfer technician.......................................... 219 Chief drafter............................................................ 217 Drafter, castings..................................................... 217 Drafter, patent........................................................ 217 Drafter, tool design.................................................. 217 Drawings checker, engineering.............................. 67 Drafter, mechanical................................................ 217 Absorption-and-adsorption engineer....................... 65 Chemical design engineer, processes.................... 65 Chemical engineer................................................... 65 Chemical research engineer.................................... 65 Chemical-test engineer............ <£........................ 65 Nuclear-decontamination research specialist......... 69 Technical director, chemical plant........................ 28 Chemical-engineering technician........................... 219 Design engineer, mining-and-oilfield equipment.. 68 Design engineer, mining-and-oilfield equipment.. 69 Mining engineer..................................................... 68 Petroleum engineer................................................. 69 Research engineer, mining-and-oil-well equipment.......................................................... 68 Research engineer, mining-and-oil-well equipment.......................................................... 69 Safety engineer, mines........................................... 68 Test engineer, mining-and-oilfield equipment...... 68 Test engineer, mining-and-oilfield equipment...... 69 Chief engineer, research........................................ 69 Chief petroleum engineer....................................... 28 Chief engineer........................................................ 69 District supervisor, mud-analysis well logging.... 69 Superintendent, oil-well services........................... 28 Field engineer, specialist........................................ 219 Test-engine evaluator............................................. 219 Drafter, directional survey..................................... 217 Drafter, geological................................................... 217 Drafter, geophysical............................................... 217 Foundry metallurgist............................................... 68 Metallographer........................................................ 68 Metallurgist, extractive........................................... 68 Metallurgist, physical............................................. 68 Welding engineer.................................................... 68 Supervisor, metallurgical-and-quality-control-test 28 Metallurgical technician......................................... 219 Welding technician................................................. 219 Nondestructive tester............................................... 68 Laboratory assistant, metallurgical..........................219 Spectroscopist...........................................................219 Tester........................................................................219 Standards engineer................................................. 67 Metrologist............................................................. 67 Configuration management analyst........................ 67 Director, quality control......................................... 67 Factory lay-out engineer........................................ 67 Industrial engineer.................................................. 67 Liaison worker, tool fabrication............................ 67 Manufacturing engineer......................................... 67 Production engineer................................................ 67 Production planner................................................. 67 Quality-control engineer......................................... 67 Safety manager...................................................... 28 Supervisor, vendor quality..................................... 28 Systems analyst, electronic data processing......... 77 Time-study engineer.............................................. 67 Tool planner........................................................... 67 Documentation engineer......................................... 67 Material scheduler.................................................. 67 Shoe-lay-out planner.............................................. 67 Quality-control technician...................................... 219 Industrial engineering technician.......................... 219 Agricultural-engineering technician...................... 219 Drafter, marine...................................................... 217 Design engineer, nuclear equipment..................... 69 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis D.O.T. Number SOC Code D.O.T. Title 015061014 015061018 015061022 015061026 015061030 015067010 015137010 015167010 015167014 017161010 017261010 017261014 017261018 017261022 017261026 017261030 017261034 017261038 017281010 017281014 017281018 017281022 017281026 017281030 017281034 018131010 018167010 018167014 018167018 018167022 018167026 018167030 018167034 018167038 018167042 018167046 018167050 018261010 018261014 018261018 018261022 018261026 018262010 018281010 019061014 019161010 019161014 019167014 019167018 019261014 019261022 019261026 019267010 019281010 019381010 020062010 020067010 020067014 020067018 020067022 020162014 020167010 020167018 020167022 020167026 020187010 020187010 020187014 020187018 020224010 020262010 021067010 022061010 022061014 022081010 022137010 022161010 023061010 023061014 023067010 024061010 1627 1627 1627 1627 1627 1627 1627 1627 1627 3720 3713 3720 3720 3720 3720 3720 3720 3720 3720 3720 3720 3720 3720 3720 3720 3734 3733 3739 1643 1260 1649 3734 3733 1649 1649 1649 1649 3734 3734 3734 3734 3739 1644 3734 1623 3720 3719 1260 1628 3720 3719 3710 3719 3711 3719 1636 1636 1739 1721 1733 3971 1732 3971 3972 1733 3971 3972 3974 1739 1719 3971 1842 1845 1845 1854 1845 1260 1843 1843 1843 1847 Page Nuclear engineer............................................................. 69 Research engineer, nuclear equipment..................... 69 Test engineer, nuclear equipment............................. 69 Nuclear-fuels reclamation engineer........................... 69 Nuclear-fuels research engineer.................................. 69 Nuclear-criticality safety engineer............................. 69 Radiation-protection engineer.................................... 69 Nuclear-plant technical advisor.................................. 69 Nuclear-test-rtactor program coordinator............... 69 Drafter, chief' design.................................................... 217 Auto-design checker..................................................... 219 Design drafter, electromechanisms........................... 217 Detailer.............................................................................. 217 Detailer, furniture.......................................................... 217 Drafter, commercial....................................................... 217 Drafter, detail.................................................................. 217 Drafter, heating and ventilating................................. 217 Drafter, plumbing.......................................................... 217 Auto-design detailer....................................................... 217 Drafter apprentice.......................................................... 217 Drafter, assistant............................................................. 217 Drafter, automotive design........................................... 217 Drafter, automotive design lay-out............................. 217 Drafter, oil and gas....................................................... 217 Technical illustrator........................................................ 217 Supervisor, cartography............................................... 74 Chief of party................................................................. 74 Geodetic computer........................................................ 74 Land surveyor................................................................... 74 Manager, land surveying............................................. 28 Photogrammetric engineer............................................ 74 Supervisor, mapping........................................................ 74 Surveyor assistant, instruments................................. 74 Surveyor, geodetic........................................................... 74 Surveyor, geophysical prospecting........................... 74 Surveyor, marine.............................................................. 74 Surveyor, mine................................................................. 74 Drafter, cartographic........................................................ 74 Drafter, topographical..................................................... 74 Editor, map......................................................................... 74 Mosaicist............................................................................. 74 Photogrammetrist.............................................................. 74 Field-map editor................................................................ 74 Stereo-plotter operator..................................................... 74 Materials engineer............................................................. 68 Supervisor, estimator and drafter.............................. 217 Test technician................................................................. 219 Project engineer................................................................. 28 Resource-recovery engineer.......................................... 65 Estimator and drafter................................................... 217 Test technician................................................................. 219 Fire-protection engineering technician....................... 219 Specification writer.......................................................... 219 Calibration laboratory technician................................ 219 Laboratory technician...................................................... 219 Computer-applications engineer.................................... 77 Engineering analyst......................................................... 77 Mathematician.................................................................. 79 Operations-research analyst........................................... 81 Statistician, mathematical............................................... 82 Programmer, business.................................................... 215 Actuary................................................................................ 76 Programer, chief, business............................................ 215 Programer, engineering and scientific ....................... 215 Statistician, applied......................................................... 82 Programer, information system................................... 215 Programer, information system................................... 215 Programer, process control.......................................... 224 Weight analyst.................................................................. 79 Customer-support specialist........................................... 77 Software technician........................................................ 215 Astronomer........................................................................ 94 Chemist............................................................................... 90 Chemist, food.................................................................... 90 Toxicologist....................................................................... 86 Laboratory supervisor...................................................... 90 Chemical-laboratory chief.............................................. 28 Electro-optical engineer.................................................. 94 Physicist.............................................................................. 94 Physicist, theoretical........................................................ 94 Crystallographer............................................................... 91 Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage D.O.T. Number SOC Code D.O.T. Title 024061014 024061018 024061022 024061026 024061030 024061034 024061038 024061042 024061046 024061050 024061054 024161010 024167010 025062010 029167014 040061010 040061014 040061018 040061030 040061034 040061038 040061042 040061046 040061050 040061054 040061058 040061062 041061014 041061018 041061022 041061026 041061030 041061034 041061038 041061042 041061046 041061050 041061058 041061062 041061066 041061078 041061082 041061086 041061090 041061094 041081010 045061010 045061014 045061018 045067010 045067014 045067018 045107010 045107014 045107018 045107022 045107026 045107030 045107034 045107038 045107042 045107046 0454T7010 04^127010 050067010 050067014 054067014 054107010 070061010 070101010 070101014 070101018 070101022 070101026 070101030 070101034 070101038 070101042 070101046 070101050 070101054 1847 1847 1847 1847 1847 1847 1847 1847 1847 1847 1847 1847 1847 1846 1260 1853 1853 1853 1852 1852 1853 1853 1852 i-852 1852 1853 1852 1853 1853 1854 1854 1854 1854 1854 1854 1853 1854 1854 1854 1854 1854 1853 1854 1854 1854 1853 1915 1915 1915 1915 1915 1915 2400 2400 2400 1915 1915 1915 1915 2400 2400 1915 2400 1852 1912 1912 1916 1916 2610 2610 2610 2610 2610 2610 2610 2610 2610 2610 2610 2610 2610 Geodesist.......................................................................... 74 Geologist.......................................................................... 91 Geologist, petroleum..................................................... 91 Geophysical prospector................................................ 91 Geophysicist.................................................................... 91 Hydrologist...................................................................... 91 Mineralogist.........................................................................91 Paleontologist................................................................. 91 Petrologist....................................................................... 91 Seismologist...........*................. .................................. 91 Stratigrapher.................................................................... 91 Engineer, soils................................................................ 91 Geophysical-laboratory chief...................................... 91 Meteorologist................................................................... 93 Project manager, environmental research............... 28 Agronomist...................................................................... 85 Animal scientist...,........................................................ 85 Dairy scientist................................................................. 85 Forest ecologist.............................................................. 88 Forester............................................................................. 88 Horticulturist................................................................... 85 Poultry scientist.............................................................. 85 Range manager.............................................................. 88 Silviculturist.................................................................... 88 Soil conservationist....................................................... 88 Soil scientist.................................................................... 85 Wood technologist........................................................ 88 Animal breeder.............................................................. 85 Apiculturist...................................................................... 85 Aquatic biologist........................................................... 86 Biochemist....................................................................... 86 Biologist.......................................................................... 86 Biophysicist.................................................................... 86 Botanist............................................................................ 86 Cytologist........................................................................ 86 Entomologist................................................................... 85 Geneticist........................................................................ 86 Microbiologist................................................................. 86 Mycologist....................................................................... 86 Nematologist................................................................... 86 Physiologist...................................................................... 86 Plant breeder................................................................... 85 Plant pathologist............................................................. 86 Zoologist.......................................................................... 86 Staff toxicologist........................................................... 86 Food technologist........................................................... 85 Psychologist, developmental ...................................... 105 Psychologist, engineering............................................ 105 Psychologist, experimental ......................................... 105 Psychologist, educational............................................ 105 Psychologist, social...................................................... 105 Psychometrist................................................................. 105 Counselor........................................................................ 130 Counselor, nurses’association.................................. 130 Director of counseling.................................................. 130 Psychologist, clinical................................................... 105 Psychologist, counseling............................................. 105 Psychologist, industrial-organizational..................... 105 Psychologist, school........................................................ 105— Residence counselor..................................................... 130 Vocational-rehabilitation counselor........................... 130 Psychologist, chief........................................................ 105 Director of guidance in public schools................... 130 Park naturalist................................................................. 88 Economist........................................................................ 103 Market-research analyst I........................................... 103 Sociologist....................................................................... 108 Clinical sociologist....................................................... 108 Pathologist....................................................................... 143 Anesthesiologist............................................................ 143 Cardiologist..................................................................... 143 Dermatologist................................................................. 143 General practitioner...................................................... 143 Family practitioner........................................................ 143 Flight surgeon................................................................. 143 Gynecologist.................................................................. 143 Intern................................................................................ 143 Internist........................................................................... 143 Medical officer............................................................... 143 Neurologist..................................................................... 143 Obstetrician..................................................................... 143 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Page D.O.T. Number SOC Code D.O.T. Title 070101058 2610 070101062 2610 070101066 2610 070101070 2610 070101074 2610 070101078 2610 070101082 2610 070101086 2610 070101090 2610 070101094 2610 070101098 2610 070107010 2610 070107014 2610 070107018 2610 070117010 2610 070117014 2610 071101010 2610 072061010 2620 072101010 2620 072101014 2620 072101018 2620 072101022 2620 072101026 2620 072101030 2620 072101034 2620 072101038 2620 072117010 2620 073061010 2700 073061014 2700 073061018 2700 073061022 2700 073061026 2700 073061030 2700 073061034 2700 073061038 2700 073061042 2700 073101010 2700 073101014 2700 073101018 2700 073161010 2700 073261010 2700 073264010 2700 074131010 3010 074161010 3010 074161014 3010 075117010 1283 075117014 1310 075117018 1283 075117022 1310 075117026 1310 075117030 1310 075124010 2900 075124014 2900 075127010 2390 075127014 2900 075127018—2900 075127022 2900 075127026 2900 075127030 2900 075137010 2900 075264010 2900 075264014 2900 075371010 2900 075374010 2900 075374014 2900 075374018 2900 075374022 2900 076101010 3034 076104010 3034 076107010 3034 076121010 3032 076121014 3033 076124014 3039 077061010 3020 077117010 3020 077127010 3020 077127014 3020 077127018 3020 077127022 3020 ,077167010 3020 078121010 3620 465 Page Ophthalmologist...................................................... 143 Otolaryngologist...................................................... 143 Pediatrician.............................................................. 143 Physiatrist................................................................. 143 Physician, head........................................................ 143 Physician, occupational .......................................... 143 Police surgeon......................................................... 143 Proctologist.............................................................. 143 Radiologist................................................................ 143 Surgeon I................................................................. 143 Urologist.................................................................. 143 Allergist-immunologist............................................ 143 Psychiatrist.............................................................. 143 Director, diagnostic-and-evaluation clinic.............. 35 Chief of nuclear medicine...................................... 35 Director of radiology.............................................. 35 Osteopathic physician.............................................. 143 Oral pathologist........................................................ 139 Dentist...................................................................... 139 Endodontist.............................................................. 139 Oral surgeon............................................................. 139 Orthodontist............................................................. 139 Endodontist.............................................................. 139 Periodontist.............................................................. 139 Prosthodontist.......................................................... 139 Public-health dentist............................................... 139 Director, dental services ......................................... 35 Veterinarian, laboratory animalcare....................... 147 Veterinary anatomist............................................... 147 Veterinary bacteriologist........................................ 147 Veterinary epidemiologist....................................... 147 Veterinary parasitologist........................................ 147 Veterinary pathologist............................................ 147 Veterinary pharmacologist..................................... 147 Veterinary physiologist........................................... 147 Veterinary virologist............................................... 147 Veterinarian............................................................. 147 Veterinarian, poultry................................................ 147 Zoo veterinarian...................................................... 147 Veterinary livestock inspector................................. 147 Veterinary virus-serum inspector........................... 147 Veterinary meat-inspector....................................... 147 Director, pharmacy services................................... 35 Pharmacist................................................................ 153 Radiopharmacist...................................................... 153 Consultant, educational, state board of nursing... 25 Director, community-health nursing...................... 35 Director, educational, community-health nursing. 25 Director, nursing service......................................... 35 Director, occupational health nursing..................... 35 Director, school of nursing..................................... 35 Nurse, school.......................................................... 160 Nurse, staff, community health.............................. 160 Instructor, psychiatric aide...................................... 125 Nurse, consultant..................................................... 160 Nurse, head.............................................................. 160 Nurse, supervisor..................................................... 160 Nurse, supervisor, community-health nursing....... 160 Nurse supervisor, evening-or-night........................ 160 Nurse, supervisor, occupationalhealth nursing ... 160 Nurse practitioner................................................... 160 Nurse-midwife......................................................... 160 Nurse anesthetist...................................................... 160 Nurse, general duty................................................ 160 Nurse, office........................................................... 160 Nurse, private duty.................................................. 160 Nurse, staff, occupational health nursing............. 160 Audiologist.............................................................. 165 Voice pathologist.................................................... 165 Speech pathologist.................................................. 165 Occupational therapist............................................. 152 Physical therapist.................................................... 155 Recreational therapist.............................................. 159 Dietitian, research................................................... 150 Dietitian, chief......................................................... 150 Community dietitian............................................... 150 Dietitian, clinical..................................................... 150 Dietitian, consultant................................................ 150 Dietitian, teaching................................................... 150 Dietetic intern.......................................................... 150 Medical technologist, teaching supervisor............ 187 466 Occupational Outlook Handbook d.o.t. soc Number Code D.O.T. Title 078161010 078161018 078162010 078221010 078261010 078261014 078264010 078281010 078361010 078361014 078361018 078361030 078361034 078362018 078362022 078362026 078364010 078381010 078381014 079101010 079101018 079101022 079117010 079127010 079131010 079137010 079167014 079224010 079361010 079364010 079364014 079364018 079364022 079367010 079367014 079371010 079374010 079374014 079374018 079374022 090107010 090117010 090117014 090117018 090117022 090117026 090117030 090167010 090167014 090167018 090167022 090167026 090167030 090167034 090222010 090227010 090227010 090227010 090227010 090227010 090227010 090227010 090227010 090227010 090227010 090227010 090227010 091107010 091221010 091227010 092137010 092227010 092227014 094107010 094117010 094117014 094167010 096161010 096167010 096167014 097167010 3620 3650 3650 3690 3620 3620 3690 3620 3630 3620 3650 3620 3650 3690 3690 3650 3690 3690 3690 2890 2810 2830 1310 1430 1310 1310 1310 3690 3031 5233 3690 3040 3690 5233 3640 5232 3690 3660 5233 3690 2400 1281 1281 1281 1281 1281 1281 2200 1281 1281 1281 1281 1281 1281 2233 2200 2214 2215 2200 2200 2232 2200 2235 2226 2227 2228 2200 1282 2330 2330 1283 2320 2310 2350 1283 1283 2360 1283 1283 1283 1283 Page Medical technologist, chief.................................... 187 Chief technologist, nuclear medicine.................... 203 Radiologic technologist, chief................................ 205 Immunohematologist............................................... 187 Chemistry technologist........................................... 187 Microbiology technologist...................................... 187 Holter scanning technician...................................... 195 Cytotechnologist..................................................... 187 Dental hygienist..................................................... 189 Medical technologist............................................... 187 Nuclear medical technologist................................... 203 Tissue technologist................................................. 187 Radiation-therapy technologist.................................205 Electrocardiograph technician................................ 195 Electroencephalographic technologist.................... 193 Radiologic technologist........................................... 205 Ultrasound technologist......................................... 205 Medical-laboratory assistant................................... 187 Medical-laboratory technician................................ 187 Chiropractor............................................................ 138 Optometrist............................................................. 141 Podiatrist................................................................. 146 Emergency medical services coordinator............... 35 Inservice coordinator, auxiliary personnel............ 48 Director, speech-and-hearing................................. 35 Utilization-review coordinator................................ 35 Medical-record administrator................................. 35 Home health technician......................................... 313 Respiratory therapist............................................... 163 Chiropractor assistant............................................. 300 Optometric assistant................................................ 300 Physician assistant.................................................. 157 Phlebotomist............................................................ 187 Medical assistant.................................................... 300 Medical record technician....................................... 201 Dental assistant...................................................... 299 Emergency medical technician............................... 196 Nurse, licensed practical........................................ 199 Podiatric assistant................................................... 300 Surgical technician................................................. 208 Foreign-student adviser........................................... 130 Academic dean........................................................ 25 Alumni secretary.................................................... 25 Dean of students 1................................................... 25 Director, athletic..................................................... 25 Director, extension work........................................ 25 Financial-aids officer............................................... 25 Department head, college or university................ 25 Director of admissions............................................ 25 Director of institutional research............................ 25 Director of student affairs....................................... 25 Director, summer sessions..................................... 25 Registrar, college or university............................. 25 Director, field services........................................... 25 Instructor, business education................................ 125 Faculty member, college or university................. 128 Faculty member, college or university................. 128 Faculty member, college or university................. 128 Faculty member, college or university................. 128 Faculty member, college or university................. 128 Faculty member, college or university................. 128 Faculty member, college or university................. 128 Faculty member, college or university................. 128 Faculty member, college or university................. 128 Faculty member, college or university................. 128 Faculty member, college or university................. 128 Faculty member, college or university................. 128 Dean of students II................................................. 25 Teacher, industrial arts.......................................... 135 Teacher, secondary school..................................... 135 Director, preschool................................................. 25 Teacher, elementary school.................................... 132 Teacher, kindergarten............................................. 132 Work-study coordinator, special education.......... 25 Director, commission for the blind ...................... 25 Director, special education.................................... 25 Supervisor, special education................................ 25 Home-service director............................................ 25 District extension service agent............................. 25 Specialist-in-charge, extension service................. 25 Director, vocational training.................................. 25 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis D.O.T. Number SOC Code D.O.T. Title 097227010 097227014 099117010 099117014 099117018 099117026 099117030 099167010 099167018 099167022 099167026 099167030 099167034 099223010 099224010 099224010 099224014 099227014 099227018 099227022 099227026 099227030 099227030 099227038 099327010 100117010 100117014 100127010 100127014 100167010 100167014 100167018 100167022 100167026 100167030 100167034 100267010 100267014 100367010 100367014 100367018 100367022 100367026 100387010 101167010 102017010 102117010 102117014 102167010 102167014 102167018 102261010 102261014 102361010 102361014 102381010 109067010 109067010 109067014 109267010 109267014 109281010 109361010 109364010 109367010 110107010 110107014 110117010 110117014 110117018 110117022 110117026 110117030 110117034 110117038 110117042 110167010 111107010 111107014 119107010 119117010 2390 2390 1283 1283 1282 2360 1283 1430 2360 2360 2360 1283 1283 2390 2390 2330 2390 2390 2390 2330 2390 2390 2390 2216 3990 1283 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2150 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2520 2520 2520 2520 2520 2520 2520 2520 3250 2520 2520 2520 1719 1719 2520 2520 2510 2520 2520 2520 2520 2110 2110 2110 2110 2110 2110 2110 2110 2110 2110 2110 2110 2120 2120 2120 2120 Page Instructor, flying II......................................................... Instructor, vocational training..................................... Director, educational program................................... Education supervisor, correctional institution........ Principal............................................................................ Supervisor, education.................................................... Director, education......................................................... Certification and selection specialist........................ Director, instructional material................................... Educational specialist.................................................... Music supervisor............................................................ Educational resource coordinator............................... Director of pupil personnel program........................ Instructor, driving.......................................................... Instructor, physical education..................................... Instructor, physical education..................................... Teacher, adventure education..................................... Instructor, correspondence school............................. Instructor, ground services........................................... Instructor, military science......................................... Instructor, modeling...................................................... Teacher, adult education.............................................. Teacher, adult education.............................................. Teacher.............................................................................. Teacher aide 1.................................................................. Library director............................................................... Library consultant.......................................................... Chief librarian, branch or department..................... Librarian........................................................................... Audiovisual librarian...................................................... Bookmobile librarian .................................................... Children’s librarian......................................................... Institution librarian......................................................... Librarian, special library.............................................. Media specialist, school library.................................. Young-adult librarian.................................................... Acquisitions librarian.................................................... Librarian, special collections...................................... Bibliographer................................................................... Classifier........................................................................... Library technical assistant........................................... Music librarian................................................................ Music librarian, international broadcast.................. Catalog librarian............................................................. Archivist........................................................................... Curator.............................................................................. Supervisor, historic sites.............................................. Director, museum-or-zoo............................................ Art conservator............................................................... Historic-site administrator............................................ Registrar, museum......................................................... Conservation technician................................................ Paintings restorer............................................................ Restorer, lace and textiles........................................... Restorer, ceramic............................................................ Museum technician......................................................... Information scientist...................................................... Information scientist...................................................... Research associate.......................................................... Research assistant.......................................................... Research worker, encyclopedia.................................. Armorer technician......................................................... Restorer, paper-and-prints........................................... Craft demonstrator......................................................... Museum attendant.......................................................... Lawyer.............................................................................. Lawyer, criminal............................................................ District attorney............................................................... Insurance attorney.......................................................... Lawyer, admiralty.......................................................... Lawyer, corporation..................................................... Lawyer, patent................................................................ Lawyer, probate............................................................. Lawyer, real estate......................................................... Tax attorney.................................................................... Title attorney................................................................... Bar examiner................................................................... Judge................................................................................. Magistrate......................................................................... Hearing officer................................................................ Appeals reviewer, veteran........................................... 125 125 25 25 25 25 25 48 25 25 25 126 25 125 132 135 125 125 125 135 125 125 125 125 279 25 44 133 133 133 133 133 133 133 133 133 133 133 133 133 220 133 133 133 126 126 126 126 126 126 126 126 180 126 126 126 77 77 126 126 133 126 126 126 126 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage d.o.t. Number 119167010 119267014 119267022 119267026 120007010 120007010 120007010 131067010 131067010 131067014 131067018 131067018 131067022 131067026 131067030 131067034 131067038 131067042 131067046 131087010 131087014 131087018 131267010 131267014 131267018 131267022 131267026 132017010 132017014 132017018 132037010 132037014 132037018 132037022 132037026 132067010 132067014 132067018 132067022 132067026 132067030 132137010 132267010 132267014 132367010 141031010 141051010 141061010 141061014 141061018 141061022 141061026 141061030 141061034 141067010 141081010 141081014 141137010 142031010 142031014 142051014 142061010 142061014 142061018 142061022 142061026 142061030 142061034 142061038 142061042 142061046 142061050 142061054 142061058 142081010 142081014 142081018 142281010 143062010 143062014 143062018 soc Code 2120 2120 3960 3960 2042 2042 2042 3313 3313 3313 3313 3313 3313 3210 3210 3210 3210 3210 3210 3210 3210 3210 3313 3313 3313 3312 3980 3312 3312 3312 3312 3312 3312 3312 3312 3312 3312 3312 3312 3312 3240 3312 3312 3312 3312 3220 3220 3250 3250 3220 3250 3250 3250 3250 3220 3250 3220 3220 3220 3220 3220 3220 3220 3220 3220 3220 3250 3220 3220 3220 3220 3220 3220 3220 3220 3220 3220 3220 3260 3260 3260 D.O.T. Title Page Adjudicator.............................................................. Appeals referee....................................................... Legal investigator................................................... Paralegal assistant................................................... Clergy member....................................................... Clergy member....................................................... Clergy member....................................................... Columnist/commentator.......................................... Columnist/commentator.......................................... Copywriter.............................................................. Critic........................................................................ Critic........................................................................ Editorial writer........................................................ Humorist.................................................................. Librettist.................................................................. Lyricist.................................................................... Playwright............................................................... Poet.......................................................................... Writer, prose, fictionand nonfiction....................... Continuity writer.................................................... Reader...................................................................... Screenwriter........................................................... Newscaster............................................................... Newswriter.............................................................. Reporter................................................................... Script reader............................................................ Writer, technical publications................................ Editor, managing, newspaper................................ Editor, newspaper................................................... Editor, technical andscientific publications........... Continuity director.................................................. Editor, city.............................................................. Editor, department.................................................. Editor, publications................................................ Story editor............................................................. Bureau chief............................................................ Editor, book............................................................ Editor, dictionary.................................................... Editor, greeting card............................................... Editor, news............................................................ Program proposals coordinator............................... Assignment editor................................................... Editor, telegraph...................................................... Editorial assistant.................................................... Editor, index........................................................... Art director.......................................... Color expert............................................................ Cartoonist................................................................ Fashion artist........................................................... Graphic designer...................................................... Illustrator.................................................................. Illustrator, medical andscientific............................ Illustrator, set......................................................... Police artist............................................................. Creative director...................................................... Cartoonist, motion pictures.................................... Commercial designer............................................. Production manager,advertising.............................. Art director............................................................. Manager, display.................................................... Interior designer..................................................... Bank-note designer.................................................. Cloth designer......................................................... Clothes designer..................................................... Furniture designer................................................... Industrial designer................................................... Memorial designer................................................. Ornamental-metalworkdesigner............................. Safety-clothing-and-equipment developer............. Set decorator........................................................... Set designer............................................................ Set designer............................................................ Stained glass artist................................................. Exhibit designer..................................................... Floral designer........................................................ Fur designer............................................................ Package designer.................................................... Copyist.................................................................... Director of photography......................................... Photographer, aerial................................................ Photographer, apprentice........................................ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 96 96 221 221 121 122 123 169 173 173 169 173 173 173 173 173 173 173 173 173 173 173 169 173 171 173 173 173 173 173 173 173 173 173 173 173 173 173 173 173 173 173 173 173 173 180 175 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 175 180 175 46 175 175 175 175 175 175 175 175 180 175 175 175 175 175 175 175 175 175 175 175 177 177 177 467 D.O.T. Number SOC Code D.O.T. Title 143062022 143062026 143062030 143062034 143260010 143362010 143382010 143382014 143457010 144061010 144061014 144061018 149021010 149041010 149261010 150027010 150027014 150047010 150067010 150147010 151027010 151027014 151047010 152021010 152041010 152047010 152047014 152047018 152047022 152067010 152067014 152067018 152067022 152267010 152367010 153137010 153227014 159067010 159067014 159117010 159124010 159147010 159147014 159167014 159167018 159167022 159227010 159267010 159647014 160162010 160162014 160167010 160167014 160167018 160167022 160167026 160167030 160167034 160167038 160167042 160267014 160267018 161117010 161117014 161117018 161167010 161167014 161167018 161167022 161267010 161267018 161267022 161267026 161267030 162117014 162117018 162117030 162157014 162157018 162157022 162157030 3260 3260 3260 3260 3260 3260 3260 3260 3260 3250 3250 3250 2390 3250 3250 3240 2390 3240 3240 3240 3270 2390 3270 2390 3230 3230 3230 3230 3230 3230 3230 3230 3230 3230 3230 1352 2390 3240 3240 3240 2033 3330 3330 3240 3240 1250 2390 3240 3240 1412 1412 1412 1412 1412 1412 1412 1412 1412 1412 1412 1412 1490 1419 1420 1220 1420 1420 1420 1420 1420 1420 1420 1420 1419 1370 1449 1139 4124 1442 1442 1449 Photographer, motion picture ...................................... Photographer, scientific ................................................ Photographer, still........................................................... Photojoumalist................................................................. Optical-effects-camera operator.................................. Biological photographer................................................ Camera operator, animation......................................... Photographer, finish........................................................ Photographer..................................................................... Painter................................................................................. Printmaker......................................................................... Sculptor............................................................................. Teacher, art....................................................................... Quick sketch artist.......................................................... Exhibit artist...................................................................... Dramatic coach................................................................ Teacher, drama............................................................... Actor................................................................................... Director, stage................................................................. Narrator............................................................................. Choreographer................................................................. Instructor, dancing......................................................... Dancer................................................................................. Teacher, music................................................................. Musician, instrumental.................................................. Choral director................................................................. Conductor, orchestra...................................................... Director, music............................................................... Singer.................................................................................. Arranger............................................................................. Composer.......................................................................... Cue selector..................................................................... Orchestrator..................................................................... Copyist............................................................................... Prompter............................................................................ Manager, pool................................................................. Instructor, physical......................................................... Director, motion picture................................................ Director, television......................................................... Producer............................................................................. Counselor, camp.............................................................. Announcer......................................................................... Disk jockey....................................................................... Director, radio................................................................. Manager, stage................................................................. Executive producer, promos........................................ Instructor, bridge............................................................ Director, casting.............................................................. Extra................................................................................... Accountant, tax............................................................... Auditor............................................................................... Accountant........................................................................ Accountant, budget....................................................... Accountant, cost.............................................................. Accountant, property.................................................... Accountant, systems...................................................... Auditor, county or city................................................. Auditor, internal.............................................................. Auditor, tax..................................................................... Bursar................................................................................ Director, utility accounts.............................................. Estimator........................................................................... Budget officer.................................................................. Director, records management................................... Treasurer........................................................................... Management analyst...................................................... Manager, forms analysis.............................................. Manager, records analysis........................................... Manager, reports analysis............................................. Clerical-methods analyst.............................................. Forms analyst.................................................................. Records-management analyst...................................... Reports analyst................................................................. Budget analyst................................................................. Contract administrator.................................................. Contract specialist.......................................................... Research-contracts supervisor..................................... Broker’s floor representative............................... Buyer.................................................................................. Buyer, assistant............................................................... Outside property agent................................................. Page 177 177 177 177 177 177 177 177 177 180 180 180 125 180 180 182 125 182 182 182 183 125 183 125 185 185 185 185 185 185 185 185 185 185 185 118 125 182 182 182 118 169 169 182 182 46 125 182 182 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 23 17 44 30 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 17 15 54 28 238 60 60 54 468 Occupational Outlook Handbook d.o.t. Number 162157034 162157038 162157042 162167022 162167030 163117010 163117014 163117018 163117022 163117026 163167010 163167018 163167022 163167026 163267010 164117010 164117014 164117018 164167010 165017010 165067010 165157010 165167010 166067010 166117010 166117014 166117018 166167010 166167014 166167018 166167022 166167026 166167030 166167034 166167038 166167042 166167050 166167054 166221010 166227010 166257010 166267010 166267014 166267018 166267022 166267026 166267030 166267034 166267038 166267042 166267046 168167010 168167030 168167034 168167038 168167046 168167050 168267010 168267014 168267038 168267102 169107010 169167030 169167034 169167054 169167058 169167062 169167074 169207010 169267010 169267022 169267026 180117010 180161010 180161014 180167010 180167018 180167026 180167030 180167034 180167038 soc Code D.O.T. Title 1449 1449 4124 1240 1449 1449 1250 1250 1250 1250 1250 1250 1250 1370 1250 1250 1250 1250 1250 3320 3320 4152 3320 1430 1230 1430 1230 1430 1430 1230 1430 1230 1230 1430 1430 1430 1230 1430 2390 2390 3320 1430 1430 1430 1430 1430 1430 1430 1430 1430 1430 5132 1472 1472 1472 1472 1472 1472 1473 4784 1472 1430 1260 1370 1449 1414 1390 1420 1430 2120 1283 2400 5525 5523 5525 5524 5522 5524 5524 5524 5524 Page Procurement engineer............................................. Purchasing agent..................................................... Securities trader 1.................................................... Manager, procurement services............................. Purchase-price analyst............................................ Manager, contracts................................................. Manager, export..................................................... Manager, promotion............................................... Director, media marketing..................................... Director, underwriter solicitation........................... Manager, advertising............................................. Manager, sales........................................................ Manager, utility sales and service......................... Property-disposal officer........................................ Field representative................................................ Manager, advertising............................................. Manager, advertising agency................................. Media director........................................................ Account executive.................................................. Lobbyist.................................................................. Public-relations representative................................ Song plugger.......................................................... Sales-service promoter............................................ Occupational analyst.............................................. Director, industrial relations.................................. Manager, employee welfare.................................. Manager, personnel................................................ Contestant coordinator............................................ Director of placement............................................. Manager, benefits.................................................. Manager, compensation......................................... Manager, education and training........................... Manager, employment............................................ Manager, labor relations........................................ Port purser.............................................................. Senior enlisted advisor.......................................... Program specialist, employee-health maintenance Technical training coordinator.............................. Instructor, technical training.................................. Training representative.......................................... Employer relations representative......................... Employment interviewer........................................ Hospital-insurance representative.......................... Job analyst.............................................................. Prisoner-classification interviewer......................... Recruiter................................................................. Retirement officer.................................................. Job development specialist..................................... Personnel recruiter................................................. Employee relations specialist................................. Human resource advisor......................................... Customs patrol officer............................................ Inspector, building................................................. Inspector, electrical............................................... Inspector, elevators............................................... Inspector, heating and refrigeration...................... Inspector, plumbing............................................... Building inspector.................................................. Claim examiner...................................................... Eligibility-and-occupancy interviewer.................. Plan checker........................................................... Arbitrator............................................................... Manager, electronic data processing..................... Manager, office...................................................... Tooling coordinator, production engineering....... Underwriter............................................................. Coordinator, skill-training program...................... Preventive maintenance coordinator...................... Conciliator.............................................................. Claims adjudicator................................................. Secretary, board-of-education................................ Supervisor, special services.................................. Manager, christmas-tree farm................................ Manager, production, seed com........................... Superintendent, horticulture.................................. Artificial-breeding distributor................................. General manager, farm.......................................... Manager, dairy farm.............................................. Manager, fish hatchery.......................................... Manager, game breeding farm.............................. Manager, game preserve....................................... https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 54 54 238 54 54 54 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 15 46 46 46 46 46 168 168 240 168 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 125 125 48 26 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 290 19 19 19 19 19 19 244 244 19 48 28 15 54 58 48 44 48 96 25 130 318 318 318 318 318 318 318 318 318 D.O.T. Number SOC Code D.O.T. Title 180167042 180167046 180167054 180167058 181117010 182167010 182167014 182167018 182167022 182167026 182167030 182167034 182267010 183117010 183117014 183161014 183167010 183167014 183167018 183167022 183167026 183167034 183167038 184117010 184117078 184167026 184167030 184167074 184387010 185117014 185137010 185157010 185157014 185167034 186117010 186117014 186117038 186117042 186117046 186117058 186117062 186117066 186117070 186117078 186167018 186167022 186167026 186167030 186167038 186167042 186167046 186167054 186167062 186167066 187117010 187117018 187117038 187117058 187117062 187137010 187161010 187167026 187167046 187167078 187167106 187167106 187167110 187167122 187167126 187167126 187167162 187167174 187167178 187167182 187167190 187167206 187167210 188117010 188117082 188117086 188117114 5525 5524 1320 5523 1320 1330 1330 1330 1320 1330 1330 1330 1472 1320 1320 1320 1320 1320 1320 1320 1320 1320 1320 3240 1240 1649 3240 3240 4716 1390 1351 1250 1250 1240 1281 1220 1220 1353 1353 1353 1353 1220 1220 1220 1353 1220 1220 1353 1353 1353 1353 1220 1353 4123 1210 1210 1351 1310 1370 2033 1351 1351 1351 1351 1351 1351 1351 1351 1351 1351 1250 3240 3240 3240 1353 1351 1351 1132 1134 1370 1120 Page Manager, nursery............................................................ Manager, poultry hatchery........................................... Superintendent................................................................ Superintendent, production......................................... Manager, bulk plant..................................................... Contractor......................................................................... Landscape contractor.................................................... Railroad-construction director..................................... Superintendent, concrete-mixing plant..................... Superintendent, construction ...................................... Superintendent, maintenance of way........................ Supervisor, bridges and buildings............................. Construction inspector.................................................. Manager, branch............................................................. Production superintendent............................................ Wine maker..................................................................... Brewing director............................................................. General superintendent, milling................................. General supervisor........................................................ General supervisor........................................................ Manager, food processing plant................................ Superintendent, car construction................................ Superintendent, logging............................................... Director, public service............................................... Superintendent, commissary....................................... Director, photogrammetry flight operations............ Director, program.......................................................... Manager, production..................................................... Wharfinger........................................................................ Area supervisor, retail chain store ........................... Manager, fast food services....................................... Fashion coordinator....................................................... Supervisor of sales........................................................ Manager, merchandise.................................................. Business manager, college or university................. Controller.......................... ,........................................... Manager, financial institution.................................... Manager, land development....................................... Manager, leasing........................................................... Real-estate agent............................................................. Rental manager, public events facilities.................. Risk and insurance manager....................................... Treasurer, financial institution................................... Vice president, financial institution.......................... Manager, apartment house.......................................... Manager, credit card operations................................ Manager, credit union.................................................. Manager, housing project............................................ Manager, land leases-and-rentals.............................. Manager, market........................................................... Manager, property.......................................................... Reserve officer................................................................ Condominium manager................................................ Manager, real-estate firm............................................ Administrator, hospital................................................ Director, institution....................................................... Manager, hotel or motel............................................. Director, outpatient services....................................... Radiology administrator............................................... Recreation supervisor.................................................... Executive chef............................................................... Director, food services................................................. Executive housekeeper................................................ Manager, convention.................................................... Manager, food service.................................................. Manager, food service.................................................. Manager, front office................................................... Manager, hotel recreational facilities...................... Manager, liquor establishment.................................. Manager, liquor establishment................................... Manager, vehicle leasing and rental ........................ Producer............................................................................ Producer............................................................................ Producer, assistant........................................................ Superintendent, building............................................. Dietary manager............................................................ Director, food and beverage....................................... Apprenticeship consultant............................................ Director, medical facilities section........................... Director, merit system.................................................. Manager, city................................................................. 318 318 39 318 39 21 21 21 39 21 21 21 19 39 39 39 39 39 39 39 39 39 39 182 54 74 182 182 255 46 56 46 46 54 25 30 30 51 51 51 51 30 30 30 51 30 30 51 51 51 51 30 51 51 35 35 38 35 15 118 56 56 38 38 38 56 38 38 56 56 46 182 182 182 51 56 56 48 35 48 33 Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage dot. Number soc Code D.O.T. Title 188117122 188167058 188167094 188167106 188167110 188217010 189117014 189117018 189117038 189117042 189157010 1370 1139 1131 1370 1920 1139 1260 1250 1390 1320 1353 189167022 189167030 189167042 189167046 189267010 191117030 191117042 191117046 191117050 191167022 191267010 193162010 193162014 193162018 193167010 193167014 193262018 193262038 194062010 194262010 194262014 194262014 194262018 194262018 194282010 194362010 194362010 194362010 194362014 194362014 194362018 194381010 194382010 194382014 195107010 195107014 195107018 195107022 195107026 195107030 195107034 195107038 195107042 195107046 195137010 195164010 195167010 195167014 1370 1370 1320 1320 2032 1353 1353 1353 1353 4783 4123 3920 3920 3920 3920 3930 3930 3930 3990 3930 3930 3719 3719 3930 3930 3930 3719 3719 3719 3930 3930 3711 3719 3719 2032 2032 2032 2032 2032 2032 2032 2032 2032 2032 2032 2032 2032 2032 195167030 195167034 195227010 195227014 195267010 195267014 195267018 195367010 195367014 195367018 195367018 195367022 195367026 195367034 196167010 196167014 196223010 196223014 196263010 196263014 2032 2032 2033 2033 4784 2032 2032 2032 2032 2032 2032 2032 5133 2032 8250 8250 8250 8250 8250 8250 Property-utilization officer..................................... 15 Manager, office...................................................... 35 Superintendent, industries, correctional facility... 25 Unclaimed property officer.................................... 15 Planner, program services..................................... 110 Commissioner of conciliation................................ 48 Director, research and development...................... 28 Manager, customer technical services................... 46 User representative, internationalaccounting......... 30 Director, quality assurance .................................... 39 Business-opportunity-and-property-investment broker................................................................. 51 Manager, department............................................. 15 Program manager.................................................... 15 Superintendent, labor utilization............................ 39 Superintendent, maintenance................................. 39 Field representative................................................ 115 Lease buyer............................................................. 51 Permit agent, geophysical prospecting................... 51 Right-of-way agent................................................. 51 Right-of-way supervisor......................................... 51 Service representative............................................. 244 Appraiser, real estate............................................. 234 Air-traffic coordinator............................................ 212 Air-traffic-control specialist, station....................... 212 Air-traffic-control specialist, tower........................ 212 Chief controller...................................................... 212 Field supervisor, broadcast.................................... 214 Field engineer......................................................... 214 Transmitter operator.............................................. 214 Television technician ............................................. 214 Audio operator........................................................ 214 Sound controller..................................................... 214 Sound controller..................................................... 214 Sound mixer............................................................ 214 Sound mixer............................................................ 214 Video operator........................................................ 214 Recording engineer................................................. 214 Recording engineer...................................................214 Recording engineer................................................. 214 Rerecording mixer.................................................. 214 Recording mixer..................................................... 214 Telecine operator.................................................... 214 Technical testing engineer..................................... 219 Section-plotter operator.......................................... 219 Tape transferrer...................................................... 214 Caseworker............................................................. 115 Caseworker, child welfare..................................... 115 Caseworker, family................................................ 115 Social group worker.............................................. 115 Social worker, delinquency prevention................. 115 Social worker, medical.......................................... 115 Social worker, psychiatric..................................... 115 Social worker, school............................................. 115 Correctional-treatment specialist............................ 115 Probation-and-parole officer................................... 115 Casework supervisor.............................................. 115 Group worker......................................................... 115 Community organization worker............................ 115 Community-relations-and-services advisor, public housing.................................................. 115 Parole officer.......................................................... 115 Probation officer..................................................... 115 Program aide, group work..................................... 118 Recreation leader.................................................... 118 Eligibility worker.................................................... 244 Human relations or drug and alcohol counselor . . 113 Patient-resources-and-reimbursement agent.......... 115 Case aide................................................................. 113 Management aide.................................................... 113 Community worker................................................. 113 Community worker................................................. 115 Food-management aide.......................................... 113 Preparole-counseling aide...................................... 115 Social-services aide................................................ 113 Chief pilot.............................................................. 210 Navigator................................................................ 210 Instructor, flying 1................................................... 210 Instructor, pilot...................................................... 210 Airplane pilot......................................................... 210 Airplane pilot, commercial.................................... 210 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Page D.O.T. Number 196263018 196263022 196263026 196263030 196263034 196263038 196263042 197130010 197133010 197133014 197133018 197133018 197133022 197133026 197133030 197133034 197137010 197161010 197163010 197163014 197163018 197167010 198167010 198167014 198167018 199167014 199261014 199267014 201162010 201362010 201362014 201362018 201362022 201362026 201362030 202362010 202362014 202362018 202362022 203362010 203362014 203362018 203362022 203382010 203382014 203382018 203382022 203382026 203582022 203582026 203582030 203582034 203582042 203582046 203582054 203582058 203582062 203582066 203582070 203582074 203582078 205362010 205362014 205362018 205362022 205362026 205362030 205367014 205367018 205367022 205367026 205367034 205367038 205367042 205367050 205367054 205367058 205367062 205567010 206362010 206367014 SOC Code D.O.T. Title 8250 8250 8250 8250 8250 8250 8250 8244 8241 8241 8241 8241 8241 8241 8242 8242 8242 8242 8241 8242 8241 8241 8113 8113 8113 1920 3990 1739 4622 4622 4622 4622 4622 4622 4622 4623 4623 4623 4623 4624 4649 4793 4624 4624 4699 4793 4799 4793 4793 4793 4793 4624 4793 4793 4793 4624 4793 4624 4793 4793 4624 4692 4692 4642 4692 4642 4642 4642 4782 4799 4642 4787 4645 4642 4692 4642 4642 4692 4692 4696 4696 469 Page Airplane pilot, photogrammetry................................ 210 Check pilot....................................................................... 210 Controller, remotely-piloted vehicle (rpv) ............. 210 Executive pilot................................................................ 210 Facilities-flight-check pilot........................................... 210 Helicopter pilot............................................................... 210 Test pilot........................................................................... 210 Engineer............................................................................. 442 Captain, fishing vessel.................................................... 320 Master, yacht......................................................................442 Mate, fishing vessel....................................................... 320 Mate, fishing vessel......................................................... 442 Mate, ship........................................................................ 442 Pilot, ship............................................................................442 Tugboat captain.................................................................442 Tugboat mate......................................................................442 Dredge mate..................................................................... 442 Dredge captain................................................................ 442 Ferryboat captain............................................................ 442 Master, passenger barge..................................................442 Master, riverboat..............................................................442 Mastership....................................................................... 442 Conductor, passenger car.............................................. 438 Conductor, pullman....................................................... 438 Conductor, road freight................................................. 438 Urban planner.................................................................. 110 Parking analyst................................................................. 219 Cryptanalyst..................................................................... 79 Social secretary............................................................... 276 Legal secretary................................................................ 276 Medical secretary............................................................ 276 Membership secretary.................................................. 276 School secretary............................................................. 276 Script supervisor.............................................................. 276 Secretary........................................................................... 276 Shorthand reporter........................................................... 278 Stenographer.................................................................... 278 Stenographer, print shop.............................................. 278 Stenotype operator......................................................... 278 Clerk-typist....................................................................... 282 In-file operator................................................................ 260 Terminal-system operator............................................ 412 Word-processing-machine operator........................... 282 Bordereau clerk............................................................... 282 Cancellation clerk.......................................................... 244 Magnetic-tape-composer operator............................. 412 Mortgage-processing clerk........................................... 253 Varitype operator............................................................ 412 Data typist........................................................................ 282 Data-coder operator....................................................... 282 Keypunch operator........................................................... 282 Magnetic-tape-type writer operator............................. 282 Photocomposing-perforator-machine operator....... 412 Photocomposition-keyboard operator....................... 412 Terminal operator.......................................................... 282 Transcribing-machine operator................................... 278 Typesetter-perforator operator.......................................412 Typist................................................................................. 282 Verifier operator.............................................................. 282 Electronic-typesetting-machine operator.................. 412 Notereader........................................................................ 282 Civil-service clerk.......................................................... 275 Employment clerk........................................................... 275 Hospital-admitting clerk................................................ 259 Identification clerk......................................................... 275 New-accounts clerk......................................................... 259 Outpatient-admitting clerk........................................... 259 Charge-account clerk .................................................... 259 Claims clerk II................................................................ 244 Credit clerk....................................................................... 253 Creel clerk........................................................................ 259 License clerk.................................................................... 244 Registrar........................................................................... 260 Registration clerk............................................................ 259 Supervisor, contingents................................................. 275 Survey worker................................................................ 259 Traffic checker................................................................. 259 Referral clerk, temporary-help agency..................... 275 Insurance clerk II............................................................ 275 File clerk 1........................................................................ 272 File clerk II.........................................................................272 470 Occupational Outlook Handbook d.o.t. Number soc Code D.O.T. Title 206387010 206387014 206387018 206387022 206387026 206387030 208382010 208685030 209362018 209362026 209362030 209367022 209367042 209382010 209382014 209387018 209387026 209562010 209562014 209567014 209567018 209567022 209587018 209587026 209587038 209687010 209687014 209687018 210362010 210367010 210367014 210382010 210382014 210382018 210382022 210382026 210382030 210382034 210382038 210382042 210382046 210382050 210382054 210382058 210382062 210382066 211362010 211362014 211362018 211362022 211362026 211367010 211462010 211462014 211462018 211462022 211462026 211462030 211462034 211462038 211467010 211467014 211467018 211467022 211467026 211467030 211467034 211482010 211482014 211482018 211582010 213362010 213382010 213582010 213682010 213685010 214267010 214362010 214362014 214362018 214362022 4696 4696 4696 4696 4696 4696 4793 4613 4783 4692 4630 4799 4753 4624 4799 4664 4694 4630 4744 4364 4744 4630 4744 4744 4744 4792 4742 4699 4712 4712 4712 4712 4712 4712 4718 4718 4712 4712 4712 4712 4712 4712 4712 4712 4712 4718 4364 4791 4791 4791 4791 4364 4364 4364 4364 4364 4364 4364 4364 4364 4364 4364 4364 4364 4364 4364 4364 4364 4718 4364 4364 4612 4613 4613 4613 4613 4716 4715 4715 4712 4715 Classification clerk................................................. 272 Fingerprint clerk II................................................. 272 Librarian, morgue................................................... 272 Record clerk.................................. 272 Records custodian................................................... 272 Tape librarian......................................................... 272 Terminal-makeup operator....................................... 412 Sorting-machine operator....................................... 251 Credit-reference clerk............................................. 253 Personnel clerk........................................................ 275 Congressional-district aide..................................... 256 Disbursement clerk................................................. 253 Reconsignment clerk............................................... 267 Continuity clerk....................................................... 282 Special-certificate dictator....................................... 244 Contact clerk........................................................... 274 Library clerk, talking books................................... 273 Clerk, general......................................................... 256 Trust-mail clerk...................................................... 262 Order clerk, food and beverage.............................. 227 Routing clerk.......................................................... 262 Office clerk............................................................. 256 Direct-mail clerk..................................................... 262 Mail clerk................................................................ 262 Registered-mail clerk............................................... 262 Checker II.............................................................. 255 Mail handler............................................................ 268 Reviewer................................................................. 244 Distribution-accounting clerk................................. 255 Account-information clerk..................................... 255 Foreign-exchange-position clerk............................ 255 Audit clerk.............................................................. 255 Bookkeeper 1.......................................................... 255 Bookkeeper II......................................................... 255 Bookkeeping-machine operator I........................... 255 Bookkeeping-machine operator II......................... 255 Classification-control clerk..................................... 255 Commodity-loan clerk............................................ 255 Credit-card clerk..................................................... 255 Fixed-capital clerk.................................................. 255 General-ledger bookkeeper.................................... 255 Mortgage-loan-computation clerk.......................... 255 Night auditor.......................................................... 255 Reconcilement clerk.............................................. 