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«a. 3 J < + '. - Occupational Outlook Handbook U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics April 1986 1986-87 Edition Bulletin 2250 Things Worth Noting Pointers on interpreting the information presented in the Handbook are found in the section How To Get the Most From the Handbook, page 1. • Additional career-oriented materials, available from private and public organizations, are described in the section Where To Go for More Information, page 7. • An overview of job growth through the mid-1990’s is given in Tomorrow’s Jobs, page 13. For some 200 occupations not covered in detail in the Handbook, appendix A, page 469, provides5 a brief description of the nature of the work, number of jobs in 1984, and the projected 1984-95 change in employment. • The assumptions and methods used in preparing BLS employment projections are described briefly in appendix B, page 489. • Sources of State and local job outlook information can be found in appendix C, page 492. • Occupational Projections and Training Data and the Occupational Outlook Quarterly are publications that complement or supplement material presented in the Handbook. See page 523 and the inside back cover for information about these publications. • The index beginning on page 513 lists the occupations described in the Handbook in alphabetical order Occupational Outlook Handbook U.S. Department of Labor William E. Brock, Secretary Bureau of Labor Statistics Janet L. Norwood, Commissioner April 1986 Bulletin 2250 1986-87 Edition Foreword he selection of an occupation is one of the most important decisions in a person’s life. For the young jobseeker, ques tions abound as to what skills are required in each field and how those skills may be attained or refined. Furthermore, while jobseekers may be aware of their own interests and abilities, they face the perplexing choice of selecting a field which promises the greatest economic and personal satisfaction. As technological advances rapidly alter the job market, it is not only the young who need current, accurate, and comprehensive career information. The choices are no easier for persons seeking a career change or for those entering the labor force at later stages in their lives. The availability of career information is vital to all jobseekers and to our Nation as a whole. Since the late 1940’s, the Occupational Outlook Handbook has been an invaluable primary source of vocational guidance information. In clear language, it describes what workers do in each job, the training and education they need, earnings, working conditions, and expected job prospects for selected occupations covering a wide spectrum of the economy. I am certain that the updated 1986-87 edition of the Occupational Outlook Handbook will provide valuable assistance to everyone seeking satisfying and productive employment. JAN E T L. NORWOOD Commissioner Bureau o f Labor Statistics mi Acknowledgments The Handbook was produced in the Bureau of Labor Statistics under the general guidance and direction of Neal H. Rosenthal, Chief, Division of Occupational Outlook, and Ronald E. Kutscher, Associate Commissioner for Economic Growth and Employment Projections. Michael Pilot, Manager, Occupational Outlook Program, was respon sible for planning and day-to-day direction. Project leaders supervising the research and preparation of material were Daniel E. Hecker, Anne Kahl, Chester C. Levine, and Patrick Wash. Occupational analysts who contributed material were William M. Austin, Verada P. Bluford, Douglas J. Braddock, Donald E. Clark, Conley Hall Dillon, Jr., Lawrence C. Drake, Jr., Sandy Gamliel, Arthur J. Gartaganis, Ludmilla K. Murphy, Thomas Nardone, H. James Neary, Jon Q. Sargent, Stephen G. Tise, and Martha C. White. The occupational data in appendix A were compiled by Joel P. Segaloff and Audrey J. Watson. Rosalind Springsteen and Mary Ellen Ayres of the Office of Publications coordinated the gathering and editing of photographs. Under the direction of Beverly A. Williams, word processing was handled by Brenda A. Marshall, Marilyn W. Queen, and Idena B. Sanders. N o te A great many trade associations, professional societies, unions, indus trial organizations, and government agencies provide career information that is valuable to counselors and jobseekers. For the convenience of Handbook users, some of these organizations are listed at the end of each occupational statement. Although these references were carefully compiled, the Bureau of Labor Statistics has neither authority nor facilities for investigating the organizations or the information or publi cations that may be sent in response to a request and cannot guarantee the accuracy of such information. The listing of an organization, there fore, does not constitute in any way an endorsement or recommendation by the Bureau either of the organization and its activities or of the information it may supply. Each organization has sole responsibility for whatever information it may issue. The occupational information contained in the Handbook presents a general, composite description of jobs and cannot be expected to reflect work situations in specific establishments or localities. The Handbook, therefore, is not intended and should not be used as a guide for determining wages, hours, the right of a particular union to represent workers, appropriate bargaining units, or formal job evaluation systems. Nor should earnings data in the Handbook be used to compute future loss of earnings in adjudication proceedings involving work injuries or accidental deaths. Material in this publication is in the public domain and, with appro priate credit, may be reproduced without permission. Comments about the contents and suggestions for improvement are welcome. Please address them to Chief, Division of Occupational Outlook, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C. 20212. iv Photograph Credits The Bureau of Labor statistics wishes to ex press its appreciation for the cooperation and assistance of the many government and pri vate sources—listed below—that either con tributed photographs or made their facilities available to photographers working under contract to the U.S. Department of Labor. Photographs may not be free of every possible safety or health hazard. Depiction of company or trade name in no way constitutes endorse ment by the Department of Labor. Adder and Typewriter Exchange, Inc. Alexandria Hospital Almi, Inc. American Association of Museums American Petroleum Institute AMS, Inc. Marie Carmine Aponte The Appalachian Bluegrass Shoppe Artech Corp. Ashland Nursery, Inc. Autographix, Inc. Baltimore City Parks Department Baltimore City Police Department Baltimore City Solicitors Office Baltimore City Water/Sewage Department Baltimore County, Maryland, Government Baltimore Hydraulics, Inc. The Baltimore Sun Baltimore/Washington International Airport Fred C. Bauer Florists Bechtel Bethesda Iron Works Blakeslee-Lane, Inc.— Bob O ’Boyle C & P Telephone Caplan Bros., Inc. Oscar Caplan and Sons, Inc. Chateau Builders Cochran, Stephenson & Donkervoet Connor Electronics Connor Travel Agency Daniel Construction & Development Co. The Electric Motor Repair Co. The Fick Bros. Roofing Co. Fine Foods Meat Market, Inc. Howard P. Foley Co. FoodTown, Inc. Geico Insurance Companies Georgetown Medical Center Georgetown University Harper Insurance Co. Holiday Inn, Baltimore/Washington International Airport J. E. Hurley Machine and Boilerworks, Inc. Hutzler’s Hyatt Hotels George Hyman Construction Company Jimmy’s Shoe Repair Johns Hopkins University Johnson Appliance, Inc. Johnson and Towers Kelly Machine Repair, Inc. J. S. Lee Body Shop Loyola College Martin Marietta Corporation Maryland General Hospital Medical Arts Opticians Merrill Lynch Pierce Fenner & Smith, Inc. Middlestadt Machine Co., Inc. Montgomery County, Maryland, Public Schools v North Carolina School of the Arts Olympic Upholstery Co. Precision Tune Pride Auto Paint & Body Shop State o f Maryland, Department o f Natural Resources, Forestry and Parks Struever Brothers & Eccles Towson State University (State o f Maryland) Union Carpet Services, Inc. U .S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service U .S. Department of Commerce, Weather Service U .S. Department of Housing and Urban Development U .S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines U .S. Department of Labor U .S. General Accounting Office U .S. Government Printing Office U .S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration— Goddard Space Flight Center U .S. Treasury Department, Customs Service U.S. Veterans Administration Hospital Universal Communication System , Inc. White & Herman Distributors, Inc. YMCA Contents Special Features page How To Get the Most From the Handbook 1 Where To Go for More Information 7 13 Summary Data for Occupations Not Covered in the Handbook 469 Assumptions and Methods Used in Preparing Employment 489 Projections 492 Dictionary of Occupational Titles 495 Index Index to Occupations 513 Reprints From the Occupational 521 Outlook Handbook Information About Companion 523 Publications and inside back cover page Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations Managers and administrators Tomorrow’s Jobs: An Overview Sources of State and Local Job Outlook Information Occupations Bank officers and managers Health services managers Hotel managers and assistants School principals and assistant principals Management support occupations Accountants and auditors 23 ~$P 72 26 Computer systems analysts 74 28 Mathematicians 75 ©? Statisticians 77 Physical scientists 80 Chemists 80 Geologists and geophysicists 82 36 Meteorologists 83 37 Physicists and astronomers 84 34 Life scientists Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction 42 Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists 45 Purchasing agents 49 Underwriters 51 Wholesale and retail buyers 52 87 55 55 , 60 Agricultural scientists 87 Biological scientists 57 Engineers Computer and mathematical occupations 72 40 Surveyors page Actuaries Construction and building inspectors Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects Architects Occupations 88 Foresters and conservation scientists 91 Social Scientists, Social W orkers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers Lawyers Social scientists and urban planners 94 94 99 Psychologists 101 104 Sociologists 107 Economists Urban and regional planners 109 Aerospace engineers 63 Chemical engineers 63 Civil engineers 64 Electrical and electronics engineers 65 Industrial engineers 65 Protestant ministers 119 Mechanical engineers 66 Rabbis 121 Metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers 67 Roman Catholic priests 122 Mining engineers 68 Nuclear engineers 68 Petroleum engineers 69 Natural Scientists and Mathematicians VI Social and recreation workers 112 112 Recreation workers 71 Social workers 116 Religious workers Teachers, Counselors, Librarians, Archivists and Curators 119 125 Kindergarten and elementary school teachers 126 Secondary school teachers 128 Occupations page Adult and vocational education teachers 130 College and university faculty 132 Counselors 134 Librarians 137 Archivists and curators 140 Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners Occupations page Writers, Artists, and Entertainers Communications occupations Public relations specialists Securities and financial services sales workers 263 208 Travel agents 265 208 Wholesale trade sales workers 267 Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical 269 269 212 Bank tellers Bookkeepers and accounting 271 clerks 143 Writers and editors 215 Chiropractors 144 Visual arts occupations 218 Dentists 145 Designers 218 Optometrists 147 Graphic and fine artists 221 Physicians 149 Podiatrists 153 Photographers and camera operators 223 Veterinarians 154 Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and 157 Physician Assistants page 207 Radio and television announcers and newscasters 210 Reporters and correspondents Occupations Computer and peripheral equipment operators 273 Data entry keyers 274 Mail carriers and postal clerks 275 Receptionists and information clerks 278 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks 279 Secretaries 281 Statistical clerks 284 Stenographers 285 234 Teacher aides 287 Drafters 234 Telephone operators 288 Performing arts occupations Actors, directors, and producers 226 226 Dancers and choreographers 228 Musicians 230 Dietitians and nutritionists 158 Occupational therapists 160 Pharmacists 162 Physical therapists 166 Physician assistants 168 Recreational therapists 171 Registered nurses , 174 Electrical and electronics technicians 235 Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks 290 Respiratory therapists 177 Engineering technicians 237 Typists 292 Speech pathologists and audiologists Science technicians 179 239 Health Technologists and Technicians Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians Engineering and science technicians 233 Other technicians 183 186 Dispensing opticians 187 Electrocardiograph technicians 189 241 Broadcast technicians 243 244 Legal assistants 247 Library technicians 249 Tool programmers, numerical control 250 Marketing and Sales Occupations Electroencephalographic technologists and technicians 191 Emergency medical technicians 193 Licensed practical nurses 196 Medical record technicians 198 Radiologic technologists Surgical technicians 295 Correction officers 297 Firefighting occupations 299 Guards 301 Police and detectives 303 Food and beverage preparation and service occupations 306 Bartenders 253 Insurance sales workers 255 M anufacturers’ sales workers 257 200 Real estate agents and brokers 259 204 Retail sales workers 261 306 Chefs and cooks, except short order 308 Waiters and waitresses 310 Health service occupations 253 Cashiers vii Service Occupations Protective service occupations 297 Air traffic controllers Computer programmers 182 Dental hygienists Technologists and Technicians, Except Health 312 Dental assistants 312 Medical assistants 314 Nursing aides and psychiatric aides 316 Occupations Cleaning service occupations Janitors and cleaners Personal service occupations page 319 319 321 Barbers 321 Childcare workers 323 Cosmetologists and related workers 325 Flight attendants Agricultural, Forestry, and Fishing Occupations Farm operators and managers Mechanics and Repairers Occupations page Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics 364 Occupations page Compositors and typesetters 415 Millwrights Dental laboratory technicians 417 366 Jewelers 419 368 Industrial machinery repairers Lithographic and photoengraving workers 421 Machinists 422 Musical instrument repairers and tuners 369 327 Office machine and cash register servicers 371 Photographic process workers 425 329 Vending machine servicers and repairers 373 Shoe and leather workers and repairers 426 Tool-and-die makers 428 Upholsterers 430 329 Construction and Extractive Occupations 376 333 Construction occupations 377 Plant and system operators 432 Bricklayers and stonemasons 379 Stationary engineers Carpenters 381 Carpet installers 382 W ater and sewage treatment 434 plant operators Automotive and motorcycle 336 mechanics Concrete masons and terrazzo workers 384 Automotive body repairers 339 Drywall workers and lathers 385 Diesel mechanics 341 Electricians 387 Farm equipment mechanics 343 Glaziers 389 Insulation workers 391 Painters and paperhangers 392 Plasterers 394 Plumbers and pipefitters 396 Roofers 398 Sheet-metal workers Structural and reinforcing metal workers 399 401 Tilesetters 403 Vehicle and mobile equipment 334 mechanics and repairers Aircraft mechanics and engine specialists Mobile heavy equipment mechanics Electrical and electronic equipment repairers 334 345 348 Commercial and industrial electronic equipment 348 repairers Communications equipment 350 mechanics Computer service technicians Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers 353 Roustabouts Production Occupations Line installers and cable splicers 358 Telephone installers and repairers 360 Other mechanics and repairers 363 General maintenance mechanics 363 436 Metalworking and plastic-working machine operators 436 N umerical-control machine-tool operators 438 Printing press operators 440 Fabricators, assemblers, and handworking occupations 442 Precision assemblers 442 Transportation equipment painters 444 Welders and cutters 446 Transportation and Material Moving Occupations 449 405 Aircraft pilots 449 Busdrivers 452 408 Construction machinery operators 455 408 Industrial truck and tractor operators 457 Truckdrivers 458 355 356 Machine operators, tenders, and setup workers 405 Extractive occupations Home appliance and power tool repairers 432 Blue-collar worker supervisors Precision production occupations 411 Boilermakers 411 Handlers, Equipment Cleaners, Helpers, and Laborers 462 Bookbinding workers 412 Construction trades helpers 462 Butchers and meatcutters 414 viii Military Occupations 464 How To Get the Most From the Handbook W hether you are preparing to enter the world of work for the first time, pursuing postsecondary education, planning to reenter the labor force after an absence, or considering changing occupations, you probably have many questions about the job market. Among the many resources available to help you make an in formed career choice is the Occupa tional Outlook Handbook. The Handbook describes in detail about 200 occupations—comprising about 3 of every 5 jobs in the econo my. Although occupations covering the full spectrum of work are includ ed, generally those th at require lengthy education or training or which are projected to grow rapidly are giv en the most attention. Thus, as the following tabulation shows, more than 90 percent of all technicians and relat ed occupations, as well as of profes sional specialties, are covered, but only 10 percent of the handler, equip ment cleaner, helper, and laborer oc cupations. P ercen t o f O c c u p a tio n a l g r o u p group covered Technicians and related occupations . 98 Professional specialty occupations. . . 92 Construction o ccu p atio n s.......................90 Mechanics and repairers..........................87 Transportation and material moving occu p atio n s........................................... 83 Management support occupations . . . 72 Marketing and sales occupations. . . . 66 Service o c c u p a tio n s ............................... 63 Administrative support occupations, including clerical.................................. 53 Extractive occupations.............................46 Agricultural, forestry, and fishing occu p atio n s........................................... 41 Production o c c u p a tio n s..........................40 Managers and adm inistrators................. 13 Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and la b o r e r s .......................... 10 Besides these 200 detailed analyses, information about 200 occupations— comprising 20 percent of all jobs in the economy—is presented in an appen dix beginning on page 469. Included is a brief occupational description along with the number of jobs in 1984 and a phrase describing projected employ ment change from 1984 to 1995. This information is developed as part of the Bureau’s ongoing industry and occu pational employment projections pro gram. The Handbook is not meant to be read from beginning to end. Start by browsing through the table of con tents or the alphabetical index. Look for occupations that interest you, or for those that sound familiar. Occupa tions are grouped in clusters of related occupations that adhere in principle to the system outlined in the 1980 Stan dard O ccupational C lassification Manual. For an overview, read the introduc tory chapter, Tomorrow’s Jobs. It dis cusses some of the broad trends that are likely to shape the economy and the world of work through the mid1990’s. security you will enjoy, and the level of earnings you are likely to have. These decisions depend on values you already hold. Publications on career decisionmak ing abound, and these generally ex plain how you can assess your values and skills on your own. Counselors and other professionals trained in hu man behavior also can help you gain insight into yourself by administering diagnostic tests, for example, and then interpreting and discussing the results with you. Woven throughout every statement in the Handbook is information that can help you match yourself to the world of work. The following list of job characteristics should be kept in mind, since you will find them men tioned in several different sections of a typical Handbook statement. Re member that the importance of at tributes such as those listed below varies from job to job, as well as from person to person. Matching Yourself With the World of Work —Able to see results—refers to jobs that produce an actual product or accom plishment. Important as it is to learn about the world of work, the first step in making a sound career choice is finding out about yourself. Identifying your inter ests and abilities can help you match yourself to the world of work. Does science or math interest you? Do you like to write? Do you enjoy working with your hands and building things? The answers to such questions can help you discover your strengths, and may suggest careers that would be worthwhile to explore. An understanding of your values and goals also will help you determine what you’re looking for in a career. For when you make a career choice, you’re directly or indirectly making decisions about the types of people you will associate with, the amount of leisure time you will have, where you will live and work, the amount of job —Competition on the job—competition with coworkers for projects, recogni tion, or advancement is an integral part of the job. —Creativity—involves devising new ideas, programs, designs, or products. —Frequent public contact—involves dayto-day contact with people who need information or service. —Generally confined—involves staying in one place most of the time. —Hazardous—involves the use of poten tially dangerous equipment or materials or work in dangerous surroundings. —Influences others—requires the ability to stimulate others to think or act in a certain way. 1 —Initiative—demands the ability to deter mine on one’s own what should be done, as well as the motivation to do it without close supervision. —Instructs others—needs the ability to help others learn how to do or under stand something. —Outdoors—requires a major portion of time to be spent outdoors, frequently without regard to weather conditions. —Part time—refers to work of less than 35 hours a week. —Physical stamina—involves the ability to lift heavy objects, walk long dis tances, stand for long periods, or stoop frequently. —Precision—involves high standards of accuracy. —Problem-solving ability—requires the ability to identify a problem and then decide what should be done to correct it. —Repetitious—involves work in which the same thing is done over and over again. — Uses tools, machinery—takes a talent for working with your hands and ma chines to produce, maintain, or repair something. — Works as part o f a team—cooperation with coworkers is an integral part of the job. — W o r k s with detail—involves technical data, numbers, or written materials. Suppose you have a flair for writing and want to put your talent to work in the field o f com m unications or pub lishing. Y ou might look for a job as a: —Journalist —Public relations specialist —Technical writer —Editor Writing and publishing jo b s aren’t the only on es that require an excellent command o f language, how ever. C om m unications skills are vital to many occupations, and the more skills p eo ple have in English and language arts, the more valuable they will be in the working world. To locate Handbook statem ents on occupations that require writing skills, start with the section on com m unica tions occupations, but remember that 2 that is only the beginning! Skim the table of contents, or read the intro ductory material at the beginning of each occupational cluster, to deter mine which other occupations are worth investigating. Don’t limit yourself by examining only a few occupations. You’ll want to begin with those that interest you most, of course, but don’t rule out others too soon. Some jobs may not appeal to you simply because you’re not familiar with them. They might be worth looking into. Remember, also, that you haven’t wasted your time if you investigate a career only to decide that it’s not right for you. What’s In the Handbook Once you have chosen an occupation you’d like to learn more about, you can use the Handbook to find out what the job is like, what education and training are needed, what the ad vancement possibilities, earnings, and job outlook are likely to be, and what related occupations you might want to explore. Each statement in the Hand book follows a standard format, mak ing it easier to compare different jobs. What follows is a description of the major sections of a Handbook state ment, plus some hints on how to use the information. A b o u t T h o s e N u m b e r s a t th e B e g in n in g o f E a c h S ta te m e n t The numbers in parentheses that ap pear just below the title of most occu pational statements are D.O.T. codes. D.O.T. stands for the Dictionary o f Occupational Titles, a U.S. Depart ment of Labor publication. Each num ber helps classify jobs by the type of work done, required training, physical dem ands, and working conditions. D.O.T. numbers are used primarily by State public employment service of fices to classify applicants and job openings. They are included in the Handbook because some career infor mation centers and libraries use them for filing occupational information. An index in the back of this book cross-ref erences the D.O.T. numbers to occu pations covered in the Handbook. Nature of the Work This section tells what workers typi cally do on the job, what tools or equipment they use, how closely they are supervised, and how their respon sibilities fit in with those of others in the same workplace. In practice, job duties vary a good deal, depending on the size or type of employer. In gen eral, people in small organizations handle a wider variety of tasks than those in large offices or firms, where workers are likely to specialize in one or more aspects of the job. Working Conditions When considering an occupation, you may want to find out whether the working conditions suit you. Some aspects of the work may strike you as difficult, dirty, or otherwise undesir able. Other aspects may appeal to you. Most jobs offer a little of both. For example, when overtime is re quired, employees must give up some of their free time and be flexible in their personal lives. This is offset, however, by the opportunity to earn extra income or time off. This section presents information about work set tings and environment, physical and psychological demands, as well as po tential hazards. Employment This section tells how many jobs there were in the occupation in 1984. The size of an occupation has a lot to do with job prospects because the larger the occupation, the greater the num ber of openings when workers trans fer to other occupations or leave the labor force. In exceptionally large oc cupations, employment size is the sin gle most important determinant of the number of jobs anticipated through the mid-1990’s. Because of economic necessity or personal desire, some people hold more than one job. About 5 percent of all workers are dual jobholders. Work ers in some occupations, such as den tal hygienists, may work for more than one employer because jobs are available only on a part-time basis. This section also tells whether an occupation is concentrated in certain industries or geographic areas. Some jobs are found throughout the country and in almost every industry. Others are concentrated in certain parts of the country. This type of information helps you know where to go to look for the kind of job you want. It also is useful to those who have strong pref erences about where they live. Many people prefer working for themselves rather than being a wage and salary employee. Self-employed workers have greater control over their working conditions, the type of work they do, and their earnings. If this type of employment interests you, you should examine this section carefully because it will tell you what proportion of jobs in the occupation are held by people who are selfemployed. In addition, information on parttime employment may be included. For students, homemakers, retired persons, and others who may want to work part time, knowing which occu pations offer good opportunities for part-time work can be a valuable lead in finding a job. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement This section should be read carefully because preparing for an occupation can mean a considerable investment of time and money. If you currently are in school, it’s a good idea to look closely at the high school and college courses considered useful preparation for the career you have in mind. Workers can prepare for jobs in a variety of ways, including college pro grams leading to a degree, certificate, or diploma; postsecondary vocational school programs, both public and pri vate; home study courses; govern ment training programs; Armed Forces training, apprenticeships, and other formal training offered by em ployers; and high school courses. For each o c c u p a tio n , the H an d b o o k identifies the type of training generally preferred by employers. In many cas es, alternative ways of obtaining train ing are listed as well. Remember, the amount of training you have often determines the level at which you enter an occupation and the speed with which you advance. Skills and work habits gained at entry level positions can lead to more responsible, higher paying jobs. This is especially important if you consider that today few people spend their en tire adult lives in a single occupation. Roughly 1 worker in 10 changes his or her occupation each year. And most people enter, leave, and reenter the labor force several times over a life time. If a pattern of movement exists from one occupation to another, it usually is discussed in this part of a Handbook statement. It is helpful to know that certain jobs are steppingstones to others. For some occupations, a certificate or license is required for entry. Fur thermore, an additional set of creden tials is needed to advance within some fields, particularly the health field. For example, despite what might be years of experience in a dentist’s office, a dental assistant cannot ad vance to a job as a dental hygienist without completing a formal program in dental hygiene. This section identi fies occupations that require licensure and indicates what the general re quirements are. However, States vary in their licensing requirements. If you are considering an occupation that requires a license, be sure to check with the appropriate State agency about specific requirements. Common requirements include completion of a State-approved training or education al program and passing a written ex amination. In most occupations, there are no such barriers. People with related ed ucation or experience enter and ad vance without obtaining a license or additional formal education. This is the case in engineering, for example, where some graduates in physics, chemistry, computer science, mathe matics, and other fields are hired as engineers directly from college. Oth ers without engineering degrees trans fer into engineering from related sci entific fields and technician occupa tions. Job Outlook W hat’s the job market like? This is the question uppermost in many people’s minds as they try to determine wheth er a particular career is worth pursu ing. What constitutes a “ good” or “ attractive” job varies with the indi vidual and depends on personal val ues. But because of the cost—and often the sacrifice—involved in pre paring for a career, the likelihood of finding a suitable job is something virtually everyone is interested in. This, in turn depends on the rela tionship between the number of open ings and the number of people seeking to fill those openings. Getting a job may be difficult if the field is so small that openings are few (actuaries, for example) or so popular that there are many more jobseekers than there are jobs (radio and television announcers and newscasters). Bear in mind that in any particular occupation, different types of employ ers are likely to have different hiring preferences. The demand for workers varies according to skill level, special ty, educational background and pro fessional credentials, previous experi ence, and so forth. Moreover, the supply of qualified jobseekers varies as well. That is why there can be shortages in some communities or in some specialties while qualified appli cants are in oversupply in others. Workers who transfer into one oc cupation from another sometimes are a significant part of the supply of workers; similarly, those who transfer out may have a substantial effect on demand because their leaving usually creates job openings. When informa tion is available, the job outlook sec tion describes transfer patterns and their effect on the demand for and supply of workers in certain occupa tions. For example, the employment outlook for engineers recognizes that transfers into the field are likely to constitute a substantial portion of sup ply, if past trends continue. Most job outlook sections begin with a statement about the expected change in employment through the mid-1990’s. For example, little or no growth is expected in the number of jobs for typists, while the number of jobs for com puter and peripheral equipment operators is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations. The accompanying figure explains what is meant by these and other key phrases. If an occupation grows rapidly, it obviously will provide more openings than if it grows slowly. Moreover, the demand for talent in a rapidly growing occupation improves chances for ad vancement and mobility. Depending on how long it takes for training pro grams to respond to the heightened demand, jobseekers’ prospects may be enhanced by a shortage of qualified applicants. Slower than average growth may mean relatively unfavorable pros pects. For one thing, company per sonnel policies or collective bargain3 Key Words in the H andbook Changing employment between 1984 and 1995 If the statement reads . . . Employment is projected to . . . Grow much faster than the aver age Grow faster than the average Grow about as fast as the aver age Grow more slowly than the average Show little change Increase 31 per cent or more Decline Opportunities and Increase 20 to 30 percent Increase 11 to 19 percent Increase 4 to 10 percent Increase or de crease 3 per cent or less Decrease 4 per cent or more ipetition for jobs If the statement reads . . . The demand for workers may be . . . Excellent opportu nities Very good oppor tunities Good or favorable opportunities May face competi tion May face keen competition Much greater than the supply Greater than the supply About the same as the supply Less than the sup ply 'Much less than the supply ing agreements designed to provide job security are likely to reduce opportunities for persons not al ready employed by the firm. Also, programs to retrain company employ ees dislocated by new technologies have the effect of limiting the number of openings for people outside the firm. Keep in mind, however, that slowgrowing occupations, if large—like typisrt and bookkeeper—provide large numbers of job openings, which is another measure of favorable outlook. In these occupations, the negative ef fect of slower than average employ ment growth is outweighed by the sheer size of the occupation and the consequent number of replacement openings. The need to replace workers who leave their jobs creates most of the openings in virtually every occupa tion, regardless of the rate of growth. Replacement rates vary, but it is gen plains what they mean for the job erally true that the larger the occupa outlook. tion, the more openings there are due The information in the job outlook to replacements. Factors that deter section should be used carefully. The mine the number of replacement open prospect of relatively few openings, ings in an occupation include its size, or of keen competition, in a field that the earnings and status associated interests you should make you take a with the occupation, the length of second look at your career choice. training required, the average age of But this information alone should not workers, and the proportion of part- prevent you from pursuing a particu time workers. Occupations with the lar career if you are confident about most replacement openings generally your ability and determined to reach are large, with low pay and status, few your goal. training requirements, and a high pro Also keep in mind that no one pos portion of young and part-time work sesses a “ crystal ball.” Methods used ers. Occupations with relatively few by economists to develop employ replacement openings, on the other ment projections differ, and the as hand, are ones that have high pay and sumptions and judgments that go into status, lengthy training requirements, any assessment of future job outlook and many prime-working-age full-time also differ. A summary of the assump workers. tions and methods used by the Bureau The job outlook section also identi of Labor Statistics in making employ fies factors that are expected to affect ment projections is presented in an the occupation, such as defense appendix beginning on page 489. spending, new technologies, changing Finally, it is possible that prospects business practices, and shifting popu in your community or State do not lation patterns. correspond to the description of the Some statements discuss job secur job outlook in the Handbook. For the ity. Recessions make jobseekers pain particular job you are interested in, fully aware of the sensitivity of em the outlook in your area may be bet ployment to changes in the business ter—or it may be worse. cycle, and the Handbook provides Because local conditions vary so information on the subject wherever much, it is wise to talk with counse possible. But there are additional fac lors, employers, State public employ tors that make some jobs less secure ment service staff, and others about than others. In the building trades, for the particular area where you want to example, adverse weather conditions work. .State and local chapters of la and the short duration of many build bor unions and professional associa ing projects make construction work tions also may be able to furnish use ers more susceptible to reduced work ful leads. The appendix beginning on weeks and higher than average rates page 492 provides a list of State offi of unemployment in good times as cials who should be able to direct you well as bad. to people familiar with the job market For the few occupations—mostly in a particular city or State. Addresses those requiring a high level of educa and telephone numbers are given for tion—for which data are available, the State Occupational Information information is presented on the pro Coordinating Committee directors and jected supply of workers—in particu for the State employment security lar, the number of new graduates or agency directors of research and anal newly qualified workers. New gradu ysis. ates are not the only source of supply, however. Every year, a large propor Earnings tion of job openings are filled by reen trants or by people transferring from Many people ask questions such as, other occupations. In predominantly “ How much does the average plumb female occupations, reentrants play er earn?” or “ What are the highest an especially important role in supply. paying jo b s?” or “ Who earns more, a Similarly, people transferring from secretary or a nurse?” Unfortunately, no single statistic other occupations constitute a sub stantial portion of the supply of engi can adequately portray the tremen neers. When information is available, dous differences in earnings of work the Handbook describes patterns of ers in a particular occupation, and it is occupational entry and exit and ex very easy to be misled. Users should look upon the earnings data presented in this section of a Handbook state ment as a clue to an occupation’s attractiveness and its potential for long-term reward. But keep in mind that the Handbook can’t predict what you might earn, nor does it try to. Your earnings will depend on many things, including your experience and ability, the firm and industry you work in, and the section of the coun try where you live. It is true that major occupational groups exhibit significant differences in pay. Usual weekly earnings of man agers and administrators, for exam ple, are about double those of service workers. But there are wide dispari ties within most occupations as well. In fact, earnings within occupations vary so widely that in many cases it is impossible to say which of several jobs would pay best. Differences in skill are part of the explanation. Within a particular occu pation, average salaries of workers at the top levels may be several times as high as those in entry level jobs. The latter usually require less training, embody simpler job functions, and carry little or no supervisory respon sibility. The accompanying chart shows how wide the earnings spread within an occupation can be. Based on 1984 data from the Bureau’s annual survey of professional, administrative, tech nical, and clerical pay, the chart de picts the range in monthly earnings for three occupations: Accountants, at torneys, and chemists. Note that the chart shows six bars each for accoun tants and attorneys and seven for chemists. These reflect different work levels, starting with entry level jobs and continuing up the career ladder to the most complex and responsible po sitions within the occupation. The Current Population Survey is the source the Handbook uses most often to show the spread of earnings within an occupation. Many state ments indicate what the median earn ings of full-time workers were in 1984, and describe the earnings of the mid dle 50 percent of workers, the lowest 10 percent, and the highest 10 per cent. The data relate to earnings from wages and salaries only; earnings from self-employment are not included. The accompanying chart, based on data from the Current Population Sur vey, shows the earnings distribution Jobs within an occupation differ in complexity, and pay varies accordingly. Occupation and level Accountants Range of monthly salaries for 80 percent of employees in each level, March 1984 $1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,00C Attorneys Chemists IV V VI VII Source : Bureau of Labor Statistics of secretaries who were employed full time in 1984. Secretaries’ earnings, like those of clerical workers in gen eral, cluster tightly around the median (the midpoint in a distribution). The shaded area under the curve indicates that one-half of all full-time secre taries earned between $11,300 and $17,800 in 1984. Earnings of the low est paid secretaries (the lowest 10 percent) were under $9,200, while those of the highest paid secretaries (the highest 10 percent) exceeded $23,000. In other words, only 1 secre tary in 10 made as little as $9,200 or as much as $23,000 in 1984. Geographic variations account for some of the differences in occupation al pay. While location is an important factor for nearly all workers, it is especially im portant for unskilled workers, whose pay levels are strong ly affected by local market conditions. Earnings generally are higher in the West than in the Midwest, North, and South, but there are exceptions. Keep in mind that the cities that offer the highest earnings often are those in which it is most expensive to live. Differing pay scales among estab lishments, unionization, seniority, and quality of performance are other fac tors that help explain why the earn ings of individuals in the same occu- Haif of all secretaries earned between $11,300 and $17,800 in 1984. Percent distribution of full-time secretaries by annual earnings, 1984 Median $13,600 5 pation may vary greatly. But the industry in which a job is located may be the most important influence of all. Unskilled jobs invari ably are at the bottom of the pay structure in an industry. Yet unskilled workers in a high-paying industry like petroleum refining may earn more than skilled workers in a low-paying industry like apparel and accessory stores. Likewise, earnings for a par ticular occupation may vary greatly by industry. For example, in 1984, the average annual earnings for a janitor w orking in m an u fa ctu rin g w ere $17,400; in retail trade, $11,300. About 9 out of 10 workers receive a wage or salary. Often, wage and sala ry workers who work overtime, irreg ular hours, or the night shift receive an additional percentage of their reg ular wage or salary. In addition, work ers in some wage and salary occupa tions can supplement earnings by working additional hours outside of their regular jobs. For example, typ ists, photographers, and graphic art ists all have skills that permit them to earn extra income'on a freelance basis. About 10 percent of all workers are in business for themselves and earn self-employment income instead of, or in addition to, a wage or salary. Earnings of self-employed workers Digitized for 6 FRASER tend to vary more than those of sala ried workers, and most workers who are self-employed must pay for bene fits which would usually be provided by an employer. Most workers receive a variety of employer-paid benefits in addition to pay for time worked. Benefits such as paid vacations and holidays, health insurance, and pensions are an impor tant part of their total compensation. Some employers offer stock options, profit-sharing plans, savings plans, and bonuses. Often, the importance of employee benefits is not fully appreci ated by jobseekers entering the labor market for the first time; for example, they may not be aware of the dollar value of their health insurance—what it would cost to purchase equivalent coverage directly from an insurance company. Workers in many occupations re ceive part of their remuneration in the form of goods and services, or pay ments in kind. Sales workers in de partment stores, for example, often receive discounts on merchandise. Some private household workers re ceive free meals and housing. Flight attendants and other airline employ ees often are entitled to reduced fares for themselves and their families. Workers in other jobs may receive uniforms, business expense accounts, or use of a company car. Others re ceive payment in the form of tips for the services they provide to custom ers, commissions based on a percent age of what they sell, or a piece rate for each item they produce. Related Occupations If you find that an occupation appeals to you, you also may wish to explore the jobs listed in this section. Usually, the related occupations are those that require similar aptitudes, interests, and education and training. Sources of Additional Information The Handbook is only one source of career information. Many associa tions, government agencies, unions, and other organizations provide use ful information on careers. In this section, names and addresses of vari ous organizations are listed to help you further your research into careers that interest you. Also, for some oc cupations, this section refers you to free or relatively inexpensive publica tions that offer more information. These publications may be available in libraries, school career centers, or guidance offices. Where To Go For More Information terial produced by the U.S. Govern ment, provides free lists of material available for rental or purchase. Sub ject areas include jobs and careers. Contact the National Audiovisual Center, 8700 Edgeworth Dr., Capitol Heights, Md. 20743. Phone: (301) 763-1896. Carefully assess all career materials you obtain. Keep in mind the date and source, in particular. Material that is too old may contain obsolete or even misleading information. Be especially cautious about accepting information on employment outlook, earnings, and training requirements if it is more than 5 years old. The source is impor tant because it affects the content. Sources of Career Information Although some occupational materi Professional societies, trade associa als are produced solely for the pur tions, labor unions, business firms, and pose of objective vocational guidance, educational institutions publish a great others are produced for recruitment deal of free or inexpensive career ma purposes. You should be wary of bi terial. Many of these organizations ased information, which may tend to are identified in the Sources of Addi leave out im portant item s, over tional Information section of each glamorize the occupation, overstate the earnings, or exaggerate the de Handbook statement. If you want information for an oc mand for workers. Libraries, career centers, and guid cupation not covered in the Hand book, check the directories in your ance offices are important sources of library’s reference section for the career information. Thousands of names of organizations that may pro books, brochures, magazines, and au vide career materials. Since there are diovisual materials are available on thousands of directories covering a such subjects as occupations, careers, wide variety of fields, you may want self-assessm ent, and job hunting. to begin by looking in the Guide to Your school library or guidance office American Directories or The Dictio is likely to have some of this material; nary o f Directories. There are direc ask the staff for help. Collections of tories that list organizations, firms, occupational material also can be and individuals in fields as diverse as found in public libraries, college li publishing, advertising, banking, in braries, learning resource centers, surance, retailing, m anufacturing, and career counseling centers. health care, energy, the environment, Begin your library search by look performing arts, social welfare, edu ing in the card catalog under “ voca cation, training and developm ent, tions” or “ careers,” and then look up management consulting, and many specific fields. The card catalog will more. Another good starting point is direct you to books on particular ca the Encyclopedia o f Associations, a reers. Be sure to check the periodical multivolume annual publication that section, too. You’ll find trade and lists thousands of trade associations, professional magazines and journals professional societies, labor unions, in specific areas such as automotive and fraternal and patriotic organiza mechanics or interior design. Also, tions. there are publications that specialize The National Audiovisual Center, a in career guidance, job hunting, and central source for all audiovisual ma employment opportunities. The Occupational Outlook Handbook is a good place to begin if you have questions about a particular job or want to compare the job prospects in various fields. It will answer many of your questions, but it is only one of many sources of information about jobs and careers. After reading a few Handbook statements, you may de cide that you want more detailed in formation about a particular occupa tion. You may want to find out where you can go for training, or where you can find this kind of work in your community. If you are willing to make an effort, you will discover that a wealth of information exists. Many libraries and career centers have pamphlet files for specific occu pations. Also ask if your library has a collection of corporate annual re ports. These will give you some idea of the business activities of a firm. Collections of occupational informa tion may also include nonprint mate rials such as films, filmstrips, cas settes, tapes, and kits. Computerized occupational information systems en able users to obtain career informa tion instantly. In addition to print and nonprint materials, most career cen ters and guidance offices offer individ ual counseling, group discussions, guest speakers, field trips, and career days. Counselors play an important role in providing career information. Voca tional testing and counseling are avail able in a number of places, including: —guidance offices in high schools. —career planning and placement offices in colleges. —placement offices in vocational schools. —vocational rehabilitation agencies. —counseling services offered by commu nity organizations. —private counseling agencies, commer cial firms, and professional consultants. —State public employment service offices affiliated with the U.S. Employment Service. The reputation of a particular coun seling agency should be checked with professionals in the field. As a rule, counselors will not tell you what to do. Instead, they are likely to admin ister interest inventories and aptitude tests, interpret the results, talk over various possibilities, and help you ex plore your options. Counselors should be familiar with the local job market and be able to discuss entry require ments and costs of the schools, col leges, or training programs that offer preparation for the kind of work in which you are interested. Most impor tant of all, a counselor can help you interpret occupational information in relation to your own abilities, aspira tions, and goals. One way to learn more about an 7 occupation is through an internship with a government agency or corpora tion. An internship allows you to find out about the nature of the work, the working conditions, and whether you want to pursue a career in this field. Some internships offer academic cred it or pay a stipend in addition to providing valuable job experience. More important, you will have the opportunity to establish contacts which might be useful later when you are looking for a job. Many guidance offices and college career resource centers can provide information about internships. Or you might try contact ing a company or government agency directly to find out if they have an internship program. Don’t overlook the importance of personal contacts. Talking with people is one of the best ways of learning about an occupation. Most people are glad to talk about what they do and how they like their jobs. Have specific questions ready; you might ask work ers about the type of work they do and how long they have worked in their field. By asking the right questions, you will find out what kind of training is really important, how workers got their first job as well as the one they’re in now, and what they like and dislike about the work. These inter views serve several purposes: You get out into the business world, you learn about an occupation, you become fa miliar with interviewing, and you meet people worth contacting when you start looking for a job. Sources of State and Local Information The Handbook only provides infor mation for the Nation as a whole. State occupational information coordi nating committees (SOICC’s) can help you locate information about job pros pects in your State or area. The com mittee may provide the information directly or refer you to other sources. In many States, it can tell you where you can go to use the State’s career information delivery system (CIDS). These systems, currently in place in most States, provide national, State, and local information to individuals who are exploring careers or search ing for jobs. These services can be found in secondary schools, post secondary institutions, libraries, job training sites, and vocational rehabil itation centers. 8 Using a variety of means, including on-line computers, microcomputers, printed material, needlesorts, micro fiche, and toll-free hotlines, these sys tems provide information on occupa tions, educational opportunities, stu dent financial aid, apprenticeships, and the military services. To find out what kinds of career materials have been developed for your State, contact the director of the State occupational information coor dinating committee. Addresses and telephone numbers for these individu als are listed in an appendix beginning on page 492. State employment security agencies develop detailed information about the labor market. Typically, State agencies publish reports that deal with current and projected employment, characteristics of the work force, changes in State and area economic activities, and the employment struc ture of important industries. Major statistical indicators of labor market activity are released on a monthly, quarterly, or annual basis. To learn which studies, reports, and analyses are available for a particular State, contact the chief of research and anal ysis in the State employment security agency. A ddresses and telephone numbers for these individuals are also listed. Sources of Education and Training Information As a rule, professional or trade asso ciations can provide lists of schools that offer career preparation in a par ticular field. Whenever possible, the Sources of Additional Information section of each Handbook statement directs you to organizations that can provide training information. For general information, a library, career center, or guidance office may be the best place to look; all of them ordinarily have collections of cata logs, directories, and guides to educa tion and training opportunities. Com puterized career information systems also generally provide information on education and training, student finan cial aid, and other items of interest. A number of handbooks give perti nent information on courses of study, admissions requirements, expenses, and student financial aid at various education and training institutions or settings. Guidance offices and librar ies almost always have copies, as do large bookstores. R em em ber that these directories are updated and re vised frequently; be sure to use the most recent edition. Guidance offices and libraries have collections of col lege catalogs as well. Directory of Educational Institu tions, an annual publication, lists schools accredited by the Association of Independent Colleges and Schools (AICS). Most AlCS-accredited insti tutions are business schools. They offer programs in secretarial science, business administration, accounting, data processing, court reporting, para legal studies, fashion merchandising, travel/tourism, culinary arts, drafting, electronics, and more. For a copy of the Directory, write: Association of Independent Colleges and Schools, 1 Dupont Circle NW ., Suite 350, Wash ington, D.C. 20036. Phone: (202) 659-2460. Information on private trade and technical schools is available from the National Association of Trade and Technical Schools (NATTS). Among their many publications are the Hand book o f Trade and Technical Careers and Training, How to Choose a Ca reer and a Career School, and College Plus: Put Your Degree to Work with Trade and Technical Skills. For a complete list, contact NATTS at 2251 W isconsin Ave. N W ., Suite 200, Washington, D.C. 20007. Phone: (202) 333-1021. The National Home Study Council supplies inform ation about home study programs. Among the publica tions they distribute is a Directory o f Accredited Home Study Schools. Re quests for this publication and infor m ation a b o u t o th e r p u b licatio n s should be directed to National Home Study Council, 1601 18th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. Phone: (202) 234-5100. Labor unions and school guidance offices can provide information about apprenticeships. State public employ ment offices usually have a staff mem ber familiar with apprenticeship pro grams in their local area who can direct you to program sponsors for more specific help. For women inter ested in learning about apprenticeship opportunities, the W omen’s Bureau of the U . S . Departm ent of Labor pub lishes A W oman’s Guide to Appren ticeship. To get a copy, send a selfaddressed mailing label to: W omen’s Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor, Room S-3306, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20210. Phone: (202) 523-6668. Some student aid programs are de signed to assist specific groups: Hispanics, blacks, native Americans, or women, for example. Higher Educa tion Opportunities fo r Minorities and Women, published by the U.S. De partment of Education, is a useful guide to organizations that offer loan, scholarship, and fellowship assist ance, with special emphasis on aid for minorities and women. Opportunities for financial aid are listed by field of study and educational level. This pub lication can be found in many libraries and guidance offices, or may be pur chased from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Print ing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. The branches of the Armed Forces have several programs that provide financial assistance for education. These include Reserve Officers’ Train ing Corps (ROTC), the New G.I. bill, and tuition assistance. More informa tion can be obtained from military recruiting centers, which are found in most cities. Sources of Financial Aid Information If possible, consult a high school guid ance counselor or college financial aid officer for advice on sources of finan cial aid. Don’t neglect any possibility, for many organizations offer scholar ships, fellowships, grants, loans, and work-study programs. Each State ad ministers financial aid programs, and information about them can usually be obtained through the State’s Depart ment of Education. Because student loans are administered by many pri vate financial institutions, your local bank or credit union should not be overlooked as a potential source of information. Study the directories and guides to sources of student financial aid available in guidance offices and public libraries. Many career informa tion systems also provide information on financial aid. Particularly useful is the American Legion’s N eed a Lift?, a booklet con Career and Counseling taining career and scholarship infor Information for Special Groups mation for both undergraduate and Certain groups of jobseekers face spe graduate students. The 1985 edition cial difficulties in obtaining suitable costs $1 prepaid (includes postage) and satisfying employment. All too and can be obtained from: American often, veterans, youth, handicapped Legion, Attn: Need a Lift?, P.O. Box persons, minorities, and women expe rience difficulty in the labor market. 1050, Indianapolis, Ind. 46206. Meeting College Costs, a College The reasons for job market disadvan Board publication that is updated an tage vary, of course. People may have nually, explains how to apply for stu trouble setting career goals and look dent financial aid. High school stu ing for work for reasons as different as dents should ask their guidance coun a limited command of English, a pris selors for the current edition. A listing on record, or lack of self-confidence. of other College Board publications Some people are held back by their may be obtained from: College Board background—by growing up in a set Publications, Box 886, New York, ting that provided only a few role models and little exposure to the wide N.Y. 10101. The Federal Government provides range of opportunities in the world of several kinds of financial assistance to work. A growing number of communities students: Grants, loans, work-study, and benefits. Like all Federal pro have career counseling, training, and grams, Federal student aid is depen placement services for people with dent upon funding levels set by the special needs. Programs are spon President and Congress. Information sored by a variety of organizations, about programs administered by the including churches and synagogues, U.S. Department of Education is pre nonprofit organizations, social service sented in a pamphlet entitled The Stu agencies, the State public employ dent Guide to Federal Financial Aid ment service, and vocational rehabil Programs. This pamphlet is revised itation agencies. Some of the most every year; request the current edi successful programs provide the ex tion by calling (301) 984— 4070, or by tensive support that disadvantaged writing to: Federal Student Aid Pro jobseekers require. They begin by grams, P.O. Box 84, Washington, helping clients resolve personal, fam D.C. 20044. ily, or other fundamental problems that prevent them from finding or keeping a suitable job. Some agencies that serve special groups provide an array of supportive services designed to help people find and keep jobs. Agencies that provide employment counseling as well as other kinds of assistance are identified in the Direc tory o f Counseling Services, pub lished by the American Association for C ounseling and D evelopm ent (AACD), 5999 Stevenson Ave., Alex andria, Va. 22304. A copy may be available in your library or school career counseling center. Several public and private agencies provide information, such as publica tions or referral services, on career planning and job hunting techniques that are geared toward special groups. The organizations listed below should be able to provide you with such in formation: Handicapped: President’s Commit tee on Employment of the Handi capped, 1111 20th St., NW ., Room 636, Washington, D.C. 20036. Phone: (202) 653-5044. Job Opportunities for the Blind: Call 1-800-638-7518 for toll-free informa tion for blind and deaf-blind. Minorities: League of United Latin American Citizens, National Educa tional Service Centers, 400 First St. NW ., Suite 716, Washington, D.C. 20001. Phone: (202) 347-1652. National Association for the Ad v a n c e m e n t o f C o lo re d P e o p le (NAACP), 186 Remsen St., Brooklyn, N.Y. 11201. Phone: (718) 858-0800. Older Workers: National Associa tion of Older Workers Employment Services, d o National Council on Ag ing, 600 Maryland Ave. SW., Wash ington, D.C. 20024. Phone: (202) 479-1200. Veterans: Department of Veterans Benefits, V eterans A dm inistration Central Office, 810 Vermont Ave. N W ., W a sh in g to n , D .C . 20420. Phone: (202) 393-4120. Women: U.S. Department of La bor, W omen’s Bureau, 200 Constitu tion Ave. NW ., Washington, D.C. 20210. Phone: (202) 523-6652. C atalyst, 250 Park Ave. South, New York, N.Y. 10003. Phone: (212) 777-8900. Wider Opportunities for Women, 1325 G St. NW ., Lower Level, Wash ington, D.C. 20005. Phone: (202) 638-3143. In addition to these agencies, there 9 are many local organizations that pro vide employment information or coun seling programs. Women’s centers, many of which are located on college campuses, are an excellent resource for women seeking assistance. Many cities have commissions that attend to the concerns of special groups, and they may provide services that may be of help to you. Federal laws, Executive Orders, and selected Federal grant programs bar discrim ination in employment based on race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, and handicap. Employers in the private and the pub lic sectors, Federal contractors, and grantees are covered by these laws. The U.S. Equal Employment Oppor tunity Commission (EEOC) is respon sible for administering many of the programs that prohibit discrimination in employment. Information about how to file a charge of discrimination is available from local EEOC offices around the country. Their addresses and telephone numbers are listed in telephone directories under U.S. Gov ernm ent, EEO C, or are available from: Equal Employment Opportuni ty Commission, 2401 E St. NW ., Washington, D.C. 20507. Phone: (202) 634-6922. Information on Federal laws con cerning fair labor standards—includ ing the minimum wage law—and equal employment opportunity can be ob tained from the Office of Information and Consumer Affairs, Employment Standards Administration, U.S. De partment of Labor, Room C-4331, 200 Constitution Ave. NW ., Washington, D.C. 20210. Information on Finding a Job These days, a well-planned job search is essential. For information on job openings, follow up as many leads as possible. Parents, neighbors, teach ers, and counselors may know of available jobs. Look at the want ads. Check with your local State public employment service office and find out whether private or nonprofit em ployment agencies in your community can help you. Merchandising Your Job Talents, a pamphlet prepared by the U.S. De partment of Labor, offers tips on or ganizing your job search, writing a resume, taking preemployment tests, and making the most of the interview. It is available at most State public 10 Where to Find Out About Job Openings • State public employment service of fices • Civil service announcements (Feder al, State, local) • Classified ads —Local and out-of-town newspapers —Professional journals —Trade magazines • Labor unions • Professional associations (State and local chapters) • Libraries and community centers • Women’s counseling and employ ment programs • Youth programs • School or college placement services • Employment agencies and career consultants employment service offices or may be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Print ing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. Informal job search methods. Informal methods of job search are the most popular, and can be very effective. Informal methods include direct appli cation to employers with or without referral by friends or relatives. Job seekers locate a potential employer and file an application, often without certain knowledge that an opening ex ists. You can find targets for your infor mal search in several ways. The Yel low Pages and local chambers of com merce provide the names and address es of firms in the community where you may wish to work. You can also get listings of most firms in a specific industry—banking, insurance, and newspaper publishing, for example— by consulting one of the directories on the reference shelf of your public li brary. Friends, relatives, and people you meet during your job search are likely to give you ideas about places where you can apply for a job. Want ads. The “ Help W anted’’ ads in newspapers contain hundreds of job listings. As a job search tool, they have two advantages: They are cheap and easy to acquire, and they often result in successful placement. There are disadvantages as well. Want ads give a distorted view of the local labor market, for they tend to underrepre sent small firms. They also tend to overrepresent certain occupations, such as clerical and sales jobs. How helpful they are will depend largely on the kind of job you seek. Bear in mind that want ads do not provide complete information; many give little or no description of the job, working conditions, and pay. Some omit the identity of the employer. In addition, firms often run multiple list ings. Some ads offer jobs in other cities (which do not help the local worker); others advertise employ ment agencies rather than employ ment. If you use want ads, keep the fol lowing suggestions in mind: —Don’t rely exclusively on want ads; follow up other leads, too. —Answer ads promptly. The opening may be filled before the ad stops running. —Follow the ads diligently. Checking them every day as early as possible gives you the best advantage over other applicants, which may mean the differ ence between a job and a rejection. —Don’t expect too much from “blind ads” that do not reveal the employer’s identity. Employers use blind ads to avoid being swamped with applicants, or to fill a particular vacancy quietly and confidentially. The chances of finding a job through blind ads tend to be slim. —Be cautious about answering “ no expe rience necessary” ads. Most employers are able to fill job openings that do not require experience without advertising in the newspaper. This type of ad may mean that the job is hard to fill because of low wages or poor working condi tions, or because it is straight commis sion work. —Keep a record of all ads to which you have responded. Public employment service. The State public employment service, som e times called the Job Service, is often overlooked in finding out about local job openings. Run by the State em ployment security agencies in coordi nation with the Labor Departm ent’s U.S. Employment Service, the ap proximately 2,000 local public em ployment service offices provide as sistance without charge. State public employment service staff help job seekers find employment and help em ployers find qualified workers. To find the office nearest you, look in the State government telephone listings under “ Job Service” or “ Employ m ent.” Job Interview Tips Job matching and referral. Upon entering a State employment service Preparation: center, an applicant is interviewed to • Learn something about the company determine the type of work for which • Have specific job or jobs in mind he or she indicates an interest and • Review in your mind your qualifications for the job aptitude. The interviewer determines • Be prepared to answer broad questions about yourself if the applicant is “job ready” or if • Review your resume counseling and testing services are • Be there a few minutes before the scheduled time of your interview needed. Applicants who know what Personal Appearance: kind of work they are qualified for • Well groomed may spend some time examining the • Suitable dress Job Bank, a computerized listing of • No chewing gum public and private sector job openings • Only smoke when invited that is updated every day. The Job .Bank is self-service; applicants exam The Interview: ine a book or microfilm viewer and • Answer each question as well as you can select openings that interest them. Af • Be prompt in giving responses terwards, a staff member may de • Be well mannered scribe a particular job opening in • Use good English and avoid the use of slang some detail and arrange for an inter • Be cooperative and enthusiastic view with the prospective employer. • Don’t be afraid to ask questions Counseling and testing. These cen ters also help jobseekers who are un Test (if employer gives one): certain about their qualifications and • Listen carefully to instructions the kind of work they want. Many • Read each question carefully centers are staffed with a specialist • Write legibly and clearly who is able to provide counseling and • Budget your time wisely and don’t stay on one question too long testing services. C ounselors help jobseekers choose and prepare for an Information to Take With You: occupation based on their qualifications • Social Security number and interests. They aim to help individ • Driver’s license number uals become aware of their job potential • Resume. Although not all positions require job applicants to bring a resume, and then develop it. The testing pro you should be able to furnish the interviewer with information about your gram measures occupational aptitudes, education and previous employment clerical and literary skills, and occu • Usually an employer requires three references. Get permission from people pational interests. Testing and counsel before using their names. If you can avoid it, do not use the names of rela ing before job referral ensure a better tives. For each reference, give the following information: Name, address, match between applicant and job. telephone number, and occupation Services fo r special groups. By law, veterans are entitled to priority in interviewing, counseling, testing, job development, and job placement at ters conduct a Summer Youth Pro ads or the telephone book, you can State employment service centers. Al gram to provide summer jobs in city, find numerous advertisements for pri though some veterans may find it dif county, and State government agen vate employment agencies. All are in ficult to adjust to civilian life, jobless cies for low-income youth. In addi business to make money, but some ness is a major barrier to resuming an tion, the Job Corps, with more than offer higher quality service and better ordinary life. Special counselors 100 centers throughout the United chances of successful placement than called veterans employment represen States, provides an opportunity for others. The three main places where tatives are trained to deal with the young people to learn a skill or obtain private agencies advertise are news p a rticu la r problem s of veteran s. the educational base needed to ad paper want ads, the Yellow Pages, and trade journals. Telephone listings Through these representatives, veter vance in society. The State public employment ser give little more than the name, ad ans can learn about the many kinds of vice centers also refer applicants to dress, phone number, and specialty of assistance available to them. A special effort is made to assist opportunities available under the Job the agency, while trade journals gen youth between the ages of 16 and 21— Training Partnership Act (JTPA) of erally advertise openings for a partic students, dropouts, and graduates en 1982. JTPA focuses on preparing eco ular occupation, such as accountant tering the labor market. Youthful ap nomically disadvantaged persons for or computer programmer. Want ads, plicants are tested, counseled, and jobs in the private sector. then, are the best source of general aided in choosing work that suits their listings of agencies. These listings fall into two catego abilities and interests. Each year, Private employment agencies. In the State public employment service cen appropriate section of the classified ries—those offering specific openings 11 What Goes Into a Resume A resume summarizes your personal qualifications and employment history. It is usually required when applying for a managerial, administrative, profes sional, or technical position. Although a resume varies by the individual, most resumes contain the following informa tion in some form: • Name, address, and telephone num ber. • Employment objective. • Education, which should include school name and address, dates of attendance, curriculum, and highest grade completed or degree awarded. • Experience, paid or volunteer. In clude the following for each job: Job title, name and address of employer, and dates of employment. • Special skills, knowledge of machin ery, awards, or membership in orga nizations. • Availability of references. and those offering a general promise of employment. You should concen trate on the former and use the latter only as a last resort. With a specific opening mentioned in the ad, you have greater assurance of the agency’s desire to place qualified individuals in suitable jobs. Digitized for12 FRASER When responding to such an ad, you may learn more about the job over the phone. If you are interested, visit the agency, fill out an applica tion, present a resume, and talk with an interviewer. The agency will then arrange an interview with the employ er if you are qualified, and perhaps suggest alternative openings if you are not. Most agencies operate on a com mission basis, with the fee dependent upon a successful match. The fee may be paid by either the applicant or the hiring firm. If borne by you, find out the exact cost before using the ser vice. Community agencies. A growing num b e r o f n o n p ro fit o r g a n iz a tio n s throughout the Nation provide coun seling, career development, and job placement services. These agencies generally concentrate on services for a particular labor force group—wom en, youth, minorities, ex-offenders, or older workers, for example. It’s up to you to discover whether your commu nity has such agencies and whether they can help you. The local State public em ploym ent service office should be able to tell you whether such an agency has been established in your community. Your church, synagogue, or local library may have the information, too. College career planning and placement offices. Career planning and placement offices at colleges and universities of fer valuable services to students and alumni for a modest fee. Many serv ices, in fact, are free. College place ment offices operate as employment agencies, matching applicants with suitable jobs and lining up interviews. On large campuses, for example, they set up schedules and facilities for in terviews with industry recruiters. And many offices maintain lists of local part-time, tem porary, and summer jobs. College career planning and place ment offices also provide services re lated to counseling and job search techniques. They may, for example, maintain a career resource library; administer tests that enable students to identify and evaluate interests, work values, and skills; conduct work shops on such topics as job search strategy, resume writing, letterwrit ing, and effective interviewing; cri tique drafts of resumes and video tapes of mock interviews; maintain files of resumes and references; and conduct job fairs. Tomorrow’s Jobs The number and kinds of jobs needed in tomorrow’s economy will depend on the interplay of demographic, eco nomic, social, and technological fac tors. Employment in some occupa tions will grow much faster than the average rate of growth; others will decline in importance. Some jobs will emerge as a result of new technolo gies; others will disappear. And the nature of the work in many occupa tions probably will change. The Handbook presents informa tion about the job outlook for many occupations. In this chapter, which provides background for those discus sions, you will find information about expected changes in the population, the labor force, and employment in major industrial sectors and broad oc cupational groups. Finally, there is a brief discussion of the importance of replacement needs in the employment outlook. Population Changes in population are among the basic factors that will alter employ ment opportunities. Changes in the size and characteristics of the popula tion cause changes in the amount and types of goods and services demand ed. These changes also alter the size and characteristics of the labor force— the people who are working and who are looking for work—which in turn can influence the amount of competi tion for jobs in an occupation. Three important population factors are pop ulation growth, shifts in the age struc ture of the population, and movement of the population within the country. Growth. The population of the Unit ed States increased rapidly during the post-World War II “ baby boom .” During the 1960’s, the rate of popula tion growth dropped sharply and has remained at a low level since (chart 1). In 1984, the population was about 237 million. It is expected to continue to increase slowly to about 260 million by 1995. Continued population growth will mean more consumers to provide with goods and services, causing greater demand for workers in many industries and occupations. Age structure. Over time, the age structure of the population changes. Shifts in the age structure affect the job market in many ways. The low population growth of the 1960’s and 1970’s, for example, resulted in a de crease in the number of school-age children in the 1970’s. This decrease lowered the demand for educational services and the employment oppor tunities in teaching. During the 1970’s, as the large number of people born during the 1950’s entered the labor force, competition increased for entry level jobs. Through the mid-1990’s, the age structure of the population will con tinue to shift and affect the job mar ket. The number of children under 13 will increase as the large number of people born during the baby boom have children of their own. As the baby-boom group ages, the number of people age 35 to 54 will increase. The number of people 65 and older will rise sharply because of the relatively high population growth before the 1930’s and increases in life expectan cy. Because of low population growth during the 1970’s and 1930’s, the num ber of 14- to 25-year-olds and 55- to 64-year-olds will decline by 1995. Increases in the number of children will cause greater demand for elemen tary school education through 1995. The increase in the number of older people will add to the demand for health services. Shifts in the age structure of the population also will affect the age structure of the labor force, discussed in a later section. M ovement o f population. Popula tion growth varies among the regions of the Nation. For example, between 1970 and 1980, the population of the Northeast and the Midwest (formerly called N orth Central) regions in creased by 0.2 percent and 4.0 per cent, respectively, compared with 20.0 percent in the South and 23.9 percent in the West. These differences reflect the movement of people seek ing new jobs or retiring and higher birth rates in some areas than others. Chart 2 shows the expected changes in State populations between 1980 and 2000 if the movement of people during that period is similar to the movement between 1970 and 1980. The overall movement of U.S. pop ulation will be to the South and West. The West will continue to be the fast- Chart 1. The population w ill grow more slow ly through the m id-1990’s. 1945-50 50-55 55-60 60-65 65-70 70-75 75-80 80-85 85-90 90-95 SOURCE: Bureau of the Census 13 est growing region of the country, increasing about 45 percent between 1980 and 2000. In the South, the pop ulation will increase about 31 percent, with the largest absolute increase in population. The Midwest region is ex pected to increase only about 2 per cent between 1980 and 1990, and to decline about 1 percent from 1990 to 2000. The population of the Northeast region will decline about 6 percent. By the year 2000, the West and the South will have about 60 percent of the Nation’s population compared to about 52 percent in 1980. The Northeast region will have the oldest age distribution; almost 15 per cent of its population will be age 65 or older. The West will have the young est age distribution; over 22 percent of the population will be under age 15, and about 45 percent will be between the ages of 15 and 44. The age distri bution of the South and Midwest re gions will be similar to the national average. Geographic shifts in the population alter the demand for and supply of workers in local job markets. In areas with a growing population, for exam ple, demand for public services and construction is likely to increase. However, more people looking for work could increase competition for jobs. Therefore, the areas with the fastest population growth may not necessarily offer the best job opportu nities in every occupation. Because of population shifts, along with changes in demand for goods and services pro Digitized for 14 FRASER duced in an area, local employment opportunities in an occupation could differ greatly from national projec tions presented in the Handbook. Sources of information about local job market conditions can be found in the section “ Where to Go for More Infor mation.” Labor Force The labor force is composed of people who are working and people who are looking for work. Population trends just discussed largely determine the growth and age structure of the labor force. Another significant factor is the level of education of the labor force. Growth. In 1984, the civilian labor force—people with jobs and people looking for jobs—totaled about 114 million. The labor force will grow through the mid-1990’s, but at a slow er rate than in the 1970’s and the first half of the 1980’s (chart 3). Growth will be slower because the low birth rates during the 1960’s and 1970’s will result in fewer young people entering the labor force. By 1995, the labor force is projected to be about 129 million—an increase of about 14 per cent from the 1984 level. Through the mid-1990’s, the chief cause of labor force growth will be the continued though slower rise in the number and proportion of women who seek jobs. Women will account for more than three-fifths of the labor force growth during 1984-95 (chart 4). Age structure. Through the mid1990’s, the number of people age 16 to 24 in the work force is projected to decline (chart 5). Fewer young en trants into the labor force may ease competition for entry level jobs. In fact, employers may have increasing difficulty in finding young workers. The decline in the number of young workers could be particularly impor tant to the Armed Forces—the single largest employer of people in this age group. The number of people age 25 to 54 in the labor force is expected to in crease considerably, from less than two-thirds of the labor force in 1984 to nearly three-fourths by 1995. The growing proportion of workers age 25 to 54 could result in higher productiv ity growth since workers in that age group generally have substantial work experience and tend to be the most productive. The number of people age 55 and over in the labor force is projected to decline slightly, reflecting the trend to early retirement and the drop in the number of people age 55 to 65. Education. Employers tend to hire the best qualified persons available. This does not mean that they always choose those applicants who have the most education. However, individuals planning for a career should be aware of the rising educational level of the work force. Between 1970 and 1984, for example, the proportion of the labor force age 18 to 64 with at least 1 year of college increased from 26 to 41 percent, while the proportion with 4 or more years of college increased from 13 to 22 percent (chart 6). The increase reflects both the retirement of older workers, many of whom had little formal education, and the entry into the work force of young people, who generally have a high level of formal education. Among workers age 25 to 34, for example, nearly half have completed at least 1 year of college and over a quarter had 4 or more years of college. The disadvantage that less educated workers suffer when seeking jobs is clearly shown in their unemployment rate. In 1984, the unemployment rate among 20- to 24-year-olds with 1 to 3 years of high school was 26.7 percent. The rate for those with 4 years of high school was less than half that, 13.0 percent. The rates for those with 1 to 3 years of college and 4 or more years of college were only 7.8 and 4.9 per cent, respectively. The connection between higher unemployment rates and low levels of education shows the importance of education in a job mar ket that increasingly requires more formal training. However, it is also important to note that a college degree no longer guarantees success in the job market. Between 1970 and 1984, employment of college graduates grew 127 percent. The proportion employed in profes sional, technical, and managerial oc cupations, however, declined because these occupations did not expand rap idly enough to absorb the growing supply of graduates. As a result, 1 out of 5 college graduates who entered the labor market between 1970 and 1984 took a job not usually requiring a degree. This oversupply of graduates is likely to continue through the mid1990’s. Not all occupations requiring a college degree will be overcrowded, however. Good opportunities will ex ist for systems analysts and engineers, for example. Despite the generally competitive job market for college graduates, a degree is still needed for most highpaying and high-status jobs. Persons interested in occupations that require a college degree should not be dis couraged from pursuing a career that they believe matches their interests and abilities, but they should be aware of job market conditions. Economic, Technical, and Other Factors Affecting Employment The previous two sections discussed trends in the population and the labor force that will affect employment op portunities. This section gives an over view of other factors that will affect the level of employment. The number of jobs in particular industries and occupations depends in large part on the consumer, govern ment, and business demand for goods and services produced by those indus tries and workers. Using a simple ex ample, if people ate out more often, employment of cooks, waiters, and other restaurant workers would in crease; employment of clerks and oth er grocery store workers would de cline. In addition, employment in in dustries which produce restaurant equipment would grow; in industries that make grocery store equipment, employment would decline. The de mand for smaller, more energy-effi cient automobiles has prompted auto Chart 3. Labor force growth will slow through the mid-1990’s. Average annual percent increase -H3 - 1 2 - 1970-75 1975-80 1980-84 1984-90 1990-95 SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics manufacturers to use more plastic, aluminum, and specialty steel and less of standard iron and steel. This shift has lowered the demand for products from the iron and steel manufacturing industry, the iron and metallurgical coal mining industries, and other in dustries that supply iron and steel manufacturers, so that employment in these industries has been adversely affected. At the same time, demand has increased for the products of the plastic, aluminum, and specialty steel industries and the industries that sup ply those manufacturers. Employ ment in those industries has benefited from the change. As is clear from the first example, expansion or decline in industries af fects growth in individual occupations differently because industries employ different mixes of workers (chart 7). Growth in manufacturing industries, for example, increases employment of production and material moving occu pations, helpers, and laborers. In con trast, growth in the finance, insur ance, and real estate industries in creases employment of administra tive, managerial, sales, and clerical workers. Changes in the manner in which goods and services are produced also affect occupational and industrial em- Chart 4. Through the mid-1990’s, women will account for over three-fifths of the growth in the labor force. Women as a percent of labor force growth 15 Chart 5. The number of workers in the prime working ages will grow dramatically through the mid-1990’s. Labor force (millions) 100 80 60 40 20 0 SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics ployment. Increasing automation in automobile manufacturing, for exam ple, is one of the factors expected to limit growth of assemblers, welders, and other production occupations in that industry. The increasing use of word processing equipment will mean little or no growth of typists in most industries. However, the introduction of new technologies will probably in crease employment of engineers, tech nicians, computer specialists, and re pairers. The overall impact of technol ogy will be to increase the amount of goods and services each worker can produce. Output of goods and serv ices is expected to increase rapidly, however, so that employment should continue to increase in most indus tries and occupations. Other factors affecting employment are the fiscal policies of the Federal Government, the monetary policies of the Federal Reserve Board, the level of imports, and the availability of en ergy. Using information on these and other factors, the Bureau of Labor Statistics has prepared three sets of projections of employment in indus tries and occupations. Referred to as the base case and low- and highgrowth alternatives, the projections are based on differing assumptions concerning growth of the labor force, Chart 6. During the 1970’s and early 1980’s, the proportion of workers with a college background increased substantially. Digitized for16 FRASER Percent distribution of labor force age 18 to 64 unemployment, monetary and fiscal policy, and other factors. Each pro vides a different set of estimates of employment in 1995. The alternatives developed by the Bureau represent only three of many possible courses for the economy. Different assumptions would lead to different projections of the economy. F o r this reaso n , the alternatives should not be viewed as the bounds of employment growth; rather, they il lustrate what might happen. Further more, unforeseen changes in spending patterns, in levels of imports and ex ports, or in technology, could radical ly alter the projections for individual industries and occupations. A discussion of the assumptions and methods used to develop these projections can be found in an appen dix beginning on page 489. The pro jections were presented in the No vember 1985 issue of the Monthly Labor Review. For ease of presenta tion, the discussions of projections and outlook information in the H and book focus on the base case. Employment Change Employment is expected to increase from 106.8 million in 1984 to 122.8 million in 1995, or about 15 percent. This growth, while substantial, is much slower than growth during the previous 11-year period, for reasons discussed in the section on labor force growth. Employment change can be looked at in two ways: by industry and by occupation. The following two sections look at projected 1984-95 employment change from both per spectives. Industrial Profile To discuss employment trends and projections in industries, it is useful to divide the economy into nine industri al sectors under two broad groups. These groups are goods-producing in dustries, which produce tangible prod ucts like apples, coal, and refrigera tors, and service-producing indus tries, which produce intangibles such as health care, education, repair and maintenance, amusement and recrea tion, transportation, banking, and in surance. In 1984, over 7 of every 10 jobs were in industries that provide services. In d u stries th at produce goods through farming, construction, mining, and manufacturing accounted for fewer than 3 of every 10 jobs. Service-Producing Industries. Em ployment in service-producing indus tries has been increasing faster than employment in goods-producing in dustries (chart 8). As incomes and living standards have risen, peoples’ desires for services have grown more rapidly than for goods. In addition, goods-producing industries have been contracting out to service industries many rapidly growing activities they had done internally, such as cleaning and maintenance, engineering design, and accounting. Furthermore, imports of foreign-made goods have increased, limiting the growth of U.S. goodsproducing industries. Imports of serv ices have not increased as much. Employment is expected to contin ue to increase much faster in serviceproducing industries than in goodsproducing industries (chart 9). In fact, service-producing industries are pro jected to account for about 9 out of 10 new jobs between 1984 and 1995. Em ployment in these industries is expect ed to increase 18 percent, from 77.2 million in 1984 to 91.3 million in 1995. Growth will vary among industries within the group. The following para graphs summarize recent trends and employment projections in the five industrial sectors that make up the service-producing industries. Transportation, communications, and public utilities. Employment has increased in air transportation and transportation services, but has de clined in railroads and water transpor tation since 1979. Even in the commu nications industries, where demand has increased greatly, technological innovations have limited employment growth. Between 1984 and 1995, employ ment in transportation, communica tions, and public utilities is expected to rise 14 percent, from 5.6 million to 6.4 million. Rising demand for new telecommunications services, result ing from the increased use of comput er systems and the divestiture of the telephone company, will make com munications the most rapidly growing industry in the sector. Employment in communications industries is project ed to grow by 17 percent, from 1.4 million to 1.6 million. More efficient communication equipment, however, will keep employment from rising as rapidly as output. Although employment in railroads is expected to decline, it is expected Chart 7. Industries differ substantially in the kinds of workers they employ. Percent distribution of wage and salary workers, 1984 to increase in other transportation in dustries such as air transportation, local transit, and trucking. However, deregulation will continue to have an impact in trucking, where a shift to self-employed truckers is expected, and in airlines, where a much slower rate of growth than in the past is projected. On the other hand, the transportation services industry (most ly travel agencies) will grow rapidly. Employment in transportation as a whole should rise 14 percent, from 3.2 million to 3.7 million. Demand for electric power, gas util ities, and water and sanitary services will increase through the mid-1990’s as population and industry grow. Em ployment in industries that deliver these services is expected to increase 13 percent, from 1.0 million to 1.2 million. Trade. Both wholesale and retail trade employment have increased as the population has grown and as rising incomes have enabled people to buy a greater number and variety of goods. During the 1970’s and early 1980’s, employment in trade increased at about the same rate as in serviceproducing industries as a whole. Be tween 1984 and 1995, wholesale and retail trade employment is expected to grow 16 percent, from 24.3 million to Chart 8. Industries providing services will continue to employ many more prople than those providing goods Workers (millions)1 1959 1969 1979 1984 1990 1995 11ncludes wage and salary workers, the self-employed, and unpaid family workers. Source Bureau of Labor Statistics 17 Chart 9. Through the mid-1990’s, some industries will grow much faster than others. Projected change in employment, 1984-95 (millions)1 Service producing: Transportation, communications, and public utilities Trade Finance, insurance, and real estate Services Government Goods producing: Agriculture Mining Construction Manufacturing SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics 'Wage and salary employment except for agriculture, which includes self-employed and unpaid family workers. 