255 Securities clerk........................................................ 255 General accounting systems operator.................... 255 Cashier I................................................................. 227 Foreign banknote teller-trader................................ 248 Teller...................................................................... 248 Teller, collection and exchange............................. 248 Teller, note............................................................. 248 Paymaster of purses................................................ 227 Cashier II............................................................... 227 Cashier-checker...................................................... 227 Cashier-wrapper..................................................... 227 Cashier, gambling.................................................. 227 Check cashier...........................................................227 Drivers’-cash clerk...................................................227 Teller...................................................................... 227 Toll collector.......................................................... 227 Cashier, courtesy booth......................................... 227 Money counter........................................................ 227 Parimutuel-ticket cashier........................................ 227 Parimutuel-ticket seller.......................................... 227 Sheet writer............................................................. 227 Ticket seller........................................................... 227 Change person....................................................... 227 Cashier, tube room................................................. 227 Food checker.......................................................... 255 Food-and-beverage checker.................................... 255 Food tabulator, cafeteria........................................ 255 Computer operator................................................. 251 Computer-peripheral-equipment operator.............. 251 Digitizer operator................................................... 251 Tabulating-machine operator................................. 251 Auxiliary-equipment operator, data processing ... 251 Rate analyst, freight.............................................. 255 Demurrage clerk..................................................... 255 Documentation-billing clerk.................................. 255 Fee clerk................................................................. 255 Insurance clerk....................................................... 255 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Page D.O.T. Number SOC Code D.O.T. Title 214362026 214362030 214362034 214362038 214362042 214382010 214382014 214382018 214382022 214382022 214382026 214382030 214387010 214387014 214387018 214462010 214467010 214467014 214482010 214482014 214482018 214482022 214582010 214587010 214587014 215167010 215362018 215367018 215367022 215382010 215482010 215563010 216362010 216362014 216362018 216362022 216362026 216362034 216367010 216382010 216382014 216382018 216382022 216382026 216382030 216382034 216382038 216382042 216382046 216382050 216382054 216382058 216382070 216382074 216387010 216482010 216482014 216482018 216482022 216482026 216482030 216587010 216587014 217382010 219362010 219362018 219362022 219362026 219362034 219362038 219362042 219362050 219362054 219362058 219362062 219362066 219367014 219367018 219367022 219367030 219367034 4715 4644 4783 4716 4715 4715 4715 4715 4716 4716 4716 4716 4715 4716 4716 4718 4716 4716 4718 4715 4716 4716 4718 4716 4753 4751 4713 4751 4713 4713 4713 4745 4712 4712 4791 4712 4712 4712 4712 4712 4712 4712 4712 4712 4712 4716 4712 4699 4699 4716 4716 4712 4712 4712 4712 4712 4718 4718 4718 4712 4363 4712 4712 4793 4630 4699 4630 4630 4699 4799 4699 4699 4699 4699 4712 4712 4699 4754 4753 4753 4754 Page Invoice-control clerk...................................................... 255 Rate clerk, passenger.................................................... 261 Tariff inspector............................................................... 244 Traffic-rate clerk.............................................................. 255 Billing clerk..................................................................... 255 Account analyst............................................................... 255 Billing typist.................................................................... 255 C.O.D. clerk.................................................................... 255 Interline clerk.................................................................. 255 Interline clerk.................................................................... 255 Revising clerk.................................................................. 255 Settlement clerk............................................................... 255 Billing-control clerk....................................................... 255 Rate reviewer.................................................................. 255 Services clerk.................................................................. 255 Accounts-adjustable clerk............................................. 255 Foreign clerk.................................................................... 255 Pricer, message and delivery service....................... 255 Billing-machine operator.............................................. 255 Deposit-refund clerk...................................................... 255 Medical-voucher clerk................................................... 255 Rater................................................................................... 255 Invoicing systems operator......................................... 255 Telegraph-service rater................................................. 255 Traffic clerk..................................................................... 267 Car clerk, pullman......................................................... 265 Flight-crew-time clerk................................................... 256 Taxicab coordinator....................................................... 265 Timekeeper...................................................................... 256 Payroll clerk, data processing..................................... 256 Payroll clerk..................................................................... 256 Caller................................................................................... 262 Bond clerk........................................................................ 255 Collection clerk............................................................... 255 Exchange clerk................................................................. 248 Food-and-beverage controller..................................... 255 Mortgage-accounting clerk........................................... 255 Reserves clerk.................................................................. 255 Check-processing clerk II............................................ 255 Accounting clerk, data processing............................... 255 Advice clerk....................................................................... 255 Balance clerk..................................................................... 255 Budget clerk..................................................................... 255 Clearing-house clerk...................................................... 255 Collateral-and-safekeeping clerk.................................. 255 Cost clerk......................................................................... 255 Interest clerk................................................................... 255 Margin clerk 1.................................................................. 272 Margin clerk II................................................................ 272 Policy-value calculator................................................. 255 Receipt-and-report clerk............................................... 255 Retumed-item clerk....................................................... 255 Stock-transfer clerk....................................................... 255 Trust-savings-account clerk........................................... 255 Check-processing clerk 1.............................................. 255 Accounting clerk............................................................ 255 Adding-machine operator............................................ 255 Audit-machine operator............................................... 255 Calculating-machine operator..................................... 255 Dividend-deposit-voucher clerk.................................. 255 Laundry pricing clerk.................................................... 228 Booking clerk.................................................................. 255 Posting clerk................................................................... 255 Proof-machine operator................................................. 255 Administrative clerk..................................................... 256 Brokerage clerk II.......................................................... 272 Clerk, telegraph service............................................... 256 Contract clerk, automobile........................................... 256 Insurance clerk 1............................................................. 244 Mortgage-closing clerk................................................. 253 Policy-change clerk....................................................... 244 Revival clerk................................................................... 244 Securities clerk................................................................ 272 Statement clerk.................................................................272 Trust-securities clerk..................................................... 255 Voucher clerk.................................................................. 255 Insurance clerk II............................................................ 244 Merchandise distributor............................................... 266 Paper-control clerk........................................................ 267 Shipping-order clerk...................................................... 267 Stock-control clerk...........................................................266 Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage d.o.t. Number soc Code D.O.T. Title 219367042 219387018 219387026 219462010 219482010 219482014 219487010 219587010 221362014 221362018 221367014 221367022 221367070 221367082 221387022 221482014 221484010 221587018 221587022 221687014 222167010 222367014 222367022 222367026 222367038 222367042 222367050 222367062 222367066 222387014 222387018 222387022 222387026 222387030 222387034 222387038 222387042 222387050 222387054 222387058 222387062 222387070 222485010 222487010 222487014 222567010 222567014 222567018 222587010 4712 4712 4754 4791 4699 4699 4712 4712 4751 4752 4752 4753 4751 4751 4752 4752 4752 4754 4754 4753 4754 4754 4744 4754 4754 4754 4754 4754 4753 4753 4754 4753 4754 4754 4754 4744 4754 4753 4753 4754 4754 4754 4753 4754 4754 4753 4753 4744 4753 222587014 222587018 222587022 222587030 222587032 222587034 222587054 222587058 222684010 222687022 222687022 222687030 222687038 222687046 229367010 229367014 229587014 230363010 230367010 230367014 230647010 230667010 235222010 235462010 235562014 235662014 235662018 235662022 235662026 236252010 237267010 4694 4753 4754 4744 4744 4753 4754 4753 4754 4753 4753 4753 4754 4754 4754 4754 4754 4743 4743 4745 4745 4745 2390 4732 4732 4732 4732 4732 4732 4152 4649 Canceling-and-cutting control clerk............................255 Letter-of-credit clerk..................................................... 255 Space-and-storage clerk............................................... 266 Coupon clerk................................................................... 248 Brokerage clerk I........................................................... 272 Insurance checker.......................................................... 244 Tax clerk 1........................................................................ 255 Parimutuel-ticket checker............................................ 255 Dispatcher, relay........................................................... 265 Estimator, paperboard boxes...................................... 23 Estimator, printing........................................................ 23 Industrial-order clerk..................................................... 267 Service clerk................................................................... 265 Work-order-sorting clerk............................................. 265 Estimator, jewelry.......................................................... 23 Lumber estimator........................................................... 23 Yardage estimator.......................................................... 23 Odd-piece checker.......................................................... 266 Outsole scheduler........................................................... 266 Ticket puller.................................................................... 267 Metal-control coordinator............................................ 266 Cut-file clerk................................................................... 266 Express clerk..................................................................... 262 Film-or-tape librarian................................................... 266 Magazine keeper............................................................. 266 Parts clerk........................................................................ 266 Prescription clerk, lens-and-frames........................... 266 Tool-crib attendant........................................................ 266 Truckload checker.......................................................... 267 Car checker...................................................................... 267 Fuel-oil clerk................................................................... 266 Gun-repair clerk............................................................. 267 Inventory clerk................................................................ 266 Linen-room attendant................................................... 266 Material clerk................................................................. 266 Parcel-post clerk............................................................. 262 Property custodian.......................................................... 266 Shipping and receiving clerk...................................... 267 Sorter-pricer...................................................................... 267 Stock clerk........................................................................ 266 Storekeeper...................................................................... 266 Type-library clerk............................................................266 Milk-receiver, tank truck............................................. 267 Checker, bakery products..............................................266 Order filler....................................................................... 266 Grain elevator clerk....................................................... 267 Ship runner...................................................................... 267 Slot-tag inserter................................................................ 262 Aircraft-equipment-and-accessories assembler...................................................................267 Braille-and-talking books clerk................................. 273 Distributing clerk........................................................... 267 Kitchen clerk................................................................... 266 Mailer............................................................................... 262 Mailer apprentice............................................................. 262 Route-delivery clerk.......................................................267 Transformer-stock clerk............................................... 266 Vault worker.....................................................................267 Meat clerk....................................................................... 266 Routing clerk.....................................................................267 Routing clerk................................................................... 267 Shipping checker........................................................... 267 Tooth clerk...................................................................... 266 Protective-clothing issuer..............................................266 Field recorder................................................................. 266 Parts lister....................................................................... 266 Quality-control clerk.......................................................266 Rural mail carrier........................................................... 268 Mail carrier...................................................................... 268 Messenger, bank............................................................ 262 Singing messenger........................................................ 262 Deliverer, outside......................................................... 262 Private-branch-exchange service adviser................ 125 Central-office operator.................................................. 280 Switchboard operator, police district........................ 280 Communication-center operator................................. 280 Directory-assistance operator..................................... 280 Telephone operator........................................................ 280 Telephone-answering-service operator..................... 280 Representative, personal service............................... 240 Information clerk, automobile club......................... 260 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Page D.O.T. Number SOC Code D.O.T. Title 237367010 237367014 237367018 237367022 237367026 237367038 237367042 237367046 237367050 238167010 238167014 238362010 238362014 238367010 238367014 238367018 238367022 238367026 238367030 238367034 239137010 239167014 239227010 239267010 239362010 239367014 239367018 239367022 239367030 239567010 239677010 239687010 239687014 241217010 241217010 241267010 241267014 241267018 241267026 241267030 241267030 241267034 241357010 241362010 241367010 241367014 241367022 241367026 241367030 241367034 241367038 241387010 243362014 243367010 243367014 245362014 245367010 245367014 245367018 245367026 248362010 248367014 248367022 248367026 248367030 248382010 249167014 249262010 249362010 249363010 249365010 249366010 249367010 249367014 249367022 249367030 249367034 249367038 249367042 249367046 249367050 4645 4783 4649 4645 4799 4645 4649 4649 4649 4644 4644 4643 4644 4644 4644 4644 4649 4644 4644 4649 1283 4751 2390 4122 4745 4751 4742 4751 4751 4745 4745 4745 4745 4782 4782 4692 4782 4782 4716 4783 4783 4783 4786 4782 4786 4783 4786 4783 4783 4783 4783 4783 4630 4744 4742 4630 4630 4630 4630 4664 4753 4753 4753 4751 4745 4644 4751 4649 4363 4694 4694 4363 4630 4630 4799 4787 4716 4712 4664 4694 4699 471 Page Appointment clerk................................................... 260 Call-out operator...................................................... 253 Information clerk..................................................... 260 Information clerk..................................................... 260 Land-leasing examiner............................................. 260 Receptionist............................................................. 260 Referral-and-information aide................................. 260 Telephone-quotation clerk ...................................... 260 Tourist-information assistant................................... 260 Travel clerk.............................................................. 261 Travel counselor, automobile club..........................261 Hotel clerk............................................................... 259 Reservation clerk..................................................... 261 Gate agent............................................................... 261 Reservation clerk..................................................... 261 Reservations agent....................................................261 Space scheduler....................................................... 260 Ticket agent............................................................ 261 Travel clerk.............................................................. 261 Scheduler................................................................. 260 Commercial-instructor supervisor........................... 25 Dispatcher............................................................... 265 Customer-service-representative instructor............ 125 Placer....................................................................... 230 Telephone clerk, telegraph office........................... 262 Dispatcher, maintenance service............................ 265 Mail-distribution-scheme examiner.......................... 268 Receiver-dispatcher................................................. 265 Dispatcher, street department................................ 265 Office helper........................................................... 262 Messenger, copy...................................................... 262 Route aide............................................................... 262 Tube operator.......................................................... 262 Claim adjuster.......................................................... 244 Claim adjuster.......................................................... 244 Agent-contract clerk............................................... 275 Appraiser, automobile damage............................... 244 Claim examiner....................................................... 244 Deposit clerk........................................................... 255 Investigator.............................................................. 244 Investigator.............................................................. 253 Investigator, utility-bill complaints........................ 244 Collection clerk....................................................... 244 Claims clerk 1.......................................................... 244 Collector.................................................................. 244 Customer-complaint clerk....................................... 244 Repossessor.............................................................. 244 Skip tracer............................................................... 244 Throw-out clerk....................................................... 244 Tire adjuster............................................................ 244 Investigator, dealer accounts.................................. 244 Claims clerk............................................................ 244 Police aide............................................................... 256 Mail censor.............................................................. 262 Post-office clerk...................................................... 268 Ward clerk............................................................... 256 Animal-hospital clerk.............................................. 256 Blood-donor-unit assistant...................................... 256 Calendar-control clerk, blood bank....................... 256 Order-control clerk, blood bank............................ 274 Incoming-freight clerk.............................................. 267 Booking clerk.......................................................... 267 Container coordinator.............................................. 267 Dispatcher, ship pilot............................................... 265 Waterway traffic checker........................................ 262 Ticketing clerk........................................................ 261 Dispatcher, motor vehicle....................................... 265 Policyholder-information clerk............................... 260 Counter clerk........................................................... 228 Bookmobile driver.................................................. 273 Registration clerk...................................................... 273 Counter clerk........................................................... 228 Animal-shelter clerk............................................... 256 Career-guidance technician.................................... 256 Credit authorizer...................................................... 253 Dog licenser............................................................ 244 Evaluator.................................................................. 255 Foreclosure clerk, motion-picture loans................ 255 Gas-distribution-and-emergency clerk .................. 274 Library assistant...................................................... 273 Loan closer............................................................... 253 472 Occupational Outlook Handbook D.O.T. Number SOC Code 249367054 249367058 249367070 249367074 249367082 249367090 249382010 249387018 249467010 249687010 249687014 250157010 250257010 250357010 250357014 250357018 250357018 250357022 251157010 251157014 251257010 251257014 4664 4754 4751 4795 4645 4692 4799 4783 4364 4744 4694 4123 4122 4123 4123 4123 4123 4152 4124 4152 4124 4152 251257018 251257022 251357010 251357014 251357018 251357022 251357026 252157010 252257010 252357010 252357014 253157010 253257010 253357010 254251010 254257Q10 254357010 254357014 254357018 254357022 259157010 4152 4100 4152 4152 4152 4152 4152 4369 4152 4152 4152 4152 4152 4152 4153 4153 4153 4153 4152 4153 4369 259157014 259257010 259257018 4152 4369 4152 259257022 259357010 259357014 259357018 259357022 259357026 4152 4369 4369 4153 4369 4348 259357030 259357034 269357018 273357014 279357042 292353010 292363010 292463010 292483010 292667010 293137010 293157010 293357010 293357014 293357022 294567010 295357010 295357014 295357018 295367010 295367014 295367018 295367026 295467010 295467014 4152 4369 4153 4369 4369 8218 8218 8218 8218 8218 4369 4369 4369 4369 4369 4364 4363 4363 4363 4363 4363 4664 4363 4363 4363 D.O.T. Title Page Order clerk............................................................. 274 Parts-order-and-stock clerk.................................... 266 Routing clerk........................................................... 265 Teacher aide II........................................................ 279 Park aide................................................................. 260 Assignment clerk.................................................... 275 Mortgage clerk........................................................ 253 Pedigree tracer........................................................ 244 Information clerk-cashier........................................ 227 Office copy selector................................................ 262 Page......................................................................... 273 Superintendent, sales............................................. 234 Sales agent, insurance............................................ 230 Building consultant................................................. 234 Leasing agent, residence........................................ 234 Sales agent, real estate........................................... 234 Sales agent, real estate........................................... 234 Sales representative................................................ 240 Sales agent, securities............................................ 238 Sales representative, data-processing services.......240 Sales agent, financial services................................ 238 Sales agent, psychological tests and industrial relations............................................................. 240 Sales representative, travelers’ checks................... 240 Financial planner.................................................... 238 Sales agent, business services.................................. 240 Sales agent, financial-report service....................... 240 Sales agent, pest control service............................ 240 Sales representative, franchise............................... 240 Sales representative, herbicide service................... 240 Travel agent............................................................ 242 Traffic agent............................................................ 240 Crating-and-moving estimator................................ 240 Sales representative, shipping services....................240 Communications consultant.................................... 240 Sales representative, telephone services................ 240 Sales representative, public utilities....................... 240 Sales representative, graphic art............................ 240 Sales representative, signs and displays................ 240 Leasing agent, outdoor advertising........................ 240 Sales representative, advertising............................ 240 Sales representative, printing................................. 240 Sales representative, signs..................................... 240 Sales representative, audiovisual program productions........................................................ 240 Sales representative, hotel services........................ 240 Sales representative, education courses.................. 240 Service representative, elevators, escalators, and dumbwaiters................................................ 240 Sales representative, security systems................... 240 Group-sales representative..................................... 240 Sales representative, dancing instructions............. 240 Sales representative, radio and television time ... 240 Sales representative, television cable service........ 240 Sales representative, upholstery and furniture repair................................................... 240 Sales representative, weather-forecasting service. 240 Ticket broker.......................................................... 240 Sales-promotion representative............................... 240 Sales representative, automotive-leasing............... 240 Salesperson, burial needs....................................... 240 Driver, sales route ................................................. 440 Newspaper-delivery driver..................................... 440 Lunch-truck driver................................................. 440 Coin collector......................................................... 440 Driver helper, sales route....................................... 440 Supervisor, blood-donor recruiters........................ 240 Fund raiser 1............................................................ 240 Blood-donor recruiter............................................. 240 Fund raiser II ......................................................... 240 Membership solicitor............................................. 240 Auction clerk.......................................................... 227 Apparel-rental clerk................................................ 228 Tool-and-equipment-rental clerk............................ 228 Furniture-rental consultant..................................... 228 Airplane-charter clerk............................................. 228 Baby-stroller and wheelchair rental clerk............. 228 Film-rental clerk..................................................... 274 Storage-facility rental clerk.................................... 228 Bicycle-rental clerk................................................ 228 Boat-rental clerk..................................................... 228 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis D.O.T. Number SOC Code D.O.T. Title 295467018 295467022 295477010 299367014 299367018 299474010 299677014 309354010 310137010 310357010 311472010 311477010 311477014 311477018 311477022 311477026 311477030 311477034 311477038 311674010 311674014 311674018 311677010 311677014 311677018 312474010 312477010 312677010 312687010 313281010 313361010 313361014 313361018 313361022 313361026 313361030 313361034 313361038 313381010 313381014 313381018 313381022 313381026 313381030 313381034 313671010 313684010 313687010 315361010 315361014 315361018 315361022 315371010 315381010 315381014 315381018 315381022 315381026 316661010 316681010 316684010 316684014 316684018 316684022 317384010 317684010 317684014 317684018 317687010 318687010 318687014 318687018 319137014 319137018 319464014 319474010 319484010 319687010 320137010 320137014 323687010 4363 4363 4363 4362 4363 4490 4362 5263 5211 5213 5216 5216 5216 5213 5213 5213 5213 5216 5216 5216 5217 5213 5218 5216 5218 5212 5212 5212 5218 5214 5214 5214 5214 5215 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5215 5219 5219 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5217 6871 5217 5217 6871 6871 5217 5217 5217 5217 5219 5219 5219 5219 1351 1351 5219 5216 5219 5218 1351 1351 5242 Hospital-television-rental clerk.................................... 228 Trailer-rental clerk ......................................................... 228 Automobile-rental clerk................................................ 228 Stock clerk, self-service store....................................... 266 Watch-and-clock-repair clerk...................................... 228 Optician, dispensing II................................................. 191 Sales attendant, building materials............................ 266 Homemaker....................................................................... 313 Host/hostess, restaurant................................................ 296 Wine steward/stewardess.............................................. 296 Fast-foods worker.............................................................296 Carhop...............................................................................296 Counter attendant, lunchroom or coffee shop........296 Waiter/waitress, bar....................................................... 296 Waiter/waitress, dining car......................................... 296 Waiter/waitress, formal................................................. 296 Waiter/waitress, informal............................................ 296 Waiter/waitress, room service..................................... 296 Waiter/waitress, take out................................................ 296 Canteen operator............................................................... 296 Raw shellfish preparer.....................................................294 Waiter/waitress, buffet................................................. 296 Cafeteria attendant......................................................... 296 Counter attendant, cafeteria........................................ 296 Dining room attendant.....................................................296 Bartender............................................................................. 296 Bar attendant......................................................................296 Taproom attendant......................................................... 296 Bartender helper............................................................. 296 Chef de froid................................................................... 294 Baker, second.................................................................. 294 Cook................................................................................... 294 Cook apprentice............................................................. 294 Cook, short order 1....................................................... 294 Cook, specialty............................................................... 294 Cook, specialty, foreign food..................................... 294 Garde manger.................................................................. 294 Pie maker.......................................................................... 294 Baker................................................................................. 294 Baker, pizza..................................................................... 294 Cook apprentice, pastry............................................... 294 Cook, barbecue............................................................... 294 Cook, pastry..................................................................... 294 Cook, school cafeteria.................................................... 294 Ice-cream chef................................................................ 294 Cook, short order II......................................................... 294 Baker helper.......................................................................294 Cook helper, pastry....................................................... 294 Cook.................................................................................. 294 Cook, pastry, psychiatric hospital............................... 294 Cook, psychiatric hospital........................................... 294 Cook, station................................................................... 294 Cook, mess...................................................................... 294 Cook.................................................................................. 294 Cook, larder..................................................................... 294 Cook, railroad.................................................................. 294 Cook, third...................................................................... 294 Second cook and baker................................................. 294 Carver............................................................................... 294 Butcher, meat.................................................................. 389 Butcher, chicken and fish.............................................. 294 Deli cutter-slicer............................................................. 294 Meat cutter...................................................................... 389 Meat-cutter apprentice.................................................. 389 Salad maker..................................................................... 294 Coffee maker................................................................... 294 Pantry goods maker....................................................... 294 Sandwich maker......... ................................................... 294 Cook helper..................................................................... 294 Kitchen helper................................................................ 294 Scullion............................................................................ 294 Silver wrapper................................................................ 294 Manager, flight kitchen................................................. 56 Manager, industrial cafeteria...................................... 56 Vending-machine attendant......................................... 360 Fountain server............................................................... 296 Food assembler, kitchen.............................................. 294 Counter-supply worker...................................................296 Manager, boarding house............................................ 38 Manager, lodging facilities......................................... 38 Cleaner, hospital............................................................. 315 Page Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage Number d.o.t. soc Code D.O.T. Title 323687014 323687018 330371010 330371014 331674010 331674014 332271010 332271010 332271014 332271018 332361010 333071010 333271010 339361010 339371010 339371014 339687010 350677010 350677026 350677030 352167010 352367010 352677018 354374010 354377010 354377014 354677010 355377014 355377018 355667010 355674010 355674014 355674018 355674026 355677010 355687010 358687010 359677010 359677018 359677026 365361010 365361014 369367010 369367014 369477014 369677010 372137010 372167010 372167018 372363010 372367010 372367014 372563010 372567010 372567014 372667010 372667014 372667018 372667030 372667034 372667038 372677010 373134010 373167010 373167014 373167018 373267010 373267014 373267018 373363010 373364010 373367010 373663010 375133010 375137010 375137014 375137018 375137026 375137030 375137034 375163010 5242 5242 5252 5252 5253 5253 5253 5253 5253 5253 5253 5253 5253 5253 5253 5253 4754 5213 5213 5213 2033 5257 5213 3660 5236 5236 5236 5236 5233 5233 5264 5236 5236 5236 5216 4754 5244 5264 5264 5264 6854 6854 4363 4363 4363 4363 5112 4751 5112 5132 5132 5133 5144 5144 5133 5144 5144 5133 5144 5144 5144 5133 5111 5111 5111 5111 5122 5122 5122 5123 5123 5122 5123 5112 5112 5112 5112 5112 5112 5112 5112 Cleaner, housekeeping.................................................. 315 Housecleaner................................................................... 315 Barber................................................................ 306 Barber apprentice........................................................... 306 Manicurist........................................................................ 308 Fingernail former........................................................... 308 Cosmetologist................................................................. 308 Cosmetologist....................................................................308 Cosmetologist apprentice............................................. 308 Hairstylist........................................................................ 308 Wig dresser...................................................................... 308 Make-up artist................................................................. 308 Body-make-up artist..................................................... 308 Mortuary beautician....................................................... 308 Electrologist.......................................................................308 Scalp-treatment operator............................................. 308 Supply clerk.................................................................... 266 Mess attendant................................................................ 296 Steward/stewardess, wine............................................ 296 Waiter/waitress................................................................ 296 Director, social.............................................................. 118 Airplane-flight attendant............................................... 310 Waiter/waitress, club.................................................... 296 Nurse, practical.............................................................. 302 Birth attendant................................................................ 302 Home attendant.............................................................. 313 First-aid attendant.......................................................... 302 Psychiatric aide.............................................................. 302 Mental-retardation aide................................................ 302 Morgue attendant........................................................... 300 Child-care attendant, school....................................... 307 Nurse aide........................................................................ 302 Orderly.............................................................................. 302 Geriatric nurse assistant............................................... 302 Food-service worker, hospital.................................... 296 Clothes-room worker.................................................... 266 Change-house attendant............................................... 315 Attendant, children’s institution................................ 307 Nursery school attendant............................................. 307 Playroom attendant........................................................ 307 Luggage repairer............................................................. 420 Shoe repairer................................................................... 420 Fur-storage clerk............................................................. 228 Rug measurer................................................................. 228 Service-establishment attendant................................... 228 Self-service-laundry-and-dry-cleaning attendant .. 228 Correction officer, head............................................... 290 Dispatcher, security guard.......................................... 265 Jailer, chief...................................................................... 290 Protective officer........................................................... 290 Community service officer, patrol............................. 290 Jailer.................................................................................. 285 Armored-car guard and driver.................................... 288 Armored-car guard........................................................ 288 Guard, immigration....................................................... 285 Airline security representative...................................... 288 Bodyguard ................................................................ 288 Correction officer........................................................... 285 Gate tender...................................................................... 288 Guard, security.............................................................. 288 Merchant patroller.......................................................... 288 Patrol conductor............................................................. 285 Fire captain...................................................................... 286 Battalion chief................................................................ 286 Captain, fire-prevention bureau................................. 286 Fire marshal.................................................................... 286 Fire inspector................................................................... 286 Fire marshal.................................................................... 286 Fire-investigation lieutenant....................................... 286 Fire chief’s aide............................................................. 286 Fire fighter........................................................................ 286 Fire inspector................................................................... 286 Fire fighter, crash, fire, and rescue.......................... 286 Police sergeant, precinct I.......................................... 290 Commander, identification and records.................... 290 Desk officer.................................................................... 290 Police lieutenant, community relations.................... 290 Traffic sergeant.............................................................. 290 Commander, police reserves...................................... 290 Commanding officer, police officer III.................... 290 Commanding officer, motorized squad................... 290 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Page D.O.T. Number SOC Code D.O.T. Title 375163014 375167010 375167014 375167022 375167030 375167034 375167038 375167042 375167046 375167050 375167054 375227010 375263010 375263014 375263018 375264010 375267010 375267014 375267018 375267022 375267026 375267030 375267034 375267038 375267042 375362010 375363010 375367010 375367014 375367018 375384010 376667010 377134010 377137010 377137014 5132 5112 5112 5112 5112 5112 5112 5132 5112 5112 5132 2249 5132 5132 5132 5132 5132 5132 5132 5132 5132 5132 1473 5132 5132 4630 5132 5133 5132 5132 5132 5144 5112 5112 5112 377137018 377167010 377264010 379162010 379263014 379362010 379362018 379667010 379687010 381687010 381687014 381687018 381687022 381687026 381687030 381687034 382664010 389664010 389667010 389683010 389687014 401161010 402161010 403161010 403161014 404161010 405161010 405161014 405161018 405361010 406381010 406683010 406684010 406684014 406684018 406687010 407161010 408161010 408664010 408667010 408684010 408687014 410161010 410161014 410161018 5112 5112 5132 4751 5149 4751 4751 5144 5122 4754 5244 5244 5244 5244 5244 5244 5244 5244 5244 5244 5244 5513 5513 5513 5513 5513 5515 5515 5515 5515 5622 5622 5622 5622 5622 5622 5512 5622 5730 5730 5622 5622 5514 5514 5514 473 Puge Pilot, highway patrol .............................................. 290 Commanding officer, homicide squad................... 290 Commanding officer, investigation division......... 290 Detective chief........................................................ 290 Launch commander, harbor police........................ 290 Police captain, precinct........................................... 290 Police lieutenant, patrol.......................................... 290 Special agent........................................................... 290 Traffic lieutenant.................................................... 290 Commander, internal affairs................................... 290 Police academy program coordinator.................... 290 Police-academy instructor....................................... 125 Accident-prevention-squad police officer............... 290 Police officer I........................................................ 290 State-highway police officer................................... 290 Police officer, crime prevention ............................ 290 Detective.................................................................. 290 Detective, narcotics and vice................................... 290 Investigator, narcotics.............................................. 290 Investigator, vice.................................................... 290 Police inspector 1..................................................... 290 Police inspector II................................................... 290 Investigator, internal affairs................................... 290 Police officer III...................................................... 290 Police officer, safety instruction............................ 290 Police clerk.............................................................. 256 Border guard........................................................... 290 Police officer II....................................................... 285 Complaint evaluation officer.................................. 290 Police officer, booking........................................... 290 Police officer, identification and records............... 290 Bouncer................................................................... 288 Supervisor, identification and communications ... 290 Deputy sheriff, commander, civil division ........... 290 Deputy sheriff, commander, criminal and patrol division............................................ 290 Deputy, court.......................................................... 290 Deputy sheriff, chief............................................... 290 Identification officer................................................ 290 Alarm operator......................................................... 265 Public-safety officer................................................ 290 Dispatcher, radio.................................................... 265 Telecommunicator................................................... 265 Golf-course ranger.................................................. 288 Fire-extinguisher-sprinkler inspector...................... 286 Central-supply worker............................................ 266 Cleaner, commercial or institutional..................... 315 Cleaner, industrial................................................... 315 Cleaner, laboratory equipment............................... 315 Cleaner, wall........................................................... 315 Patch worker........................................................... 315 Waxer, floor............................................................. 315 Janitor...................................................................... 315 Cleaner, home restoration service.......................... 315 Sexton...................................................................... 315 Sweeper-cleaner, industrial.................................... 315 Cleaner, window.................................................... 315 Farmer, cash grain.................................................. 318 Farmer, vegetable................................................... 318 Farmer, tree-fruit-and-nut crops............................ 318 Farmer, vine-fruit crops.......................................... 318 Farmer, field crop................................................... 318 Bonsai culturist....................................................... 318 Horticultural-specialty grower, field ...................... 318 Horticultural-specialty grower, inside.................... 318 Plant propagator...................................................... 318 Gardener, special effects and instruction models . 311 Greenskeeper II....................................................... 311 Cemetery worker.................................................... 311 Groundskeeper, industrial-commercial................... 311 Garden worker........................................................ 311 Groundskeeper, parks and grounds........................ 311 Farmer, diversified crops........................................ 318 Landscape gardener................................................ 311 Tree trimmer........................................................... 323 Tree-trimmer helper................................................ 323 Lawn-service worker............................................... 311 Laborer, landscape.................................................. 311 Animal breeder....................................................... 318 Fur farmer............................................................... 318 Livestock rancher.................................................... 318 474 Occupational Outlook Handbook D.O.T. Number SOC Code D.O.T. Title 410674010 410674022 411161010 411161014 411161018 412161010 412674010 412674014 413161010 413161014 413161018 418381010 418674010 418677010 421161010 441683010 441684010 441684014 441684018 441684022 442684010 443664010 443684010 446161010 446161014 447684010 447687010 447687014 447687018 447687022 447687026 449664010 449667010 449674010 449687010 452134010 452167010 452364014 452367010 452367014 452687014 454384010 454683010 454684010 454684014 454684018 454684022 454684026 454687010 454687014 455664010 455684010 455687010 459387010 459687010 461134010 461661010 461664010 461684010 461684014 461684018 502664014 512362010 512362014 512362018 512382010 512662010 512685010 512685022 514684010 514684014 514684022 522264010 525361010 525381010 525381014 525664010 525684010 525684014 525684018 525684022 5624 5624 5514 5514 5514 5514 5624 5624 5514 5514 5514 5624 5624 5624 5512 5830 5830 5830 5830 5830 5830 5830 5830 5514 5514 5830 5830 5830 5830 5830 5830 5830 5830 5624 5830 5111 5122 5123 5122 5122 5123 5730 8318 5730 5730 5730 5730 5730 5730 5730 5790 5790 5790 5790 5730 5840 5840 5840 5840 5840 5840 7754 7544 7544 7544 7544 7544 7544 7544 7754 7754 7754 2390 6871 6871 6871 6871 7753 7753 7753 7753 Page Animal caretaker.................................................... 304 Stable attendant....................................................... 304 Canary breeder........................................................ 318 Poultry breeder........................................................ 318 Poultry farmer.......................................................... 318 Game-bird farmer................................................... 318 Animal keeper........................................................ 304 Animal-nursery worker........................................... 304 Beekeeper................................................................ 318 Reptile farmer......................................................... 318 Worm grower.......................................................... 318 Horseshoer............................................................... 304 Dog groomer........................................................... 304 Dog bather............................................................... 304 Farmer, general....................................................... 318 Skiff operator.......................................................... 320 Fisher, net............................................................... 320 Fisher, pot............................................................... 320 Fisher, terrapin........................................................ 320 Fisher, weir.............................................................. 320 Fisher, line.............................................................. 320 Fisher, diving......................................................... 320 Fisher, spear............................................................ 320 Fish farmer.............................................................. 318 Shellfish grower...................................................... 318 Sponge hooker........................................................ 320 Dulser..................................................................... 320 Irish-moss bleacher.................................................. 320 Irish-moss gatherer.................................................. 320 Kelp cutter............................................................... 320 Sponge clipper........................................................ 320 Net repairer.............................................................. 320 Deckhand, fishing vessel........................................ 320 Aquarist................................................................... 304 Oyster floater........................................................... 320 Smoke jumper supervisor....................................... 286 Fire warden............................................................. 286 Smoke jumper......................................................... 286 Fire lookout............................................................ 286 Fire ranger............................................................... 286 Forest-firefighter......................................................286 Faller I.................................................................... 323 Tree-shear operator................................................. 323 Bucker..................................................................... 323 Faller II.................................................................. 323 Logger, all-round.................................................... 323 River........................................................................ 323 Tree cutter.............................................................. 323 Chainsaw operator................................................... 323 Laborer, tanbark..................................................... 323 Rafter....................................................................... 323 Log sorter................................................................ 323 Log marker............................................................. 323 Cruiser..................................................................... 323 Laborer, brush clearing........................................... 323 Expedition supervisor............................................. 320 Predatory-animal hunter......................................... 320 Underwater hunter-trapper..................................... 320 Sealer...................................................................... 320 Trapper, animal...................................................... 320 Trapper, bird.......................................................... 320 Steel pourer............................................................ 399 First helper............................................................. 399 Furnace operator..................................................... 399 Furnace operator..................................................... 399 Oxygen-furnace operator........................................ 399 Cupola tender......................................................... 399 Furnace tender........................................................ 399 Reclamation kettle tender, metal........................... 399 Caster...................................................................... 399 Ladle pourer............................................................ 399 Pourer, metal.......................................................... 399 Training technician................................................. 125 Shactor.................................................................... 389 Butcher apprentice................................................. 389 Butcher, all-round................................................... 389 Meat dresser............................................................ 389 Boner, meat............................................................ 389 Butcher, fish............................................................ 389 Carcass splitter........................................................ 389 Crab butcher............................................................ 389 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis D.O.T. Number SOC Code D.O.T. Title 525684026 525684030 525684034 525684038 525684042 525684046 525684050 525684054 525684058 525687010 525687066 525687074 553684010 553685014 553685114 556380010 556382014 556385010 556665010 556665014 556665018 556682014 556685022 556685038 556685082 556685086 556685090 579137030 600260018 600280022 600280026 600280030 600280034 600280038 600280042 600281010 600380010 600380014 601280010 601280014 601280018 601280022 601280030 601280034 601280042 601280046 601280050 601280058 601281010 601281014 601281026 601380010 601381010 601381014 601381022 601381026 601381030 601381034 601381042 604362010 605360010 605380010 606362010 606382014 609662010 613362010 613462014 613667010 614684010 617280010 619682022 620261010 620261012 620261022 620261030 620261034 620281010 620281026 620281034 620281038 620281042 7753 7753 7753 7753 6871 7753 7753 7753 7753 6871 7753 7753 7714 7544 7675 7342 7342 7542 7542 7542 7542 7342 7542 7542 7542 7542 7542 4630 6817 6813 6813 6813 6813 6813 6813 6813 6813 7329 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 7326 7326 7326 7326 7326 7326 7544 7544 7714 7532 7326 7544 6111 6111 6117 6111 6111 6111 6111 6111 6111 6117 Page Final-dressing cutter............................................... 389 Fish cleaner............................................................. 389 Head trimmer........................................ 389 Offal separator........................................................ 389 Poultry killer........................................................... 389 Skinner.................................................................... 389 Sticker, animal........................................................ 389 Trimmer, meat........................................................ 389 Turkey-roll maker.................................................. 389 Animal eviscerator................................................. 389 Poultry boner........................................................... 389 Poultry eviscerator................................................. 389 Heat welder, plastics............................................... 404 Bagger..................................................................... 399 Cadmium burner................................................. 399 Mold setter............................................................. 398 Injection-molding-machine operator...................... 398 Centrifugal-casting-machine tender........................ 398 Cake-press operator................................................ 398 Corrugator operator................................................ 398 Molder, pipe covering............................................ 398 Compression-molding-machine operator.............. 398 Compression-molding-machine tender.................. 398 Injection-molding-machine tender......................... 398 Vacuum plastic-forming-machine operator............ 398 Blow-molding-machine tender.............................. 398 Centrifugal-casting-machine tender........................ 398 Dispatcher, concrete products................................. 256 Model maker, firearms.......................................... 394 Machinist................................................................ 394 Machinist apprentice.............................................. 394 Machinist apprentice, automotive......................... 394 Machinist, automotive............................................ 394 Machinist, experimental......................................... 394 Maintenance machinist.......................................... 394 Fluid-power mechanic............................................ 394 Fixture maker...........................................................394 Job setter................................................................. 398 Die maker, stamping ............................................. 402 Die maker, trim ..................................................... 402 Die maker, wire drawing........................................402 Die sinker................................................................ 402 Mold maker, die-casting and plastic molding...... 402 Tap-and-die-maker technician................................. 402 Toolmaker...............................................................402 Tool-and-die maker................................................. 402 Tool-and-die-maker apprentice.............................. 229 Tool-maker apprentice............................................. 402 Die maker, bench, stamping...................................402 Die-try-out worker, stamping ................................. 402 Tool maker, bench...................................................402 Carbide operator.......................................................402 Die finisher...............................................................402 Die maker............................................................... 402 Die-maker apprentice...............................................402 Plastic tool maker.................................................. 402 Plastic-fixture builder...............................................402 Saw maker.............................................................. 402 Die maker, electronic...............................................402 Lathe operator, numerical control......................... 401 Router set-up operator, numerical control........... 401 Milling-machine operator, numerical control....... 401 Drill-press operator, numerical control................. 401 Jig-boring machine operator, numerical control .. 401 Numerical-control-machine operator...................... 401 Heater..................................................................... 399 Furnace operator..................................................... 399 Liner assembler...................................................... 404 Billet assembler...................................................... 404 Shot-peening operator, tape control...................... 401 Heater..................................................................... 399 Automobile mechanic............................................. 329 Automobile-mechanic apprentice.......................... 329 Construction-equipment mechanic......................... 353 Automobile-service-station mechanic................... 329 Automotive-cooling-system diagnostic technician 329 Air-conditioning mechanic..................................... 329 Brake repairer......................................................... 329 Carburetor mechanic.............................................. 329 Front-end mechanic............................................... 329 Logging-equipment mechanic............................... 353 Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage dot. Number 620281046 620281046 620281050 620281054 620281058 620281062 620281066 620281070 620364010 620381010 620381014 620381022 620684018 620684022 620684026 620684034 621221010 621261018 621281010 621281014 621281018 621281022 621281026 621381010 621381014 621684014 623261010 623261014 623281038 623281042 624281010 624281014 624361014 624381010 624381014 624381018 624684010 625261010 625281010 625281014 625281018 625281022 625281026 625281030 625281034 625361010 625381010 629281018 633261010 633281010 633281014 633281018 633281022 633281030 637261010 637261014 637261018 637261026 637261030 637261034 637381010 637381014 638261010 638261014 638261018 638261026 638261026 638281010 638281018 638281022 639281014 640682018 640685010 641682014 649685066 649685090 650582010 650582014 650582018 650582022 650682010 soc Code 6111 6111 6112 6114 6112 6111 6111 6111 6115 6111 6117 6111 6111 6111 6114 6115 2390 8250 6116 6116 6116 6116 6113 6116 6116 6116 6114 6114 6114 6114 6118 6118 6118 6118 6118 6118 6118 6112 6112 6112 6114 6111 6114 6114 6114 6112 6114 6118 6154 6174 6174 6174 6174 6174 6156 6160 6179 6160 6160 6160 6160 6160 6178 6178 6178 6178 6178 6179 6178 6178 6179 7478 7678 7474 7679 7679 7642 7642 7642 7642 7642 D.O.T. Title Page Maintenance mechanic.......................................... 337 Maintenance mechanic.......................................... 337 Mechanic, industrial truck.................................... 337 Motorcycle repairer............................................... 355 Tractor mechanic................................................... 337 Transmission mechanic.......................................... 329 Tune-up mechanic.................................................. 329 Vehicle-fuel-systems converter.............................. 329 Squeak, rattle, and leak repairer............................. 327 Automobile-radiator mechanic.............................. 329 Mechanic, endless track vehicle........................... 353 Repairer, heavy...................................................... 329 Brake adjuster......................................................... 329 Clutch rebuilder...................................................... 329 Motorcycle subassembly repairer.......................... 355 Used-car renovator.................................................. 327 Field-service representative................................... 125 Flight engineer......................................................... 210 Air-conditioning check-out mechanic................... 326 Airframe-and-power-plant mechanic..................... 326 Airframe-and-power-plant-mechanicapprentice... 326 Experimental mechanic II...................................... 326 Mechanic, field and service.................................. 326 Flight-test shop mechanic...................................... 326 Mechanic, aircraft accessories.............................. 326 Reclamation worker................................................ 326 Experimental mechanic, outboard motors............. 355 Outboard-motor tester........................................... 355 Motorboat mechanic.............................................. 355 Outboard-motor mechanic ..................................... 355 Farm-equipment mechanic I.................................. 342 Farm-equipment-mechanic apprentice.................. 342 Sprinkler-irrigation-equipment mechanic.............. 342 Assembly repairer.................................................. 342 Farm-equipment mechanic II................................. 342 Farm-machinery set-up mechanic.......................... 342 Greaser................................................................... 342 Diesel-engine tester............................................... 337 Diesel mechanic.......................................................337 Diesel-mechanic apprentice................................... 337 Engine repairer, service......................................... 355 Fuel-injection servicer........................................... 337 Gas-engine repairer................................................ 355 Power-saw mechanic.............................................. 355 Small-engine mechanic.......................................... 355 Diesel-engine erector............................................. 337 Engine repairer, production..................................... 355 Dairy-equipment repairer....................................... 342 Assembly technician.............................................. 335 Cash-register servicer............................................. 335 Dictating-transcribing-machine servicer............... 335 Office-machine servicer......................................... 335 Office-machine-servicer apprentice....................... 335 Statistical-machine servicer................................... 335 Air-conditioning installer-servicer,window unit.. 347 Environmental-control-system installer-servicer... 345 Gas-appliance servicer........................................... 347 Refrigeration mechanic.......................................... 345 Solar-energy-system installer................................. 345 Air and hydronic balancing technician................. 345 Evaporative-cooler installer................................... 345 Refrigeration unit repairer..................................... 345 Automated equipment engineer-technician........... 352 Machinery erector.................................................. 352 Manufacturer’s service representative.................... 352 Field service technician......................................... 331 Field service technician......................................... 352 Fire-fighting-equipment specialist......................... 344 Millwright.............................................................. 352 Millwright apprentice............................................. 352 Coin-machine-service repairer............................... 360 Cutting-machine operator...................................... 411 Book trimmer......................................................... 411 Gluing-machine operator, automatic..................... 411 Layboy tender......................................................... 411 Perforating-machine operator................................. 411 Linotype operator.................................................... 412 Monotype-keyboard operator................................. 412 Photocomposing-machine operator........................ 412 Phototypesetter operator......................................... 412 Equipment monitor, phototypesetting.................... 412 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis D.O.T. Number 650685010 652585010 652665014 652685022 652685086 652685106 653360010 653360014 653360018 653380010 653382010 653562010 653585010 653662010 653680010 653682010 653682014 653682018 653682022 653685010 653685014 653685018 653685022 653685026 653685030 653686010 653686014 653686018 653686022 653686026 653687010 659462010 659686010 669687022 683222010 689222010 690685090 692685146 693281026 700281010 700281014 700281022 700381030 700381042 700381046 706381010 706381030 706381046 709684046 709684086 711381010 712281010 712381014 712381018 712381022 712381026 712381030 713261010 713261014 713361010 713361014 713381010 713681010 714281018 715221010 716280008 716280010 716280014 716381014 716382010 716382014 716382018 716382022 716462010 716681010 716681018 716682018 720281010 720281014 720281018 721281010 SOC Code D.O.T. Title 7642 7642 7644 7644 7644 7642 7449 7449 7449 7449 7649 7449 7649 7449 7449 7449 7649 7449 7449 7649 7649 7661 7649 7649 7649 8725 8725 8725 8725 8725 7820 4664 8725 5790 2390 2390 7542 7679 6813 6822 6822 6822 6822 6822 6822 6174 6174 6111 6412 7714 6864 6865 6865 6865 6865 6865 6865 6864 6864 6864 6864 6864 6864 6813 2390 6864 6864 6864 6864 6864 6864 6864 6864 6864 6864 6864 6864 6155 6155 6155 6111 475 Page Typesetting-machine tender.................................... 412 Photolettering-machine operator............................ 412 Strickler attendant................................................... 414 Cutting-and-printing-machine operator................. 414 Stencil-machine operator........................................ 414 Type-proof reproducer............................................ 412 Casing-in-line setter................................................ 411 Folding-machine setter........................................... 411 Gathering-machine setter..........................................411 Perfect-binder setter..................................................411 Folding-machine operator....................................... 411 Side-stitching-machine operator............................. 411 Collating-machine operator......................................411 Saddle-stitching-machine operator......................... 411 Stitching-machine setter......................................... 411 Book-sewing-machine operator II......................... 411 Covering-machine operator......................................411 Head-bander-and-liner operator............................... 411 Tinning-machine set-up operator............................ 411 Bindery worker....................................................... 411 Book-sewing-machine operator I............................ 411 Case-making-machine operator............................... 411 Magazine repairer.................................................... 411 Rounding-and-backing-machine operator.............. 411 Spiral binder............................................................ 411 Casing-in-line feeder................................................ 411 Folding-machine feeder........................................... 411 Gathering-machine feeder....................................... 411 Perfect-binder feeder-offbearer................................ 411 Stitching-machine feeder-offbearer..........................411 Collator.................................................................... 411 Electrotype servicer................................................ 274 Jogger....................................................................... 411 Picker....................................................................... 323 Instructor, weaving................................................. 125 Instructor................................................................. 125 Contact-lens molder..................................................226 Saddle-and-side wire stitcher................................. 411 Rocket-engine mechanic........................................ 394 Jeweler.................................................................... 392 Jeweler apprentice................................................... 392 Silversmith............................................................... 392 Locket maker........................................................... 392 Ring maker............................................................. 392 Sample maker 1....................................................... 392 Aliner, typewriter................................................... 335 Repairer, typewriter................................................ 335 Wheelwright............................................................ 329 Hot-top liner............................................................ 362 Torch-straightener-and heater................................ 404 Optical-instrument assembler................................. 428 Dental ceramist.........................................................427 Contour wire specialist, denture..............................427 Dental-laboratory technician................................... 427 Dental-laboratory-technician apprentice................ 427 Orthodontic gold-band maker................................ 427 Orthodontic technician............................................ 427 Artificial-glass-eye maker....................................... 428 Artificial-plastic-eye maker......................................428 Optician apprentice, dispensing............................. 191 Optician, dispensing I............................................ 191 Lens-mold setter..................................................... 428 Lens mounter II ..................................................... 428 Machinist, motion-picture equipment.................... 394 Instructor, watch assembly.................................... 125 Optician................................................................... 428 Optician apprentice................................................. 428 Optician.................................................................... 428 Lay-out technician................................................... 428 Lathe operator, contact lens................................... 428 Optical-element coater..............................................428 Precision-lens grinder............................................. 428 Precision-lens-grinder apprentice........................... 428 Precision-lens centerer and edger........................... 428 Blocker and cutter, contact lens............................ 428 Lens polisher, hand................................................ 428 Precision-lens polisher..............................................428 Radio repairer......................................................... 339 Tape-recorder repairer............................................ 339 Television-and-radio repairer................................. 339 Automotive generator and starter repairer............. 329 476 Occupational Outlook Handbook d.o.t. Number Code soc D.O.T. Title 721281022 722281010 723381010 723381014 723584010 726261010 726281010 726361022 726364014 726381014 726381014 726381014 726684090 727662010 727684022 729281010 729281022 729381018 730281014 730281018 730281026 730281038 730281050 730281054 730361010 730361014 730381010 730381026 730381034 730381038 730381042 730381058 730681010 730684022 730684026 730684094 739381018 739381022 739687198 740221010 761281014 779684058 780381010 780381014 780381018 780381022 780381026 780381030 780681010 780684122 781381018 783361010 783381018 783381022 783381026 788222010 788261010 788381010 788381014 789222010 794687026 795684010 795684022 795687010 801361014 801361018 801361022 801381010 801684026 804281010 804281014 805261010 805261014 805361010 805361014 805381010 806227010 806281038 806361026 806381062 806381062 6114 6151 6156 6156 6156 3711 3711 6867 3720 6151 6151 6151 6153 7332 7714 6155 6156 6432 6172 6155 6172 6172 6172 6172 6172 6172 6172 6172 6172 6172 6172 6172 6172 6172 6172 6172 6811 6811 5244 2390 6839 6413 6853 6853 6853 6853 6853 6854 6853 6853 6854 6854 6854 6854 6854 2390 6854 6854 6854 2390 7740 7759 7759 7661 6473 6473 6473 6473 6473 6824 6824 6814 6814 6814 6814 6814 2390 6116 6111 6432 6450 Magneto repairer.................................................... 355 Instrument repairer.................................................. 333 Electrical-appliance repairer................................... 347 Vacuum cleaner repairer........................................ 347 Appliance repairer................................................... 347 Electronics assembler, developmental ................... 219 Electrician, research................................................ 219 Repairer, probe test card, semiconductor wafers . 331 Test fixture designer............................................... 217 Production repairer.................................................. 331 Production repairer.................................................. 333 Production repairer.................................................. 339 Reworker, printed circuit board ............................ 331 Lead burner, machine..............................................404 Lead burner............................................................. 404 Audio-video repairer............................................... 339 Electric-tool repairer............................................... 347 Street-light repairer................................................. 369 Accordion repairer................................................. 357 Electric-organ inspector and repairer..................... 339 Fretted-instrument repairer..................................... 357 Piano technician...................................................... 357 Violin repairer......................................................... 357 Wind-instrument repairer......................................... 357 Piano tuner............................................................. 357 Pipe-organ tuner and repairer................................ 357 Accordion tuner....................................................... 357 Harp regulator.......................................................... 357 Metal-reed tuner...................................................... 357 Organ-pipe voicer................................................... 357 Percussion-instrument repairer............................... 357 Tuner, percussion................................................... 357 Piano regulator-inspector......................................... 357 Bow rehairer........................................................... 357 Chip tuner............................................................... 357 Tone regulator........................................................ 357 Die maker.................................................................. 229 Die-maker apprentice.............................................. 402 Venetian-blind cleaner and repairer....................... 315 Instructor, decorating.............................................. 125 Experimental-box tester.......................................... 219 Stone repairer.......................................................... 362 Automobile upholsterer........................................... 424 Automobile-upholsterer apprentice......................... 424 Furniture upholsterer............................................... 424 Furniture-upholsterer apprentice............................ 424 Hearse upholsterer................................................... 424 Pad hand................................................................. 420 Upholsterer, inside.................................................. 424 Upholstery repairer.................................................. 424 Leather stamper.........................................................420 Custom-leather-products maker............................... 420 Harness maker........................................................ 420 Luggage maker....................................................... 420 Saddle maker........................................................... 420 Instructor................................................................. 125 Orthopedic-boot-and-shoe designer and maker..., 420 Cobbler.................................................................... 420 Shoemaker, custom................................................ 420 Instructor, apparel manufacture.............................. 125 Forwarder........................................ 411 Caser.................................... 411 Tipper..................................................................... 411 Coverer, looseleaf binder....................................... 411 Structural-steel worker............................................ 383 Structural-steel-worker apprentice.......................... 383 Tank setter.............................................................. 383 Assembler, metal building..................................... 383 Reinforcing-metal worker....................................... 383 Sheet-metal worker................................................. 381 Sheet-metal-worker apprentice............................... 381 Boilermaker apprentice........................................... 391 Boilermaker I......................................................... 391 Boilerhouse mechanic ............................................ 391 Boilermaker fitter.................................................... 391 Boilermaker II........................................................ 391 Instructor, rocket-motor case assembly................. 125 Mechanic, aircraft rigging andcontrols................. 326 New-car get-ready mechanic................................. 329 Installer, electrical, plumbing,mechanical ............ 369 Installer, electrical, plumbing,mechanical ............ 377 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Page D.O.T. Number SOC Code D.O.T. Title 806684038 806684110 807261010 807267010 807281010 807281014 807361010 807381010 807381014 807381018 807381022 807381030 807484010 807664010 807684010 807684018 807684022 810382010 810384010 810384014 810664010 810684010 811482010 811684010 811684014 812360010 812682010 813684010 814382010 814682010 814684010 815380010 815382010 815382014 815682010 815682014 816364010 816464010 816684010 819281010 819281014 819281022 819361010 819361014 819381010 819384008 819384010 819684010 819685010 820662010 821261010 821261014 821261022 821261026 821281010 821361010 821361018 821361022 821361026 821361030 821361038 821684022 821687010 822261010 822261022 822281010 822281014 822281018 822281022 822281026 822281030 822281034 822361014 822361018 822361022 822381010 822381014 822381018 822381022 822684010 823261010 6111 6116 6116 6115 6115 6115 6115 6115 6116 6115 6115 6115 6115 6111 6115 6116 6111 7332 7714 7714 7714 7714 7332 7714 7714 7332 7332 7714 7532 7532 7532 7332 7332 7532 7532 7532 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 7532 6932 6157 6157 6433 6433 6157 6433 6433 6433 6433 6433 6433 6433 6433 6151 6158 6151 6151 6158 6151 6151 6151 6151 6151 6432 6432 6151 6157 6151 6151 6151 6151 Automobile-accessories installer............................. 