28.3 million. Employment will rise despite the use of laborsaving innova tions such as computerized inventory systems and automated warehouses. The largest number of new jobs in the trade sector is projected to be in eating and drinking places. Large in creases are also expected in depart ment stores, grocery stores, and car dealerships. In wholesale trade, the largest increases will be in firms han dling machinery, electrical goods, and motor vehicles. Finance, insurance, and real es tate. This was the second fastest growing service-producing sector dur ing the 1970’s and early 1980’s as financial and banking needs mush roomed. Between 1984 and 1995, employ ment in this sector is expected to rise 17 percent, from 6.3 million to 7.4 million. Demand for credit and other financial services should grow rapid ly, but more automatic teller ma chines and computerized banking and stock transactions will prevent em ployment from growing as fast as out put. Services. This sector includes a va riety of industries, such as hotels, b a rb e r shops, autom obile rep air shops, hospitals, engineering firms, and nonprofit organizations. During the 1970’s and early 1980’s, employ ment in this sector increased faster than in any other sector. Sharply ris ing demand for health care, data proc essing, and engineering and legal serv 18 ices were among the forces behind this growth. From 1984 to 1995, employ ment in service industries is expected to in crease 30 percent, from 23.4 million to 31.2 million, and provide more new jobs than any other sector. Business services, including data processing, temporary help supply agencies, and services to buildings, primarily clean ing, are expected to grow more rapid ly and add more jobs than any other industry in the economy. Employ ment in health services also is expect ed to increase substantially, but cost containment measures are expected to restrict the rate of growth of health care industries despite increased de mand generated by an aging popula tion and by advances in medical tech nology. Large increases in employ ment also are expected in engineering, legal, social, and accounting services. Government. During the 1970’s and early 1980’s, government employment rose, although most of this growth was in State and local government prior to 1980. Between 1984 and 1995, employment is expected to rise only 7 percent, from 16.0 million to 17.1 mil lion. State and local government is projected to grow 9 percent but Fed eral employment is expected to re main about the same. About 3 out of 7 of the new jobs projected to be added in State and local governments will be in public education, which is project ed to rise from 6.7 million in 1984 to 7.2 million in 1995. Employment in elementary schools is expected to rise faster than in high schools. Goods-Producing Industries. Employ ment in these industries increased during the 1970’s, but the 1980 and 1981-82 recessions caused a drop in employment. Although employment in these industries increased by 1984, it was still under the 1979 peak. Be tween 1984 and 1995, employment in goods-producing industries is expect ed to increase only 6 percent, from 29.6 million to 31.4 million, which is only slightly higher than employment in 1979. Significant variation in em ployment growth is expected among goods-producing industries. Agriculture. The use of machinery, fertilizers, feeds, pesticides, and hy brid plants has made possible in creased farm output with a smaller work force. Domestic demand for food will increase slowly through the mid-1990’s. Worldwide demand for food will increase because of popula tion growth, and U.S. food exports will increase through the next decade. Farm productivity, however, will con tinue to im prove—although m ore slowly than in the past—and employ ment is expected to continue to de cline even as production rises. Be tween 1984 and 1995, agricultural em ploym ent is p ro jected to drop 7 percent, from 3.3 to 3.0 million jobs. Mining. Employment in the mining sector increased rapidly from 1973 to 1981, primarily due to increased min ing of coal in response to oil short ages. It then declined substantially due to recession, foreign competition for metals, and a drop in the price of oil which brought the oil and gas boom of the early 1980’s to a halt. Between 1984 and 1995, employ ment in the mining industry is expect ed to decline 3 percent, from 651,000 to 631,000. Employment in oil and gas extraction is expected to increase only 1 percent as domestic production levels off; employment in coal mining is expected to decline due to produc tivity im provem ents and expected slow growth in demand. Most other mining industries are expected to have decreases in employment be cause of import competition and im provements in mining technology. Construction. Employment in con struction dropped considerably be tween 1979 and 1982, as high interest rates and low economic activity limit ed new construction, but has since rebounded and now is higher than in 1979 because of lower interest rates and increased economic activity. The construction industry is pro jected to benefit from an anticipated growth in investment, particularly af ter 1990. Between 1984 and 1995, em ployment in the construction sector is expected to increase 12 percent, from 5.9 to 6.6 million. Through the late 1980’s, the demand for housing is ex pected to be strong as interest rates are projected to drop slowly and as the industry continues to recover from the low level of new residential construction during the 1980-82 re cession years. During the early 1990’s, the growth in households will slow and possibly limit the demand for new housing. Nonresidential construction is projected to recover from the recent oversupply of commercial office build ings and also to grow as factory mod ernization accelerates. Manufacturing. Improved produc tivity and import competition caused a 1.6 million drop in manufacturing employment between 1979 and 1984, following a slight increase during the 1970’s. Employment is expected to increase 7 percent, from 19.8 million in 1984 to 21.1 million in 1995 due to strong demand resulting from an ex pected capital spending boom and continued strong growth in defense expenditures. Only modest employ ment gains in manufacturing are ex pected because of the anticipated pro ductivity increase from investment in high-technology capital equipment. Despite this growth, manufacturing employment in 1995 will still be slight ly below the 1979 level. Several key manufacturing industries, such as au tomobile and steel manufacturing, are not expected to reach previous peak em ploym ent levels. On the other hand, the computer, materials han dling equipment, and scientific and controlling instruments industries will be among the fastest growing indus tries. Manufacturing is divided into two broad categories—durable goods man ufacturing and nondurable goods man ufacturing. Employment in durable goods manufacturing is expected to increase by 12 percent due to rising business, military, and consumer de mand for computers, machinery, and electronic components. However, em ployment in nondurable goods manu facturing is projected to decline by 2 percent, reflecting the tendency of consumers to spend less of their bud get on staples such as food and cloth ing as their income rises. Occupational Profile This section gives an overview of the changes expected in employment for 16 broad groups of occupations. These groups are based on the Standard Oc cupational Classification, the system used by all Federal agencies that col lect occupational employment data. In the following discussion, as throughout the Handbook, projected employment change in individual oc cupations usually is compared to the average for all occupations. Half a dozen phrases are used to describe the projected change in employment; they are explained in the box on page 4. It is important to remember that both the rate of growth and the size of the change in employment are impor tant in analyzing the job outlook (chart 10). E xecu tive, a d m inistrative, and managerial occupations. In most of these occupations, employment is ex pected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations. However, faster growth is expected for occupa tions in fast-growing industries. Em ployment of managers in the health industry, for example, is expected to increase much faster than the aver age. Employment of administrators and managers also should grow faster than the average in data processing services, credit and securities firms, automotive repairs, and social serv ices. In contrast, managerial employ ment in government and education services is likely to grow more slowly than the average due to the anticipat ed modest growth of these industries. Employment of accountants and auditors will grow much faster than the average as managers rely more on accounting information to make busi ness decisions. Employment of buy ers, purchasing agents, and personnel specialists will increase about as fast as the average, while employment of construction and compliance and en forcement inspectors will increase more slowly than the average. Because of the increasing number of people seeking managerial and ad ministrative jobs and the increasing technical requirements in many of these occupations, experience, spe cialized training, or postbaccalaureate study will be needed for more of them. Familiarity with computers will be needed in more jobs as managers and administrators increasingly rely on computerized information systems. Engineers, scientists, and related occupations. Employment in most of the occupations in this group is ex pected to increase as fast as or faster than the average; employment of en gineers and systems analysts is ex pected to grow much faster than the average. Increased military expenditures, growing demand for computers and other electronic equipment, and ex- Chart 10. Even though an occupation is expected to grow rapidly, it may provide fewer openings than a slower growing but larger occupation. Percent change in employment, 1984-95 100 ----------------------------------------------------- Absolute change in employment, 1984-95 (thousands) 300 ------------------------------------------- SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics 19 pansion and automation in most areas of the economy are expected to lead to higher employment in engineering occupations. The growing application of computers will contribute to in creased employment of systems ana lysts. R esearch to expand basic knowledge and to develop new tech nologies and products is expected to lead to higher employment in scien tific occupations, although employ ment of scientists will grow more slowly than engineers. Social science, social service, and related occupations. Employment in many of the occupations in this group is expected to grow about as fast as the average. However, due to the number of people interested in these fields, competition for jobs is expect ed in many occupations—especially for academic positions. Generally, prospects will be better for those with advanced degrees who seek work in applied fields. Competition also is likely for jobs as social and recreation workers in public and voluntary agen cies as well as for salaried positions for lawyers. Teachers, librarians, and counse lors. Because of anticipated enroll ment declines and an abundance of qualified jobseekers, competition is expected for college and university faculty. Only slow growth is expected in secondary school teaching. Because elementary school enroll ments are increasing, employment of elementary school teachers is expect ed to grow rapidly. Secondary school teachers, college faculty, and librari ans in scientific and technical fields generally will face better job pros pects. Employment of vocational and ed ucational counselors will grow as fast as the average, although growth will be faster in areas other than in schools, especially in mental health counsel ing. Health-related occupations. This group includes health practitioners, nurses, health technicians and tech nologists, health service workers, di etitians, pharmacists, and therapists. Employment in most of the health occupations is expected to grow faster th an the av e ra g e as p o p u latio n growth—especially in the number of older people—increases the demand for health care. Registered nurses and nursing aides and orderlies, because of the large size and anticipated Digitized for20 FRASER growth of these occupations, will be Employment growth in some of the among the occupations providing the occupations will be limited by changes most new jobs through the mid-1990’s. in technology. Employment of draft Despite the anticipated growth in the ers is expected to increase much more health industry, physicians, dentists, slowly than the demand for drafting chiropractors, and veterinarians seek services because of productivity im ing to establish practices can expect provements realized by the use of unprecedented competition due to the com puter-aided design equipm ent. large number of newly trained practi Similarly, little or no change in the tioners entering those fields each year. employment of air traffic controllers is Pressure to contain costs, especial expected due to the automation of air ly in hospitals, and technological ad traffic control equipment. vances will affect the projected rates Marketing and sales occupations. of growth in many health-related oc Employment of travel agents, security cupations. For example, physician as sales workers, and real estate agents sistants, medical record technicians, is expected to grow faster or much and medical assistants will grow much faster than the average due to antici faster than the average but automa pated growth of the industries in tion of laboratory procedures will which these workers are employed. make for slower than average growth Many part-time and full-time job for medical and clinical laboratory openings are expected for cashiers technologists. and retail trade sales workers due to Writers, artists, and entertainers. the large size, high turnover, and ex This group includes reporters, writ pected employment growth in these ers, designers, public relations spe occupations. Higher paying sales oc cialists, and performing artists. In cupations, such as insurance agent most of these occupations, employ and real estate agent, tend to be more ment is expected to increase as fast as competitive than retail sales occupa the average for all occupations. The tions. Well-trained, ambitious people continued growth of advertising, pub who enjoy selling will have the best lic relations, print and broadcast com chance for success. A dm inistrative support o ccupa munications, and entertainment will tions, including clerical. Workers in spur employment growth. Stiff competition for jobs in these this group prepare and record letters occupations is likely, due to the large and other docum ents; collect ac numbers of people they attract. Talent counts; gather and distribute informa and personal drive will continue to be tion; operate office machines; and extremely important for success in handle other tasks that help run busi these occupations. Within individual nesses, government agencies, and oth occupations, some areas will offer er organizations. The increase in of better job prospects. The best pros fice automation systems will limit em pects for writers and editors, for ex p loym ent o p p o rtu n itie s in som e ample, will be in technical writing and administrative support occupations. Changes in organizational practices in business and trade publications. Technologists and tech n icia n s. also will affect employment for some Workers in this group provide techni of these occupations. Despite a grow cal assistance to engineers, scientists, ing volume of mail, little change is and other professional workers as expected in the employment of mail well as operate and program technical carriers because of improved routing equipment independently. The contin programs and more centralized mail ued growth in the importance of tech delivery. However, despite the pro nology to national defense, office jected slow growth, several occupa work, manufacturing, and other activ tions in this group will provide many ities is expected to cause much faster full- and part-time job openings due to than average employment growth for their large size and high turnover. several occupations in this group, These include bank tellers, bookkeep such as programmers and electrical ers and accounting clerks, secretaries, and electronics technicians. Legal as shipping and receiving clerks, and sistants are projected to grow faster typists. Some administrative support occu than any other occupation as more of them are employed to aid lawyers and pations will enjoy faster or much fast because of the expected growth in the er than average employment growth. Employment of computer operators demand for legal services. and peripheral equipment operators, for example, is expected to grow much faster than the average due to the increased use of computer sys tems. Service occupations. This group in cludes a wide range of workers in protective, food and beverage prepa ration, cleaning, and personal serv ices and is expected to account for more job growth than any other broad group. Among the protective service occupations, correction officers are expected to have much faster than average growth because of the in creasing num ber of inm ates, and guards are expected to have faster than average growth because of con cern over crime and vandalism. Em ployment of police officers and fire fighters is expected to increase about as fast as the average. Rising incomes and the growing number of men and women who com bine family responsibilities and a job are expected to contribute to faster than average em ploym ent growth among food and beverage preparation and service occupations such as bar tenders, cooks, and w aiters/w aitresses. Due to the large size, high turnover, and growth of these occupa tions, full- and part-time job openings will be plentiful. Agricultural and forestry occupa tions. Demand for food, fiber, and wood is expected to increase as the world population grows. The develop ment and use of more productive farming and forestry methods, howev er, is expected to result in declining employment in most agricultural and forestry occupations. M echanics and repairers. These workers adjust, maintain, and repair autom obiles, industrial equipment, computers, and many other types of machinery. Employment in most of these occupations is expected to grow about as fast as the average due to the greater use of machines throughout the economy. In some, employment will increase faster than the average. The increased use of computers and advanced office machinery, for exam ple, will make employment of com puter service technicians and office machine repairers grow much faster than the average. However, more re liable, easy-to-service machinery will limit employment growth for some mechanic and repairer occupations, such as communications equipment mechanics. Construction occupations. Workers in this group are expected to experi ence average employment growth be tween 1984 and 1995. A rapid rise in spending for new industrial plants and an increase in the number of house holds are factors expected to lead to more new construction. Alteration and modernization of existing struc tures, as well as the need for mainte nance and repair on highway systems, dams, and bridges, also.will contrib ute to increased construction activity. However, the construction industry is very sensitive to changes in the Na tion’s economy, and employment in construction occupations drops sharp ly during recessions. Production occupations. Workers in these occupations perform tasks involved in the production of goods. They set up, adjust, operate, and tend machinery and equipment, and use handtools and hand-held power tools to fabricate and assemble products. More efficient production techniques such as com puter-aided m anufac turing and the increased use of lasers and industrial robots will prevent em ployment in many production occupa tions from rising as rapidly as the output of goods. However, there will still be many openings in this group because of its large size. Many production occupations are sensitive to changes in the economy. When factory orders decline during economic downturns, workers may experience shortened w orkw eeks, layoffs, and plant closings. Transportation and material moving occupations. Workers in this group operate the equipment used to move people and materials. An increase in demand for transport services is ex pected to result in average employ ment growth for truckdrivers and fast er than average growth for airplane pilots. Increased use of automated material handling systems, however, is expected to cause a decrease in employment of industrial truck oper ators. Handlers, equipment cleaners, help ers, and laborers. Workers in this group assist skilled workers and perform the routine unskilled tasks. Employment in these occupations is expected to grow more slowly than the average as routine tasks are mechanized, but jobs in these occupations generally are expected to be plentiful due to high turnover. However, economic downturns can lower the number of openings substantially. This is partic ularly true for construction laborers and other workers in industries that are sensitive to changes in the N a tion’s economy. Since the employment prospects for individual occupations within each of the 16 groups differ, it is important to check the outlook for each occupation that interests you. More detailed sta tistics on employment, replacement needs, and educational and training program completions are presented in Occupational Projections and Train ing Data, 1986 Edition, BLS Bulletin 2251, a companion volume to the Handbook. Replacement Needs Most discussions of future job oppor tunities focus on the employment growth in industries and occupations. Since the faster growing industries and occupations generally offer better opportunities for employment and ad vancement than slow-growing ones, employment growth is a good gauge of job outlook. Another element in the employment outlook, however, is re placement needs. Replacement open ings occur as people leave occupa tions. Some transfer to other occupa tions as a step up the career ladder or to change careers. Some stop work ing, return to school, assume house hold responsibilities, or retire. Through the mid-1990’s, most jobs will become available as the result of replacement needs. Among occupa tions, however, the number of re placement jobs and the proportion of total job openings made up by re placement needs will vary signifi cantly. Size, the earnings and status, the length of training required, the average age of workers, and the pro portion of part-time workers deter mine the number of replacement jobs in an occupation. Occupations with the most replacement openings gener ally are large, with low pay and status, low training requirements, and a high proportion of young and part-time workers. Examples are: File clerks, cashiers, construction laborers, and stock handlers. W orkers in these oc cupations who lose their job or leave voluntarily often are able to find a similar job. They also have not spent much money or time in training for 21 their jobs, so there is limited incentive to stay in such occupations. Occupa tions with low training requirements often attract workers with limited at tachment to the labor force, such as young people working part time. The occupations with relatively few replacement openings, on the other hand, are ones with high pay and status, lengthy training requirements, and a high proportion of prime work ing age, full-time workers. Among these occupations are architects, den Digitized for22 FRASER tists, and dental laboratory techni cians. Workers in these occupations generally have spent several years ac quiring training that often is not appli cable to other occupations. These workers enjoy good pay and high sta tus, but would find it difficult to change to other high-paying occupa tions without extensive retraining. W hen considering rep lacem en t needs, it is important to note, first, that occupations with little or no em ployment growth or slower than aver age growth can still offer many job openings. Second, in many occupa tions with a large number of replace ment openings, the pay and status are low. Many of the available jobs are only part-time positions. These occu pations, therefore, may not be suit able for a person planning a long-term career, despite the large number of openings. More information about re placement needs is available in Occu pational Projections and Training Data. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations Executives, administrators, manag ers, and their support staff are found in every organization. They establish goals, direct operations, and control major activities of their organizations. As a group, these workers are older, m ore e x p e rie n c e d , m ore highly trained and, consequently, more high ly paid than most other workers. In 1984, the proportion of these workers with 4 years or more of college was more than twice that of the total work force; and on the average their sala ries were more than 50 percent higher than that of the total work force. Executives, adm inistrators, and managers must rapidly assess large amounts of information prepared by their support staff. For example, the chief executive officer may base a policy decision upon economic re ports developed by budget specialists. Financial managers analyze data me ticulously summarized by accoun tants. Personnel managers monitor information on staffing patterns com piled by personnel specialists. Mar keting and sales executives develop strategies to market their firms’ prod ucts based upon information furnished by buyers. Detailed information about the na ture of the work, working conditions, employment, training requirements, job outlook, and earnings for a num ber of executive, administrative, man agerial, and support occupations ap pears in the following Handbook state ments. Managers and their support staff have much more formal education than most other workers. Percent of workers Years of schooling, 1984 4 years of college or more 1 to 3 years of college 30 20 10 50 40 60 __________________ Managers and support staff ] All occupations 4 years of high school or less ■ Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics Managers and their support staff have much higher earnings than most other full-time workers. ... ,, Percent of workers earnings, 0 10 20 30 40 50 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 23 Managers and Administrators Nature of the Work Managers and adm inistrators are needed in every organization. They plan, organize, direct, and control the organization’s major functions. Some workers who are occasionally referred to as managers are excluded from this category, for example, supervisors of blue-collar workers, because they rarely set goals for an organization. The many job titles used for managers reflect either the specific responsibili ty of a position or the industry in which the manager works. Among the numerous job titles are account exec utive, cable supervisor, chief design engineer, clerk of the court, director of social services, hospital administra tor, plant manager, postmaster, pub lisher, refinery superintendent, sales coordinator, school principal, treasur er, and vice president. The duties of a manager are as varied as their titles because manag ers oversee many different activities, such as designing the product that an organization will offer, manufacturing it, and marketing it. Financial con trol—that is, keeping track of an orga nization’s income and expenses—is another important management func tion. But perhaps the most basic man agement function concerns personnel, for the difference between a manager and an entrepreneur with no employ ees is that the manager works through other people to reach a goal. Manag ers, therefore, must be skilled at hir ing qualified people and at working with others. In a small owner-operated firm, all management functions may be exer cised by one individual—the owner. But, as the size and complexity of an organization’s operations increase, so does the management hierarchy. Many functions—accounting or legal services, for example—that may be contracted out by small firms are of ten performed internally by large cor porations. Giant corporations, such as those found in the automobile and oil industries, contain several layers ofmanagement, which are generally grouped in three levels—supervisory, middle, and top. 24 Supervisory or junior managers plan, schedule, and supervise the dayto-day work of employees. For exam ple, a junior manager in a department store might supervise several sales clerks, keep records of inventory and sales, and be responsible for insuring that adequate supplies of merchandise are on hand. In a ceramics factory, a junior manager might be responsible for seeing that machinery is properly maintained, that the raw materials are available, and that production sched ules are met. In a government or bus iness office, junior managers might oversee and review the work of pro fessionals. Junior managers must be familiar with their firm’s products or services, thoroughly understand work procedures, and have strong interper sonal skills. Besides supervisory re sponsibilities, they may spend part of their time on other work. They are found in every sort of organization directing every kind of activity, such as accounting, data processing, in spection, maintenance, marketing, personnel, research, sales, security, and shipping. Midlevel managers hold intermedi ary positions between supervisory and top management. Their specific duties and job titles depend largely on the way the particular organization they work for is set up, but they are always in charge of several junior managers. In a very large corporation manufacturing many products, a midlevel manager might be responsi ble for a separate division that makes only a few of these products. In a corporation that has a single purpose, such as a superm arket chain, a midlevel manager might be responsi ble for all the stores in a region. Or midlevel managers might be responsi ble for a specific activity such as per sonnel, sales, service, or production. Top-level managers include mem bers of the board of directors, the chief executive officer—who may be the president or the board chairman— and the vice presidents for major ad ministrative units, such as marketing or financial operations. These execu tives establish the objectives of the organization and chart its future course. They must analyze and eval uate large amounts of information to gauge the possible impact on their organization of economic, political, and social tren d s; technological change; and competition. They also coordinate the activities of various administrative units within their orga nizations and maintain lines of com munication with middle managers. Working Conditions Like their duties and job titles, the working conditions of managers vary widely depending upon their position, their employer, and their industry. In a large corporation, a top-level man ager might have a lavish office and a private secretary, whereas a produc tion-line manager might have a simple office and use a secretarial pool. Most work a standard 8-hour day and 5-day week, but many do not. Some, like those in newspaper publishing, regu larly work the night shift. Others, like hospital administrators, are on call 24 hours a day to deal with emergencies. And almost all managers are expected to work overtime when necessary. Other working conditions also differ greatly from job to job. For example, managers in the construction industry work outdoors a lot, while those re sponsible for a large region travel a great deal. The pace of work also varies. In the radio and television broadcasting in dustry, managers are subject to con stant deadlines. For hotel managers, checkout time can be particularly hec tic. In retail trade establishments, sea sonal changes in activity are pro nounced. In the drug manufacturing industry, research projects may be long term, scheduled for completion months or even years in the future. Naturally, the degree to which man agers work with other people also depends on their particular job. Some, like those in restaurants, automotive service departments, and social ser vice agencies, are in constant contact with the public. Managers associated with research and development activ- Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations/25 ities, on the other hand, may rarely deal with people outside their office. Employment Managers held about 8.8 million jobs in 1984, nearly 90 percent of which were salaried positions. In most in dustries, the proportion of managers is roughly the same as it is in the economy as a whole, about 8 percent. The finance, insurance, and real es tate industry group, however, has a relatively high proportion of managers (17 percent); and the agriculture, for estry, and fisheries group has a rela tively low one (2 percent). Generally, large industries are also large employers of managers. The 20 industries listed in table 1 employed over 60 percent of all salaried manag ers in 1984. Self-employment is higher among managers than most occupations. Many self-employed managers work in retail trade—an industry character ized by a large number of relatively small establishments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Management is not usually an entry level function. Some people enter management training programs after completing college, but most people who become managers start their ca reers in other occupations. School ad ministrators often begin as teachers, treasurers begin as accountants, and store managers start out as sales workers. To be considered for management positions, workers must first prove themselves in their current job. In evaluating candidates, superiors look for determination, confidence, in novativeness, high motivation, and managerial attributes, such as the ability to make sound decisions, to organize and coordinate work effi ciently, and to establish good personal relations with other workers. Potential junior managers may be given occasional supervisory assign ments and, shortly before or after assuming full-time supervisory duties, may participate in management semi nars and training courses—offered by industry and management associa tions, consulting firms, and institu tions of higher education—lasting from 1 day to several months. Train ing may also include rotational assign ments to other administrative units, plants, or overseas posts; service on boards and committees; and serving as assistants to higher level managers. A college education is more impor tant for managers than for most other occupations. In 1984, over 40 percent of all salaried managers and adminis trators had completed 4 years or more of college—roughly double the pro portion for all occupations. However, there is considerable variation in the median years of schooling among managerial occupations. For exam ple, administrators in education and related fields had completed over 18 years of schooling while property and real estate managers had completed only 13.2 years compared to the 12.8 years for all occupations in 1984. Many managers undergo additional qualifying training. For example, in 1984, about one-fifth of marketing, advertising, and public relations man agers and of medical and health man agers said that they needed formal company training to qualify for their current job. Nearly one-half of finan cial managers and marketing, adver tising, and public relations managers said that informal on-the-job training was required. Advancement invariably depends upon successful performance. How ever, in highly technical activities such as engineering, data processing, and complex manufacturing opera tions, a graduate degree in business m anagem ent can enhance o n e’s chances for promotion to top-level management positions. Graduates with a master’s degree in business administration from a prestigious school can often enter a wide range of industries and many, especially those with previous managerial experience, move up the management hierarchy soon after employment in their new position. Continuing training is also impor tant. For example, in 1984, 1 out of 3 public administration officials said they took formal company training to improve their skills; over 1 out of 4 took informal on-the-job training. In dustry sources indicate that many toplevel managers complete formal aca demic refresher or “ catch-up” pro grams of about a year’s duration at least two or three times during their management careers. Job Outlook Employment of salaried managers and administrators is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupa tions through the mid-1990’s as busi ness operations become more com- Table 1. Wage and salary employment of managers in selected industries, 1984 Industry Number (thousands) Percent of industry employment Total, all industries.......................................................... 7,851 8 Eating and drinking places.......................................................... Educational services.................................................................... Business services......................................................................... Health services............................................................................. Banking......................................................................................... Local government, except education and hospitals.............. Miscellaneous retail stores.......................................................... Food stores................................................................................... Wholesale trade, durable g o o d s................................................ Special trade contractors (construction).................................. 415 395 375 336 309 275 269 256 235 232 8 5 9 5 18 8 13 10 7 10 General merchandise stores........................................................ Membership organizations.......................................................... Real estate..................................................................................... Federal Government.................................................................... Apparel and accessories stores.................................................. Automotive dealers and gasoline service stations.................. Machinery manufacturing, except electrical.......................... General contractors and operative builders (construction).. Communications.......................................................................... Insurance carriers....................................................................... 203 195 185 171 169 168 163 162 161 151 9 13 17 8 17 9 7 14 12 12 SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. 26/Occupational Outlook Handbook plex. On the other hand, the number of self-employed managers is expect ed to decline as large enterprises and chain operations increasingly domi nate business activity. The projected change in employ ment varies greatly among managerial occupations. The employment of health services administrators is ex pected to increase much faster than average, as the health industry ex pands and health services manage ment becomes more complex. Partic ularly strong demand will arise from the growth in health maintenance or ganizations, group medical practices, and other health care facilities such as emergency centers, surgicenters, and rehabilitation centers for patients not requiring the full spectrum of medical services offered by hospitals. In addi tion, there will be great pressure to expand skilled nursing and personal care facilities to accommodate the large increase in the number of senior citizens. Faster than average growth is expected in the employment of bank officers and managers as bank services expand in volume and com plexity. Employment of elementary and sec ondary school principals and assis tants is expected to increase more slowly than the average, since the school-age population is projected to increase only modestly by the mid1990’s. The employment of postmasters and mail superintendents is also expect ed to increase more slowly than the average, as no significant increase in the number of post offices is expected. Employment of managers generally changes along with employment in the industries in which they work. Much faster than average growth is expect ed in the employment of managers in many service industries—for example, business services, including computer and data processing as well as person nel supply services; miscellaneous serv ices, including engineering, architectur al, and surveying as well as accounting, auditing, and bookkeeping services; and social services, including residen tial care, individual and family social services, and job training and vocation al rehabilitation services. Industries in which faster than av erage growth in the employment of managers is expected include whole sale trade in nondurable goods; food stores; electrical and electronic ma chinery and equipment manufac Digitized for turing; apparel and accessories stores; FRASER and State government, except educa tion and hospitals. Industries in which slower than av erage growth in the employment of managers is expected include the Fed eral Government and mining. De clines are expected in the employment of managers in some manufacturing industries—for example, food prod ucts and apparel and textile products. Earnings Managers tend to earn more than workers in other occupations. In 1984, median annual earnings of all full-time managers and administrators, exclud ing s e lf-e m p lo y e d , w ere o v e r $27,400—compared to $17,000 for all occupations. The middle 50 percent earned between $18,000 and $40,000. More than 12 percent—over 4 times the proportion for all workers—earned $52,000 or more. Earnings vary widely by occupa tion, employer, and level of responsi bility. Median annual earnings of prop erty and real estate managers were $16,900 in 1984, whereas marketing, advertising, and public relations man agers earned $31,400. As in most fields, large employers tend to pay higher salaries than small employers, and earnings are higher in major met ropolitan areas than in rural areas. Management trainees may start at salaries not much higher than those of workers they supervise, whereas sal aries of executives may be several times larger. Top-level managers in large corporations—among the high est paid workers in the country—can earn 10 times as much as their coun terparts in small firms. A small num ber of corporate executives earn over $1 million a year. Most managers in the private sector receive additional compensation in the form of bonuses, stock awards, and cash-equivalent fringe benefits such as company-paid insurance pre miums and use of company cars. Sources of Additional Information General information about managerial functions, training programs, and ca reer development is available from: American Management Association, Manage ment Information Service, 135 West 50th St., New York, N.Y. 10020. National Management Association, 2210 Arbor Blvd., Dayton, Ohio 45439. Specific information may be obtained from the national organizations listed under a number of headings—adminis tration, administrators, directors, exec utives, management, managers, super intendents, and supervisors—in various encyclopedias or directories of associa tions, available in public libraries. For information on educational in stitutions offering a specialization in business and management, consult di rectories of institutions of higher learning, available in public libraries. Consult the Dictionary o f Occupa tional Titles, Fourth Edition, 1977 (U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration), for a de tailed description of various managerial jobs. Consult a number of headings— administrator, director, executive, man ager, superintendent, and supervisor. A copy of this publication should be avail able in most public libraries. Bank Officers and Managers (D .O .T. 161.117-018; 186.117-014, -038, -054, -066, -070, -078; ,167-022, -026, -054; and 189.117-038) Nature of the Work Practically every banking institution— whether commercial bank, savings and loan association, or personal cred it institution—has one or more vice presidents acting as general managers who coordinate the activities of the institution’s departments or regional offices, and financial managers who oversee the activities of their branch es. Most have a controller or cashier who, unlike cashiers in stores and other businesses, is an executive of ficer generally responsible for all bank property. Large banks also may have treasurers and other officers to over see several departments. Each department is headed by a highly trained and experienced man ager. Risk and insurance managers establish and oversee programs to control and minimize risks and losses that may arise from financial transac tions undertaken by the institution. Credit card operations managers es tablish credit rating criteria, deter mine credit ceilings, and monitor their institution’s extension of credit. Re serve officers review their institu tion’s financial statements and direct the purchase and sale of bonds and other securities to maintain the assetliability ratio required by law. User representatives in international ac counting develop integrated inter- Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations/27 national financial and accounting sys tems for the banking transactions of multinational organizations. A work ing knowledge of the financial systems of foreign countries is essential. Bank officers make decisions within a framework of existing laws and reg ulations and policy set by the board of directors. They must have a broad knowledge of business activities and also detailed knowledge of industries allied to banking, such as insurance, real estate, and securities. With grow ing competition, promotion of an ex panding variety of financial services offered by banking institutions is an increasingly important function of bank managers. Besides supervising financial services, officers advise indi viduals and businesses and participate in community projects. Working Conditions Since a great deal of bank business depends on customers’ impressions, officers and managers are provided attractive, comfortable offices and are encouraged to dress conservatively. Bank officers and managers typically work at least 40 hours a week. How ever, attending civic functions, keep ing abreast of community develop ments, establishing and maintaining business contacts, participating in trade association meetings, and simi lar activities may occasionally require overtime work. Bank officers confirm customers’ credit eligibility. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many bank management positions are filled by promoting technically skilled personnel—for example, accountants, credit analysts, and loan officers—or outstanding bank clerks or tellers who have demonstrated the potential for increased responsibilities. More posi tions are being filled by management Employment Bank officers and managers held about trainees with a college education. A 453,000 jobs in 1984. The following business administration major in fi tabulation presents the distribution of nance or a liberal arts curriculum, wage and salary jobs by type of bank including accounting, economics, commercial law, political science, and ing or credit institution. statistics, serves as excellent prepara Banking.......................................... 309,000 tion for officer-trainee positions. A Commercial and stock sav ings banks.............................. 282,000 Master of Business Administration Mutual savings banks.............. 11,000 (MBA) in addition to a social science Federal Reserve banks............ 2,000 bachelor’s degree, which some em Trust companies, nondeposit . 1,000 ployers prefer, may provide an even Establishments closely related stronger educational foundation. to b a n k s................................ 12,000 However, banks do hire people with diverse backgrounds such as chemical Credit agencies other than banks.......................................... 144,000 engineering, nuclear physics, and for estry to meet the needs of the com Savings and loan associations.......................... 63,000 plex, high-technology industries with Personal credit institutions . . . 45,000 which they deal. Mortgage bankers and Persons interested in becoming brokers.................................. 22,000 bank officers should like to work in Business credit institutions . . . 9,000 dependently and to analyze detailed Agricultural credit institutions............................ 5,000 information. The ability to communi cate, both orally and in writing, is Rediscount and financing institutions............................ 1,000 important. They also need tact and good judgment to counsel customers and supervise employees. In small banks, where the number of positions is limited, advancement to a management position may come slowly. In large banks that have spe cial training programs, promotions may occur more quickly. For a senior position, however, an employee usu ally needs many years of experience. Although experience, ability, and leadership are emphasized for promo tion, advancement may be accelerated by special study. Banks often provide opportunities for workers to broaden their knowledge and skills. Many banks encourage employees to take courses at local colleges and universities. In addi tion, banking associations, often in cooperation with colleges and universi ties, sponsor numerous national or local training programs for bank officers. Their schools, located throughout the country, each deal with a different phase of banking. Persons enrolled pre pare extensively at home, then attend annual sessions on subjects such as commercial lending, installment credit, international banking, corporate cash management, and bank technology. Banks also sponsor annual seminars and conferences and provide textbooks and other educational materials. Many banks pay all or part of the costs for those who successfully complete cours 28/Occupational Outlook Handbook es. (See the statement on bank tellers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Bank operations have been revolu tionized by technological improve ments in computers and data process ing equipment. Knowledge of their applications is important to upgrade managerial skills and to enhance ad vancement opportunities. Because banking is an essential part of business, well-trained, experienced managers may transfer to closely relat ed positions in other areas of finance or to positions within other industries, such as manufacturing, that need indi viduals with banking experience. Related Occupations Bank officers and managers combine formal schooling with experience in one or more areas of banking—such as lending, credit operations, or risk and loss control—to provide services for customers. Other occupations which require similar training and ability include accountants and audi tors, budget officers, credit analysts, securities consultants, and underwrit ers. Sources of Additional Information General information about banking occupations, training opportunities, and the banking industry itself is available from: Job Outlook Employment of bank officers is expect American Bankers Association, 1120 Connect ed to increase faster than the average icut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. for all occupations through the mid- Bank Administration Institute, 60 Gould Cen 1990’s. Expanded financial services of ter, Rolling Meadows, 111. 60008. fered by banks will spur demand for National Association of Bank Women, Inc., bank managers to provide sound man National Office, 500 N. Michigan Ave., Chica go, 111. 60611. agement and effective quality control. of Financial Education, 111 E. Although bank officers and managers The Institute Chicago, 111. 60601. Wacker Dr., exhibit a relatively strong attachment to Information on careers with the Fed their occupation, most job openings will eral Reserve System is available from: result from the need to replace those Board of Governors, The Federal Reserve Sys who transfer to other fields, retire, or tem, Personnel Division, Washington, D.C. leave the occupation for other reasons. 20551, or from the personnel department of the Because of the increasing number Federal Reserve bank serving each geographic of qualified applicants, competition area. State bankers’ associations can fur for bank managerial positions is ex pected to stiffen. Familiarity with oth nish specific information about job er financial services—for example, in opportunities in their State. Or write surance or securities—and with com directly to a particular bank to inquire puters and data processing systems about job openings. For the names may enhance one’s chances for em and addresses of banks, savings, and ployment. Once employed, managers related institutions, as well as the and officers are likely to work year names of their principal officers, con round, even during periods of slow eco sult one of the following directories. nomic activity, because cyclical swings The A m erican B ank D irecto ry (Norcross, Ga., in the economy seem to have little im McFadden Business Publications). P o lk ’s W orld B ank D irecto ry (Nashville, R.L. mediate effect on banking activities. Earnings Officer trainees with a bachelor’s de gree generally earned between $13,200 and $22,800 a year in 1984. Those with master’s degrees generally started at higher salaries. Graduates with a Mas ter of Business Administration were offered starting salaries of $21,600 to $42,000 a year in 1984. Salaries of bank officers averaged $28,600 in 1984. The salary level de pends upon the particular position and the size and location of the bank. For managers, as well as for other bank employees, earnings are likely to be lower in small towns than in big cities. The top 10 percent of all bank officers Digitized for earned over $52,000 a year in 1984. FRASER Polk & Co.). The U .S . S a vin gs an d L oan D irecto ry (Chica go, Rand McNally & Co.). Health Services Managers (D.O.T. 074.131; 075.117-014, -022, -026, and -030; 079.117- 010, .131, .137, and .167-014; 161.117-018; 162.117- 014 and -022; 164.117-010; 165.117-010; 166.117- 010 and -018, .167-018, -026, -030, and -050; 169.167-030 and -034; 186.117-014 and -066; 187.117010, -018, -058, and -062, .167-034, -038, -046, -090, -106 and -194; 189.177-014, .167-022, -030, and -050; and 195.167.038) Nature of the Work Effective management of health care organizations, and of the considerable resources at their disposal, requires competent managers. Like their coun terparts in any organization, health services managers are responsible for facilities, services, programs, staff, budgets, and relations with other or ganizations. Health services manager is an inclu sive term for individuals in many dif ferent positions who plan, organize, and coordinate the delivery of care. Hospitals provide nearly half the jobs in this field. Among the other organi zations that employ health services managers are clinics, health mainte nance organizations (HMO’s), nurs ing homes, home health agencies, re habilitation centers, and psychiatric facilities; surgicenters, urgent care centers, diagnostic imaging centers, and other ambulatory care facilities; and offices of doctors, dentists, and other practitioners. The job of managing a health facil ity has become highly complex due to the rapid pace of change in medical technology and the emergence of doz ens of specialty health professions, in addition to significant changes in con sumer expectations, business practic es, and health care financing. As a result, the need for professional man agers continues to grow. Also contributing to the need for professional management is the exten sive oversight and scrutiny to which many health facilities are subject. Both past performance and plans for the future are subject to review by a variety of groups and organizations, including consumer groups, govern ment agencies, professional oversight bodies, business coalitions, and even the courts. Preparing for inspection visits by observers from regulatory bodies and submitting appropriate records and documentation can be time consuming as well as technically demanding. Three functional levels of adminis tration are found in hospitals and oth er large health care settings—execu tive, internal management, and spe cialized staff. The chief executive officer provides overall management direction, but also is concerned with com m unity o u tre a c h , planning, policymaking, response to govern ment agencies and regulations, and negotiating. The job often includes speaking before civic groups, promot ing public participation in health pro grams, and coordinating the activities of the organization with those of gov- Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations/29 ernment or community agencies. In stitutional planning is an increasingly important responsibility for chief ad ministrators, who must assess the need for services, personnel, facili ties, and equipment and recommend such changes as shutting down a ma ternity ward, for example, or opening an outpatient clinic. Chief administra tors need leadership ability as well as technical skills in order to respond effectively to the community’s re quirements for health care while, at the same time, satisfying demand for financial viability, cost containment, and public and professional account ability. Day-to-day management, particu larly in large facilities, may be the responsibility of one or more associ ate or assistant administrators, who work with service unit managers and staff specialists. Depending on the size of the organization, associate or assistant administrators may be re sponsible for budget preparation and finance; personnel administration and in-service training; information man agement; or coordination of the activ ities of the medical, nursing, physical plant, and other operating depart ments. As the health care system becomes more complex, specialists in financial management, marketing, strategic planning, systems analysis, and labor relations will need to be hired. Although managers in hospitals and nursing homes are both responsible for the efficient operation of their fa cilities, their day-to-day duties differ markedly. Hospitals are complex in structure, housing a great many de partments—admissions, surgery, lab oratory, therapy, emergency medi cine, nursing, physical plant, medical records, accounting, and so on. The hospital administrator works with the governing board in establishing gener al policies and operating philosophy and provides direction to assistant ad ministrators, or vice presidents as they may be called, and department heads who carry out those policies. The administrator coordinates the ac tivities of the assistant administrators and department heads to assure that the hospital runs efficiently, provides high quality medical care, and recov ers adequate revenue to remain sol vent or make a profit. Many of the same management skills are needed by nursing home administrators. However, administra Nursing home administrators must have business ability and be good at dealing with people. tive staffs in nursing homes are typi ment fees low enough to attract ade cally much smaller than those in hos quate enrollments but high enough to pitals—nursing home administrators operate successfully. often have only one or two assistants, sometimes none. As a result, nursing Working Conditions home administrators “ get their hands Health services managers often work into” the detailed management deci long hours. Facilities such as nurs sions much more than hospital admin ing homes and hospitals operate istrators in all but the smallest hospi around the clock, and administrators tals. They wear various hats—person and managers may be called at all nel director, director of finance, hours to deal with emergencies. The director of facilities, admissions direc job also may include travel to attend tor, for example—analyzing data and meetings or to inspect health care then making daily management deci facilities. sions in all of these areas. In addition, because many nursing home residents Employment are long term, staying 2 years or Health services managers held about more, these administrators must pro 336,000 jobs in 1984. Almost half of all vide for the psychological and social jobs were in hospitals, as the follow well-being of residents, as well as for ing tabulation shows: health care. Percent In the growing field of group practice management, managers tend T o ta l............................ 100 to the administrative and manage 45 ment functions involved in a large Hospitals.................................. Offices of physicians (M.D.’s practice. Responsibilities include per and D.O.’s).......................... 19 sonnel, billing and collection, bud Nursing homes........................ 14 geting, planning, and sometimes Offices of dentists.................. 6 advertising. Outpatient care facilities . . . . 5 Health services managers in health Medical and dental maintenance organizations (HMO’s) laboratories.......................... 3 perform all of the functions of those in Offices of other health large medical group practices, but practitioners........................ 3 2 they perform one additional func Other........................................ tion—that of an insurance company. HMO enrollees pay an annual fee that Some health services managers di covers almost all care. HMO manag rect the operations of nurses’ regis ers must establish a comprehensive tries and medical and dental laborato medical benefit package with enroll ries. 30/Occupational Outlook Handbook tration. About 70 schools had pro Training, Other Qualifications, and grams leading to the master’s degree Advancement As is generally true with managerial in hospital or health services adminis jobs, most entrants transfer from oth tration; about 20 of these programs er occupations. Knowledge of man were in schools of public health. agement principles and practices is Some schools offer joint degree pro the essential requirement for a posi grams, leading to a master’s in public tion in this field, and such knowledge health and a master’s in business ad often is gained through work experi ministration, for example. To enter graduate programs, appli ence. Nonetheless, formal education al preparation is important, especially cants must have a bachelor’s degree, for those who wish to advance in the with courses in natural sciences, psy profession. Although a nurse supervi chology, sociology, statistics, ac sor may rise to director of nursing counting, and economics. Competi services based upon merit of perform tion for entry to these programs is ance, for example, a master’s degree keen, and applicants need abovein health administration (MHA) is average grades to gain admission. The usually necessary for advancement programs generally last between 2 and beyond nursing director. For some 3 years. They include up to 1 year of other positions, a degree in business, supervised administrative experience, personnel administration, or public undertaken after completion of course administration provides an appropri work in such areas as hospital organi ate background; many graduate pro zation and management, accounting grams in these disciplines offer con and budget control, personnel admin istration, strategic planning, and man centrations in health administration. Many hospitals are setting up sepa agement of health information sys rate ventures such as outpatient sur tems. New graduates with master’s de gical centers, alcohol treatment cen ters, and home health care services. grees in health or hospital administra When they operate at a profit, sepa tion may be hired by hospitals as rate companies such as these can fun assistant administrators or, more of nel needed revenue to the hospital. To ten, as department heads or project operate and manage these subsidiary directors. Postgraduate residencies companies, hospitals—or the corpora and fellowships are offered by hospi tions that run them—are looking out tals and other health facilities; these side the health industry for managers are normally staff jobs. Growing numbers of graduates from with well-established skills in profit and loss analysis, marketing, and fi master’s degree programs are taking nance. Nonetheless, graduate educa jobs in HMO’s, large group medical tion in health services administration practices, and clinics as these facili remains a prerequisite for many upper ties continue to flourish. Students level administrative positions within should be aware, however, that m idlevel jo b tran sfers betw een hospitals and their subsidiaries. Academic programs in health ad HMO’s, large medical groups, and ministration, leading to a bachelor’s, hospitals may be difficult. Employers master’s, or doctoral degree, are of place a high value on experience in fered by colleges, universities, and similar settings because some of the schools of public health, allied health, management skills are unique to each and business administration. The var setting. Relatively few master’s degree re ious degree programs provide differ ent levels of career preparation. The cipients take administrative positions master’s degree—in hospital adminis in nursing homes or life-care commu tration, health administration, or pub nities, although graduates of the small lic health—is regarded as the standard number of long-term care administra credential for many positions in this tion programs generally do so. Many field. Educational requirements vary nursing home administrators pursue with the size of the organization and graduate education while employed, the amount of responsibility involved. however. New recipients of bachelor’s de Generally, larger organizations re quire more specialized academic prep grees in health administration usually begin their careers as administrative aration than smaller ones do. In 1984, about 100 colleges and uni assistants or assistant department versities offered bachelor’s degree heads in larger hospitals, or as depart Digitized for programs in health services adminis ment heads or assistant administra FRASER tors in small hospitals or in nursing homes. The Ph.D. degree usually is re quired for positions in teaching, con sulting, or research. Nursing service administrators are usually chosen from among supervisory registered nurses with administrative abilities and advanced education. Licensure is not required in most areas of health services management, except for nursing home or long-term care administration. About 18 States currently require at least 2 years of college for licensure, while about 20 require a bachelor’s degree. All States and the District of Columbia require these administrators to pass a licens ing examination, and most students prepare for it by completing a special course of study. These preparatory courses, usually consisting of 100 to 200 hours of study in long-term care administration, are available through some colleges, universities, and home study programs. The licensing exami nation covers principles of adminis tration; management of a long-term care facility; the role of government in long-term care; environmental health and safety; and medical, psychologi cal, and social aspects of patient care. Nearly half the States require appli cants to complete an internship known as an Administrator-in-Training pro gram before taking the licensure ex amination. This internship generally lasts 1 year and is supervised by a licensed administrator. Since require ments vary from State to State, per sons considering a career in long-term care administration should investigate licensing requirements where they wish to work. Health services managers are often responsible for millions of dollars of facilities and equipment and hundreds of employees. They need a command of business and communication skills that allows them to make timely poli cy decisions and to motivate subordi nates to implement those decisions. Administrators, especially head ad ministrators, of all types of health organizations need to be self-starters. In order to create an atmosphere favorable to good patient care, man agers must like people, enjoy working with them, and be able to deal effec tively with them. Managers also should be good at public speaking. Health services managers advance in the profession by moving into more responsible and higher paying posi Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations/31 tions. They may do this within their own institution, or by shifting to an other health care facility or organiza tion. Frequently, the first job in a large institution is fairly narrow in scope—department head in charge of purchasing, for example. Advance ment occurs with promotion to suc cessively more responsible jobs such as assistant or associate administrator and, finally, chief executive officer (CEO). Health services managers sometimes begin their careers in small hospitals in positions with broad re sponsibilities, such as assistant admin istrator. Regardless of the path of ad vancement chosen, the ultimate occu pational goal in hospitals and nursing homes is the position of CEO. Outside the more traditional ave nues of advancement, many managers take staff positions with the Veterans Administration, U.S. Public Health Service, or State or local departments of public health. Others find positions with voluntary health agencies such as the American Cancer Society or with trade and professional associa tions in the health care field. A grow ing number of jobs are available with firms that provide health management services on a contract basis. Jobs also are available in health planning agen cies and professional review organiza tions. Individuals with academic train ing or experience in health administra tion are well suited for such positions. Job Outlook Employment of health services man agers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s as the industry continues to diversify and assume a for-profit orientation. Most job open ings, however, will result from the need to replace personnel who trans fer to another field or retire. The various areas of health services management will grow at different rates in the years ahead. This reflects anticipated changes in the organiza tion and delivery of health care due to overwhelming pressure to control costs. Hospitals account for by far the largest proportion of health care spending. They are likely to remain a focal point for cost containment, and will not contribute as heavily to job growth in health services management in the future as they did in the past. Hospital employment is expected to grow more slowly than average be tween now and 1995, and the number cies, adult day care programs, life of hospitals may actually decline. Re care communities, and other residen structuring of the hospital industry— tial facilities. Opportunities for health services the spinning off of separate companies to provide ambulatory surgery, alco managers in nursing homes should be hol and drug rehabilitation, or home extremely favorable, in view of the health care, for example—will reduce exceptionally rapid growth that is pro the number of jobs in hospitals, while jected for the population 85 years of creating opportunities in the subsid age and above, expected to exceed 4 million persons by 1995. Compared to iaries. The importance of the hospital sec people in their 60’s or 70’s, very old tor for employment of health services people experience a greater incidence managers should not be underestimat of chronic diseases and incapacitating ed, however. The rapidly changing conditions, and are far more likely to hospital environment will provide ca require institutional care. Nursing reer and advancement opportunities homes will need additional managers for managers with appropriate skills as these facilities add beds and ex and experience. As hospitals become pand the scope of their activities. more specialized, concentrating on Some nursing homes, for example, services that they are particularly well are already moving into the area of suited to deliver—whether it be neo community care by setting up respite natal care or bum treatment, for ex and adult day care programs. Overriding concern for cost con ample—managers with strategic plan ning and marketing skills will be need tainment is producing shorter stays ed. Managers will also be needed to for hospital patients and, at the same plan, install, and oversee comprehen time, generating demand for “ after sive systems for monitoring and con care” in a rehabilitation unit, nursing trolling resource use. home, or at home. Rapid employment Facilities that provide outpatient growth in the home health field is care are expected to provide many of anticipated for the same reason, and the new jobs for health services man also because of technological advanc agers. Demand will be stimulated by es that make it possible for patients to the very rapid expansion of HMO’s receive services at home that previ and group medical practices, and the ously would have required a hospital emergence of such outpatient facili stay. Examples are intravenous che ties as urgent care centers, surgicent- motherapy and home ventilators for ers, cardiac rehabilitation centers, di respiratory support. Opportunities for agnostic imaging centers, and well administrative positions in home health will be found in visiting nurse ness centers. HMO’s continue to grow in number associations and other nonprofit agen and membership, and they will pro cies, in hospital-based home care pro vide numerous jobs for health serv grams, and in the rapidly expanding ices managers through 1995. Physi for-profit sector. cians forming group practices to take New approaches to delivering care advantage of economies of scale and for the sick and dying will create some shared expenses are expected to pro openings in hospices, which may be vide many opportunities for adminis freestanding or based within a hospi trators in the area of medical practice tal or nursing home. Hospice pro management. Ambulatory facilities grams are very small and take a per such as outpatient surgical centers sonal approach to each patient. The and after-hours clinics are expected to hospice movement stresses emotional experience very rapid growth due to and spiritual support for the dying their convenience and competitive fee patient and the family, and ready structure. As such facilities become availability of drugs to control the more widespread, additional jobs will excruciating pain that often accompa be generated. nies terminal cancer, the disease most With better medical care and health often suffered by hospice patients. ier lifestyles, Americans are living Because the movement is so new, it is longer than ever before. Very rapid too soon to say what background growth in the number of older people lends itself best to hospice manage in the years ahead is likely to exert ment. strong pressure for an expansion of Job opportunities for health admin long-term care facilities—not just istration graduates are expected to be nursing homes, but home health agen best in HMO’s, group medical prac 32/Occupational Outlook Handbook tices, and nursing homes, although these jobs may not pay as well as hospital jobs. Traditionally a favored employment setting for health admin istration graduates, hospital manage ment has become increasingly attrac tive to people with formal training in business administration. The sudden ness of hospitals’ shift from a service to a business orientation is expected to sustain demand for new MBA grad uates. This development, coupled with slow industry growth, will great ly intensify competition for entry level jobs in hospital administration. One result may be that new graduates will be offered jobs at the department head or staff level rather than at the assist ant administrator level, as was com monly the case until recently. Very stiff competition for upper level man agement jobs will continue, a reflec tion of the pyramidal management structure characteristic of most large and complex organizations. In nursing homes and other long term care facilities, where a graduate degree in health administration is not ordinarily a requirement, job opportu nities for individuals with strong bus iness or management skills will con tinue to be excellent. Earnings The personal standing and perform ance of the administrator, hospital size, geographic location, and the type of hospital ownership are all fac tors in determining the earnings of hospital administrators. According to a survey of compensation conducted for Modern Healthcare magazine, ad ministrators in hospitals with fewer than 100 beds earned an average in come of about $44,000 in 1984. In hospitals of 100 to 349 beds, adminis trators averaged $68,000 annually. In the largest hospitals, those with more than 1,000 beds, chief administrators averaged almost $120,000. The asso ciate administrator is directly under the chief administrator. Earnings for associate administrators ranged from an average of about $30,000 annually in the smallest hospitals to about $62,000 in very large hospitals. Nursing and personal care home administrators usually earn lower sal aries than those paid administrators of hospitals of similar size. Chief admin istrators of home health care agencies had average earnings of $25,000 to $30,000 per year in 1984, according to limited information available. Management incentive bonuses based on job performance are increas ingly commonplace in executive com pensation packages. Starting salaries for recent gradu ates of master’s programs in health administration averaged $27,000 in 1983, according to a national survey conducted by the Association of Uni versity Programs in Health Adminis tration. Recent recipients of master’s degrees in health administration start ing work in Veterans Administration hospitals earned $21,804 a year in 1985. Related Occupations Health services managers plan pro grams, set policies, create marketing plans, and coordinate the use of re sources for a health facilty agency. Other administrators with similar re sponsibilities include social welfare administrators, emergency medical services coordinators, public health directors, community organization di rectors, college or university depart ment heads, comptrollers, department store managers, directors of data proc essing, and recreation superinten dents. Sources of Additional Information Information about health administra tion and academic programs in this field is available from: American College of Healthcare Executives, 840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, 111. 60611. Association of University Programs in Health Administration, 1911 Fort Myer Drive, Suite 503, Arlington, Va. 22209. National Health Council, Health Careers Pro gram, 70 West 40th St., New York, N.Y. 10018. American College of Health Care Administra tors, P.O. Box 5890, 8120 Woodmont Ave., Suite 200, Bethesda, Md. 20814. The American Association of Homes for the Aging maintains a listing of positions available and positions want ed in nonprofit nursing homes, life care communities, and housing for the eld erly. For details, write: Job Mart, AAHA, 1050 17th St. NW„ Suite 770, Washington, D.C. 20036. Hotel Managers and Assistants (D.O.T. 187.117-038, .161-010, .167-026, -046, -078, -106, -110, -122, -126; and 320) Nature of the Work Hotel managers are responsible for the profitable operation of their estab lishments. They manage front office, housekeeping, food service, and rec reational activities, and oversee man agement of the accounting, marketing and sales, personnel, security, and maintenance departments. Satisfying guests, handling problems, and coping with the unexpected are important parts of the job. In a small hotel or motel with a limited staff, a manager may directly supervise most, if not all, depart ments. Large hotel and motel chains often centralize some activities, such as purchasing and advertising, so that individual hotels in the chain may not need managers for these departments. Managers who work for chains may be assigned to organize a newly built or purchased hotel or to reorganize an existing hotel or motel that is not operating successfully. Working Conditions Since hotels are open around the clock, night and weekend work is common. Hotel employees frequently must work on shifts. Managers who live in the hotel usually have regular work schedules, but they may be called for work at any time. Some employees of resort hotels are manag ers during the busy season and have other duties the rest of the year. Hotel managers sometimes experi ence the pressures of coordinating a wide range of functions. Conventions and large groups of tourists may pre sent unusual problems. Dealing with irate patrons can also be stressful. The job can be particularly hectic for front office managers around checkin and checkout time. Employment Hotel and motel managers held about 83,000 wage and salary jobs in 1984. An additional num ber—primarily owners of small hotels and motels— were self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Experience generally is the most im portant consideration in selecting managers. This especially applies to food and beverage managers who re quire many skills. The hotel restau rant and cocktail lounge are often of great importance to the success of the entire establishment. However, employers increasingly seek managers with college or special ized postsecondary education. A Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations/33 bachelor’s degree in hotel and restau rant administration provides particu larly strong preparation for a career in hotel management. In 1984, over 100 colleges and universities offered 4year programs in this field. Several hundred junior colleges, technical in stitutes, and other academic institu tions also have courses in hotel work that provide a good background. How ever, because a greater number of aspiring hotel managers are seeking formal training, applicants to these programs face increasing competition. Included in many programs in hotel management are courses in hotel ad ministration, accounting, economics, marketing, housekeeping, food ser vice management and catering, hotel maintenance engineering, and data processing—reflecting the widespread use of computers in hotel operations such as reservations, accounting, and housekeeping. Part-time or summer work in hotels and restaurants is en couraged because the experience gained and the contacts made with employers may benefit students when they seek full-time employment after graduation. Managers should have initiative, self-discipline, and the ability to orga nize and direct the work of others. They must be able to solve problems and concentrate on details. Sometimes large hotels sponsor spe cialized on-the-job management train ing programs which enable trainees to rotate among various departments and gain a thorough knowledge of the hotel’s operation. Other hotels may help finance the necessary training in hotel management for outstanding employees. Most hotels promote employees who have proven their ability. Newly built hotels, particularly those without well-established on-the-job training programs, often prefer experienced personnel for managerial positions. Large hotel and motel chains may offer better opportunities for advance ment than small, independently owned establishments. They have more ex tensive career ladder programs and offer managers the opportunity to transfer to another hotel or motel in the chain or to the central office if an opening occurs. Career advancement can be accelerated by completion of certification programs offered by the associations listed below. These pro grams generally require a combination Computers help hotel managers control costs. of course work, examinations, and experience. Job Outlook Employment of salaried hotel manag ers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s as more large hotels and motels are built. While business travel will continue to grow, demand for additional hotels and motels is expected to stem primarily from in creased domestic and foreign tourism. Most openings are expected to occur as experienced managers transfer to other occupations, retire, or stop working for other reasons. Applicants who have college de grees in hotel administration should have a decided advantage in seeking entry positions and later advance ment. Earnings In 1983, average annual earnings of salaried hotel managers and assistants were about $30,000, according to a survey by the American Hotel and Motel Association. Fifty percent of these managers earned between $21,000 and $36,000; the top 10 per cent earned $47,000 or more. Gener ally, salaries are higher in larger ho tels. Salaries varied greatly because of differences in duties and responsibili ties. For example, general managers averaged $43,000, whereas front office managers averaged $21,000. The man ager’s level of experience is also an important factor. In 1983, salaries of general managers ranged from over $20,000 to over $62,000; salaries of front office managers ranged from over $13,000 to almost $27,000. Man agers may earn bonuses ranging up to 20 percent of their basic salary in some hotels. In addition, they and their families may be furnished with lodging, meals, parking, laundry, and other services. Most managers and assistants re ceive 5 to 10 paid holidays a year, paid vacation, sick leave, life insurance, medical benefits, and pension plans. Some hotels offer profit sharing plans, educational assistance, and other ben efits to their employees. Related Occupations Hotel managers and assistants are not the only workers concerned with or ganizing and directing a business in which pleasing people is very impor tant. Others with similar responsibili ties include apartment building man agers, department store managers, and office managers. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers and schol arships in hotel management, send a self-addressed, stamped envelope to: The American Hotel and Motel Association (AH&MA), 888 7th Ave., New York, N.Y. 10019. For information on certification re quirements and educational programs in hotel management, send a selfaddressed, stamped envelope to: 34/Occupational Outlook Handbook The Educational Institute o f AH&MA, 1407 S. Harrison Rd., Suite 310, East Lansing, Mich. 48823. Information on careers in house keeping managem ent may be obtained from: National Executive Housekeepers Association, Inc., 1001 Eastwind Dr., Suite 301, W esterville, Ohio 43081. For a directory o f colleges and oth er sc h o o ls otfering program s and courses in hotel and restaurant admin istration, write to: Council on H otel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, Henderson Human Development Building, Suite S208, University Park, Pa. 16802. School Principals and Assistant Principals (D.O.T. 091.107-010, 099.117-018) Nature of the Work Principals and assistant principals pro vide the leadership and managerial skills required for a sch o o l’s sm ooth operation. An effective principal is the key to a good school. The task o f principals has grown more com plex in recent years. N ot only are schools larger than ever b e fore— the result o f a continuing trend toward consolidation— but they touch the lives o f many people, som e o f whom have becom e increasingly v o cal in pursuing their goals. It takes political and diplomatic as well as administrative skills to handle the is sues that confront school leaders to day. But, as educators, principals have the satisfaction o f knowing that their work sm ooths the way to know l edge for their sch o o ls’ students. Principals and assistant principals plan and set goals. To achieve these goals, they organize, coordinate, di rect, and evaluate the activities o f school personnel, ensuring that they m eet deadlines and keep to their bud gets. Principals are the highest authority in a school. They are responsible for running the school according to the standards set by the superintendent and board o f education. The principal sets the academ ic tone for the entire school. High-qual ity instruction is the principal’s m ost important responsibility. Principals visit classroom s, review instructional objectives, evaluate teachers, and ex amine learning materials. They also prepare budgets and administrative reports, keep track o f attendance, and see that supplies are properly requisi tioned and allocated. D espite such paperwork, principals spend much o f the day with people. They confer with teachers and other staff—advising, explaining, or answering procedural questions; they m eet with students; and they talk with parents and m em bers o f the com m unity. A ssistant principals may perform som e o f the sam e duties as principals and usually take over the responsibil ity for discipline, social and recre ational programs, health and safety, and building and grounds m ainte nance. T hey may also provide individ ual or group counseling about person al, social, educational, or vocational matters. Working Conditions Principals work in their offices, but also spend time aw ay from their desks at m eetings with teaching staff, parent and teacher association s, the school board, and civic groups; sitting in on classes; attending school assem blies, social, and sports events; and check ing school physical facilities. Principals usually work more than a standard 40-hour w eek; at night and on w eek en d s, they often attend m eet ings or handle urgent problem s. U n like teachers, principals usually work 11 m onths a year. Employment E lem entary and secon d ary sch ool principals and assistant principals held about 125,000 job s in 1984, m ost o f them in public school system s. Every school has a principal, and larger sch ools may have one or more assist ant principals. A ssistant principals are g en era lly e m p lo y e d in seco n d a ry sch ools, w hich tend to be larger than elem entary schools. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Principals and assistant principals are usually required to have several years of experience as classroom teachers. All 50 States and the District o f C o lumbia require certification o f school administrators. Certification require m ents may include good health and character, U .S . citizenship or State residency, graduate training in educa tional adm inistration, teaching experi en ce, and passing an exam ination. In form ation on specific requirem ents may be obtained from State depart ments o f education. Principals and assistant principals are required by m ost school system s to have several years o f experience as classroom teachers. Som e teachers m ove directly into principalships. Oth ers first gain experience in an admin istrative job— such as curriculum spe cialist; financial advisor; or director o f Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations/35 audiovisual aids, arts, or special edu cation. A m aster’s degree in educa tional administration is also usually required. The National Council for A ccredi tation o f T eacher Education accredits graduate programs in educational ad ministration on nearly 300 cam puses. T hese programs prepare people to be co m e e le m e n ta r y and se c o n d a r y school principals. Educational admin istration includes courses in school managem ent, school law, school fi nance and budgeting, curriculum de velopm ent and evaluation, supervi sion o f instruction, research design and data analysis, personnel adm inis tration, com m unity relations, politics in education, and leadership. A se mester o f internship and field experi ence is recom m ended. In addition to experience and edu catio n , principals need leadership skills and managerial ability to direct, m otivate, and inspire teachers, staff, and students. B ecause their duties may be rather loosely defined, school administrators must also have a strong sense o f direction and m otivation. M oreover, they are frequently under fire from many groups. Therefore, self-confidence and the ability to with stand criticism are essential, as are tact and com m unications skills. Prin cipals may advance by m oving to larg er schools or becom ing assistant su perintendents for a school district. Job Outlook Em ploym ent o f principals and assist ant principals is expected to grow more slow ly than the average for all occupations through the m id-1990’s. M ost job openings will be to replace administrators who leave the profes sion. Pupil enrollment is the basic factor underlying the demand for school principals. Elementary school enroll m ents have begun rising again and are expected to continue to do so through 1995; secondary school enrollments are expected to decline through 1990 and then increase to about the 1984 level by 1995. Therefore, m ost em ploym ent growth will be among ele mentary school principals. H ow ever, e x cess school capacity due to declin ing enrollments in the past may permit som e school districts to absorb more students without opening new schools and hiring new principals. School con solidation is also expected to continue for at least a while longer, moderating the demand. Although openings for principals are expected to increase, com petition for job s may continue. Large numbers o f teachers and other school person nel with graduate degrees in education or ed u cational adm inistration will com pete for these administrative po sitions. Earnings Salaries o f principals and assistant principals vary according to position, level o f responsibility, and the size and geographic location o f the school. In general, salaries are highest in the Far W est and M id-Atlantic States and low est in the Southeast. According to the E ducational R esearch Service, Inc., average salaries for principals and assistant principals in 1984-85 were as follows: Principals: Senior high sc h o o l.................. $42,094 Junior high/middle school. . . . 39,650 Elementary sch o o l.................. 36,452 Assistant principals: Senior high sc h o o l.................. Junior high/middle school. . . . Elementary sch o o l.................. 35,491 33,793 30,496 Related Occupations School administrators need organiza tional and leadership skills to manage people, programs, and financial re sources successfully. The same abili ties are needed for administrative po sitions in health, welfare, religion, and recreation. Related occupations in clude hospital adm inistrators, aca demic deans, directors o f agencies on aging, library directors, college or uni versity department heads, recreation and park directors, and museum cura tors. Sources of Additional Information For inform ation about careers in school administration, contact: American Association of School Administra tors, 1801 North Moore St., Arlington, Va. 22209. The National Association o f Elementary School Principals, 1615 Duke St., Alexandria, Va. 22314-3406. The National Association o f Secondary School Principals, 1904 Association Drive, Reston, Va. 22091. Management Support Occupations Nature of the Work M anagem ent support workers gather, process, and analyze data and d evel op information enabling management to formulate policy, improve proce dures, oversee daily operations, and attain the organization’s goals. A ccountants and auditors interpret accounting records to prepare state m ents or advise on system s o f record ing costs or other financial data. U n derwriters determ ine the appropriate amount o f coverage in insurance pol icies. Loan officers evaluate and ap prove m ortgages and other loans. Other financial officers include credit counselors, estate planners, budget officers, trust officers, fo r e ig n -e x change traders, bonding agents, and credit analysts, among others. Personnel, training, and labor rela tions sp ecialists represent m anage ment or labor in collective bargaining p roced u res; participate in recruit ment, selection, placem ent, training, w elfare, safety, com pensation, and prom otion o f em ployees; conduct job analyses to provide occupational in formation; and interview and counsel job applicants and em p loyees to de termine suitability for em ploym ent, vocational training, rehabilitation, and other em ploym ent developm ent pro grams. M anagem ent analysts conduct or ganizational studies and evaluations, develop procedures for new work pro c e sse s, conduct work simplification and m easurem ent studies, and main tain system s and procedures manuals to assist m anagem ent in operating more efficiently. Purchasing agents and buyers pur chase good s, m aterials, or business services for internal u se, resale, or further processing in industrial, gov ernm ental, b u sin ess, and other estab lishm ents. T hese w orkers establish purchasing requirem ents for their or ganization, interview suppliers, nego tiate prices, and establish delivery schedules. Inspectors and com pliance officers enforce and advise on health, safety, and other regulations pertaining to people, anim als, plants, products, and Digitized for 36 FRASER establishm ents. Included among the numerous workers in this field are specialists in construction, immigra tion, boilers, health care facilities, transportation, cu sto m s, food and drugs, industrial w aste, licen ses, and agricultural com m odities. Other management support occupa tions include business and promotion agents— w ho represent clients in bus iness operations; administrative a ssis tants— who coordinate office services such as personnel, budget prepara tion, housekeeping, and records con trol; estim ators— w ho prepare cost e s tim ates for manufacturing o f prod ucts, construction projects, or ser vices; and administrative secretaries, security officers, and pursers, among others. Working Conditions Working conditions o f management support workers vary. M uch o f the work is on a continuing daily basis— for exam ple, claims takers for unem ploym ent benefits. Others, such as tax accountants, experience peak season al workloads requiring much over time. Som e o f these workers, such as em ploym ent interview ers and rev enue agents, have considerable con tact with the public in an office set ting, while others spend much o f their time away from the office— for exam p le , c o n str u c tio n in sp e c to r s and w holesale and retail buyers. D uties o f som e o f these workers, such as com pliance officers and construction in spectors, may be hazardous. Employment In 1984, management support workers held over 2.4 million job s. Som e— such as accountants and auditors; per sonnel, training, and labor relations specialists; and purchasing agents— are found in practically every indus try. Other management support o ccu pations are concentrated in only a few industries. Loan officers and cou n se lors and credit analysts, for exam ple, are found primarily in banks and cred it agencies; and assessors, inspectors, tax exam iners, tax collectors, and revenue agents are em ployed alm ost exclu sively in governm ent. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The need for technical know ledge in these occupations is reflected in the educational attainm ent o f m anage ment support personnel. In 1984, over one-half o f all m anagem ent support workers had com pleted 4 years or more of college— com pared to over one-fifth o f all workers. The median number o f years o f schooling for man agem ent support workers w as 16 c o p pared to 12.8 for all workers. M anage m ent support workers are required to keep abreast o f new techniques and developm ents. For exam ple, in 1984, one-fifth said they needed formal com pany training to im prove their skills— nearly double the proportion o f all workers w ho said that. To attain full professional status and dem onstrate com petence in their field , so m e m a n a g em en t su p p ort workers must com plete certain educa tion and experience requirements or pass license exam inations. For exam ple, underwriters m ay be designated as ‘fello w s’ and accountants may b e com e ‘certified public accou n tan ts.’ M anagem ent support workers who dem onstrate technical ability and su pervisory skills are in a strong posi tion to advance to managerial job s— for exam ple, accountant to treasurer, personnel specialist to personnel di rector, and underwriter to underwrit ing manager. Job Outlook Overall, em ploym ent o f management support workers is expected to in crease faster than the average for all occupations through the m id-1990’s. M uch faster than average growth is exp ected among accountants and au ditors and em ploym ent interviewers. The increasing volum e and com plexi ty o f financial information required o f b u sin esses should spur strong demand for accountants, w hile more em ploy ment interview ers will be needed to help em ployers find properly trained individuals to fill increasingly techni Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations/37 cal jo b s. On the other hand, little or no change is expected in the em ploy ment o f claim s takers for unem ploy ment benefits and tax exam iners, tax collectors, and revenue agents as gov ernment spending to staff such posi tions is not expected to grow. Earnings Median annual earnings o f manage m ent support w ork ers w ere over $22,600 in 1984— com pared to $17,000 for all workers. The middle 50 percent earned betw een $17,000 and $31,800. The low est 10 percent earned $12,900 or le ss, w hile the top 10 percent earned over $43,700. Earnings varied substantially by o c cupation. Purchasing agents and buy ers o f farm products had median earn ings o f less than $19,500, whereas m anagem ent a n a ly sts had m edian earnings o f over $30,500. The fo llo w in g H a n d b o o k sta te ments present more detailed informa tion on a number o f management sup port occupations. Accountants and Auditors (D.O-T. 160 through .167-042, and .267-014)_________ Nature of the Work Managers must have up-to-date finan cial information to make important decisions. A ccountants and auditors prepare, analyze, and verify financial reports that furnish this kind o f infor mation to managers in all business, industrial, and governm ent organiza tions. Four major fields are public, man agem ent, and governm ent accounting, and internal auditing. Public accoun tants have their own businesses or work for accounting firms. M anage ment accountants, also called indus trial or private accountants, handle the financial records o f their com pa ny. G overnm ent accountants and au ditors maintain and exam ine the rec ords o f governm ent agencies and au dit private b u sinesses and individuals w hose dealings are subject to govern ment regulations. Internal auditors verify the accuracy o f their firm’s fi nancial records and check for w aste or fraud. Within each field, accountants often concentrate on one phase o f account ing. For exam ple, many public ac countants are em ployed primarily in financial auditing (examining a client’s financial records and reports and at testing that they are in comformity with standards o f preparation and re porting). Others concentrate on tax m atters, such as preparing incom e tax forms and advising clients o f the tax advantages and disadvantages o f cer tain business decisions. Still others concentrate on consulting and offer advice on a variety o f matters. They might develop or revise an accounting system to serve the needs o f clients more effectively or give advice about how to manage cash resources more profitably. M anagement accountants, the larg est group o f accountants and auditors, provide the financial information ex ecutives need to make sound business decisions. They may work in areas such as taxation, budgeting, costs, or investm ents. Internal auditing is rapidly growing in im portance as top m anagem ent must increasingly base its decisions on reports and records rather than personal observation. Internal audi tors exam ine and evaluate their firm’s financial and inform ation system s, management procedures, and internal controls to ensure that records are accurate and controls are adequate to protect against fraud and w aste. They also review com pany operations— evaluating their efficiency, effective ness, and com pliance with corporate policies and procedures, law s, and governm ent regulations. A ccountants and auditors also work for Federal, State, and local govern m ents. Many persons with accounting backgrounds work for the Federal G overnm ent as Internal Revenue Ser vice agents or in financial manage m ent, financial institution exam ina tion, and budget administration. In addition, a small number o f per sons trained as accountants staff the faculties o f business and professional schools as accounting teachers, re searchers, or administrators. Som e work part time as accountants or con sultants. Computers are increasingly being used in accounting and auditing. With the aid o f special computer software s y s t e m s , a c c o u n ta n ts su m m arize transactions in standard formats for financial records, put the data in spe cial formats that aid in financial or m anagement analysis, and prepare in com e tax returns. Controls are placed in system s to enable auditors to en sure the reliability o f the system s and the integrity o f data. Software sys tem s com ing into use in accounting and auditing g en erally are ea sily learned and require few specialized computer skills, but greatly reduce the amount o f tedious manual work with figures and records. N ew er, less expensive personal com puters are en abling accountants and auditors in all fields— even those w ho work indepen dently— to use these special software system s and extract information from large mainframe com puters. A few accountants and auditors have exten sive computer skills and specialize in correcting problem s with software system s or developing special soft ware programs to meet unique data needs. Working Conditions M ost accountants and auditors work in offices and have regular hours. Selfem ployed accountants, w ho may set up offices at hom e, work as many hours as the business requires. Tax accountants work long hours under heavy pressure during the tax season . A ccountants em ployed by large firms may travel extensively to audit or work for clients or branches o f the firm. Employment Accountants and auditors held about 882.000 jobs in 1984; about 300,000 were Certified Public A ccountants (CPA), 20,000 were licensed public accountants (primarily self-em ployed tax specialists), about 13,000 were Certified Internal A uditors (C IA ), about 4,000 were Certified Manage ment A ccountants (CM A), and over 3.000 were Certified Information S ys tem s Auditors (CISA). About 10 per cent o f all accountants were selfe m p lo y e d . L e s s than 10 p ercen t worked part time. M ost a c co u n ta n ts and auditors work in urban areas where public ac counting firms and central or regional offices o f businesses are concentrated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement M ost public accounting and business firms require applicants for accoun tant and internal auditor positions to have at least a bachelor’s degree in accounting or a closely related field. Many em ployers prefer those with a m aster’s degree in accounting or a 38/Occupational Outlook Handbook Management accountants provide the financial information executives need to make sound decisions. m aster’s degree in business adm inis tration with a concentration in ac counting. A growing number o f em ployers prefer applicants w ho are fa m iliar w ith c o m p u te r s and th eir applications in accounting and inter nal auditing. For beginning accounting and audit ing position s, the Federal G overn ment requires 4 years o f college (in cluding 24 sem ester hours in account ing or auditing) or an eq u ivalen t com bination o f education and experi ence. H ow ever, applicants face com petition for the lim ited number o f openings in the Federal G overnm ent. Previous experience in accounting or auditing can help an applicant get a job. M any colleges offer students an o p p o r tu n ity to g a in e x p e r ie n c e through summer or part-time intern ship programs conducted by public accounting or business firms. Such training is invaluable in gaining per manent em ploym ent in the field. P rofessio n a l recogn ition through certification or licensure also is e x trem ely valuable. A nyone working as a Certified Public A ccountant must have a certificate and a license issued by a State board o f accountancy. The vast majority o f States require CPA candidates to be college graduates, but som e States substitute a certain number o f years o f public accounting exp erien ce for the educational re Digitized forquirem ent. Based on recom m enda FRASER tions made by the American Institute o f Certified Public A ccountants, a few States require or are considering re quiring CPA candidates to have train ing beyond the usual 4-year bache lor’s degree— for exam ple, a 5-year bachelor’s degree or a m aster’s de gree. This requirement may becom e more com m on in the com ing years. All States use the four-part Uniform CPA Exam ination, prepared by the Am erican Institute o f Certified Public A ccountants, to establish eligibility for certification. The CPA exam ina tion is rigorous, and candidates are not required to pass all four parts at on ce. H ow ever, m ost States require candidates to pass at least tw o parts for partial credit. Many States require all sections o f the test to be passed within a certain period o f time. Most States require applicants for a CPA certificate to have som e public ac counting experience. For exam ple, bachelor’s degree holders m ost often need 2 years o f experience, while m aster’s degree holders often need no more than 1 year. To becom e a licensed public ac countant (LPA) or “ accounting prac titioner,’’ som e States require only a high school diploma; others require college training. H ow ever, with dra matic growth in the number o f C P A ’s, som e States no longer offer the LPA designation. Information on require m ents may be obtained directly from individual State boards o f accountan cy or from the N ational Society o f Public A ccountants (N SP A ). Professional societies grant other form s o f certification on a voluntary basis. The Institute o f Internal A udi tors, In c., confers the designation Certified Internal Auditor (CIA) upon graduates from accredited colleges and universities w ho have com pleted 2 y ears’ experience in internal audit ing and w ho have passed a four-part exam ination. The E D P Auditors A s sociation confers the designation Cer tified Inform ation S ystem s Auditor (CISA) upon candidates w ho pass an exam ination and w ho have com pleted .5 years’ experience in auditing, of w hich at least 2 involved auditing electronic data processing system s. The N ational A ssociation o f A ccoun tants (N A A ) confers the Certificate in M anagem ent A ccounting (CM A) upon candidates w ho pass a series o f uni form exam inations and m eet specific ed u cation al and p rofession al stan dards. The A ccreditation Council for A ccountancy awards accreditation in accountancy and taxation to persons w ho have passed a com prehensive exam ination. A ccreditation is main tained by com pleting mandatory con tinuing education. Persons planning a career in ac counting should have an aptitude for m athem atics, be able to analyze, com pare, and interpret facts and figures quickly, and make sound judgm ents based on this know ledge. T hey must question how and w hy things are done and be able to clearly com m unicate the results o f their work, orally and in writing, to clients and m anagem ent. A ccountants and auditors must be patient and able to concentrate for long periods o f tim e. They must be good at working with business sy s tem s and com puters as w ell as with people. A ccuracy and the ability to handle responsibility with limited su pervision are important. Perhaps m ost important, because m illions o f financial statem ent users rely on their services, accountants and auditors should have high stan dards o f integrity. A growing number o f States require both C P A ’s and licensed public ac countants to com plete a certain num ber o f hours o f continuing education before licen ses can be renew ed. The professional associations representing accountants sponsor num erous cours es, sem inars, group study programs, Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations/39 and other forms o f continuing educa tion. Increasingly, accountants and auditors are learning how to operate com puters so they can use accounting software packages that enable raw transactions data to be quickly trans form ed into a variety o f specialized reports and tabulations. Capable accountants and auditors should advance rapidly; those having inadequate academ ic preparation may be assigned routine job s and find pro m otion difficult. M any graduates o f junior colleges and business and cor respondence sch ools, as w ell as out standing bookkeepers and accounting clerks w ho m eet the education and experience requirements set by their em ployers, are successful in landing junior accounting positions. Beginning public accountants usu ally start by assisting with auditing work for several clients. T hey may advance to intermediate positions with more responsibility in 1 or 2 years and to senior positions within another few years. T hose w ho deal successfully with top industry ex ecu tives often be com e supervisors, m anagers, or part ners, or transfer to execu tive p osi tions in private firms. Som e open their ow n public accounting offices. Beginning m anagement accountants often start as ledger accountants, jun ior internal auditors, or as trainees for technical accounting positions. They may advance to ch ief plant accoun tant, ch ief cost accountant, budget director, or manager o f internal audit ing. Som e b ecom e controllers, trea surers, financial vice-presidents, or corporation presidents. M any corpo ration ex ecu tives have backgrounds in accounting, internal auditing, and finance. Job Outlook Em ploym ent o f accountants and audi tors is exp ected to grow m uch faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s due to the key role these workers play in the man agem ent o f all types o f b u sin esses. Although increased demand will gen erate many new jo b s, m ost openings will result from the need to replace workers w ho leave the occupation, retire, or die. W hile accountants and auditors tend to leave the profession at a low er rate than m em bers o f m ost other occupations, replacem ent needs will be substantial because the o ccu pation is large. A s bu sin esses grow , the volum e and com plexity o f inform ation on budgets, expenditures, and taxes will grow as w ell. Plant expansion, merg ers, or foreign investm ents may de pend upon the financial condition o f the firm, tax implications o f the pro p osed action, and other con sid er ations. Thus requirements for accoun tants and auditors will grow. Require m ents may also be affected by changes in legislation related to taxes, financial reporting standards, business invest m ent, and other financial matters. Small businesses are expected to rely more and more on the expertise o f accountants in planning and managing their operations. In addition, increases in investm ent and lending associated with general econom ic growth also should spur demand for accountants and auditors. The increasing use o f com puters in accounting should stim ulate the demand for accountants and auditors familiar with their operation. Opportunities are expected to be favorable for college graduates seek ing accounting and auditing jobs. Cer tified accountants, particularly C PA ’s, should have a wider range o f job op portunities than other accountants. H ow ever, com petition for jobs with prestigious accounting firms will re main keen; a m aster’s degree in ac counting should be an asset. Opportu nities for accountants without a col lege degree will occur mainly in small businesses and accounting firms. M any em ployers prefer graduates w ho have worked part time in a busi n e ss or accou n tin g firm w h ile in school. In fact, experience has be com e so important that som e em ploy ers in business and industry seek per sons with 1 or 2 years’ experience for beginning positions. A ccountants rarely lose their jobs w hen other workers are laid off during hard econom ic tim es. Financial infor mation must be developed and tax reports prepared regardless o f the state o f the econom y. Earnings A ccording to a 1984 College Place ment Council Salary Survey, bache lor’s degree candidates in accounting r e c e iv e d offers averagin g around $19,500 a year; m aster’s degree can didates, $23,200. Beginning public accountants em ployed by public accounting firms av eraged $19,100 a year in 1984, accord ing to a national survey. The middle 50 percent had starting salaries rang ing from $18,300 to $20,000. Salaries o f junior public accountants w ho were not ow ners or partners o f their firms averaged $22,600, but som e had sala ries o f more than $30,000. Many ow n ers and partners o f firms earned con siderably more. The starting salary o f management accountants in private industry aver aged about $19,500 a year in 1984, according to the same survey. The middle 50 percent had starting annual sa la ries ranging from $ 1 7 ,700 to $21,800. Salaries o f nonsupervisory m anagem ent accountan ts averaged $32,200 in 1984, and som e o f the most e x p erien ced had salaries o f over $60,000. C hief management accoun- Growth in the number of accounting degrees granted annually has moderated since the mid-1970’s. Bachelor’s degrees in accounting (thousands) 1972- 197373 74 SOURCE: 197475 1975- 1976- 1977- 197876 77 78 79 National Center for Education Statistics 197980 198081 1981- 198282 83 40/Occupational Outlook Handbook tants w ho direct the accounting pro gram o f a com pany or one o f its e s tablishm ents averaged $47,400 a year. Their salaries ranged from $30,000 to more than $70,000, depending upon the scope o f their authority and the size o f their professional staff. According to the sam e survey, be ginning trainee internal auditors aver aged $19,700 a year in 1984. The mid dle 50 percent had annual starting sa la r ie s ranging from $ 1 6 ,6 0 0 to $22,400. Internal auditors averaged $29,000, but som e o f the m ost experi en ced had sa la ries o f m ore than $40,000. In the Federal G overnm ent, the starting annual salary for junior ac countants and auditors w as about $14,400 in early 1985. Candidates w ho had a superior academ ic record could begin at $17,800. Applicants with a m aster’s degree or 2 years’ profes sional experience began at $21,800. A ccountants in the Federal G overn ment averaged about $33,500 a year in 1984; auditors, about $34,200. Related Occupations Accountants and auditors design in ternal control system s and analyze financial data. Others for w hom train ing in accounting is invaluable include appraisers, budget officers, loan offic ers, financial analysts, bank officers, actuaries, underwriters, tax collectors and re v e n u e a g e n ts, F B I sp ecia l agents, securities sales w orkers, and purchasing agents. Sources of Additional Information Information about careers in public accou n tin g and about com p eten cy tests adm inistered in co lleg es and public accounting firms may be ob tained from: American Institute o f Certified Public Accoun tants, 1211 Avenue o f the Americas, New York, N .Y . 10036. Information on specialized fields o f accounting and auditing is available from: National Association o f Accountants, P.O. Box 433, 10 Paragon Dr., Montvale, N.J. 07645. National Society o f Public Accountants and Accreditation Council for Accountancy, 1010 North Fairfax St., Alexandria, Va. 22314. The Institute o f Internal Auditors, 249 Maitland A ve., P.O. Box 1119, Altamonte Springs, Fla. 32701. The EDP Auditors A ssociation, 373 South Schmale Rd., Carol Stream, 111. 60188. For information on accredited ac Digitized for counting programs and educational in FRASER stitutions offering a specialization in accounting, contact: American Assembly of Collegiate Schools o f Business, 605 Old Balias Rd., Suite 220, St. Louis, Mo. 63141. Construction and Building Inspectors (D.O.T. 168.167-030, -034, -038, -046, and -050; .267010, -102; 182.267; 850.387, .467) Nature of the Work Construction and building inspectors exam ine the construction, alteration, or repair o f highw ays, streets, sew er and water system s, dams, bridges, buildings, and other structures to in sure com pliance with building codes and ordinances, zoning regulations, and contract specifications. Inspec tors generally specialize in one partic ular type o f construction work. Broad ly categorized, these are building, electrica l, m ech an ical, and public works. Inspectors usually work alone on small job s, but several may be assigned to a large, com plex project. B u ild i n g i n s p e c t o r s in sp e c t the structural quality o f buildings. Som e may specialize— for exam ple, in struc tural steel or reinforced con crete buildings. Before construction, plan checkers determine whether the plans for the building or other structure com ply with building code regulations and are suited to the engineering and environm ental demands o f the build ing site. They visit the worksite before the foundation is poured to inspect the positioning and depth o f the footings. They inspect the foundation after it has been com pleted. The size and type o f structure and the rate o f com pletion determine the number o f other visits they must make. U pon com ple tion o f the project, they conduct a final com prehensive inspection. In ad dition, inspectors working for private industry may determine fire insurance rates by assessing the type o f con struction, building contents, availabil ity o f firefighting equipm ent, and risks posed by adjoining buildings. E le c tr ic a l in s p e c to r s inspect the in stallation o f electrical system s and equipm ent to insure that they function properly and com ply with electrical c o d e s and sta n d a rd s. T h ey v isit w orksites to inspect new and existing wiring, lighting, sound and security system s, and generating equipm ent. They also may inspect the installation o f the electrical wiring for heating and air-conditioning system s, kitchen ap pliances, and other com ponents. P l u m b i n g i n s p e c t o r s e x a m in e plumbing sy stem s, including septic tanks; plumbing fixtures and traps; and w ater, sew er, and vent lines. M e c h a n ic a l i n s p e c to r s inspect the installation o f the m echanical com po nents o f kitchen appliances, heating and air-conditioning equipm ent, gaso line and butane tanks, gas piping, and gas-fired appliances. Som e specialize in inspecting boilers. P u b lic w o r k s in s p e c to r s insure that Federal, State, and local governm ent construction o f water and sew er sy s tem s, highw ays, streets, bridges, and dams conform s to detailed contract specifications. They inspect excava tion and fill operations, the placem ent o f form s for con crete, concrete m ix ing and pouring, asphalt paving, and grading operations. They record the work and materials used so that con tract paym ents can be calculated. Public works inspectors may special ize in highw ays, reinforced concrete, or ditches. Others specialize in dredg ing operations required for bridges and dams or for harbors. C onstruction and building inspec tors increasingly use com puters to help them monitor construction activ ity. D etails about construction proj ects, building and occupancy permits, and other information can be stored and easily retrieved. A lthough inspections are primarily visual, inspectors often use tape m ea sures, survey instrum ents, metering d evices, and test equipm ent such as concrete strength m easurers. They of ten keep a daily log o f their work, take photographs, file reports, and, if nec essary, act on their findings. For e x am ple, construction inspectors notify the construction contractor, superin tendent, or supervisor w hen they dis cover a detail o f a project that does not co m p ly w ith the appropriate co d es, ordinances, or contract speci fications. If the deficiency is not cor rected within a reasonable period of tim e, governm ent inspectors have au thority to issue a “ stop-w ork” order. M any inspectors also investigate re ported incidents o f “ b ootleggin g,” that is, construction or alteration that is being carried on w ithout proper permits. V iolators o f permit law s are directed to obtain permits and submit to inspection. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations/41 Working Conditions Construction and building inspectors work indoors and out. T hey may spend much o f their time in a field office review ing blueprints, answering letters or telephone calls, writing re ports, and scheduling in sp ection s. The rest o f their time is spent inspect ing construction and building sites. Inspection sites may be dirty and cluttered with tools, m aterials, or d e bris. Inspectors may have to climb ladders or several flights o f stairs, or may have to crawl beneath buildings. H ow ever, the work is not considered hazardous. Inspectors normally work regular hours. H ow ever, if an accident occurs at a construction site, such as a par tially collapsed concrete structure, in spectors must respond im m ediately and may work irregular hours to com plete their report. Employment Construction and building inspectors held about 55,000 job s in 1984. Nearly half worked for local governm ents, primarily municipal or county build ing departm ents. The em ploym ent o f local governm ent inspectors is con centrated in cities and in suburban areas undergoing rapid growth. These governm ents em ploy large inspection staffs, including m ost o f the inspec tors w ho specialize in structural steel, reinforced concrete, boiler, and eleva tor inspection. Over 20 percent o f all construction and building in sp ecto rs w ere em ployed at the Federal and State levels. Nearly half o f the construction in spectors em ployed by the Federal Governm ent in 1984 worked for the Department o f D efen se, primarily for the U .S . Army Corps o f Engineers. Other important Federal em ployers include the T en n essee V alley Author ity and the Departm ents o f H ousing and Urban D evelopm ent, Agriculture, and Interior. About one-third o f all inspectors worked for private industry, over whelm ingly for construction com pa n ies. T he insurance industry em ployed a relatively small number o f inspectors. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To becom e a construction or building inspector, several years o f experience as a construction contractor, supervi sor, or craft worker are generally re quired. M ost em ployers also require an applicant to have a high school diplom a. High sch o o l preparation should include courses in drafting, algebra, geom etry, and English. Workers who want to becom e in sp ecto rs should h ave a thorough know ledge o f construction materials and practices in either a general area like structural or heavy construction, or in a specialized area such as elec trical or plumbing system s, reinforced concrete, or structural steel. A signif icant num ber o f construction and building inspectors have recent exp e rience as carpenters, electrician s, plumbers, or pipefitters. Many em ployers prefer inspectors w ho have graduated from an appren ticeship program, have studied engi neering or architecture for at least 2 years, or have a degree from a com munity or junior college, with courses in construction technology, blueprint reading, m athem atics, and building in spection. Construction and building inspec tors must be in good physical condi tion in order to walk and climb about construction sites. They also must have a motor vehicle operator’s li cen se. In addition, Federal, State, and many local governm ents usually re quire that inspectors pass a civil ser vice examination. Construction and building inspec tors usually receive m ost o f their training on the job. During the first couple o f w eeks, working with an e x p erien ced in sp ector, they learn about inspection techniques; codes, ordinances, and regulations; contract specifications; and recordkeeping and reporting duties. They begin by in specting less com plex types o f con struction such as residential buildings. The difficulty o f their assignm ents is gradually increased until they are able to handle com plex assignm ents. An engineering degree is frequently need ed to advance to supervisory inspec tor. Since they advise representatives of the construction industry and the gen eral public on building code interpre tation, construction practices, and technical developm ents, construction and building inspectors must keep abreast o f new building code develop m ents. Many em ployers provide for mal training programs to broaden in sp ectors’ knowledge o f construction materials, practices, and inspection techniques. Inspectors w ho work for A building inspector monitors the installa tion of piping. small agencies or firms that do not conduct training programs can broad en their knowledge and upgrade their skills by attending State-conducted training programs or by taking college or correspondence courses. Certification enhances construction inspectors’ chances for higher paying, m ore resp on sib le p o sitio n s. Som e States and cities require certification for em ploym ent. Inspectors having substantial experience and education can attain certification by passing stringent exam inations on construc tion techniques, materials, and code requirements offered by the model code organizations listed below . Job Outlook E m p lo y m en t o f co n stru ctio n and building in sp ectors is exp ected to grow more slow ly than the average for all o ccu p a tio n s through the mid1990’s. Increased construction activi ty will spur demand for inspectors. H ow ever, greater use o f computers to store inform ation on con stru ction projects m akes inspectors more pro ductive. In addition, the assumption o f som e inspection functions by engi neers and m aintenance supervisors e x p e d ite s co n stru ctio n and lim its growth o f construction and building inspector jobs. Em ploym ent o f construction and 42/Occupational Outlook Handbook For information about a career as a State or local governm ent construc tion or building inspector, contact your State or local em ploym ent ser vice. Persons interested in a career as a construction and building inspector with the Federal Governm ent can ob tain information from: building inspectors is not alw ays di rectly affected by changes in the level o f building activity. U nlike m ost co n struction occupations, inspectors do not usually experience layoffs when construction activity declines. During these periods, m aintenance and reno vation generally continue, enabling in spectors to continue working full time year round. In an upturn, new job s for inspectors increase but not to the sam e degree as construction activity. M ost job openings will arise from the need to replace inspectors w ho retire or leave the occupation for oth er reasons. B ecau se o f the increasing com plexity o f construction technolo gy and the trend toward the establish ment o f professional standards for in spectors, job prospects should be best for highly experienced craft workers w ho have som e college education or w ho are certified as inspectors. (D.O.T. 160.167-046; 168.161; .167-014 through -026, -042, -062, -066, -074 through -086; .261; .264; .267 except -010, -014, -038, and -102; .287; .367; .387; 169.267-014, -030; .284; 184.163; 187.167-062; 188.167-038, -074, -090; 196.163; 959.367-018) Earnings Nature of the Work The median annual salary o f construc tion and build in g in sp e c to r s w as $21,400 in 1984. The low est 10 percent earned $11,200 or le ss, while the high est 10 percent earned over $35,900. Salaries in large m etropolitan areas are substantially higher than those in small local jurisdictions. Salaries in the North and W est are slightly higher than salaries in the South. The average salary o f inspectors in the Federal Governm ent w as $25,100 in 1984. Related Occupations Construction and building inspectors com bine a know ledge o f construction principles and law with the ability to coordinate data, diagnose problem s, and com m unicate with people. Other occupations involving a com bination o f similar skills are drafters, estim a tors, industrial engineering tech n i cians, and surveyors. Sources of Additional Information Information about a career and certi fication as a construction or building inspector is available from the follow ing m odel code organizations: International Conference o f Building Officials, 5360 South Workman Mill Rd., Whittier, Calif. 90601. Building Officials and Code Administrators International, Inc., 4051 West Flossmoor Rd., Country Club Hills, 111. 60477. Southern Building Code Congress International, Inc., 900 Montclair Road, Birmingham, Ala. 35213. U .S. Office o f Personnel Management, 1900 E St. NW „ Washington, D.C. 20415. Inspectors and Compliance Officers, except Construction Protecting the public from health and sa fety hazards, prohibiting unfair trade and em ploym ent practices, con trolling immigration, preventing entry o f prohibited matter, regulating busi ness practices, and raising revenue are important responsibilities. Inspec tors and com pliance officers enforce the laws and regulations that govern these responsibilities. (Construction and building inspectors are discussed elsew here in the H a n d b o o k .) Depending upon their em ployer, in spectors vary w idely in title and re sponsibilities. Health Inspectors. Health inspectors work with engineers, chem ists, m icro biologists, and health workers to in sure com pliance with public health and safety regulations governing food, drugs, cosm etics, and other consum er products. They also administer regu lations that govern the quarantine o f persons and products entering the United States from foreign countries. The major types o f health inspectors are: Consum er safety, food, agricul tural quarantine, and environm ental health inspectors. In addition, som e inspectors work in a field closely re lated to food inspection— agricultural com m odity grading. M ost c o n s u m e r s a f e ty in s p e c to r s specialize in food, feeds and pesti cid es, w eights and m easures, cosm et ics, or drugs and medical equipm ent. Som e are proficient in several areas. Working individually or in team s un der a senior or supervisory inspector, they periodically check firms that pro duce, handle, store, and market food, drugs, and cosm etics. They look for inaccurate product labeling, and for decom position or chem ical or bacteri ological contam ination that could re sult in a product becom ing harmful to health. They use portable scales, cam eras, ultraviolet lights, container sam pling d ev ices, therm om eters, chem i cal testing kits, radiation m onitors, and other equipm ent to ascertain vio lations. T hey send product sam ples collected as part o f their exam inations to laboratories for analysis. After com pleting their inspection, inspectors discuss their observations with plant managers or officials and point out areas w here corrective m ea sures are needed. They write reports o f their findings, and, w hen n eces sary, com pile evidence that may be used in court if legal action must be taken to enforce the law. Federal and State law s em power f o o d i n s p e c to r s to inspect m eat, poul try, and their byproducts to insure that they are w h olesom e and safe for public consum ption. Working as an onsite team under a veterinarian, they inspect meat and poultry slaughtering, processing, and packaging operations. They also check for correct product labeling and proper sanitation. A g r ic u ltu r a l q u a r a n tin e in s p e c to r s protect Am erican agricultural prod ucts from the spread o f foreign plant pests and animal d iseases. To safe guard crops, forests, gardens, and livestock , they inspect ships, aircraft, railroad cars, and motor vehicles en tering the U nited States for restricted or prohibited plant or animal materi als. E n v i r o n m e n ta l h e a lth i n s p e c to r s , or sanitarians, w ho work primarily for State and local governm ents, insure that food , w ater, and air m eet govern ment standards. They check the clean liness and safety o f food and beverag es produced in dairies and processing plants, or served in restaurants, h os pitals, and other institutions. They often exam ine the handling, p rocess ing, and serving o f food for com pli ance with sanitation rules and regula tions. T hey oversee the treatment and disposal o f sew age, refuse, and gar bage. They exam ine places where pol lution is a danger, test for pollutants, and collect air or water sam ples for analysis. T hey determ ine the nature Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations/43 and cause o f pollution and initiate action to stop it. In large local and State health or agriculture departm ents, environm en tal health inspectors m ay specialize in milk and dairy products, food sanita tion, w aste control, air pollution, in stitutional sanitation, or occupational health. In rural areas and small cities, they may be responsible for a wide range o f environm ental health activi ties. A g r ic u ltu r a l c o m m o d ity g r a d e r s ap ply quality standards to aid the buying and selling o f com m odities and to in sure that retailers and consum ers re ceive w holesom e and reliable prod ucts. They generally specialize in an area such as eggs and egg products, m eat, poultry, p rocessed or fresh fruits and vegetables, grain, tobacco, cotton, or dairy products. They exam ine product sam ples to determ ine quality and grade, and issue official grading certificates. Graders also may inspect the plant and equipment to maintain sanitation standards. Regulatory Inspectors. Regulatory in spectors insure com pliance with laws and regulations that protect the public welfare. Important types o f regulatory inspectors are: Immigration; custom s; air safety; railroad; motor vehicle; o c cupational safety and health; mine; wage-hour com pliance; and alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors. I m m ig r a tio n in s p e c to r s interview and exam ine people seeking to enter the U nited States and its territories. They inspect passports to determine whether people are legally eligible to enter and to verify their citizenship status and identity. Immigration in spectors also prepare reports, main tain records, and process applications and petitions for immigration or tem porary residence in the United States. C u s to m s in s p e c to r s enforce laws governing imports and exports. Sta tioned at airports, seaports, and bor der crossing points, they exam ine, count, w eigh, gauge, m easure, and sample com m ercial cargoes entering and leaving the U nited States to de termine adm issibility and the amount o f tax that must be paid. They also inspect baggage and articles worn by passengers and crew m embers to in sure that all m erchandise is declared, proper duties are paid, and contra band is not present. P o s t a l in s p e c to r s observe the func tioning o f the postal system and rec om m end im provem ents. They investi gate criminal activities such as theft and m isuse o f the mail. In instances o f suspected mismanagement or fraud, they conduct management or financial audits. They collaborate with other government agencies, such as the In ternal Revenue Service, as members o f special task forces. A v ia tio n s a f e ty in s p e c to r s insure that Federal Aviation Administration (FA A ) regulations which govern the quality and safety o f aircraft equip ment and personnel are maintained. A viation safety inspectors may in spect aircraft and equipment manu facturing, maintenance and repair, or flight operations procedures. They usually specialize in either com m er cial or general aviation aircraft. They also exam ine and certify aircraft pi lots, pilot exam iners, flight instruc tors, schools, and instructional m ate rials. R a i lr o a d in s p e c to r s verify the com pliance o f railroad system s and equip ment with Federal safety regulations. They investigate accidents and review railroads’ operating practices. M o to r v e h ic le in s p e c to r s verify the com pliance o f autom obiles and trucks with State requirements for safe oper ation and em issions. They inspect truck cargoes to assure com pliance with legal limitations on gross weight and hazardous cargoes. T r a f fic i n s p e c t o r s o v e r s e e the scheduled service o f streetcar, bus, or railway system s. They report condi tions hazardous to passengers and dis ruptive to service. They determine the need for additional vehicles, revised schedules, or other changes to im prove service. O c c u p a tio n a l s a f e ty a n d h e a lth in s p e c to r s visit places o f em ploym ent to detect unsafe machinery and equip m ent or unhealthy working condi tions. They discuss their findings with the em ployer or plant manager and urge that violations be promptly cor rected in accordance with Federal, S tate, or local governm ent safety standards and regulations. M in e in s p e c to r s work to insure the health and safety o f miners. They visit m ines and related facilities to obtain information on health and safety con ditions and to enforce safety laws and regulations. They discuss their find ings with the management o f the mine and issue notices describing violations and hazards that must be corrected. They also investigate and report on mine accidents and may direct rescue and firefighting operations when fires or explosions occur. W a g e -h o u r c o m p lia n c e in s p e c to r s inspect em ployers’ time, payroll, and personnel records to insure com pli ance with Federal laws on minimum w ages, overtim e, pay, em ploym ent o f minors, and equal em ploym ent oppor tunity. They often interview em ploy ees to verify the em ployer’s records and to check for com plaints. E q u a l o p p o r tu n ity r e p r e s e n t a tiv e s ascertain and correct unfair em ploy ment practices through consultation with and mediation betw een em ploy ers and minority groups. A lc o h o l, to b a c c o , a n d f ir e a r m s in s p e c to r s inspect distilleries, wineries, and brew eries; cigar and cigarette manufacturing plants; w holesale li quor dealers and importers; firearms and exp losives manufacturers, deal ers, and users; and other regulated facilities. They insure com pliance with revenue laws and other regulations on operating procedures, unfair com peti tion, and trade practices, and deter mine that appropriate taxes are paid. S e c u r itie s a n d r e a l e s t a t e d ir e c to r s implement regulations concerning se curities and real estate transactions. Their departments investigate appli cations for registration o f securities sales and com plaints o f irregular secu rities or real estate transactions, and recom m end necessary legal action. R e v e n u e o ffic e r s investigate delin quent tax returns and liabilities. They discuss the resolution o f tax problems with taxpayers and recom m end penal ties and prosecution w hen necessary. A t te n d a n c e o ffic e r s investigate con tinued absences o f pupils from public schools. D e a le r c o m p lia n c e r e p r e s e n t a tiv e s inspect franchised establishm ents to a s c e r t a in c o m p lia n c e w i t h t he franchiser’s policies and procedures. They may suggest changes in financial and other operations. L o g g in g o p e r a tio n s in s p e c to r s re v ie w con tract logging op eration s. They prepare reports and issue reme dial instructions for violations o f con tractual agreem ents and o f fire and safety regulations. T r a v e l a c c o m m o d a t io n s r a te r s in sp ect h o te ls, m o tels, restaurants, cam pgrounds, and vacation resorts. They evaluate travel and tourist ac com m odations for travel guide pub lishers and organizations such as tour ism promoters and autom obile clubs. 44/Occupational Outlook Handbook Other inspectors and com pliance officers include coroners, cod e in spectors, and mortician investigators. Working Conditions Inspectors and com pliance officers live an active life; they m eet many people and work in a variety o f envi ronm ents. Their job s often involve considerable fieldwork, and som e in spectors travel frequently. They are furnished with an autom obile or are reimbursed for travel exp en ses. At tim es, inspectors have unfavor able working conditions. For exam ple, mine inspectors often are e x posed to the sam e hazards as miners. Custom s inspectors may be threat ened by sm ugglers and other crimi nals. F ood and alcohol, tob acco, and firearms inspectors frequently com e in contact with strong, unpleasant odors. M any inspectors work long and often irregular hours. Employment Inspectors and com pliance officers held 122,000 jo b s in 1984. A bout 31 percent w ere em ployed by State g o v ernm ents, 28 percent by the Federal G overnm ent, and 25 percent by local governm ents. The remainder— 16 per cent— w ere em p loyed in the U .S . Postal Service and throughout the pri vate sector— primarily in insurance com panies, hospitals, and m anufac turing firms. The largest single em ployer o f co n sumer safety inspectors is the U .S . Customs inspector checks to see if import duty has been paid. Food and Drug Adm inistration, but the majority work for State govern m ents. M ost food inspectors and agri cultural com m odity graders in proc essing plants are em ployed by the U .S . Department o f Agriculture. A g ricultural quarantine inspectors work for the U .S . Department o f Agricul ture. M ost environm ental health in spectors work for State and local g o v ernm ents. M ost Federal regulatory inspectors work in regional and district offices throughout the U nited States. The Treasury Department em ploys inter nal revenue officers. A viation safety inspectors work for the Federal A via tion Administration. The Department o f Labor em ploys wage-hour com pli ance officers, and the Treasury D e partment em ploys alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors. Occupational safety and health inspectors and mine inspectors also work for the Depart ment o f Labor, as w ell as for many State governm ents. Immigration in spectors are em ployed by the Depart ment o f Justice. Custom s inspectors work for the Treasury Department. Like agricultural quarantine inspec tors, immigration and custom s inspec tors work at U .S . airports, seaports, and border crossing points, and at foreign airports and seaports. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement B ecause o f the diversity o f functions, qualifications for inspector and com pliance officer job s differ greatly. R e quirem ents are a com bination o f edu cation, experience, and a written e x a m in a tio n . E m p lo y e r s g e n e r a lly prefer applicants with college train ing, including course work related to the job. F ood inspectors must have related experience and pass an exam ination based on specialized know ledge. A viation safety in sp ectors m ust have considerable experience in avia tion m aintenance and know ledge o f the industry and relevant Federal law s. In addition, FA A m echanic or pilot and m edical certificates are re quired. Som e also are required to have an FA A flight instructor rating. M any aviation safety inspectors have had flight training and m echanical training in the Armed F orces. N o written exam ination is required. Applicants for mine safety inspec tor p o sition s generally m ust have experience in mine safety, manage m ent, or supervision, or p o ssess a skill such as that o f an electrician (for mine electrical inspectors). In som e ca ses, a general aptitude test may be required. A pplicants for internal revenue of ficer job s must have a bachelor’s de gree or 3 years o f business, legal, or in vestigative w ork exp erien ce that displays strong analytical ability. Som e civil service exam inations, including those for agricultural quar antine in sp ecto rs and agricultural com m odity graders, rate applicants solely on their experience and educa tion and require no written exam ina tion. Environm ental health inspectors, called sanitarians in many States, usu ally must have a bachelor’s degree in environm ental health or the physical or biological scien ces. In m ost States, th e y are lic e n s e d by e x a m in in g boards. All inspectors and com pliance of ficers are trained in applicable law s and inspection procedures through a com bination o f classroom and on-thejob training. In general, people w ho want to enter this occupation should be able to accept responsibility and like detailed work. T hey should be neat and personable and able to ex press them selves w ell orally and in writing. Federal G overnm ent inspectors and com pliance officers w h ose job per fo rm a n ce is sa tisfa c to r y a d v a n ce through their career ladder to a sp ec ified full perform ance level. A bove this level (usually supervisory posi tions), advancem ent is com petitive, based on agency needs and individual merit. A dvancem ent opportunities in State and local governm ents and the private sector are often similar to those in the Federal G overnm ent. Job Outlook E m ploym ent o f inspectors and com pliance officers as a group is expected to increase more slow ly than the av erage for all occupations through the m id-1990’s. E m ploym ent growth is exp ected to be constrained by slow growth in governm ent regulatory pro grams and in governm ent spending. M ost job openings will be to replace those w ho transfer to other occupa tions, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. E m ploym ent o f inspectors and com pliance officers is seldom affected by general econ om ic fluctuations. M ost Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations/45 work in programs which enjoy wide public support. A s a result, they are less likely to lose their job s than many other workers w hen governm ent pro grams are cut. Earnings The median annual salary o f inspec tors and com pliance officers, except construction, w as $23,700 in 1984. The low est 10 percent earned less than $15,600; the highest 10 percent earned at least $38,800. M ost starting Federal salaries were around $14,400 a year in 1985. H ow ever, som e inspectors and com pliance officers— for exam ple, aviation safety officers and postal inspectors— had higher starting salaries. In the Federal G overnm ent, the av erage annual salary was som ew hat higher— $28,900— in 1984. Depending upon the nature o f the inspection or com pliance activity, the average sala ry varied substantially— from $18,800 to $42,100. Table 1 presents average salaries for selected inspectors and com pliance officers in the Federal Governm ent in 1984. Table 1. Salaries of selected Federal inspectors and compliance officers, 1984 T y p e o f in s p e c to r A verage sa la r y Postal inspectors........................ Transportation inspectors—air, aviation, motor carrier, rail road, and highway safety . . . Consumer safety inspectors................................ Coal mine in sp ecto rs................ Wage and hour compliance officials.................................... Civil rights and equal employ ment opportunity officials . . . Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors................................ Internal revenue officers.......... Customs in s p e c to rs .................. Food and agricultural com modity inspectors.................. Immigration in sp e c to rs............ Environmental health and safety technicians.................. $42,100 SOURCE: 42,000 36,500 35,800 35,200 34,600 Related Occupations Inspectors and com pliance officers are responsible for seeing that laws and regulations are obeyed. Revenue agents, construction and building in spectors, fire marshals, State and lo cal police officers, custom s patrol of ficers, custom s special agents, and fish and game wardens also enforce laws. Sources of Additional Information Information on Federal Government job s in available from offices o f the State em ploym ent service, area of fices o f the U .S . Office o f Personnel M anagement, and Federal Job Infor mation Centers in large cities through out the country. For information on a career as a specific type o f inspector or com pliance officer, the Federal de partment or agency that em ploys them may also be contacted directly. Information about State and local governm ent job s is available from State civil service com m issions, usu ally located in each State capital, or from local governm ent offices. Information about jobs in private industry is available from the Job Ser vice. It is listed under “ Job Service’’ or “ E m ploym ent” in the State gov ernment section o f local telephone directories. 30,700 27,700 26,700 25,800 24,200 18,800 U.S. Office of Personnel Management. Salaries o f inspectors and com pli ance officers in State and local g o v ernm ents and in private industry are generally low er than their Federal counterparts. A ccording to a 1984 survey by the International Personnel M anagement A ssociation, nonsupervisory environ mental health inspectors working for selected U .S . cities and counties re ceived average starting salaries o f al m ost $18,700 in 1984; those working for State governm ents started at about $3,200 less. Experienced environm en tal health inspectors working for State governm ents earned over $17,400, but top supervisors and administrators made as much as $27,500 in 1984. Personnel, Training, and Labor Relations Specialists (D.O.T. 079.127-010; 099.167-010; 166.067-010, .117014, .167-010, -014, -022, -034, -038, -042, -046, .227010, .267-014, -018, -022, -026; 169.107-010, .207-010, .367-010) Nature of the Work Attracting the best em ployees avail able and matching them to the jobs they can do best is important for the su ccess o f any organization. But many enterprises are too large to permit close contact betw een management and em p loyees. Instead, personnel and labor relations specialists provide this link— helping management make effective use o f em p lo y ees’ skills, and helping em ployees find satisfaction in their job s and working conditions. A l though som e job s in this field require only limited contact with people out side the office, m ost involve frequent contact. Dealing with people is an essential part o f the job. Personnel, training, and labor rela tions specialists concentrate on differ ent asp ects o f em p loyer-em p loyee relations. Personnel specialists inter view , select, and recom m end appli cants for job openings; stay abreast o f rules and regulations pertaining to af firmative action and equal em ploy ment opportunity; and help develop policies on hiring and advancem ent. They also handle wage and salary administration, pensions and benefits, and em ployee assistance programs. Training specialists develop courses, w orkshops, and other programs tai lored to the training needs o f an orga nization and its em ployees. Trainers consult with managers and supervi sors about specific training needs, prepare manuals and other materials for use in training session s, and keep em p loyees informed about training o p p o r tu n itie s. “ L ab or r e la tio n s ” m eans union-m anagem ent relations, and labor relations specialists work in unionized establishm ents, for the most part. They help com pany officials pre pare for collectiv e bargaining se s sions, participate in contract negotia tions, and handle labor relations mat ters that com e up every day. In a small organization, one person can handle all aspects o f personnel administration. By contrast, the per sonnel department in a large firm is likely to include recruiters, interview ers, job analysts, benefits specialists, training specialists, and labor rela tions specialists. Personnel clerks and assistants handle routine tasks such as issuing form s, maintaining files, com piling statistics, and answering inquir ies. Personnel work often begins with the recruiter, (D .O .T . 166.267-026), w ho maintains contacts within the com m unity and may travel exten sive ly— usually to college cam puses— to search for promising job applicants. Recruiters talk with applicants, and 46/Occupational Outlook Handbook recom m end those w ho appear quali fied to fill vacancies. They may ad minister tests and check references. T hese workers need to be thoroughly familiar with the organization and its personnel policies to discuss w ages, working conditions, and promotional opportunities with prospective em ployees. T hey also need to keep in formed about equal em ploym ent op portunity (EEO) and affirmative ac tion guidelines. EEO representatives or affirmative action coordinators handle this area in large organizations. They investigate and resolve EEO grievances, exam ine corporate practices for possible viola tions, and com pile and submit EEO statistical reports. Job analysts (D .O .T . 166.267-018), som etim es called compensation ana lysts, do very exacting work. They collect and exam ine detailed informa tion about job duties to prepare job descriptions. T hese descriptions e x plain the duties, training, and skills each job requires. W henever a large organization introduces a new job or review s existing on es, it calls upon the expert know ledge o f the job ana lyst. E sta b lish in g and m ain tain in g a firm’s pay system is the principal job o f the compensation manager (D .O .T . 166.167-022). A ssisted by staff sp e cialists, com pensation managers de vise w ays to ensure fair and equitable pay rates. They may conduct surveys to see how their rates com pare with others and to see that the firm’s pay scale com plies with laws and regula tions. Training, or more broadly, human resource developm ent, is a major spe cialization within personnel adm inis tration. Increasingly, m anagement is com ing to recognize that training of fers a w ay o f developing skills, en hancing prod u ctivity, and building loyalty to the firm. Training is w idely accepted as a m ethod o f improving em ployee morale, but this is only one o f the reasons for its growing impor tance. Other factors include the com plexity o f the work environm ent, the rapid pace o f organizational and tech nological change, and the growing number o f jo b s that are in fields where new know ledge is constantly being generated. In addition, advances in learning theory have provided insights into how adults learn, and how train ing can be organized to be m ost effec Digitized for tive for adults. FRASER Training specialists (D.O.T. 079.127010 and 166.167-014) are responsible for planning, organizing, and directing a wide range o f training activities. Trainers conduct orientation sessions and arrange on-the-job training for new em ployees. They help rank-andfile workers maintain and improve their job skills and possibly prepare for job s requiring greater skill. They help supervisors deal more effectively with em ployees. To prepare em ploy ees for future responsibilities, they may set up individualized training plans to strengthen skills or teach new on es. Training specialists in som e com panies set up programs designed to develop executive potential among em ployees in low er echelon positions. Planning and program developm ent is an important part o f the training specialist’s job. In order to identify and a ssess training needs within the firm, trainers may confer with manag ers and supervisors or conduct sur v ey s. They also periodically evaluate training effectiveness. Depending on the size, goals, and nature o f the organization, there may be considerable differences in train ers’ responsibilities and in the meth ods they use. Training m ethods cur rently in use include on-the-job train ing; “ v estib u le” sch ools in w hich shop conditions are dupliated for train ees prior to putting them on the shop floor; apprenticeship training; class room training; programmed instruc tion, which may involve interactive vid eos, videodiscs, and other com put er-aided instructional technologies; simulators; conferences; and work shops. Employee-benefits managers (D.O.T. 1 6 6 .1 1 7 -0 1 4 , - 0 2 2 ) h a n d le th e co m p an y’s em ployee benefits pro gram, primarily its health insurance and pension plans. Expertise in de signing and administering benefits pro grams continues to gain in importance as benefits administration becom es in creasingly com plex. Familiarity with health benefits is a top priority at presen t, as more and m ore firms search for w ays to respond to the rising cost o f health insurance for em ployees and retirees. Corporate support for controlling health care costs has resulted in new roles and a broadened scope o f activ ity for benefits specialists— som e o f whom work for consulting firms that specialize in this area. C om panies have begun to redesign benefit pack ages in order to encourage em ployees to use less costly form s o f health care, for exam ple. Increasingly, benefits specialists need expert know ledge o f health care delivery: Pre-admission screening, m andatory second opin ions, and review o f how benefits are used are exam ples o f issu es benefits specialists are currently dealing with. A nother major activity is tracking and an alyzin g c o s ts — determ ining how much health care the firm is paying for, w hat serv ices em p lo y ees and their dependents are getting for the m oney, and what accounts for differ ences in the use and cost o f care. In addition to health insurance and pension coverage, many firms offer their em ployees dental insurance, ac cidental death and disability insur ance, auto insurance, hom eow ners’ insurance, stock options, profit shar ing, and thrift/savings plans. Benefits analysts and benefits administrators handle these programs and also may develop and coordinate services as diverse as van-pooling, child care, lunchroom s and com pany cafeterias, n ew sletters, and health prom otion and physical fitness. A growing number o f firms provide em ployee counseling programs, often called em ployee assistance programs. M ost often staffed by social workers or psychologists, these programs may be located in the personnel depart m ent, the m edical departm ent, or elsew here within the firm. Som e em ployee counseling programs are off site and staffed entirely by consult ants. T ypically, w orksite em ployee counseling starts with an alcholism program; expands to cover other ma jor problem s including drug abuse and em otional disorders; and eventually offers counseling for a wide range of personal as w ell as job-related con cerns, including marital, fam ily, legal, consum er, and financial problem s. Career counseling may be provided as w ell. Som e firms offer personal, finan cial, and second careers counseling for em ployees approaching retirement age. Occupational safety and health pro grams are handled in various w ays. In small com panies especially, accident prevention and industrial safety are the responsibility o f the personnel de partment— or o f the labor relations specialist, if the union has a safety representative. Increasingly, h ow ev er, a safety engineer or industrial hy Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations/47 gienist is in charge o f a separate safety department. L a b o r r e la tio n s s p e c ia l is ts (D .O .T . 166.167-034) advise managem ent on all aspects o f union-m anagem ent rela tions. W hen a collective bargaining agreem ent is up for negotiation, they provide background information for m anagem en t’s p o sitio n , w hich re quires familiarity with econom ic and wage data as w ell as exten sive know l edge o f labor law and collective bar gaining trends. Although the director o f labor relations or other top-ranking official representing the em ployer ne gotiates the agreem ent, the labor rela tions staff play an important role. The labor relations staff interprets and adm inisters the contract, particu larly grievance procedures. Labor re lations specialists might work with the union on seniority rights under the layoff procedure o f the contract, for exam ple, or m eet with the union stew ard about a grievance. D oing the job well m eans staying abreast o f current developm ents in labor law , including arbitration d ecision s, and maintaining continuing liaison with union officials. Personnel specialists in governm ent and those in large business firms do essentially the sam e kind o f work, although there are som e differences. Public personnel specialists deal with civil service em p loyees w hose jobs are strictly classified as to entry re quirem ents, duties, and pay. T here fore much o f the em phasis in public personnel work is on job analysis. Training and career developm ent are growing in im portance in the public sector, how ever, and union activity among governm ent workers has cre ated a need for labor relations special ists to handle negotiations, grievanc es, and arbitration ca ses for Federal, State, and local governm ent agencies. Working Conditions Personnel work is office work. The work is performed in pleasant sur roundings that are generally clean and quiet. Personnel and training special ists usually work a standard 35- to 40-hour w orkw eek. Labor relations specialists, how ever, m ay work long er hours— particularly w hen contract agreem ents are being prepared and negotiated. Although m ost personnel, training, and labor relations specialists work in the office, som e travel exten sively. Recruiters regularly attend p rofes sional m eetings and visit college cam puses to interview prospective em ployees. Employment Personnel, training, and labor rela tions specialists held about 198,000 job s in 1984. Four out o f five jobs were in private industry. Som e per sonnel, training, and labor relations specialists work for labor unions. Oth ers are em ployed by, or operate, man agem ent consulting firms that special ize in such areas as com pensation, pensions and benefits, and training and staff developm ent. A pproxim ately 41,000 personnel, training, and labor relations special ists worked for Federal, State, and local governm ents in 1984. They han dled recruitm ent, interview ing, job classification, training, and related matters for the N ation’s 16 million public em p lo y ees: P olice officers, firefighters, sanitation workers, teach ers, hospital workers, and many oth ers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement B ecause o f the diversity o f duties and level o f responsibility, the educational backgrounds o f personnel, training, and labor relations specialists vary considerably. In filling entry level jo b s, firms generally seek college grad uates. Som e em ployers prefer appli cants w ho have majored in personnel administration or industrial and labor relations, while others look for college graduates with a technical or business background. Still others feel that a w ell-rounded liberal arts education is best. M any colleges and universities have programs leading to a degree in per sonnel and labor relations. Others of fer degree programs in personnel ad m inistration or personnel m anage m e n t. S o m e o ffe r d e g r e e s or certificates in training and develop m ent. Depending on the school, prep aration for a career in human resourc es developm ent may be obtained in departments o f business administra tion, education, instructional technol ogy, organizational developm ent, hu man services, com m unication, or pub lic administration. B ecause an interdisciplinary back ground is appropriate for work in this area, a com bination o f courses in the social scien ces, behavioral scien ces, and business is useful. Prospective personnel specialists might take cours es in principles o f m anagem ent, orga nization dynam ics, and human rela tions. Other relevant courses include business adm inistration, public ad ministration, psych ology, sociology, political scien ce, econ om ics, and sta tistics. C ourses in labor law , co llec tive bargaining, labor econ om ics, la bor history, and industrial psychology provide a valuable background for the prospective labor relations specialist. Graduate study in industrial or la bor relations is becom ing increasingly important for those seeking work in labor relations. A law degree seldom is required for entry level job s, but many people responsible for contract negotiations are law yers, and a com bination o f industrial relations courses and law is highly desirable. Som e ex perienced in personnel work m ove into labor relations. For many job s in this field, previous experience is an asset; for som e, it is essen tial. P ersonnel adm inistration and human resource developm ent re quire the ability to work with individ uals as w ell as a com m itm ent to orga nizational goals. They also demand skills that may be developed in many w ays— selling, teaching, supervising, and volunteering, among others. In fact, the majority o f personnel and labor relations job s are filled by p eo ple previously em ployed in another occupation. This field offers clerical workers opportunities for advance ment to professional positions. H ow ever, more responsible positions may be filled by experienced individuals from other fields including business, governm ent, education, and the mili tary. Social services administration provides a suitable background, too. Personnel, training, and labor rela tions sp ecialists should speak and write effectively and be able to work Personnel specialist explains company procedures to a new employee. 48/Occupational Outlook Handbook with people o f all levels o f education and experience as part o f a team. They m ust be patient to cope with conflicting view points and em otional ly stable to deal with the unexpected and the unusual. The ability to func tion under pressure is essential. Integ rity, fair m indedness, and a persua sive, congenial personality are impor tant qualities. Entry level workers usually enter form al or on-the-job training pro grams where they learn how to classi fy job s, interview applicants, or ad m inister e m p lo y ee ben efits. N e x t, they are assigned to specific areas in the p erson n el departm ent to gain experience. Later, they may advance within their ow n com pany, transfer to another em ployer, or manage a major elem ent o f the personnel program— com pensation, training, or EEO/aflfirmative action, for exam ple. W orkers in the middle ranks o f a large organization often leave for a more responsible job in a smaller or ganization. E xcep tio n a l em p lo y ees may be prom oted to director o f per sonnel or labor relations. Others may join a consulting firm or go into pri vate business. A Ph.D . is an asset for teaching, writing, or consulting work. Job Outlook The number o f personnel, training, and labor relations specialists is e x pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the m id-1990’s. M ost growth will o c cur in the private sector as em ployers try to provide effective em ployee re lations programs for an expanding and aging w ork force. R elatively little growth is anticipated in public person nel administration. A s in virtually all occupations, m ost job openings will result from replacem ent needs. D em and for p erson n el, training, and labor relations specialists is g o v erned by the staffing needs o f the firms where they work. A rapidly expand ing business is likely to hire additional personnel specialists— either as per manent em p loyees or consultants— while a business that is reducing its operations will require few er person nel w orkers. In any particular firm, the size and the job duties o f the personnel, training, and labor rela tions staff is determ ined by a variety o f factors, including the firm’s organi zational philosophy and goals; the la bor-intensity and skill profile o f the Digitized for industry; the pace o f technological FRASER change; governm ent regulations, co l lective bargaining agreem ents, and standards o f professional practice; and labor market conditions. Other factors stimulate demand for personnel, training, and labor rela tions specialists. Legislation setting standards in occupational safety and health, equal em ploym ent opportuni ty, and pensions has substantially in creased the amount o f recordkeeping, analysis, and report writing in the personnel area. Data gathering and analytical activities are bound to in crease as em ployers continue to re view and evaluate their personnel pol icies and programs. H ow ever, these activities probably will not generate many additional job s because o f the productivity gains associated with the autom ation o f personnel and payroll information. Corporate recognition o f the impor tance o f human resource developm ent is expected to result in greater invest ment in job-specific, em ployer-spo nsored training and retraining as a response to productivity concerns, the aging o f the workforce, and tech nological advances that can suddenly leave large numbers o f em p loyees with obsolete skills. Although the number o f jobs in this field is projected to increase through the m id-1990’s, the job market is like ly to remain com petitive, given the abundant supply o f recent college graduates and experienced workers with suitable qualifications. Earnings Typical entry level jobs in the person nel field include job analyst, EEO representative, benefits analyst, and training specialist. T hese positions generally require a bachelor’s degree but no experience. Salaries vary w ide ly, and depend on the size and loca tion o f the firm as w ell as the nature o f its business. In the Federal G overnm ent, new graduates with a bachelor’s degree generally started at about $13,800 a year in 1985. Those with a m aster’s degree started at about $21,000. In 1984, according to a survey con ducted by A bbott, Langer, and A sso ciates, the median salary for com pen sation analysts w as $25,150; for ben efits planning analysts, $23,989; for em ployee counselors, $26,712; for re cru iters (p ro fessio n a l/m a n a g eria l), $26,460; and for personnel informa tion specialists, $24,300. The median salary for EEO affirmative action man agers was $35,000; for com pensation and benefits m anagers, $33,417; for training and organizational d evelop ment m anagers, $37,682; and for labor relations m anagers, $37,500. A ccording to a Bureau o f Labor Statistics survey, average annual sal aries o f personnel directors in private in d u stry ranged from $35 ,4 4 4 to $65,874 in 1984. Top personnel and labor relations ex ecu tives in large cor porations earned considerably more. Related Occupations All personnel, training, and labor re lations occupations are clo sely relat ed. Other workers w ho help people find job s or help to make the work environm ent safe and pleasant include health and regulatory inspectors, o c cupational safety and health workers, em ploym ent co u n selo rs, rehabilita tion counselors, college career plan ning and placem ent counselors, indus trial engineers, p sych ologists, and so ciologists. Several o f these occupa tions are described elsew here in the H andbook. Sources of Additional Information For general information on careers in personnel and industrial relations, write to: American Society for Personnel Administra tion, 606 N. Washington St., Alexandria, Va. 22314. A ccred itation o f gen eralists and specialists in the personnel and hu man resources field is offered through the Personnel A ccreditation Institute. For inform ation, contact: Executive Director, Personnel Accreditation Institute, 606 N. Washington St., Alexandria, Va. 22314. For a booklet on C a r e e r s in T ra in in g a n d D e v e l o p m e n t , contact: American Society for Training and D evelop ment, 600 Maryland A ve. SW ., Suite 305, Washington, D.C. 20024. Brochures describing a career with the N ational Labor Relations Board as a field exam iner or attorney are available from: Director o f Personnel, National Labor Rela tions Board, 1717 Pennsylvania A ve. NW ., Washington, D.C. 20570. The Industrial Relations Research A ssociation periodically publishes a list o f academ ic programs in industrial relations in the I R R A N e w s l e t t e r . For the current list, contact: Industrial Relations Research Association, 7226 Social Science Building, 1180 Observatory Dr., Madison, Wis. 53706. Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations/49 Purchasing Agents (D.O.T. 162.117-018, -022 and -026; .157-030, -034, and -038; .167-030; 163.117-010; and 169.167-054) Nature of the Work If an organization d oes not have the right m aterials, supplies, or equip ment w hen they are needed, its entire production p rocess or w orkflow could be interrupted or halted. Purchasing agents, also called industrial buyers, see to it that the good s, materials, supplies, and services purchased for internal use by the organization are o f suitable quality, sufficient quantity, at the right price, and available when needed. A gents in industry and g o v ernment buy raw m aterials, m achin ery, parts and com ponents, furniture, business m achines, veh icles, and o f fice supplies. S om e, called media buy ers, purchase advertising tim e and space. B uyers w ho purchase m er chandise for resale, rather than for internal u se , are d escribed in the statem ent on buyers, retail and w h ole sale trade, elsew here in the H a n d book. Purchasing ag en ts buy su p p lies when the stock on hand reaches a predeterm ined reorder point, when a department in the organization requi sitions item s it n eeds, or w hen market conditions are especially favorable. Purchasing agents increasingly use com puters to keep track o f inventory levels, to p rocess routine orders, and to determ ine w hen to make purchas es. Com puters are also used to main tain bidders’ lists, to record the histo ry o f vendor perform ance, and to is sue purchase orders. B ecause agents often can purchase from many sourc es, their main job is selecting the supplier w ho offers the best com bina tion o f quality, service, and price. Purchasing agents use a variety o f means to ch o o se suppliers. They com pare listings in catalogs, directories, and trade journals. T hey m eet with salespersons to d iscuss item s to be purchased, exam ine sam ples, and at tend dem onstrations o f products and equipm ent. Frequently, agents invite suppliers to bid on large orders and then select the low est bidder among those w ho m eet purchasing and d eliv ery date requirem ents. Som etim es, purchasing agents ne gotiate for custom -m ade products or sp ecia liz e d se r v ic e s. In crea sin g ly , they enter into long-term contracts with vendors to guarantee future sup plies o f goods at the negotiated price. In order to make this long-term com m itm ent, purchasing agents must care fully evaluate vendors and take into account the future needs o f the orga nization. N eed less to say, purchasing agents must thoroughly understand the characteristics and functions o f the item s they purchase. In som e ca ses, such as com puter equipm ent, this requires considerable technical know ledge. After placing an order, the purchasing agent checks periodi cally to insure prompt delivery. Purchasing agents d evelop good business relationships with suppliers in order to attain cost savings, favor able paym ent term s, quick delivery on em ergency orders, or help in obtain ing scarce materials. A gents also work closely with other em ployees in their ow n organization. For exam ple, they may discuss design o f custom -m ade products with com pany engineers, de fects in purchased goods with quality control technicians, or shipment prob lem s with workers in the shipping department. Purchasing agents’ functions may differ according to the type and size o f the organization. In a large firm, agents usually specialize in a com m odity or group o f com m odities— for exam ple, steel, lumber, cotton, or pe troleum products. In smaller organi zations, agents generally buy a wider range o f goods, such as all raw m ate rials or all office supplies, furniture, and business m achines. M any have responsibility for arranging custodial, w aste disposal, and other contractual services. Purchasing managers usual ly supervise a group o f purchasing agents handling a number o f related goods and services. Working Conditions Purchasing agents generally work a standard 35- to 40-hour w eek. Som e overtim e may be necessary if, for e x am ple, the supply o f critical materials runs short. Although they spend m ost o f their time in the office, som e travel to suppliers, sem inars, or trade show s. Employment Purchasing agents held about 189,000 job s in 1984. M ore than 40 percent o f all the job s were located in manufac turing, primarily in the machinery and transportation equipm ent industries. C onstruction com p an ies, hospitals, sch ools, and advertising firms also are large em ployers o f purchasing agents. G overnm ent agen cies, primarily in the Federal sector, provided over one-seventh o f all jobs. B ecause o f its com plex and exten sive purchasing re quirem ents, the Department o f D e fense em ploys about 70 percent o f all purchasing agents in the Federal G ov ernm ent. Other im portant Federal em ployers are the Department o f A g riculture, the General Services A d m inistration, and the Veterans A d ministration. Many purchasing agents work in organizations that have few er than Purchasing agents often discuss requirements with officials from different departments in the firm. 50/Occupational Outlook Handbook five em p loyees in the purchasing d e partment. Large business firms and governm ent agen cies, how ever, have much larger purchasing departments; som e em ploy as many as 100 special ized purchasing agents. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although there are no universal edu cational requirem ents for entry level job s, m ost large organizations require a college degree and prefer applicants with a m aster’s degree in business administration or m anagem ent. Com panies that manufacture m achinery or chem icals may prefer applicants with a technical background, such as engi neering or scien ce, w hile other com panies hire business administration majors as trainees. C ourses in pur chasing, accounting, econ om ics, and statistics are helpful. Familiarity with com puters also is desirable. Many colleges and vocational institutes offer courses in purchasing; a few colleges offer a degree in this field. Som e small com panies require a bachelor’s degree; many others, how ever, hire graduates o f associate de gree and vocational education pro grams in purchasing for entry level job s. They also may prom ote clerks or technicians in the purchasing depart ment. Regardless o f the size o f an organization, how ever, a college d e gree is becom ing increasingly impor tant for advancem ent to m anagement positions. W hatever their educational back ground, beginning purchasing agents are enrolled in com pany training pro grams and spend considerable time learning about com pany operations and purch asin g p ro ced u res. T h ey work with experienced buyers to learn about com m odities, prices, suppliers, and negotiating techniques. They may be assigned to production planning to learn about the purchasing system , inventory records, and storage facili ties. Junior agents purchase standard and catalog item s. A s they gain know l edge and experience, they may be prom oted to purchasing agent, then to senior purchasing agent. Senior agents purchase highly com p lex, usually cu s tom-m ade item s. Purchasing agents must be able to analyze the technical data in suppli e r s’ proposals, m ake buying d eci sions, and spend large am ounts o f Digitized for m oney responsibly. The job requires FRASER the ability to work independently and a good memory for details. In addi tion, a purchasing agent must be able to get along w ell with people to bal ance the needs o f personnel in the orga n ization w ith budgetary c o n straints and to negotiate with suppli ers. An agent may work with law yers, contract administrators, and engineers and scientists when involved in com plex procurem ents. A qualified purchasing agent can becom e an assistant purchasing man ager in charge o f a group o f purchas ing agents and then advance to pur chasing m anager, director or vice president o f purchasing, or director or vice president o f materials manage m ent. At the top levels, duties may overlap into other management func tions such as production, planning, and marketing. This occupation is becom ing in creasingly professionalized and spe cialized. Continuing education is e s sential for advancem ent. M ost agents participate in seminars offered by pro fessional societies and take college courses in purchasing. Certification enhances o n e’s chances for top man agem ent positions. In private indus try, the recognized mark o f experi ence and professional com petence is the designation Certified Purchasing Manager (CPM). It is conferred by the N ational A ssociation o f Purchasing M anagement, Inc., upon candidates w ho pass four exam inations and m eet educational and experience require m ents. In governm ent, the indications o f professional com petence are the designations Professional Public B uy er (PPB) and Certified Public Purchas ing Officer (CPPO), conferred by the N ational Institute o f Governmental Purchasing, Inc. The PPB is earned by passing a two-part written exam i nation and meeting educational and experience requirements. A candidate must m eet more stringent basic re quirements and pass a three-part writ ten exam and an interview assessm ent to earn the CPPO. A s more and more purchasing is conducted on a long-term basis, both private and public purchasing agents are specializing in contract purchas ing. The National Contract M anage ment A ssociation confers the designa tion s Certified A sso cia te C ontract Manager (CACM) or Certified Profes sional C ontract M anager (CPCM ) upon those who m eet educational and experience requirem ents and pass a written exam ination. Job Outlook E m ploym ent o f purchasing agents is exp ected to increase about as fast as th e a v e r a g e fo r all o c c u p a tio n s through the m id-1990’s as the volum e o f goods and services produced in creases. G oods-producing firms will expand purchasing departm ents to handle the grow ing co m p lexity o f manufacturing p rocesses and to help keep costs o f production materials and supplies to a minimum. Many opportunities also should arise as ser vice-producing organizations (hospi tals, sch ools, and local and State gov ernm ents) also recognize the impor tance o f professional purchasers in reducing co sts. M ost job openings, how ever, will continue to arise from the need to replace purchasing agents w ho leave their jo b s. M any purchasing agents transfer to other occupations, often sales or managerial positions. Others retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. Persons w ho have a m aster’s de gree in business administration and a bachelor’s degree in purchasing, or in engineering, scien ce, or business ad ministration with courses in purchas ing, should have the best opportuni ties. Graduates o f 2-year programs in purchasing should continue to find good opportunities, especially in small firms. Earnings M edian annual earnings for purchas ing agents w ere slightly over $21,000 in 1984. The middle 50 percent earned betw een $16,500 and $30,000. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $13,000, and the top 10 percent earned more than $39,000. The average start ing salary for purchasing agents in the private sector w as $20,200 a year in 1984. E xperienced w orkers earned b etw een $24,700 and $30,600, and senior agents averaged $37,900. In the Federal G overnm ent, begin ning purchasing agents w ho had co l lege degrees earned $14,390 or $17,824 in 1985, d ep en d in g on sc h o la stic a ch ievem en t and ex p erien ce. Pur chasing agents in the Federal G overn m en t a v e r a g e d $ 2 9 ,9 0 0 in 1984. Am ong State governm ents, earnings ranged from $11,000 for beginning purchasing agents to over $40,000 for chiefs o f purchasing. G enerally, local Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations/51 governm ent salaries are som ew hat lower. H ow ever, purchasing agents in som e major metropolitan areas earn more than their State governm ent counterparts. Related Occupations Other workers w ho negotiate and con tract to purchase equipm ent, supplies, or other merchandise include retail and w holesale buyers, procurement services m anagers, and traffic manag ers. Sources of Additional Information Further information about careers in purchasing and certification is avail able from: National Association o f Purchasing Manage ment, Inc., P.O. Box 418, Oradell, N.J. 07649. National Institute of Governmental Purchasing, Inc., 115 Hillwood A ve., Falls Church, Va. 22046. National Contract Management Association, 6728 Old McLean Village Dr., McLean, Va. 22101. Underwriters (D.O.T. 169.167-058) Nature of the Work Insurance com panies assum e billions o f dollars in risks each year by trans ferring the risk o f loss from their pol icyholders to them selves. Underwrit ers appraise and select the risks their com pany will insure. The underwriter must analyze information in insurance applications, reports from loss control consultants, medical reports, and ac tuarial studies (reports that describe the probability o f insured loss) and then decide whether to issue a policy. An insurance com pany may lose bus iness to com petitors if the underwriter appraises risks too conservatively or it may have to pay more claim s if the underwriting actions are too liberal. (The term “ life underwriter” is in creasingly used in referring to insur ance sales workers; see the statem ent on insurance sales workers elsew here in the H a n d b o o k for a discussion o f that occupation.) When deciding that an applicant is an acceptable risk, an underwriter may outline the terms o f the contract, including the amount o f the premium. Underwriters frequently correspond with policyholders, agents, and man agers about policy cancellations or other requests for information. In ad dition, they som etim es accom pany sales workers on appointments with prospective custom ers. M ost underwriters specialize in one o f three major categories o f insur ance: Life, property and liability, or health. T hey further sp ecialize in group or individual policies. The prop erty and liability underwriter special izes by type o f risk insured, such as fire, autom obile, marine, or w orkers’ com pensation. In cases where casual ty com panies insure in a single “ pack age” policy, covering various types o f risks, the underwriter must be familiar with different lines o f insurance. Some underwriters, called commercial ac count underwriters, handle business insurance e x clu siv ely . T hey often evaluate a firm’s entire operation in appraising its insurance application. An increasing proportion o f insur ance sales are being made through group contracts. A standard group policy insures all persons in a speci fied group through a single contract at uniform premium rates, generally for life or health insurance protection. The group underwriter analyzes the overall com position o f the group to be sure that the total risk is not e x c e s sive. Another type o f group policy provides members o f a group— a labor union, for exam ple— with individual p o lic ie s reflecting their individual needs. These generally are casualty policies, such as those covering auto m obiles. The casualty underwriter an alyzes the application o f each group mem ber and m akes individual ap praisals. Som e group underwriters m eet with union or em ployer repre sentatives to discuss the types o f pol icies available to their group. Working Conditions Underwriters have desk jobs that re quire no unusual physical activity. Their offices generally are com fort able and pleasant. A lthough som e overtim e may be required, the normal w orkw eek is 35-40 hours. Underwrit ers occasionally may attend meetings away from home for several days. Employment Insurance underwriters held about 78,000 jobs in 1984. M ost life insur ance underwriters were in home of fices in a few large cities, such as N ew York, San Francisco, Chicago, Dal las, Philadelphia, and Hartford. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For beginning underwriting job s, most large insurance com panies seek col lege graduates who have a degree in liberal arts or business administration, but a major in almost any field pro vides a good general background. Som e small com panies hire persons without a college degree for under writer trainee positions. In addition, som e high school graduates w ho begin as underwriting clerks may be trained as underwriters after they dem on strate an aptitude for the work. Underwriters evaluate risk and determine what policies their company will insure. 52/Occupational Outlook Handbook Underwriter trainees begin by eval uating routine applications under the close supervision o f an experienced risk appraiser. They study claim files to becom e familiar with factors a sso ciated with certain types o f lo sses. As they develop the n ecessary judgm ent, they are assigned policy applications that are more com plex and have a greater face value. Continuing education is necessary for the underwriter to advance. Insur ance com panies generally pay tuition for underwriting courses that their trainees su ccessfu lly com plete; som e also offer salary increases. Indepen dent study programs are available through the A m erican Institute o f Property and Liability Underwriters, the Am erican C ollege o f Life U nder writers, the A cadem y o f Life U nder writers, the H ealth Insurance A sso c i ation o f Am erica, the Insurance Insti tute o f A m erica, and the Life Office M anagem ent A sso c ia tio n . E x p eri enced underwriters can qualify as a “ fello w ” o f the A cadem y o f Life U n derwriters by passing a series o f e x aminations and com pleting a paper on a topic in the underwriting field. E x aminations are given by the Institute o f H om e Office Underwriters and the H om e Office Life Underwriters A sso ciation. D esignation as a “ fe llo w ” is recognized as a mark o f achievem ent in the underwriting field. Underwriting can be a satisfying career for persons w ho like working with detail and enjoy evaluating infor m ation. In ad d ition , underw riters must be able to make prompt deci sions and com m unicate effectively. They must also be im aginative and aggressive, especially w hen they have to g et in fo r m a tio n from o u ts id e sources. E x p e r ie n c e d u n d erw riters w h o com plete courses o f study may ad vance to ch ief underwriter or under writing manager. Som e underwriting managers are prom oted to senior man agerial jo b s. Job Outlook Em ploym ent o f underwriters is ex pected to rise faster than the average for all occupations through the mid1990’s as insurance sales continue to expand. M ost job openings, how ever, are expected to result from the need to replace underwriters w ho transfer to other occupations, retire, or stop working for other reasons. A number o f factors underlie the expected growth in the volum e and com plexity o f insurance and the re sulting need for underwriters. Over the next decade, many more workers will enter the 25-54 age group. People in this age group have the greatest need for life and health insurance. They also need protection for hom es, autom obiles, and other valuables. A growing demand for insurance cover age for working wom en is also exp ect ed. Growing security con sciou sn ess should also contribute to demand for more insurance protection. N ew or expanding businesses will need pro tection for new plants and equipm ent, insurance for w orkers’ com pensation, and product liability. C om petition am on g in su ra n ce co m p a n ie s and changes in regulations affecting in vestm ent profits also are expected to increase the need for underwriters. The increasing importance o f em ploy ee benefits should also result in more opportunities in this field. Since insurance is usually regarded as a n ecessity regardless o f econom ic conditions, underwriters are unlikely to be laid off during a recession. Earnings According to a survey o f property and liability insurance com panies, person al lines (noncommercial) underwriters earned a median salary o f $21,500 a year in 1984, while com m ercial lines underwriters earned $21,200 a year. Senior personal lines underwriters re ceived a median salary o f $27,000, while senior commercial lines under writers earned $25,600 a year. Under w riting su p erv iso rs earned about $31,000 while underwriting managers earned about $37,000 a year in 1984. M ost insurance com panies have lib eral vacation policies and other em ployee benefits. Alm ost all insurance com panies provide employer-financed group life and retirement plans. Related Occupations Underwriters make decisions on the basis o f financial data. Other workers with the same type o f responsibility include auditors, loan officers, credit m anagers, and real estate appraisers. Sources of Additional Information General information about a career as an insurance underwriter is available from the home offices o f many life insurance and property and liability insurance co m p a n ies. Inform ation about career opportunities as an un derwriter also may be obtained from: American Council o f Life Insurance, 1850 K St. N W ., Washington, D.C. 20006. Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., N ew York, N .Y . 10038. Alliance o f American Insurers, 1501 Woodfield Rd., Suite 400 W ., Schaumburg, 111. 60195. The National A ssociation o f Independent Insur ers, Public Relations Department, 2600 River Rd., D es Plaines, 111. 60018. Wholesale and Retail Buyers (D.O.T. 162.157-018 and -022) Nature of the Work Buyers purchase, for resale, the best available m erchandise at the low est possible prices and expedite the deliv ery o f goods from the producer to the consum er. The responsibilities o f buy ers vary by industry and product and range from the mundane to the glam orous. For exam ple, w holesale gro cery buyers may spend many hours deciding which brand o f cereal should be prom oted in the grocery stores they supply. In sharp contrast, appar el buyers in department stores may attend a fashion show in Paris and buy thousands o f dollars worth o f evening dresses at one time. W holesale and retail buyers are in tegral parts o f a com plex system o f production, distribution, and m er chandising that caters to the vast va riety o f consum er needs and desires. W holesale buyers purchase goods di rectly from manufacturers or from other w holesale firms for resale to retail firms or to com m ercial estab lishm ents and other institutions. R e tail b u y ers p u rch a se g o o d s from w holesale firms or directly from man ufacturers for resale to the public. ( I n f o r m a t io n a b o u t p u r c h a s in g agents— buyers w ho purchase goods for internal use by their em ploying firm— can be found elsew here in the H a n d b o o k .) W holesale buyers must be familiar with the characteristics o f the many com m odities they purchase from both dom estic and foreign manufacturers. They must supply, in a tim ely and cost-effective manner, possibly hun dreds o f institutional buyers and retail p u r c h a se r s w h o m ay be lo c a te d throughout the N ation. T hese retail outlets may range in size from giant discount or department store chains Executive, Administrative, and Managerial Occupations/53 to small “ mom and p op ” stores. This requires careful assessm ent o f manu facturers’ productive capacity and the minimum inventory level necessary for the w holesaler to promptly fill cur rent and future orders from retailers and other com m ercial firms. W hole sale buyers often consult with retail buyers, w ho are in closer contact with the b u y in g p u b lic , to a n tic ip a te changes in consum er preferences. Retail buyers must know what m o tivates consum ers to buy. Before or dering m erchandise, they study mar ket research reports and past sales records to determ ine w hich products are in demand. They keep informed about changes in existing products and the developm ent o f new on es, and also analyze econom ic conditions and exam ine industry and trade publica tions. Retail buyers must be familiar with the many manufacturers and w h ole sale distributors in their industry. Buyers must be able to assess the resale value o f goods after a brief inspection and make purchase deci sions quickly. They discuss m erchan dising problems with w holesale buy ers and store execu tives and discuss sales prom otions with advertising per sonnel. They consult with assistant buyers and sales persons w ho are in daily contact with retail custom ers. Retail buyers may direct assistants w ho handle routine functions such as verifying shipment orders and m oni toring inventory levels. Technical advances in com puters and other business equipm ent have improved buyers’ efficiency. For ex ample, com puters not only give w h ole sale buyers instant access to the sp ec ifications o f thousands o f com m odi ties, their inventory records, and their retailers’ purchase records, but also greatly speed up the selection and ordering o f m erchandise directly from the manufacturer. This expedites the distribution o f m erchandise and de creases inventory storage and costs. Computers also have taken over som e o f the routine tasks o f retail buyers, enabling them to concentrate on more com p lex m erchandising fu n ctio n s. For exam ple, cash registers con n ect ed to a com puter, known as point-ofsale terminals, allow retail chains to m a in ta in c e n t r a liz e d , u p -to -th e minute sales and inventory records. M oreover, retailers often are linked through electron ic purchasing sy s tems to w holesale distributors or to their ow n com pany’s corporate head quarters. These com plex networks al low retailers to reorder goods elec tronically when supplies are low. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Familiarity with merchandise and with w holesaling and retailing practices is important for buyers, and many per sons with such experience transfer Working Conditions Buyers often operate under great pres into this occupation. High school and sure since w holesale and retail trade postsecondary marketing and distrib establishm ents are highly com peti utive education programs can launch tive. They work in com fortable, well- careers in wholesaling and retailing that lighted offices at stores or in corporate lead eventually to a buyer’s position. headquarters. Anticipating custom (More information about marketing and er’s preferences and ensuring that distributive education appears in the goods are in stock when they are statement on retail trade sales workers needed require resourcefulness, good elsewhere in the H a n d b o o k .) Vocation judgm ent, and self-confidence. B uy al schools, technical institutes, and ers also must be able to make deci community colleges offer postsecond ary training that prepares students for sions quickly and take risks. Buyers frequently work more than careers in merchandising. Many colleg a 40-hour w eek because o f special es and universities offer associate de sales and conferences. They may have gree or bachelor’s degree programs in to work evenings and w eekends to marketing and purchasing. An increas com plete work on time. Substantial ing number o f employers prefer appli traveling is required; m ost buyers cants who have a college degree. Courses in merchandising or mar spend several days a month on the keting may help in getting started in road. H ow ever, many successful buy ers feel that the stimulation and ex w holesaling and retailing. H ow ever, m ost em ployers accept college gradu citem ent o f the job more than make up ates from any field o f study for buyer for the long hours and em otional trainee program s, w hich com bine strain. classroom instruction in merchandis ing and purchasing with short rota Employment tions to various jobs in the store. This W holesale and retail buyers held about training introduces the new worker to 229,000 jobs in 1984. About two-thirds store operations and policies and to o f the jobs were in retail firms. A l the fundam entals o f m erchandising though buyers work in all parts o f the and management. M ost trainees begin by selling mer country, most are in major m etropol itan areas, where w holesale and retail chandise, supervising sales workers, stores are concentrated. check in g in v o ices on material re- Buyers frequently call suppliers to obtain information about products. 54/Occupational Outlook Handbook ceived, and keeping account of stock on hand, although widespread use of computers in both wholesale and re tail trade has simplified many of these tasks. They gradually assume buying responsibilities—usually working as assistant buyers for at least a year or two before becoming buyers. Experi enced buyers may advance to mer chandise manager; some advance to executive jobs such as general mer chandise manager for distributors, de partment stores, or chain stores. M embership in professional and trade associations is helpful in keep ing abreast of im provem ents and changes in industry products and prac tices and can facilitate advancement to more responsible positions. Persons who wish to become buy ers should be good at planning and decisionmaking and have an interest in merchandising. Leadership ability and communications skills are needed to supervise sales persons and assistant buyers and to deal effectively with man ufacturers’ representatives and store executives. Familarity with computers also is becoming increasingly impor tant. Because of the fast pace and pres sure of their work, buyers need physi cal stamina and emotional stability. Job Outlook Employment of buyers is expected to grow about as fast as the aver age for all occupations through the mid-1990’s, as the wholesale and re tail trade industries expand in re sponse to a growing population and higher personal incomes. Most job openings, however, will result from replacement needs, because many ex perienced buyers transfer to other oc cupations such as sales or managerial positions or leave the labor force tem porarily to assume household respon sibilities. Som ew hat offsetting in creased demand for buyers will be productiv ity gains resulting from the in creased use of computers to control inventory, maintain records, and to reorder merchandise. The num ber of qualified jo b s e e k e rs will continue to exceed the number of openings b ecau se m erchandising a ttra c ts many college graduates. Prospects are likely to be best for qualified applicants who enjoy the com petitive, fast-paced nature of merchandising. Earnings Median annual earnings of buyers were $19,500 is 1984. Most earned between $15,100 and $28,500 a year. The lowest 10 percent averaged less than $10,700, while the top 10 percent earned more than $38,000. A buyer’s income depends upon the amount and type of product pur chased, the employer’s sales volume and, to some extent, the buyer’s se niority. Buyers for large wholesale distributors and for mass merchandis ers such as discount or large chain department stores are among the most highly paid. Buyers often earn cash bonuses based on their performance. In addi tion, many firms have incentive plans, such as profit sharing and stock op tions. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who need a knowledge of marketing and the ability to assess consumer demand are sales managers, comparison shop pers, m anufacturers’ sales representa tives, insurance sales agents, whole sale trade sales representatives, and travel agents. Sources of Additional Information General information about a career in retailing is available from: National Mass Retailing Institute, 570 Seventh A ve., N ew York, N .Y . 10018. Information on schools that teach retailing is available from your State Director of Vocational Education and from: National Association o f Trade and Technical Schools, 2021 K St. N W ., Washington, D.C. 20006. Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects Nature of the Work Engineers, surveyors, and architects do planning and design. Engineers de sign machines, processes, systems, and structures. Surveyors measure and lay out land and building bound aries. Architects design buildings and other structures, as well as outdoor areas. Architects, engineers, and survey ors often work together on building projects. Architects design the build ing, concentrating on the visual ap pearance as well as the needs of own ers and occupants; engineers design the building’s mechanical, heating, and electrical systems; and surveyors lay out the building’s boundaries and the boundaries of the land it occupies. Engineers apply scientific and math ematical theories and principles to solve practical technical problems. Most work in one of the more than 25 specialties recognized by professional societies. Electrical, mechanical, civ il, industrial, chemical, and aerospace engineering are the largest. Although many engineers work in design and development, others work in testing, production, operations, and mainte nance. Architects also apply scientific and mathematical theories and principles to design and construct buildings which are esthetically appealing and safe, and which meet the needs of their client. Surveyors use mathematical and scientific principles to measure and lay out land areas and establish bound aries. They also research deeds, write legal descriptions of land, and collect information for maps and charts. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The generally accepted standard for engineers is a bachelor’s degree in engineering, although those with de grees in natural science or mathemat ics may sometimes qualify as engi neers. Surveyors usually qualify for their work with a combination of postsecondary school courses and onthe-job training. Some obtain a junior expected increases in construction ac tivity. How ever, opportunities for both surveyors and architects may vary from year to year as construction activity fluctuates. college degree in surveying. A bache lor’s degree in architecture is neces sary to become an architect. To offer services to the public, architects, en gineers, and surveyors must also have several years’ work experience and pass a licensing examination. Architects Job Outlook All occupations in this group, except mining and nuclear engineers, are ex pected to grow at least as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s due to expected higher levels of investm ent in industrial plants and equipment as well as in office buildings and other construction projects. The employment of engi neers also will increase due to expect ed higher defense expenditures. Employment opportunities for engi neers with degrees in engineering are expected to be good through the mid1990’s. Employment of engineers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s, although growth rates for individual engineering specialties vary. Employment of surveyors is ex pected to increase as fast as average; employment of architects is expected to increase faster than average due to (D.O.T. 001.061-010 and .167-010) Nature of the Work Designing a building involves far more than planning an attractive shape and exterior. Buildings must also be func tional, safe, and economical and must suit the needs of the people who use them. Architects take all these things into consideration when they design buildings. Architects provide a wide variety of professional services to individuals and organizations planning a building project. They are involved in all phases of development, from the ini tial discussion of general ideas with the client through construction. Their duties require a variety of skills— design, engineering, managerial, and supervisory. The architect and client first discuss the purposes, requirements, and cost Electrical and mechanical engineers are projected to have the fastest growth. Projected percent change in employment, 1984-95 0 10 20 30 40 50 Architects Surveyors Aerospace engineers Chemical engineers Civil engineers Electrical engineers Industrial engineers Mechanical engineers Metallurgical engineers1 Mining engineers Nuclear engineers Petroleum engineers Includes ceramic and materials engineers. Source Bureau of Labor Statistics 55 56/Occupational Outlook Handbook of a project. Based on the discussions, the architect prepares a program—a report specifying the requirements the design must meet. The architect then prepares carefully scaled drawings presenting ideas for meeting the cli ent’s needs. After the initial proposals are dis cussed and accepted, the architect develops final construction documents that incorporate changes required by the client. These documents show the floor plans, elevations, building sec tions, and other construction details. Accompanying these are drawings of the structural system, air-condition ing, heating, and ventilating systems, electrical system s, plumbing, and landscape plans. Architects also spec ify the building materials and, in some cases, the interior furnishings. In de veloping designs, architects follow building codes, zoning laws, fire reg ulations, and other ordinances, such as those that require easy access by handicapped persons. Throughout the planning stage, the architect may make changes to satisfy the client, who may decide that the design is too expensive or may pro pose additions to the original plan. The architect may also assist the cli ent in obtaining bids, selecting a con tractor, and negotiating the construc tion contract. As construction pro ceeds, the architect visits the building site to ensure that the contractor is following the design, using the speci fied materials, and that the quality of work meets the specified standards. The job is not complete until all con struction is finished, required tests are made, and construction costs are paid. Architects design a wide variety of structures, such as office buildings, churches, hospitals, houses, and air ports. They also design multibuilding complexes for urban renewal projects, college campuses, industrial parks, and new towns. Besides designing stru ctu res, architects may select building sites, prepare cost and landuse studies, and conduct long-range planning for land development. On large projects or in large archi tectural firms, architects often spe cialize in one phase of the work, such as design or administering construc tion contracts. This often requires working with engineers, urban plan ners, interior designers, landscape ar chitects, and others. The work of landscape architects (D.O.T. 001.061-018) is closely relat ed to that of architects, although they are usually considered separate occu pations. Landscape architects plan the best use of land areas for such projects as parks, airports, golf cours es, highways, factories, shopping malls, and housing developm ents. They use trees and shrubs to create a pleasant environm ent and design walkways and lighting. They advise on potential land uses, analyze natural features of a site, and work with ar chitects to harmonize buildings with their surroundings. Working Conditions Architects generally work in a com fortable environment. Most of their time is spent in offices advising cli ents, developing reports and draw ings, and working with other archi tects and engineers. However, they also often work at construction sites reviewing the progress of projects. Architects may work under great stress to meet deadlines and working nights and weekends is common. Employment Most architects work in architectural firms or are self-employed. Architects and landscape architects together held about 93,000 jobs in 1984. Most jobs were in architectural firms—many of which employ fewer than five workers. About one-third of all architects were self-employed. They practiced privately as partners in architectural firms or on their own. The remainder worked for builders, real estate developers, or other busi nesses that have large construction programs and for government agen cies responsible for housing, plan ning, or community development such as the Departments of Defense, Inte rior, Housing and Urban Develop ment, and the General Services Ad ministration. A large proportion of architects work in New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Boston, and Washington, where many large architectural firms are located. Increasing numbers of architects are finding employment in rapidly growing areas, especially in the South and Southwest. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Colum bia require individuals to be registered (licensed) before they may call them selves architects or contract for pro viding architectural services. To qual ify for the registration examination, a person generally must have at least a Bachelor of Architecture degree from a program accredited by the National Architectural Accrediting Board and 3 years of acceptable experience in an architect’s office. In many States, the experience must be in the Intern Ar chitect Development Program, an ap prenticeship program for architects. As a substitute for the professional degree in architecture, a few States still accept other combinations of for mal education and experience (usually much more than 3 years) for admis sion to the registration examination, but this route to a license is being rapidly eliminated. Many architecture school graduates work in the field even though they are not registered. However, a registered architect is re quired to take legal responsibility for all work. In 1985, the National Architectural Accrediting Board had accredited the programs of 92 schools offering pro fessional degrees in architecture. Most of these schools offer either a 5-year curriculum leading to a Bachelor of Architecture degree or a 6-year cur riculum leading to a M aster of Archi tecture degree. Students also may transfer to professional degree pro grams after completing a 2-year junior or community college program in ar chitecture. Many architecture schools also offer graduate education for those who already have a first professional degree. Although such graduate edu cation is not essential for practicing architects, it is desirable for those engaged in specialties or in research and teaching. A typical college archi tecture program includes courses in Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects/57 architectural history and theory, de sign, graphics, engineering, and urban planning, as well as in English, math ematics, physics, economics, comput er science, and the humanities. Persons planning a career in archi tecture should have some artistic abil ity, at least to the extent of being able to make reasonable freehand sketch es. They should have a capacity for solving technical problems and should be able to work independently. They also must be prepared to work in a competitive environment where lead ership and ability to work with others are important. Flexibility and pa tience are needed when clients reject plans or request changes after final plans are developed. Students who work for architects, engineers, or building contractors during summer vacations can gain useful experience. New graduates usually begin in ar chitectural firms, where they prepare architectural drawings and make mod els of structures under the direction of a registered architect. They also may design; administer construction con tracts; do research on building codes and materials; or write specifications for building materials, the method of installation, the quality of finishes, and many other related details. Grad uates with degrees in architecture also enter other related fields such as graphic, interior, or industrial design, urban planning, civil engineering, or construction. In large firms, architects may ad vance to supervisory or managerial positions. Some architects become partners in established firms. Often, however, the architect’s goal is to have his or her own firm. Job Outlook Employment of architects is expected to rise faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Demand for architects is highly de pendent upon the level of construc tion, particularly of nonresidential structures such as office buildings, factories, and shopping facilities. Rap id growth in this area is expected. However, construction is sensitive to cyclical changes in the economy. Dur ing recessions, architects face compe tition for job openings or clients and layoffs may occur. F urtherm ore, regardless of economic conditions, there will continue to be competition for jobs in the most prestigious firms which offer good potential for career advancement. Although the increas ing use of computer technologies such as computer-aided design increases efficiency, employment is not expect ed to be much affected because com puter technologies are being used to make more and better designs rather than to reduce the need for architects. Although employment is expected to rise faster than the average for all occupations through 1995, most job openings are expected to arise as ar chitects transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. However, the number of job openings for architects is small because the occupation is small and few architects transfer to other fields. Earnings The median annual earnings for sala ried architects who worked full time were about $28,600 in 1984. Most earned between $20,000 and $37,000. The top 10 percent earned more than $40,000 and the lowest 10 percent, less than $15,(K ). M Architects who are partners in wellestablished architectural firms or solo practitioners generally earn much more than their salaried employees, but their income may fluctuate due to changing business conditions. Archi tects may have difficulty getting estab lished in their own practices and may go through a period when their ex penses are greater than their income. In 1984, the average salary for ar chitects working in the Federal Gov ernment was about $35,600. Related Occupations Architects are concerned with the de sign and construction of buildings and related structures. Others who engage in similar work are building contrac tors, civil engineers, urban planners, interior designers, industrial design ers, drafters, and surveyors. Sources of Additional Information General information about careers in architecture can be obtained from: Director, Education Programs, The American Institute o f Architects, 1735 New York Ave. NW „ Washington, D.C. 20006. Specific questions on education for a career in architecture should be ad dressed to: The Association of Collegiate Schools o f Archi tecture, Inc., 1735 New York Ave. N W ., Wash ington, D.C. 20006. Information about licensing and ex amination can be obtained from: The National Council of Architectural Registra tion Boards, 1735 N ew York Ave. NW ., Suite 700, Washington, D.C. 20006. For information about careers in landscape architecture, contact: American Society o f Landscape Architects, 1733 Connecticut A ve. N W ., Washington, D.C. 20009. Surveyors (D.O.T. 018.167-010, -014, -018, -026 and -034 through -050, .261-018, -022, and -026, and .262-010) Nature of the Work Surveyors establish official land and water boundaries, write descriptions of land for deeds, leases, and other legal documents, measure construc tion and mineral sites, and collect information for and prepare maps and charts. Surveyors may also coordi nate findings with engineers and archi tects. Land surveyors manage one or more survey parties engaged in measuring distances, directions, and angles be tween points and elevations of points, lines, and contours on the earth’s sur face. They plan the fieldwork, select survey reference points, and deter mine the precise location of natural and constructed features of the survey project area. They research legal rec ords and look for evidence of previous boundaries. They record the results of the survey, verify the accuracy of data, and prepare plats, maps, and reports. A typical survey party is made up of the party chief and one to six survey technicians and helpers. The party chief leads the day-to-day work activ ities of the party. Instrument assis tants adjust and operate surveying instruments such as the theodolite (used to measure horizontal and ver tical angles) and electronic distance measuring (EDM) equipment. These workers also compile notes, sketches, and record the data obtained from using these instruments into comput ers. Geodetic surveyors use special highaccuracy techniques, including satel lite observations, to measure large areas of the earth’s surface. Geophys ical prospecting surveyors mark sites for subsurface exploration, usually petroleum related. Marine surveyors survey harbors, rivers, and other bod ies of water to determine shorelines, topography of the bottom, depth, and other features. 58/Occupational Outlook Handbook Photogrammetrists prepare maps and drawings by measuring and inter preting aerial photographs, using ana lytical processes and mathematical formulas. Photogrammetrists are able to make detailed maps of areas that are inaccessible or difficult to survey by other methods. Mosaicists and map editors help develop and verify map content from aerial photographs and other reference sources. A closely related occupation that uses surveying techniques is geode sist. (The work of geodesists is de scribed in the statement on geologists, geophysicists, and oceanographers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Surveyors usually work an 8-hour day 5 days a week. Sometimes they work longer hours during the sum m er months when weather and light con ditions are most suitable for field work. The work of surveyors is active and sometimes strenuous. Surveyors of ten stand for long periods and walk long distances or climb hills with heavy packs of instruments and equip ment. They also are exposed to all types of weather. Occasionally, they must commute long distances or find temporary housing near the survey site. Surveyors spend considerable time on office duties, such as planning sur veys and preparing reports, computa tions, and maps. Most computations and map drafting are done by using a computer. Surveyors use advanced instruments to measure angles and distances. Employment Surveyors held about 44,000 jobs in 1984. Engineering, architectural, and surveying firms employ nearly onehalf of all surveyors. Federal, State, and local government agencies em ploy about one-fourth. Major Federal Government employers are the U.S. Geological Survey, the Bureau of Land Management, the Army Corps of Engineers, the Forest Service, the National Ocean Survey, and the De fense Mapping Agency. Most survey ors in State and local government agencies work for highway depart ments and urban planning and rede velopm ent agencies. C onstruction firms, oil and gas extraction compa nies, and public utilities also employ surveyors. About 5,000 surveyors were self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most persons prepare for surveying work by combining postsecondary school courses in surveying with ex tensive on-the-job training. Some pre pare by obtaining a college degree because some States now require a 4-year degree to be licensed as a sur veyor. A few 4-year colleges offer bachelor’s degrees specifically in sur veying, while many others offer sev eral courses in the field. Junior and community colleges, technical insti tutes, and vocational schools offer 1-, 2-, and 3-year programs in surveying technology. High school students interested in a career in surveying should take cours es in algebra, geometry, trigonome try, drafting, mechanical drawing, and computer science. High school graduates with no for mal training in surveying usually start as a member of a survey crew. After several years of on-the-job experience and formal training in surveying—ei ther in an institutional program or from a correspondence school—work ers may advance to survey technician, then to party chief, and finally to licensed surveyor. B eginners w ith p o stse c o n d a ry school training in surveying can gen erally start as technicians. After gain ing experience, they may advance through the technician ranks to party chief or become a licensed surveyor. Promotions to higher level positions often are based on written examina tions as well as experience. Photogrammetrists usually have a bachelor’s degree in engineering or a physical science. Most photogrammetry technicians have had some spe cialized postsecondary school train ing. All 50 States license land survey ors. Requirements for licensure vary among the States. G enerally, the quickest route to licensure is a com bination of 4 years of college, 2 to 4 years of experience, and passing the State licensing exam. As a prerequi site to licensure, some States now require a bachelor’s degree in survey ing or in a closely related field such as civil engineering or forestry with courses in surveying. A few States allow such graduates to take the li censing examination without experi ence in the field. In most States, how ever, persons without a degree may qualify to take the licensing exam af ter 5 to 12 years of surveying experi ence. Surveyors should have the ability to visualize objects, distances, sizes, and other abstract forms. Also, be cause mistakes can be very costly, surveyors must make mathematical calculations accurately while paying close attention to the smallest detail. Leadership qualities are important for surveyors who supervise others. Members of a survey party must be in good physical condition to work outdoors and carry equipment over difficult terrain. They also need good eyesight, coordination, and hearing to communicate over great distances by hand or voice signals. Job Outlook Employment of surveyors is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid1990’s. In addition to openings arising from growth in the demand for these workers, many will result from the need to replace those who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The anticipated growth in construc tion should create additional jobs for surveyors who lay out streets, shop ping centers, housing developments, factories, office buildings, and recrea tion areas. Construction and improve ment of the N ation’s roads and high ways also should create new survey ing positions. However, employment may fluctuate from year to year be cause construction activity is highly sensitive to changes in economic con ditions. Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects/59 Some growth also may occur in other related areas of surveying. Earnings In 1985, high school graduates with little or no training or experience earned about $10,500 annually at en try level jobs on survey crews with the Federal Government. Those with 1 year of related postsecondary train ing earned $11,460. Those with an associate degree that included courses in surveying generally started as in strument assistants with an annual salary of $12,860. The average annual salary for surveying technicians in 1984 was $15,900. In 1985, persons starting as land surveyors with the Federal Government earned $14,390 or $17,825 a year, depending on their qualifications. The average annual sal ary for land surveyors in 1984 was $28,500. Limited information indicates that salaries for surveyors and surveying technicians in private industry are generally comparable to those in the Federal service. Related Occupations Other occupations concerned with ac curate measurement and delineation of land areas, coastlines, and natural and constructed features include car tographers, cartographic technicians, and geodesists. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportuni ties, licensure requirem ents, and schools that offer training in surveying is available from: American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, 210 Little Falls St., Falls Church, Va. 22046. General information on careers in photogrammetry is available from: American Society for Photogrammetry and Re mote Sensing, 210 Little Falls St., Falls Church, Va. 22046. Engineers The work of engineers has made it possible to comm unicate by tele phone, radio, and TV; to travel in space; and to prolong life. Future ac complishments could be increased en ergy supplies, computers with artifi cial intelligence, and a manned space station. This section, which contains an overall discussion of engineering, is followed by separate statements on 10 branches of the profession—aero space; chemical; civil; electrical and electronics; industrial; mechanical; metallurgical, ceramic, and materials; mining; nuclear; and petroleum engi neering. Nature of the Work Engineers apply the theories and prin ciples of science and mathematics to the economical solution of practical technical problems. Often their work is the link between a scientific discov ery and its application. Engineers de sign machinery, products, systems, and processes for efficient and eco nomical performance. They develop electric power, water supply, and waste disposal systems. They design industrial machinery and equipment for manufacturing goods, and heating, air-co n d itio n in g , and v en tilatio n equipment for more comfortable liv ing. Engineers also develop scientific equipment to probe outer space and the ocean depths; design defense and weapons systems for the Armed Forc es; and design, plan, and supervise the construction of buildings, high ways, and rapid transit systems. They also design and develop consumer products such as automobiles, home appliances, electronic home entertain ment equipment, and systems for con trol and automation of manufacturing, business, and management processes. Engineers must consider many fac tors in developing a new product. For example, in developing an industrial robot, engineers must determine the general way it will work, design, and test all components, and fit them to gether in an integrated plan. They must then evaluate its overall effec tiveness, cost, reliability, and safety. This process applies to products as different as lawnmowers, computers, military weapons, and toys. In addition to design and develop ment, many engineers work in testing, production, operations, or mainte nance. They supervise production processes in factories, determine the causes of breakdowns, and test newly manufactured products to maintain Electrical engineering is the largest engineering specialty. Employment, 1984 (thousands) 0 50 Electrical Mechanical Civil Industrial Chemical ifisif Aerospace I Petroleum Metallurgical1 ■ Nuclear 1 3 Mining ] Other 100 200 250 I l ( 300 350 400 I □ ’ Includes ceramic and materials engineering. SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics 60 150 I quality. They also estimate the time and cost to complete projects. Some work in engineering administration and management, or in sales where an engineering background enables them to discuss the technical aspects of a product and assist in planning its in stallation or use. (See the statement on m anufacturers’ sales workers else where in the H andbook.) Some engi neers work as consultants. Most engineers specialize; more than 25 major specialties are recog nized by professional societies. With in the major branches are numerous subdivisions. Structural, hydraulic, and highway engineering, for exam ple, are subdivisions of civil engineer ing. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as motor vehicles, or in one field of technology, such as propulsion or guidance systems. Engineers in each branch apply their knowledge to many fields. Elec trical engineers, for example, work in the medical, computer, missile guid ance, or power distribution fields. Be cause complex problems cut across traditional fields, engineers in one field often work closely with special ists in scientific, other engineering, and business occupations. Often using calculators and com puters to solve mathematical equa tions which describe how a machine, structure, or system operates, many engineers also use computer-aided de sign systems to produce and analyze designs. They also spend a great deal of time writingI reports and consulting I w ith o th e r e n g in e e rs . C om plex projects require many engineers, each working with a small part of the job. Supervisory engineers are responsible for entire projects. Working Conditions Some engineers are at a desk in an office building almost all of the time but others work in research laborato ries, industrial plants, or construction sites where they inspect, supervise, or solve onsite problems. Engineers in specialties such as civil engineering may work outdoors part of the time. A Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects/61 few engineers travel extensively to plants or construction sites. Employment Engineering is the second largest pro fession, exceeded only by teaching. In 1984, engineers held over 1.3 million jobs. Over one-half of all engineering jobs were located in manufacturing industries—mostly in electrical and electronic equipment, machinery, air craft and parts, scientific instruments, chemicals, motor vehicles, fabricated metal products, and primary metals industries. In 1984, 445,000 jobs were in nonmanufacturing industries, pri marily in engineering and architectur al services, business and management consulting services, communications and utilities, and construction. Federal, State, and local govern ments employed about 160,000 engi neers. Over half of the jobs were in the Federal Government, mainly in the Departments of Defense, Trans portation, Agriculture, Interior, and Energy, and in the National Aeronau tics and Space Administration. Most engineers in State and local govern ment agencies worked in highway and public works departments. Besides the jobs described above, about 40,000 persons held engineering faculty positions in colleges and uni versities in 1984. (See the statement on college and university faculty else where in the Handbook.) Engineers are employed in every State, in small and large cities, and in rural areas. Some branches of engi neering are concentrated in particular industries and geographic areas, as discussed in statements later in this chapter. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in engineering is generally acceptable for beginning en gineering jobs. College graduates with a degree in science or mathematics and experienced technicians may also qualify for some jobs. Many 2- or 4-year college programs in engineering technology prepare stu dents for practical design and produc tion work rather than for jobs that require more theoretical scientific and mathematical knowledge. Graduates of such 4-year technology programs may get jobs similar to those obtained by graduates with a bachelor’s degree in engineering. However, some em ployers regard them as having skills between those of a technician and an engineer. Graduate training is essential for engineering faculty positions but is not needed for the majority of entry level engineering jobs. Many engi neers obtain a m aster’s degree how ever, because it often is desirable for learning new technology or for pro motion. About 260 colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree in engineer ing, and over 90 colleges offer a bach elor’s degree in engineering technolo gy. Although most institutions offer programs in the larger branches of engineering, only a few offer some of the smaller specialties. Also, course offerings of the same title may vary. For example, one chemical engineer ing program could emphasize industri al practices, preparing the student for a job in industry, while another could be more theoretical, a better choice for the student preparing to take grad Table 1. uate work. Therefore, students should investigate curriculums carefully be fore selecting a college. Admissions requirements for undergraduate engi neering schools usually include cours es in advanced high school mathemat ics and the physical sciences. In a typical 4-year curriculum, the first 2 years are spent studying basic sc ie n c e s— m ath e m a tic s, p h y sics, chem istry—and introductory engi neering and the humanities, social sci ences, and English. In the last 2 years, most courses are in engineering, usu ally with a concentration in one branch of engineering. Some programs offer a general engineering curriculum; stu dents then specialize in graduate school or on the job. Some engineering schools and 2-year colleges have entered into agreements whereby the 2-year col lege provides the initial engineering education and the engineering school automatically admits students for their Degrees granted by engineering specialty, academic year 1982-83 Specialty Bachelor’s Master’s Doctor’s T o ta l............................................................. Aerospace, aeronautical, and astronautical engineering........................................................... Agricultural engineering......................................... Architectural engineering........................................ Bioengineering and biomedical engineering........ Ceramic engineering............................................... Chemical engineering............................................. Civil engineering..................................................... Computer engineering............................................ Electrical, electronics, and communications engineering........................................................... Engineering and related technologies.................. 88,994 19,327 2,827 2,127 776 465 529 311 7,185 9,989 1,015 491 131 28 228 74 1,368 3,074 287 90 40 — 43 22 319 340 23 18,049 16,951 4,531 520 550 9 Engineering, general................................................ Engineering mechanics............................................ Engineering p h y sic s................................................ Engineering s c ie n c e ............................................... Environmental health engineering........................ Geological engineering........................................... Geophysical engineering........................................ Industrial engineering............................................. Materials engineering............................................. Mechanical engineering.......................................... 3,357 302 291 216 228 347 93 3,748 434 15,675 1,311 172 77 81 394 54 10 1,432 301 2,511 284 55 14 22 35 6 2 118 146 299 Metallurgical engineering........................................ Mining and mineral engineering............................ Naval architecture and marine engineering........ Nuclear engineering............................................... Ocean engineering................................................... Petroleum engineering............................................ Systems engineering............................................... Textile engineering................................................. Other ......................................................................... 645 597 629 391 181 1,294 270 41 2,858 253 131 62 292 85 174 149 79 22 2 109 15 14 24 SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics. — 1,106 — 145 62/Occupational Outlook Handbook last 2 years. In addition, some engi neering schools have arrangements whereby a student spends 3 years in a liberal arts college studying pre-eng ineering subjects and 2 years in the engineering school and receives a bachelor’s degree from each. Some colleges and universities offer 5-year m aster’s degree programs. Some 5- or even 6-year cooperative plans combine classroom study and practical work experience. In this way, in addition to gaining useful experience, students can finance part of their education. To keep up with rapid advances in technology, most engineers must continue their educa tion throughout their careers. All 50 States and the District of Columbia require licensing for engi neers whose work may affect life, health, or property, or who offer their services to the public. In 1984, almost 500,000 engineers were registered. Registration generally requires a de gree from an accredited engineering program, 4 years of relevant work experience, and passing a State exam ination. Some States will not register those with degrees in engineering technology. Beginning engineering graduates usually do routine work under the close supervision of experienced engi neers and, in larger companies, may also receive formal classroom or sem inar-type training. As they gain knowl edge and experience, they are as signed more difficult tasks with great er independence to develop designs, solve problems, and make decisions. Engineers may become technical spe cialists or may supervise a staff or team of engineers and technicians. Some eventually become managers or adm inistrators within engineering; others leave engineering for nontech nical managerial, administrative, or sales jobs. Some engineers obtain graduate degrees in business adminis tration to improve advancement op portunities; others obtain law degrees and become patent attorneys. Many high level executives in government and industry began their careers as engineers. Engineers should be able to work as part of a team and should have cre ativity, an analytical mind, and a ca pacity for detail. In addition, engi neers should be able to express them selves w ell—both o rally and in Digitized for writing. FRASER Job Outlook Employment opportunities for those with degrees in engineering are ex pected to be good through the mid1990’s. In addition, there may be some opportunities for college gradu ates from related fields in certain en gineering jobs. Employment of engineers is expect ed to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Although only a rela tively small proportion of engineers leave the profession each year, most job openings will arise from replace ment needs. Most replacement open ings are created by engineers who transfer to management, sales, or oth er professional occupations rather than by engineers who leave the labor force. Much of the projected growth in requirements for engineers will stem from the expected higher levels of investment in industrial plant and equipment to meet the demand for more goods and services and to in crease productivity. More engineers also will be needed to develop and manufacture defense-related products and to improve transportation facili ties. Competitive pressures and ad vancing technology will force compa nies to improve and update product designs more rapidly than in the past, further adding to requirements. Most industries are less likely to lay off engineers than other w orkers. Many engineers work on long-term research and development projects or in other activities which often contin ue even during recessions. However, in industries such as electronics and aerospace, large cutbacks in defense or research and development expen ditures may result in layoffs for engi neers. New computer-aided design sys tems enable an engineer to produce or modify a design much more rapidly than previously. This increased pro ductivity might result in decreased employment opportunities for engi neers doing more routine tasks. How ever, most of these systems have been used to improve the design process by allowing many more design variations to be produced and analyzed. There fore this technology is not expected to affect employment growth signifi cantly. It is important for engineers to con tinue their education throughout their careers because their value to their employer depends on their knowledge of the latest technology. The pace of technological change varies by engi neering specialty and industry. Engi neers in high-technology areas such as advanced electronics or aerospace may find that their knowledge be comes obsolete rapidly. Even engi neers who continue their education are vulnerable to obsolescence if the particular technology or product they have specialized in becomes obsolete. Engineers whom employers consider not to have kept up may find them selves passed over for promotions and are particularly vulnerable to layoffs. However, it is often these high-tech nology areas that offer the greatest challenges, the most interesting work, and the highest salaries. Therefore, the choice of engineering specialty and employer involves an assessment not only of the potential rewards but also of the risk of technological obso lescence later in one’s career. Despite these problems, over the long run the number of people seeking jobs as engineers is expected to about equal the number of job openings. (The outlook for various branches is discussed in the separate statements that follow this introductory section.) Earnings According to the College Placement Council, engineering graduates with a bachelor’s degree and no experience averaged about $26,300 a year in pri vate industry in 1984; those with a m aster’s degree and no experience, $30,400 a year; and those with a Ph.D ., $39,500. Starting offers for those with the bachelor’s degree vary by branch, as shown in the following tabulation. Petroleum engineering............ Chemical engineering.............. Electrical engineering.............. Metallurgical engineering........ Nuclear engineering................ Mechanical engineering.......... Aeronautical engineering........ Industrial engineering.............. Mining engineering.................. Civil engineering...................... $29,568 27,420 26,556 26,556 26,388 26,280 25,836 25,224 24,876 27,764 Engineers in private industry in 1985 averaged $27,405 at the most junior level, and $76,205 at senior managerial levels. Experienced mid level engineers with no supervisory responsibilities averaged $40,991. (See table 2.) In the Federal Government in 1985, most engineers with a bachelor’s de- Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects/63 Table 2. Engineers’ salaries in private industry by work level, 1985 Level Engineers Engineers Engineers Engineers Engineers Engineers Engineers Engineers SOURCE: I .......... I I ........ III........ IV........ V ........ V I........ V II. . . . VIII... Percent of all engineers Average salary 5.6 10.7 24.5 26.9 19.4 9.9 2.5 .5 $27,405 30,275 34,348 40,991 48,366 56,136 65,641 76,205 Bureau of Labor Statistics. gree and no experience could start at $18,710 or $23,170 a year, depending on their college records. Those with a m aster’s degree could start at $25,980, and those having a Ph.D. degree could begin at $28,039. The average salary for engineers in the Federal Govern ment was about $38,000 in 1984. Related Occupations Engineers apply the principles of physical science and mathematics in their work. Other occupations which also use scientific and mathematical principles are physical scientists, life scientists, mathematicians, engineering and science technicians, and architects. Sources of Additional Information General information on engineering careers—including engineering school requirements, courses of study, and salaries—is available from: JETS, Inc., 345 E. 47th St., N ew York, N.Y . 10017. Society o f Women Engineers, 345 E. 47th St., New York, 10017. National Society o f Professional Engineers, 1420 King St., Alexandria, Va. 22314. A list of accredited engineering pro grams may be obtained from: The Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, 345 E. 47th St., N ew York, N.Y . 10017. Societies representing many of the individual branches of engineering are listed in this chapter. Each can pro vide information about careers in the particular branch. Aerospace Engineers (D.O.T. 002.061 and .167) Nature of the Work Aerospace engineers design, develop, test, and help produce commercial and military aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft. They develop new tech nologies in commercial aviation, de fense systems, and space exploration, often specializing in areas like struc tural design, navigational guidance and control, instrumentation and com munication, or production methods. They also may specialize in one type of aerospace product, such as passen ger planes, helicopters, satellites, or rockets. Employment Aerospace engineers held 48,000 jobs in 1984. Over 6 out of 10 jobs were located in the aircraft and parts and guided missile and space vehicle in dustries. Federal Government agen cies, primarily the Department of De fense and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, provided almost 2 out of 10 jobs. Business and engineering consulting firms, commu nications equipment manufacturing firms, and commercial airlines ac counted for most of the remainder. California, Washington, and Texas, States with large aerospace manufac turers, have the most aerospace engi neers. Job Outlook Employment of aerospace engineers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s as Federal outlays in crease for new military aircraft, mis siles, and other aerospace systems. Aerospace engineers also will be need ed to design and help produce new commercial aircraft. Much of the pre sent fleet of airliners will have to be replaced with quieter and more fuelefficient aircraft. Increased demand for spacecraft, helicopters, and busi ness aircraft also will create opportu nities for aerospace engineers. How ever, the increasing sophistication of aerospace products may mean that many engineering jobs will be filled by other engineering specialists such as chemical, mechanical, or electrical engineers. Despite the expected faster than average growth in employment, most job openings will result from the need to replace aerospace engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Since a large proportion of aero space engineering jobs are defense related, cutbacks in defense spending can result in layoffs of aerospace en gineers. Many aerospace engineers work in air craft, guided missile, and space vehicle manufacturing industries. Sources of Additional Information American Institute o f Aeronautics and Astro nautics, Inc., 1633 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10019. (See introductory section of this chapter for discussion of training re quirements and earnings.) Chemical Engineers (D.O.T. 008.061 and .167) Nature of the Work Chemical engineers work in many phases of the production of chemicals and chemical products. They design equipment and plants and determine and test methods of manufacturing the products. Chemical engineers also work in areas other than chemical m anufacturing such as electronics manufacturing or biotechnology. Be cause the duties of chemical engineers cut across many fields, they apply principles of chem istry, physics, m athem atics, and mechanical and electrical engineering. They frequent ly specialize in a particular operation such as oxidation or polymerization. Others specialize in a particular area such as pollution control or the pro duction of a specific product like plas tics or rubber. Employment Chemical engineers held 56,000 jobs in 1984. Two-thirds were in manufac- 64/Occupational Outlook Handbook transportation, highw ay, and soil m e chanics. M any supervisory or administrative positions, ranging from supervisor o f a construction site to city engineer, are held by civil engineers. Others work as independent consultants. Employment (D.O.T. 005.061, .167 except -022; and 019.167-018) Civil engineers held 175,000 jobs in 1984. Over 40 percent o f the job s were in Federal, State, and local govern ment agencies. A lm ost a third o f the job s w ere in firms that provide engi neering, design, and architectural con sulting services. The construction in dustry, public utilities, railroads, and manufacturing industries accounted for m ost o f the rest. Working in all parts o f the country, civil engineers usually are found in or near major industrial and com m ercial centers, often working at construction sites, but som etim es in rem ote areas or in foreign countries. In som e job s, they often m ove from place to place to work on different projects. Nature of the Work Job Outlook Civil engineers, who work in the oldest branch o f engineering, design and supervise the construction o f roads, airports, tunnels, bridges, w a ter supply and sew age system s, and buildings. Major sp ecialties within civil engineering are structural, hy d rau lic, en viron m en tal (sa n itary), E m ploym ent o f civil engineers is ex pected to increase faster than the av erage for all occupations through the m id-1990’s. M ost job openings, how ever, will result from the need to replace civil engineers w ho transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Chemical engineers discuss chemical production process. turing in d u stries, prim arily in the chem ical, petroleum refining, and re lated in d u stries. A lm o st on e-fifth w orked for engineering service or consulting firms, and a small number worked for governm ent agencies or as independent consultants. Job Outlook Em ploym ent o f chem ical engineers is expected to grow faster than the aver age for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. M ost openings, how ever, will result from the need to replace chem ical engineers w ho transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. A major factor underlying projected em ploym ent growth is expansion in the energy and chem ical industries. The growing com plexity and autom a tion o f chem ical processes will require additional chem ical engineers to de sign, build, and maintain the n eces sary plants and equipm ent. D evelop ment o f new chem icals used in the manufacture o f consum er goods, such as plastics and synthetic fibers, will create additional openings. A lso, the field o f biotechnology may create op portunities for chem ical engineers. Civil Engineers Sources of Additional Information American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. American Chemical Society, Career Services, 1155 16th St. NW„ Washington,D.C. 20036. (See introductory part o f this se c tion for information on training re quirem ents and earnings.) Civil engineers review project plans. Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects/65 A growing population and an e x panding econ om y will result in a need for more civil engineers to design and co n str u c t tra n sp o rta tio n s y s te m s , manufacturing plants, office buildings, and other structures. More civil engi neers also will be needed to repair or replace existing roads, bridges, and other public structures. Construction and related industries, including those providing design serv ices, em ploy many civil engineers. Em ploym ent opportunities here may d e c r e a s e d u rin g e c o n o m ic s lo w d o w n s, w h en m any c o n s tr u c tio n projects often are curtailed. Sources of Additional Information American Society of Civil Engineers, 345 E. 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. (See introductory part o f this se c tion for information on training re quirements and earnings.) Electrical and electronics engineering is the largest branch of engineering. many are em ployed in administration and m anagement or technical sales. Electrical and Electronics Engineers (D.O.T. 003.061, .167, and .187) Nature of the Work Electrical and electronics engineers design, d evelop , test, and supervise the manufacture o f electrical and elec tronic equipm ent. E lectrical equip ment includes pow er generating and transm ission equipm ent used by elec tric utilities and electric m otors, ma chinery controls, and lighting and wir ing in buildings, autom obiles, and air craft. E lectronic equipm ent includes radar, com p u ters, com m u n ication s equipm ent, and consum er goods such as TV sets and stereo com ponents. The sp ecialties o f electrical and electronics engineers include several major areas— such as pow er distribut ing equipm ent, integrated circu its, com puters, electrical equipm ent man ufacturing, or com m unications— or a subdivision o f these areas— industrial robot control sy stem s or aviation electronics, for exam ple. Electrical and electronics engineers design new products, write perform ance require m en ts, and d e v e lo p m a in ten a n ce schedules. They also test equipm ent, solve operating problem s, and esti mate the time and cost o f engineering projects. B esid es manufacturing and research, developm ent, and design, Employment Electrical and electronics engineers held over 390,000 jobs in 1984, making it the largest branch o f engineering. M ost jo b s were in firms that manufac ture electrical and electronic equip m ent, business m achines, profession al and scientific equipm ent, and air craft and parts. E n gin eerin g and business consulting firms, public util ities, and governm ent agencies ac counted for m ost o f the remaining job s. Som e electrical and electronics engineers worked as independent con sultants. Job Outlook Em ploym ent opportunities for electri cal and electronics engineers are ex pected to be excellent through the m id-1990’s because em ploym ent is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations and shortages o f electrical engineering faculty and laboratory equipment may act to restrict enrollm ents in electrical engineering programs. D espite rapid growth, how ever, the majority o f job openings will result from the need to replace electrical and electronics en gineers w ho transfer to other occupa tions or leave the labor force. Although increased demand by bus in esses and governm ent for com put ers, com m unications equipm ent, and military electronics is expected to ac count for much o f the projected em ploym ent growth, consum er demand for electrical and electronic goods and increased research and developm ent on robots and other types o f autom a tion should create additional jobs. Since many electrical and electron ics engineering job s are defense relat ed , cu tb ack s in d efen se spending could result in layoffs. Furthermore, those w ho fail to keep up with the rapid changes in technology in som e electrical engineering specialties risk tech n o lo g ica l o b so le sc e n c e , w hich m akes them more susceptible to lay offs or, at a minimum, likely to be passed over for advancem ent. Sources of Additional Information Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers/United States Activities Board, 1111 19th St. NW., Suite 608, Washington, D.C. 20036. (See introductory part o f this se c tion for information on training re quirements and earnings.) Industrial Engineers (D.O.T. 012.061 -018, .067, .167 except -022, -026, -034, -058, and -066, and .187)___________________ Nature of the Work Industrial engineers determ ine the m ost effective w ays for an organiza tion to use the basic factors o f produc tion— p eo p le, m ach in es, m aterials, and energy. They are more concerned with people and m ethods o f business organization than are engineers in oth er specialties, w ho generally work more with products or processes. 66/Occupational Outlook Handbook dling system s, and industrial produc tion equipm ent. The work o f m echanical engineers varies by industry and function. Many specialties have developed within the field; they include m otor vehicles; en ergy co n v ersio n sy stem s; heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning; in strumentation; and special machines for industries such as petroleum , rub ber, plastics, and construction. Large numbers o f m echanical engi neers do research, test, and design work while others work in mainte nance, technical sales, and production operations. M any are administrators or managers. Som e work as consult ants. Industrial engineers are more concerned with people and methods of business organi Employment zation than are other engineers. M echanical To solve organizational, produc tion, and related problem s m ost effi ciently, industrial engineers design data processing system s and apply mathematical analysis such as opera tions research. T hey also d evelop management control system s to aid in financial planning and cost analysis, design production planning and con trol system s to coordinate activities and control product quality, and de sign or im prove system s for the phys ical distribution o f goods and serv ices. Industrial engineers conduct sur veys to find plant locations with the best com bination o f raw materials, transportation, and taxes. They also develop wage and salary administra tion system s and job evaluation pro gram s. M any industrial en gin eers m ove into managem ent positions b e cause the work is clo sely related. occupations through the mid-1990’s. M ost job openings, how ever, will re sult from the need to replace industri al engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Industrial growth, more com plex business operations, and the greater use o f automation both in factories and in offices underlie the projected em ploym ent growth. Jobs also will be created as firms seek to reduce costs and increase productivity through sci entific management and safety engi neering. Sources of Additional Information Institute of Industrial Engineers, Inc., 25 Tech nology Park/Atlanta, Norcross, Ga. 30092. (See introductory part o f this se c tion for information on training re quirements and earnings.) en gin eers held alm ost 237,000 job s in 1984. Over 3 out o f 5 job s were in manufacturing— m ost in the m achinery, transportation equip ment, electrical equipm ent, and fabri cated metal products industries. B us iness and engineering consulting serv ic e s and g o v e r n m e n t a g e n c ie s provided m ost o f the remaining job s. Job Outlook E m ploym ent opportunities for m e chanical engineers are expected to be good. Their em ploym ent is expected to increase much faster than the aver age for all occupations through the m id-1990’s as the demand for m achin ery and m achine tools grows and in dustrial m achinery and processes be com e increasingly com plex. M echan ical engineers also will be needed to Employment In d u s tr ia l e n g in e e r s h e ld a b o u t 125,000 job s in 1984; over 3 out o f 4 jobs w ere in manufacturing industries. B ecause their skills can be used in alm ost any type o f organization, in dustrial engineers are more w idely distributed am ong industries than oth er engineers. For exam ple, som e even work for insurance com panies, banks, hospitals, and retail organizations. Som e work for governm ent agencies or are independent consultants. Job Outlook Em ploym ent opportunities for indus trial engineers are exp ected to be good; their em ploym ent is expected to grow faster than the average for all Mechanical Engineers (D.O.T. 007.061, .161-022, -034, and -038, .167-014, and .267) Nature of the Work M echanical engineers are concerned with the use, production, and trans m ission o f m echanical pow er and heat. They design and develop powerproducing m achines such as internal com bustion engines, steam and gas turbines, and jet and rocket engines. They also design and develop pow er using machines such as refrigeration and air-conditioning equipm ent, ro bots, machine tools, materials han A mechanical engineer designs industrial equipment. Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects/67 develop new energy and defense sy s tem s. D espite this expected em ploy ment growth, how ever, m ost job open ings will result from the need to re p la c e m e c h a n ic a l e n g in e e r s w h o transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Sources of Additional Information The American Society of Mechanical Engi neers, 345 E. 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. (See introductory part o f this se c tion for information on training re quirements and earnings.) Metallurgical, Ceramic, and Materials Engineers (D.O.T. 006.061; 011.061, .161, and .261-018; and 019.061-014) Nature of the Work M etallurgical, ceram ic, and materials engineers develop new types o f m et als and other materials tailored to meet specific requirements— for e x ample, materials that are heat resist ant, strong but lightweight, or highly malleable. M ost metallurgical engineers work in one o f the three main branches o f metallurgy— extractive or chem ical, physical, and m echanical or process. E x tra c tiv e m eta llu rg ists are c o n cerned with rem oving m etals from ores, and refining and alloying them to obtain useful metal. Physical m etal lurgists deal with the nature, struc ture, and physical properties o f metals and their alloys, and with m ethods o f converting refined m etals into final products. M echanical m etallurgists are concerned with p rocesses such as casting, forging, rolling, and drawing metals to work and shape them. Ceramic engineers develop new c e ramic materials and m ethods for mak ing ceram ic materials into useful prod ucts. Ceramics include all nonmetallic, inorganic materials which require the use o f high temperature in their processing. Ceramic engineers work on products as diverse as glassw are, electronic com p on en ts, autom obile and aircraft engine com ponents, brick, and tile. Materials engineers evaluate tech nical and econom ic factors to deter mine w hich o f the many m etals, plas tics, cera m ics, or other m aterials Digitized for available is best for each application. FRASER Materials engineers also test and eval uate materials and develop new ones. Employment M etallurgical, ceram ic, and materials engineers held about 19,000 jobs in 1984. One-fourth worked in metalp r o d u c in g in d u str ie s. T h ey a lso worked in industries that manufacture aircraft and parts, m achinery, and electrical equipment, and in business and engineering consulting firms and governm ent agencies. Job Outlook Em ploym ent o f metallurgical, ceram ic, and materials engineers is exp ect ed to grow faster than the average for all o ccu p a tio n s through the mid1990’s. M ost job openings, how ever, will result from the need to replace engineers who transfer to other o ccu pations or leave the labor force. More metallurgical, ceram ic, and materials engineers will be needed by the metalworking and other industries to develop new metals and alloys as w ell as to adapt current ones to new applications. For exam ple, jet engines require metals that can withstand ex treme heat. A s the supply o f highgrade ores dim inishes, more metallur gical engineers will be required to develop new w ays o f recycling solid waste materials and processing lowgrade ores now regarded as unprofit able to mine. More ceramic and materials engi neers will be needed to develop im proved materials and products, for exam ple, ceramic autom obile engines which are more fuel efficient than met al engines. Sources of Additional Information The Metallurgical Society of AIME, 420 Com monwealth Dr., Warrendale, Pa. 15086. American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio 44073. American Ceramic Society, 65 Ceramic Drive, Columbus, Ohio 43214. National Institute of Ceramic Engineers, 65 Ceramic Drive, Columbus, Ohio 43214. (See introductory part o f this sec tion for information on training re quirements and earnings.) 