329 Pressure sealer-and-tester....................................... 326 Aircraft body repairer............................................. 326 Shop estimator......................................................... 327 Truck-bodybuilder.................................................... 327 Truck-body-builder apprentice.............................. 327 Automobile-body customizer.................................. 327 Automobile-body repairer....................................... 327 Bonded structures repairer..................................... 326 Frame repairer......................................................... 327 Service mechanic.................................................... 327 Auto-body repairer, fiberglass................................ 327 Frame straightener................................................... 327 Muffler installer...................................................... 329 Automobile-bumper straightener............................ 327 Burnisher and bumper............................................ 326 Floor service worker, spring ................................. 329 Welding-machine operator, arc............................. 404 Welder apprentice, arc................... 404 Welder, arc............................................................. 404 Welder, gun.............................................. 404 Welder, tack............................................................ 404 Welding-machine operator, gas............................. 404 Welder apprentice, gas.......................................... 404 Welder, gas.............................................................. 404 Welder setter, resistance machine.........................404 Welding-machine operator, resistance.................. 404 Brazer, assembler................................................... 404 Welding-machine operator, friction...................... 404 Welding-machine operator, ultrasonic.................. 404 Welder, explosion................................................... 404 Welder setter, electron-beam machine................... 404 Welding-machine operator, electron beam..............404 Welding-machine operator, electroslag................... 404 Laser-beam-machine operator................................ 404 Welding-machine operator, thermit....................... 404 Arc cutter................................................................ 404 Thermal cutter, hand 1............................................ 404 Thermal cutter, hand II..................................... 404 Lead burner............................................................. 404 Lead-burner apprentice........................................... 404 Welder, experimental............................................. 404 Welder-fitter............................................................ 404 Welder-fitter apprentice..........................................404 Welder-assembler....................................................404 Welder apprentice, combination............................ 404 Welder, combination.............................................. 404 Welder, production line......................................... 404 Welding-machine tender........................................404 Motor-room controller............................................ 406 Community-antenna-television line technician .... 350 Line maintainer...................................................... 350 Service restorer, emergency.................................. 350 Trouble shooter II.................................................. 350 Television-cable installer........................................ 350 Cable installer-repairer.......................................... 350 Line erector............................................................. 350 Line installer, street railway................................... 350 Line repairer............................................................ 350 Line-erector apprentice.......................................... 350 Tower erector......................................................... 350 Trolley-wire installer.............................................. 350 Steel-post installer.................................................. 350 Electrician, office.................................................... 333 Station installer-and-repairer.................................. 358 Automatic-equipment technician............................ 333 Central-office repairer............................................ 333 Maintenance mechanic, telephone......................... 358 Private-branch-exchange repairer.......................... 333 Signal maintainer.................................................... 333 Technician, plant and maintenance........................ 333 Technician, submarine cable equipment................ 333 Central-office installer............................................ 333 Protective-signal installer...................................... 369 Protective-signal repairer........................................ 369 Equipment installer................................................. 333 Line installer-repairer............................................. 350 Private-branch-exchange installer.......................... 333 Telegraph-plant maintainer................................... 333 Frame wirer............................................................ 333 Public-address servicer.......................................... 333 Page Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage D.O.T. Number SOC Code D.O.T. Title 823261014 823261018 823261022 823281010 823281014 823281022 823361010 824261010 824261014 824281010 824281018 824381010 824681010 825261010 825261014 825281030 825281034 825361010 825381014 825381030 825381034 827261010 827261014 827361014 827464010 827661010 828251010 828261010 828261014 828261014 828261018 828281010 828281010 828281014 828281014 828281022 829261018 829281022 829361010 829361014 840381010 840381014 840381018 840681010 840684010 841381010 842361010 842361014 842361018 842361022 842361026 842381010 842381014 842664010 842681010 844364010 844364014 844461010 844684010 845381018 845681010 850387010 850467010 850663018 860281010 860281014 860381010 860381014 860381018 860381022 860381026 860381030 860381034 860381038 860381042 860381046 860381050 860381054 860381058 860381062 860381066 6433 6151 6151 6151 6151 6151 6155 6432 6432 6432 6432 6432 6432 6151 6176 6176 6176 6176 6111 6432 6432 6156 6156 6160 6156 6156 6153 6155 6153 6153 3711 6153 6153 6153 6153 6153 6153 6151 6433 6433 6442 6442 6442 6442 6442 6443 6424 6424 6444 6444 6444 6424 6444 6424 6424 6463 6463 6463 6463 6115 6442 1472 1472 8239 6422 6422 6422 6422 6422 6422 6422 6422 6422 6422 6422 6422 6422 6422 6422 6422 6422 Radio interference investigator............................ . Radio mechanic.................................................... . Antenna installer, satellite communications ....... . Avionics technician............................................. . Electrician, radio................................................. . Rigger.................................................................. . Television installer.............................................. . Electrician ............................................................ . Electrician apprentice.......................................... . Airport electrician................................................ . Neon-sign servicer.............................................. . Street-light servicer............................................. . Electrician............................................................ . Electric-track-switch maintainer......................... . Elevator examiner-and-adjuster.......................... . Elevator repairer.................................................. . Elevator-repairer apprentice................................ . Elevator constructor............................................. . Automatic-window-seat-and-top-lift repairer..... . Electrician ............................................................ . Electrician apprentice.......................................... . Electrical-appliance servicer................................ . Electrical-appliance-servicer apprentice............. . Refrigeration mechanic....................................... . Air-conditioning installer, domestic.................... . Household-appliance installer............................. . Electronic-sales-and-service technician.............. . Electronic-organ technician................................. . Field engineer...................................................... . Field engineer...................................................... . Senior technician, controls.................................. . Electronics mechanic .......................................... . Electronics mechanic .......................................... . Electronics-mechanic apprentice......................... Electronics-mechanic apprentice......................... . Radioactivity-instrument maintenance technician . Electrician, maintenance..................................... . Sound technician................................................. . Cable splicer........................................................ . Cable-splicer apprentice...................................... . Painter.................................................................. . Painter apprentice, shipyard................................ . Painter, shipyard.................................................. . Painter, stage settings.......................................... . Glass tinter.......................................................... . Paperhanger ......................................................... . Lather.................................................................... . Lather apprentice................................................. . Plasterer................................................................ . Plasterer apprentice............................................. . Plasterer, molding................................................ . Dry-wall applicator.............................................. . Stucco mason...................................................... . Taper.................................................................... . Dry-wall applicator.............................................. . Cement mason..................................................... . Cement-mason apprentice.................................... . Concrete-stone finisher........................................ . Concrete rubber.................................................... . Paint sprayer, sandblaster.................................... . Railroad-car letterer............................................. . Inspector of dredging.......................................... . Grade checker...................................................... . Lock tender II...................................................... . Carpenter, maintenance...................................... . Carpenter, ship..................................................... . Acoustical carpenter............................................ . Boatbuilder apprentice, wood............................. . Boatbuilder, wood................................................ . Carpenter.............................................................. . Carpenter apprentice............................................ . Carpenter, bridge................................................. . Carpenter, mold.................................................. . Carpenter, railcar................................................. . Carpenter, rough.................................................. . Form builder........................................................ . Joiner .................................................................... , Joiner apprentice.................................................. , Shipwright............................................................ . Shipwright apprentice.......................................... . Tank builder and erector..................................... . https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Page 350 333 333 333 333 333 339 369 369 369 369 369 369 333 341 341 341 341 329 369 369 347 347 345 347 347 331 339 331 335 219 331 335 331 335 331 369 333 350 350 373 373 373 373 373 373 367 367 375 375 375 367 375 367 367 366 366 366 366 327 373 19 19 438 363 363 363 363 363 363 363 363 363 363 363 363 363 363 363 363 363 477 D.O.T. Number SOC Code D.O.T. Title 860381070 861361010 861361014 861381010 861381014 861381018 861381022 861381026 861381030 861381038 861381042 861381046 861381050 861381054 861381058 861684010 861684014 861684018 862261010 862281010 862281014 862281018 862281022 862361010 862361014 862361018 862361022 862381014 862381022 862381026 862381030 862381034 862681010 862682010 862684034 863364010 863364014 863381010 863381014 863664010 863685010 864381010 865361010 865381010 865381014 865684010 866381010 866381014 866684010 869281010 869361018 869381010 869381034 869684046 869684050 891687010 891687018 899261014 899364010 899381010 900683010 902683010 903683010 903683014 903683018 904383010 904683010 905483010 905663010 905663014 905663018 905663018 905683010 906683010 906683014 906683018 906683022 909663010 909663010 909663010 910167014 6422 6413 6413 6412 6412 6412 6412 6412 6413 6413 6413 6463 6463 6414 6414 6412 6412 6414 6450 6450 6450 6160 6450 6160 6450 6450 6450 6450 6450 6450 6450 6450 6450 6450 6450 6465 6465 6465 6465 6465 6465 6462 6464 6464 6464 6115 6468 6468 6468 6160 6422 6422 6422 6560 6424 5244 5244 6100 6412 6179 8213 8213 8213 8213 8213 8212 8212 8213 8213 8213 8212 8212 8213 8214 8214 8214 8214 8219 8219 8219 4751 Tank erector........................................................... 363 Composition-stone applicator................................ 362 Monument setter.................................................... 362 Acid-tank liner....................................................... 362 Bricklayer............................................................... 362 Bricklayer............................................................... 362 Bricklayer apprentice............................................ 362 Bricklayer, firebrick and refractory tile................ 362 Marble setter.......................................................... 362 Stonemason............................................................ 362 Stonemason apprentice.......................................... 362 Terrazzo worker.................................................... 366 Terrazzo-worker apprentice................................... 366 Tile setter............................................................... 384 Tile setter apprentice ............................................ 384 Cupola patcher....................................................... 362 Patcher................................................................... 362 Tile setter............................................................... 384 Pipe fitter............................................................... 377 Coppersmith........................................................... 377 Coppersmith apprentice........................................ 377 Oil-bumer-servicer-and-installer........................... 345 Pipe fitter............................................................... 377 Furnace installer.................................................... 345 Gas-main fitter....................................................... 377 Pipe fitter, diesel engine 1 .................................... 377 Steam service inspector........................................ 377 Industrial-gas fitter................................................ 377 Pipe fitter, diesel engine II................................... 377 Pipe-fitter apprentice.............................................. 377 Plumber.................................................................. 377 Plumber apprentice................................................ 377 Plumber.................................................................. 377 Pipe cutter.............................................................. 377 Water-softener servicer-and-installer.................... 377 Insulation-worker apprentice................................ 372 Insulation worker................................................... 372 Cork insulator, refrigeration plant........................ 372 Pipe coverer and insulator.................................... 372 Blower insulator..................................................... 372 Insulation-power-unit tender.................................. 372 Carpet layer........................................................... 365 Mirror installer....................................................... 371 Glazier..................................................................... 371 Glazier apprentice.................................................. 371 Glass installer.......................................................... 327 Roofer..................................................................... 378 Roofer apprentice................................................... 378 Roofer applicator................................................... 378 Furnace installer-and-repairer, hot air.................. 345 Sign erector-and-repairer....................................... 363 House repairer....................................................... 363 Timber framer.......................................................... 363 Roustabout.............................................................. 379 Sheetrock applicator.............................................. 367 Chimney sweep...................................................... 315 Project-crew worker............................................... 315 Maintenance repairer, industrial........................... 344 Chimney repairer................................................... 362 Maintenance repairer, building.............................. 344 Concrete-mixing-truck driver................................ 440 Dump-truck driver.................................................. 440 Explosives-truck driver.......................................... 440 Powder-truck driver............................................... 440 Tank-truck driver................................................... 440 Tractor-trailer-truck driver.................................... 440 Log-truck driver..................................................... 440 Milk driver............................................................. 440 Garbage collector driver........................................ 440 Truck driver, heavy............................................... 440 Van driver.............................................................. 440 Van driver................................................................250 Water-truck driver II.............................................. 440 Food-service driver................................................. 440 Liquid-fertilizer servicer........................................ 440 Telephone-directory-distributor driver................... 440 Truck driver, light ................................................. 440 Hostler.......................................................................434 Hostler..................................................................... 440 Hostler..................................................................... 440 Train dispatcher, assistant chief........................... 265 Page 478 Occupational Outlook Handbook D.O.T. Number 910362010 910363010 910363014 910363018 910364010 910367010 910367018 910367022 910382010 910583010 910664010 910667026 910683010 910683014 910683022 911131010 911133010 911137010 911137014 911167010 911263010 911363010 911363014 911364010 911584010 911664010 911664014 911687022 911687030 913167010 913363010 913367010 913463010 913463010 913463014 913663014 913663018 914167014 919162010 919223010 919663014 919663018 919663022 919663026 919683018 919683026 919687010 921364010 921664014 921667014 921687014 921687030 922687082 929683010 932167010 932664010 939362010 939687018 950362014 950382010 950382018 950382026 950382030 951685018 952167010 952167014 952362010 952362014 952362018 952362022 952362026 952362030 952362034 952362038 952362042 952364010 952367014 952381010 952382010 952382014 952382018 SOC Code D.O.T. Title 8239 8232 8232 8232 8233 8233 4751 8233 8239 8233 8233 8233 8232 8232 8239 7100 8241 8242 8242 4751 8242 8242 8243 8243 8243 8242 8243 8243 8243 4751 8215 4751 8215 8215 8232 8215 8215 4751 4751 2390 8232 8213 8214 8213 8239 8239 4753 5790 6177 5790 5790 5790 5790 8318 4751 8233 4751 8769 6931 6931 6931 6931 6931 7668 4751 6932 6932 6932 6932 6932 6932 6932 6932 6932 6932 6432 6932 6432 6932 6932 6932 Page Tower operator....................................................... 438 Firer, locomotive................................................... 438 Locomotive engineer.............................................. 438 Yard engineer......................................................... 438 Braker, passenger train.......................................... 438 Brake coupler, road freight.................................... 438 Engine dispatcher................................................... 265 Locomotive operator helper.................................. 438 Car-retarder operator.............................................. 438 Laborer, car bam...................................................... 438 Yard coupler.......................................................... 438 Switch tender.......................................................... 438 Hostler..................................................................... 438 Motor operator....................................................... 438 Transfer-table operator............................................438 Boatswain................................................................. 442 Cadet, deck............................................................. 442 Barge captain............................................................442 Derrick-boat captain.............................................. 442 Dispatcher, tugboat................................................ 265 Deep submergence vehicle operator........................442 Ferryboat operator.................................................. 442 Quartermaster........................................................... 442 Able seaman............................................................ 442 Marine oiler............................................................ 442 Ferryboat operator, cable.........................................442 Sailor, pleasure craft............................................... 442 Deckhand..................................................................442 Ordinary seaman....................................................... 442 Bus dispatcher, interstate....................................... 251 Bus driver, day-haul or farm charter..................... 434 Taxicab starter........................................................ 265 Bus driver................................................................ 434 Bus driver................................................................ 434 Streetcar operator......................................................438 Mobile-lounge driver............................................... 434 Driver....................................................................... 440 Dispatcher, oil........................................................ 265 Dispatcher, traffic or system................................... 265 Instructor, bus, trolley, and taxi............................ 125 Dinkey operator...................................................... 438 Driver-utility worker.............................................. 440 Escort-vehicle driver.............................................. 440 Tow-truck operator...................................................440 Rail-tractor operator................................................ 438 Trackmobile operator...............................................438 Checker.................................................................. 267 Rigging slinger........................................................ 323 Rigger.......................................................................323 Chaser..................................................................... 323 Choke setter............................................................ 323 Rigger, third............................................................. 323 Pulp piler............................................................... 323 Logging-tractor operator........................................ 323 Dispatcher.............................................................. 265 Brake holder...................... 438 Dispatcher, oil well services................................. 265 Laborer................................................................... 379 Refrigerating engineer............................................ 407 Boiler operator........................................................ 407 Gas-engine operator............................................... 407 Stationary engineer................................................. 407 Stationary-engineer apprentice.............................. 407 Firer, marine.......................................................... 442 Dispatcher, service or work.................................. 265 Load dispatcher...................................................... 406 Auxiliary-equipment operator................................ 406 Feeder-switchboard operator.................................. 406 Hydroelectric-station operator............................... 406 Power-reactor operator.......................................... 406 Substation operator...................................................406 Substation operator apprentice................................406 Switchboard operator.............................................. 406 Switchboard operator.............................................. 406 Turbine operator...................................................... 406 Trouble shooter I................................................... 369 Switchboard operator assistant................................406 Switch inspector..................................................... 369 Diesel-plant operator.............................................. 406 Power operator....................................................... 406 Power-plant operator.............................................. 406 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis D.O.T. Number SOC Code D.O.T. Title 952687010 953167010 953583010 954367010 954382010 954382014 955167010 955222010 955362010 955382010 955382014 955585010 959167010 959367010 961364010 962167010 962167018 962281010 962361010 962382010 962382014 969367010 970131014 970281010 970281018 970281026 970281026 970361014 970361018 970381010 970381030 970381034 971261010 971381010 971381014 971381018 971381022 971381026 971381030 971381034 971381038 971381040 971381050 971381054 971382014 971382018 971685010 972281010 972281014 972281018 972282010 972282014 972381010 972381014 972381018 972381022 972381026 972382010 972382014 972382018 973381010 973381014 973381018 973381022 973381026 973381030 976361010 976380010 5244 4751 8213 4751 6910 6910 4751 6910 6910 6910 6910 6910 4751 6433 3240 3719 3240 6422 6868 3719 3719 4754 3250 6868 6868 6863 6868 6863 3250 6868 6842 6868 6823 6842 6842 7644 6842 6842 6842 6842 6842 6842 6842 6842 7444 7644 7644 6842 6842 6842 7444 7444 6842 6842 6862 6868 6842 7444 7444 6842 6841 6841 6841 6841 6841 6841 6868 7671 976381010 976381018 976382014 976382018 976665010 976681010 976682010 976682014 976682018 976684014 976684014 976685014 6868 6868 7671 7671 7671 6868 7671 7671 7671 7671 7671 7671 Page Hydroelectric-plant maintainer................................ 315 Gas dispatcher......................................................... 265 Drip pumper............................................................. 440 Water-service dispatcher......................................... 265 Pump-station operator, waterworks ...................... 409 Water-treatment-plant operator............................... 409 Dispatcher, radioactive-waste-disposal.................. 265 Instructor, wastewater-treatmentplant.................... 125 Wastewater-treatment-plant operator........................233 Clarifying-plant operator......................................... 409 Waste-treatment operator......................................... 409 Wastewater-treatment-plant attendant...................... 409 Dispatcher, service.................................................. 265 Electric powerline examiner.................................... 350 Double...................................................................... 182 Manager, sound effects........................................... 214 Property coordinator................................................ 182 Prop maker.............................................................. 363 Optical-effects layout person....................................432 Recordist.................................................................. 219 Sound cutter............................................................. 219 Custodian, athletic equipment.................................. 266 Supervisor, artist, suspect...................................... 180 Airbrush artist.......................................................... 432 Photograph retoucher.............................................. 432 Sketch maker, photoengraving............................... 414 Sketchmaker, photoengraving................................. 414 Repeat chief............................................................. 414 Artist, suspect.......................................................... 180 Colorist, photography.............................................. 432 Retoucher, photoengraving..................................... 414 Spotter, photographic.............................................. 432 Etcher, hand.............................................................. 414 Etcher apprentice, photoengraving.......................... 414 Etcher, photoengraving........................................... 414 Offset-plate maker................................................... 414 Photoengraver.......................................................... 414 Photoengraver apprentice....................................... 414 Photoengraving finisher.......................................... 414 Photoengraving printer........................................... 414 Photoengraving proofer........................................... 414 Photoengraving-proofer apprentice........................ 414 Stripper.................................................................... 414 Stripper apprentice.................................................. 414 Photographer, photoengraving............................... 414 Repeat-photocomposing-machine operator............ 414 Roller-print tender.....................................................414 Process artist........................................................... 414 Process stripper....................................................... 414 Process-artist apprentice......................................... 414 Scanner operator...................................................... 414 Laser-beam-color-scanner operator........................ 414 Lithographic plate maker..........................................414 Lithographic-plate-maker apprentice..................... 414 Sketch maker II.........................................................414 Stripper, photolithographic......................................414 Transferrer................................................................ 414 Photographer apprentice, lithographic.................... 414 Photographer, lithographic..................................... 414 Photo mask maker, electron-beam..........................414 Compositor............................................................... 412 Compositor apprentice............................................ 412 Job printer.............................................................. 412 Job-printer apprentice............................................. 412 Make-up arranger.................................................... 412 Proofsheet corrector................................................ 412 Reproduction technician......................................... 432 Computer-controlled-color-photograph-printer operator............................................................. 432 Film laboratory technician I................................... 432 Projection printer.................................................... 432 Color-printer operator...............................................432 Film developer........................................................ 432 Take-down sorter.................................................... 432 Developer..................................................................432 Film printer............................................................. 432 Printer operator, black-and-white.......................... 432 Rectification printer................................................ 432 Film laboratory technician.......................................432 Film laboratory technician.......................................432 Developer, automatic...............................................432 Dictionary of Occupational Titles Coverage D.O.T. Number 976685018 976685022 976685026 976685030 976687018 977381010 977381014 977684010 977684018 SOC Code 7671 7671 7671 7671 4753 6844 6844 6179 7740 D.O.T. Title Page Film laboratory technician II................................ 432 Mounter, automatic............................................... 432 Print developer, automatic.................................... 432 Utility worker, film processing............................. 432 Photofinishing laboratory worker.......................... 267 Bookbinder............................................................ 411 Bookbinder, apprentice.......................................... 411 Book repairer.......................................................... 411 Presser.......................................................................411 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis D.O.T. Number 977684022 977687010 979361010 979381018 979381018 979381022 979381022 979382022 979682014 SOC Code D.O.T. Title 7752 7850 2520 6868 6868 6868 6868 7644 7644 479 Page Stitcher, hand......................................................... Collator, hand......................................................... Document restorer................................................... Paste-up copy-camera operator.............................. Paste-up copy-camera operator.............................. Paste-up copy-camera operator apprentice............ Paste-up copy-camera operator apprentice............ Pantographer........................................................... Blueprinting-machine operator.............................. 411 411 126 412 414 412 414 414 414 Reprints All sections of the 1990-91 Occupational Outlook Handbook are available in reprint form as individual reprints. Reprints are especially useful for jobseekers who want to know about a single field and for counselors who need to stretch the contents of a single Handbook among many students. The bulletin numbers, prices, and titles of all 20 reprints are listed below. A complete set costs only $24.00. An index to the reprints and an order form appear below. Bulletin No. Price Title 2350-1 2350-2 2350-3 2350-4 2350-5 2350-6 $1.25 $2.50 $1.75 $1.75 $1.25 $2.00 2350-7 2350-8 $1.25 $1.00 2350-9 2350-10 $1.50 $1.50 2350-11 2350-12 2350-13 $1.25 $1.25 $1.25 2350-14 $1.75 2350-15 $1.00 2350-16 2350-17 2350-18 $1.50 $1.25 $1.75 2350-19 2350-20 $1.50 $2.00 Tomorrow’s Jobs Business and Managerial Occupations Engineering, Scientific, and Related Occupations Computer and Mathematics-Related Occupations Social Scientists and Legal Occupations Education and Social Service Occupations and Clergy Health Diagnosing Occupations and Assistants Dietetics, Nursing, Pharmacy, and Therapy Occupations Health Technologists and Technicians Communications, Design, Performing Arts, and Related Occupations Technologists and Technicians, Except Health Sales Occupations Clerical and Other Administrative Support Occupations Protective Service Occupations and Compliance Inspectors Service Occupations: Cleaning, Food, Health, and Personal Mechanics, Equipment Installers, and Repairers Construction Trades and Extractive Occupations Metalworking, Plastic-working, and Woodworking Occupations Production Occupations Transportation and Forestry, Fishing, and Related Occupations If you want information about order Bulletin No. 2350- A Accountants and auditors............................................................. 2 or 4 Actors, directors, and producers....................................................... 10 Actuaries.................................................................................................. 4 Adjusters, investigators, and collectors............................................ 13 Administrative services managers........................................................ 2 Adult and vocational education teachers............................................ 6 Aerospace engineers.............................................................................. 3 Agricultural scientists........................................................................... 3 Air traffic controllers........................................................................... 11 Aircraft mechanics and engine specialists........................................ 16 Aircraft pilots...................................................................................... 11 Animal caretakers, except farm......................................................... 15 Apparel workers.................................................................................. 19 Architects.............................................................................................. 10 Archivists and curators.......................................................................... 6 Automotive body repairers................................................................. 16 Automotive mechanics........................................................................ 16 B Bank tellers........................................................................................... 13 Barbers.................................................................................................. 15 480 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Billing clerks......................................................................................... 13 Bindery workers................................................................................... 19 Biological scientists................................................................................ 3 Blue-collar worker supervisors........................................................... 19 Boilermakers........................................................................................ 18 Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks............................... 13 Bricklayers and stonemasons............................................................. 17 Broadcast technicians.......................................................................... 11 Brokerage clerks and statement clerks.............................................. 13 Budget analysts....................................................................................... 2 Busdrivers.............................................................................................. 20 Butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters.................................. 19 C Carpenters.................................................................................... 17 or 18 Carpet installers.................................................................................... 17 Cashiers................................................................................................. 12 Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers......................................... 15 Chemical engineers................................................................................ 3 Chemists.................................................................................................. 3 Childcare workers................................................................................ 15 Chiropractors........................................................................................... 7 Civil engineers......................................................................................... 3 Clerical supervisors and managers..................................................... 13 Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.............................. 9 College and university faculty............................................................. 6 Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers............ 16 Communications equipment mechanics............................................ 16 Compositors and typesetters............................................................... 19 Computer and office machine repairers................................... 4 or 16 Computer and peripheral equipment operators..........................4 or 13 Computer programmers................................................................ 4 or 11 Computer systems analysts................................................................... 4 Concrete masons and terrazzo workers............................................ 17 Construction and building inspectors................................................. 14 Construction managers.......................................................................... 2 Correction officers................................................................................ 14 Cosmetologists and related workers.................................................. 15 Cost estimators....................................................................................... 2 Counselors................................................................................................ 6 Counter and rental clerks..................................................................... 12 Credit clerks and authorizers.............................................................. 13 D Dancers and choreographers............................................................... 10 Dental assistants........................................................................... 7 or 15 Dental hygienists............................................................................ 7 or 9 Dental laboratory technicians............................................................... 9 Dentists.................................................................................................... 7 Designers................................................................................................ 10 Diesel mechanics.................................................................................. 16 Dietitians and nutritionists..................................................................... 8 Dispatchers........................................................................................... 13 Dispensing opticians.............................................................................. 9 Drafters........................................................................................... 3 or 11 Drywall workers and lathers............................................................... 17 E Economists and market research analysts.................................. 4 or 5 Education administrators........................................................................ 6 EEG technologists.................................................................................. 9 EKG technicians.................................................................................... 9 Electric power generating plant operators and power distributors and dispatchers............................................................ 19 Electrical and electronics engineers..................................................... 3 Electricians........................................................................................... 17 Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers....................... 16 Elevator installers and repairers.............................................. 16 or 17 Emergency medical technicians.............................................................9 Employment interviewers...................................................................... 2 Reprints Engineering, science, and data processing managers............................................................................. 2 or 3 or 4 Engineering technicians............................................................. 3 or 11 Engineers................................................................................................. 3 F Farm equipment mechanics................................................................ 16 Farm operators and managers............................................................... 2 File clerks.............................................................................................. 13 Financial managers ................................................................................ 2 Financial records processors............................................................... 13 Firefighting occupations...................................................................... 14 Fishers, hunters, and trappers............................................................ 20 Flight attendants................................................................................... 15 Food and beverage service occupations .......................................... 15 Foresters and conservation scientists.................................................. 3 G Gardeners and groundskeepers.......................................................... 20 General maintenance mechanics....................................................... 16 General managers and top executives................................................ 2 General office clerks............................................................................ 13 Geologists.................... 3 Glaziers................................................................................................... 12 Government chief executives and legislators..................................... 2 Guards.................................................................................................... 14 H Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers..................... 19 Health services managers...................................................................... 2 Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics...... 16 or 17 Home appliance and power tool repairers........................................ 16 Homemaker-home health aides.......................................................... 15 Hotel and motel desk clerks.............................................................. 13 Hotel managers and assistants............................................................. 2 Human services workers............................................................ 6 or 15 I Industrial engineers................................................................................ 3 Industrial machinery repairers............................................................ 16 Industrial production managers............................................................ 2 Information clerks.......................................................... 13 Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.............. 14 Inspectors, testers, and graders............................................... 14 or 19 Insulation workers................................................................................ 17 Insurance sales workers...................................................................... 12 Interviewing and new accounts clerks............................................. 13 J Janitors and cleaners............................................................................ 15 Jewelers................................................................................................. 18 K Kindergarten and elementary school teachers................................... 6 L Landscape architects........................................................................... 10 Lawyers and judges................................................................................ 5 Librarians................................................................................................. 6 Library assistants and bookmobile drivers...................................... 13 Library technicians...................................................................... 6 or 11 Licensed practical nurses...................................................................... 8 Line installers and cable splicers ...................................................... 16 Lithographic and photoengraving workers...................................... 19 M Machinists............................................................................................. 18 Mail clerks and messengers................................................................ 13 Management analysts and consultants................................................ 2 Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives....................... 12 Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers.................... 2 Material moving equipment operators................................. 20 Material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations....................................................................................... 13 Mathematicians....................................................................................... 4 Mechanical engineers............................................................................. 3 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 481 Medical assistants......................................................................... 7 or 15 Medical record technicians.................................................................... 9 Metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers................................ 3 Metalworking and plastic-working machine occupations................ 18 Metalworking machine operators....................................................... 18 Meteorologists......................................................................................... 3 Millwrights............................................................................................ 16 Mining engineers..................................................................................... 3 Mobile heavy equipment mechanics................................................. 16 Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics................................ 16 Musical instrument repairers and tuners............................................ 16 Musicians............................................................................................... 10 N Nuclear engineers.................................................................................... 3 Nuclear medicine technologists............................................................. 9 Numerical-control machine-tool operators........................................ 18 Nursing aides and psychiatric aides.......................................... 8 or 15 O Occupational therapists........................................................................... 8 Operations research analysts................................................................. 4 Ophthalmic laboratory technicians....................................................... 9 Optometrists............................................................................................. 7 Order clerks........................................................................................... 13 P Painters and paperhangers.................................................................... 17 Painting and coating machine operators........................................... 19 Paralegals....................................................................................... 5 or 11 Payroll and timekeeping clerks........................................................... 13 Personnel clerks..................................................................................... 13 Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers.. 2 Petroleum engineers............................................................................... 3 Pharmacists............................................................................................... 8 Photographers and camera operators................................................. 10 Photographic process workers............................................................. 19 Physical therapists.................................................................................. 8 Physician assistants................................................................................. 7 Physicians................................................................................................ 7 Physicists and astronomers.................................................................... 3 Plasterers................................................................................................ 17 Plastic-working machine operators..................................................... 18 Plumbers and pipefitters........................................................................ 17 Podiatrists................................................................................................ 7 Police, detectives, and special agents................................................ 14 Postal clerks and mail carriers............................................................ 13 Precision assemblers............................................................................ 19 Printing press operators........................................................................ 19 Private household workers.................................................................... 15 Property and real estate managers........................................................ 2 Protestant ministers...................................................................................6 Psychologists............................................................................................ 5 Public relations specialists.......................................................... 2 or 10 Purchasing agents and managers.......................................................... 2 R Rabbis....................................................................................................... 6 Radio and television announcers and newscasters.......................... 10 Radiologic technologists........................................................................ 9 Rail transportation occupations........................................................... 20 Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers..................................... 12 Receptionists......................................................................................... 13 Record clerks......................................................................................... 13 Recreation workers ................................................................................. 6 Recreational therapists........................................................................... 8 Registered nurses..................................................................................... 8 Reporters and correspondents.............................................................. 10 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks...... 13 Respiratory therapists.............................................................................. 8 Restaurant and food service managers ................................................ 2 Retail sales workers............................................................................... 12 Roman Catholic priests.......................................................................... 6 Roofers.................................................................................................... 17 Roustabouts............................................................................................. 17 482 Occupational Outlook Handbook S Science technicians...................................................... 3 or 11 Secondary school teachers.............................. . 6 Secretaries.....................................................’................... 13 Securities and financial services sales representatives.................... 12 Services sales representatives............................................................. 12 Sheet-metal workers................................................................. 17 or 18 Shoe and leather workers and repairers............................................ 19 Social scientists and urban planners.................................................. . 5 Social workers...................................................................................... . 6 Sociologists ..................................................................................... . 5 Speech-language pathologists and audiologists............................... . 8 Stationary engineers............................................................................. 19 Statisticians........................................................................................ . 4 Steel workers................................................................................. 18 Stenographers...................................................................................... 13 Stock clerks...................................................................................... 13 Structural and reinforcing ironworkers.................................. 17 or 18 Surgical technologists........................................................................... . 9 Surveyors................................................................................................ . 3 T Teacher aides..................................................................... 6 Telephone installers and repairers.................................................... 16 Telephone, telegraph, and teletype operators.................................. 13 Textile machinery operators............................................................. 19 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Tilesetters............................................................................ jy Timber cutting and logging occupations.....................................’’’’ 20 Tool and die makers............................................................. ]g Tool programmers, numerical control............................... . 11 or 18 Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks........................................ 13 Travel agents...................................................................... 12 Truckdrivers....................................................................... 20 Typists, word processors, and data entry keyers......13 U Underwriters...................................................................................... 2 Upholsterers....................................................................................... 19 Urban and regional planners................................................................ 5 V Vending machine servicers and repairers......................................... 16 Veterinarians........................................................................................... 7 Visual artists............................................................................... 10 W Water and wastewater treatment plant operators............................ Water transportations occupations..................................................... Welders, cutters, and welding machine operators.......................... Wholesale and retail buyers............................................................... Woodworking occupations...................................................... 18 or Writers and editors.............................................................................. 19 20 18 12 19 iq Index A Able seamen, see: Water transportation occupations.................. Account executives, see: Securities and financial services sales representatives...................................................................... Accountants and auditors.................................................................. Accounting clerks............................................................................... Actors, directors, and producers..................................................... Actuaries.............................................................................................. Adjusters, investigators, and collectors......................................... Adjustment clerks, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors................................................................................. Administrative secretaries, see: Secretaries.*.,............................. Administrative services managers....... ............................................ Administrators, health services, see: Health services managers . Administrators, school, see: Education administrators................ Admissions officers, see: Education administrators..................... Admitting clerks, hospital or outpatient, see: Interviewing and new accounts clerks............................................................... Adult and vocational education teachers........................................ Advertising clerks............................................................................... Advertising managers....................................................................... Aeronautical engineers, see: Aerospace engineers....................... Aerospace engineers.......................................................................... Affirmative action coordinators, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers............................ Agents and brokers, insurance......................................................... Agents and brokers, real estate........................................................ Agents, purchasing............................................................................ Agents, reservation and transportation ticket................................. Agricultural commodity inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction........................... Agricultural equipment mechanics, see: Farm equipment mechanics....................................................................................... Agricultural quarantine inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction........................... Agricultural scientists....................................................................... Agricultural technicians, see: Science technicians....................... Agriculturists, see: Agricultural scientists..................................... Agronomists, see: Agricultural scientists...................................... Air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration mechanics.............. Air-conditioning mechanics, automotive........................................ Air safety inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction........................................................ Air traffic controllers......................................................................... Aircraft mechanics and engine specialists..................................... Aircraft pilots...................................................................................... Aircraft technicians, see: Aircraft mechanics and engine specialists......................................................................................... Airline reservation and ticket agents............................................... Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms agents, see: Police, detectives, and special agents...................................................... Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction........................... Ambulance drivers and attendants.................................................. Amusement and recreation attendants............................................ Animal attendants, see: Animal caretakers, except farm............. Animal breeders, see: Agricultural scientists................................. Animal caretakers, except farm...................................................... Animal health technicians, see: Animal caretakers, except farm...................................................................................... Animal scientists, see: Agricultural scientists............................... Animators, see: Visual artists.......................................................... Announcers.......................................................................................... Anthropologists, see: Social scientists and urban planners......... Apartment managers, see: Property and real estate managers.... Apiculturists, see: Agricultural scientists...................................... Apparel workers................................................................................. Appliance repairers, home................................................................ Applications programmers, see: Computer programmers........... Appraisers, see: Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers...... Arbitrators, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 442 238 13 255 182 76 244 244 276 15 35 25 25 259 125 452 46 64 64 48 230 234 54 261 41 342 41 85 223 85 85 345 329 41 212 326 210 326 261 290 41 453 453 304 85 304 304 85 180 169 101 51 85 418 347 215 234 specialists and managers............................................................... 48 Archeologists, see: Social scientists and urbanplanners............... 101 Architects......................................................................... 71 Architects, landscape......................................................................... 72 Archivists and curators....................................................................... 126 Armed Forces occupations............................................................... 447 Art directors, see: Designers............................................................. 175 Artists, see: Visual artists................................................................. 180 Assemblers, electrical and electronic................................................ 456 Assemblers, machine......................................................................... 457 Assemblers, precision........................................................................ 386 Astronomers......................................................................................... 94 Astrophysicists, see: Physicists andastronomers.......................... 94 Attorneys, see: Lawyers.................................................................... 96 Audio control engineers, see: Broadcasttechnicians .................... 214 Audiologists......................................................................................... 165 Auditing clerks................................................................................... 254 Auditors................................................................................................ 13 Automotive body repairers............................................................... 327 Automotive mechanics....................................................................... 329 Automotive painters, see: Painting and coating machine operators.......................................................................................... 430 Automotive service technicians, see: Automotive mechanics........................................................................................ 329 Aviation safety inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction........................................................ 41 Avionics technicians, see: Communications equipment mechanics........................................................................................ 333 B Babysitters, see: Private household workers ................................. 316 Baggage porters and bellhops........................................................... 453 Baggers, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers..................................................................................... 445 Bakers, bread and pastry, see: Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers............................................................. 294 Bakers, manufacturing....................................................................... 455 Bank branch managers, see: Financial managers.......................... 30 Bank tellers......................................................................................... 248 Barbers.................................................................................................. 306 Bartenders and bartender helpers, see: Food and beverage service workers............................................................................... 296 Beauticians, see: Cosmetologists and related workers................. 308 Beauty operators, see: Cosmetologists andrelated workers......... 308 Bellhops ............................................................................................... 453 Bibliographers, see: Librarians........................................................ 133 Bicycle repairers...................................................................................455 Bill and account collectors, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors.................................................................................. 244 Billing clerks........................................................................................ 255 Bindery workers.................................................................................. 411 Biochemists, see: Biological scientists............................................ 86 Biological scientists............................................................................ 86 Biological technicians, see: Science technicians............................ 223 Biologists, see: Biological scientists................................................ 86 Biomedical equipment repairers....................................................... 455 Bleaching and dyeing machine operators, textile.......................... 421 Blood bank technologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians....................................................... 187 Blue-collar worker supervisors ........................................................ 387 Boat engine mechanics....................................................................... 355 Boatswains, see: Water transportation occupations........................442 Body repairers, automotive............................................................... 327 Boiler operators and tenders, low pressure.................................... 455 Boilermakers........................................................................................ 391 Bookbinders......................................................................................... 411 Bookbinding workers......................................................................... 411 Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks.............................. 255 Bookmobile drivers............................................................................ 273 Bordereau clerks, see: Typists, word processors, and data entry keyers.............................................................................. 282 483 484 Occupational Outlook Handbook Botanists, see: Biological scientists................................................. 86 Bricklayers and stonemasons............................................................ 362 Broadcast news analysts, see: Radio and television announcers and newscasters......................................................... 169 Broadcast technicians......................................................................... 214 Brokerage clerks and statement clerks........................................... 272 Brokers, insurance, see: Insurance sales workers........................ 230 Brokers, real estate, see: Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers................................................................................. 234 Brokers, securities and financial services, see: Securities and financial services sales representatives................................ 238 Budget analysts.................................................................................. 17 Building custodians, see: Janitors and cleaners............................. 315 Building inspectors........................................................................... 19 Bulldozer operators, see: Material moving equipment operators.......................................................................................... 436 Bus mechanics, see: Diesel mechanics........................................... 337 Busdrivers........................................................................................... 434 Business machine repairers, see: Office machine and cash register servicers............................................................ 335 Butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters................................. 389 Butlers, see: Private household workers........................................ 316 Buyers, wholesale and retail trade..................................................... 60 C Cabinetmakers, see: Woodworking occupations........................... 425 Cable equipment technicians, submarine, see: Communications equipment mechanics.................................................................... 333 Cable splicers..................................................................................... 350 Cable TV line installers and repairers, see: Line installers and cable splicers.......................................................................... 350 Camera and photographic equipment repairers...............................455 Camera operators, printing, see: Lithographic and photoengraving workers........................................................ 414 Camera opera' /rs, television, video, and motion pictures, see: Photographers and camera operators........................................... 177 Camp counselors, see: Recreation workers.................................... 118 Cannery workers................................................................................ 456 Captains and pilots, ship, see: Water transportation occupations..................................................................................... 442 Career planning counselors, see: Counselors...................................130 Caretakers, see: Private household workers.................................. 316 Carpenters........................................................................................... 363 Carpet installers................................................................................. 365 Cartographers, see: Surveyors......................................................... 74 Cartoonists, see: Visual artists......................................................... 180 Case aides, see: Human services workers..................................... 113 Caseworkers, see: Social workers................................................... 115 Cash register servicers ...................................................................... 335 Cashiers............................................................................................... 227 Catalogers, see: Librarians............................................................... 133 Catholic priests, see: Roman Catholic priests............................... 123 Cementing and gluing machine operators and tenders................. 456 Cement masons, see: Concrete masons and terrazzo workers.... 366 Cemetery workers, see: Gardeners and groundskeepers.............. 311 Central office equipment installers, see: Communications equipment mechanics.................................................................... 333 Central office operators, see: Telephone, telegraph, and teletype operators................................................................... 280 Central office repairers, see: Communications equipment mechanics.................................................................... 333 Ceramic engineers............................................................................. 65 Charge account clerks, see: Interviewing and new accounts clerks............................................................................................... 259 Chauffeurs........................................................................................... 458 Checkers, see: Cashiers.................................................................... 227 Drafters............................................................................................... 217 Checkout clerks, see: Cashiers........................................................ 227 Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers...................................... 294 Chemical engineers ............................................................................ 65 Chemical equipment controllers, operators, and tenders............. 456 Chemical plant and system operators.............................................. 456 Chemical technicians, see: Science technicians............................. 223 Chemists.................................................................. 90 Chief executive officers, see: General managers and top executives........................................................................ 32 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Chief executives, government......................................................... 33 Child abuse workers, see: Human services workers.................... 113 Child health associates see: Physician assistants.......................... 157 Child welfare workers, see: Social workers.................................. 115 Childcare workers............................................................................... 307 Childcare workers, private, see: Private household workers...... 316 Chiropractors....................................................................................... 138 Choral directors, see: Musicians..................................................... 185 Choreographers, see: Dancers and choreographers....................... 183 City managers, see: Government executives and legislators ...... 33 City planners, see: Urban and regional planners.......................... 110 Civil engineering technicians........................................................... 219 Civil engineers.................................................................................... 65 Claims adjusters, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors .. 244 Claims clerks, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors....... 244 Claims examiners, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors. 244 Claims investigators, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors.................................................................................. 244 Classifiers, see: Librarians................................................................. 133 Cleaners, see: Janitors and cleaners............................................... 315 Cleaners, vehicles and equipment, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers.......................................................445 Clerical supervisors and managers.................................................. 250 Clerk-typists, see: Typists................................................................ 282 Clerks, see: Billing clerks................................................................................... 255 Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks.......................... 255 File clerks....................................................................................... 272 General office clerks...................................................................... 256 Hotel and motel desk clerks......................................................... 259 Information clerks.......................................................................... 257 Interviewing and new accounts clerks........................................ 259 Mail clerks and messengers......................................................... 262 Order clerks.................................................................................... 274 Payroll and timekeeping clerks.................................................... 256 Personnel clerks............................................................................. 275 Postal clerks and mail carriers..................................................... 268 Receptionists................................................................................... 260 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks......................................................................... 261 Stock clerks.................................................................................... 266 Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks....................................... 267 Climatologists, see: Meteorologists................................................. 93 Clinical chemistry technologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians...................................................... 187 Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.......................... 187 Coil winders, tapers, and finishers.................................................. 456 Coin machine servicers and repairers, see: Vending machine servicers and repairers................................................................... 360 Collectors, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors............. 244 College and university faculty......................................................... 128 College career planning and placement counselors, see: Counselors......................................................................................... 130 College presidents, see: General managers and top executives .. 32 College student development specialists, see: Counselors.......... 130 Colorists, see: Photographic process workers................................. 432 Columnists, see: Writers and editors.............................................. 169 Commentators, see: Radio and television announcers and newscasters............................................................................. 169 Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers.......... 331 Commercial artists, see: Visual artists........................................... 180 Commercial electronics technicians, see: Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers........................... 331 Communications-center operators, see: Telephone, telegraph, and teletype operators................................................................... 280 Communications equipment mechanics.......................................... 333 Communications specialists, see: Public relations specialists .... 168 Communications, transportation, and utilities operations managers.......................................................................................... 452 Community health nurses, see: Registered nurses........................ 160 Community planners, see: Urban and regional planners............. 110 Community outreach workers, see: Human services workers.... 113 Companions, see: Private household workers................................ 316 Compensation managers, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers............................. 48 Compliance officers............................................................................ 41 Index Composers, see: Musicians............................................................... 185 Compositors and typesetters............................................................. 412 Computer and office machine repairers......................................... 335 Computer and peripheral equipment operators.............................. 251 Computer programmers.................................................................... 215 Computer systems analysts............................................................... 77 Conciliators, labor relations, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers............................ 48 Concrete masons and terrazzo workers.......................................... 366 Conductors, orchestra, see: Musicians.......................................... 185 Conservation scientists...................................................................... 88 Conservation workers....................................................................... 454 Conservationists, see: Foresters and conservation scientists....... 88 Construction and building inspectors............................................. 69 Construction equipment mechanics, see: Mobile heavy equipment mechanics.................................................................... 353 Construction laborers, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers.................................................................... 445 Construction machinery operators, see: Material moving equipment operators...................................................................... 436 Construction managers...................................................................... 21 Construction trades helpers, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers..................................................... 445 Consultants, management, see: Management analysts and consultants.............................................................................. 44 Consumer safety inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction....................................................... 41 Contract specialists, see: Purchasing agents and managers........ 54 Controllers, air traffic....................................................................... 212 Controllers, financial, see: Financial managers............................ 30 Cooking, roasting, baking, and drying machine operators and tenders..................................................................................... 456 Cooks, see: Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers.................................. 294 Private household workers............................................................ 316 Copy editors, see: Writers and editors.......................................... 173 Copy writers, see: Writers and editors.......................................... 173 Correction officers............................................................................. 285 Correspondence clerks...................................................................... 452 Correspondents................................................................................... 171 Cosmetologists and related workers............................................... 308 Cost estimators................................................................................... 23 Counselors........................................................................................... 130 Counter and rental clerks................................................................. 228 Counter attendants, see: Food and beverage service workers .... 296 Court clerks........................................................................................ 453 Court reporters, see: Stenographers................................................ 278 Crane operators, see: Material moving equipment operators...... 436 Credit clerks and authorizes............................................................ 253 Credit managers, see: Financial managers..................................... 30 Criminologists, see: Sociologists.................................................... 108 Critics, see: Reporters and correspondents................................... 171 Crossing guards................................................................................. 