68/Occupational Outlook Handbook Mining Engineers (D.O.T. 010.061 except -018) Nature of the Work Mining engineers find, extract, and prepare minerals for manufacturing industries to use. They design open pit and underground m ines, supervise the construction o f mine shafts and tunnels in underground operations, and devise m ethods for transporting minerals to processing plants. Mining engineers are responsible for the safe and econom ical operation o f m ines, including ventilation, water supply, pow er, com m unications, and equip ment m aintenance. Som e mining engi neers work with geologists and m etal lurgical engineers to locate and ap p raise n ew ore d e p o s its . O th ers develop new mining equipm ent or di rect mineral processing operations to separate minerals from the dirt, rock, and other materials they are mixed with. Mining engineers frequently spe cialize in the mining o f one mineral, such as coal or copper. With increased em phasis on pro tecting the environm ent, many mining engineers have been working to solve problems related to land reclamation and water and air pollution. Employment Mining engineers held about 7,200 job s in 1984. The mining industry pro vided over 3 out o f 5 jobs. Other jobs w ere located in governm ent agencies, engineering consulting firms, or in manufacturing industries. Mining engineers are usually em ployed at the location o f mineral deposits, often near small com m uni ties. H ow ever, th ose in research, management, consulting, or sales often are located in metropolitan areas. Job Outlook E m ploym ent o f mining engineers is expected to increase more slow ly than th e a v e r a g e fo r all o c c u p a tio n s through the m id-1990’s due to exp ect ed low growth in demand for coal and other minerals. M ost job openings will result from the need to replace the large proportion o f mining engineers w ho transfer to other occupations each year. The increase in demand for coal and engineers em ployed in coal mining will depend, to a great extent, on the availability and price o f other energy sources such as petroleum , natural gas, and nuclear energy as w ell as the price o f coal in other countries. H ow ever, more technologically advanced mining system s and further enforce m ent o f mine health and safety regu lations may increase the need for min ing engineers. A s easily mined dep os its are depleted, engineers must devise m ore efficient m ethods for mining low-grade ores. Em ploym ent oppor tunities also will arise as new alloys and new uses for m etals increase the demand for less w idely used ores. Sources of Additional Information The Society of Mining Engineers of AIME, Caller Number D, Littleton, Colo. 80127. (See introductory part o f this sec tion for information on training re quirements and earnings.) Nuclear Engineers (D.O.T. 008.061-030; 015.061, .067, .137, and .167) Nature of the Work N uclear engineers design, develop, m onitor, and operate nuclear power plants used to generate electricity and pow er N avy ships. T hey also conduct research on nuclear energy and radia tion. For exam ple, they may work on the nuclear fuel cy cle— the produc tion, handling, and use o f nuclear fuel and the safe disposal o f w aste pro duced by n u clea r en e r g y — or on breeder reactors or fusion energy. Som e specialize in the developm ent o f nuclear w eapons; others develop in dustrial and m edical uses for radioac tive materials. Employment Mining engineers are responsible for the safe and economical operation of mines. N uclear engineers held alm ost 9,700 jobs in 1984; over one-quarter w ere in the Federal G overnm ent. N early half o f all federally em ployed nuclear en- Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects/69 Nuclear engineer examines a model of nuclear powerplant. gineers w ere civilian em ployees o f the N avy, about one-third worked for the Nuclear Regulatory C om m ission, and most o f the rest worked for the D e partment o f Energy or the T ennessee Valley Authority. M ost nonfederally em ployed nuclear engineers worked for public utilities or engineering con sulting com panies. Som e worked for m a n u fa ctu rers o f n u c le a r p o w er equipment. Job Outlook (See introductory part o f this sec tion for information on training re quirements and earnings.) covery o f oil and gas from a petroleum reservoir by determining and develop ing the m ost efficient production meth ods. Since only a small proportion o f the oil and gas in a reservoir will flow out under natural forces, petroleum engi neers develop and use various en hanced recovery m ethods, such as flooding the oil field with water to force the oil to the surface. The best m ethods in use today recover only about half the oil. Petroleum engi neers’ research and developm ent in the future will be directed at finding w ays to increase the proportion o f oil recovered in each reservoir. Petroleum engineers also supervise drilling operations, conduct research on drilling m ethods, and develop new m ethods to recover offshore oil and gas. A s oil and gas becom e harder to find, petroleum engineers must devel op m ethods o f recovery in areas that were previously considered inaccessi ble. Employment Petroleum Engineers (D.O.T. 010.061 except -014 and -026, .161-010 and -014, and .167) Nature of the Work M ost petroleum engineers explore and drill for oil and gas. They work to achieve the maximum profitable re Petroleum engineers held over 22,000 jobs in 1984, m ostly in the petroleum industry and closely allied fields. Em ployers include major oil com panies and hundreds o f smaller, independent oil exploration, production, and ser vice com panies. Engineering consult ing firms, governm ent agencies, and equipment suppliers also em ploy pe- Em ploym ent o f nuclear engineers is expected to grow more slow ly than th e a v e r a g e fo r all o c c u p a tio n s through the m id-1990’s. M ost jo b openings will result from the need to replace nuclear engineers w ho retire or leave the occupation. B ecause o f a com bination o f reduc tion in the growth o f demand for e lec tric pow er due to energy conservation and concerns over the safety o f nucle ar pow er, few nuclear pow er plants are likely to be started before the mid1990’s. H ow ever, more nuclear engi neers will be needed to operate plants presently under construction. In addi tion, more nuclear engineers may be needed to im prove and enforce safety standards and to work in defenserelated areas. Sources of Additional Information American N uclear Society, 555 North Kensington Ave., LaGrange Park, 111. 60525. Atomic Industrial Forum, Inc., Public Affairs and Information Program, 7101 Wisconsin Ave., Washington, D.C. 20014. Petroleum engineers work mostly in areas where oil and gas are found. 70/Occupational Outlook Handbook troleum engineers. Others work as independent consultants. M ost petroleum engineers work in places where oil and gas are found. Large numbers are em ployed in T ex as, Oklahoma, Louisiana, and Califor nia. A lso, many Am erican petroleum engineers work overseas in oil-produ cing countries. Job Outlook Em ploym ent o f petroleum engineers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s, as econom ic e x p a n sio n req u ires in crea sin g supplies o f petroleum and natural gas. With oil and gas becom ing harder to find, more sophisticated and expensive recovery m ethods will be used to develop new sources o f oil, such as offshore and in the A rctic. D espite this exp ected em ploym ent growth, m ost job openings will result from the need to replace petroleum engineers w ho transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Sources of Additional Information Society of Petroleum Engineers, P.O. Box 833836, Richardson, Tex. 75083-3836. (See introductory part o f this sec tion for information on training re quirements and earnings.) Natural Scientists and Mathematicians Nature of the Work Natural and mathem atical scientists seek know ledge o f the physical world through observation, study, and e x perim entation. The know ledge gained through these research activities has been used to develop new products, increase productivity, provide greater defense capabilities, protect the envi ronment, and improve health care. Three subgroups make up this broad occupational field: Physical scientists, life scien tists, and com puter and math ematical occupations. Physical scientists study the nature o f matter and energy both on earth and in the rest o f the universe (phys icists and ch em ists), h ow physical p rocesses affect the earth (geologists and geop h ysicists), and its atm osphere (m eteorologists). Life scientists study living orga nisms and their life p rocesses. B iolog ical scientists study all forms o f life and life p rocesses. M ost biological scientists specialize in certain areas o f biology. For exam ple, entom ologists study insects; p hysiologists study the life processes o f plants or animals. Agricultural scientists apply princi ples o f life scien ce to problem s in agriculture such as improving crop yield or breeding better animals. For esters and conservation scientists ap ply principles o f life scien ce to con serving and increasing the productiv ity o f forests, rangelands, and soil. Those in com puter and m athem ati cal occupations study m athem atics and use it as a tool to solve practical and theoretical problem s in business, scien ce, and engineering. M athem ati cians, actuaries, statisticians, and sy s tem s an a ly sts apply m athem atical techniques to problems in business, health care, defense, and other areas. which is a report on the student’s original research. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Job Outlook For som e natural science and mathe m atics jo b s, a bachelor’s degree is adequate for entry. H ow ever, in fields such as m athem atics, p hysics, biolo gy, or agricultural scien ce, an ad vanced degree is usually required for entry into professional level jobs. Undergraduate training for natural sc ie n tists and m ath em atician s in cludes courses in their major field and in related scientific fields. In graduate school, students take more advanced courses in their major area o f study and in related sciences. Requirements for the m aster’s or d oc tor’s degree usually include a thesis, In the past, growth in em ploym ent of natural scientists and mathematicians has been related to an expanding econom y and to increased research and d ev elo p m en t (R& D) ex p en d i tures. Both governm ent and industry are expected to increase their R&D expenditures through the m id-1990’s in order to expand basic knowledge o f natural scien ce, develop new technol ogies and products, and protect the environm ent. H ow ever, if the rate of econom ic growth and actual R&D lev els and patterns differ from those as sum ed, the job outlook in many o ccu pations described in this section would be altered. Among natural scientists and mathematicians, computer systems analysts and actuaries are expected to have the most rapid growth. Projected percent change in employment, 1984-95 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Computer systems analysts Actuaries Mathematicians Biological scientists Statisticians Meteorologists Geologists and geophysicists Agricultural scientists Chemists Physicists and astronomers Foresters and conservation scientists SOURCE Bureau of Labor Statistics 71 Computer and Mathematical Occupations M athem atics and statistics are scien c es which, through the use o f quantita tive techniques, facilitate our under standing and expression o f ideas in many kinds o f work. Although math em atics, statistics, and com puters are used ex ten siv ely in m any o ccu p a tions, people in the occupations c o v ered in this section o f the H a n d b o o k use quantitative techniques to a much greater degree than others, and often d evise new techniques to solve prob lem s. M any persons with strong math em atical backgrounds teach mathe matics or do research in theory and in applied mathem atical problem s. Stat isticians design and interpret surveys and experim ents and test theories dealing with people or things. Actuar ies use statistical and mathematical techniques to a ssess the likelihood o f risks that insurance com panies agree to cover and to calculate the costs associated with insuring such risks. Computer system s analysts use math em atical, statistical, and accounting techniques to design programmable system s for solving business and sci entific problem s. (Computer program m ers, w ho develop the programs, are discussed with other technicians else where in the H a n d b o o k .) Operations research analysts study management and operational problem s and form u late mathem atical or sim ulation m od els o f problem s for solution by com puters or other m ethods. M ost occupations in this section require at least a bachelor’s degree in m athem atics, statistics, or com puter scien ce. A double major, com bining com puter scien ce with m athem atics or statistics, is particularly desirable. A graduate degree, preferably a doctor ate, is necessary for college teaching and research positions and for advance ment in many nonacademic jobs. Actuaries (D.O.T. 020.167-010) Nature of the Work W hy do young persons pay more for autom obile insurance than older per Digitized for 72 FRASER sons? H ow much should an insurance policy cost? H ow much should an organization contribute each year to its pension fund? A nsw ers to these and similar questions are provided by actuaries who design insurance and pension plans and keep informed on their operation to make sure that they are maintained on a sound financial basis. Actuaries assem ble and analyze statistics to calculate probabilities o f death, sickness, injury, disability, un em ploym ent, retirement, and proper ty loss from accident, theft, fire, and other hazards. They use this informa tion to determine the expected in sured loss. For exam ple, they may calculate how many persons w ho are 21 years old today can be expected to die before age 65— the probability that an insured person might die during this period is a risk to the com pany. They must make sure that the price charged for the insurance will enable the com pany to pay all claim s and exp en ses as they occur. Finally, this price must be profitable and yet be com petitive with other insurance com panies. In a similar manner, the actu ary calculates premium rates and de termines policy contract provisions for each type o f insurance offered. M ost actuaries specialize in either life and health insurance or property and liability (casualty) insurance; a grow ing num ber sp ecia lize in p en sio n plans. To perform their duties effectively, actuaries must keep informed about general econom ic and social trends, and legislative, health, and other de velopm ents that may affect insurance p ractices. B eca u se o f their broad know ledge o f insurance, com pany ac tuaries may work in investm ent, group underwriting, or pension planning de partments. Actuaries in execu tive po sitions help determine com pany poli cy. In that role, they may be called upon to explain com plex technical matters to com pany execu tives, g o v ernment officials, policyholders, and the public. They may testify before public agencies on proposed legisla tion affecting the insurance business, for e x a m p le, or exp lain intended changes in premium rates or contract provisions. T hey also may help com panies develop plans to enter new lines o f business. The small number o f actuaries who work for the Federal G overnm ent usually deal with a particular insur ance or pension program, such as S o cial Security or life insurance for v et erans and m em bers o f the Armed Forces. A ctuaries in State govern ment regulate insurance com panies, supervise the operations o f State re tirement or pension system s, work on unem ploym ent insurance or w orkers’ com pensation problem s, and advise on the impact o f proposed legislation. Consulting actuaries set up pension and welfare plans for private com pa nies, unions, and governm ent agen cies. T hey calculate future benefits and determ ine the am ount o f em ploy er contributions. A ctuaries w ho are enrolled under the provisions o f the E m ployee Retirem ent Incom e Secur ity A ct o f 1974 (E R ISA ) evaluate these pension plans and report on their financial soundness. Working Conditions A ctuaries have desk job s that require no unusual physical activity; their of fices generally are com fortable and pleasant. T hey generally work be tw een 35 and 40 hours a w eek except during busy periods, w hen overtim e may be required, and they may be required to travel to branch offices o f their com pany or to clients. Employment A ctuaries held about 7,700 jobs in 1984. M any worked in insurance com pany headquarters in N ew York, Hart ford, Chicago, Philadelphia, or B o s ton. M ost o f these worked for life insur ance com panies; others worked for property and liability (casualty) com panies. The number o f actuaries em ployed by an insurance com pany de pends on its volum e o f business and the types o f insurance policies it of fers. Large com panies may em ploy over 100 actuaries; others, generally smaller com panies, may rely instead Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/73 on consulting firms, accounting firms, or rating bureaus (associations that supply actuarial data to member com panies). Other actuaries work for pri vate organizations administering inde pendent pension and welfare plans or for governm ent agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A good educational background for a beginning job in a large life or casualty com pany is a bachelor’s degree with a major in m athem atics or statistics; a degree in actuarial scien ce is even better. Som e com panies hire appli cants with a major in engineering, econ om ics, or business administra tion, provided the applicant has a working know ledge o f m athem atics, including calculus, probability, and statistics (20-25 hours). C ourses in accounting, com puter scien ce, e c o nom ics, and insurance also are useful. Com panies prefer well-rounded indi viduals with a liberal arts background, including social science and com m u nication, in addition to a good techni cal background. Although only 34 col leges and universities offer a degree in actuarial sc ie n c e , several hundred schools offer a degree in m athem atics or statistics. A strong background in mathem at ics is essential for persons interested in a career as an actuary. It is an advantage to pass, while still in school, one or more o f the exam inations of fered by professional actuarial so ciet ies. Three societies sponsor programs leading to full professional status in their specialty. The S ociety o f A ctu aries gives 10 actuarial exam inations for the life and health insurance and pension field; the Casualty Actuarial Society gives 10 exam inations for the property and liability field; and the American Society o f Pension Actuar ies gives 9 exam inations covering the pension field. B ecause the first parts o f the exam ination series o f each so ciety cover similar m aterials, students need not com m it them selves to a spe cialty until they have taken three e x aminations. T hese test com petence in subjects such as linear algebra, nu merical m ethods, operations research, probability, calculus, and statistics. These first few exam inations help stu dents evaluate their potential as actu aries, and those w ho pass usually have better opportunities for em ploy ment and higher starting salaries. Actuaries are encouraged to com Actuaries calculate probabilities of death, disability, sickness, injury, and retirement. plete the entire- series o f exam inations as soon as possible; com pletion gen erally takes from 5 to 10 years. Many students pass tw o or more actuarial exam inations before graduating from college. Exam inations are given tw ice each year. E xtensive home study is required to pass the advanced exam i nations; many actuaries study 20-25 hours a w eek. Actuaries who com plete five exam inations in either the life insurance series or the pension series or seven exam inations in the casualty series are awarded “ associ a te ” m em bership in their society. T hose who pass an entire series re ceive full membership and the title “ fe llo w .” Consulting pension actuaries who service private pension plans and cer tify their solvency must be enrolled by the Joint Board for the Enrollment o f Actuaries. Applicants for enrollment must m eet certain experience and ed ucation requirements as stipulated by the Joint Board. Beginning actuaries often rotate among jobs to learn various actuarial operations and different phases o f in surance work. At first, they prepare tabulations for actuarial tables or per form other simple tasks. As they gain e x p e r ie n c e , th e y m ay su p e r v ise clerks, prepare correspondence and reports, and do research. A dvancem ent to more responsible work as assistant, associate, and chief actuary depends largely on job per form ance and the number o f actuarial exam inations passed. Actuaries who have a broad knowledge o f the insur ance, pension, and em ployee benefits fields often advance to top administra tive and executive positions in under writing, accounting, or data process ing departments. Job Outlook Em ploym ent o f actuaries is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the mid1990’s. M ost job openings, how ever, are expected to arise each year to replace actuaries who transfer to oth er occupations, retire, or stop work ing for other reasons. Job opportuni ties should be favorable for college graduates w ho have passed at least tw o actuarial exam inations while still in school and have a strong mathemat ical and statistical background. Em ploym ent in this occupation is influenced by the volum e o f insurance sales and pension plans, which is ex pected to grow over the next decade. Shifts in the age distribution o f the population will result in a large in crease in the number o f people with established careers and family respon sibilities. This is the group that tradi tionally has accounted for the bulk of private insurance sales. A s people live longer, they draw health and pension benefits for a long er period, and more actuaries are needed to recalculate the probabilities o f such factors as death, sickness, and length o f retirement. A s insurance com panies branch out into more than one kind o f insurance coverage, more actuaries will be needed to establish rates. Growth in new forms o f protec tion, such as dental, prepaid legal, and kidnap insurance also will stimulate 74/Occupational Outlook Handbook demand. As more States pass compet itive rating laws, many companies that previously relied on rating bu reaus for actuarial data may create their own actuarial departments or use the services of consulting actuar ies. The liability of companies for dam age resulting from their products has received much attention in recent years. Actuaries will continue to be involved in the development of prod uct liability insurance, as well as med ical malpractice and workers’ com pensation coverage. Insurance coverage is considered a necessity by most individuals and businesses, regardless of economic conditions. Therefore, actuaries are unlikely to be laid off during a reces sion. Earnings In 1984, new college graduates enter ing the life insurance field without having passed any actuarial exams averaged about $18,000-$21,000, ac cording to estimates by the Society of Actuaries. Beginners who had com pleted the first exam received be tween $20,000 and $23,000, and those who had passed the second exam av eraged between $22,000 and $25,000, depending on geographic location. Insurance companies and consult ing firms give merit increases to actu aries as they gain experience and pass examinations. Actuaries who became associates in 1984 averaged between $30,000 and $35,000 a year; actuaries who became fellows during that year a v e ra g e d b e tw e e n $40,000 and $50,000. Fellows with additional years of experience can earn substantially more—top actuarial executives re ceived salaries of $55,000 a year and higher. Related Occupations Actuaries assemble and analyze sta tistics in their day-to-day work. Other workers whose jobs involve similar skills include mathematicians, statisti cians, economists, financial analysts, and engineering analysts. Sources of Additional Information For facts about actuarial qualifica tions and opportunities, contact: American Society of Pension Actuaries, 1413 K St. NW„ 5th Floor, Washington, D.C. 20005. Casualty Actuarial Society, One Penn Plaza, 250 West 34th St., New York, N.Y. 10119. Society of Actuaries, 500 Park Blvd., Suite 440, Itasca, 1 60143. 11. American Academy of Actuaries, 1835 K St. NW., Suite 515, Washington, D.C. 20006. Computer Systems Analysts (D.O.T. 012.167-066; 020.062, .067-010, and .224; and 109.067-010) or experience in the field in which they develop computer systems. Some analysts improve systems al ready in use by developing better pro cedures or adapting the system to handle additional types of data. Oth ers do research, called advanced sys tems design, to devise new methods of systems analysis. Working Conditions Systems analysts work in offices in comfortable surroundings. They usu ally work about 40 hours a week—the same as other professional and office w orkers. O ccasionally, how ever, evening or weekend work may be necessary to meet deadlines. Nature of the Work Systems analysts plan and develop methods for computerizing business and scientific tasks or improving com puter systems already in use. They may work for the organization that wants to install a system or for a consulting firm that develops systems Employment under contract. Analysts begin an assignment by Systems analysts held about 308,000 discussing the data processing prob jobs in 1984. Most systems analysts lem with managers or specialists to work in urban areas for firms that determine the exact nature of the manufacture durable goods, govern problem and to break it down into its ment agencies, banks, and insurance component parts. If a retail chain companies, and data processing ser wishes to computerize its inventory vice firms. Jobs for systems analysts are found system, for example, systems ana throughout the country. Compared to lysts will determine what information must be collected, how it is to be the total work force, a larger propor processed, and the type and frequen tion of system analysts work in the cy of reports to be produced. After N ortheast and W est reflecting the they have defined the goals of the concentration of computer manufac system, they use techniques such as turing and data processing service mathematical model building, sam firms in these regions. pling, and cost accounting to plan the Training, Other Qualifications, and system. Advancement Once a design for the system has There is no universally accepted way been developed, systems analysts pre of preparing for a job as a systems pare charts and diagrams that de analyst because em ployers’ prefer scribe it in terms that managers and ences depend on the work being done. other users can understand. They also may prepare a cost-benefit and returnon-investment analysis to help man agement decide whether the proposed system is satisfactory. If the system is accepted, systems analysts may determine what comput er hardware and software will be needed to set up the system. They also prepare specifications for pro grammers to follow and work with them to “ debug,” or eliminate errors from the system. (The work of com puter programmers is described else where in the Handbook.) The analyst also would design any forms required to collect data and distribute informa tion. Because the possible uses for com puters are so varied and complex, analysts usually specialize in either business, scientific, or engineering ap Systems analysts must prepare specifica plications. Often, they have training tions for programmers to follow. However, college graduates almost al ways are sought for these jobs; and, for some of the more complex jobs, persons with graduate degrees are preferred. Employers usually want analysts with a background in ac counting or business management for work in a business environment, while a background in the physical sciences, applied mathematics, or engineering is preferred for work in scientifically oriented organizations. Many employ ers seek applicants who have a degree in computer science, information sci ence, computer information systems, or data processing. Regardless of col lege major, employers look for people who are familiar with programming languages. Courses in computer con cepts, systems analysis, and data base management systems offer good prep aration for a job in this field. Prior work experience is important. About 7 out of 10 persons entering this occupation typically transfer from other occupations, such as engineer, manager, and computer programmer. Systems analysts must be able to think logically, have good communi cation skills, and like working with ideas and people. They often deal with a number of tasks simultaneous ly. The ability to concentrate and pay close attention to detail also is impor tant. Although systems analysts often work independently, they also work in teams on large projects. They must be able to communicate effectively with technical personnel, such as pro grammers and managers, as well as with people who have no computer background. Technological advances come so rapidly in the computer field that con tinuous study is necessary to keep skills up to date. Training usually takes the form of 1- and 2-week cours es offered by employers and software vendors. A dditional training may come from professional development seminars offered by professional com puting societies. Indications of experience and pro fessional competence are the Certifi cate in Data Processing (CDP) and Certificate of Systems Professional (CSP). These designations are con ferred by the Institute for Certification of Computer Professionals upon can didates who have 5 years of experi ence and who have passed a five-part examination. Systems analysts may be promoted to senior or lead systems analysts Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/75 after several years of experience. Sys tems analysts who show leadership ability also can advance to jobs as managers of data processing depart ments. Systems analysts with several years of experience may start their own computer consulting firms. Job Outlook Employment of systems analysts is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. The demand for sys tems analysts is expected to rise as advances in technology lead to new applications for computers. Factory and office automation, telecommuni cations, and scientific research are just a few areas where use of comput er systems will expand. About half of all job openings for systems analysts will result from replacement needs— although a smaller proportion of sys tems analysts than of all professional workers leave their occupation each year. Most of the systems analysts who leave the occupation transfer to other jobs such as manager or engi neer. College graduates who have had courses in computer programming, systems analysis, and other data proc essing areas as well as training or experience in an applied field should enjoy the best prospects for employ ment. Persons without a college de gree and college graduates unfamiliar with data processing will face compe tition from the large number of expe rienced workers seeking jobs as sys tems analysts. Earnings Median weekly earnings of systems analysts who worked full time in 1984 were about $600. The middle 50 per cent earned between $485 and $745 a week. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $345; the highest tenth, more than $870. Earnings for beginning systems an alysts in private industry averaged about $490 a week in 1984, according to a survey conducted in urban areas by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Experienced workers earned about $585, and lead system s analysts earned about $690 weekly. In the Fed eral Government, the entrance salary for recent college graduates with a bachelor’s degree was about $345 a week in early 1985. Systems analysts working in the West had the highest earnings and those in the South, the lowest. Gener ally, earnings were greater in trans portation, public utilities, and manu facturing than in finance, trade, and services. Related Occupations Other workers in applied mathemat ics, business, and science who use logic and reasoning ability to solve problems are programmers, financial analysts, urban planners, engineers, mathematicians, operations research analysts, and actuaries. Sources of Additional Information Further information about the occu pation of systems analyst is available from: Association for Systems Management, 24587 Bagley Rd., Cleveland, Ohio 44138. Data Processing Management Association, 505 Busse Hwy., Park Ridge, 1 60068. 11. Mathematicians (D.Q.T. 020.067-014, .187-018; 199.267-014)_________ Nature of the Work Mathematicians work in one of the oldest and most basic sciences. Math ematicians today are engaged in a wide variety of activities, ranging from the creation of new theories to the translation of scientific and mana gerial problems into mathematical terms. Mathematical work falls into two broad classes: T heoretical (pure) mathematics; and applied mathemat ics. However, these classes are not sharply defined and often overlap. T heoretical m athem aticians ad vance mathematical science by devel oping new principles and new rela tionships between existing principles of mathematics. Although they seek to increase basic knowledge without necessarily considering its practical use, this pure and abstract knowledge has been instrumental in producing m any scientific and engineering achievements. For example, in 1854, G.F.B. Riemann invented a seemingly impractical non-Euclidian geometry that was to become part of Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity. Years later, this theory contributed to the creation of atomic power. Applied mathematicians use mathe matics to develop theories, tech niques, and approaches to solve prac tical problems in business, govern- 76/Occupational Outlook Handbook ment, engineering, and the natural and social sciences. Their work rang es from analysis of the mathematical aspects of launching communications satellites to studies of the effects of new drugs on disease. Much work in applied mathematics, however, is carried on by persons other than mathematicians. In fact, the number of workers using mathe matical techniques is many times greater than the number actually des ignated as mathematicians. government—primarily Federal—and in service and manufacturing indus tries. The Department of Defense and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration are the primary em ployers of mathematicians working in the Federal Government. Major em ployers within the services sector were miscellaneous business services, including research and development laboratories; educational services; and noncommercial educational and research organizations. Within manu facturing, guided missiles and space vehicles; aircraft; and office, comput ing, and accounting machine indus tries provided the most jobs. Mathematicians work in all States but are concentrated in those with high-technology industries. Working Conditions Mathematicians working for govern ment agencies and private firms have structured work schedules. They may work alone with only computers, cal culators, and mathematical formulas as company. Or they may be an inte gral part of a research team that in Training, Other Qualifications, and cludes engineers, computer scientists, Advancement and others. Deadlines, overtime work, An advanced degree is the preferred special requests for information, and requirement for beginning teaching travel to attend seminars or confer jobs, as well as for most research positions. However, in most 4-year ences may be part of their jobs. Mathematics faculty have flexible colleges and universities, the Ph.D. work schedules, dividing their time degree is necessary for full faculty among teaching, research, consulting, status. The m aster’s degree is gener ally the minimum requirement for and administrative responsibilities. teaching jobs in 2-year and small 4year colleges. Employment A bachelor’s degree is considered M athematicians held about 21,000 jobs in 1984. In addition, about 32,000 adequate preparation for some jobs in persons held mathematics faculty po private industry and government. In sitions in colleges and universities. dividuals with this background usual (See the statement on college and uni ly assist senior mathematicians by versity faculty elsewhere in the Hand performing computations and solving less advanced problems in applied book.) Most mathematicians worked in the mathematics. The majority of bache lor’s degree holders work in related fields such as computer science where employment opportunities are rapidly expanding. However, an advanced degree is a prerequisite for the more responsible positions. Many research positions require the doctorate. The bachelor’s degree in mathemat ics is offered by most colleges and universities. M athem atics courses usually required for a degree are ana lytical geometry, calculus, differential equations, linear algebra, probability theory and statistics, mathematical analysis, and modern algebra. Many colleges and universities urge or even require students majoring in mathe matics to take several courses in a field that uses or is closely related to mathematics, such as computer sci ence, operations research, a physical science, or economics. A double ma jor in mathematics and computer sci ence or mathematics and statistics is particularly desirable. A prospective college mathematics student should take as many mathematics courses as possible while in high school. About 470 colleges and universities offer the m aster’s degree in mathe matics; nearly 200 also offer the Ph.D. In graduate school, students conduct research and take advanced courses, usually in a specific field of mathemat ics such as algebra, mathematical analysis, or geometry. For work in applied mathematics, training in the field in which the math ematics will be used is very impor tant. Fields in which applied mathe matics is used extensively include physics, actuarial science, engineer ing, and operations research; of in creasing importance are computer and information science, business and in dustrial management, economics, sta tistics, chemistry and life sciences, and the behavioral sciences. M athem aticians should have a working knowledge of computer pro gramming since most complex mathe matical computation is done by com puter. Mathematicians need good reason ing ability, persistence, and the ability to apply basic principles to new types of problems. They must be able to communicate well since they often need to discuss the problem to be solved with nonmathematicians. Job Outlook Employment of mathematicians is ex pected to increase about as fast as the Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/77 average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Most job openings, however, will arise from the need to replace experienced mathematicians who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. The shortage of Ph.D .’s in mathe matics is expected to continue, result ing in favorable employment opportu nities. In industry, holders of the doc torate in applied mathematics have better employment prospects than their theoretically oriented colleagues. Holders of the doctorate in theoretical mathematics should continue to have good opportunities for teaching and re search jobs in colleges and universities. Industry and government agencies will need mathematicians for work in operations research, m athematical modeling, numerical analysis, com puter systems design and program ming, information and data process ing, applied mathematical physics, ro botics, market research, commercial surveys, and as consultants in indus trial laboratories. Holders of a master’s degree in math ematics may have difficulty finding a job in college teaching or theoretical research. However, there will be many openings in applied areas such as com puter science and data processing. Bachelor’s degree holders in math ematics with a strong background— preferably a double major—in com puter science should have very good opportunities in computerized data processing activities in industry. Those who meet State certification requirements may become high school mathematics teachers, who are cur rently in short supply. (For additional information, see the statement on sec ondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Earnings According to a 1984 College Place ment Council Survey, starting salary offers for mathematics graduates with a bachelor’s degree averaged about $23,400 a year; for those with a mas ter’s degree, $28,800; and for new graduates having the Ph.D., $35,600. The average annual salary for all working mathematicians was about $35,400 in 1984. In the Federal Government in 1985, the average starting salary for mathe maticians having the bachelor’s de gree and no experience was either $14,400 or $17,800 a year, depending on their college records. Those with the m aster’s degree averaged $21,800 or $26,400; and persons having the Ph.D. degree started at either $26,400 or $31,600. The average salary for all mathematicians in the Federal Gov ernment was about $36,900 in 1984. Related Occupations A degree in mathematics generally qualifies one to enter related occupa tions such as actuarial scientist, stat istician, computer programmer, sys tems analyst, and operations research analyst. In addition, a strong back ground in mathematics facilitates em ployment in fields such as engineer ing, economics, finance, and genetics. Sources of Additional Information Several brochures are available that give facts about the field of mathemat ics, including career opportunities, professional training, and colleges and universities with degree programs. Seeking Employment in the Mathe matical Sciences is available for $2, and $2 for additional pairs of copies, from: American Mathematical Society, P.O. Box 6248, Providence, R.I. 02940. Professional Opportunities in Math ematics is available for $1.50 from: Mathematical Association of America, 1529 18th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. For specific information on careers in applied mathematics, contact: Society for Industrial and Applied Mathemat ics, 1405 Architects Building, 117 S. 17th St., Philadelphia, Pa. 19103. For information on a career as a mathematical statistician, contact: Institute of Mathematical Statistics, 3401 In vestment Blvd., No. 7, Hayward, Calif. 94545. Information on Federal job oppor tunities is available from area offices of the State employment service and the U.S. Office of Personnel Manage ment or from Federal Job Information Centers located in various large cities throughout the country. For information about careers in noncollegiate academic institutions, contact: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1906 Association Dr., Reston, Va. 22091. Statisticians (D.O.T. 020.067-022, .167-026) Nature of the Work Statistics are numbers that are assem bled, classified, and tabulated to help describe the characteristics of the world and its inhabitants. Statisticians devise, carry out, and interpret the numerical results of surveys and ex periments. In doing so, they apply their knowledge of statistical methods to a particular subject area, such as economics, human behavior, natural science, or engineering. They may use statistical techniques to predict popu lation growth or economic conditions, develop quality control tests for man ufactured products, analyze legal and social problem s, or help business managers and government officials make decisions and evaluate the re sults of new programs. Often statisticians are able to obtain accurate information about a group of people or things by surveying a small portion, called a sample, of the group. For example, to determine the size of the total audience, television rating services ask only a few thousand fam ilies, rather than all viewers, what programs they watch. Statisticians de cide where and how to get the data, determine the type and size of the sample group, and develop the survey questionnaire or reporting form. They also prepare instructions for workers who will tabulate the returns. Since statistics are used in so many areas, it sometimes is difficult to dis tinguish statisticians from specialists in other fields who use statistics. For example, a statistician working with data on economic conditions may have the title of economist. Working Conditions Statisticians usually work regular hours in offices. Some statisticians may travel occasionally to supervise or set up a survey, or to gather statis tical data. Some may have fairly re petitive tasks, while others may have a variety of tasks, such as in designing a survey. Employment Statisticians held about 23,000 jobs in 1984. About 2 out of 3 of these jobs were in industry, primarily in manu facturing, finance, and insurance com panies and in business service estab lishments such as consultants’ offices. About one-third were in Federal, State, or local government. Federally employed statisticians were concen trated in the Departments of Com merce, Agriculture, Defense, Health and Human Services, and Labor. Oth ers worked in hospitals, colleges and 78/Occupational Outlook Handbook tistics although a good mathematics background is essential. Beginning statisticians who have only the bachelor’s degree often spend much of their time doing routine work supervised by an experienced statisti cian. Through experience, they may advance to positions of greater tech nical and supervisory responsibility. However, opportunities for promo tion are best for those with advanced degrees. Statisticians determine the size of the sample to be surveyed. universities, and nonprofit organiza tions. Although statisticians work in all parts of the country, most are in met ropolitan areas such as New York City; W ashington, D .C .; and Los Angeles-Long Beach, Calif. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in statistics or mathematics is the mini mum educational requirem ent for many beginning jobs in statistics. For other entry level statistical jobs, a bachelor’s degree with a major in an applied field such as economics or a life science and a minor in statistics is preferable. Teaching and research po sitions in institutions of higher educa tion and some research positions in private industry require a graduate degree in statistics. Over 200 colleges and universities offered statistics as a concentration for a bachelor’s degree in 1984. Many schools also offer either a degree in mathematics or a sufficient number of in statistics to qualify gradu courses ates for beginning positions. Required subjects for statistics majors include mathematics through differential and integral calculus, statistical methods, and probability theory. Due to the increasing use of computers for statis tical applications, a strong background in computer science is highly recom mended; a double major in statistics and computer science is particularly desirable. For quality-control posi tions, training in engineering or phys ical or biological science is desirable. For many market research, business analysis, and forecasting jobs, cours es in economics and business admin istration are helpful. In 1984, over 100 universities of fered m aster’s and doctoral degree programs in statistics; a small number offered only the m aster’s degree. Many schools offer graduate-level courses in applied statistics for stu dents majoring in biology, business, economics, education, psychology, and other fields. Acceptance into grad uate statistics programs does not re quire an undergraduate degree in sta Job Outlook Employment opportunities for per sons who combine training in statis tics with knowledge of computer sci ence or a field of application are ex pected to be favorable through the mid-1990’s. Although growth will be average in this field, most openings are expected to result from the need to replace experienced statisticians who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Private industry will require in creasing numbers of statisticians for quality control in manufacturing pro cesses such as m otor vehicle and chemical production. Pharmaceutical firms will need more statisticians to assess the effectiveness of the rapidly expanding number of drugs. Statisti cians with knowledge of engineering and the physical sciences will find jobs working with scientists and engi neers in research and development. Business firms will rely more heavily than in the past on statisticians to forecast sales, analyze business con ditions, modernize accounting proce dures, and help solve management problem s. Sophisticated statistical services will increasingly be contract ed out to consulting firms. Federal, State, and local govern ment agencies will need statisticians in fields such as agriculture, demog raphy, transportation, social security, health, education, energy conservation, and environmental quality control. Persons who graduate with a bach elor’s degree in statistics—especially those with a strong background in mathematics and computer science— should encounter little difficulty in finding jobs in private industry. Those who meet State certification require ments may become high school statis tics teachers, a newly emerging field. (For additional information, see the statement on secondary school teach ers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/79 M aster’s degree holders in statistics should have very good employment o p p o rtu n itie s. T hose w ith b a c k grounds in computer science should find many openings in computerized data processing activities and in re search in private industry. Some may find teaching positions in junior col leges and small 4-year colleges. Ph.D .’s in statistics have excellent employment prospects, especially in large corporations and in colleges and universities, which are increasingly establishing separate departments of statistics. Earnings In the Federal Government in 1985, the average starting salary of statisti cians who had the bachelor’s degree and no experience was $14,400 or $17,800 a year, depending on their college grades. Beginning statisticians with the m aster’s degree averaged $21,800 or $26,400. Those with the Ph.D. began at $26,400 or $31,600. The average annual salary for statisti cians in the Federal Government was about $35,000 in 1984. Salaries in private industry were lower than those in the Federal Gov ernment, according to the limited data available. Related Occupations People in numerous occupations work with statistics. Among them are actuar ies, computer programmers, computer systems analysts, educators, engineers, environmental scientists, financial ana lysts, health scientists, information sci entists, life scientists, mathematicians, operations researchers, physical scien tists, and social scientists. Sources of Additional Information For information about career opportu nities in statistics, contact: American Statistical Association, 806 15th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. For information on a career as a mathematical statistician, contact: Institute of Mathematical Statistics, 3401 Investment Blvd., No. 7, Hayward, Calif. 94545. Information on Federal job oppor tunities is available from area offices of the State employment service and the U.S. Office of Personnel Manage ment or from Federal Job Information Centers located in various large cities throughout the country. For information about careers in noncollegiate academic institutions, contact: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1906 Association Dr., Reston, Va. 22091. Physical Scientists Physical scientists investigate the structure and composition of the earth and the universe. Many physical sci entists perform research designed to increase basic scientific knowledge. Others employ the results of research to solve practical problems in devel oping new products, locating new sources of oil, or forecasting the weather. This section covers four physical science occupations—chemists; geol ogists and geophysicists; meteorolo gists; and physicists and astronomers. Persons who teach the physical sci ences in colleges and universities are discussed in the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook. Most physicists have Ph.D .’s. The jobs of many other physical scientists also require a Ph.D., especially re search positions, but many jobs in other physical science fields can be entered with a bachelor’s or m aster’s degree. A knowledge of the physical scien ces (especially chemistry and physics) is also required by engineers and life scientists; these occupations are dis cussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Chemists (D.Q.T. 022.061-010 and -014, .137-010 and .161-010) Nature of the Work The clothes we wear, the foods we eat, the houses in which we live—in fact, most things that help make our lives better, from medical care to a cleaner environment—result, in part, from the work done by chemists. Chemists search for and put to practical use new knowledge about substances. Their research has result ed in the development of a tremen dous variety of new and improved synthetic fibers, paints, adhesives, drugs, electronic components, lubri cants, and other products. They also develop processes which help save energy and reduce pollution, such as improved oil refining methods. Re search on the chemistry of living Digitized for 80 FRASER things provides the basis for advances in medicine, agriculture, and other areas. Most chemists work in research and developm ent. In basic rese a rc h , chemists investigate the properties, composition, and structure of matter and the laws that govern the combina tion of elements and reactions of sub stances. In applied research and de velopment, they create new products or improve existing ones, often using knowledge gained from basic re search. For example, synthetic rubber and plastics have resulted from re search on small molecules uniting to form large ones (polymerization). The process of developing a prod uct begins with descriptions of the characteristics it should have. If sim ilar products exist, chemists test sam ples to determine their ingredients. If no such product exists, chemists ex periment with various substances to develop a product with the required specifications. Some chemists work in production and inspection. In production, chem ists prepare instructions for plant workers which specify the kind and amount of ingredients to use and the exact mixing time for each stage in the process. They also monitor automat ed processes to ensure proper product yield and quality. At each step, sam ples are tested for quality to meet industry and government standards. Chemists keep records and prepare reports showing results of tests. Oth ers work as marketing or sales repre sentatives who sell and provide tech nical information on chemical prod ucts. C hem ists often specialize in a subfield of chem istry. A nalytical chem ists determ ine the structure, composition, and nature of substanc es, and develop new analytical tech niques. Their skills are often used to identify the presence of chemicals— for example, the kinds and amounts of chemical pollutants in air or water. Organic chemists study the chemistry of carbon compounds. When com bined with other elements, carbon forms a vast number of substances. Many modern commercial products, such as drugs, plastics, and fertilizers have been developed by organic chem ists. Inorganic chemists study com pounds mainly consisting of elements other than carbon. They may, for ex ample, develop materials for electron ic com ponents. Physical chem ists study the physical characteristics of atoms and molecules and investigate how chemical reactions work. This research may result in new and better energy sources. Biochemists, whose work encom passes both biology and chemistry, are included under biological scien tists elsewhere in the Handbook. Working Conditions Chemists usually work regular hours in offices and laboratories. Some are exposed to health or safety hazards when handling certain chemicals, but there is little risk if proper procedures are followed. Employment Chemists held over 85,000 jobs in 1984. Almost three-fifths of all chem ists work for manufacturing firms— over one-half of these are in the chem ical manufacturing industry; the rest are scattered throughout other manu facturing industries. Chemists also work for State and local governments, primarily in health and agriculture, and for Federal agencies, chiefly the Departments of Defense, Health and Human Resources, and Agriculture. Smaller numbers work for nonprofit research organizations. In addition, about 19,000 persons held chemistry faculty positions in colleges and uni versities in 1984. (See the statement on college and university faculty else where in the Handbook.) Chemists are employed in all parts of the country, but they are concen trated in large industrial areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in chemistry or a related discipline is sufficient for many beginning jobs as a chemist. However, graduate training Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/81 is required for most research jobs, and most college teaching jobs require a Ph.D. degree. Beginning chemists should have a broad background in chemistry, with good laboratory skills. Many colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree program in chem istry. About 580 are approved by the American Chemical Society. In addition to required courses in analyt ical, inorganic, organic, and physical chem istry, undergraduates usually study mathematics, physics, and lib eral arts. Several hundred colleges and uni versities award advanced degrees in chemistry. Graduate students gen erally specialize in a subfield of chemistry. Requirements for a mas ter’s and doctor’s degree usually in clude a thesis based on independent research. Students planning careers as chem ists should enjoy studying science and mathematics, and should like working with their hands building scientific ap paratus and performing experiments. Perseverance, curiosity, and the abil ity to concentrate on detail and to work independently are essential. Graduates with a bachelor’s degree generally begin their careers in gov ernment or industry by analyzing or testing products, working in technical sales or services, or assisting senior chemists in research and development laboratories. Employers may have training and orientation program s which provide special knowledge needed for the employer’s type of work. Candidates for an advanced de gree often teach or do research in colleges and universities while work ing toward their degrees. Beginning chemists with a m aster’s degree can usually teach in a 2-year college or go into applied research in government or private industry. A Ph.D. generally is required for basic research, for 4-year college faculty positions, and for advancement to many administrative positions. Many people with a bachelor’s de gree in chemistry enter other occupa tions in which a chemistry back ground is helpful, such as technical writers and manufacturers’ sales rep resentatives and wholesale trade sales workers in chemical marketing. Some who hold bachelor’s degrees in chem istry enter medical, dental, veteri nary, or o th er health profession schools. Others enter a wide range of Graduate training is required for most research jobs in chemistry. occupations with little or no connec tion to chemistry. Job Outlook Employment of chemists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid1990’s largely because the chemical industry and other industries which employ a large proportion of chemists are expected to grow slowly. Howev er, many openings will result each year as chemists transfer to other oc cupations or leave the occupation for other reasons. The majority of job openings are expected to be in private industry, primarily in the development of new products. In addition, industrial com panies will need more chemists to do biotechnology research and to devel op products and production processes arising from this research. Little growth in the employment of chemistry faculty in colleges and uni versities is expected. Chemistry graduates may become high school teachers. However, they usually are then regarded as science teachers rather than chemists. Others may qualify as engineers, especially if they have taken some courses in en gineering. (See statements on second ary school teachers and engineers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Earnings According to the College Placement Council, chemists with a bachelor’s degree were offered starting salaries averaging $21,100 a year in 1984; those with a m aster’s degree, $26,700; and those with a Ph.D., $35,500. According to the American Chemi cal Society, salaries of their members with a bachelor’s degree who were experienced nonacademic chemists in private industry averaged $34,000 a year in 1984; for those with a m aster’s degree, $39,000; and for those with a Ph.D., $49,000. In a Bureau of Labor Statistics sur vey, chemists in private industry av eraged $21,600 a year in 1984 at the most junior level, and $63,100 at sen ior supervisory levels. Experienced midlevel chemists with no superviso ry responsibilities averaged $37,600. Depending on a person’s college record, the annual starting salary in the Federal Government in early 1985 for an inexperienced chemist with a bachelor’s degree was either $14,390 or $17,824. Those who had 2 years of graduate study began at $21,804 a year. Chemists having a Ph.D. degree started at $26,381 or $31,619. The average salary for all chemists in the Federal Governm ent in 1984 was $36,800 a year. Related Occupations The work of chemical engineers, oc cupational safety and health workers, agricultural scientists, biological sci entists, and chemical technicians is closely related to the work done by chemists. The work of other physical and life science occupations may also be similar to that of chemists. 82/Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information General information on career oppor tunities and earnings for chemists is available from: American Chemical Society, Career Services, 1155 16th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Information on Federal job oppor tunities is available from local offices of State employment services and the U.S. Office of Personnel Management or from Federal Job Information Cen ters located in various large cities throughout the country. Geologists and Geophysicists (D.O.T. 024.061 except -014, .161, and .167) Nature of the Work Geologists and geophysicists study the physical aspects and history of the earth. They analyze information col lected through seismic prospecting, which involves bouncing sound waves off deeply buried rock layers; examine surface rocks and samples of buried rocks recovered by drilling; and study information collected by satellites. They also identify rocks, minerals, and fossils, conduct geological sur veys, construct maps, and use instru ments such as the gravimeter and magnetometer to measure the earth’s gravity and magnetic field. An impor tant application of geological research is locating oil, natural gas, and miner als. A geologist gathers rock samples. Geologists and geophysicists exam ine chemical and physical properties of specimens in laboratories under controlled temperature and pressure. They may study fossil remains of an imal and plant life or experiment with the flow of water and oil through rocks. Laboratory equipment used in cludes instruments such as the X-ray diffractometer, which determines the crystal structure of minerals, and the petrographic microscope, used for close study of rock and sediment sam ples. Besides locating natural resources and working in laboratories, geolo gists and geophysicists also advise construction companies and govern ment agencies on the suitability of proposed locations for buildings, dams, or highways. Some administer and manage research and exploration programs. The fields of geology and geophys ics are closely related but there are some major differences. Geologists study the composition, structure, and history of the earth’s crust. They try to find out how rocks were formed and what has happened to them since their formation. Geophysicists use the principles of physics and mathematics to study the earth’s internal composi tion, surface, and atmosphere and also various forces such as its magnet ic, electrical, and gravitational fields. Geologists and geophysicists usual ly specialize. Geological oceanogra phers study the ocean bottom. They collect information using remote sens ing devices aboard ships or sometimes from underwater research craft. Phys ical oceanographers study the physi cal aspects of oceans such as their currents and their interaction with the atmosphere. Geochemical oceanog raphers study the chemical composi tion, dissolved elements, and nutri ents of oceans. Although biological scientists who study ocean life some times are called oceanographers (as well as marine biologists), the work they do is related to biology rather than geology or geophysics. (See the statement on biological scientists else where in the Handbook.) Hydrolo gists study the distribution, circula tion, and physical properties of under ground and surface waters. They may study the form and intensity of precip itation, its rate of infiltration into the soil, and its return to the ocean and atm osphere. M ineralogists analyze and classify minerals and precious stones according to composition and structure. Paleontologists study fos sils found in geological formations to trace the evolution of plant and animal life. Seismologists interpret data from seismographs and other instruments which measure small movements of the earth to locate earthquakes and earth q u ak e faults. Stratigraphers study the distribution and arrange ment of sedimentary rock layers by examining their fossil and mineral content. M eteorologists sometimes are classified as geophysical scien tists. (See the statement on meteorol ogists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Most geologists and geophysicists di vide their time between fieldwork and office or laboratory work. While in the field, geologists often travel to remote sites by helicopter or jeep and cover large areas by foot. Exploration geol ogists and geophysicists often work overseas or in remote areas, and geo logical and physical oceanographers may spend considerable time at sea. When not working outdoors, geolo gists are in offices and laboratories. Employment Geologists and geophysicists held over 46,000 jobs in 1984. In addition, about 8,500 persons held geology, geophysics, and oceanography faculty positions in colleges and universities. (See the statement on college and uni versity faculty elsewhere in the Hand book.) Over one-half were in oil and gas companies or oil and gas field service firms, many of which are involved in oil and gas exploration. Many other geologists worked for business ser vice and consulting firms, which often provide services to oil and gas com panies. About 1 geologist in 6 was self-employed, primarily as an indus try or government consultant. The Federal Government employed alm ost 7,000 geologists, geophysi cists, oceanographers, and hydrolo gists in 1984. Three-fifths worked for the Department of the Interior in the U.S. Geological Survey, the Bureau of Mines, and the Bureau of Reclama tion. Others worked for the Depart ments of Defense, Agriculture, and Commerce. State agencies also em ploy geologists and geophysicists; some work for State geological sur veys and State departments of conser vation. Geologists and geophysicists Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/83 also work for nonprofit research insti tutions and museums. Some are em ployed by American firms overseas for varying periods of time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in geology or geophysics is adequate for entry into some lower level geology jobs, but better jobs with good advancement potential usually require at least a m aster’s degree in geology or geo physics. Persons with strong back grounds in physics, mathematics, or computer science also may qualify for some geophysics jobs. A Ph.D degree is essential for most research posi tions. Over 500 colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree in geology or geophysics. Other programs offering training for beginning geophysicists include g eo p h y sical tech n o lo g y , geophysical engineering, geophysical prospecting, engineering geology, pe troleum geology, and geodesy. In ad dition, more than 270 universities award advanced degrees in geology or geophysics. Geologists and geophysicists need to be able to work as part of a team. They should be curious, analytical, and able to communicate effectively. Those involved in fieldwork must have physical stamina. Geologists and geophysicists usual ly begin their careers in field explora tion or as research assistants in labo ratories. They are given more difficult assignment as they gain experience. Eventually they may be promoted to project leader, program manager, or other management and research posi tions. Job Outlook Employment of geologists and geo physicists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupa tions through the mid-1990’s. Most jobs for geologists and geophysicists are in or related to the petroleum industry. This industry has greatly reduced exploration activities because of the recent drop in the price of oil. Steady prices for petroleum and ener gy conservation will make for little or no growth in petroleum industry em ployment through the 1980’s. Howev er, because new sources of oil and gas must be found eventually, exploration activities should increase by 1995. When this occurs, employment should grow and job opportunities should greatly improve. Furthermore, even with little employment growth, many openings will arise each year to re place geologists and geophysicists who transfer to other occupations or leave the occupation for other rea sons. Geologists and geophysicists who have knowledge and experience in geophysical oil and gas exploration techniques will have better employ ment opportunities than others. Also, more geologists, especially those with advanced degrees, will be needed to conduct environmentally related re search. Earnings Median annual earnings of full-time geologists and geophysicists were about $42,000 in 1984, according to limited information. Surveys by the College Placement Council indicate that graduates with bachelor’s de grees in physical and earth sciences received average starting offers of $22,800 a year in 1984. Graduates with m aster’s degrees in geology and relat ed geological sciences received aver age starting offers of $29,300 a year. In the Federal Government in early 1985, geologists and geophysicists having a bachelor’s degree could be gin at $14,390 or $17,824 a year, de pending on their college records. Those having a m aster’s degree could start at $17,824 or $21,804 a year; those having the Ph.D. degree, at $26,381 or $31,619. In 1984, the aver age salary for geologists in the Federal Government was about $38,000 a year and for geophysicists, about $40,300 a year. Related Occupations Many geologists and geophysicists work in the petroleum and natural gas industry. This industry also employs many other workers who are involved in the scientific and technical aspects of petroleum and natural gas explora tion and extraction, including draft ers, engineering technicians, science technicians, petroleum engineers, and surveyors. Also related to the work of geologists and geophysicists are other physical science occupations such as physicists, chemists, and meteorolo gists, as well as mathematicians, com puter scientists, and cartographers. Sources of Additional Information Information on training and career opportunities for geologists is avail able from: American Geological Institute, 4220 King St., Alexandria, Va. 22302. Information on training and career opportunities for geophysicists is available from: American Geophysical Union, 2000 Florida Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. Society of Exploration Geophysicists, P.O. Box 70240, Tulsa, Okla. 74170. For information on Federal Gov ernment careers, contact: U.S. Office of Personnel Management, 1900 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20415. Meteorologists (D.O.T. 025.062-010) Nature of the Work Meteorology is the study of the atmo sphere, which is the air that surrounds the earth. Meteorologists study the atmosphere’s physical characteristics, motions, and processes, and the way the atmosphere affects the rest of our environment. The best known appli cation of this knowledge is in under standing and forecasting the weather. However, weather information and meteorological research also are ap plied in many other areas, such as air pollution control, fire prevention, ag riculture, air and sea transportation, and the study of trends in the earth’s climate. Meteorologists who forecast the weather, known professionally as op erational or synoptic meteorologists, are the largest group of specialists. They study weather information, such as air pressure, temperature, humidi ty, and wind velocity, and apply phys ical and mathematical relationships to make short-range and long-range pre dictions. Their data come from weath er satellites and observers in many parts of the world. Although some forecasters still prepare and analyze weather maps, most data now are plotted and analyzed by computers. Some meteorologists engage in ba sic and applied research. For exam ple, physical meteorologists study the chemical and physical properties of the atmosphere. They do research on the effect of the atmosphere on trans mission of light, sound, and radio waves, and study factors affecting for mation of clouds, rain, snow, and oth- 84/Occupational Outlook Handbook local governments and for nonprofit organizations. In addition to government, private weather consulting firms and engi neering services firms employ many meteorologists. Commercial airlines employ m eteorologists to forecast weather along flight routes and to brief pilots on atmospheric condi tions. Other meteorologists work for radio and television stations and com panies that design and manufacture meteorological instruments and air craft and missiles. In addition to civilian meteorolo gists, thousands of members of the Armed Forces do forecasting and oth er meteorological work. average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Little or no growth in employment is expected in the Na tional W eather Service, which em ploys about half of all meteorologists. Most new jobs will be created in pri vate industry as more organizations recognize the value of private weather forecasting and meteorological serv ices. Nevertheless, most of the job openings in this very small occupation will arise from the need to replace those who transfer to other occupa tions or leave the labor force. Persons with an advanced degree in meteorol ogy should have the best job pros pects. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The average salary for meteorologists employed by the Federal Government was $39,400 in 1984. In early 1985, meteorologists in the Federal Govern ment with a bachelor’s degree and no experience received starting salaries of $14,390 or $17,824 a year, depend ing on their college grades. Those with a m aster’s degree could start at $17,824 or $21,804; those with the Ph.D. degree, at $26,381 or $31,619. Earnings A meteorologist records weather data. er weather phenomena. Other meteo rologists, known as climatologists, study trends in climate and analyze past records of wind, rainfall, sun shine, and temperature to determine the general pattern of weather that makes up an area’s climate. These studies are used to plan heating and cooling systems, design buildings, and aid in effective land utilization. Working Conditions Jobs in weather stations, most of which operate around the clock 7 days a week, often involve night work and rotating shifts. Most stations are at airports or in or near cities; some are in isolated and remote areas. Meteo rologists in smaller weather stations generally work alone; in larger ones, they work as part of a team. Employment Meteorologists held about 5,500 jobs in 1984. In addition, about 1,000 per sons held meteorology faculty posi tions in colleges and universities. (See the statement on college and universi ty faculty elsewhere in the Hand book.) The largest employer of civilian me teorologists is the National Weather Service, where about 1,800 work at stations in all parts of the United States and in a small number of for eign areas. The Department of De fense employs over 200 civilian mete Digitized for orologists. A few work for State and FRASER A bachelor’s degree with a major in meteorology is the usual minimum requirem ent for beginning jobs in weather forecasting. However, em ployers prefer to hire those with an advanced degree, and an advanced degree is increasingly necessary for promotion. For research and college teaching and for many top level positions in other meteorological activities, an ad vanced degree, preferably in meteo rology, is essential. People with grad uate degrees in other sciences also may qualify if they have advanced courses in m eteorology, physics, mathematics, and chemistry. Over 100 colleges and universities offer degrees in meteorology. In addi tion, some departments of physics, earth science, or geophysics also offer many atmospheric science and related courses. Before selecting a degree program in m eteorology, students should investigate the particular em phasis of the program, since many meteorology programs are combined with the study of a related scientific or engineering field. Beginning meteorologists often start in jobs involving routine data collec tion, computation, or analysis and are given more difficult assignments as they gain experience. Experienced meteorologists may advance to vari ous supervisory or adm inistrative jobs. A few meteorologists establish their own weather consulting serv ices. Job Outlook Employment of meteorologists is ex pected to grow about as fast as the Related Occupations Workers in other occupations con cerned with the physical environment include foresters and conservation scientists, geologists and geophysi cists, and environmental engineers. Sources of Additional Information Information on career opportunities in meteorology is available from: American Meteorological Society, 45 Beacon St., Boston, Mass. 02108. For facts about job opportunities with the National W eather Service, contact: National Weather Service/Personnel, 1-RAS/ DC23, Rockville, Md. 20782. Physicists and Astronomers (D .O .T. 021.067-010, 023.061-010, -014, and .067-010) Nature of the Work The flight of the space shuttle, the accuracy of advanced medical instru ments, and even the safety of the family car depend on research by physicists. Through systematic obser vation and experimentation, physi cists use mathematical terms to de Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/85 scribe the structure and behavior of the universe and the interaction of matter and energy. Physicists also de velop theories that describe the fun damental forces and laws of nature. Determining the basic laws governing phenomena such as gravity, electro magnetism, and nuclear interactions leads to discoveries and innovations that advance nuclear energy, elec tronics, communications, aerospace technology, and medical instrumenta tion. Astronomy is usually considered a subfield of physics. Astronomers use the principles of physics and mathe matics to answer questions about the fundamental nature of the universe, such as its origin and history and the evolution of the solar system. Most physicists work in research and development. Some do basic re search to increase scientific knowl edge. For example, they investigate the structure of the atom or the nature of gravity. The equipment that physi cists design for their research can of ten be applied to other areas. For example, lasers (devices that amplify light and emit it in a highly directional, intense beam) are used in surgery; microwave devices are used for ov ens; and measurement techniques and instruments can detect the kind and number of cells in blood or the amount of mercury or lead in foods. Many physicists conduct applied research and help develop new devic es, products, and processes. For in stance, their knowledge of solid-state physics led to the development of transistors and then to the integrated circuits used in calculators and com puters. A small number work in in spection, testing, quality control, and other production-related jobs in in dustry. Some do consulting work. Almost all astronomers do research. Most of their time is spent analyzing the large quantities of data collected by their own and others’ observations and writing scientific papers on the results of their research. Most astron omers spend only a few weeks each year making observations with tele scopes, radio telescopes, and other instruments (some in orbiting satel lites) that can detect electromagnetic radiation from distant sources. Con trary to the popular image, astrono mers alm ost never actually look through a telescope because photo graphic and electronic radiation de tecting equipment is more effective than the human eye. Most physicists specialize in one or more branches of the science—ele m entary-particle physics; nuclear physics; atomic, electron, or molecu lar physics; physics of condensed matter; optics; acoustics; health phys ics; plasma physics; and the physics of fluids. Some specialize in a subdi vision of one of these branches. For example, subdivisions of solid-state physics include superconductivity, crystallography, and semiconductors. However, since all physics involves the same fundamental principles, sev eral specialties may overlap, and in the course of their careers physicists frequently switch from one subfield to another. Growing numbers of physicists are specializing in fields such as biophys ics, chemical physics, and geophysics in which physics and a related science are combined. Furthermore, the prac tical applications of physicists’ work increasingly have merged with engi neering. Working Conditions Physicists generally work regular hours in laboratories, classrooms, and offices. Most physicists do not en counter unusual hazards in their work. Some physicists need to travel to use national or international facilities such as particle accelerators, and astrono mers who make observations may need to travel to observatories, which are usually in remote locations, and frequently work at night. centrations and large college and uni versity enrollments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Graduate training in physics or a closely related field is almost essential for most entry level jobs in physics and for advancement. The doctorate usually is required for full faculty sta tus at colleges and universities and for industrial or government jobs direct ing research and development pro grams. A doctorate is also the usual requirement for a job in astronomy. Those having m aster’s degrees may qualify for some research jobs in pri vate industry and in the Federal Gov ernment as well as for teaching jobs in 2-year colleges. In universities, most teach and assist in research while studying for their Ph.D. Those having bachelor’s degrees may qualify for a few applied research and development jobs in private in dustry and in the Federal Govern ment. Some are employed as research or teaching assistants in colleges and universities while studying for ad vanced degrees. Many with under graduate physics degrees work in en gineering and other scientific fields. (See statements on engineers, geolo gists and geophysicists, programmers, and systems analysts elsewhere in the Handbook.) About 750 colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree in physics. Employment Physicists held almost 20,000 jobs in 1984. In addition, almost an equal number of persons held physics facul ty positions in colleges and universi ties. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the H andbook.) The Federal Govern ment, mostly the Departments of De fense and Commerce, employed about 3 out of 10 physicists. About a quarter worked for independent research and developm ent laboratories. O thers worked for electrical equipment man ufacturers, noncommercial research laboratories, engineering services firms, and colleges and universities as nonfaculty researchers. Although physicists are employed in all parts of the country, most are in areas that have heavy industrial con A physicist adjusts equipment to be used in an experiment. 86/Occupational Outlook Handbook The undergraduate program provides a broad background in the science and serves as a base for later specializa tion either in graduate school or on the job. Some typical physics courses are m echanics, electrom agnetism , electronics, optics, thermodynamics, and atomic and molecular physics. Students also take many courses in mathematics. About 250 colleges and universities offer advanced degrees in physics. In graduate school, the student, with fac ulty guidance, usually works in a spe cific subfield of physics. Graduate stu dents, especially candidates for Ph.D. degrees, spend a large portion of their time conducting research. About 70 universities offer the Ph.D. degree in astronomy. These programs include advanced courses in astronomy, physics, and mathemat ics. Some schools require that gradu ate students spend several months working at an observatory. The usual qualification for entrance to a gradu ate program in astronomy is a bache lor’s degree in astronomy, physics, or mathematics with a physics minor. Students planning a career in phys ics should have an inquisitive mind, mathematical ability, and imagina tion. They should be able to work on their own, since physicists, particular ly in basic research, often receive only limited supervision. Physicists, especially those who hold less than a Ph.D., often begin their careers doing routine laboratory tasks. After some experience, they are assigned more complex tasks and may advance to work as project lead ers or research directors. Some work in top management jobs. Physicists who develop new products or pro cesses sometimes form their own com panies or join new firms to exploit their own ideas. Job Outlook Employment of physicists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid1990’s. Most job openings will arise as physicists transfer to other occupa tions or leave the occupation for other reasons. Despite projected slower than average growth, employment op portunities may improve if the num ber of graduate degrees in physics awarded to U.S. citizens continues to decline. Some with advanced degrees in physics will be needed to teach in colleges and universities, but opportu nities will be better in private indus try. Many physicists work in research and development (R&D). The antici pated increase in R&D expenditures through 1995 should result in in creased employment for physicists. If actual R&D expenditure levels and patterns differ significantly from those assumed, however, the outlook would be altered. Persons with only a bachelor’s de gree in physics are not qualified to enter most physicist jobs. However, many with bachelor’s degrees in phys ics find jobs as engineers, technicians, or computer specialists. Others be come high school physics teachers. However, they are usually regarded as teachers rather than as physicists. (See the statem ent on secondary school teachers elsew here in the Handbook.) Earnings Starting salaries for physicists in pri vate industry averaged about $30,000 a year in 1984 for those with a mas ter’s degree, according to an Ameri can Institute of Physics survey of de gree recipients; for those with a Ph.D., $37,500. Depending on their college records, physicists with a bachelor’s degree could start in the Federal Government in early 1985 at either $14,390 or $17,824 a year. Beginning physicists having a m aster’s degree could start at $17,824 or $21,804, and those having the Ph.D . degree could begin at $26,381 or $31,619. Average earnings for all physicists in the Federal Gov ernment in 1984 were $43,400 a year. Starting salaries for physics college and university faculty with the Ph.D. averaged $25,000 in 1984, according to the American Institute of Physics. (See the statement on college and uni versity teachers elsew here in the Handbook.) Many faculty physicists supplement their regular incomes by working as consultants and taking on special research projects. Related Occupations Physics is closely related to other sci entific occupations such as chemistry, geology, and geophysics. Engineers and engineering and science techni cians also use a knowledge of the principles of physics in their work. Sources of Additional Information General information on career oppor tunities in physics is available from: American Institute of Physics, 335 East 45th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. American Physical Society, 335 East 45th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. For a tion on schools send 25 pamphlet containing informa careers in astronomy and on offering training in the field, cents to: Dr. Charles R. Tolbert, Education Officer, American Astronomical Society, Astronomy Dept., University of Virginia, Box 3818 Univer sity Station, Charlottesville, Va. 22903. Life Scientists Life scientists study living organisms and their life processes, such as growth, reproduction, and behavior. They apply knowledge gained from research to specific goals such as the development of drugs, special varie ties of plants, and ways of maintaining a cleaner environment. They are con cerned with the origin, preservation, and development of life, from the larg est animal to the smallest living cell. Biological scientists study the basic life processes of plants and animals, and agricultural scientists apply their knowledge of biology to agricultural problems. Foresters and conservation scientists use their knowledge of life science to manage and conserve the natural resources of forests, rangelands, and soil. Detailed information about training requirements and job outlook in these occupations appears in the three statements that follow. Agricultural Scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-010, -014, -018, -038, -042, and -058; 041.061-014, -018, -046, and -082) Nature of the Work The work done by agricultural scien tists has played an important part in making American agriculture the most productive in the world. Agricultural scientists study farm crops and ani mals and develop ways of improving their quantity and quality. They look for ways to increase yields with less labor, control pests and weeds more effectively, and conserve soil and wa ter. Agricultural science is closely re lated to biological science in that both involve the study of living organisms; agricultural scientists then apply this knowledge to solving practical prob lems in agriculture. A high proportion of all agricultural scientists manage or administer re search and development projects or marketing or production operations in companies that produce agricultural chemicals or machinery. Many do re search and development. Some spend most of their time in laboratories, but some in research and development spend much of their time working with plants and animals in the field. Some agricultural scientists work as consultants to business firms or to government. Agricultural scientists usually spe cialize in one of the following areas. Agronomists (D.O.T. 040.061-010) are concerned with the growth and im provement of field crops. They im prove the quality and yield of crops such as corn, wheat, and cotton by developing new growth methods or by controlling diseases, pests, and weeds. Some agronomists may specialize in a particular crop or crop problem. Animal scientists (D.O.T. 040.061014) do research on the breeding, feeding, and diseases of domestic farm animals. Dairy scientists (D.O.T. 040.061018) and poultry scientists (D.O.T. 040.061- 042) conduct research on the breeding, feeding, and management of dairy cattle and poultry. H orticulturists (D.O.T. 040.061038) work with orchard and garden plants such as fruit and nut trees, vegetables, and flowers. They seek to improve plant culture methods for the beautification of communities, homes, parks, and other areas as well as for increasing crop quality and yields. Soil scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-058) study soil characteristics, map soil types, and determine the best types of crops for each soil. They study the responses of various types of soils to fertilizers, tillage practices, crop rota tion, and other actions which affect the soil. Animal breeders (D.O.T. 041.061014) and plant breeders (D .O .T. 041.061- 082) breed plants and animals to develop and improve their econom ic and esthetic characteristics. Entom ologists (D.O.T. 041.061046) study insects and their relation to plant and animal life. Apiculturists (D.O.T. 041.061-018) study the culture and breeding of bees. Working Conditions Agricultural scientists generally work regular hours in offices and laborato ries. Some agricultural scientists spend much time outdoors conducting research on farms or agricultural re search stations. Employment Agricultural scientists held about 20.000 jobs in 1984. In addition, about 17.000 persons held agricultural sci ence faculty positions in colleges and universities in 1984. (See the state ment on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Almost half of all agricultural scien tists work for Federal, State, or local g o v e rn m e n ts. A bout 15 p e rc e n t worked for the Federal Government in 1984, mostly in the Department of Agriculture. Large numbers worked for State governments at State agri cultural colleges or agricultural re search stations. Some work for agri cultural service companies; others work for fertilizer companies, seed companies, and wholesale distribu tion companies. Over 2,000 agricul tural scientists were self-employed in 1984, mainly as consultants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for agricultural scientists depend on the specialty and the type of work performed. A Ph.D. degree in an agricultural science spe cialty is usually required for college teaching, independent research, and for advancement to many administra tive and management jobs. A m aster’s degree is sufficient for some jobs in applied research. A bachelor’s degree is adequate preparation for some jobs in sa le s, in s p e c tio n , and o th e r nonresearch areas, but, in some cas es, promotions may be limited for those who hold no higher degree. Those who hold degrees in related sciences such as biology, chemistry, or physics also may enter some agri cultural science jobs. All States have at least one landgrant college which offers agricultural science curriculums. Many other col leges and universities also offer some kind of agricultural science courses. Since some schools may not offer all specialties, students should investi87 88/Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment opportunities in agri cultural science for those with only a bachelor’s degree are limited. Howev er, a bachelor’s degree in agricultural science is useful for occupations such as farmer or farm manager, Coopera tive Extension Services worker, agri cultural products inspector, techni cian, or purchasing agent for agricul tural commodities, or for employment in businesses that deal with farmers such as fertilizer or seed companies or farm equipment manufacturers. For information on careers in horti cultural science, send a stamped, selfaddressed envelope to: American Society for Horticultural Science, 701 North Saint Asaph St., Alexandria, Va. 22314. Information on Federal job oppor tunities is available from local offices of State employment services and the U.S. Office of Personnel Management or from Federal Job Information Cen ters located in various large cities throughout the country. Earnings Agricultural scientists develop ways of im proving crop quantity and quality. gate carefully the course offerings of the schools they are considering. Re quirements for advanced degrees usu ally include fieldwork and laboratory research as well as classroom studies and preparation of a thesis based on independent research. Agricultural scientists should be able to work independently or as part of a team and must be able to commu nicate their findings clearly and con cisely, both orally and in writing. Agricultural scientists who have ad vanced degrees usually begin in re search or teaching jobs. With experi ence, they may advance to jobs such as supervisors of research programs. Job Outlook Employment of agricultural scientists is expected to grow about as fast as the av erag e fo r all o c c u p atio n s through the mid-1990’s. In addition to jobs arising from growth in demand for agricultural scientists, many open ings will occur as workers transfer to other occupations or leave the occu pation for other reasons. Many agricultural scientists are sup ported by Federal funding, which is not expected to grow, but employ ment of agricultural scientists in volved in research may grow rapidly in private industry as advances such as recombinant DNA being made in biotechnology are applied to agricul Digitized for ture. FRASER According to the College Placement Council, beginning salary offers for agricultural scientists with a bache lor’s degree averaged $17,000 a year in 1984. In the Federal Government in 1985, agricultural scientists with a bache lor’s degree could start at $14,390 or $17,824 a year, depending on their college records. Those having a mas ter’s degree could start at $17,824 or $21,804, depending on their academic records or work experience; and those with a Ph.D. degree could begin at $26,381 or $31,619 a year. Agricultur al scientists in the Federal Govern ment averaged about $33,600 a year in 1984. Related Occupations The work of agricultural scientists is closely related to that of biologists as well as to other natural scientists such as chemists and physicists. It is also related to agricultural production oc cupations such as farmer and farm manager and to Cooperative Exten sion Services workers as well as to foresters and conservation scientists. Certain specialties of agricultural sci ence are also related to other occupa tions. For example, the work of ani mal scientists is related to that of veterinarians; horticulturists, to land scape architects; and soil scientists, to soil conservationists. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in agricultural science is available from: Science and Education Higher Education Pro grams, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Ad ministration Building, 14th St. and Indepen dence Ave. SW., Washington, D.C. 20250. American Society of Agronomy, 677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, Wis. 53711. Crop Science Society of America, 677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, Wis. 53711. Soil Science Society of America, 677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, Wis. 53711. Biological Scientists (D.O.T. 041.061, except -010, -014, -018, -046, -054, -070, -074, and -082) Nature of the Work Biological scientists study all aspects of living organisms and the relation ship of animals and plants to their environment. Although many special ize in some area such as ornithology (the study of birds) or microbiology (the study of microscopic organisms), all have in common the study of life. Many biological scientists are pri marily involved in research and devel opment. Some conduct basic research to increase knowledge of living orga nisms. Others in applied research use this knowledge in activities such as developing new medicines, increasing crop yields, and improving the envi ronment. Those working in laborato ries must be familiar with research techniques and the use of laboratory equipment and computers. Much re search, however, is performed out side of laboratories. For example, a botanist may do research in the vol canic valleys of Alaska to see what plants grow there. Other biological scientists work in management or administration, for example planning and administering programs for testing foods and drugs and directing activities at zoos or bo tanical gardens. Some work as con sultants to business firms or to gov ernment, while others test and inspect foods, drugs, and other products or write for technical publications. Some work in sales and service jobs for companies manufacturing chemicals or other technical products. (See the statements on m anufacturers’ sales representatives and wholesale trade sales workers elsewhere in the Hand book.) Recently, advances in basic biolog Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/89 ical knowledge, especially in genetics, have resulted in a new field called biotechnology which involves recom bining the genetic material of animals or plants, enabling them to do things they couldn’t do before. For example, the human gene that codes for the production of insulin has been insert ed into bacteria, causing them to pro duce human insulin. This insulin, used by diabetics, is much purer than insu lin from animals, the only previous source. Biotechnology has opened up many new research opportunities and commercial applications of biological science. An increasing portion of the world’s drugs, food, and chemicals will probably be produced using biotechnology processes, which may lead to major medical advances. Most biological scientists who come under the broad category of biologist (D.O.T. 041.061-030) are further clas sified by the type of organism they study or by the specific activity they perform. Biochemists (D.O.T. 041.061-026) study the chemical composition of liv ing things. They try to understand the complex chemical combinations and reactions involved in metabolism, re production, growth, and heredity. Botanists (D.O.T. 041.061-038) deal primarily with plants and their envi ronment. Some study all aspects of plant life, while others specialize in areas such as identification and clas sification of plants, the structure and function of various plant parts, the biochemistry of plant processes, and the causes and cures of plant diseases. Microbiologists (D.O.T. 041.061058) investigate the growth and char acteristics of microscopic organisms such as bacteria, viruses, and molds. Medical microbiologists study the re lationship between bacteria and dis ease or the effect of antibiotics on bacteria. Other microbiologists spe cialize in soil bacteriology (the effect of microorganisms on soil fertility), virology (viruses), or immunology (mechanisms that fight infections). Physiologists (D.O.T. 041.061-078) study life functions of plants and ani mals under normal and abnormal con ditions. Physiologists may specialize in functions such as growth, repro duction, photosynthesis, respiration, or movement, or in the physiology of a certain area or system of the body. Zoologists (D.O.T. 041.061-090) study various aspects of animals— their origin, behavior, diseases, and life processes. Some experiment with live animals in controlled or natural surroundings while others dissect dead animals to study their structure. Zoologists are usually identified by the animal group studied—ornitholo gists (birds), mammalogists (mam mals), herpetologists (reptiles), and ichthyologists (fish). Some biological scientists apply their knowledge to a number of areas and may be classified by the functions performed. Ecologists, for example, study the relationship between orga nisms and their environments and the effects of influences such as pollut ants, rainfall, temperature, and alti tude on organisms. For example, ecol ogists examine plankton (microscopic water plants and animals) and mea sure the radioactive content of fish to determine the effects of pollution. Agricultural scientists, who may also be classified as biological scien tists, are included in a separate state ment elsewhere in the Handbook. Working Conditions Biological scientists generally work regular hours in offices, laboratories, or classrooms and usually are not ex posed to unsafe or unhealthy condi tions. However, some work with dan gerous organisms or toxic substances in the laboratory. They could be ex posed if safety procedures are not followed. Many biological scientists such as botanists, ecologists, and zo- Biological scientists study all aspects of living organisms. 90/Occupational Outlook Handbook ologists take field trips which involve strenuous physical activity and prim itive living conditions. Employment Biological scientists held over 54,000 jobs in 1984. In addition, an almost equal number of persons held biology faculty positions in colleges and uni versities. (See the statement on col lege and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Over one-third of all biological sci entists worked in private industry, mostly in commercial research and developm ent laboratories and the pharmaceutical, chemical, and food industries. About one-tenth worked in nonteaching positions in colleges and universities, and others worked for nonprofit research organizations and foundations or hospitals. Over one-quarter worked for the Federal Government, mainly in the Departments of Agriculture, Interior, and Defense, and in the National In stitutes of Health. State and local gov ernments employed about 1 in 6. A few were self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The Ph.D. degree generally is re quired for college teaching, indepen dent research, and for advancement to administrative research positions and other management jobs. A mas ter’s degree is sufficient for some jobs in applied research. The bachelor’s degree is adequate preparation for some beginning jobs, but promotions often are limited for those who hold no higher degree. Some new gradu ates with a bachelor’s degree start their careers as biological scientists in testing and inspecting jobs, or get jobs related to biological science such as technical sales or service representa tives. They also can become senior biology technicians, medical laborato ry technologists and technicians or, with courses in education, high school biology teachers. (See the statement on secondary school teachers else where in the Handbook.) Many with a bachelor’s degree in biology enter medical, dental, veterinary, or other health profession schools. Some enter a wide range of occupations with little or no connection to biology. Most colleges and universities offer bachelor’s degrees in biological sci ence and many offer advanced de grees. Curriculums for advanced de grees in biological science often em phasize a particular area of biological science such as microbiology or bota ny because it is almost impossible to gain a detailed knowledge of all areas of biological science. Not all universi ties offer all curriculums. Require ments for advanced degrees usually include fieldwork and laboratory re search as well as classroom studies and preparation of a thesis. Biological scientists who have advanced degrees usually begin in research or teaching jobs. With experience, they may ad vance to jobs such as supervisors of research programs. Prospective biological scientists should be able to work independently or as part of a team and must be able to communicate their findings clearly and concisely, both orally and in writ ing. Biological scientists conducting field research in remote areas must have physical stamina. Job Outlook Employment of biological scientists is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all o c c u p atio n s through the mid-1990’s due to recent advances in genetic research that could lead to new drugs, improved plants, and medical discoveries. Ad vances in biotechnology should result in many additional research jobs for biological scientists in private indus try; additional jobs also are likely to be created by the production., by bio logical methods, of products which are presently made by chemical or other methods. Efforts to preserve the environment should also result in growth. Employment of biologists is expected to grow slowly in govern ment. In addition to jobs arising from growth in demand for biological scien tists, job openings will occur as some biological scientists transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment opportunities for bio logical scientists are expected to be better for those with advanced de grees, but the employment outlook will vary by specialty. Those who have the ability to do research related to the genetic, cellular, and biochem ical areas of biology should experi ence better employment opportunities than those in other specialties. How ever, many persons with a bachelor’s degree in biological science find jobs as science or engineering technicians or medical laboratory technologists. Some become high school biology teachers. However, they are usually regarded as teachers rather than biol ogists. Biological scientists rarely lose their jobs during recessions, since most are em ployed on long-term research projects or in agriculture, activities which are not much affected by eco nomic fluctuations. Earnings According to the College Placement Council, beginning salary offers in pri vate industry in 1984 averaged $16,800 a year for bachelor’s degree recipients in biological science. In the Federal Government in 1985, biological scientists having a bache lor’s degree could begin at $14,390 or $17,824 a year, depending on their college records. Those having the m aster’s degree could start at $17,824 or $21,804, depending on their aca demic records or work experience; those having the Ph.D. degree could begin at $26,318 or $31,619 a year. Biological scientists in the Federal Government averaged $35,500 a year in 1984. Related Occupations Many occupations are related in some way to the work of biological scien tists since they deal with living orga nisms. These include the conservation occupations of forester, forestry tech nician, range manager, and soil con servationist, as well as agricultural scientist, soil scientist, oceanogra pher, and life science technician. The wide array of health occupations are all related to those in the biological sciences, as are occupations dealing with raising plants and animals such as farmer and farm worker, florist, and nursery worker. Sources of Additional Information General information on careers in bi ological science is available from: American Institute of Biological Sciences, 1401 Wilson Boulevard, Arlington, Va. 22209. American Physiological Society, Membership Services Dept., 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Md. 20814. Dr. David L. Dilcher, Secretary, Botanical So ciety of America, Dept, of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. 47405. American Society of Zoologists, P.O. Box 2739, California Lutheran College, Thousand Oaks, Calif. 91360. For information on careers in bio chemistry, contact: American Society of Biological Chemists, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Md. 20814. Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/91 For information on careers in micro biology, contact: American Society for Microbiology, 1913 I St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. Information on Federal job oppor tunities is available from local offices of State employment services and the U.S. Office of Personnel Management or from Federal Job Information Cen ters located in various large cities throughout the country. Foresters and Conservation Scientists season for grazing. At the same time, however, they try to conserve the soil and vegetation for other uses such as wildlife habitats and outdoor recrea tion. Soil conservationists provide tech nical assistance to farmers, ranchers, and others concerned with the conser vation of soil, water, and related nat ural resources. They develop pro grams that are designed to get the most productive use of land without damaging it. Soil conservationists do most of their work in the field. Con servationists visit areas with erosion problems, find the source of the prob lem, and develop programs to combat it. Foresters and conservation scien tists often specialize in one area of work, such as timber management, outdoor recreation, or forest econom ics. Working Conditions Working conditions for foresters and conservation scientists vary consider ably. Their image as solitary horse back riders singlehandedly protecting large areas of land far from civiliza- (D.O.T. 040.061-030, -034, -046, -050, -054, and -062; .261; 049.127; and 169.167-022) Nature of the Work Forests and rangelands serve a varie ty of needs: They provide habitats for wildlife, serve as sites for recreational activities, and supply lumber, live stock forage, minerals, and water. Foresters and conservation scientists manage, develop, and help protect these and other natural resources. Foresters plan and supervise the growing, protection, and harvesting of trees. They map forest areas, estimate the amount of standing timber and future growth, and manage timber sales. Foresters also protect the trees from fire, harmful insects, and dis ease. Some foresters also protect wildlife and manage watersheds; de velop and supervise camps, parks, and grazing lands; and do research. Foresters in extension work provide information to forest owners and to the general public. Range managers, also called range conservationists, range ecologists, or range scientists, manage, improve, and protect rangelands to maximize their use without damaging the envi ronment. Rangelands cover more than 1 billion acres of the United States, mostly in the W estern States and Alaska. They contain many natural resources: Grass and shrubs for ani mal grazing, wildlife habitats, water from vast watersheds, recreation fa cilities, and valuable mineral and en ergy resources. Rangelands also serve as areas for scientific study of the environment. Range managers help ranchers attain optimum livestock production by determining the num ber and kind of animals to graze, the grazing system to use, and the best Foresters protect trees from harmful insects and disease. 92/Occupational Outlook Handbook tion no longer holds true. Modern foresters and conservation scientists spend a great deal of time working with people. They deal regularly with landowners, loggers, forestry techni cians and aides, farmers, and ranch ers. The work can still be physically demanding, though. Many foresters and conservation scientists often work outdoors in all kinds of w eather, sometimes in remote areas. To get to these areas, they use airplanes, heli copters, four-wheel drive vehicles, and horses. Foresters and conserva tion scientists also may work long hours fighting fires or on search-andrescue missions. Employment Foresters and conservation scientists held more than 25,000 jobs in 1984. Over one-half worked for the Federal Government, primarily in the Depart ment of Agriculture. About one-fifth worked for State governments. The remainder worked in private industry, mainly for lumber, paper, and logging companies, and for local governments and consulting firms. A few were selfemployed either as consultants or for est owners. Most soil conservationists work for the Federal Government, mainly with the Department of Agriculture’s Soil Conservation Service. Although foresters and conserva tion scientists work in every State, employment is concentrated in the W estern and S outheastern States where many national forests and parks are located and where most of the lumber and pulpwood producing for ests are located. Range managers work almost entirely in the Western States where most of the rangeland is located. Soil conservationists, on the other hand, are employed in almost every county in the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in forestry is the minimum educational requirement for professional careers in forestry. How ever, due to keen job competition and the increasingly complex nature of the forester’s work, many employers pre fer graduates who hold advanced de grees. Certain jobs such as teaching and research require advanced de grees. In 1984, about 50 colleges and uni versities offered bachelor’s or higher degrees in forestry; 46 of these were accredited by the Society of American Foresters. Curriculums stress the lib eral arts and communications skills as well as technical forestry subjects. Courses in forest economics and bus iness administration supplement the stu d e n t’s scientific and technical knowledge. Many colleges require students to spend one summer in a field camp operated by the college. All schools encourage summer jobs that give experience in forest or conserva tion work. A bachelor’s degree in range man agement or range science is the usual minimum educational requirement for range managers. Graduate degrees in range management generally are re quired for teaching and research posi tions and may be helpful for advance ment in other jobs. In 1984, about 35 colleges and universities offered de grees in range management or range science. A number of other schools offered some courses in range man agement. Specialized range manage ment courses combine plant, animal, and soil sciences with principles of ecology and resource management. Desirable electives include econom ics, forestry, hydrology, agronomy, wildlife, animal husbandry, computer science, and recreation. Very few colleges and universities offer degrees in soil conservation. Most soil conservationists have de grees in agronomy, agricultural edu cation, or general agriculture; a few have degrees in related fields such as wildlife biology, forestry, and range management. Programs of study gen erally include 30 semester hours in natural resources or agriculture, in cluding at least 3 hours in soils. In addition to meeting the intellec tual demands of forestry and conser vation work, foresters and conserva tion scientists must enjoy working outdoors, be physically hardy, and be willing to move—often to remote plac es. They must also be able to work well with people and have good com munication skills. Recent forestry and range manage ment graduates usually work under the supervision of experienced forest ers or range managers. After gaining experience, they may advance to more responsible positions. In the Federal Government, an experienced forester may supervise an entire forest area, and may advance to regional forest supervisor or to a top administrative position. In private industry, foresters start by learning the practical and ad ministrative aspects of the business. Many foresters work their way up to top managerial positions within their companies. Soil conservationists usually begin working within one county or conser vation district and with experience may advance to the area and State level. Also, soil conservationists can transfer to related occupations such as farm management advisors or land appraisers. Job Outlook Employment of foresters and conser vation scientists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Employment should continue to grow faster in private industry than in Fed eral and State governments, where budget limitations are likely to re strain growth. More foresters and range managers will be needed in pri vate industry to ensure an increasing output from forests and rangelands. Also, private owners of timberland and grazing land are likely to employ more foresters and range managers as they recognize the need for—and the higher profitability of—improved for estry, logging, and range management practices. However, the employment of soil conservationists is expected to change little through the mid-1990’s since the Federal Government, the major employer, is not expected to increase its employment of soil con servationists. Most job openings for foresters and conservation scientists will be created by the need to replace those who retire or transfer to other occupations. Earnings Most graduates entering the Federal Government as foresters, range man agers, or soil conservationists in 1985 with a bachelor’s degree started at $14,400 a year, although those with high grades or a m aster’s degree could start at $17,800. In 1984, the average Federal salary for foresters was near ly $31,000; for range conservationists, about $26,600; and for soil conserva tionists, about $28,100. Related Occupations Foresters and conservation scientists are not the only workers concerned with managing, developing, and pro tecting natural resources. Other work Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/93 ers with similar responsibilities in clude agricultural scientists, agricul tural engineers, biological scientists, farmers, farm managers, ranchers, and wildlife managers. Sources of Additional Information General information about the forest ry profession and lists of schools of fering education in forestry are avail able from: Society of American Foresters, 5400 Grosvenor Lane, Bethesda, Md. 20814. American Forestry Association, 1319 18th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Information about a career as a range manager as well as a list of schools offering training is available from: Society for Range Management, 2760 W. 5th Ave., Denver, Colo. 80204. For information about career op portunities in the Federal Govern ment, contact: Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Depart ment of the Interior, Washington, D.C. 20240. U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agri culture, P.O. Box 2417, Washington, D.C. 20013. Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, P.O. Box 2890, Washington, D.C. 20013. Social Scientists, Social W orkers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers Many of the workers described in this section of the Handbook are con cerned with the social needs of peo ple. For example, clinical psycholo gists help the mentally or emotionally disturbed adjust to life through behav ior modification programs and other techniques. Social workers in a wide range of settings address the needs of individuals, fam ilies, groups, and communities. Their work may involve anything from helping an elderly per son adjust to life in a nursing home to organizing fundraising for community social welfare activities. Recreation w orkers help people enjoy their nonworking hours by organizing ac tivities in camps, community centers, playgrounds, and other settings. Reli gious workers counsel people in their faith and provide spiritual and moral leadership within their communities. Lawyers advise clients of their legal rights and obligations and suggest par ticular courses of action in personal and business matters. People in these types of jobs must be tactful, compassionate, and sensi tive to the needs of others. Their manner must inspire trust and confi dence. In fact, religious workers, law yers, and others are bound by strict rules of ethics and may not disclose matters discussed in confidence with clients. Patience also is a vital person al characteristic as clients often are confused, hesitant, fearful, or angry. They may not fully understand their circumstances and may have difficulty expressing themselves. Other workers described in this sec tion conduct basic and applied re search in the social sciences. They deal primarily with data and things rather than people. They use estab lished methods to assemble a body of fact and theory that contributes to human knowledge. Social scientists investigate all aspects of human soci ety—from an anthropologist studying the origins of the human race or a historian studying an ancient civiliza 94 tion to a political scientist analyzing the results of Presidential elections or a market research analyst conducting a survey of consumer preferences. Through their studies and analyses, social scientists help educators, gov ernment officials, business executives, and others to address broad social, economic, and political questions. The ability to think logically and methodically and to analyze data is essential to social science research. Other important personal characteris tics include objectivity, openminded ness, and systematic work habits. Good oral and written communication skills also are necessary. While training and educational re quirements vary among the occupa tions in this cluster, advanced training leading to a doctoral or equivalent professional degree is increasingly necessary for employment in certain settings, for “ professional” recogni tion, and for advancement. Some po sitions for which entry was possible with a bachelor’s degree now require a m aster’s degree or suitable experi ence. These occupations require more training than most occupations in the Handbook. The Handbook statements that fol low include more detailed information on the nature of the work and training requirements. Information on employ ment, earnings, working conditions, and job outlook also is presented. Lawyers (D .O .T . 110) Laws affect every aspect of our soci ety. They regulate the entire spectrum of relationships among individuals, groups, businesses, and governments. They define rights as well as restric tions, covering such diverse activities as judging and punishing criminals, granting patents, drawing up business contracts, paying taxes, settling labor disputes, constructing buildings, and administering wills. Because social needs and attitudes are continually changing, the legal system that regulates our social, polit ical, and economic relationships also changes. Lawyers, also called attor neys, link the legal system and socie ty. To perform this role, they must understand the world around them and be sensitive to the numerous as pects of society that the law touches. They must comprehend not only the words of a particular statute, but the human circumstances it addresses as well. As our laws grow more complex, the work of lawyers takes on broader significance. Laws affect our lives in new ways as the legal system takes on regulatory tasks in areas such as transportation, energy conservation, consum er protection, the environ ment, and social welfare. Lawyers interpret these laws, rulings, and reg ulations for individuals and busi nesses. Nature of the Work In our society, lawyers act as both advocates and advisors. As advo cates, they represent one of the op posing parties in criminal and civil trials by presenting arguments that support the client in a court of law. As advisors, lawyers counsel their clients as to their legal rights and obligations and suggest particular courses of ac tion in business and personal matters. W hether acting as advocates or ad visors, nearly all attorneys have cer tain activities in common. Probably the most fundamental activities are the interpretation of the law and its application to a specific situation. This requires in-depth research into the purposes behind the applicable laws and into judicial decisions that have applied those laws to circum stances similar to those currently faced by the client. Based on this research, the attorney helps clients Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/95 decide what actions would best serve their interests. A growing number of lawyers are using computers in legal research. While all lawyers continue to employ law libraries to prepare cases, some supplement their search of the con ventional printed sources with com puter software packages that automat ically search the legal literature and identify legal texts that may be rele vant to a specific subject. In litigation that involves many supporting docu ments, lawyers may also use comput ers to organize and index the material. Tax lawyers are also increasingly us ing computers to make tax computa tions and explore alternative tax strat egies for clients. Lawyers must deal with people in a courteous, efficient manner and not disclose matters discussed in confi dence with clients. They hold posi tions of great responsibility, and are obligated to adhere to strict rules of ethics. Finally, most lawyers write reports or briefs which must communicate clearly and precisely. The more de tailed aspects of a lawyer’s job de pend upon his or her field and posi tion. While all licensed attorneys are al lowed to represent parties in court, some appear in court more frequently than others. A few lawyers specialize in trial work. These lawyers need an exceptional ability to think quickly and speak with ease and authority, and must be thoroughly familiar with courtroom rules and strategy. Trial lawyers still spend most of their time outside the courtroom conducting re search, interviewing clients and wit nesses, and handling other details in preparation for trial. Although most lawyers deal with many different areas of the law, a significant number concentrate on one branch of law, such as admiralty, pro bate, or international law. Communi cations lawyers, for example, may represent radio and television stations in court and in their dealings with the Federal Communications Commis sion. They help established stations prepare and file license renewal appli cations, employment reports, and oth er documents required by the FCC on a regular basis. They also keep their clients informed of changes in FCC regulations. Communications lawyers help individuals or corporations buy or sell a station or establish a new one. Lawyers who represent public util ities before the Federal Energy Regu latory Commission and other Federal and State regulatory agencies handle matters involving utility rates. They develop strategy, arguments, and tes timony; prepare cases for presenta tion; and argue the case. These law yers also inform clients about changes in regulations and give advice about the legality of their actions. Still other lawyers advise insurance companies about the legality of insur ance transactions. They write insur ance policies to conform with the law and to protect companies from unwar ranted claims. They review claims filed against insurance companies and represent companies in court. Lawyers in private practice may concentrate on areas such as litiga tion, wills, trusts, contracts, mortgag es, titles, and leases. Some manage a person’s property as trustee or, as executor, see that provisions of a cli ent’s will are carried out. Others han dle only public interest cases—civil or criminal—which have a potential im pact extending well beyond the indi vidual client. Attorneys hope to use these cases as a vehicle for legal and social reform. A lawyer may be employed full time by a single client. If the client is a corporation, the lawyer is known as house counsel and usually advises a company about legal questions that arise from its business activities. These questions might involve pat ents, government regulations, a busi ness contract with another company, a property interest, or a collective bargaining agreement with a union. Attorneys employed at the various levels of government constitute still another category. Criminal lawyers may work for a State attorney gener al, a prosecutor or public defender, or a court. At the Federal level, attor neys may investigate cases for the Department of Justice or other agen cies. Lawyers at every government level help develop laws and programs, draft and interpret legislation, estab lish enforcement procedures, and ar gue cases. Other lawyers work for legal aid societies—private, nonprofit corpora tions established to serve poor people in particular areas. These lawyers generally handle civil rather than crim inal cases. A relatively small number of trained attorneys work in law schools. Most are faculty members who specialize in one or more subjects, while others serve as administrators. Some work full time in nonacademic settings and teach part time. (For additional infor mation, see the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Lawyers do most of their work in offices, law libraries, and courtrooms. They som etim es m eet in clients’ homes or places of business and, when necessary, in hospitals or pris ons. They frequently travel to attend meetings; to gather evidence; and to appear before courts, legislative bod ies, and other authorities. Salaried lawyers in government and private corporations generally have structured work schedules. Lawyers in private practice may work irregular hours while conducting research, con ferring with clients, or preparing briefs during nonoffice hours. Lawyers gen erally work long hours and are under particularly heavy pressure when a case is being tried. Preparation for court includes keeping abreast of the latest laws and judicial decisions. Although work generally is not sea sonal, the work of tax lawyers and other specialists may be an exception. Since lawyers in private practice can determine their own workload, many stay in practice well beyond the usual retirement age. Employment Lawyers held about 490,000 jobs in 1984. About four-fifths of them prac ticed privately, either in law firms or in solo practices. Most of the remain ing lawyers held positions in govern ment, the majority at the local level. In the Federal Government, lawyers are concentrated in the Departments of Justice, Treasury, and Defense, but they work for other Federal agencies as well. Others are employed as house counsel by public utilities, transporta tion firms, banks, insurance compa nies, real estate agencies, manufac turing firms, welfare and religious or ganizations, and other business firms and nonprofit organizations. Some salaried lawyers also have indepen dent practices; others work as law yers part time while in another occu pation. Many people trained as attorneys 96/Occupational Outlook Handbook Lawyers counsel clients on their legal rights and obligations and suggest courses of action. are not employed as lawyers; they work as judges, law clerks, law school professors, and managers and admin istrators and in a variety of other occupations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To practice law in the courts of any State, a person must be licensed, or admitted to its bar, under rules estab lished by the State’s supreme court. Applicants for admission to the bar must pass a written bar examination; however, Wisconsin and West Virgin ia drop this requirement for graduates of their own law schools. Most States also require applicants to pass a sep arate w ritten ethics exam ination. Lawyers who have been admitted to the bar in one State occasionally may be admitted in another State without taking an examination if they meet that State’s standards of good moral character and have a specified period of legal experience. Federal courts and agencies set their own qualifica tions for those practicing before them. To qualify for the bar examination in most States, an applicant must complete at least 3 years of college and graduate from a law school ap proved by the American Bar Associ ation (ABA) or the proper State au thorities. (ABA approval signifies that the law school—particularly its li brary or faculty—meets certain stan dards developed by the association to promote quality legal education.) In 1984, the American Bar Association approved 174 law schools. Others were approved by State authorities only. With certain exceptions, gradu ates of schools not approved by the ABA generally are restricted to taking the bar examination and practicing in the State in which the school is locat ed; most of these schools are in Cali fornia. Seven States accept the study of law in a law office or in combination with study in a law school; only Cali fornia accepts the study of law by correspondence as qualification for taking the bar examination. Several States require registration and ap proval of students by the State Board of Law Examiners, either before they enter law school or during the early years of legal study. Although there is no nationwide bar examination, 46 States and the Dis trict of Columbia require the Multi state Bar Examination (MBE) as part of the State bar examination. The MBE, covering issues of broad inter est, is given in addition to a locally prepared part of the State bar exami nation. States vary in their treatment of MBE scores. The required college and law school education usually takes 7 years of full-time study after high school—4 years of undergraduate study fol lowed by 3 years in law school. Al though some law schools accept a very small number of students after 3 years of college, most require appli cants to have a bachelor’s degree. To meet the needs of students who can attend only part time, a number of law schools have night or part-time divi sions which usually require 4 years of study. In 1983, about one-eighth of all graduates of ABA-approved schools were part-time students. Preparation for a career as a lawyer really begins in college. Although there is no recommended “ prelaw” major, the choice of an undergraduate program is important. Certain courses and activities are desirable because they give the student the skills needed to succeed both in law school and in the profession. Essential skills—the ability to write, to read and analyze, to think logically, and to communicate verbally—are learned during high school and college. An undergraduate program that cultivates these skills while broadening the student’s view of the world is good. Majors in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities all are suitable, although a student should not specialize too nar rowly. Regardless of one’s major, courses in English, a foreign lan guage, public speaking, government, p h ilo so p h y , h isto ry , eco n o m ics, mathematics, and computer science, among others, are useful. Students interested in a particular aspect of law may find related courses helpful; for example, engineering and science courses for the prospective patent attorney, and accounting for the future tax lawyer. In addition, typing is advisable simply for conve nience in law school and beyond, and because it facilitates use of comput ers. Acceptance by most law schools depends on the applicant’s ability to demonstrate an aptitude for the study of law, usually through good under graduate grades, the college admis sion test, and the Law School Admis sion Test (LSAT), administered by the Law School Admissions Service. The quality of the applicant’s under graduate school, any prior work expe Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/97 rience, and sometimes a personal in terview are also taken into consider ation. Competition for admission to many law schools is intense. Enrollments rose very rapidly during the early 1970’s, with applicants far outnum bering available seats. Since then, law school enrollments have increased slowly, but applicants to many law schools still greatly exceeed the num ber that can be admitted. Enrollments are expected to level off during the late 1980’s and early 1990’s, and com petition for admission to some law schools is expected to ease some what. However, competition for ad mission to the more prestigious law schools will remain stiff. During the first year or year and a half of law school, students generally study fundamental courses such as constitutional law, contracts, proper ty law, torts, judicial procedures, and legal writing. In the remaining time, they may elect specialized courses in fields such as tax, labor, or corpora tion law. Practical experience often is acquired by participation in schoolsponsored legal aid or legal clinic ac tivities, in the school’s moot court competitions in which students con duct appellate arguments, in practice trials under the supervision of experi enced lawyers and judges, and through research and writing on legal issues for the school’s law journals. In 1984, law students in 29 States and the District of Columbia were required to pass the Multistate Profes sional Responsibility Exam ination (MPRE), which tests their knowledge of the ABA codes on professional responsibility and judicial conduct. In some States, the MPRE may be taken during law school, usually after com pleting a course on legal ethics. A number of law schools have clin ical programs where students gain le gal experience through practice trials and law school projects under the supervision of practicing lawyers and law school faculty. Law school clini cal programs might include work in legal aid clinics, for example, or on the staff of legislative committees. Part-time or summer clerkships in law firms, government agencies, and cor porate legal departments also provide experience that can be extremely valuable later on. Such training can provide references or lead directly to a job after graduation, and can help students decide what kind of practice best suits them. Clerkships also may be an important source of financial aid. Graduates receive the degree of juris doctor (J.D.) or bachelor o f law (LL.B.) as the first professional de gree. Advanced law degrees are desir able for those planning to specialize, do research, or teach. Some law stu dents pursue joint degree programs, which generally require an additional year. Joint degree programs are of fered in a number of areas, including law and business administration and law and public administration. After graduation, lawyers must keep in fo rm ed a b o u t legal and nonlegal developm ents that affect their practice. An attorney represent ing electronics manufacturers, for ex ample, must follow trade journals and the latest Federal regulations. Attor neys in the Department of State must remain well versed in current events and international law, while divorce lawyers read about the changing role of the family in modern society. Many law schools and State and local bar associations provide continuing edu cation courses that help lawyers stay abreast of recent developments. The practice of law involves a great deal of responsibility. Persons plan ning careers in law should like to work with people and be able to win the respect and confidence of their cli ents, associates, and the public. Integ rity and honesty are vital personal qualities. Perseverance and reasoning ability are essential to analyze com plex cases and reach sound conclu sions. At times, lawyers need creativ ity when handling new and unique legal problems. Most beginning lawyers start in sal aried positions. Newly hired salaried attorneys usually act as research as sistants to experienced lawyers or judges. After several years of progres sively responsible salaried employ ment, many lawyers are admitted to partnership in their firm, or go into practice for themselves. Some law yers, after years of practice, become judges or full-time law school faculty or administrators; a growing number have advanced degrees in other fields as well. Some persons use their legal train ing in administrative or managerial positions in various departments of large corporations. A transfer from a corporation’s legal department to an other department often is viewed as a way to gain administrative experience and rise in the ranks of management. Job Outlook Despite strong growth in the demand for lawyers, the sizable number of law school graduates entering the job mar ket each year has created keen com petition for jobs. The number of law school graduates has more than dou bled since 1970, as shown in the ac companying chart. While the number of graduates js expected to level off through the mid-1990’s, competition for salaried jobs is likely to continue. New graduates, together with quali fied lawyers seeking to transfer from other occupations, should continue to outnumber salaried openings, particu larly in large metropolitan areas. Employment of lawyers grew very rapidly during the last decade. Much faster-than-average growth is expect ed to continue through the mid-1990’s as increased population and business activity help sustain the strong de mand for attorneys. This demand also will be spurred by growth of legal action in such areas as consumer pro tection, the environment, and safety, and an anticipated increase in the use of legal services by middle-income groups through legal clinics and pre paid legal service programs. Employ ment growth will continue to be con centrated in private salaried jobs. The number of self-employed lawyers is expected to grow slowly as it becomes increasingly difficult to establish a profitable small practice, due to the growing complexity of law, which en courages specialization, and the cost of maintaining up-to-date legal re search materials. Turnover of jobs in this occupation is low because its members are well paid and enjoy considerable social status, and a substantial educational investment is required for entry. Nev ertheless, most job openings will stem from the need to replace lawyers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or stop working for other reasons. Employers will continue to be se lective in hiring new lawyers. Gradu ates of prestigious law schools and those who rank high in their classes should find salaried positions with law firms, on the legal staffs of corpora tions and government agencies, or as law clerks for judges. Graduates of less prominent schools and those with lower scholastic ratings may experi ence some difficulty in finding salaried 98/Occupational Outlook Handbook The number of law degrees granted annually has grown slowly since the mid-1970’s. Law degrees (thousands) SOURCE: National Center tor Education Statistics jobs. Some graduates may be forced to accept positions for which they are overqualifed or in areas outside their field of interest. An increasing propor tion will enter fields where legal train ing is an asset but not normally a requirement. For example, banks, in surance firms, real estate companies, government agencies; and other orga nizations seek law graduates to fill many administrative, managerial, and business positions. Due to the competition for jobs, a law graduate’s geographic mobility and experience assume greater impor tance. The willingness to relocate may be an advantage in getting a job, but to be licensed in a new State a lawyer may have to take an additional bar examination. In addition, employers increasingly seek graduates who have advanced law degrees and experience in a particular field such as tax, patent, or admiralty law. Establishing a new practice proba bly will continue to be best in small towns and expanding suburban areas, as long as an active market for legal services already exists. In such com munities, competition is likely to be less than in big cities, and new law yers may find it easier to become known to potential clients; also, rent and other business costs are some what lower. Nevertheless, starting a new practice will remain an expensive and risky undertaking that should be weighed carefully. Most salaried posi tions will remain in urban areas where government agencies, law firms, and Digitized forbig corporations are concentrated. FRASER Some lawyers are adversely af fected by cyclical swings in the econ omy. During recessions, the demand for some discretionary legal services, such as planning estates, drafting wills, and handling real estate transac tions, declines. Also, corporations are less likely to litigate cases when de clining sales and profits result in bud getary restrictions. Although few law yers actually lose their jobs during these times, earnings may decline for many. Some corporations and law firms will not hire new attorneys until business improves. Several factors, however, mitigate the overall impact of recessions on lawyers. During re cessions, individuals and corporations face other legal problems, such as bankruptcies, foreclosures, and di vorces, that require legal action. Fur thermore, the continuous emergence of new laws and legal interpretations will create new opportunities for lawyers. Earnings In 1984, starting salaries for recent law school graduates ranged from about $10,000 a year in some public in te re s t program s to m ore than $40,000 in some larger law firms. Be ginning attorneys in private industry averaged nearly $29,000 in 1984. In the Federal Government, annual start ing salaries for attorneys in 1985 were about $21,800 or $26,400, depending upon academic and personal qualifica tions. Factors affecting the salaries offered to new graduates include: Ac ademic record; type, size, and loca tion of employers; and the desired specialized educational background. The field of law makes a difference, too. Patent lawyers, for example, generally are among the highest paid attorneys. Salaries of experienced attorneys also vary widely according to the type, size, and location of the employ ers. The average salary of the most experienced lawyers in private indus try in 1984 was nearly $88,000. Gen eral attorneys in the Federal Govern ment averaged around $44,100 a year in 1984; the relatively small number of patent attorneys in the Federal Gov ernment averaged around $53,300. Lawyers starting their own practice may need to work part time in other occupations during the first years to supplement their income. Lawyers on salary receive increases as they as sume greater responsibility. Incomes of lawyers in practice usually grow as their practices develop. Lawyers who are partners in law firms generally earn more than those who practice alone. Related Occupations Legal training is useful in many other occupations. Some of these are legal assistant, arbitrator, hearing examin er, journalist, patent agent, title exam iner, legislative assistant, lobbyist, FBI special agent, political office hold er, and corporate executive. Sources of Additional Information The Prelaw H andbook, published by Law School Admission Services, Box 2000, Newtown, Pa. 18940, provides information on prelaw study and ap plying to law schools. Copies may be available in public or school libraries. Information on law schools, finan cial aid for law students, and law as a career is available from: Information Services, American Bar Association, 750 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, 111. 60611. (There may be a slight charge for publications.) For information on the placement of law graduates and the legal profes sion in general, contact: National Association for Law Placement, Ad ministrative Office, 440 First St. N.W ., Suite 302, Washington, D.C. 20001. Information on legal education is available from: Association of American Law Schools, 1 Dupont Circle NW., Suite 370, Washington, D.C. 20036. The specific requirements for ad mission to the bar in a particular State may be obtained at the State capital from the clerk of the Supreme Court or the Secretary of the Board of Bar Examiners. Social Scientists and Urban Planners Nature of the Work Social scientists study all aspects of human society—from the distribution of products and services to newly formed religious groups or plans for modern mass transportation systems. Social science research provides in sights that help us understand the many different ways in which individ uals and groups make decisions, exer cise power, or respond to change. Through their studies and analyses, social scientists and urban planners assist educators, government officials, business leaders, and others to solve social, economic, and environmental problems. Research is a basic activity for many social scientists. They use es tablished methods to assemble a body of fact and theory that contributes to human knowledge. Applied research usually is designed to produce infor mation that will enable people to make better decisions or manage their affairs more effectively. Interviews and surveys are widely used to collect facts, opinions, or other information. Data collection takes many other forms, however, including living and working among the people studied; archeological investigations; the anal ysis of historical records and docu ments; experiments with human sub jects or lower animals in a psycholog ical laboratory ; and the administration of standardized tests and question naires. Regardless of their field of special ization, social scientists are concerned with some aspect of society, culture, or personality. A n th r o p o lo g is t s study the way of life, remains, language, and physical characteristics of people in all parts of the world; they compare the customs, values, and social patterns of different cultures. Anthropologists generally concentrate in one of four subfields: Cultural anthropology, archeology, linguistics, or physical anthropology. Most anthropologists specialize in cultural anthropology, studying the customs, cultures, and social lives of groups in a wide range of settings from nonindustrialized societies to modern urban cultures. Archeologists study cultures from artifacts and other remains in the ground. Linguistic an thropologists study the role of lan guage in various cultures. Physical anthropologists study the evolution of the human body and look for the ear liest evidence of human life. E c o n o m is ts study the way we allo cate our resources to produce a wide variety of goods and services. They conduct surveys and analyze data to determine public preferences for these goods and services. Most economists are concerned with the practical appli cations of economic policy in a partic ular area, such as finance, labor, agri culture, transportation, energy, or health. Others develop theories to ex plain economic phenomena such as unemployment or inflation. G e o g r a p h e r s study the interrela tionship of man and the environment. Geographers specialize, as a rule. Economic geographers deal with the geographic distribution of an area’s economic activities. Political geogra phers are concerned with the relation ship of geography to political bound aries—local, national, and in te r national. Physical geographers study the physical characteristics of the earth. Urban geographers study cities and metropolitan areas, while regional geographers study the physical, cli matic, economic, political, and cultur al characteristics of a particular region or area, which may range in size from a river basin to a State, country, or continent. Cartographers design and construct maps and charts. Medical geographers study the effect of the environment on health. H is to r ia n s describe and analyze past events through writing and re search. Historians usually specialize in a specific' country or geographic region; in a particular time period; or in a particular field, such as social, intellectual, political, or diplomatic history. Biographers collect detailed information on individuals. Genealo gists trace family histories, and other historians help preserve and protect historic buildings and sites. P o lit ic a l s c ie n tis t s investigate the ways in which political power is gained and used. They study a wide range of subjects such as Soviet-American re lations, the beliefs and institutions of nations in Asia and Africa, the politics of a New England town or a major metropolis, and the decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court. Studying topics such as public opinion, political decisionmaking, and ideology, they analyze the structure and operation of governments as well as informal polit ical entities. Depending on the topic under study, a political scientist might conduct a public opinion survey or analyze election results. P s y c h o l o g is ts study human behav ior and use their expertise to counsel or advise individuals or groups. Their research also assists advertisers, pol iticians, and others interested in influ encing or motivating people. While clinical psychology is the largest spe cialty, psychologists specialize in many other fields such as counseling, experimental, social, or industrial psy chology. S o c io lo g i s ts analyze the behavior of groups or social systems such as families, neighborhoods, or clubs. So ciologists may specialize in a particu lar field such as criminology, rural sociology, or medical sociology. U r b a n a n d r e g io n a l p la n n e r s devel op comprehensive plans and programs for the use of land for industrial and public sites. Planners prepare for sit uations that are likely to develop as a result of population growth or social and economic change. Working Conditions Most social scientists have regular hours. While working alone behind a desk, they read and write research reports. Many experience the pres sures of deadlines and tight schedules, and sometimes must work overtime. Their routine may be interrupted by telephone calls, letters to answer, spe cial requests for information, meet ings, or conferences. Travel may be necessary to collect information or attend meetings. Social scientists on foreign assignment must adjust to un familiar cultures and climates. 99 10O/Occupational Outlook Handbook Some social scientists do fieldwork. For example, anthropologists and ar cheologists often must travel to re mote areas to live among the people they study or stay for long periods at the site of their excavations. Employment Social scientists held about 186,000 jobs in 1984. They work for a wide range of employers including govern ment agencies; research organizations and consulting firms; labor unions, trade associations, and nonprofit or ganizations; hospitals and other health facilities; and business firms. About 1 out of 5 social scientists is self-employed and involved in coun seling, consulting, research, and relat ed activities. In addition, many per sons with graduate training in a social science discipline, usually a doctoral degree, are employed by colleges and universities where they characteristi cally combine teaching with research and consulting. (For more informa tion, see the Handbook statement on college and university faculty.) As a source of employment, the academic world is more important for graduates in sociology or political science than for graduates in urban and regional planning or psychology. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The Ph.D. or equivalent degree is a minimum requirement for most posi tions in colleges and universities and is important for advancement to many top-level nonacademic posts. Gradu ates with m aster’s degrees have more limited professional opportunities, al though the situation varies a great deal by field. For example, job pros pects for m aster’s degree holders in urban and regional planning are bright er than for m aster’s degree holders in sociology. Bachelor’s degree holders have very limited opportunities and in most social science occupations do not qualify for “ professional” posi tions. The bachelor’s degree does, however, provide a suitable back ground for many different kinds of “junior professional” jobs, such as research assistan t, adm inistrative aide, or management trainee. Training in statistics and mathemat ics is essential for most social scien tists. Mathematical and other quanti tative research methods are increas ingly used in economics, geography, political science, experimental psy chology, and other fields. The ability to use computers for research purpos es is a “ m ust” in many disciplines. Depending on their jobs, social sci entists and urban planners may need a wide range of personal characteris tics. Because they constantly seek new information about people, things, and ideas, intellectual curiosity and creativity are two fundamental per sonal traits. The ability to think logi cally and methodically is important to a political scientist comparing the merits of various forms of govern ment. The ability to analyze data is important to an economist studying proposals to reduce Federal budget deficits. O bjectivity, openm inded While the number of social science graduates with a bachelor’s degree has declined in response to shrinking demand, the number with an advanced degree has remained stable. Degrees awarded (thousands) 210 210 Bachelor’s 190 190 170 - 170 150 “fllllS 150 130 - 17 40 20 0 1 M aster’s and d o c to r’s - _J_____ C~;; . i______ 1 ______1 _____ L _ ______1 ______1 ______1 _____ 1 ______ 1 _____ J______1 1970-71 71-72 72-73 73-74 74-75 75-76 76-77 77-78 78-79 79-80 80-81 81-82 82-83 SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics 130 40 20 0 ness, and systematic work habits are important in all kinds of social science research. Perseverance is essential for an anthropologist, who might spend years accumulating artifacts from an ancient civilization. Emotional stabil ity and sensitivity are vital to a clinical psychologist working with mental pa tients. And, of course, written and oral communication skills are essen tial to all these workers. Job Outlook Employment of social scientists is ex pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace social scientists who transfer to other occupations, retire, or stop working for other reasons. Overall, the num ber of degrees awarded in the social sciences is ex pected to exceed job openings and result in strong competition for jobs. Prospects are better in some disci plines than in others, however. The predominance of academic employ ment in such disciplines as anthropol ogy, history, political science, and sociology may cause severe problems for these specialists through the mid1990’s as college enrollments decline. Compared to the past, few academic positions will be available, and efforts are continuing to acquaint new gradu ates in these fields with alternative or nontraditional career opportunities in areas such as program administration and evaluation. As in the past, top graduates of leading universities will have a decided advantage in compet ing for jobs, especially for the limited number of academic jobs. Other con siderations that affect employment opportunities in these occupations in clude degree level; specific skills and experience; desired work setting; sal ary requirements; and geographic mo bility. Earnings According to the College Placement Council, persons with a bachelor’s degree in a social science field re ceived offers averaging about $18,400 a year in 1984. Persons with a mas ter’s degree in a social science field received starting offers that averaged $19,800. According to a 1983 National Re search Council survey, the median annual salary of doctoral social scien tists ranged from $34,000 to $36,000. Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/101 In the Federal Government, social scientists with a bachelor’s degree and no experience could start at $14,400 or $17,800 a year in 1985, depending on their college records. Those with a m aster’s degree could start at $21,800, and those having a Ph.D. degree could begin at $26,400, while unusually qualified individuals could start at $31,600. The average salary of all social scientists working for the Federal Government in 1984 was about $37,700. Related Occupations A number of fields related to social science are covered elsewhere in the H a n d b o o k . See the statements on law yers, statisticians, m athem ati cians, computer programmers, com puter systems analysts, reporters and correspondents, social workers, reli gious workers, college and university faculty, and counselors. The number of graduates has declined in all social science fields except economics and international relations. Degrees awarded, all levels (thousands) 0 10 20 --------- !----------- 1 -------- Consortium of Social Science Associations, 1200 17th St. NW., Suite 520, Washington, D.C. 20036. More detailed information about economists, psychologists, sociolo gists, and urban and regional planners is presented in the H a n d b o o k state ments that follow this introductory statement. ■ : Political science and government Economics and international relations Other Source National Center for Education Statistics Association of American Geographers, 1710 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. Cartography and Related Fields For information on careers in car tography, surveying, and geodesy, contact: American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, 210 Little Falls St., Falls Church, Va. 22046. For information on careers and a list of schools that offer courses in photogrammetry and satellite data in terpretation, contact: American Society of Photogrammetry, 210 Lit tle Falls St., Falls Church, Va. 22046. Anthropology For information about careers, job openings, grants and fellowships, and schools that offer training in anthro pology, and for a copy of G e ttin g a J o b O u ts id e th e A c a d e m y (special publication no. 14), contact: The American Anthropological Association, 1703 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. Archeology For information about careers in archeology, contact: Society for American Archeology, 1511 K St. NW., Suite 716, Washington, D.C. 20005. Geography Two pamphlets that provide infor mation on careers and job openings for geographers— G e o g r a p h y - T o m o r r o w ’s C a r e e r and C a r e e r s in G e o g r a p h y —and the annual publication list ing schools offering various programs in geography—A G u id e to D e p a r t m e n ts o f G e o g r a p h y in th e U .S . a n d C a n a d a —may be obtained from: 60 40 1972-73 Sources of Additional Information For general information concerning the social sciences, contact: 30 ing nonacademic careers. Also, A G u id e to G r a d u a te S tu d y in P o litic a l S c ie n c e may be purchased. In addi tion, a monthly newsletter listing job openings, primarily academic, is avail able to members of the association. P r o g r a m s in P u b lic A ffa ir s a n d A d m in is tr a tio n , a biennial directory that contains data on the academic content of programs, the student body, the format of instruction, and other infor mation, may be purchased from: National Association of Schools of Public Af fairs and Administration, 1120 G St. NW., Suite 520, Washington, D.C. 20005. History Information on careers and job openings for historians and on schools offering various programs in history is available from: Economists American Historical Association, 400 A St. SE., Washington, D.C. 20003. Nature of the Work General information on careers for historians is available from: Organization of American Historians, 112 North Bryan St., Bloomington, Ind. 47401. For additional information on ca reers for historians, send a self-ad dressed, stamped envelope to: American Association for State and Local His tory, 708 Berry Rd., Nashville, Tenn. 37204. Political Science The American Political Science As sociation, 1527 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036, offers a career pamphlet for undergraduates and another—A l te r n a tiv e C a r e e r s f o r P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e —for faculty and graduate students interested in pursu (D.O.T. 050.067) Economists study the way a society uses scarce resources such as land, labor, raw materials, and machinery to provide goods and services. They analyze the results of their research to determine the costs and benefits of making, distributing, and using re sources in a particular way. Their research might focus on topics such as energy costs, farm prices, or com modity imports. Some economists who are primarily theoreticians may develop theories through the use of mathematical mod els to explain the causes of business cycles and inflation or the effects of unemployment and tax policy. Most economists, however, are concerned with practical applications of econom 102/Occupational Outlook Handbook ic policy in a particular area, such as finance, labor, agriculture, transporta tion, energy, or health. They use their understanding of economic relation ships to advise business firms, insur ance companies, banks, securities firms, industry associations, labor unions, government, and others. Depending on the topic under study, economists may devise methods and procedures for obtaining data they need. For example, sampling tech niques may be used to conduct a sur vey, and econometric modeling tech niques may be used to develop projec tions. Preparing reports usually is an important part of the economist’s job. He or she may be called upon to review and analyze all the relevant data, prepare tables and charts, and write up the results in clear, concise language. Being able to present economic and statistical concepts in a meaningful way is particularly important for econ omists whose research is policy di rected. Market research analysts who work for business firms may be asked to provide management with informa tion to make decisions on marketing and pricing of company products; to look at the advisability of adding new lines of merchandise, opening new branches, or diversifying the compa ny’s operations; to analyze the effect of changes in the tax laws; or to prepare economic and business fore casts. Business economists working for firms that carry on operations abroad may be asked to prepare fore casts of foreign economic conditions. Economists who work for govern ment agencies assess economic condi tions in the United States and abroad and estimate the economic impact of specific changes in legislation or pub lic policy. For example, they may study how changes in the minimum wage affect teenage unemployment. Most government economists are in the fields of agriculture, business, fi nance, labor, transportation, urban economics, or international trade. For example, economists in the U.S. De partment of Commerce study domes tic production, distribution, and con sumption of commodities or services; those in the Federal Trade Commis sion prepare industry analyses to as sist in enforcing Federal statutes de signed to eliminate unfair, deceptive, or monopolistic practices in interstate commerce; and those in the Bureau of Labor Statistics analyze data on pric es, wages, employment, and produc tivity. Working Conditions Economists working for government agencies and private firms have struc tured work schedules. They may work alone with only reports, statistical charts, computers, and calculators for company. Or they may be an integral part of a research team. Most work under pressure of deadlines, tight schedules, and heavy workloads, and sometimes must work overtime. Their routine may be interrupted by special requests for data, letters, meetings, or conferences. Travel may be necessary to collect data or attend conferences. Economics faculty have flexible work schedules, dividing their time among teaching, research, consulting, and administrative responsibilities. Employment Some economists study the interrelation ships of the Nation’s business firms. Economists held about 38,000 jobs in 1984. Private industry—particularly economic and market research firms, management consulting firms, securi ties and investment companies, ad vertising firms, and utilities—em ployed over three-fifths of all econo mists. The remainder were employed by a wide range of government agen cies, primarily in the Federal Govern ment. The Departments of Agricul ture, Labor, and State are the largest Federal employers. Some economists run their own consulting businesses. A number of economists combine a full-time job in government or busi ness with part-time or consulting work in another setting. Employment of economists is con centrated in large cities. The largest numbers are in New York City and Washington, D.C. Some work abroad for com panies w ith m ajor in te r national operations; for the Depart ment of State and other U.S. Govern ment agencies; and for international organizations. Besides the jobs described above, an estimated 22,000 persons held eco nomics and marketing faculty posi tions in colleges and universities. (For information about this occupation, see the statement on college and uni versity faculty elsewhere in the Hand book.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in economics or marketing is sufficient for many beginning research, admin istrative, management trainee, and sales jobs. The undergraduate curric ulum in clu d es c o u rse s such as: M icroeconom ics; m acroeconom ics; business cycles; economic and busi ness history; economic development of selected areas; money and banking; international econom ics; public fi nance; industrial organization; labor econom ics; com parative economic systems; economics of national plan ning; urban economic problems; mar keting; consumer analysis; psycholo gy; sociology; organizational behav ior; and business law. In addition, courses in mathematics, business and economic statistics, sampling theory and survey design, and computer sci ence are highly recommended. Graduate training increasingly is re quired for most economist jobs and for advancement to more responsible positions. Areas of specialization at the graduate level include advanced economic theory, mathematical eco nomics, econometrics, economic sta tistics, history of economic thought, and comparative economic systems and planning. Other areas include economic history, economic develop ment, environmental and natural re source economics, industrial organi zation, marketing, institutional eco nom ics, in tern atio n al econom ics, labor economics, monetary econom ics, public finance, regional and urban economics, and social policy. Stu dents should select graduate schools Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/103 strong in specialties in which they are interested. Some schools help gradu ate students find internships or parttime employment in government agen cies, economic consulting firms, or market research firms. Work experi ence and contacts can be useful in testing career preferences and learn ing about the job market for econo mists. In the Federal Government, candi dates for entrance positions generally need a college degree with a minimum of 21 semester hours of economics and 3 hours of statistics, accounting, or calculus. However, because com petition is keen, additional education or experience may be required. For a job as a college instructor in many junior colleges and small 4-year schools, a m aster’s degree generally is the minimum requirement. In some colleges and universities, however, a Ph.D. is necessary for appointment as an instructor. The Ph.D. and exten sive publication are required for a professorship and for tenure, which are increasingly difficult to obtain. In government, industry, research organizations, and consulting firms, economists who have a graduate de gree usually can qualify for more re sponsible research and administrative positions. A Ph.D. is necessary for top positions in many organizations. Many corporation and government executives have strong backgrounds in economics or marketing. Over 1,200 colleges and universities offer bachelor’s degree programs in economics and marketing; over 600, m aster’s; and about 130, doctoral pro grams. Persons considering careers as economists should be able to work accurately with detail since much time is spent on data analysis. Patience and persistence are necessary because economists may spend long hours on independent study and problem solv ing. At the same time, they must be able to work well with others. Econ omists must be objective and system atic in their work and be able to ex press themselves effectively both oral ly and in writing. Creativity and intellectual curiosity are essential for success in this field, just as they are in other areas of scientific endeavor. Job Outlook Employment of economists is expect ed to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid 1990’s. Most job openings will result from the need to replace experienced economists who transfer to other oc cupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Overall, economists are likely to have more favorable job prospects than most other social scientists. Op portunities should be best in manufac turing, financial services, advertising agencies, research organizations, and consulting firms, reflecting the com plexity of the domestic and inter national economies and increased re liance on quantitative methods of an alyzing business trends, forecasting sales, and planning of purchasing and production. The continued need for economic analyses by lawyers, ac countants, engineers, health service administrators, urban and regional planners, environmental scientists, and others will also increase the num ber of jobs for economists. Little change is expected in the employment of economists in the Federal Govern ment—in line with the rate of growth projected for the Federal work force as a whole. Average growth is expect ed in the employment of economists in State and local government. While courses in economics are increasingly popular, college enrollments are ex pected to decline through the mid1990’s—resulting in little or no em ployment growth in colleges and uni versities. As a result, many highly qualified economics graduates will en ter nonacademic positions. A strong background in economic theory, statistics, and econometrics provides the tools for acquiring any specialty within the field. Those skilled in quantitative techniques and their application to economic model ing and forecasting and market re search, including the use of comput ers, should have the best job opportu nities. Persons who graduate with a bach elor’s degree in economics through the mid-1990’s should face very keen competition for the limited number of economist positions for which they qualify. However, many will find em ployment in government, industry, and business as management or sales trainees, or as research or administra tive assistants. Those with strong backgrounds in mathematics, statis tics, survey design, and computer sci ence may be hired by private firms for market research work. Those who meet State certification requirements may become high school economics teachers. (For additional information, see the statement on secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Candidates who hold m aster’s de grees in economics face very strong competition, particularly for teaching positions in colleges and universities. However, some may gain positions in junior and community colleges. Those with a strong background in market ing and finance may have the best prospects in business, banking, adver tising, and management consulting firms. Ph.D .’s are likely to face competi tion for academic positions, although top graduates from leading universi ties should have little difficulty in ac quiring teaching jobs. However, a larger number of Ph.D .’s will have to accept jobs at smaller or less presti gious institutions. Ph.D .’s should have favorable opportunities to work as economists in government, industry, educational and research organiza tions, and consulting firms. Earnings According to a 1984 salary survey by the College Placement Council, per sons with a bachelor’s degree in eco nomics received an average starting salary of about $20,000 a year; in m arketing and distribution, about $17,800. Median annual earnings of full-time economists were about $29,000 in 1984. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,300 and $41,700 annual ly. The lowest 10 percent earned un der $16,100, while the highest 10 per cent earned over $52,000. The median base salary of business economists in 1984 was $50,000, ac cording to a survey by the National Association of Business Economists. About one-third of those responding also had income from secondary em ployment. Economists in general ad ministration and international eco nomics commanded the highest sala ries; those in market research and econometrics, the lowest. The highest paid business economists were in the mining, retail and wholesale trade, and securities and investment indus tries; the lowest paid were in the ed ucation, transportation, and publish ing industries. The Federal Government recogniz es education and experience in certi fying applicants for entry level posi tions. In general, the entrance salary 104/0ccupational Outlook Handbook for economists having a bachelor’s degree averaged about $14,400 a year in 1985; however, those with superior academic records could begin at about $17,800. Those having a m aster’s de gree could qualify for positions at an annual salary of about $21,800. Those with a Ph.D. could begin at about $26,400, while unusually qualified in dividuals could start at $31,600. Econ omists in the Federal Government av eraged around $39,500 a year in 1984. Related Occupations Economists are concerned with un derstanding and interpreting financial matters, among other subjects. Others with jobs in this area include financial analysts, bank officers, accountants and auditors, underwriters, actuaries, securities sales workers, credit ana lysts, loan officers, and budget of ficers. Sources of Additional Information For information on schools offering graduate training in economics, con tact: American Economic Association, 1313 21st Ave. South, Nashville, Tenn. 37212. For information on careers in busi ness economics, contact: National Association of Business Economists, 28349 Chagrin Blvd., Suite 201, Cleveland, Ohio 44122. For information about careers and salaries in market research, contact: American Marketing Association, 250 South Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60606. For information about careers in noncollegiate academic institutions, contact: Joint Council on Economic Education, 2 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016. Psychologists (D.O.T. 045.061, .067, .107-022, -026, -030, -034, and -046) Nature of the Work Psychologists study human behavior and mental processes to understand and explain people’s actions. Some research psychologists investigate the physical, emotional, or social aspects of human behavior. Other psycholo gists in applied fields counsel and con duct training programs; do market re search; or provide health services in hospitals or clinics. Like other social scientists, psy chologists collect and test the validity of data and formulate hypotheses. Re search methods depend on the topic under study. Psychologists may gath er information through controlled lab oratory experim ents; performance, aptitude, and intelligence tests; obser vation, interview s, and question naires; clinical studies; or surveys. Computers are widely used to record and analyze this information. Psychologists usually specialize. Experimental psychologists study be havior processes and work with hu man beings and lower animals such as rats, monkeys, and pigeons; promi nent areas of experimental research include motivation, learning and re tention, sensory and perceptual pro cesses, and genetic and neurological factors in behavior. Developmental psychologists study the patterns and causes of behavioral change as people progress through life; some concern themselves with behavior during in fancy and childhood, while others study changes that take place during maturity and old age. Personality psy chologists study human nature, indi vidual differences, and the ways in which those differences develop. So cial psychologists examine people’s interactions with others and with the social environment; prominent areas of study include group behavior, lead ership, attitudes, and interpersonal perception. Comparative psycholo gists study the behavior of humans and lower animals. Physiological psy chologists study the relationship of behavior to the biological functions of the body. Psychologists in the field of psychometrics develop and apply pro cedures for measuring psychological variables such as intelligence and per sonality. Clinical psychologists generally work in hospitals or clinics, or main tain their own practices. They help the mentally or emotionally disturbed adjust to life. They interview patients; give diagnostic tests; provide individ ual, family, and group psychotherapy; and design and carry through behav ior modification programs. Clinical psychologists may collaborate with physicians and other specialists in de veloping treatment programs. Some clinical psychologists work in univer sities where they train graduate stu dents in the delivery of mental health services. Others administer communi ty mental health programs. Counsel ing psychologists use several tech niques, including interviewing and testing, to advise people on how to deal with problems of everyday liv ing—personal, social, educational, or vocational. Educational psychologists design, develop, and evaluate educa tional programs. School psychologists work with teachers and parents to evaluate and resolve students’ learn ing and behavior problems. Industrial and organizational psychologists ap ply psychological techniques to per sonnel administration, management, and marketing problems. They are involved in policy planning, training and development, psychological test research, counseling, and organiza tional developm ent and analysis, among other activities. For example, an industrial psychologist may work with management to develop better training programs and to reorganize the work setting to improve worker productivity. Engineering psycholo gists, often employed in factories and plants, develop and improve human/ machine systems, military equipment, and industrial products. Community p sychologists apply psychological knowledge to problems of urban and rural life. Consum er psychologists study the psychological factors that determine an individual’s behavior as a consumer of goods and services. Health psychologists counsel the pub lic in health maintenance to help peo ple avoid serious emotional or physi cal illness. Other areas of specializa tion include environmental psychol ogy, population psychology, psychol ogy and the arts, history of psycholo gy, psychopharmacology, and mili tary and rehabilitation psychology. Working Conditions A psychologist’s specialty and place of employment determine his or her working conditions. For example, clinical and counseling psychologists in private practice have pleasant, comfortable offices and set their own hours. H ow ever, they often have evening hours to accommodate their clients. Some employed in hospitals, nursing homes, and other health facil ities often work evenings and week ends, while others in schools and clin ics work regular hours. Psychologists employed by academic institutions di vide their time among teaching, re search, and administrative responsi bilities. Some maintain part-time clin ical practices as well. In contrast to the many psychologists who have flexible work schedules, some in gov- Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/105 ernment and private industry have more structured schedules. Reading and writing research reports, they of ten work alone behind a desk. Many experience the pressures of deadlines, tight schedules, heavy workloads, and overtime work. Their routine may be interrupted frequently. Travel may be required to attend conferences or con duct research. Employment Psychologists held about 97,000 jobs in 1984. Educational institutions—pri marily elem entary and secondary schools—employed about 40 percent of all salaried psychologists in posi tions involving counseling, testing, special education, research, and ad ministration. Hospitals, clinics, reha bilitation centers, nursing homes, and other health facilities employed more than 1 out of 4 psychologists; govern ment agencies at the Federal, State, and local levels, about 1 out of 6. The Veterans Administration, the Depart ment of D efense, and the Public Health Service employ more psychol ogists than other Federal agencies. They also are employed by social ser vice organizations, research organiza tions, management consulting firms, market research firms, and other bus inesses. After several years of experience, some psychologists enter private prac tice or set up their own research or consulting firms. M ore than onefourth of all psychologists are selfemployed. Besides the jobs described above, an estimated 19,000 persons held psy chology faculty positions at colleges and universities. (For information about this occupation, see the state ment on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A doctoral degree is often required for employment as a psychologist, partic ularly in the academic world. Under standably, entrants to this occupation are older, on average, than entrants to other professional occupations. Peo ple with doctorates in psychology (Ph.D or Psy.D.