454 Crushing and mixing machine operators and tenders.................. 456 Curators............................................................................................... 126 Custodians, see: Janitors and cleaners............................................ 315 Custom tailors and sewers, see: Apparel workers........................ 418 Customer service representatives, utilities..................................... 453 Customers’ engineers, see: Computer and office machine repairers........................................................................................... 335 Customs agents, see: Police, detectives, and special agents...... 290 Customs inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction ....................................................................... 41 Cutting and slicing machine operators, tenders, and setters....... 456 Cutters and trimmers, apparel, see: Apparel workers................. 418 Cytotechnologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.............................................................................. 187 D Dairy processing equipment operators and tenders...................... Dairy scientists, see: Agricultural scientists.................................. Dancers and choreographers............................................................ Darkroom technicians, see: Photographic process workers........ Data entry keyers.............................................................................. Data processing equipment repairers, see: Computer and office machine repairers....................................................... https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 456 437 193 432 282 335 485 Deck hands, see: Water transportation occupations...................... 442 Deans, see: Education administrators.............................................. 25 Demographers, see: Sociologists..................................................... 108 Dental assistants.................................................................................. 299 Dental ceramists, see: Dental laboratory technicians.....................427 Dental hygienists................................................................................ 189 Dental laboratory technicians........................................................... 427 Dentists................................................................................................ 139 Designers............................................................................................. 175 Detailers, see: Drafters...................................................................... 217 Detectives............................................................................................ 290 Detectives and investigators, except public .................................. 454 Developers, film, see: Photographic process workers................. 432 Dictating-machine transcribers and typists, see: Stenographers.. 278 Diemakers............................................................................................ 402 Diesel mechanics................................................................................ 337 Dietitians and nutritionists................................................................. 150 Dining room attendants, see: Food and beverage service workers............................................................................................ 296 Directors, see: Actors, directors, and producers........................... 182 Directors of admissions, see: Education administrators.............. 25 Directors of student services, see: Education administrators...... 25 Disk jockeys, see: Radio and television announcers and newscasters.............................................................................. 169 Dispatchers, material......................................................................... 265 Dispensing opticians........................................................................... 191 See also: Optometrists.................................................................... 141 Doctors, chiropractic......................................................................... 138 Doctors, medical................................................................................ 143 Doctors, optometry............................................................................ 141 Doctors, osteopathic........................................................................... 143 Doctors, podiatric medicine.............................................................. 146 Doctors, veterinary medicine........................................................... 147 Drafters................................................................................................ 217 Driver-sales workers, see: Truckdrivers.......................................... 440 Druggists, see: Pharmacists.............................................................. 153 Drywall workers and lathers............................................................ 367 Duplicating, mail, and other office machine operators................ 453 Dyers, see: Textile machinery operators........................................ 421 E Ecologists, see: Biological scientists.............................................. 86 Economists and market research analysts....................................... 103 Editorial artists, see: Visual artists.................................................. 180 Editorial assistants, see: Writers and editors................................. 173 Editorial writers, see: Reporters and correspondents ................... 171 Editors.................................................................................................. 173 Education administrators.................................................................... 25 Education and training managers, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers............................. 48 Educational assistants, see: Teacher aides..................................... 279 EEG technologists.............................................................................. 193 EKG technicians................................................................................ 195 Electric meter installers and repairers............................................. 455 Electric power generating plant operators and power distributors and dispatchers........................................................... 406 Electrical and electronics assemblers.............................................. 456 Electrical and electronics engineers................................................. 66 Electrical and electronics technicians, see: Engineering technicians....................................................................................... 219 Electrical inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors. 19 Electrical powerline installers and repairers, see: Line installers and cable splicers .......................................................... 350 Electricians.......................................................................................... 369 Electrocardiograph techicians........................................................... 195 Electroencephalographic technologists ........................................... 193 Electrologists, see: Cosmetologists and related workers............. 308 Electromedical and biomedical equipment repairers...................... 455 Electroneurodiagnostic technologists, see: EEG technologists ... 193 Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers.................... 339 Electronic semiconductor processors................................................456 Electronics engineers......................................................................... 66 Electronics repairers, commercial andindustrialequipment.......... 331 Electronics technicians, see:Engineeringtechnicians..................... 219 Elementary schoolteachers............................................................... 132 Elevator constructors......................................................................... 341 486 Occupational Outlook Handbook Elevator inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors .. Elevator installers and repairers...................................................... Elevator mechanics........................................................................... Emergency medical technicians...................................................... Employee-benefits and welfare managers, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers............. Employee relations specialists, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers............................. Employment counselors, see: Counselors...................................... Employment interviewers................................................................. Engineering, science, and data processing managers................... Engineering technicians.................................................................... Engineers............................................................................................ See also: Aerospace engineers................................................................. Chemical engineers................................................................... Civil engineers........................................................................... Electrical and electronics engineers........................................ Industrial engineers................................................................... Mechanical engineers................................................................ Metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers................... Mining engineers....................................................................... Nuclear engineers...................................................................... Petroleum engineers................................................................. Engineers, ship, see: Water transportation occupations.............. Engineers, stationary........................................................................ Entomologists, see: Agricultural scientists.................................... Environmental health inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction........................... Equal employment opportunity counselors and representatives, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction . Equipment cleaners........................................................................... Equipment rental clerks, see: Counter and rental clerks............. Estheticians, see: Cosmetologists and related workers................ Estimaters, cost.................................................................................. Excavating and loading machine operators, see: Material moving equipment operators....................................................... Executives, see: General managers and top executives .............. Extruding and forming machine operators, tenders, and setters . Extruding machine operators and tenders, see: Textile machinery operators...................................................................... F Fallers and buckers, see: Timber cutting and logging occupations..................................................................................... Family daycare providers, see: Childcare workers....................... Farm and home management advisors........................................... Farm equipment mechanics............................................................. Farm operators and managers.......................................................... Farm workers..................................................................................... Fashion artists, see: Visual artists................................................... Fashion designers, see: Designers................................................... Fast-food cooks.................................................................................. Fast-food workers, see: Food and beverage service workers...... FBI special agents, see: Police, detectives, and special agents.. Field engineers and technicians, see: Broadcast technicians.................................................................... Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers...... Computer and office machine repairers..................................... File clerks........................................................................................... Film developers, see: Photographic process workers................... Film mounters, automatic, see: Photographic process workers .. Financial aid officers, see: Education administrators................... Financial managers........................................................................... Financial records processors................................................... .'....... Financial services sales representatives......................................... Fine artists, see: Visual artists......................................................... Firefighting occupations.................................................................... First-line supervisors, see: Blue-collar worker supervisors......... Fishers, hunters, and trappers.......................................................... Flight attendants................................................................................. Flight engineers, see: Aircraft pilots............................................... Floor covering installers, see: Carpet installers............................. Food and beverage service occupations......................................... Food and drug inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction....................................................... https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 19 341 341 196 48 48 130 26 28 219 62 64 65 65 66 67 67 Food service managers...................................................................... 56 Food technologists, see: Agricultural scientists............................ 85 Foremen and forewomen, see: Blue-collar worker supervisors .. 387 Forest and conservation workers.......................................................454 Foresters and conservation scientists.............................................. 88 Forklift operators, see: Material moving equipment operators... 436 Forming machine operators and tenders, see: Textile machinery operators........................................................................421 Foundry mold assembly and shakeout workers, see: Metalworking machine operators................................................. 396 Frame wirers, see: Communications equipmentmechanics......... 333 Freight, stock, and material movers, hand, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers...................................445 Furnace installers, see: Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics......................................................... 345 Furnace, kiln, or kettle operators ..................................................... 457 Furnace operators and tenders, see: Metalworking and plastic-working machine operators....................................... 396 Furniture and wood finishers, see: Woodworking occupations .. 425 Furniture upholsterers....................................................................... 424 68 68 69 69 442 407 85 41 41 445 228 308 23 436 32 456 421 323 307 452 342 318 454 180 175 294 296 290 214 331 335 272 432 432 25 30 254 238 180 286 387 320 310 210 365 296 41 G Gardeners and groundskeepers......................................................... 311 Gas and petroleum plant and systems occupations.........................457 General managers and top executives............................................ 32 General office clerks.......................................................................... 256 Geodesists, see: Surveyors............................................................... 74 Geographers, see: Social scientists and urban planners.............. 101 Geologists........................................................................................... 91 Geophysicists...................................................................................... 91 Geriatric aides, see: Nursing aides and psychiatric aides........... 302 Gerontologists, see: Sociologists..................................................... 108 Gerontology aides, see: Human services workers........................ 113 Glaziers................................................................................................ 371 Governesses, see: Private household workers............................... 316 Government chief executives and legislators................................. 33 Grader, dozer, and scraper operators, see: Material moving equipment operators...................................................................... 436 Graders, see: Apparel workers............................................................................... 418 Inspectors, testers, and graders................................................... 390 Graphic artists, see: Visual artists................................................... 180 Grocery clerks, see: Cashiers.......................................................... 227 Grinders and polishers, hand..............................................................457 Groundskeepers................................................................................... 311 Guards................................................................................................. 288 Guards, crossing.................................................................................. 454 Guidance counselors, see: Counselors............................................ 130 H Hairstylists, see: Barbers............................................................................................. 306 Cosmetologists and related workers........................................... 308 Hand packers and packagers, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers.......................................................445 Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers.................... 445 Hamessmakers, see: Shoe and leather workers and repairers .... 420 Hazardous waste management specialists, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction........................... 41 Health and regulatory inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction........................... 41 Health services managers.................................................................. 35 Heat treating, annealing, and tempering machine operators, see: Metalworking and plastic-working machine operators.... 396 Heaters and heating equipment setters and setup operators, see: Metalworking and plastic-working machine operators.... 396 Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics............... 345 Heavy equipment operators, see: Material moving equipment operators........................................................................436 Heavy mobile equipment mechanics................................................ 353 Helicopter pilots, see: Aircraft pilots............................................... 210 Helpers.................................................................................................. 445 Highway maintenance workers........................................................ 454 Highway patrol officers, see: Police, detectives, and special agents........................................................................... 290 Histology technicians, see: Clinical laboratory technologists Index and technicians.............................................................................. 187 Historians, see: Social scientists and urban planners.................. 101 Hoist and winch operators, see: Material moving equipment operators.......................................................................................... 436 Home appliance and power tool repairers..................................... 347 Home entertainment electronic equipment repairers.................... 339 Home management advisors............................................................ 452 Homemaker-home health aides........................................................ 313 Horticulturists, see: Agricultural scientists.................................... 85 Hospital administrators, see: Health service managers................. 35 Hospital attendants, see: Nursing aides andpsychiatric aides.... 300 Hosts and hostesses, see: Food and beverage service workers... 296 Hotel and motel desk clerks............................................................. 259 Hotel managers and assistants......................................................... 38 Housekeepers, see: Private household workers............................. 316 Housekeepers, institutional............................................................... 454 Human services workers................................................................... 113 Hunters................................................................................................. 320 Hydrologists, see: Geologists and geophysicists........................... 91 Hygienists, dental.............................................................................. 189 I Illustrators, see: Visual artists......................................................... 180 Immigration inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction........................................................ 41 Immunology technologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians...................................................... 187 Industrial buyers, see: Purchasing agents and managers............. 54 Industrial designers, see: Designers................................................. 175 Industrial electronic equipment repairers........................................ 331 Industrial electronics technicians, see: Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers........................... 331 Industrial engineering technicians................................................... 219 Industrial engineers........................................................................... 67 Industrial machinery repairers......................................................... 348 Industrial nurses, see: Registered nurses........................................ 160 Industrial production managers........................................................ 39 Industrial safety and health inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction........................... 41 Industrial sales workers, see: Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives...................................................................... 232 Industrial truck and tractor operators, see: Material moving equipment operators...................................................................... 436 Information clerks.............................................................................. 257 Information officers, see: Public relations specialists.................. 168 Information scientists, see: Computer systems analysts.............. 77 Librarians............................................................................................. 133 Inhalation therapists, see: Respiratory therapists.......................... 163 Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction............. 41 Inspectors, construction and building.............................................. 19 Inspectors, health and regulatory, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction........................... 41 Inspectors, testers, and graders..........................................................390 Instructors, see: Adult and vocational education teachers.................................... 125 College and university faculty..................................................... 128 Kindergarten and elementary school teachers........................... 132 Secondary school teachers............................................................ 135 Instrument repairers, see: Communications equipment mechanics....................................................................................... 333 Insulation workers............................................................................. 372 Insurance adjusters, examiners, and investigators, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors..................................... 244 Insurance claims and policy processing occupations, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors..................................... 244 Insurance sales workers..................................................................... 230 Interior designers, see: Designers.................................................... 175 Interviewing and new accounts clerks............................................. 259 Investigators, insurance, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors................................................................................. 244 Ironworkers, see: Structural and reinforcing ironworkers........... 383 J Jailers, see: Correction officers........................................................ 285 Janitors and cleaners.......................................................................... 315 Jewelers................................................................................................ 392 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 487 Job analysts, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers............................................................... 48 Job development specialists, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers............................. 48 Journalists, see: Reporters and correspondents ............................. 171 Judges..................................................................................................... 96 K Keypunch operators, see: Typists, word processors, and data entry keyers..................................................................... 282 Kindergarten and elementary school teachers................................ 132 L Labor relations specialists and managers....................................... 48 Laboratory animal technologists and technicians, see: Animal caretakers, except farm.................................................. 304 Laboratory technicians, dental.......................................................... 427 Laboratory technicians, film, see: Photographic process workers............................................................................................ 432 Laboratory workers, medical, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians....................................................... 187 Laborers............................................................................................... 398 Land surveyors.................................................................................... 74 Landscape architects........................................................................... 72 Landscape gardeners, see: Gardeners and groundskeepers ......... 311 Lathers.................................................................................................. 367 Laundromat attendants, see: Counter and retail clerks................ 228 Laundry and drycleaning machine operators and tenders, except pressers................................................................................. 457 Lawn and garden equipment mechanics, see: Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics.............................................. 355 Lawn service workers, see: Gardeners and groundskeepers....... 311 Lawyers and judges............................................................................ 96 Layout workers, apparel.................................................................... 418 Leather workers and repairers.......................................................... 420 Legal assistants, see: Paralegals.........................................................221 Legal secretaries, see: Secretaries.................................................... 276 Legislators............................................................................................ 33 Librarians.............................................................................................. 133 Library assistants and bookmobile drivers...................................... 220 Licensed practical nurses.................................................................. 199 Licensed vocational nurses, see: Licensed practical nurses......... 199 Life insurance agents, see: Insurance sales workers.................... 230 Life underwriters, see: Insurance sales workers............................ 230 Line installers and cable splicers..................................................... 350 Lithographic and photoengraving workers...................................... 414 Loan and credit clerks........................................................................ 253 Loan officers, see: Financial managers........................................... 30 Loan officers and counselors............................................................. 452 Locomotive engineers, see: Rail transportation occupations...... 438 Log handling equipment operators................................................... 323 Logging equipment mechanics, see: Mobile heavy equipment mechanics........................................................................................ 353 Logging occupations........................................................................... 323 Logging tractor operators.................................................................. 323 Luggage makers, see: Shoe and leather workers and repairers .. 420 M Machine assemblers........................................................................... Machine feeders and offbearers, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers..................................................... Machine-tool operators, numerical control...... .............................. Machine-tool setters, setup operators, operators, and tenders, see: Metalworking and plastic-working machine operators .... Machinery mechanics, industrial..................................................... Machinists............................................................................................ Mail carriers........................................................................................ Mail clerks and messengers.............................................................. Mailhandlers, see: Postal clerks and mail carriers....................... Maintenance mechanics, general..................................................... Management analysts and consultants............................................. Managers, see: Administrative services managers................................................ Construction managers.................................................................. Engineering, science, and data processing managers............... Financial managers........................................................................ 457 445 401 396 348 394 268 262 268 344 44 15 21 28 30 488 Occupational Outlook Handbook General managers and top executives.................................... Government chief executives and legislators........................ Health services managers.......................................................... Hotel managers and assistants................................................. Industrial production managers................................................ Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers....... Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers........................................................................ Property and real estate managers........................................... Purchasing agents and managers............................................ Restaurant and food service managers.................................. Manicurists, see: Cosmetologists and related workers............. Manpower development specialists, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers........................ Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives ................ Manufacturers’ representatives, see: Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives........................................ Manufacturing opticians............................................................... Map editors, see: Surveyors......................................................... Mapping scientists, see: Surveyors............................................ Marble setters, see: Bricklayers and stonemasons.................... Marine engineers, see: Water transportation occupations....... Marine geologists, see: Geologists and geophysicists............. Marine oilers, see: Water transportation occupations.............. Markers, apparel........................................................................... Market research analysts.............................................................. Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers............ Masters, see: Water transportation occupations........................ Material movers, hand, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers................................................................ Material moving equipment operators........................................ Material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations................................................................................. Materials engineers....................................................................... Mates—ship, boat, and barge, see: Water transportation occupations................................................................................. Mathematicians.............................................................................. Meatcutters..................................................................................... Mechanical engineering technicians........................................... Mechanical engineers.................................................................... Mechanical inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors.................................................................................... Mechanics and repairers, see: Aircraft mechanics and engine specialists............................. Automotive body repairers...................................................... Automotive mechanics............................................................. Boilermakers.............................................................................. Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers.. Communications equipment mechanics................................. Computer and office machine repairers................................. Diesel mechanics....................................................................... Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers............ Elevator installers and repairers.............................................. Farm equipment mechanics..................................................... General maintenance mechanics.............................................. Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics...... Home appliance and power tool repairers............................. Industrial machinery repairers ................................................ Jewelers....................................................................................... Line installers and cable splicers............................................ Millwrights ................................................................................ Mobile heavy equipment mechanics...................................... Motorcycle, boat, and small-engine mechanics.................... Musical instrument repairers and tuners............................... Shoe and leather workers and repairers................................. Telephone installers and repairers........................................... Upholsterers................................................................................ Vending machine servicers and repairers.............................. Media specialists, see: Librarians............................................... Mediators, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers.......................................................... Medical and scientific illustrators, see: Visual artists.............. Medical assistants.......................................................................... Medical laboratory technologists and technicians, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians................. Medical record technicians.......................................................... https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 32 33 35 38 39 46 48 51 54 56 308 48 232 232 428 74 74 362 442 91 442 418 103 46 442 445 436 263 68 442 79 389 219 67 19 326 327 329 391 331 333 335 337 339 341 342 344 345 347 348 392 350 352 353 355 357 420 358 424 360 133 48 180 300 187 201 Medical secretaries, see: Secretaries............................................... 276 Medical social workers, see: Social workers................................. 115 Membership secretaries, see: Secretaries....................................... 276 Mental health assistants, see: Nursing aides and psychiatric aides................................................................................................. 302 Mental health counselors, see: Counselors.................................... 130 Mental health technicians, see: Human services workers........... 113 Messengers.......................................................................................... 262 Metallurgical engineers..................................................................... 68 Metalworking and plastic-working machine operators................. 396 Metalworking machine operators..................................................... 397 Meteorologists.................................................................................... 93 Meter readers, utilities........................................................................453 Microbiologists, see: Biological scientists..................................... 86 Microbiology technologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians...................................................... 187 Military occupations.......................................................................... 447 Millwrights.......................................................................................... 352 Mine inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction........................................................................ 41 Mineralogists, see: Geologists and geophysicists.......................... 91 Mining engineers................................................................................ 68 Mining equipment repairers, see: Mobile heavy equipment mechanics........................................................................................ 353 Mining, quarrying, and tunneling occupations................................455 Ministers, Protestant............................................................................ 121 Mobile heavy equipment mechanics................................................ 353 Motion picture camera operators...................................................... 177 Motion picture projectionists............................................................. 457 Motor vehicle body repairers, see: Automotive body repairers.. 327 Motor vehicle inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.......................................................... 41 Motor vehicle repairers, see: Automotive mechanics.................... 329 Motorboat mechanics.......................................................................... 355 Motorcycle mechanics......................................................................... 355 Municipal clerks.................................................................................. 453 Musical instrument repairers and tuners ......................................... 357 Musicians.............................................................................................. 185 N Nannies, see: Private household workers........................................ 316 Neurophysiologic technologists, see: EEG technologists........... 193 New accounts clerks........................................................................... 259 News anchors or co-anchors, see: Radio and television announcers and newscasters.......................................................... 169 Newscasters.......................................................................................... 169 Newspaper reporters, see: Reporters and correspondents........... 171 Newswriters, see: Writers and editors.............................................. 173 Nuclear engineers.............................................................................. 69 Nuclear medicine technologists......................................................... 203 Nuclear technicians, see: Science technicians..................................223 Numerical-control machine-tool operators....................................... 401 Numerical-control tool programmers............................................... 224 Nurse practitioners, see: Registered nurses..................................... 160 Nursery workers.................................................................................. 454 Nurses, see: Licensed practical nurses............................................................... 199 Nursing aides and psychiatric aides.............................................. 302 Registered nurses............................................................................. 160 Nursing home administrators, see: Health services managers.... 35 Nutritionists.......................................................................................... 150 O Occupational analysts, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers............................. 48 Occupational health nurses, see: Registered nurses....................... 160 Occupational safety and health inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction............................. 41 Occupational therapists....................................................................... 152 Occupational therapy assistants and aides....................................... 454 Oceanographers, see: Geologists and geophysicists...................... 91 Office clerks, general.......................................................................... 256 Office electricians, see: Communications equipment mechanics........................................................................................ 333 Office machine repairers.................................................................... 335 Office managers, see: Clerical supervisors and managers ........... 250 Index Office nurses, see: Registered nurses............................................ . Operating engineers, see: Material moving equipment operators........................................................................................ . Operating room technicians, see: Surgical technologists........... . Operations research analysts.......................................................... . Ophthalmic dispensers, see: Dispensing opticians..................... . Ophthalmic laboratory technicians................................................ . Optical goods workers, see: Ophthalmic laboratory technicians...................................................................................... . Optical mechanics, see: Ophthalmic laboratory technicians...... . Opticians, dispensing....................................................................... . Optometrists....................................................................................... . Orchestra conductors, see: Musicians........................................... . Order clerks........................................................................................ . Orthodontic technicians, see: Dental laboratory technicians...... . Osteopathic physicians, see: Physicians........................................ . 160 436 208 81 191 428 428 428 191 141 185 274 427 143 P Package designers, see: Designers................................................... 175 Packaging and filling machine operators....................................... . 457 Painters and paperhangers................................................................ , 373 Painters, visual artists....................................................................... 