—Doctor of Psychol ogy) qualify for a wide range of re sponsible research, clinical, and coun seling positions in universities, pri vate industry, and government. People with a m aster’s degree in psychology can administer and inter Clinical psychology accounts for over one-third of all doctoral degrees awarded in psychology. Percent of doctoral degrees awarded by subfield, 1983 0 10 20 30 40 Clinical Counseling General Developmental Experimental Social Educational School Physiological Industrial1 Cognitive Personality Other includes organizational psychology. SOURCE: National Research Council pret tests as psychological assistants. Under the supervision of psycholo gists, they can conduct research in laboratories, counsel patients, or per form administrative duties. They may teach in 2-year colleges, or work as school psychologists or counselors. (See the H andbook statem ent on counselors.) People with a bachelor’s degree in psychology are qualified to assist psy chologists and other professionals in community mental health centers, vo cational rehabilitation offices, and cor rectional programs; to work as re search or administrative assistants; and to take jobs as trainees in govern ment or business. However, without additional academic training, their ad vancement opportunities are limited. In the Federal Government, candi dates having at least 24 semester hours in psychology and one course in statistics qualify for entry level posi tions. Competition for these jobs is keen, however. Clinical psychologists generally must have completed the Ph.D. or Psy.D. requirements and have served an internship; vocational and guidance counselors usually need 2 years of graduate study in counsel ing and 1 year of counseling experi ence. At least 1 year of full-time graduate study is needed to earn a m aster’s degree in psychology. Requirements usually include practical experience in an applied setting or a m aster’s thesis based on a research project. For ex ample, a m aster’s degree in school psychology requires 2 years of course work and a 1-year internship. Three to five years of graduate work usually are required for a doc toral degree. The Ph.D. degree culmi nates in a dissertation based on origi nal research. Courses in quantitative research methods, which include the use of computers, are an integral part of graduate study and usually neces sary to complete the dissertation. The Psy.D., based on practical work and examinations rather than a disserta tion, prepares students for clinical and other applied positions. In clinical or counseling psychology, the require ments for the doctoral degree general ly include an additional year or more of internship or supervised experi ence. Com petition for adm ission into graduate programs is keen. Some uni versities require an undergraduate major in psychology. Others prefer only basic psychology with courses in the biological, physical, and social sciences, statistics, and mathematics. Over 1,500 colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree program in psychology; about 400, a m aster’s; about 300, a Ph.D. In addition, about 30 professional schools of psycholo gy—some affiliated with colleges or universities—offer the Psy.D. The American Psychological Association (APA) presently accredits Ph.D. train ing programs in clinical, counseling, and school psychology as well as Psy.D. programs. In 1984, 123 colleg es and universities offered fully ap proved programs in clinical psycholo- 106/Occupational Outlook Handbook People pursuing a career in psychology must be emotionally stable, mature, and able to deal effectively with people. gy (including 7 Psy.D. programs); 32 in counseling psychology; and 22 in school psychology (including 1 Psy.D. program). APA also has accredited about 275 institutions that provide in ternships for doctoral students in clin ical and counseling psychology. Although financial aid is becoming increasingly difficult to obtain, some universities aw ard fellow ships or scholarships, or arrange for part-time employment. The Veterans Adminis tration (VA) offers predoctoral train eeships to interns in VA hospitals, clinics, and related training agencies. The National Science Foundation, the Department of Health and Human Services, the Armed Forces, and many other organizations also provide financial aid. Psychologists who want to enter independent practice must meet certi fication or licensing requirements. In 1984, all States and the District of Columbia had such requirements. Li censing laws vary by State, but gen erally require a doctorate in psychol ogy and 2 years of professional expe rience. In addition, m ost S tates require that applicants pass an exam ination. Most State boards administer a standardized test. Some States cer tify those with m aster’s level training as psychological assistants or associ ates. Some States require continuing education for relicensure. Most States require that licensed or certified psychologists limit their prac tice to those areas in which they have developed professional competence through training and experience. The American Board of Profession al Psychology recognizes professional achievement by awarding diplomas primarily in clinical, counseling, fo rensic, industrial and organizational, and school psychology. Candidates need a doctorate in psychology, 5 years of experience, and professional endorsements; they also must pass an examination. People pursuing a career in psy chology must be emotionally stable, mature, and able to deal effectively with people. Sensitivity, compassion, and the ability to lead and inspire others are particularly important for clinical work and counseling. Re search psychologists should be able to do detailed work independently and as part of a team. Verbal and writing skills are necessary to communicate research findings. Patience and perse verance are vital qualities because re sults from psychological treatment of patients or research often are long in coming. Job Outlook Employment of psychologists is ex pected to increase faster than the av erage for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Largely because of the substantial investment in training re quired to enter this specialized field, psychologists have a strong attach ment to their occupation—only a rel atively small proportion leave the pro fession each year. Nevertheless, most job openings are expected to result from replacement needs. Several factors may help maintain the demand for psychologists: In creased emphasis on health mainte nance rather than treatm ent of illness; public concern for the development of human resources, including the grow ing elderly population; and increased testing and counseling of children. Government funding of these services could affect the demand for psycholo gists. Some openings are likely to occur as psychologists study the effective ness of health, education, military, law enforcement, and consumer pro tection programs. Psychologists also are increasingly studying the effects on people of technological advances in areas such as agriculture, energy, the environment, and the conserva tion and use of natural resources. Because college enrollments are ex pected to decline through the mid1990’s, little or no employment growth is expected in colleges and universi ties. As a result, there will be keen competition for academic positions. Although outstanding Ph.D. holders from leading universities should have no difficulty in obtaining teaching jobs at top schools, a larger number of Ph.D .’s will be forced to take jobs at smaller, less prestigious institutions. Some may accept part-time or tempo rary assignments with little or no hope of gaining tenure. As a result, many highly qualified graduates are expect ed to seek nonacademic jobs. Persons holding doctorates from leading universities in applied areas such as clinical, counseling, health, and engineering psychology should have particularly good prospects. Psy chologists with extensive training in quantitative research methods and computer science will have a compet itive edge over applicants without this background. Persons with only a m aster’s degree in psychology will probably continue to encounter severe competition for Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/107 the limited number of jobs for which they qualify. Nevertheless, some may find jobs as counselors in schools or as psychological assistants in commu nity mental health centers. Bachelor’s degree holders can ex pect very few opportunities in this field. Some may find jobs as assistants in rehabilitation centers. Those who meet State certification requirements may become high school psychology teachers. (For more information, see the statement on secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Earnings According to a 1983 survey by the National Research Council, the medi an annual salary of psychologists with a doctoral degree was about $35,800. In educational institutions, the medi an was about $33,600; in State and local government, about $32,300; in hospitals and clinics, about $32,700; in other nonprofit organizations, about $29,800; and in business and industry, about $48,000. Ph.D. or Psy.D. psy chologists in private practice and in applied specialties generally have higher earnings than other psycholo gists. The Federal Government recogniz es education and experience in certi fying applicants for entry level posi tions. In general, the average starting salary for psychologists having a bach elor’s degree was about $14,400 a year in 1985; those with superior academic records could begin at $17,800. Coun seling psychologists with a m aster’s degree and 1 year of counseling expe rience could start at $21,800. Clinical psychologists having a Ph.D . or Psy.D. degree and 1 year of internship could start at $26,400; unusually qual ified individuals could start at $31,600. The average salary for psychologists in the Federal Government was about $39,800 a year in 1984. Related Occupations Psychologists are trained to evaluate, counsel, and advise individuals and groups. Others who do this kind of work are psychiatrists, social work ers, clergy, special education teach ers, and counselors. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers, educa tional requirements, licensing, and fi nancial assistance, contact: American Psychological Association, Educa tional Affairs Office, 1200 17th St. NW., Wash Digitized for ington, D.C. 20036. FRASER For information about a career as a school psychologist, contact: National Association of School Psychologists, 10 Overland Dr., Stratford, Conn. 06497. Information about State licensing requirements is available from: The American Association of State Psychology Boards, P.O. Box 4389, Montgomery, Ala. 36103. Information on traineeships and fel lowships also is available from colleg es and universities that have graduate departments of psychology. Sociologists (D.O.T. 054) Nature of the Work Sociologists study human society and social behavior by examining the groups and social institutions that people form. These include families, tribes, com m unities, and govern ments, as well as a variety of social, religious, political, business, and oth er organizations. Sociologists study the behavior and interaction of groups, trace their origin and growth, and an alyze the influence of group activities on individual members. Some sociol ogists are concerned primarily with the characteristics of social groups and institutions. Others are more in terested in the ways individuals are affected by the groups to which they belong. Fields of specialization for sociolo gists include social organization, so cial stratification and mobility, racial and ethnic relations, social psycholo gy, urban sociology, rural sociology, political sociology, industrial sociolo gy, applied sociology, and evaluation research. Other important specialties include medical sociology—the study of social factors that affect mental and public health; demography—the study of the size, characteristics, and move ment of populations; gerontology— the study of aging and the special problems of aged persons; environ mental sociology—the study of the effect of the physical environment and technology on people; clinical sociol ogy—intervention in social systems for assessment and change; and crim inology—the study of factors produc ing deviance from accepted legal and cultural norms. Sociological research, like other kinds of social science research, in volves collecting information, assess ing its validity, and analyzing the re sults. Sociologists usually conduct surveys or engage in direct observa tion to gather the data they need. For example, after providing for con trolled conditions, a sociologist might test the effects of different styles of leadership on individuals in a small group. A medical sociologist might study the incidence of lung cancer in an area contaminated by industrial pollutants. Sociological researchers also evaluate the efficacy of different kinds of social programs. They might examine and evaluate particular pro grams of income assistance, job train ing, or remedial education. Increas ingly, sociologists apply statistical and computer techniques in their re search. The results of sociological re search aid educators, lawmakers, ad ministrators, and others interested in social problems and social policy. So ciologists often work closely with community groups and members of other professions including psycholo gists, physicians, economists, urban and regional planners, political scien tists, anthropologists, law enforce ment officials, and social workers. Some sociologists are primarily ad ministrators. They apply their profes sional knowledge in areas as diverse as intergroup relations, family coun seling, public opinion analysis, law enforcem ent, education, personnel administration, public relations, re gional and community planning, and health services planning. They may, for example, administer social service programs in family and child welfare agencies or develop social policies and programs for government, com munity, youth, or religious organiza tions. A number of sociologists are em ployed as consultants. Using their ex pertise and research skills, they ad vise on such diverse problems as half way houses and foster care for the mentally ill; ways of counseling exoffenders; and market research for advertisers and manufacturers. In creasingly, sociologists are involved in the evaluation of social and welfare programs. Working Conditions Most sociologists do a lot of desk work—reading and writing reports on their research. Sociologists working in government agencies and private firms have structured work schedules, and many experience the pressures of 108/Occupational Outlook Handbook ning positions in research firms, con sulting firms, educational institutions, corporations, professional and trade associations, hospitals, and welfare or other nonprofit organizations. Some sociologists have private practices in counseling, research, or consulting. Besides the jobs described above, about 13,000 persons held sociology faculty positions in colleges and uni versities. (For more information about this occupation, see the statement on college and university faculty else where in the Handbook.) Sociologists assess the effects of popula tion movements. deadlines, tight schedules, heavy workloads, and overtime. Their rou tine may be interrupted by numerous telephone calls, letters, requests for information, and meetings. Travel may be required to collect data for research projects or to attend profes sional conferences. Sociologists in private practice may work evenings and weekends to accommodate cli ents. Sociology faculty have flexible work schedules, dividing their time be tween teaching, research, consulting, and administrative responsibilities. Employment Sociologists held about 5,600 jobs in 1984. Government agencies employ about 4 out of 10 sociologists to deal with such subjects as poverty, crime, public assistance, population policy, social rehabilitation, community de velopment, mental health, racial and ethnic relations, and environmental impact studies. Sociologists in the Federal Government work primarily for the Departments of Health and Human Services, Interior, Agricul ture, and Defense. Sociologists spe cializing in demography work for international organizations such as the World Bank, the United Nations, and the World Health Organization and Federal agencies such as the Bu Digitized for reau of the Census. Sociologists also FRASER hold managerial, research, and plan Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The Ph.D. degree is required for ap pointment to permanent teaching and research positions in colleges and uni versities and is essential for many senior level positions in research in stitutes, consulting firms, corpora tions, and government agencies. As the academic job market gets tighter through the mid-1990’s, a Ph.D. will be increasingly required for virtually all academic and professional sociolo gist positions. Sociologists with m aster’s degrees can qualify for administrative and re search positions in public agencies and private businesses. Training in research, statistical, and computer methods is an advantage in obtaining such positions. Advancement oppor tunities generally are more limited for m aster’s degree holders than for Ph.D .’s. Sociologists with m aster’s degrees may qualify for teaching po sitions in junior colleges and for some college instructorships. Most bachelor’s degree holders in sociology get jobs in related fields. Many work as social workers, coun selors, or recreation workers in public and private welfare agencies. Others are employed as interviewers or as administrative or research assistants. Sociology majors with sufficient train ing in statistical and survey methods may qualify for positions as junior analysts or statisticians in business or research firms or government agen cies. In the Federal Government, candi dates generally need a college degree with 24 semester hours in sociology, including course work in theory and methods of social research. However, since competition for the limited num ber of positions is keen, advanced study in the field is highly recom mended. About 150 colleges and universities offer doctoral degree programs in so ciology; most of these also offer a m aster’s degree. In 170 schools, the m aster’s is the highest degree offered, and about 900 schools have bachelor’s degree programs. Sociology depart ments offer a wide variety of courses including sociological theory, field methods, social statistics and quanti tative methods, crime and deviance, social psychology, sex roles, popula tion, social stratification, social con trol, small group analysis, urban soci ology, rural sociology, social organi zations, and sociology of religion, law, the arts, war, politics, education, work and occupations, and mental health. Some departm ents of sociology have highly structured program s, while others are relatively unstruc tured and leave most course selection up to individual students. Depart ments have different requirements re garding foreign language skills, cours es in statistics, internships, and com pletion of a thesis for the m aster’s degree. The choice of a graduate school is important for people who want to be come sociologists. Students should select a school that has adequate re search facilities and offers appropriate areas of specialization such as theory, demography, clinical sociology, or quantitative methods. Opportunities to gain practical experience also may be available, and sociology depart ments may help place students in bus iness or research firms and govern ment agencies. Certification by the Clinical Sociol ogy Association (CSA) is necessary for a small number of clinical sociolo gy positions. Certification require ments generally include at least 1 year of experience that demonstrates com petence in clinical sociology, a doc torate from an accredited school, and successful demonstration of compe tency at C S A -sponsored training workshops or conferences. The ability to work independently is important for sociologists. Intellectual curiosity is an essential trait; research ers must have inquiring minds and a desire to find explanations for the phe nomena they observe. Like other so cial scientists, sociologists must be objective in gathering information about social institutions and behavior; they need analytical skills in order to organize data effectively and reach Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/109 valid conclusions; and they must be careful and systematic in their work. Because communicating their findings to other people is an important part of the job, sociologists must be able to speak well and to write clearly and concisely. Job Outlook Employment of sociologists is expect ed to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Most openings are ex pected to result from the need to re place sociologists who transfer to oth er occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Some increased demand for sociologists is likely to arise from demographic re search and the need to evaluate and administer programs designed to cope with social and welfare problems. The number of persons who gradu ate with advanced degrees in sociolo gy through the mid-1990’s is likely to greatly exceed the available job open ings. Graduates with a Ph.D. will face increasingly keen competition for ac ademic positions, and those with de grees from the most outstanding insti tutions will have an advantage in se curing teaching jobs. An increasing proportion of Ph.D .’s will enter nonacademic careers. Some may take research and administrative positions in government, research or ganizations, and business firms. Those well trained in quantitative research m ethods, including survey te c h niques, advanced statistics, and com puter science, will have the widest choice of jobs. For example, private firms that contract with the govern ment to evaluate social programs and conduct other research increasingly seek sociologists with strong quantita tive skills. Demand is expected to be strong for those with training in prac tice areas such as clinical sociology, criminology, environmental sociolo gy, medical sociology, social geron tology, and demography. For exam ple, additional demographers may be sought to help businesses plan mar keting and advertising programs and to help developing countries analyze censuses, prepare population projec tions, and formulate long-range public planning programs. More gerontolo gists may be needed to help formulate programs for our expanding elderly population. Sociologists with training in other applied disciplines, such as public policy, public administration, and business administration, will be attractive to employers seeking man agerial and administrative personnel. Persons with a m aster’s degree will find few, if any, academic positions, even in junior and community colleg es. They also will face strong compe tition for the nonacademic positions open to them. Some may find research and administrative jobs in research firms, business, and government. For exam ple, sociologists with back grounds in business and quantitative research methods may find opportuni ties in market research firms. Bachelor’s degree holders will find few opportunities for jobs as profes sional sociologists. As in the past, many graduates will take positions as trainees and assistants in business, industry, and government. As with advanced degree holders, extensive training in quantitative research meth ods provides these graduates with the most marketable skills. Some may find positions in social welfare agen cies. For those planning careers in law, journalism , business, social work, recreation, counseling, and oth er related disciplines, sociology pro vides an excellent background. Those who meet State certification require ments may become high school soci ology teachers. (For more informa tion, see the statement on secondary school teachers elsew here in the Handbook.) Earnings According to a 1983 survey by the National Research Council, the medi an annual salary of sociologists and a n th r o p o lo g is ts c o m b in e d w as $32,100. For those in educational in stitutions, it was $31,800, and in bus iness and industry, $36,300. The Federal Government recogniz es education and experience in certi fying applicants for entry level posi tions. In general, the average entrance salary for sociologists with a bache lor’s degree was about $14,400 or $17,800 a year in 1985, depending upon the applicant’s academic record. The starting salary for those with a m aster’s degree was about $21,800 a year, and for those with a Ph.D., about $26,400, while unusually quali fied individuals could start at $31,600. Sociologists in the Federal Govern ment averaged around $38,700 a year in 1984. In general, sociologists with the Ph.D. degree earn substantially higher salaries than those without the doctor al degree. Some sociologists supple ment their regular salaries with earn ings from other sources, such as con sulting or counseling work. Related Occupations Sociologists are not the only people whose jobs require an understanding of social processes and institutions. Others whose work demands such ex pertise include anthropologists, econ omists, geographers, historians, polit ical scientists, psychologists, urban and regional planners, reporters and correspondents, and social workers. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on careers, and graduate departments of sociolo gy is available from: The American Sociological Association, 1722 N St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. For information about careers in demography, contact: Population Association of America, 806 15th St. NW„ Suite 640, Washington, D.C. 20005. For information about careers in clinical sociology, contact: Clinical Sociology Association, RD2, Box 141A, Chester, N.Y. 10918. For information about careers in rural sociology, contact: Rural Sociology Society, Department of Soci ology, Montana State University, Bozeman, Mont. 59717. For information about careers in criminology, contact: American Society of Criminology, 1314 Kinnear Road, Suite 212, Columbus, Ohio 43212. Urban and Regional Planners (D.O.T. 188.167-110 and 199.167-014) Nature of the Work Urban and regional planners, often called community or city planners, develop programs to provide for fu ture growth and revitalization of ur ban, suburban, and rural communities and their regions. They help local of ficials make decisions on social, eco nomic, and environmental problems. Planners examine community facil ities such as health clinics and schools to be sure these facilities can meet the demands placed upon them. They also keep abreast of the legal issues in volved in community development or redevelopment and changes in hous ing and building codes. Because sub- 110/Occupational Outlook Handbook urban growth has increased the need for better ways of traveling to the urban center, the planner’s job often includes designing new transportation systems and parking facilities. Urban and regional planners pre pare for situations that are likely to develop as a result of population grow th or social and econom ic change. They estimate, for example, the community’s long-range needs for housing, transportation, and business and industrial sites. Working within a framework set by the community gov ernment, they analyze and propose alternative ways to achieve more effi cient and attractive urban areas. Before preparing plans for longrange community development, urban and regional planners prepare detailed studies that show the current use of land for residential, business, and community purposes. These reports include such information as the loca tion of streets, highways, water and sewer lines, schools, libraries, and recreational sites. They also provide information on the types of industries in the community, characteristics of the population, and employment and economic trends. With this informa tion, urban and regional planners pro pose ways of using undeveloped land and design the layout of recommend ed buildings and other facilities such as subway stations. They also prepare materials that show how their pro grams can be carried out and what they will cost. As in many other fields, planners increasingly use computers to record and analyze information. Urban and regional planners often confer with land developers, civic leaders, and other public planning of ficials. They may prepare materials for community relations programs, speak at civic meetings, and appear before legislative committees to ex plain their proposals. In large organizations, planners usu ally specialize in areas such as physi cal design, public transportation, com munity relations, and the renovation or reconstruction of rundown busi ness districts. In small organizations, planners must be able to do several kinds of work. county, or regional—employ over 3 out of 5. An increasing proportion of public agency planners work in small jurisdictions with populations under 50,000. State and Federal agencies that deal with housing, transportation, or environmental protection employ most of the rest. The largest Federal employers are the Departments of Transportation, Defense, and Hous ing and Urban Development. Some planners do consulting work, either part time in addition to a regular job, or full time for a firm that pro vides services to private developers or government agencies. Some plan ners work for surveying firms, market research organizations, or large land developers. Working Conditions Urban and regional planners spend most of their time in offices. To be familiar with areas that they are devel oping, however, they occasionally spend time outdoors examining the features of the land under consider ation for development, its current use, and the types of structures existing on it. Although most planners have a scheduled 40-hour workweek, they sometimes must attend evening or weekend meetings or public hearings with citizens’ groups. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers often seek workers who have advanced training in urban or regional planning. Most entry jobs in Federal, State, and local government agencies require 2 years of graduate study in urban or regional planning, or the equivalent in work experience. Although the m aster’s degree in plan ning is the usual requirement at the entry level, some people who have a bachelor’s degree in city planning, architecture, or engineering may qual ify for beginning positions. Courses in real estate, finance, and management are highly recommended. In addition, familiarity with statistical techniques and computer usage is desirable. In 1984, about 80 accredited colleg es and universities offered a m aster’s degree in urban or regional planning. Although students holding a bache lor’s degree in planning, architecture, or engineering may earn a m aster’s degree after 1 year, most graduate programs in planning require 2 years. Graduate students spend considerable time in w orkshops or laboratory courses learning to analyze and solve urban and regional planning problems and often are required to work in a planning office part time or during the summer. Candidates for jobs in Federal, State, and local government agencies usually must pass civil service exam inations to become eligible for ap pointment. The American Institute of Certified Planners, a branch of the American Planning Association (APA), grants certification to individuals with the appropriate combination of education Employment Urban and regional planners held about 17,000 jobs in 1984. Local gov ernm ent planning agencies—city, Urban and regional planners analyze business and residential needs for land. Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/111 and professional experience who pass an examination. Data on APA mem bership indicate that certified urban planners tend to hold the more re sponsible, better paying positions in their field. Planners must be able to think in terms of spatial relationships and vi sualize the effects of their plans and designs. They should be flexible and able to reconcile different viewpoints to make constructive policy recom mendations. The ability to write clear ly and effectively is important. After a few years’ experience, ur ban and regional planners may ad vance to assignments requiring a high degree of independent judgment such as designing the physical layout of a large development or recommending policy, program, and budget options. Some are promoted to jobs as plan ning directors and spend a great deal of time meeting with officials in other o rg an iz atio n s, speaking to civic groups, and supervising other profes sionals. Further advancement occurs through a transfer to a large city with more complex problems and greater responsibilities. Job Outlook Employment of urban and regional planners is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occu pations through the mid-1990’s. De mand will be spurred by the continu ing importance of environmental, eco nomic, and energy planning; interest in zoning and land-use planning in undeveloped and nonmetropolitan ar eas, including coastal areas; the need to replace old public facilities such as bridges, highways, and sewers; and expected population growth in subur ban locations and in the South and West. However, slow growth in local government spending through the mid1990’s is expected to limit growth of urban planner jobs. Therefore, most jobs will arise from the need to re place experienced planners who trans fer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other rea sons. In recent years, qualified applicants have exceeded openings in urban or regional planning, and the situation is expected to persist. As a result, some persons trained as planners may have to accept jobs in other areas of public policy and administration. An increas ing proportion are expected to find urban planner or research or adminis trative jobs in the private sector—in real estate development firms, con sulting firms, banks, utility compa nies, and engineering, architectural, and surveying firms. Graduates of academic institutions with accredited planning programs should have the best job prospects. With increasing com petition, geo graphic mobility and the willingness to work in small towns or rural areas are important for many jobseekers. Earnings According to a 1983 survey by the American Planning Association, ur ban and regional planners earned a median annual salary of about $29,600. The median annual salary of planners in city, county, and other local gov ernments was $28,100; in State gov ernments, $30,000; in private consult ing firm s, $35,000; in b u sin e ss, $35,000; and in nonprofit foundations, $30,000. For planners with over 10 years’ experience, county and joint city /c o u n ty agencies paid about $35,000 annually, while private busi nesses and consulting firms paid about $44,400. Directors of public planning agencies earned as much as $7,000 more than staff members at compara ble levels of experience. Salaries of planners in large jurisdictions may be as much as $6,000 a year higher than their counterparts in'sm all jurisdic tions. Planners with a m aster’s degree were hired by the Federal Govern ment at a starting average salary of $21,800 a year in 1985. In some cases, persons having less than 2 years of graduate work could enter Federal service as interns at yearly salaries of about $14,400 or $17,800. Salaries of urban and regional planners employed by the Federal Government averaged $38,200 a year in 1984. Related Occupations Urban and regional planners develop plans for the orderly growth of urban and rural communities. Others whose work is related to the work of plan ners include architects, landscape ar chitects, city managers, civil engi neers, geographers, and urban design ers. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on careers and salaries in urban and regional plan ning, a list of schools offering training, and job referrals are available from: American Planning Association, 1776 Massa chusetts Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Social and Recreation Workers Those considering a career in social work or recreation should be “ people oriented,” for helping people is what the work is all about. Social workers and recreation workers use a variety of techniques to help people cope with crises or live fuller lives. Social workers assist individuals and families whose lives are being torn apart by poverty, alcoholism, drug abuse, behavior problems, or illness. They find families to adopt or provide foster care for children whose parents are unable to take care of them; see that needy families are able to give their children proper food, health care, and schooling; and step in when there is evidence of parental neglect or abuse. School social work ers help students who have severe personal or family problems. Group workers give guidance and support so that young people will develop into responsible adults. Some social work ers do corrections work, by counsel ing juvenile delinquents and serving as probation officers or parole of ficers. Medical social workers counsel hospital patients and advise the fami ly—perhaps suggesting arrangements for home care after the patient leaves the hospital. Psychiatric social work ers, usually employed in hospitals, clinics, or mental health centers, help patients respond to their treatment and serve as a link with the family and the community at large. The profession is giving growing attention to directing and influencing social change. Social planners work with health, housing, transportation, and other planners to suggest ways of making communities more wholesome places in which to live. Social workers use various forms of direct action to help people deal with some of the basic forces that shape their lives. They may, for example, do research to identify community needs; draft legislation; or comment on government proposals in areas such as housing, health, and so cial and welfare services. Or they may help organizations in the community work for social betterment. Recreation workers, too, help indi viduals and groups in a number of 112 different ways. They develop and su pervise activity programs for chil dren, teenagers, and adults. Some specialize in therapeutic recreation, and plan and coordinate activities for people who are handicapped, emo tionally disturbed, or chronically ill. Recreation workers often operate as part of a team, working with thera pists, nurses, physicians, social work ers, counselors, and educators. People enter professional positions in social work and recreation from a variety of backgrounds. To a certain extent, an applicant’s formal educa tion determines the amount of respon sibility given and advancement oppor tunities. A m aster’s in social work (MSW) is preferred or required for many social work positions, while a college degree with a major in recrea tion is increasingly important for those aspiring to a career in recreation or leisure services. In both fields, how ever, training is offered at the associ ate, bachelor’s, m aster’s, and Ph.D. levels. Ordinarily, a candidate with an associate degree would be offered a job as an activity leader or casework aide, while someone with a Ph.D. would be considered for a position in teaching, research, or administration. But the job market does not always operate as predictably as this; actual hiring decisions vary from time to time and place to place. Experience, or academic training in a related field, may be the decisive consideration. New graduates are likely to experi ence competition for jobs through the mid-1990’s. However, the job market will be more crowded in some fields of specialization and some parts of the country than in others. More detailed information about the job outlook ap pears in the statements that follow. Social Workers (D.O.T. 189.267-010, 195.107-010 through -046, .137010, .164-010, .167-010, -014, -030, and -034, .267018, .367-018 and -026) Nature of the Work Social workers are community trou bleshooters. Through direct counsel ing, referral to other services, or policymaking and advocacy, they help individuals, families, and groups cope with their problems. Those in the area of planning and policy help people understand how social systems oper ate and propose ways of bringing about needed change in institutions such as health services, housing, or education. Among the major helping professions, social work is distin guished by a tradition of concern for the poor and the disadvantaged. The nature of the problem and the time and resources available deter mine which of several social work methods will be used. When neces sary, the social worker refers clients to other professional or community resources. Using their training in hu man behavior, personality theory, and social group relations, for example, social workers might identify the need for assistance of children, teenagers, young adults, or older persons in plac es such as co m m u n ity c e n te rs , schools, hospitals, nursing homes, and correctional institutions. Social workers work in conjunction with or coordinate the efforts of civic, reli gious, business, and union organiza tions to com bat social problem s through community programs. For a neighborhood or larger area, they may help plan and develop health, hous ing, welfare, and recreation services. Social workers often coordinate exist ing services, organize fundraising for community social welfare activities, and aid in developing new community services. Social workers who specialize in family services counsel individuals, work to strengthen personal and fam ily relationships, and help clients cope with problems. They provide informa tion and referral services in many ar eas—family budgeting and money management, locating housing, home maker assistance for the elderly, job training, and day care for children of working parents. Improving the well-being of chil dren and youth is the job of social workers who specialize in child wel fare. They may advise parents on the Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/113 care of severely handicapped infants, counsel children and youth with social adjustment difficulties, and arrange homemaker services during a parent’s illness. Social workers may institute legal action to protect neglected or abused children, help unmarried par ents, and counsel couples about adop tion. After proper evaluation and home visits, they may place children for adoption or in foster homes or institutions. If children have serious problems in school, child welfare workers may consult with parents, teachers, counselors, and others to identify the underlying problems. Medical social workers are trained to help patients and their families with problems that may accompany illness or inhibit recovery and rehabilitation. They work in hospitals, hospices, health m aintenance organizations, nursing homes, rehabilitation centers, and offices of physicians. Hospital social workers may work with patients or with families of pa tients suffering from emotionally dev astating illnesses. Discharge planning is an increasingly important area of practice for hospital social workers because prospective payment, Medi care’s new system of paying for hos pital care, has made timely discharge a factor in the hospital’s financial well-being. Other roles are evolving, too. In some hospitals, social workers undertake primary care functions in departments of pediatrics or obstet rics. They may help organize health screening and health education pro grams, collaborate with community agencies to coordinate care, or coor dinate employee assistance programs. The mental health field attracts the most social workers. Much effort has gone into developing community res idential facilities and an array of sup portive services for the mentally dis abled—services such as outreach, cri sis intervention, social rehabilitation, and training in skills of everyday liv ing, to name a few. Social workers provide these services in community mental health centers, outpatient psy chiatric clinics, and “ drop-in” cen ters. Providing individual and group therapy is one of the principal tasks of social workers in State mental hospi tals, Veterans Administration hospi tals, private psychiatric hospitals, and psychiatric units of general hospitals. Many of the small but growing num ber of social workers in private prac tice are clinical social workers. Like other mental health professionals, they offer psychotherapy or counsel ing to individuals, families, or groups. They might counsel the families of troubled adolescents, help couples deal with marital difficulties, or orga nize group sessions for families of cancer victims, for example. Social workers who specialize in the field of aging are also increasing in number. They plan and evaluate serv ices for the elderly, and help older persons and their families deal with difficulties brought about by dimin ished capacities and changed circum stances. In nursing homes, for exam ple, they help patients and their fam ilies adjust to the need for long-term institutional care. Other social workers specialize in corrections. Correctional treatm ent specialists provide direct services for inmates of penal or correctional insti tutions, while probation and parole officers help offenders who are eligible for parole readjust to society. They counsel on the social problems that arise on returning to family and com munity life, and also may help secure necessary education, training, em ployment, or community services. Working Conditions Most social workers have a 5-day, 35to 40-hour week. However, many, particularly in private agencies, work part time. Many work evenings and weekends to meet with clients, attend com m unity m eetings, and handle emergency situations. Extra leave is generally granted for overtime. Be cause social workers often must visit clients or attend meetings, some trav el may be necessary. Employment Social workers held 335,000 jobs in 1984. About 2 out of 5 jobs were in State, county, or municipal govern ment agencies; relatively few were in the Federal Government. Social work ers in the public sector are employed primarily in departments of human resources, social services, mental health, health, housing, education, and corrections. Those in the private sector work for voluntary nonprofit agencies; community and religious or ganizations; hospitals, nursing homes, and home health agencies; and other human service agencies. Job settings vary considerably. Some social workers are employed in business and industry, as “ industrial” or “ occupational” social workers. They generally are located in the per sonnel department or health unit, and support employee welfare through counseling, educational program s, and referral to community agencies. Industrial social workers might, for example, counsel employees about emotional problems, alcoholism, or drug abuse. Although employment is concen trated in urban areas, many social workers work with rural families. A small number of social workers—em ployed by the Federal Government and the United Nations or one of its affiliated agencies— serve in other parts of the world. Listening is an important part of a social worker’s job. 114/Occupational Outlook Handbook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree is the minimum requirement for most professional po sitions in this field. Besides the bach elor’s in social work (BSW), under graduate majors in psychology, soci ology, and related fields satisfy hiring requirements in many social service agencies. A m aster’s degree in social work (MSW) is generally required for positions in the mental health field and is almost always necessary for super visory, administrative, or research positions. A doctorate in social work usually is required for teaching and is desirable for some research and ad ministrative jobs. In 1985, there were 354 accredited BSW programs and 89 MSW pro grams. BSW programs prepare gradu ates for direct service positions such as caseworker or group worker. Class room instruction is offered in social work practice, social welfare policies, human behavior and the social envi ronment, and social research meth ods. All accredited programs require 400 hours of supervised field experi ence. An MSW degree is preferred for clinical positions and is a decided as set for advancement to a supervisory position. It is essential for social workers in private practice. Two years of specialized study, including 900 hours of supervised field instruction, or internship, are required to earn a m aster’s degree in social work. Field placement affords an opportunity to test one’s suitability for social work practice. At the same time, the stu dent may develop expertise in a spe cialized area and make personal con tacts that later are helpful in securing a permanent job. Previous training in social work is not required for entry into a graduate program, but courses such as psychology, sociology, eco nomics, political science, history, so cial anthropology, and urban studies, as well as social work, are recom mended. Some graduate schools offer accelerated MSW programs for quali fied applicants. A limited number of scholarships and fellowships are available for grad uate education. A few social welfare agencies grant workers educational leave to obtain graduate education. Career advancement usually takes the form of promotion to supervisor, administrator, or director, although some social workers go into teaching, research, or consulting. Like other administrators, directors of social ser vice agencies hire, train, and super vise staff, develop and evaluate agen cy programs, make budget decisions, solicit funds, and represent the agen cy in public. Private practice offers variety, pres tige, and the potential for much higher pay than most agency jobs. Social workers who wish to advance profes sionally without taking the superviso ry or administrative route often con sider private practice. Ordinarily, this means clinical practice—counseling individuals or groups—although some private practitioners specialize in or ganizational consulting. Not only an MSW but sufficiently varied work experience to develop a network of contacts for referral purposes is usu ally a prerequisite for a career as a private practitioner. Entrepreneurial ability is important for success in this rapidly developing but highly compet itive field. In addition to experience, which is essential, advancement in the social service field often requires an ad vanced degree. More than 40 schools of social work offer post-m aster’s pro grams, most of which lead to a doc toral degree. Increasingly, social workers seeking to broaden their ca reer options are pursuing graduate studies in related fields including hu man services administration, public administration, business administra tion, health services administration, education, and law. A number of graduate programs have developed joint degree programs in social work and another discipline. In 1985, 33 States had licensing or registration laws regarding social work practice and the use of professional titles. Voluntary certification is of fered by the National Association of Social W orkers (N A SW ), w hich awards the title ACSW (Academy of Certified Social Workers) to those who qualify. For clinical social work ers, professional credentials include listing in the N A S W R e g i s t e r o f C lin ic a l S o c ia l W o r k e r s or in the R e g i s t r y o f H e a lth C a r e P r o v id e r s in C lin ic a l S o c ia l W o rk . Social workers should be emotion ally mature, objective, and sensitive, and should possess a basic concern for people and their problems. They must be able to handle responsibility, work independently, and maintain good working relationships with cli ents and coworkers. Volunteer, parttime, or summer work as a social work aide offer ways of testing one’s interest in pursuing a career in this field. Job Outlook Employment of social workers is ex pected to increase faster than the av erage for all occupations through the mid-1990’s, reflecting public and pri vate response to the needs of a grow ing and aging population. Demand for social workers is governed by fund ing; trends in public, private, and third-party spending for social work services are largely responsible for patterns of job growth. The need to replace social workers who leave the occupation or stop working is expect ed to be the principal source of jobs, however. Prospects in public agencies are not as bright as they once were, due to the em ploym ent impact of anticipated budget constraints plus the trend toward “ declassification” that is tak ing hold in more and more States. Declassification, or revision of State civil service regulations, may dampen demand for MSW ’s in public agencies since BSW’s can legally perform the same job under revised regulations. D espite som ew hat slow er growth through the mid-1990’s, State and lo cal governments will retain their im portance as a leading employer of social w o rk ers, and replacem ent needs alone will generate many job openings in this sector. In e le m e n ta ry and s e c o n d a ry schools, little job growth is foreseen. Substantial expansion in the number of school social workers has already occurred in response to the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975; only modest expansion is ex pected through 1995. This reflects an ticipated trends in elementary and secondary school enrollments. Prospects for hospital social work ers are difficult to assess. A major employment setting, hospitals provide 1 out of every 10 social work jobs. Financing and organizational changes in this sector will affect the nature of the hospital social worker’s job: Con tacts with community agencies and organizations will take on unprece dented importance because of the piv otal role of discharge planning. Social w orkers in com m unity-based pro grams for the elderly reportedly are being recruited for hospital social Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/115 work jobs because of their extensive knowledge of community resources. Less certain are prospects for growth. It seems unlikely that employment of hospital social workers will increase much, if at all, in view of the antici pated slowdown in hospital industry growth. Home health is emerging as an in creasingly important area of practice, not only because hospitals are moving to release patients more quickly, but because of the prevalence of function al disabilities among older persons requiring assistance in activities of daily living. Social workers in the home health field are primarily en gaged in evaluation, assessment, and case management, on the one hand, and administration and supervision, on the other. Demand for social workers is ex pected to grow in outpatient facilities, including health maintenance organi zations (HMO’s) and rehabilitation facilties that offer alcohol and drug abuse programs. Financing is not an obstacle, as a rule; HM O’s provide comprehensive care for a preestab lished fee, and alcohol and drug reha bilitation programs often are covered by employers or by health insurance, although some patients pay their own costs. Services provided by social workers in HMO’s include counseling on teenage pregnancy, stress manage ment, substance abuse, abortion, cri sis intervention for cases of spouse or child abuse, assistance for the elderly, and case management. Substantial growth is projected for social work jobs in private agencies that provide services for abused and neglected children, troubled youth, rape and spouse abuse victims, older people and their families, refugees, farm workers, couples with marital difficulties, and so forth. Opportunities for social workers in private practice will continue to ex pand, in part because of growing ac ceptance of private social work prac tice by the profession and by the pub lic at large, but also because of the anticipated availability of funding from health insurance and from an increasingly affluent population will ing to pay for professional help with personal problems. Growing corpo rate support for employee assistance programs is expected to spur demand for the services of private practition ers, some of whom contract with cor porations to run training sessions on group dynamics, or counsel employ ees on a variety of problems. Entry into private practice does not guarantee success. Private practition ers must be able to market themselves to prospective purchasers of their services such as schools, health care providers, corporations, or individu als. Moreover, they must be prepared to deal with competition from psy chologists, psychiatric nurses, coun selors, and other mental health pro viders. Job prospects for social workers vary a great deal. Opportunities differ, depending upon academic credentials, experience, and field of practice. Geo graphic location is a consideration, too. Competition is keen in cities where training programs for social workers abound. This competition is certain to intensify if social services are cut back in response to budget pressures on State and local govern ments. At the same time, population growth in the Sunbelt States is spur ring expansion of social service pro grams there, and some isolated rural areas are finding it difficult to attract and retain qualified staff. Trends in enrollment in social work education will affect job prospects for social w orkers through the mid1990’s. The number of social work degrees awarded each year peaked in the late 1970’s and has been declining ever since (see chart). A number of factors, of which the impending de crease in the college-age population is the most important, point to a contin ued decline. If fewer people prepare for social work careers while demand continues to grow, conditions in the job market are likely to improve. Job search problems of MSW’s should abate and prospects for BSW’s probably will improve. Very strong competition will continue, however, for the substantial number of associate and bachelor’s degree holders seeking entry level hu man service jobs that do not require formal preparation in social work. Earnings Salaries for social workers at all levels vary greatly by type of agency (pri vate or public; Federal, State, or lo cal) and geographic region, but gener ally are highest in large cities and in States with sizable urban populations. Private practitioners, administrators, teachers, and researchers often earn considerably more than other types of social workers. The average minimum salary for social caseworkers (positions requir ing a BSW) was about $15,700 in 1984, according to a survey conducted by the International Personnel Manage ment Association; for casework su p ervisors (positions requiring an MSW), the average minimum salary was about $20,100. The average annual starting salary for social workers in hospitals and medical centers (positions requiring an MSW) was about $19,300 in 1984, according to a survey conducted by the U niversity of Texas M edical Branch. The average salary for expe- The number of degrees awarded in social work is declining. Degrees from accredited programs (thousands) SOURCE: Council on Social Work Education 116/Occupational Outlook Handbook rienced social workers in these set tings was about $25,500. In the Federal Government, social workers with an MSW started at $21,804 in 1985; average earnings for social workers in the Federal service were $30,800 in 1984. Graduates with a Ph.D. or job experience may start at a higher salary. Most social workers in the Federal Government are em ployed by the Veterans Administra tion and the Departments of Health and Human Services, Education, Jus tice, and Interior. Related Occupations Through direct counseling or referral to other services, social workers help people solve a range of personal prob lems. Workers in occupations with similar duties include the clergy, coun selors, counseling psychologists, and vocational rehabilitation counselors. Sources of Additional Information For information about career opportu nities in social work, contact: N ational A sso cia tio n o f S ocial W orkers, 7981 E astern A v e ., S ilver Spring, M d. 20910. The Council on Social Work Edu cation publishes an annual D ir e c to r y o f A c c r e d i t e d B S W P r o g r a m s and D i r e c to r y gra m s, o f A c c r e d ite d M SW P ro which may be purchased for $2 each, postpaid. These and other publications are available from: C ouncil on S ocial W ork E du cation , 1744 R St. N W „ W ashington, D .C . 20009. Recreation Workers (D.O.T. 159.124-010; 187.137-010; 195.227-010 and -014; and 352.167-010) Nature of the Work As leisure time in our lives increases, opportunities for organized recreation become more important. Recreation workers plan, organize, and direct ac tivities that help people enjoy and benefit from leisure hours. These workers hold a wide range of jobs which bring them in contact with peo ple of all ages, socioeconomic levels, and degrees of emotional and physical health. Recreation programs, whether in stitutionally or community based, are as diverse as the people they serve. Employment settings range from pris tine wilderness areas to health clubs in the city center. At local play grounds and community centers, for example, recreation personnel orga nize and conduct a variety of leisure activities, including arts, crafts, fit ness, and sports. Other employment settings include parks, camps, camp grounds, and recreatio n al areas; schools, churches, and synagogues; retire m e n t com m unities, nursing homes, senior centers, and adult day care programs; military bases; and correctional institutions. C a m p c o u n s e lo r s lead and instruct campers in nature-oriented forms of recreation such as swimming, hiking, and horseback riding as well as out door education. They also provide campers with specialized instruction in a particular area such as music, drama, gymnastics, tennis, or com puters. In resident camps, the staff must insure that the campers have adequate living conditions. Recreation personnel in industry organize and direct leisure activities and athletic programs for employees and their families such as bowling and softball leagues, social functions, and, to an increasing extent, exercise and fitness programs. Recreation workers should not be confused with r e c r e a tio n a l th e r a p i s ts , who help individuals recover or adjust to illness, disability, or specific social problems. The work of recreational therapists is described elsewhere in the H a n d b o o k . Recreation workers occupy a vari ety of positions at different levels of responsibility. R e c r e a t i o n l e a d e r s provide face-to-face leadership and are responsible for a recreation pro gram ’s daily operation. They may give instruction in crafts, games, and sports; keep records; and maintain recreation facilities. Recreation lead ers who give instruction in specialties such as art, music, drama, swimming, or tennis are called a c t iv i ty s p e c ia l is ts . They often conduct classes and coach teams in the activity in which they specialize. A camp counselor, who is generally a recreation leader, may also be an activity specialist. Recreation leaders usually work un der a supervisor. R e c r e a tio n s u p e r v is o r s plan pro grams to meet the needs of the popu lation they serve; supervise recreation leaders, sometimes over an entire re gion; and direct specialized activities. Working Conditions While the average week for recreation workers is 35-40 hours, people enter ing this field should expect some night work and irregular hours. Workers often spend much time outdoors. The work setting for recreation workers may be anywhere from a va cation cruise ship to a woodland rec reational park. Generally, employ ment follows overall population pat terns; most jobs are in the urban and suburban areas where the majority of Americans live. Jobs in camping are found mostly in the less populated areas of the country because of the outdoor orientation of camping pro grams. Some camp workers receive room and board as part of their com pensation. Employment R e c re a tio n w o rk e rs h eld a b o u t 123,000 jobs in 1984. (This estimate does not include many summer work ers.) Nearly 40 percent of the jobs were in government agencies, primar ily in park and recreation departments at the municipal and county levels. State park systems employ some rec reation workers, and the Federal Gov ernment employs a small number of recreation specialists, sports special ists, outdoor recreation planners, and recreation assistants and aides for programs run by the Veterans Admin istration and the Departments of De fense and Interior. Nearly 25 percent of the jobs were in membership organizations with a civic, social, fraternal, or religious o rientation—the Boy Scouts, the Y.W .C.A., and Red Cross, for exam ple. Not quite 15 percent were in programs run by social service orga nizations (senior centers and adult day care programs, for example) or in residential care facilities such as half way houses, group homes, and insti tutions for delinquent youth. Other employers include nursing homes and, increasingly, commercial recreation establishments—including amusement parks, sports and enter tainment centers, wilderness and sur vival enterprises, tourist attractions, vacation excursions, hotels and other resorts, camps, health spas, athletic clubs, apartment complexes, and oth er settings. The recreation field is characterized by an unusually large number of parttime, seasonal, and volunteer jobs. Some volunteers serve on local park and recreation boards and commis sions. The vast majority, however, serve as volunteer activity leaders at Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/117 local playgrounds, or in youth organi zations, camps, nursing homes, hos pitals, senior centers, and other set tings. Volunteer experience and parttime work during school may lead to a full-time job. The largest number of paid employees in the recreation field are part-time or seasonal workers. Typical jobs include summer camp counselors and playground leaders, lifeguards, craft specialists, and after school and weekend recreation pro gram leaders. Many jobs are filled by teachers and college students. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Educational requirements for jobs in this field range from a high school diploma or less for many summer jobs to graduate education for administra tive positions in large public systems. Many applicants for full-time career positions are college graduates with majors in recreation, leisure studies, or physical education, but a bache lor’s degree in any liberal arts field may be appropriate. Some jobs re quire specialized training in a particu lar field, such as art, music, drama, or athletics, and some require special certification, such as holding a lifesav ing certificate to teach swimming. A college degree is not always nec essary. Some recreation positions are filled by high school graduates, while others are filled by graduates of asso ciate degree programs in parks and recreation, social work, and other hu man service disciplines. A number of jobs in this field are held by college students who work part time while earning a degree. Most supervisors have a bachelor’s degree plus experience. Persons with academic preparation in parks and recreation management, leisure stud ies, physical education, fitness man agement, and related fields generally have better prospects for career ad vancement, although this varies from one employer to another. A bachelor’s degree and experience are considered minimum requirements for administrators. However, increas ing numbers are obtaining m aster’s degrees in parks and recreation as well as in related disciplines. Many persons in other disciplines, including social work, forestry, and resource management, pursue graduate degrees in recreation. In industrial recreation, or “ em ployee services’’ as this field is more At local playgrounds, recreation workers organize and coach sports programs. commonly called, companies prefer applicants with a bachelor’s degree in recreation and a strong background in business administration. In 1984, about 200 community and junior colleges offered associate de gree park and recreation programs, and 300 colleges and universities of fered programs leading to a bache lor’s, m aster’s, or Ph.D. degree. The Council on A ccreditation, sponsored by the National Recreation and Park Association and the Ameri can Association for Leisure and Rec reation, accredits park and recreation curriculums at the bachelor’s degree level. Accredited programs provide broad exposure to the history, theory, and philosophy of park and recreation management. Courses are offered in community organization; supervision and administration; recreational needs of special populations such as the eld erly or handicapped; and supervised fieldwork. Students have an opportu nity to specialize in areas such as therapeutic recreation, park manage ment, outdoor recreation, industrial or commercial recreation, and camp management. The American Camping Associa tion has developed a curriculum for camp director education in colleges and universities. Many national youth associations offer training courses for camp directors at the local and region al levels. Persons planning recreation careers must be good at motivating people and sensitive to their needs. Good health and physical stamina are re quired. Activity planning calls for cre ativity and resourcefulness. Willing ness to accept responsibility and the ability to exercise judgment are im portant qualities since recreation per sonnel often work alone. To increase their leadership skills and understand ing of people, students are advised to obtain related work experience in high school and college. Such experience may help students decide whether their interests really point to a human service career. Students also should talk to local park and recreation pro fessionals, school guidance counse lors, and others. Certification for this field is offered by the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA) and the Ameri can Camping Association. Over 30 States have adopted NRPA standards for park/recreation technicians and park/recreation professionals. The American Camping Association certi fies individuals who meet their stan dards of professional competence, and so does the National Employee Services and Recreation Association. Neither registration nor certifica 118/Occupational Outlook Handbook tion is usually required for employ ment or advancement in this field. However, employers faced with an abundance of qualified applicants are likely to give preference to those with professional credentials. Job Outlook Employment of recreation workers is expected to grow faster than the aver age for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Factors that point to fu ture expansion of this field include a growing number of people with both leisure time and the money to pur chase leisure services; rapidly in creasing demand for recreational op portunities in nursing homes, senior centers, and retirement communities; and more activity programs for spe cial populations such as the emotion ally disturbed. Most job openings, however, will result from replacement needs. The outlook for recreation workers depends to a large extent on local governm ent funding. Budget con straints are likely to continue, al though priorities as well as resources for public services vary from one community to another. Park and rec reation programs often are among the first to be cut when budget problems arise. Camping, however, is supported primarily by the private sector—by profitmaking firms as well as volun tary agencies—and therefore is not as vulnerable to budget cuts as publicly funded recreation programs. Indus try-sponsored recreation and fitness programs are popular with employers, who see them as a means of holding down employee health care costs. Continued growth in these programs is foreseen. Because the field is open to all col lege graduates regardless of major, the number of applicants for full-time positions in recreation greatly ex ceeds the number of job openings. Keen competition for jobs is expected to continue. Individuals with recrea tion experience, and those with for mal training in recreation, are expect ed to have the best opportunities for staff positions. Those with graduate degrees should have the best opportu nities for supervisory or administra tive positions. Commercial recreation is expected to offer more favorable opportunities than either the public or voluntary sectors. Hiring practices in commer cial recreation vary a great deal, how ever, and employers’ preference for applicants with formal training in rec reation, physical education, and relat ed fields has not been clearly estab lished. The market for recreation and ac tivity jobs in the field of aging is likely to remain competitive due to the large number of qualified applicants. Al though employers seek recreational therapists when staffing programs for severely disabled older persons, they consider applicants from a variety of backgrounds for programs that serve the “ well elderly.” This greatly in creases the amount of competition for recreation jobs in senior centers, re tirement communities, and local park and recreation department programs for the elderly. Activities programs in nursing homes, too, attract an abun dance of jobseekers. Earnings According to a 1984 survey by the International Personnel Management Association, municipalities paid rec reation workers with a bachelor’s de gree an average beginning salary of about $15,000; experienced workers, about $19,000. Recreation supervisors earned about $20,500 to start ; experi en ced su p e rv iso rs e a rn e d a b o u t $26,000. According to the American Camp ing Association, the average salary for camp directors was about $1,600 a month in municipally operated camps in 1984. Salaries for camp directors in private camps were somewhat higher. Most public and private recreation agencies provide vacation and other fringe benefits such as sick leave and hospital insurance. Related Occupations Recreation workers must exhibit lead ership and sensitivity in dealing with people. Other occupations that re quire similar personal qualities in clude recreation therapists, social workers, parole officers, human rela tions counselors, school counselors, clinical and counseling psychologists, and teachers. Sources of Additional Information Information about careers in recrea tion and instructions for ordering a directory of educational programs are available from: N ation al R ecreation and Park A sso c ia tio n , D i v ision o f P rofession al S e r v ic es, 3101 Park C en ter D r., A lexandria, V a. 22302. A m erican A sso c ia tio n for L eisu re and R ecrea tion, 1900 A sso c ia tio n D r., R esto n , V a. 22091. The NRPA also publishes a bulletin of job openings twice monthly. For information on careers in indus trial recreation, contact: N ation al E m p lo y ee S erv ices and R ecreation A s s o c ia t io n , 2 4 0 0 S o u th D o w n in g S t., W estch ester, 111. 60153. For information on careers in camp ing and summer counselor opportuni ties, send request and postpaid return envelope to: A m e ric a n C am p in g A s s o c ia t io n , B rad ford W ood s, M artinsville, Ind. 46151. For information about a career as an activity coordinator in a nursing home, contact: A m erican H ealth Care A sso c ia tio n , 1200 15th St. N W ., W ash in gton, D .C . 20005. Religious Workers Most religious workers are members of the clergy. A career in the clergy requires considerations different from those in other career fields. Persons entering the ministry, priesthood, or rabbinate should do so primarily be cause they possess a strong religious faith and a desire to help others. Nev ertheless, knowledge about the pro fession, how to prepare for it, and the kind of life it offers is important. The number of clergy needed de pends largely on the number of people who participate in organized religious groups. This affects the number of churches and synagogues established and pulpits to be filled. In addition to the clergy who serve congregations, many others teach or act as adminis trators in seminaries and in other ed ucational institutions; still others serve as chaplains in the Armed Forc es, industry, correctional institutions, hospitals, or on college campuses; some serve as missionaries or work in social welfare agencies. Persons considering a career in the clergy should seek the counsel of a religious leader of their faith to aid in evaluating their qualifications. Most important are a deep religious belief and a desire to serve the spiritual needs of others. Priests, ministers, and rabbis also are expected to be models of moral and ethical conduct. A person considering one of these fields must realize that the civic, so cial, and recreational activities of a member of the clergy often are influ enced and restricted by the customs and attitudes of the community. The clergy should be sensitive to the needs of others and able to help people deal with these needs. The job demands an ability to speak and write effectively, to organize, and to super vise others. The person entering this field also must enjoy studying, be cause the occupation requires contin uous learning and demands consider able initiative and self-discipline. In addition to the clergy, some lay people are religious workers. Many coordinate the activities of various denominational groups to meet the religious needs of students or direct religious school programs designed to promote religious education among members of their faith. Like members of the clergy, they sometimes provide counseling and guidance on marital, health, financial, and religious prob lems. Lay people are assuming an increasingly important role in nonliturgical functions. Education and training require ments as well as job prospects for the clergy vary widely among faiths and even among branches within some faiths, as does the need for lay work ers. A detailed discussion of training requirements, job prospects, and oth er information on the clergy in the three largest faiths in the United States—Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Jewish—is presented in the fol lowing statements. Information on the clergy in other faiths and on lay reli gious workers may be obtained direct ly from leaders of the respective groups. within a denomination. In many de nominations, ministers follow a tradi tional order of worship; in others, they adapt the services to the needs of youth and other groups within the congregation. Most services include Bible reading, hymn singing, prayers, and a sermon. In some denomina tions, Bible reading by a member of the congregation and individual testi monials may constitute a large part of the service. Ministers serving small congrega tions generally work personally with parishioners. Those serving large con gregations have greater administrative responsibilities and spend consider able time working with committees, church officers, and staff, besides oth er duties. They may share specific aspects of the ministry with one or more associates or assistants, such as a minister of education who assists in educational programs for different age groups, or a minister of music. Working Conditions Protestant Ministers (D.O.T. 120.007) Nature of the Work Protestant ministers lead their congre gations in worship services and ad m inister the various rites of the church, such as baptism, confirma tion, and Holy Communion. They prepare and deliver sermons and give religious instruction. They also per form marriages; conduct funerals; counsel individuals who seek guid ance; visit the sick, aged, and handi capped at home and in the hospital; com fort the bereaved; and serve church members in other ways. Many Protestant ministers write articles for publication, give speeches, and en gage in interfaith, community, civic, educational, and recreational activi ties sponsored by or related to the interests of the church. Some minis ters teach in seminaries and colleges and universities. The services that ministers conduct differ among Protestant denomina tions and also among congregations Ministers are “ on call’’ for any seri ous troubles or emergencies that in volve or affect members of their churches. They also may work long and irregular hours in administrative, educational, and community service activities. Many of the ministers’ duties are sedentary, such as reading or doing research in a study or a library to prepare sermons or write articles. In some denominations, ministers are reassigned by a central body to a new pastorate every few years. Employment In 1984, there were an estimated 416.000 Protestant ministers, of whom 252.000 served individual congrega tions. Others worked in closely relat ed fields such as chaplains in hospi tals, the Armed Forces, universities, and correctional institutions. While there are numerous denominations, most ministers are employed by the five largest Protestant bodies—Bap tist, Methodist, Lutheran, Presbyteri an, and Episcopalian. All cities and most towns in the 1 19 120/Occupational Outlook Handbook Persons who have denominational qualifications for the ministry usually are ordained after graduation from a seminary or after serving a probation ary pastoral period. Denominations that do not require seminary training ordain clergy at various appointed times. For example, some Evangelical churches may ordain ministers with only a high school education. Men and women entering the clergy often begin their careers as pastors of small congregations or as assistant pastors in large churches. Job Outlook Preparing a sermon is an important responsibility of ministers. United States have at least one Prot estant church with a full-time minis ter. Although most ministers are lo cated in urban areas, many serve two or more small congregations in less densely populated areas. Some small churches increasingly are employing part-time ministers who are seminary students, retired ministers, or holders of secular jobs. Unpaid pastors serve other churches with tight budgets. Some churches em ploy specially trained members of the laity to con duct nonliturgical functions. Training and Other Qualifications Educational requirements for entry into the Protestant ministry vary great ly. Some denominations have no for mal educational requirem ents, and others ordain persons having various types of training in Bible colleges, Bible institutes, or liberal arts colleg es. In 1984, about 140 American Prot estant theological schools were ac credited by the Association of Theo logical Schools in the United States and Canada. These admit only stu dents who have received a bachelor’s degree or its equivalent with a liberal arts major from an accredited college. Many denominations require a 3-year course of professional study in one of these accredited schools or seminar ies after college graduation for the degree of master of divinity. Recommended preseminary or un dergraduate college courses include English, history, philosophy, natural sciences, social sciences, fine arts, music, religion, and foreign languag es. These courses provide a knowl edge of modern social, cultural, and scientific institutions and problems. However, students considering theo logical study should contact, at the earliest possible date, their denomina tions and the schools to which they intend to apply, to learn how to pre pare for the program they hope to enter. The standard curriculum for ac credited theological schools consists of four major categories: Biblical, his torical, theological, and practical. Courses of a practical nature include pastoral care, preaching, religious ed ucation, and administration. Many ac credited schools require that students work under the supervision of a fac ulty member or experienced minister. Some institutions offer doctor of min istry degrees to students who have completed additional study, usually 2 or more years, and served at least 2 years as a minister. Scholarships and loans are available for students of theological institutions. In general, each large denomination has its own school or schools of the ology that reflect its particular doc trine, interests, and needs. However, many of these schools are open to students from other denominations. Several interdenominational schools associated with universities give both undergraduate and graduate training covering a wide range of theological points of view. The pressures of rising costs and in adequate financial support due to the anticipated slow growth in church membership are expected to result in only limited growth in the need for ministers through the mid-1990’s. The number of persons being ordained has been increasing, and this trend is like ly to continue. As a result, new grad uates of theological schools are ex pected to face increasing competition in finding positions, and more experi enced ministers will face competition in moving to larger congregations with greater responsibility. The supplydemand situation will vary among de nominations and geographic regions. For example, more favorable pros pects are expected for ministers in Evangelical churches. Ministers will ing to work in rural areas, especially those adjacent to metropolitan re gions, also should have relatively fa vorable opportunities. Most of the openings for ministers through the mid-1990’s will arise from the need to replace retirees, and, to a lesser ex tent, those who die or leave the min istry. Employment alternatives for newly ordained Protestant ministers who are unable to find positions in parishes include working in youth counseling, family relations, and welfare organi zations; teaching in religious educa tional institutions; and serving as chaplains in the Armed Forces, hos pitals, universities, and correctional institutions. Earnings Salaries of Protestant clergy vary sub stantially, depending on age, experi ence, denomination, size and wealth of congregation, and geographic loca tion. Based on limited information, the estimated average annual income of Protestant ministers was about Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/121 $18,000 in 1984. In large, wealthier denom inations, ministers averaged $25,000 or more. Fringe benefits, such as housing and transportation, may add as much as 25 percent to a minis ter’s annual salary. Increasingly, min isters with modest salaries earn addi tional income from employment in secular occupations. Related Occupations Protestant ministers advise and coun sel individuals and groups regarding their religious as well as personal, social, and vocational development. Other occupations involved in this type of work include social workers, clinical and counseling psychologists, teachers, and counselors. Sources of Additional Information Persons who are interested in entering the Protestant ministry should seek the counsel of a minister or church guidance worker. Each theological school can supply information on ad mission requirem ents. Prospective ministers also should contact the or dination supervision body of their par ticular denomination for information on special requirements for ordina tion. Occupational information about the Protestant ministry can also be ob tained from: N ational C ou ncil o f C h urch es, P rofession al Church L eadership, R oom 770, 475 R iverside D r., N e w Y ork, N .Y . 10115. Rabbis serve either Orthodox, Con servative, Reform, or Reconstruction ist congregations. Regardless of their particular point of view, all Jewish congregations preserve the substance of Jewish religious worship. Congre gations differ in the extent to which they follow the traditional form of worship—for example, in the wearing of head coverings, the use of Hebrew as the language of prayer, or the use of instrumental music or a choir. The format of the worship service and, therefore, the ritual that the rabbis use may vary even among congregations belonging to the same branch of Juda ism. Rabbis also may write for religious and lay publications and teach in theo logical seminaries, colleges, and uni versities. Working Conditions Rabbis work long hours and are “ on call” to visit the sick, comfort the bereaved, and counsel those who need it. Community and educational activities may also require long or irregular hours. Some of their duties are intellectual and sedentary, such as studying reli gious texts, researching and writing sermons and articles for publication, and preparing lectures for adult edu cation. Rabbis have a good deal of indepen dent authority, since they have no formal hierarchy. They are responsi ble only to the board of trustees of the congregations they serve. Employment In 1984, there were an estimated 6,500 practicing rabbis. Over 1,100 Ortho dox rabbis served congregations, many of them relatively small. In ad dition, 800 Conservative, 750 Reform, and 65 Reconstructionist rabbis had synagogues. Most of the rest taught in Jewish Studies programs at colleges and universities. Others worked as chaplains in the military services, in hospitals and other institutions, or in one of the many Jewish community service agencies. Although rabbis serve Jewish com munities throughout the Nation, they are concentrated in major metropoli tan areas that have large Jewish pop ulations. Training and Other Qualifications To become eligible for ordination as a rabbi, a student must complete a course of study in a seminary. En trance requirements and the curricu lum depend upon the branch of Juda ism with which the seminary is asso ciated. About 30 seminaries train Orthodox rabbis. The Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary and the Beth Medrash Govoha Seminary are repre sentative of Orthodox seminaries. The Rabbis (D.Q.T. 120.007)___________________________________ Nature of the Work Rabbis are the spiritual leaders of their congregations, and teachers and interpreters of Jewish law and tradi tion. They conduct religious services and deliver sermons on the Sabbath and on Jewish holidays. Like other clergy, rabbis conduct weddings and funeral services, visit the sick, help the poor, comfort the bereaved, su pervise religious education programs, engage in interfaith activities, and in volve themselves in community af fairs. Rabbis serving large congregations may spend considerable time in ad ministrative duties, working with their staffs and committees. Large congre gations frequently have an associate or assistant rabbi. Many assistant rab bis serve as educational directors. A rabbi discusses religious school curriculum with parent. 