180 Painting and coating machine operators......................................... . 430 Painting, coating, and decorating workers, hand......................... . 457 Paleontologists, see: Geologists and geoghysicists...................... 91 Paper goods machine setting and setup operators........................ 457 Paperhangers....................................................................................... 373 Paralegals............................................................................................. 221 Paramedics, see: Emergency medical technicians........................ 196 Parking lot attendants, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers.................................................................... 445 Parole officers, see: Social workers................................................ 115 Passenger agents and booking and rate clerks, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks 261 Pathologists, speech-language......................................................... 165 Patternmakers, apparel, see: Apparel workers.............................. 418 Paving, surfacing, and tamping equipment operators.................. 455 Payroll and timekeeping clerks........................................................ 256 PBX installers and repairers............................................................. 333 PBX operators, see: Telephone, telegraph, and teletype operators.......................................................................................... 280 Peripheral equipment operators, electronic data processing, see: Computer and peripheral equipment operators................. 251 Personal attendants, see: Private household workers .................. 316 Personnel clerks................................................................................. 275 Personnel consultants, see: Employment interviewers............................................................. 26 Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers............................................................................. 48 Personnel recruiters, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers............................ 48 Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers................................................................................. 48 Pest controllers and assistants.......................................................... 454 Petroleum engineers.......................................................................... 69 Petroleum technicians, see: Science technicians........................... 223 Pharmacists.......................................................................................... 153 Pharmacy assistants............................................................................ 454 Phlebotomists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.............................................................................. 187 Photoengraving workers................................................................... 414 Photofinishing laboratory workers, see: Photographic process workers........................................................................................... 432 Photogrammetrists, see: Surveyors.................................................. 74 Photographers and camera operators............................................... 177 Photographic equipment repairers................................................... 455 Photographic process workers......................................................... 432 Photographic retouchers and spotters, see: Photographic process workers............................................................................. 432 Photojoumalists, see: Photographers and camera operators ....... 177 Physical and corrective therapy assistants and aides.................... 454 Physical therapists ............................................................................. 155 Physician assistants............................................................................ 157 Physicians........................................................................................... 143 Physicists and astronomers............................................................... 94 Physiologists, see: Biological scientists......................................... 86 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 489 Piano technicians and tuners, see: Musical instrument repairers and tuners........................................................................ 357 Pilots, aircraft...................................................................................... 210 Pipefitters............................................................................................. 377 Pipelayers and pipelaying fitters....................................................... 455 Pipe-organ tuners and repairers, see: Musical instrument repairers and tuners........................................................................ 357 Placement directors, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers............................. 48 Plant breeders, see: Agricultural scientists .................................... 85 Plasterers............................................................................................. 375 Plastic molding and casting machine operators............................. 398 Plastic-working machine operators.................................................. 398 Plating and coating machine operators, metal and plastic.......... 396 Plumbers and pipefitters.................................................................... 377 Plumbing inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors......................................................................................... 19 Podiatrists............................................................................................ 146 Police, detectives, and special agents............................................. 290 Policy processing clerks, insurance, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors.......................................................... 244 Political scientists, see: Social scientists and urban planners...... 110 Postal clerks and mail carriers.......................................................... 268 Postal inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction ........................................................................ 41 Poultry scientists, see: Agricultural scientists................................ 85 Power distributors and dispatchers.................................................. 406 Power generating plant operators..................................................... 406 Power reactor operators..................................................................... 406 Power tool repairers, home appliances........................................... 347 Powerline installers and repairers, see: Line installers and cable splicers........................................................................... 350 Practical nurses, licensed.................................................................. 199 Precision assemblers........................................................................... 386 Precision instrument repairers........................................................... 455 Preschool teachers.............................................................................. 452 Presidents, corporate and other organizations, see: General managers and top executives........................................................ 32 Press operators, printing.................................................................... 416 Press secretaries, see: Public relations specialists......................... 168 Pressers and pressing machine operators, apparel, see: Apparel workers.............................................................................. 418 Priests, Roman Catholic.................................................................... 123 Principals, school, see: Education administrators......................... 25 Print developers, photographic, see: Photographic process workers............................................................................................ 432 Printmakers, visual artists................................................................. 180 Print shop stenographers, see: Stenographers................................ 278 Printing press operators..................................................................... 416 Prison guards, see: Correction officers........................................... 285 Private duty nurses, see: Registered nurses ................................... 160 Private household workers................................................................. 316 Probation officers, see: Social workers........................................... 115 Procurement clerks.............................................................................. 453 Producers, see: Actors, directors, and producers.......................... 182 Product managers, see: Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers ..................................................... 46 Production, planning, and expediting clerks................................... 453 Professors, see: College and university faculty............................. 123 Programmer-analysts, see: Computer programmers...................... 215 Programmers, computer..................................... 215 Programmers, tool.............................................................................. 224 Proofreaders and copy markers........................................................ 453 Property and real estate managers.................................................... 51 Protestant ministers............................................................................ 121 Psychiatric aides.................................................................................. 302 Psychiatric social workers, see: Social workers............................ 115 Psychologists....................................................................................... 105 Public affairs specialists, see: Public relations specialists......................................................................................... 168 Public health nurses, see: Registered nurses................................. 160 Public relations managers.................................................................. 46 Public relations specialists................................................................. 168 Public works inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors......................................................................................... 19 Purchasing agents and managers........................................................ 54 490 Occupational Outlook Handbook Q Quality assurance inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction.......................................................... 41 R Rabbis.................................................................................................. 122 Radiation protection specialists, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction........................... 41 Radiation therapy technologists, see: Radiologic technologists .. 205 Radio and television announcers and newscasters........................ 169 Radio and television service technicians, see: Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers.................................... 339 Radiopharmacists, see: Pharmacists............................................... 153 Radio repairers and mechanics, see: Communications equipment mechanics.................................................................... 333 Radiographers, see: Radiologic technologists................................ 205 Radiologic technologists................................................................... 205 Rail transportation occupations........................................................ 438 Rail yard engineers, dinkey operators, and hostlers, see: Rail transportation occupations................................................... 438 Railroad brake, signal, and switch operaters, see: Rail transportation occupations..................................................... 438 Railroad conductors and yardmasters, see: Rail transportation occupations..................................................................................... 438 Railroad inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction....................................................................... 41 Range conservationists, see: Foresters and conservation scientists.......................................................................................... 88 Range ecologists, see: Foresters and conservation scientists...... 88 Range managers, see: Foresters and conservation scientists....... 88 Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers.................................... 234 Real estate clerks................................................................................ 453 Real estate managers........................................................................ 51 Realtors, see: Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers.......... 234 Receptionists....................................................................................... 260 Record clerks..................................................................................... 270 Recording engineers, see: Broadcast technicians.......................... 214 Recreation attendants......................................................................... 453 Recreation workers........................................................................... 118 Recreational therapists...................................................................... 157 Recruiters, personnel, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers............................. 48 Refrigeration mechanics................................................................... 345 Refuse collectors, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers.................................................................................... 445 Regional planners.............................................................................. 110 Registered nurses................................................................................ 160 Registered representatives, securities, see: Securities and financial services sales representatives................................ 238 Registrars, see: Education administrators....................................... 25 Regulatory inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction....................................................................... 41 Rehabilitation counselors, see: Counselors.................................... 130 Reinforcing ironworkers................................................................... 383 Religious education and activities directors.................................. 452 Rental clerks....................................................................................... 228 Reporters and correspondents.......................................................... 171 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks ... 256 Residence counselors, see: Counselors........................................... 130 Respiratory care practitioners, see: Respiratory therapists.......... 163 Respiratory therapists......................................................................... 163 Restaurant and food service managers........................................... 56 Retail buyers....................................................................................... 60 Retail sales workers.......................................................................... 236 Revenue officers, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction....................................................................... 41 Riggers................................................................................................. 455 See also: Communications equipment mechanics................................. 333 Material moving equipment operators.................................... 436 Timber cutting and logging occupations................................ 323 Roman Catholic priests.................................................................... 123 Roofers................................................................................................. 378 Roustabouts........................................................................................ 379 Route drivers, see: Truckdrivers..................................................... 440 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis S Saddlemakers, see: Shoe and leather worker and repairers........ 420 Safety inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction......................................................................... 41 Sales engineers, see: Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives................................................................................ 232 Sales managers, see: Marketing, advertising, and public relations managers..................................................... 46 Sales workers, see: Cashiers.................................................. 227 Counter and rental clerks............................................................. 228 Insurance sales workers................................................................ 230 Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives................ 232 Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers............................... 234 Retail sales workers...................................................................... 236 Securities and financial services sales representatives............. 238 Services sales representatives...................................................... 240 Travel agents................................................................................... 242 Sanitarians, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction......................................................................... 41 Sanitation inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction........................................................................ 41 School counselors, see: Counselors.................................................. 130 School librarians, see: Librarians ..................................................... 133 School nurses, see: Registered nurses.............................................. 160 School principals and assistant principals, see: Education administrators.................................................................................. 25 School secretaries, see: Secretaries.................................................. 276 School social workers, see: Social workers................................... 115 School superintendents, see: General managers and top executives........................................................................... 32 School teachers, see: Adult and vocational education teachers..................................... 125 College and university faculty...................................................... 128 Kindergarten and elementary teachers......................................... 132 Secondary school teachers............................................................. 135 Science technicians............................................................................. 223 Screen printing setters and setup operators.................................... 457 Sculptors, see: Visual artists............................................................. 180 Seamen, see: Water transportation occupations.............................. 442 Secondary school teachers.................................................................. 135 Secret service agents, see: Police, detectives, and special agents........................................................................... 290 Secretaries............................................................................................ 276 Securities and financial services sales representatives.................. 238 Securities traders, see: Securities and financial services sales representatives................................................................................. 238 Security guards, see: Guards............................................................. 288 Seismologists, see: Geologists and geophysicists.......................... 91 Semiconductor processors................................................................. 456 Separating and still machine operators and tenders...................... 457 Service station attendants, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers.......................................................................445 Service technicians, see: Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers ................ 339 Home appliance and power tool repairers.................................. 347 Services sales representatives............................................................ 240 Setters and setup operators, metalworking and plastic-working machine............................................................................................. 396 Setters and setup operators, textile machine...................................421 Sewage treatment plant operators.................................................... 409 Sewers and sewing machine operators, apparel, see: Apparel workers.............................................................................. 418 Sheet-metal workers........................................................................... 381 Sheriffs and deputy sheriffs............................................................. 454 Ship captains and pilots, see: Water transportation occupations. 442 Ship engineers, see: Water transportation occupations................ 442 Shipfitters.............................................................................................. 457 Shipping and receiving clerks............................................................ 267 Shoe and leather workers and repairers........................................... 420 Shoe sewing machine operators and tenders................................. 458 Short order cooks............................................................................... 294 Shorthand reporters, see: Stenographers........................................ 278 Signal or track switch maintainers, see: Communications equipment mechanics..................................................................... 333 Silversmiths, see: Jewelers............................................................... 392 Index Singers, see: Musicians................................................................... . 185 Social scientists................................................................................. . 101 Social secretaries, see: Secretaries................................................ . 276 Social service technicians, see: Human services workers.......... . 113 Social work assistants, see: Human services workers................ , 113 Social workers................................................................................... . 115 Sociologists ....................................................................................... . 108 Soil conservationists, see: Foresters and conservation scientists . 88 Soil scientists, see: Agricultural scientists................................... . 85 Solderers and brazers....................................................................... . 458 Soldering and brazing machine operators, tenders, setters, and setup operators...................................................................... . 458 Sonographers, see: Radiologic technologists............................... . 205 Speech-language pathologists and audiologists........................... . 165 Sportscasters, see: Radio and television announcers and newscasters.............................................................................. 169 Spray painters..................................................................................... . 430 Spreaders, apparel, see: Apparel workers ...................................... 418 Sprinklerfitters, see: Plumbers and pipefitters............................... . 377 State police officers, see: Police, detectives, and special agents........................................................................... 290 Statement clerks................................................................................. . 272 Station installers, see: Telephone installers and repairers........... . 358 Stationary engineers........................................................................... 407 Statistical clerks................................................................................. . 453 Statisticians........................................................................................... 82 Steamfitters, see: Plumbers and pipefitters..................................... 377 Steel workers....................................................................................... 399 Stenographers..................................................................................... . 278 Stenotype operators, see: Stenographers......................................... 278 Stevedores, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers..................................................................................... 445 Stewardesses and stewards, airline, see: Flight attendants........... 310 Stock clerks........................................................................................ . 266 Stock handlers, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers.................................................................................... . 445 Stockbrokers, see: Securities and financial services sales representatives................................................................................. 238 Stockroom clerks, see: Stock clerks................................................ 266 Stonemasons........................................................................................ 362 Stratigraphers, see: Geologists and geophysicists........................ 91 Structural and reinforcing ironworkers............................................ 383 Stucco masons, see: Plasterers......................................................... 375 Student development specialists, see: Counselors........................ 130 Subway and streetcar operators, see: Rail transportation occupations..................................................................................... 438 Supervisors, see: Blue-collar worker supervisors................................................... 387 Clerical supervisors and managers............................................. 250 Supervisors, agricultural, forestry, fishing, and related occupations............................................................ 454 Surgeons.............................................................................................. 143 Surgeons’ assistants........................................................................... 157 Surgical technologists....................................................................... 208 Survey technicians, see: Surveyors................................................ 74 Survey workers, see: Interviewing and new accounts clerks...... 259 Surveyors............................................................................................. 74 Switchboard operators, see: Electric power generating plant operators and power distributors and dispatchers...................................................... 406 Telephone, telegraph, and teletype operators........................... 280 Systems analysts, computer............................................................. 77 Systems programmers, see: Computer programmers.................. 217 T Tailors, see: Apparel workers.......................................................... Taxi drivers and chauffeurs............................................................. Teacher aides...................................................................................... Teachers, see: Adult and vocational education teachers.................................... College and university faculty..................................................... Kindergarten and elementary school teachers........................... Preschool........................................................................................ Secondary school teachers............................................................ Technical secretaries, see: Secretaries............................................ Technical writers, see: Writers and editors................................... https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 418 458 279 125 128 132 452 135 276 173 491 Technicians, see: Air traffic controllers..................................................................... 212 Broadcast technicians..................................................................... 214 Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians...................... 187 Computer programmers................................................................. 215 Dental hygienists............................................................................. 189 Dispensing opticians....................................................................... 191 Drafters............................................................................................ 217 EEG technologists.......................................................................... 193 EKG technicians............................................................................. 195 Emergency medical technicians .................................................. 196 Engineering technicians................................................................. 219 Library technicians.......................................................................... 220 Licensed practical nurses.............................................................. 199 Medical record technicians........................................................... 201 Nuclear medicine technologists.................................................... 203 Paralegals......................................................................................... 221 Radiologic technologists............................................................... 205 Science technicians........................................................................ 223 Surgical technologists.................................................................... 208 Tool programmers, numerical control........................................ 224 Telegraph operators............................................................................ 280 Telegraph plant maintainers, see: Communications equipment mechanics........................................................................................ 335 Telemarketing representatives, see: Interviewing and new accounts clerks....................................................... 259 Telephone-answering-service operators, see: Telephone, telegraph, and teletype operators................................................. 280 Telephone installers............................................................................. 358 Telephone line installers and repairers, see: Line installers and cable splicers........................................................................... 350 Telephone repairers............................................................................. 358 Telephone, telegraph, and teletype operators................................ 280 Teletype installers, see: Communications equipment mechanics........................................................................................ 333 Teletype operators.............................................................................. 280 Television announcers and newscasters.......................................... 169 Television camera operators, see: Photographers and camera operators........................................................................................... 177 Television service technicians, see: Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers.............................................. 339 Tellers, bank........................................................................................ 248 Terrazzo workers................................................................................. 366 Testers.................................................................................................. 390 Textile designers, see: Designers..................................................... 175 Textile machinery operators.............................................................. 421 Therapeutic recreation specialists, see: Recreational therapists .. 159 Therapists, see: Occupational therapists.................................................................. 152 Physical therapists......................................................................... 155 Recreational therapists.................................................................. 159 Respiratory therapists..................................................................... 163 Speech-language pathologists and audiologists......................... 165 Ticket agents and clerks, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks..................................................... 261 Ticket sellers, see: Cashiers............................................................................................ 227 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks.............................................................................. 261 Tilesetters.............................................................................................. 384 Timber cutting and logging workers................................................ 323 Timekeeping clerks............................................................................ 256 Tire building machine operators....................................................... 458 Tire repairers and changers............................................................... 455 Title examiners, searchers, and clerks........................................... 452 Tool and die makers........................................................................... 402 Tool programmers, numerical control............................................. 224 Tower-crane operators, see: Material moving equipment operators........................................................................................... 436 Traffic controllers, air........................................................................ 212 Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks........................................... 267 Training specialists, see: Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists and managers............................. 48 Transcribing machine operators, see: Stenographers.................... 278 Transmitter engineers and operators, see: Broadcast technicians........................................................................................ 214 492 Occupational Outlook Handbook Transportation managers................................................................... Transportation ticket agents............................................................. Trappers.............................................................................................. Travel agents...................................................................................... Travel clerks...................................................................................... Treasurers, see: Financial managers............................................... Treatment plant operators, water and wastewater........................ Trouble locators, see: Communications equipment mechanics... Truck mechanics, see: Diesel mechanics...................................... Truckdrivers........................................................................................ Trust officers, see: Financial managers......................................... Tuners, musical instruments............................................................ Tutors, see: Private household workers......................................... Typesetters......................................................................................... Typists, word processors, and data entry keyers.......................... 452 261 320 242 261 30 409 333 337 440 30 357 316 412 282 U Ultrasound technologists, see: Radiologic technologists............. Underwriters...................................................................................... University faculty.............................................................................. Upholsterers........................................................................................ Urban and regional planners............................................................ Ushers, lobby attendants, and ticket agents.................................. Utilities operations managers.......................................................... 205 58 128 424 110 454 452 V Vehicle washers, see: Flandlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers.................................................................................... Vending machine servicers and repairers...................................... Veterinarians...................................................................................... Veterinary technicians and assistants, see: Animal caretakers, except farm..................................................................................... Vice presidents, corporate and other organizations, see: General managers and top executives........................................ Video-control engineers, see: Broadcast technicians.................... Visual artists...................................................................................... Vocational counselors, see: Counselors......................................... Vocational education and training teachers.................................... Vocational nurses, licensed, see: Licensed practical nurses....... Vocational rehabilitation counselors, see: Counselors................. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 445 360 147 304 32 214 180 130 125 199 130 W Wage-hour compliance inspectors, see: Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction........................... 41 Waiters and waitresses, see: Food and beverage service workers............................................................................... 296 Ward attendants, see: Nursing aides and psychiatric aides........ 302 Warehouse clerks, see: Stock clerks................................................ 266 Washers, vehicles, see: Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers.......................................................................445 Watchmakers....................................................................................... 455 Water and wastewater treatment plant operators.......................... 409 Water transportation occupations..................................................... 442 Weathercasters, see: Radio and television announcers and newscasters............................................................................. 169 Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping... 453 Welders, cutters, and welding machine operators........................ 404 Welfare eligibility workers and interviewers, see: Adjusters, investigators, and collectors......................................................... 244 Wholesale and retail buyers.............................................................. 60 Wholesale trade sales workers, see: Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives............................................. 232 Wood machine operators .................................................................. 425 Wood machinists................................................................................ 425 Wood pattern and model makers..................................................... 425 Woodworkers, precision................................................................... 425 Woodworking occupations............................................................... 425 Word processing machine operators, see: Typists, word processors, and data entry keyers..................................... 282 Word processors.................................................................................. 282 Writers and editors............................................................................. 173 Writers, technical, see: Writers and editors.................................. 173 X X-ray technicians, see: Radiologic technologists.......................... 205 Y Yard clerks, see: Stock clerks......................................................... 266 Z Zookeepers, see: Animal caretakers, except farm........................ 304 Zoologists, see: Biological scientists................................................. 86 Related Publications Occupational Projections and Training Data Outlook 1990 Edition 2000 U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics April 1990 A Statistical and Research Supplement to the 1990-91 Occupational Outlook Handbook U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics April 1990 Bulletin 2351 ilillllilillKlliiiiilliWiilRiiilllliiHliii IIIIII.INM ®&88PiSi8SMS*®«&88«8gS!W!SS«!BSSS«8&Sera®SSMi8SI&&8a$8lt8 SWISS 8»S8®»K*»“»™***s«8SSSSSSiS8SSiir-r-^:— SttttiRMIKSMI’-'lBiiMliaaaHBSKtKK JL lliinfliP; ■•.'?««««««_§»_ ' »MM .s '. *■»* L. Ik ? BLS Bulletin 2351 BLS Bulletin 2352 Occupational Projections and Training Data, 1990 Edition Outlook 2000 This supplement to the Occupational Outlook Handbook provides the statistical and technical data supporting the information presented in the Handbook. Education and training planners, career counselors, and jobseekers can find valuable information that ranks occupations by employment growth, earnings, susceptibility to unemployment, separation rates, and part-time work. Every 2 years, the Bureau of Labor Statistics produces detailed projections of the U.S. economy and labor force. This bulletin presents the Bureau’s latest analyses of economic and industrial growth, the labor force, and trends in occupational employment through the end of the century. An overview article focuses on important issues raised by these projections. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Note: At press time, prices for these publications were not available. For prices and ordering information, contact any of the Bureau of Labor Statistics Regional Offices listed on the inside of the front cover, or the Division of Occupational Outlook Bureau of Labor Statistics 600 E Street, NW. Washington, DC 20212. Phone (202) 272-5381. ■ttu. S GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1990 256-577 Excellence The Society for Technical Communication Washington, DC Chapter presents this AWARD OF EXCELLENCE to Melvin Fountain for Occupational Outlook Quarterly Summer I9H7 submitted to the 1987-1988 Technical Communications Competition Chapter President Graphic Design in die Age of Computers .r in Style in Content Excellence. The Occupational Outlook Quarterly has won more than a dozen awards during the past decade because of its excellence in content and style. And it's a great value to boot! For just $5 you will receive four issues covering such subjects as * • emerging occupations • new technology • labor force trends • earnings and benefits. Subscribe and find out why. in Value. Just what you need to help people make a career decision. Each issue is must reading for career guidance counselors, students, and employment specialists who want the latest word on careers from the Bureau of Labor Statistics. For sale by the U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, DC 20402. One-year subscription: $5; 2-year subscription: $10; single issue: $2. Make check payable to the Superintendent of Documents. Occupational Outlook Quarterly https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis j izaBSS [flutai @iaal 1Va«I 5SIp!i, 'liSlSjSSH IK ■Bii :iS:SS3' i>M EK sms ■4m 55» ftss’s^ mmj E5!l*V«w*V. li ?&*!5!*ISI8§ ;.y;. ; ,^:r i5? 45 ; i • as- H’ irfr/yi? ' Sawn* Sllllllf •Ml III I ‘"•UIHIIIII < 111 till ^.rgrsrjr BacKJ'S$ * "»*S!| ■s^m.A yj'E^terlg 0 Shift •pass'll' l e t^t-v Cl 7T*p^ $ • ‘ Mm | f r\'% -; https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis , '! ■%': ■ mm - . -V-r
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