122/Occupational Outlook Handbook former requires a bachelor’s degree for entry and has a formal 3-year ordination program. The latter has no formal admission requirements but may require more years of study for ordination. The training is rigorous. When students have become suffi ciently learned in the Talmud, the Bible, and other religious studies, they may be ordained with the ap proval of an authorized rabbi, acting either independently or as a repre sentative of a rabbinical seminary. The Jewish Theological Seminary of America trains rabbis for the Con servative branch. The Hebrew Union College—Jewish Institute of Religion trains rabbis for the Reform branch. Both seminaries require the comple tion of a 4-year college course, as well as earlier preparation in Jewish stud ies, for admission to the rabbinical program leading to ordination. A stu dent with a strong background in Jew ish studies can complete the course at the Conservative seminary in 4 years; for other enrollees, the course may take as long as 6 years. Normally, 5 years of study are required to com plete the rabbinical course at the Re form seminary, including 1 year of preparatory study in Jerusalem. Ex ceptionally w ell-prepared students can shorten this 5-year period to a minimum of 3 years. The Reconstructionist Rabbinical College trains rabbis in the newest branch of Judaism. A bachelor’s de gree is required for admission. The rabbinical program is based on a 5year course of study which emphasiz es, in each year, a period in the histo ry of Jewish civilization. Graduates are awarded the title “ Rabbi” and, with special study, can earn the Doc tor of Hebrew Letters degree. In general, the curriculums of Jew ish theological seminaries provide stu dents with a comprehensive knowl edge of the Bible, Talmud, Rabbinic literature, Jewish history, theology, and courses in education, pastoral psychology, and public speaking. Stu dents get extensive practical training in dealing with social and political problems in the community. Training for alternatives to the pulpit, such as leadership in community services and religious education, is increasingly stressed. Some seminaries grant advanced academic degrees in fields such as Biblical and Talmudic reasarch. All Jewish theological seminaries make scholarships and loans available. Newly ordained rabbis usually begin as leaders of small congregations, as sistants to experienced rabbis, direc tors of Hillel Foundations on college campuses, teachers in seminaries and other educational institutions, or chaplains in the Armed Forces. As a rule, experienced rabbis fill the pulpits of large and well-established Jewish congregations. Job Outlook The job outlook for rabbis varies among the four major branches of Judaism. Orthodox clergy currently face keen competition because the number of graduates from Orthodox seminaries is increasing at a more rapid pace than the number of pulpits. Orthodox rab bis willing to work in rural areas should have the best prospects. Rabbis in the Conservative branch are expected to have good employ ment opportunities—primarily in in ner cities and areas that attract many retirees. As a result of increasing member ship, Reform rabbis should have good employment opportunities, especially in small communities. Reconstructionist rabbis also are expected to have good employment opportunities. Membership is expand ing rapidly and demand is expected to exceed supply. Many rabbis who do not seek a pulpit work for Jewish social service agencies. Others may teach in a reli gious educational institution, or serve as chaplain in the Armed Forces or in hospitals, universities, or correctional institutions. Earnings Income varies, depending on the size and financial status of the congrega tion, as well as its denominational branch and geographic location. Rab bis usually earn additional income from gifts or fees for officiating at ceremonies such as bar mitzvahs and weddings. Based on limited information, annu al earnings of rabbis generally ranged from $25,000 to $75,000 in 1984, in cluding fringe benefits. Related Occupations Rabbis advise and counsel individuals and groups regarding their religious as well as personal, social, and vocation al development. Other occupations in volved in this type of work include social workers, clinical and counsel ing psychologists, teachers, and coun selors. Sources of Additional Information Persons who are interested in becom ing rabbis should discuss their plans for a vocation with a practicing rabbi. Information on the work of rabbis and allied occupations can be obtained from: T he Rabbi Isaac E lchanan T h eological Sem i nary, 2540 A m sterdam A v e ., N e w Y ork, N .Y . 10033. (O rthodox) B eth M edrash G o v o h a Sem inary, 626 Seven th S t., L ak ew o o d , N .J . 08701. (O rthodox) T he Jew ish T h eological Sem inary o f A m erica, 3080 B road w ay, N e w Y ork, N .Y . 10027. (C on servative) H eb rew U n ion C ollege— Jew ish Institute o f R e ligion, D irector o f A d m issio n s, at any one o f three cam puses: 1 W . 4th S t., N e w Y ork, N .Y . 10012; 3101 C lifton A v e ., C incinn ati, O hio 45220; 3077 U n iversity M all, L o s A n g eles, Cal if. 90007. (R eform ) R econ stru ction ist R abbinical C o lleg e, Church R oad and G reen w ood A v en u e, W y n co te, Pa. 19095. Roman Catholic Priests (D .O .T. 120.007) Nature of the Work Roman Catholic priests attend to the spiritual, pastoral, moral, and educa tional needs of the members of their church. They deliver sermons, admin ister the sacraments of marriage and of penance, and preside at liturgical functions, such as funeral services. They also comfort the sick, console and counsel those in need of guid ance, and assist the poor. In recent years, some priests have paid increas ing attention to nonliturgical concerns such as human rights and social wel fare. A priest’s day usually begins with morning meditation and Mass and may end with the hearing of confes sions or an evening visit to a hospital or home. Many priests direct and serve on church committees, work in civic and charitable organizations, and assist in community projects. The two main classifications of priests—diocesan (secular) and reli gious—have the same powers, ac quired through ordination by a bish op. The differences lie in their way of life, their type of work, and the church Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/123 authority to whom they are immedi ately subject. Diocesan priests gener ally work individually in parishes as signed by the bishop of their diocese. Religious priests generally work as part of a religious order, such as the Jesuits, Dominicans, or Franciscans. They may engage in specialized activ ities, such as teaching or missionary work, assigned by superiors of their order. Both religious and diocesan priests hold teaching and administrative posts in Catholic seminaries, colleges and universities, and high schools. Priests attached to religious orders staff a large proportion of the church’s insti tutions of higher education and many high schools, whereas diocesan priests are usually concerned with the paro chial schools attach ed to parish churches and with diocesan high schools. The members of religious or ders do most of the missionary work conducted by the Catholic Church in this country and abroad. Working Conditions Priests spend long and irregular hours working for the church and the com munity. Religious priests are assigned duties by their superiors in their particular orders. Some religious priests serve as missionaries in foreign countries where they may live under difficult and primitive conditions. Some live a communal life in monasteries where they devote themselves to prayer, study, and assigned work. Diocesan priests are “ on call” at all hours to serve their parishioners in emergency situations. They also have many intellectual duties including study of the scriptures and keeping abreast of current religious and secu lar events in order to prepare ser mons. Diocesan priests are responsi ble to the bishop in the diocese. Training and Other Qualifications Preparation for the priesthood gener ally requires 8 years of study beyond high school in 1 of about 240 seminar ies. Preparatory study may begin in the first year of high school, at the college level, or in theological semi naries after college graduation. High school seminaries provide a college preparatory program that em phasizes English grammar, speech, literature, and social studies. Latin is required and modern languages are encouraged. In growing Hispanic communities, knowledge of Spanish is useful. The seminary college offers a liberal arts program stressing philoso phy and religion, the study of man through the behavioral sciences and history, and the natural sciences and mathematics. In many college semi naries, a student may concentrate in any of these fields. The remaining 4 years of preparation include sacred scripture; dogmatic, moral, and pastoral theology; homilet ics (art of preaching); church history; liturgy (Mass); and canon law. Field work experience usually is required; in recent years, this aspect of a priest’s training has been emphasized. Dioce san and religious priests attend different major seminaries where slight varia tions in the training reflect the differ ences in their duties. Priests commit themselves not to marry. Postgraduate work in theology is offered at a number of American Catholic universities or at ecclesiasti cal universities around the world, par ticularly in Rome. Also, many priests do graduate work in fields unrelated to theology. Priests are encouraged by the Catholic Church to continue their studies, at least informally, after ordi nation. In recent years, continuing education for ordained priests has stressed social sciences, such as soci ology and psychology. Young men never are denied entry into seminaries because of lack of funds. In seminaries for secular priests, scholarships or loans are available. Those in religious seminaries are fi nanced by contributions of benefactors. A newly ordained secular priest usually works as an assistant pastor or curate. Newly ordained priests of re ligious orders are assigned to the spe cialized duties for which they are trained. Depending on the talents, in terests, and experience of the individ ual, many opportunities for greater responsibility exist within the church. Job Outlook More priests will be needed in the years ahead to provide for the spiritu al, educational, and social needs of the increasing number of Catholics. In recent years, the number of ordained priests has been insufficient to fill the needs of newly established parishes and other Catholic institutions, and to replace priests who retire, die, or leave the priesthood. This situation is likely to persist and perhaps worsen, if the drop in seminary enrollment Employment There were approxim ately 58,000 priests in 1984, according to the Offi cial Catholic Directory. Over 19,000— primarily diocesan priests—served congregations. There are priests in nearly every city and town and in many rural communities. The major ity are in metropolitan areas, where most Catholics reside. Large numbers of priests are located in communities near Catholic educational and other institutions. A priest explains the ceremonial procedures to the future newlyweds. 124/Occupational Outlook Handbook continues and if an increasing propor tion of priests retires as expected. In response to the shortage of priests, certain traditional functions may now be performed by lay deacons and by teams of clergy and laity. Presently about 6,700 lay deacons have been or dained to preach and perform liturgical functions such as distributing Holy Communion and reading the gospel at the Mass. Teams of clergy and laity undertake nonliturgical functions such as hospital visits and meetings. These trends are expected to increase. Priests will continue to offer Mass, administer sacraments, and hear confession, but may be less involved in teaching and administrative work. Earnings Diocesan priests’ salaries vary from diocese to diocese. Based on limited information, most salaries range from $4,000 to $6,000 a year. The diocesan priest also may receive a car allow ance, free room and board in the par ish rectory, and fringe benefits such as group insurance and retirement bene fits in the diocese. Religious priests take a vow of pov erty and are supported by their reli gious order. Priests who do special work related to the church, such as teaching, usu ally receive a partial salary which is less than a lay person in the same position would receive. The differ ence between the usual salary for these jobs and the salary that the priest receives is called “ contributed service.” In some of these situations, housing and related expenses may be provided; in other cases, the priest must make his own arrangements. Some priests doing special work may receive the same compensation that a lay person would receive. Related Occupations Roman Catholic priests advise and counsel individuals and groups re garding their religious as well as per sonal, social, and vocational develop ment. Other occupations involved in this type of work include social work ers, clinical and counseling psycholo gists, teachers, and counselors. Sources of Additional Information Young men interested in entering the priesthood should seek the guidance and counsel of their parish priests. For information regarding the differ ent religious orders and the secular priesthood, as well as a list of the seminaries which prepare students for the priesthood, contact the diocesan Director of Vocations through the of fice of the local pastor or bishop. Occupational information about the Roman Catholic priesthood can also be obtained from: National Catholic Vocation Council, 1307 S. Wabash Avenue, Chicago, 111. 60605. Teachers, Counselors, Librarians, Archivists, and Curators Teaching, librarianship, and counsel ing are “ people-oriented” fields that involve helping others learn, acquire information, or gain insight into them selves. Archivists and curators are more involved with “ things.” They may also help people learn and gain information, but do not usually work as closely with them as teachers, li brarians, and counselors. These pro fessionals usually require a bachelor’s degree, although some require a mas ter’s or doctoral degree. Teaching is one of the largest occu pations in the United States. In 1984, kindergarten and elementary school teachers held about 1.4 million jobs, secondary school teachers held 1.0 million, and college and university teachers held about 730,000. Many others held jobs as teachers in pre school programs and nursery schools; in public and private vocational edu cation programs; in dance, music, and art studios; and in other places. L ibrarianship and counseling are much smaller fields. In 1984, librari ans and audiovisual specialists held approximately 160,000 jobs and coun selors about 150,000. Archivists and curators held an estimated 11,000 jobs in 1984. Teaching takes place in many dif ferent settings, and most people would agree that education is a lifelong proc ess. But perhaps our most influential educational experiences occur during the period of formal education, begin ning in preschool or kindergarten and extending through early adulthood. Teachers help students gain the skills they need to function in the world around them, encouraging them to explore many subjects and master some; to identify interests and values; to learn to make decisions; and to think for themselves. Librarianship is undergoing pro found changes as libraries try to keep up with the information explosion, assimilate new technology, and re spond to budget pressures. Many li and vocational guidance in a wide range of settings, including schools and colleges, rehabilitation centers, community mental health centers, halfway houses, and counseling cen ters for women, minorities, veterans, ex-ofifenders, and alcohol or drug abusers. Some employers require a m aster’s degree in counseling, coun seling psychology, social work, or a related field, but others do not. Archivists and curators acquire, catalog, restore, maintain, and exhibit historical documents, works of art, plants, buildings, and battle sites. Most archivists and curators work for Federal, State, or local government agencies or private museums. Job prospects in some occupations, such as college and university faculty, and archivists and curators are ex pected to be competitive overall. Job p ro sp e c ts fo r elem en tary school teachers are expected to be more fa vorable as enrollments increase. Best job opportunities for counselors are expected in nonschool settings, and for librarians in special libraries. More detailed information on job braries are restructuring services and looking for new ways to share re sources. Public libraries, long thought of as centers for recreational reading, are enlarging the scope of their activities and finding additional ways to serve the community—as information and referral services, cultural centers, and learning centers or “ open universi ties.” School libraries, also called media centers because so much of their collection is not in printed form, have become an integral part of the learning experience in elementary and secondary schools. College and uni versity libraries provide both refer ence collections for students and sup port for highly specialized research. Special libraries and documentation centers, which generally tailor serv ices to a single group of users, have led the field in the use of computers for information storage and retrieval. Expertise in library automation is im portant for all kinds of librarians, however. Counseling has many, dimensions. Counselors provide personal, social, Growth in education-related occupations will vary greatly through the mid-1990’s. Projected percent change in employment, 1984-95 -1 5 -1 0 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 Kindergarten and elementary school teachers Counselors Librarians Archivists and curators Secondary school teachers1 College and university faculty 1No growth until after 1990. SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics 125 126/Occupational Outlook Handbook outlook and alternative careers ap pears in the statements that follow. Kindergarten and Elementary School Teachers (D.O.T. 092.227-010, -014; 094.224-010, .227-010 through -022; 099.224-010) Nature of the Work Kindergarten and elementary school teachers play a vital role in the deveh opment of children. What is learned or not learned in the early years can shape children’s views of themselves and the world, and affect later success or failure in school and work. K in d e rg a rte n and e le m e n ta ry school teachers introduce children to the basics of mathematics, language, science, and social studies. They try to instill good study habits and an appreciation for learning, as well as observe and evaluate each child’s per formance and potential. Elementary school teachers may use films, slides, computers, or instructional games to help children learn in creative ways. They also arrange class trips, speak ers, and class projects. Teachers keep track of their stu dents’ social development and health. They observe each child’s behavior and discuss problems—such as habit ual resistance to authority—with the parents. Teachers also report health problems to parents and school health officials. Most elementary school teachers instruct a group of children in several subjects while providing individual at tention as much as possible. In some schools, two or more teachers team teach and are jointly responsible for a group of students or for a particular subject. An increasing number of ele mentary school teachers specialize and teach one or two subjects to sev eral classes. Some teach subjects such as music, art, or physical education, /while others concentrate on the spe cial needs of certain groups—those who have reading problems or those who do not speak English, for exam ple. Much of a teacher’s work occurs outside the classroom. Teachers gen erally prepare lessons and grade pa pers at home, attend faculty meetings, and supervise extracurricular activi ties after school. They also serve on faculty committees such as those to revise curricula or to evaluate the school’s objectives and the students’ performance. To stay up to date on educational materials and teaching techniques, they may participate in workshops and other inservice activi ties or take college courses. Many schools employ teacher aides to do clerical work and supervise lunch and blayground activities so that teachers' can give more individual attention to students. Job prospects for kindergarten and elementary school teachers have improved. Working Conditions Teachers spend much of their time standing or walking. Kindergarten teachers may join their students on the floor to finger paint, cut out pic tures, or do other crafts. A teacher may often have to deal with disruptive, disrespectful, and som etim es even violent children. Teachers may also have students of widely different backgrounds and abil ities in the same classroom—those who have little knowledge of English and those who are handicapped, for example. This can be physically, men tally, and emotionally taxing. Most elementary school teachers work a traditional 2-sem ester, 10month school year with a 2-month vacation. Teachers on a 10-month schedule may teach in the summer session or take other jobs. Many en roll in college courses or special work shops. Some teachers in year-round schools work 8-week sessions, are off 1 week between sessions, and have a long midwinter break. This 12-month schedule makes it difficult for teachers to take supplemental jobs. In most States, the public schools must be in session a minimum number of days. This number varies from 175 to 205 days. In 1985, the average number of instruction days was 184. Most States as well as the District of Columbia have tenure laws that protect the jobs of teachers who have taught satisfactorily for a certain num ber of years. A teacher normally must serve a satisfactory probationary pe riod of 3 years before attaining tenure. Tenure is not an automatic guarantee of job security, but it does provide some protection. Employment Kindergarten and elementary school teachers held 1,381,000 jobs in 1984. M ost elem entary school teachers work in public schools that have stu dents in kindergarten through grade six; however, some teach in middle schools that cover the 3 or 4 years between the lower elementary grades and 4 years of high school. Fourteen percent of elementary school teachers work in private schools. Since kindergarten and elementary school teachers work directly with students, their employment is distrib uted geographically much the same as the population. Teachers, Counselors, Librarians, Archivists, and Curators/127 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Co lum bia require public elem entary school teachers to be certified by State education authorities. Some States require teachers in private and parochial schools to be certified as well. Generally, certification is grant ed by the State Board of Education, the State Superintendent of Educa tion, or a Certification Advisory Com mittee. Teachers may be certified to teach either the early childhood grades (usu ally nursery school through the third grade) or the elem entary grades (grades one through six or eight). Some teachers obtain certification to teach special education or reading at the elementary school level. Requirements for certification vary by State, and school systems may have additional hiring requirements. In all States and the District of Colum bia, however, public kindergarten and elementary school teachers must have a bachelor’s degree from an institu tion with an approved teacher educa tion program. Teacher training pro grams include a variety of liberal arts courses as well as student teaching and prescribed professional education courses such as philosophy of educa tion, psychology of learning, and teaching methodology. Many States require teachers to obtain a m aster’s degree within a certain period after beginning work. Seventeen States require applicants for certification to be tested for com petency either in basic skills, subject matter, teaching skills, or a combina tion of these. Twenty-six States have health requirements. Initial teaching certificates range from 1 year to life, but life certificates are becoming less common. Complete information on requirements for elementary school teaching is available from State de partments of education or superinten dents of schools. Information about whether a partic ular teacher training program is ap proved can be obtained from the insti tution offering the training or from the State department of education: Many States have reciprocity agreements that allow teachers who are certified in one State to become certified in another. K in d e rg a rte n and e le m e n ta ry school teachers should be creative, dependable, patient, and competent in the same rate in all parts of the coun try, however. Largely because of mi gration to the South and West, popu lation growth (and therefore the in crease in enrollments) is expected to be greater in those regions. W hether an elem entary school teacher “ shortage” develops depends not only on demand for teachers but on supply as well. The basic sources of teacher supply are recent graduates qualified to teach at the elementary school level and former teachers seek ing reentry to the occupation. The greater availability of jobs, rising sal aries, and heightened public interest in education are encouraging more Job Outlook Job prospects for kindergarten and people to prepare for elem entary elementary school teachers are ex school teaching and may also attract pected to improve. Employment is more people from the teacher reserve expected to grow faster than the aver pool. The reserve pool is very large age for all occupations through the because many elem entary school mid-1990’s, reflecting rising enroll teachers are women who left teaching ments. Additional positions also are for household responsibilities and also expected as a result of lower pupil- because there had been an oversupply teacher ratios. Many job openings will of these teachers for many years. In also occur to replace teachers who 1982-83, more than one-third of those leave the profession. If the number of who entered elementary school teach new college graduates prepared to ing had not worked the previous year teach in elementary school remains at because of household responsibilities, the current level, there may be more tf supply responses are adequate, a shortage of elementary school teach openings than qualified applicants. Enrollment levels and employment ers will not develop. Employment of teachers is also sen of classroom teachers are closely as sociated. The National Center for Ed sitive to changes in State and local ucation Statistics projects enrollments expenditures for education. Pressure to increase over the next decade from from taxpayers to limit taxes, and 27.2 million to almost 32 million, re spending is likely to inhibit employ flecting the rise in the number of ment growth, while recent emphasis on improving the quality of education births beginning in the mid-1970’s. Enrollment growth will not occur at could stimulate it. handling classroom situations. Most important, they should be vitally in terested in the educational and emo tional development of children. As teachers gain experience, they may advance to supervisory, adminis trative, or specialized positions within the school system. Often, however, these positions require additional training and certification and the num ber of positions is limited. As a result, for mcSil teachers, advancement con sists of higher pay rather than addi tional responsibility or a higher posi tion. The elementary school age population will increase after 1985. Population 5 to 13 years of age (millions) 1970 1975 Source Bureau of the Census 1980 1985 1990 1995 128/Occupational Outlook Handbook Although computers are being used in elementary schools, they are not expected to affect teacher employ ment, since their major use is for teaching computer concepts, learning enrichment, and remedial drill and practice exercises. Earnings According to the National Education Association, public elementary school teachers averaged $23,092 a year in 1984-85. Generally, the Mid-Atlantic and far western States paid the high est salaries. Collective bargaining agreements cover an increasing number of teach ers. In 1984, 33 States and the District of Columbia had laws that required collective bargaining in teacher con tract negotiations, and an additional 9 States perm itted such bargaining. Most public school systems that en roll 1,000 students or more bargain with teacher organizations over wag es, hours, and the terms and condi tions of employment. Related Occupations Kindergarten and elementary school teaching requires a wide variety of skills and aptitudes, including organi zational and administrative abilities; a talent for working with children; com munication skills; the power to influ e n c e , motivate, and train others; cre ativity; and leadership ability. Work ers in other occupations that require som e of th ese a p titu d e s include childcare attendants; trainers and em ployee development specialists; em ploym ent interview ers; librarians; personnel specialists; public relations specialists; and social workers and counselors. Sources of Additional Information Information on certification require ments is available from local school systems and State departments of ed ucation. Information on teachers’ unions and education-related issues can be obtained from: American Federation of Teachers, 555 New Jersey Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20001. General information on the teaching professions can be obtained from lo cal or State affiliates of the National Education Association. A list of colleges and universities accredited by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education can be obtained from: National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, 1919 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Suite 202, Washington, D.C. 20006. Secondary School Teachers (D.O.T. 091.221-010, .227-010; 094.224-010, .227-010 through -022; 099.244-010, and .227-022) Nature of the Work 4 The high school years are a time of transition from childhood to adult hood. Secondary school teachers fa cilitate this process. They help stu dents delve more deeply into subjects introduced in elementary school and learn more about themselves and the world. Secondary school teachers instruct students in a specific subject, such as English, Spanish, mathematics, histo ry, or biology. They may teach a variety of related courses. Social stud ies teachers, for example, may in struct two 9th grade classes in Amer ican History, two 12th grade classes in Contemporary American Problems, and another class in World Geogra phy. For each class, teachers develop lesson plans; prepare, give, and grade examinations; and arrange special ac tivities, such as a class project to devise an urban redevelopment plan for a city. Teachers design their classroom presentations to meet the individual needs and abilities of as many as 150 students in five different classes. They may arrange tutoring for students or give advanced assignments for highly motivated pupils. Teachers use a variety of instruc tional materials including films, slides, overhead projectors, and computer terminals. They may arrange field trips, such as planetarium visits to supplement classroom work on as tronomy. Science teachers also supervise lab oratory work, and vocational educa tion teachers teach shop classes to give students “ hands-on” experience with instruments, tools, and machin ery. In addition to classroom teaching, secondary school teachers prepare lessons and grade papers at home, oversee study halls and homerooms, supervise extracurricular activities, and attend meetings with parents and school personnel. Teachers also par ticipate in workshops and college classes to keep up to date on their subject specialty and on develop ments in education. Working Conditions Teaching involves long periods of standing and talking and can be phys ically, mentally, and emotionally tir ing. Dealing with disruptive students can be especially exhausting. Since teachers also spend time in activities outside the classroom, they may work over 40 hours a week. Most teachers w ork the traditional 10month school year with a 2-month vacation. Teachers on a 10-month schedule may teach in summer ses sions or take other jobs. Many enroll in college courses or special work shops. Teachers in districts with a year-round schedule work 8 weeks, are on vacation for 1 week, and have a 5-week m idw inter break. In most States, schools must be in session a minimum number of days. This num ber varies from 175 to 205 days. In 1985, the average number of instruc tion days was 184. The District of Columbia and most States have tenure laws that protect the jobs of teachers who have taught satisfactorily for a certain number of years. A teacher normally must serve a satisfactory probationary period of 3 years before attaining tenure. Tenure is not an automatic guarantee of job security, but it does provide some protection. Employment S e c o n d a ry school te a c h e rs held 1,045,000 jobs in 1984. More than 90 percent taught in public schools. Since teachers work directly with students, their employment is distributed much the same as the population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Co lum bia req u ire public secondary school teachers to be certified. Many States require teachers in private and parochial schools to be certified as well. Usually certification is granted by the State Board of Education, the State Superintendent of Education, or a Certification Advisory Committee. Requirements for certification to teach at the secondary school level vary by Stat6, and school systems may have additional requirem ents. However, in all States and the District of Columbia, teachers need a bache- Teachers, Counselors, Librarians, Archivists, and Curators/129 lor’s degree from an approved teacher training program with a prescribed number of credits in the subject they plan to teach. They must also com plete student teaching and other pro fessional education courses. Many States require teachers to obtain grad uate degrees within a certain time after being hired. Seventeen States require applicants for teacher certification to be tested for competency either in basic skills, subject matter, teaching skills, or a combination of these. Twenty States also have health requirements. Initial teaching certificates vary from 1 year to life. Life certificates are becoming less common. Some States have set up alternate or provisional certification plans to attract talented college graduates who do not have education courses needed to qualify for a regular certificate. Under most plans, entrants must have a major in the subject to be taught and pass a general or subject area exami nation. They teach under the close supervision of experienced educators and take a limited number of college courses in education or participate in specially designed classes. If they are successful, they are eligible for regu lar certification. Information on regu lar and alternate certification require ments for secondary school teaching is available from any State depart ment of education or superintendent of schools. Information about whether a partic ular teacher training program is ap proved can be obtained from the insti tution offering the training or from the State department of education. Many States have reciprocity agreements that allow teachers who are certified in one State to become certified in another. Secondary school teachers should be good at working with young peo ple, knowledgeable in their special subject, and able to motivate students and to impart knowledge to them. With additional preparation and certification, experienced teachers may be able to move into positions as school librarians, reading specialists, curriculum specialists, or guidance counselors. However, for most sec ondary school teachers, advancement takes the form of a higher salary rath er than a different job. Relatively few teachers move into administrative or supervisory positions in a public school system. To do so usually re quires at least 1 year of graduate edu cation, several years of classroom teaching, and sometimes a special cer tificate. Job Outlook An oversupply of secondary school teachers has existed for many years. Nevertheless, job prospects have im proved somewhat in recent years be cause the number of new graduates prepared to teach has dropped sharp ly. Science, mathematics, and com puter programming teachers are—and may remain—in short supply because employers in private industry and government offer higher salaries to people trained in these fields. Some schools also report difficulty in finding enough teachers qualified in special education, vocational education, and bilingual education. The primary sources of teacher sup ply are recent college graduates qual ified to teach secondary school and former teachers seeking to reenter the profession. Although reentrants have experience in th eir fav o r, many schools prefer to hire new graduates who command lower salaries and whose training is more recent. Employment of secondary school te a c h e rs is ex p e cte d to d ecline throughout the 1980’s and to start increasing during the early 1990’s. By 1995, employment is projected to be slightly above the 1984 level. Pupil enrollment is the primary factor un derlying the demand for teachers. The National Center for Education Statis tics projects that enrollment in sec- In addition to teaching classes, secondary school teachers supervise study halls and homerooms, advise students, and attend meetings. ondary schools will continue to de cline through 1990. Enrollments will begin increasing after 1990, reflecting the rise in births beginning in the mid1970’s. Employment of teachers is expected to be somewhat higher than enrollment trends indicate because of anticipated lower pupil-teacher ratios. Nearly all openings for secondary school teachers will stem from the need to replace teachers who leave the profession. Although computers are being in creasingly used in secondary schools, The decline in the high school age population will not be reversed until the early 1990’s. Population 14 to 17 years of age (millions) 18 I-.» •A Hi 16 -> 14 \ 7X A^ 1 6 L K •1 I 1 .... l#pi j | j | l l jj 12 __ • 11 - t j _______i _ 0 1970 1975 Source Bureau of the Census . 1980 _L 1985 1990 1995 130/Occupational Outlook Handbook they are not expected to affect teacher employment, since their major use is for teaching computer science and for keeping records. Two other trends may affect teacher employment. Pres sure from taxpayers to limit taxes and spending is likely to inhibit employ ment growth, while recent emphasis on improving the quality of education could stimulate it. Earnings According to the National Education Association, public secondary school teachers averaged $24,276 a year in 1984-85. Generally, salaries were high est in the Mid-Atlantic States and in the Far West. Collective bargaining agreements cover an increasing number of teach ers. In 1984, 33 States and the District of Columbia had laws that required collective bargaining in teacher con tract negotiations, and an additional 9 States permitted such bargaining. In some schools, teachers receive extra pay for coaching sports and working with students in extracurric ular activities such as music, drama, or school publications. Some teachers earn extra income by working in the school system during summer ses sions. Others hold summer jobs out side the school system. Related Occupations Secondary school teaching requires a wide variety of skills and aptitudes, including organizational, administra tive, and recordkeeping abilities; re search and communication skills; the power to influence, m otivate, and train others; and creativity. Workers in other occupations requiring some of these aptitudes include: School ad ministrators, counselors, trainers and employee developm ent specialists, employment interviewers, librarians, personnel managers, public relations representatives, sales representatives, and social workers. Sources of Additional Information Information on certification require ments and approved teacher training institutions is available from State de partments of education. Information on teachers’ unions and education-related issues may be obtained from: American Federation of Teachers, 555 New Jersey Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20001. General information on the teaching obtained from lo Digitized forprofessions can be FRASER cal or State affiliates of the National Education Association. A list of colleges and universities accredited by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education can be obtained from: National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, 1919 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Suite 202, Washington, D.C. 20006. Adult and Vocational Education Teachers (D.O.T. 075.127-010; 090.222; 097.227-010 and -014; 099.223, .227-014, -018, -026, and -030; 149.021; 150.027-014; 151.027-014; 151.027-014; 152.021; 153.227-014; 159.227; 166.227; 239.227; 621.221; 683.222; 689.222; 715.221; 740.221; 789.222; 806.227; and 919.223) Nature of the Work Vocational and adult education plays a significant role in postsecondary ed ucation. For millions of people, the road to a satisfying career begins when they enroll in a vocational edu cation program. These programs pre pare them for specific jobs that do not require a college degree, and cover such diverse fields as agriculture, con struction trades, data processing, word processing, home economics, and health services. In contrast, adult or continuing education programs of fer out-of-school adults a wide array of courses that do not specifically pre pare them for an occupation. Instead, these programs are designed to help students improve the quality of their lives by improving their health, teach ing them hobbies, and expanding their general knowledge. Course offerings range from basic education for school dropouts to aerobics to photography. Adult and vocational education teachers generally teach courses relat ed to their field of specialization. Teaching methods vary by subject, but usually teachers try to promote the students’ active involvement in learning. For example, a technical school class in automotive repair may take place in a classroom equipped like an auto repair shop. Students learn by actually repairing cars, using all the tools and equipment used by experienced repairers. In this way, the students receive ample hands-on experience and learn by performing tasks and correcting mistakes. Other courses, held in regular class room settings, also stress learning by doing. An instructor teaching a course in real estate may give a lecture on Federal and State regulations, and then require the class to properly fill out all required forms and documents. Similarly, teachers of creative classes such as painting, photography, or pot tery dem onstrate the proper tech niques before having the students ap ply them. The instructor then pro vides constructive criticism so the students can learn from their mis takes. One of the most challenging areas in vocational and adult education is the Adult Basic Education (ABE) pro gram, sponsored by the Federal Gov ernment. It provides instruction in reading, writing, and mathematics up to the eighth grade level for adults. This program also may prepare stu dents to take the General Educational D evelopm ent Exam ination (GED), which gives successful students the equivalent of a high school diploma. Another component of the ABE is teaching English to non-English-spe aking people. Adult basic education students may lack proper study habits, language skills, and self-confidence and require more attention and patience than oth er students. Teachers in this program must be able to deal with students at different levels of development. They must generate a positive reaction from the beginning, making the new stu dent comfortable, developing trust, and helping students better under stand their own needs and aims. For these teachers, the ability to listen is almost as important as the ability to teach. They must also select books, slides, games, or other materials that will make learning as meaningful and pleasurable as possible. These teachers should be familiar with the community agencies and re sources to which people may be re ferred when personal problems are beyond the scope of the program. Because many needy people are re luctant to seek out these programs, teachers must be aware of the need to recruit new participants. One of the best ways is to encourage participants to tell others about the adult basic education program. In addition to time spent in the classroom, both adult and vocational education teachers must prepare les sons and assignments, grade papers, and do related paperwork on their own time. In addition, they may at tend occasional faculty m eetings. Teachers, Counselors, Librarians, Archivists, and Curators/131 M ost im p o rtan t, they m ust stay abreast of developments in their area of expertise. Working Conditions Teaching involves extended periods of standing and talking and can be both physically and mentally tiring. Adult basic education teachers may experience em otional stress when dealing with students who are having personal problems, but they also can experience deep satisfaction when their students succeed. Many adult and vocational educa tion teachers work part time. Their hours depend on the number and type of courses they teach. Some part-time teachers spend no more than 3 hours a week in classes, while others spend as many as 15 hours. Many courses are offered at night or on weekends, and range from 1-day m inisessions to courses of standard semester length. Employment Adult and vocational education teach ers held about 256,000 jobs in 1984. Almost half work part time, a larger proportion than for other teachers. People teaching courses taken for credit, including adult basic education teachers and many vocational educa tion teachers, usually work full time. Most of those who teach pottery, art, music, dance, and other noncredit courses work part time. Adult and vocational programs are offered by many institutions, includ ing vocational schools, technical insti tutions, career centers, colleges and universities, governm ent agencies, business firms, labor unions, and reli gious organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements vary widely by State and by subject. For example, an instructor teaching masonry skills is only required to have experience in the field, whereas an instructor in hor ticulture may be required to have at least a m aster’s degree and, in some States, a Ph.D. As a rule, teachers in the blue-collar trades must be licensed or must demonstrate that they have reached the journeym an level; teach ers in the health fields must be regis tered or licensed; dance teachers usu ally are required to have completed formal training at a reputable dance academy; and photography teachers must submit a portfolio of their work. Other teachers usually are required to have several years’ professional expe rience in their specialty. Most States and the District of Co lumbia require adult basic education teachers to have a bachelor’s degree from an approved teacher training program. In addition, some States re quire these teachers to be certified; certification requirements vary wide ly, but generally include courses in the psychological and emotional needs of adult students. Adult and vocational education teachers should enjoy working with people and get real satisfaction shar ing their knowledge with others. They also need good communication skills and the ability to motivate others. For part-time teachers, advance ment generally takes the form of high er pay. Full-time teachers, however, can often move up to administrative positions if they have proven admin istrative ability. Job Outlook Employment of adult and vocational education teachers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s as the demand for adult and vocation al education programs continues to rise. Vocational education teachers will be needed to train young adults for jobs and to retrain older workers whose jobs have been eliminated due to changing technology and changes in business practices. The need to retrain older workers is expected to offset the decline in the number of young people 16 to 24 years of age, the age group most likely to enroll in a vocational program. Also contributing to the demand is the increased participation by adults in part-time instruction. This partici pation has increased substantially dur ing the past decade, reflecting the rise in the adult population and the grow ing emphasis on leisure time and selfimprovement. As the baby-boom gen eration matures and the population gets older, demand for these programs is expected to continue to rise. The rising educational attainment of the work force also may have had an impact on the growth of adult basic education programs, as it has become more and more difficult to get a good job without basic academic skills. This trend also is likely to continue. The major source of job openings for adult and vocational educational teachers will stem from the need to replace persons who leave the occu pation. Because many of these teach ers work part time, their attachment to the occupation is weak and turn over is quite high. Although most op portunities will be for part-time teach ers, opportunities for full-time posi tions should be exceptionally good for persons qualified to teach computer technology, automotive mechanics, medical technology, and office skills. Earnings In 1984, the median hourly earnings of all adult and vocational education teachers were $9.70. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.75 and $14. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $4.75 while the top 10 percent earned more than $18 per hour. How- Many adult and vocational education teachers work part time. 132/Occupational Outlook Handbook ever, earnings vary widely according to subject, academ ic credentials, experience, and region of the country. According to the limited data avail able, adult basic education teachers had average earnings of betw een $11.50 and $17 an hour in 1984. Earn ings of persons teaching data process ing ranged between $8.50 and $15.50 an hour, and those of blue-collar trades instructors ranged betw een $7.50 and $14. Teachers of other sub jects generally earned less. Earnings also vary considerably by type of institution. For example, colleg es and universities generally pay the highest salaries and vocational/technical institutes the lowest. Most institu tions pay full-time and part-time teach ers the same hourly wages, although part timers receive no fringe benefits. Related Occupations Adult and vocational education teach ing requires a wide variety of skills and aptitudes, including organizational, adm inistrative, and communication skills; the power to influence, motivate and train others; and creativity. Other occupations that use these aptitudes are other teachers, vocational and academ ic counselors, school administrators, public relations specialists, and em ployee development specialists. Sources of Additional Information Information on the Adult Basic Edu cation program and certification re quirements is available from State de partments of education. For information about vocational education teaching positions, contact the department of vocational educa tion in your State. General information on vocational education is available from: American Vocational Association, 2020 N. 14th St., Arlington, Va. 22201. For information on other adult edu cation teaching positions, contact the parks and recreation department of your local government, local schools, colleges and universities, and organiza tions such as the YMCA and YWCA. College and University Faculty (D.O.T. 090.227-010)___________________________ Nature of the Work Millions of people attend college for personal enrichment or for skills need ed for a job. Although the majority are recent high school graduates, the num ber of older students on campus is growing. Many are homemakers pre paring to enter or reenter the work force; others have returned to school to obtain courses for advancement in their present job or for a career change. College and university faculty mem bers provide instruction in particular fields of study to meet the needs of these students. Faculty members gen erally teach several different courses in the same field—freshman composi tion and 18th century English litera ture, for example. They may instruct undergraduates, graduate students, or both. Usually, more experienced fac ulty members teach the higher level classes. College and university faculty may lecture in classrooms that seat hun dreds of students, lead seminars for only a few students, or supervise stu dents in laboratories. Some use teach ing assistants who may lead discus sion sections or grade exams. Closedcircuit television, com puters, and other teaching aids are frequently used. College faculty members keep up with developments in their field by reading current literature and partici pating in professional activities. They also conduct and publish the results of their own scholarly research. Some college faculty members may experi ence a serious conflict between their responsibilities to their students and the pressure to “ publish or perish.” Those at universities generally spend the most time doing research; those in 2-year colleges, the least. In addition to preparation, instruc tion, and research, college and univer sity faculty members may advise stu dents and work with student organiza tions. Department heads also have administrative duties. Most faculty members serve on academic or ad ministrative committees of the college or university. Working Conditions College faculty members generally have flexible schedules, dividing their time among teaching, research, advis ing, and administrative responsibili ties. They may work staggered hours and teach classes at night. The normal teaching load usually is heavier in 2-year and community colleges, where less emphasis is placed on research and publication. College faculty have even greater flexibility during the summer and school holidays, during which they may conduct research, prepare course and teaching materi als, teach short-term summer classes, travel, or pursue hobbies. College fac ulty also have the intangible reward of being exposed to new ideas and shar ing in the growth and development of students. Over 90 percent of all full-time col lege and university faculty work in institutions that have tenure systems (the assurance of continuing employ ment with freedom from dismissal without cause and due process). N ear ly two-thirds of these faculty mem bers are tenured. Under a tenure sys tem, a faculty member usually re ceives 1-year c o n tra cts during a probationary period lasting at least 3 years and ordinarily no more than 7 years; some universities award 2- or 3- year contracts. After the probation ary period, institutions consider facul ty members for tenure. Declining en rollments and budgetary constraints, however, have made tenure increas ingly difficult for faculty members to gain. Colleges and universities are turning to short-term contracts and to part-time faculty to save money. Employment College and university faculty held 731,000 jobs in 1984. About 2 out of 3 faculty members holding the rank of professor, associate professor, assist ant professor, adjunct professor, lec turer, or instructor were full time, and almost 1 out of 3 was part time. Ap proximately 30,000 were full-time ju n ior instructors. In addition, thousands of graduate students, employed as as sistant instructors, teaching fellows, teaching assistants, or laboratory as sistants, taught part time. Public institutions, which constitute less than one-half of all colleges and universities, employ over 70 percent of all full-time instructional faculty. They employ about two-thirds of the full-time faculty in all universities and 4- year colleges, and 95 percent in all 2-year institutions. Nearly one-third of full-time faculty teach in universities; almost one-half work in 4-year colleges; and over onefifth teach in 2-year colleges. A few part-time faculty work in more than one institution of higher education. Others are primarily em ployed outside of an academic set- Teachers, Counselors, Librarians, Archivists, and Curators/133 ting—in government, private indus try, or in nonacadem ic research. These people—sometimes referred to as “ adjunct faculty” —may teach as little as one course a semester. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The overwhelming majority of full time college and university faculty are in four academic ranks: Professors, associate professors, assistant profes sors, and instructors. A small propor tion are lecturers. Most faculty members enter the profession as instructors and have at least a m aster’s degree. Because com petition for positions is so keen, many 4-year colleges and universities con sider only doctoral degree holders for entry level academic appointments. At 2-year institutions, a doctorate may not be necessary. Doctoral programs usually require 4 years or more of study beyond the bachelor’s degree, including intensive research for a doctoral dissertation that makes an original contribution to the candidate’s field of study. A work ing knowledge of one or more foreign languages (or com puter languages) and, in many fields, advanced mathe matical and statistical techniques are often required as well. S tudents should consider carefully their aca demic potential and motivation before beginning doctoral studies. Advancement through the academ ic ranks in 4-year institutions usually requires a doctorate plus college teaching experience, even in institu tions that hire m aster’s degree holders as instructors. Academic, administrative, and pro fessional contributions affect advance ment opportunities in this field. Re search, publication, consulting work, and other forms of professional recog nition all have a bearing on a college faculty member’s chances of promo tion. College faculty need inquiring, ana lytical minds and a strong desire to pursue and disseminate knowledge. As teachers and researchers, they should be able to communicate well, both orally and in writing. And as models for their students, they should be dedicated to the principles of aca demic integrity and intellectual hones ty. College faculty need to be open to new ideas—from their students, peers, and the nonacademic community. Job prospects for college teachers vary by academic field. Job Outlook Employment of college and university faculty is expected to decline through the mid-1990’s. The basic factor un derlying the demand for college facul ty is enrollment. Enrollments, which peaked during the early 1980’s, are expected to decline through the mid1990’s as the traditional college-age population decreases. A growing num ber of adults have entered college in recent years, many on a part-time basis, but adult enrollments are not expected to completely offset the de cline in traditional-age college stu dents. Employment opportunities may be better in community colleges that emphasize programs for adult learn ers. In general, however, fewer stu dents will mean fewer college faculty members. Because employment of college and university faculty will decline, job openings will result entirely from re placement needs. In any given aca demic institution, the number of va- The college age population is expected to decline through the mid-1990’s. Population 18 to 24 years of age (millions) 31 1970 1975 SOURCE Bureau of the Census 1980 1985 1990 1995 134/Occupational Outlook Handbook cancies will be influenced by the age of current faculty, tenure patterns and policies, and retirement practices. Competition for openings will be keen, particularly in prestigious insti tutions. Many graduates may have to accept part-time or short-term aca demic appointments that offer little hope of tenure. An increasing propor tion of prospective college and univer sity faculty members will have to seek nonacademic positions. And some persons holding graduate degrees may have to enter positions that have not previously required a master’s degree or a Ph.D. Some fields will offer brighter em ployment prospects for college faculty than others, of course. Departments that report shortages include engi neering, computer science, physical sciences, and mathematics—areas that offer very attractive jobs outside the academic setting. Employment of college faculty is related to the nonacademic job market in other fields in another way: There is an “ echo effect” as good job prospects in a field—engineering, for example— cause large numbers of students to sign up for courses, creating a demand for more teachers. On the other hand, a bad job market may cause a field temporarily to lose its popularity with college students—and reduce demand for faculty. Earnings Earnings vary widely according to faculty rank and type of institution. Faculty members in 4-year institu tions earn higher salaries, on the av erage, than those in 2-year schools. According to a 1984-85 survey by the American Association of University Professors, salaries for all full-time faculty on 9-month contracts aver aged around $31,000; professors, $39,900; a s s o c ia te p ro fe s s o rs , $25,300; assistant professors, $24,600; and instructors, $19,200. Since over 86 percent of full-time faculty members have 9-month con tracts, many have additional summer earnings from consulting, teaching, research, writing for publication, or other employment. Some college and university faculty members enjoy benefits offered by few other professions, including tu ition waivers for dependents, housing allowances, travel allowances, and paid sabbatical leaves. In many insti Digitized for tutions, faculty members are eligible FRASER for a sabbatical leave after 6 or 7 years of employment. Related Occupations College and university faculty func tion both as teachers and researchers. They must have an aptitude for com municating information and ideas. Re lated occupations include: Trainers and employee development special ists, writers, consultants, lobbyists, and policy analysts. Their research activities are often similar to those of their colleagues in industry, govern ment, and nonprofit research organi zations. Sources of Additional Information Professional societies generally pro vide information on employment op portunities in their fields. Names and addresses of these societies appear in the statements on specific occupa tions elsewhere in the Handbook. Counselors (D.O.T. 045.107-010, -014, -018, -038, -042, .117-010; 090.107-010; and 169.267.026) Nature of the Work Counselors help individuals deal with personal, social, educational, and ca reer problems and concerns. Their duties depend on the individuals or groups they serve and the settings in which they work. School and college counselors help students understand themselves better—their abilities, in terests, talents, and personality char acteristics—and help translate these into realistic academic and career op tions. They may run career informa tion centers and career education pro grams. They may use tests or other tools to help students understand themselves and their options. High school counselors keep up to date on college admission requirements, en trance exams, and financial aid as well as job training in local trade or tech nical schools and apprenticeship pro grams. They help students find parttime and summer work and, for those who are not going to college, full-time jobs. They also help students with social, behavioral, and personal prob lems. They may deal with students individually, or, in cases where prob lems are widespread, as in drug or alcohol abuse, they may initiate group counseling sessions. Counselors often consult and work closely with par ents, teachers, school psychologists, school nurses, and social workers. Elementary school counselors work with younger children, observing them during classroom and play activities and conferring with their teachers and parents in order to evaluate their strengths, problems, or special needs. They work to establish a home and school environment in which the child will learn, grow, and develop. College counselors and student development specialists provide a broad range of counseling services in 2-year commu nity or junior colleges and 4-year col leges and universities. Counselors also work in college placement of fices, dealing with students and alum ni. These counselors are generally known as college career planning and placement counselors. R ehabilitation counselors help physically, mentally, emotionally, or socially handicapped individuals to become self-sufficient and productive citizens. Rehabilitation counselors evaluate their clients’ potential for employment and arrange for medical care, rehabilitation programs, occupa tional training, and job placement. To do this, they learn about their clients by talking with them, evaluating school and medical reports, and con sulting with family members. They also confer with physicians, psychol ogists, and occupational therapists about the types of work their clients could perform. They then recommend an appropriate rehabilitation program and specialized training to help the disabled individual become more in dependent and more employable. Since employment success is an im portant goal of rehabilitation counsel ing, counselors keep in touch with employers about job openings and the training required. Employment counselors help indi viduals make wise career decisions. Along with their client, they explore his or her education, training, work history, interests, skills, personal traits, and physical capacities. They may arrange for aptitude and achieve ment tests. These counselors may suggest specific employers and appro priate ways of applying for work, and give advice on resume writing and interviewing. They may contact em ployers for their clients. After place ment, counselors follow up to deter mine if additional assistance is re quired. Mental health counselors help indi Teachers, Counselors, Librarians, Archivists, and Curators/135 viduals deal with a wide range of personal and social problems such as drug and alcohol abuse, family con flicts, including child and spouse abuse, suicide, work problems, crim inal behavior, and problems of aging. They also counsel rape victims, indi viduals and families trying to cope with illness and death, and people with emotional problems. Mental health counselors work closely with other specialists, including psychia trists, psychologists, clinical social workers, and psychiatric nurses. Working Conditions Rehabilitation and employment coun selors generally work a standard 40hour week. Self-employed counselors and those working in mental health and community agencies often work evenings to counsel clients who work during the day. College career plan ning and placement counselors may have to work overtime and irregular hours, especially during recruiting pe riods. Most school counselors work the traditional 10-month school year with a 2-month vacation, although an in creasing number are employed on 10 1/2- or 11-month contracts. They gen erally have the same hours as teach ers. Since privacy is essential to permit confidential and frank discussions with their clients, counselors usually have private offices. Employment Counselors held 152,000 jobs in 1984. Almost 2 out of 3 of these jobs were in educational services. Most of these were in secondary schools; some were in elementary schools and colleges and universities. State and local reha bilitation agencies and Veterans Ad ministration rehabilitation programs and hospitals were major employers of rehabilitation counselors. Some worked in private rehabilitation agen cies as well as in nonprofit organiza tions such as Goodwill Industries and Lighthouse for the Blind. Counselors also worked in many types of public and private communi ty mental health and social service agencies and organizations such as family (marriage) counseling services, halfway houses and homes for chil dren and the handicapped, offender rehabilitation agencies, self-help orga nizations such as Alcoholics Anony mous and drug rehabilitation organi zations, and in religious organizations providing similar services. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Generally, a master’s degree in stu dent personnel counseling, student personnel services, rehabilitation counseling, counseling psychology, psychology, or a related field is re quired. In some cases, individuals with a bachelor’s degree in psycholo gy, sociology, counseling, or rehabil itation services are qualified, particu larly if they have worked in related fields, such as social work, teaching, interviewing, job placement, psychol ogy, or personnel. Counselor education programs at the graduate level are available in close to 500 colleges and universities, usually in departments of education or psychology. One to two years of grad uate study are usually required for a master’s degree. Most graduate pro grams include supervised experience in counseling. Graduate courses in clude counseling theory and tech niques, assessment and evaluation, individual and group counseling, ca reer development information, and community resources. About 29 grad uate counselor education programs are currently accredited by the Coun cil for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs. Many counselors are certified or licensed. The National Board for Cer tified Counselors examines profes sional credentials and conducts a na tional examination for those who wish to have the designation of “ National Certified Counselor.’’ Most States require public school counselors to have both counseling and teaching certificates. Depending on the State, a master’s degree in counseling and 2 to 5 years of teaching experience may be required for a counseling certificate. State depart ments of education can provide spe cific information. Vocational and related rehabilita tion agencies generally require a mas ter’s degree in rehabilitation counsel ing, counseling and guidance, or coun seling psychology for rehabilitation counselor jobs. Some, however, may accept applicants with a bachelor’s degree in rehabilitation services, counseling, psychology, or related fields. Experience in employment counseling, job development, psy chology, education, and social work may be helpful. Approximately 30 colleges and uni versities offer a bachelor’s degree in rehabilitation services education. In 1985, the Council on Rehabilitation Education accredited 77 graduate pro grams in rehabilitation counseling. Usually, 2 years of study—including a period of supervised work experi ence—are required for the master’s degree. For jobs in most State vocational rehabilitation agencies, counselors must score competitively on a written examination and be evaluated by a board of examiners. Many employers Counselor discusses course selection with high school students. 136/Occupational Outlook Handbook require rehabilitation counselors to be Job Outlook certified. To become certified, coun Overall employment of counselors is selors must meet educational and expected to grow about as fast as the experience standards established by average for all occupations through the Commission on Rehabilitation the mid-1990’s. Most job openings Counselor Certification, and pass a will result from the need to replace counselors who transfer to other fields written examination. Some States require counselors in or leave the labor force. Employment of school counse public employment offices to have a master’s degree; others do not. Most lors—the largest specialty area—is counselors in State employment agen expected to grow slowly. Pupil enroll cies have a bachelor’s degree plus ment is the major factor affecting em additional courses in guidance and ployment of school counselors. Ele mentary school enrollments are pro counseling. Mental health counselors generally je cted to increase sub stan tially have a master’s degree or doctorate in through 1995, but enrollments in sec mental health counseling, another area ondary school, where most school of counseling, or in psychology or counselors work, will not increase. social work. Mental health counselors The number of counselors in colleges can be certified by the National Acad and universities is expected to decline emy of Certified Clinical Mental as college enrollments decrease. Employment of rehabilitation and Health Counselors. A master’s de employment counselors, who work gree, a period of supervised intern ship, and a passing grade on an exam primarily for State and local govern ination are required for certification. ments, is expected to increase about In addition, a number of States re as fast as the average for all occupa tions through the mid-1990’s, while quire a license for private practice. faster than average growth is expect Some employers provide an initial ed for mental health counselors and period of training for newly hired others who work with individuals with counselors or counselor trainees. personal and social problems such as Many agencies have work-study pro marital or other family difficulties, al grams whereby employed counselors coholism, drug abuse, and aging. Pri can earn graduate degrees. Profes vate practice, community and social sional counselors must meet continu service agencies, and the develop ing education requirements for certifi ment of human resource and employ cation and licensure. They do this ee assistance programs in private bus through participation in graduate stud iness and industry are expected to be ies, workshops, institutes, and per areas of growth. sonal studies. Persons interested in counseling Earnings should have a strong interest in help According to a recent survey, the av ing others and the ability to inspire erage salary of school counselors in respect, trust, and confidence. They the 1984-85 academ ic year was should be able to work independently $27,593. Salaries varied by size, grade level, and locality of the school. Av or as part of a team. School counselors may advance by erage salaries were lowest in the moving to a larger school; becoming Southeast and highest in the Far West. director or supervisor of counseling or Salaries of rehabilitation, mental pupil personnel services; or, with fur health, and employment counselors are usually somewhat lower than those ther graduate education, becoming an of school counselors. educational psychologist, vocational Some counselors supplement their psychologist, school psychologist, or income by part-time consulting or oth school administrator. Usually, educa er work with private or public coun tional or vocational psychologists seling centers, government agencies, must have the doctoral degree. or private industry. Rehabilitation, mental health, and employment counselors may advance Related Occupations to supervisory or administrative jobs Counselors help people evaluate their in their agencies. Some counselors interests, abilities, and disabilities, as move into research, consulting work, well as help them deal with personal, or college teaching, or go into private social, academic, and career prob lems. Others who help people in sim Digitized forpractice. FRASER ilar ways include college and student personnel workers, teachers, person nel workers and managers, social workers, psychologists, psychiatrists, members of the clergy, occupational and physical therapists, training and employee development specialists, and equal employment opportunity/ affirmative action specialists. Sources of Additional Information For general information about coun selors, contact: American Association for Counseling and D e velopment, 5999 Stevenson A ve., Alexandria, Va. 22304. For information on training pro grams accredited by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Re lated Educational Programs, contact: Council for Accreditation o f Counseling and Related Educational Programs, American A s sociation for Counseling and Developm ent, 5999 Stevenson A ve., Alexandria, Va. 22304. For information on national certifi cation requirements and procedures, contact: National Board for Certified Counselors, 5999 Stevenson A ve., Alexandria, Va. 22304. State departments of education can supply information on colleges and universities that offer training in guid ance and counseling as well as on State certification and licensure re quirements. State employment service offices can supply information about their job opportunities and entrance require ments. For information about rehabilita tion counseling, contact: National Rehabilitation Counseling A ssocia tion, 633 So. Washington St., Alexandria, Va. 22314. National Council on Rehabilitation Education, c/o Maddux O ’M alley, Inc., 2921 Ermine Way, Farmers Branch, Tex. 75234. A list of accredited graduate pro grams in rehabilitation counseling may be obtained from: Council on Rehabilitation Education, 185 North Wabash St., Room 1617, Chicago, 111. 60601. For a list of federally funded pro grams offering training in rehabilita tion counseling, contact: Division o f Resource D evelopm ent, Rehabilita tion Services Administration, U .S . Department o f Education, 330 C St. SW ., Washington, D.C. 20202. For information on certification re quirements for rehabilitation counse lors, contact: Commission on Rehabilitation Counselor Certi fication, 1156 Shure Dr., Suite 350, Arlington Heights, 111. 60004. For information on certification re Teachers, Counselors, Librarians, Archivists, and Curators/137 quirements for mental health counse lors, contact: National Academy o f Certified Clinical Mental H ealth C ou nselors, 5999 S tevenson A v e ., Alexandria, Va. 22304. Librarians (D.O.T. 100 except 100.367-018) Nature of the Work Librarians make information available to people. They serve as a link be tween the public and the millions of sources of information by selecting and organizing materials and making them accessible. Library work is divided into two basic functions: User services and technical services. Librarians in user services—for example, reference and children’s librarians—work directly with users to help them find the infor mation they need. Librarians in tech nical services such as acquisitions li brarians and catalogers acquire and prepare materials for use and deal less frequently with the public. The size of the collection affects the scope of the job. In small libraries or information centers, librarians gener ally handle all aspects of the work. They select, purchase, and process materials; publicize services; provide reference help; supervise the support staff; prepare the budget; and oversee other administrative matters. In large libraries, librarians specialize in a sin gle area, such as acquisitions, catalog ing, bibliography, reference, circula tion, or administration. Or they may handle special collections. Building and maintaining a strong collection are essential activities in any library, large or small. Acquisi tions librarians (D.O.T. 100.267-010) select and order books, periodicals, films, and other materials. They read book reviews and study publishers’ announcements and catalogs to keep up with current literature. They con fer with booksellers and seek advice from library users before making a final decision. A knowledge of book publishing and business acumen are important. After materials have been received, other librarians prepare them for use. Classifiers (D.O.T. 100.367-014) clas sify materials by subject matter. They may skim through publications and assign classification numbers. Cata logers (D.O.T. 100.387-010) supervise assistants who prepare cards or other access tools that indicate the title, author, subject, publisher, date of publication, and location in the li brary. Many libraries have computer ized their acquisition and cataloging functions. This has resulted in faster and greater availability of materials to the library user. Bibliographers (D.O.T. 100.367010), who usually work in research libraries, compile lists of books, peri odicals, articles, and audiovisual ma terials on particular subjects. They also recommend materials to be ac quired in subject areas with which they are familiar. Special collections librarians (D.O.T. 100.267-014) col lect and organize books, pamphlets, manuscripts, and other materials in a specific field, such as rare books, ge nealogy, or music. They may prepare reports and exhibits to inform schol ars and other researchers about im portant additions to the collection. Librarians are also classified ac cording to the type of library in which they work: Public libraries, school library/media centers, academic li braries, and special libraries. Public librarians serve people of all ages and from all walks of life, includ ing persons who, because of physical handicaps, cannot use conventional print materials. The professional staff of a large public library system in cludes the chief librarian, an assistant chief, and division heads who plan and coordinate the work of the entire system. The system also may include librarians who supervise branch li braries and specialists in acquisitions, cataloging, special collections, and user services. Some public librarians work with specific groups of readers. Children’s librarians (D.O.T. 100.167-018) find materials children will enjoy and show children how to use the library. They may plan and conduct special pro grams such as story hours or film programs. They often work with school and community organizations. Adult services librarians handle mate rials suited to the needs and interests of adults. They may help to conduct education programs, such as commu nity development, public affairs, cre ative arts, problems of the aging, and home and family. Young adult librar ians (D.O.T. 100.167-034) help junior and senior high school students select and use books and other materials. They may organize programs of inter est to young adults, such as book or film discussions or concerts of record ed music. They also may coordinate the library’s work with school pro grams. Community outreach librari ans and b o o km o b ile librarians (D.O.T. 100.167-014) develop library services to meet the needs of special groups within the community. They might arrange for materials to be brought to a migrant labor camp, an inner city housing project, or a nurs ing home, for example. School librarians (D.O.T. 100.167030) teach students how to use the school library/media center. Working with teachers and media specialists, school librarians familiarize students with the library’s resources. They prepare lists of materials on certain subjects and help select materials for school programs. They also select, order, and organize materials. The library/media center is viewed as an integral part of the school’s overall instructional program, and many school librarians work closely with classroom teachers in curriculum de velopment. They assist teachers in developing study units and sometimes participate in team teaching. In large high schools and in many community colleges, the media cen ter’s collection of films, tapes, cas settes, records, and other materials is maintained by a school library media specialist (D.O.T. 100.167-030) or an audiovisual librarian (D.O.T. 100.167010). Media center professionals also develop audiovisual materials and work with teachers on curriculum. Academic librarians serve students, faculty members, and researchers in colleges and universities. They work closely with members of the faculty to ensure that the library has reference materials required for the courses of fered. They also maintain the quality of research collections. Special librarians (D.O.T. 100.167026) work in information centers or libraries maintained by government agencies and corporations such as p h arm aceu tical com panies, and banks, as well as by law firms, adver tising agencies, museums, profession al associations, medical centers, and research laboratories. They build and arrange the organization’s specialized information resources, usually limited to subjects of particular interest to the organization. Special librarians may conduct literature searches, compile bibliographies, or prepare abstracts. 138/Occupational Outlook Handbook A growing number of libraries are tied into remote computer data bases through their computer terminals. This makes it less important than it once was for a library to own the materials its users want, since they can be accessed remotely by comput er or sent by facsimile machines. More libraries are also maintaining their own computerized data bases. These libraries may employ informa tion scientists (D.O.T. 109.067-010) who design information storage and retrieval systems and develop proce dures for collecting, organizing, inter preting, and classifying information. Working Conditions Libraries generally are busy, demand ing, even stressful places to work. Contact with people, which often is a major part of the job, can be taxing. Physically, the job may require much standing, stooping, bending, and reaching. Librarians typically work a 5-day, 35- to 40-hour week. Public and col lege librarians may work some week ends and evenings. School librarians generally have the same workday schedule as classroom teachers and similar vacation schedules. A 35- to 40-hour week during normal business hours is common for special librari ans. Employment Librarians held 155,000 jobs in 1984; in addition, audiovisual specialists held 7,800 jobs in library/media cen ters. Most of the librarian jobs were in school libraries; the rest were in pub lic, academic, and special libraries. A small number of librarians served as consultants or administered State and Federal library programs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A master’s degree in library science (M.L.S.) is necessary to obtain an entry level professional position in most public, academic, and special libraries. About 120 schools offered such degrees in 1984. However, most employers prefer graduates of l of the 59 library education programs in the United States accredited by the Amer ican Library Association. Educational preparation for school librarianship is more diverse, reflecting the consider able differences among the States in standards and certification require ments for public school librarians. Most graduate schools of library science require graduation from an accredited 4-year college or university and good grades. A broad undergrad uate background, with well-defined major and minor areas of study, is appropriate preparation for graduate library ed u catio n . Some library schools require a reading knowledge of at least one foreign language. A typical graduate program in li brary science includes basic courses in the foundations of librarianship, including the history of books and printing, intellectual freedom and cen sorship, and the role of libraries in society. Other basic courses cover material selection and processing; ref erence tools; and user services. Ad vanced courses are offered in such areas as resources for children or young adults; classification, catalog ing, indexing, and abstracting; library administration; and library automa tion. Because virtually all aspects of routine library operation are subject to automation, many library schools encourage students to take courses in computer and information science. The master of library science pro gram provides a general, all-round preparation for library work, but some people specialize in a particular area such as archives, media, or library automation. A Ph.D. degree in library science is advantageous for a college teaching position or for a top admin istrative post, particularly in a college or university library or in a large li brary system. In special libraries or research li braries, a master’s degree, doctorate, or professional degree in the appropri ate subject specialization is highly de sirable. And in academic libraries, an advanced degree may be essential for promotion to a senior level position. State certification requirements for public school librarians vary widely. Most States require that school librar ians be certified as teachers. A degree in library science may not be re quired, for, in many schools, the li brary has become the “ learning re sources center” and is staffed by me dia personnel with a variety of educational backgrounds. Although some media professionals have a bach elor’s or master’s degree in library science, others have a degree in media resources, educational technology, or audiovisual communications. State departments of education can provide information about specific require ments. Some States require certification of public librarians employed in munici Teachers, Counselors, Librarians, Archivists, and Curators/139 is expected to decline, a reflection of the overall decline in college enroll ments expected through the mid1990’s. The situation will vary from institution to institution, however. In school libraries, a large sector, slow employment growth is foreseen, overall. Although elementary school enrollments are increasing, secondary school enrollments will remain virtu ally unchanged during the 1984-95 pe riod. Opportunities should be favorable for librarians with specialized knowl edge in scientific and technical fields including medicine, law, business, en gineering, and the physical and life sciences. These jobs are available in special libraries and research librar ies, for the most part. Individuals with a command of a foreign language or a background in cataloging or in work ing with children should also find bet ter job opportunities. Individuals skilled in computerized library sys tems will also be in demand, because of the widespread use of computers to store and retrieve information and to Job Outlook Employment of librarians is expected handle routine operations such as or to grow more slowly than the average dering, cataloging, and circulation for all occupations through the mid- control. Although more and more libraries 1990’s. Most job openings will result from the need to replace librarians are automated and librarians have to who transfer to other fields, retire, or know how to use a computer, the leave the occupation for other rea judgment and knowledge of a profes sional librarian will still be needed. sons. Information management outside The demand for individuals with library skills outside traditional li the traditional library setting, a rapid brary settings is expected to help ease ly developing field, is expected to of the tight job market for librarians. fer many employment opportunities Nontraditional library settings such as for library school graduates and prac bibliographic cooperatives, regional ticing librarians with backgrounds in information networks, and informa information science and library auto tion search services are expected to mation. Private industry, consulting be good places of employment. These firms, and information brokers who settings employ systems analysts, market information all need qualified database specialists, managers, and people to set up and maintain informa researchers. Some of these jobs re tion systems. quire a knowledge of both libraries and computers; others, only a knowl Earnings edge of libraries. Furthermore, the Salaries of librarians vary by the indi number of library school graduates, vidual’s qualifications and the type, which has been declining since the size, and location of the library. Starting salaries of graduates of li mid-1970’s, may continue to decrease slowly. Therefore, the oversupply brary school master’s degree pro could abate, and employment pros grams accredited by the American Li brary Association averaged $18,791 in pects brighten. Employment in public libraries, like 1984, and ranged from $17,232 in pub government employment in general, is lic libraries to $20,423 in school librar expected to grow slowly. Faced with ies. Beginning salaries of new library tighter operating budgets, many li school graduates in special libraries braries are expected to hire fewer averaged $20,233. Experienced school librarians averaged $23,173 during the additional librarians. Employment of academic librarians 1983-84 school year, according to the pal, county, or regional library sys tems. State library agencies can pro vide information about these require ments. In the Federal Government, which currently hires about 90 librarians a year, beginning positions require com pletion of a 4-year college course and a master’s degree in library science, or demonstration of the equivalent in experience and education by a passing grade on an examination. Because there are many qualified jobseekers, employers in some locali ties may require some experience for what used to be entry level positions. Graduates who have participated in internship programs and work-study programs or who have worked part time may have an employment advan tage over other new graduates. Experienced librarians may ad vance to administrative positions. A master’s degree in business or public administration may help to obtain such positions. Educational Research Service. The average salary for special librarians was $28,421 in 1984. The median sal ary for librarians in college and uni versity libraries was $26,000. Librari ans in the Federal Government aver aged about $31,530 in 1984. Related Occupations Librarians play an important role in the transfer of knowledge and ideas by providing people with access to the information they need and want. Jobs requiring similar analytical, organiza tional, and communicative skills in clude archivists, information scien tists, museum curators, publishers’ representatives, research analysts, in formation brokers, and records man agers. Sources of Additional Information Information on librarianship, includ ing a listing of accredited education programs and information on scholar ships or loans, may be obtained from: American Library Association, 50 East Huron St., Chicago, 111. 60611. For information on a career as a special librarian, write to: Special Libraries Association, 1700 18th St., N W „ Washington, D.C. 20009. Material about a career in informa tion science may be obtained from: American Society for Information Science, 1010 16th St. N W „ Washington, D.C. 20036. Information on graduate schools of library and information science can be obtained from: Association for Library and Information Sci ence Education, 471 Park Lane, State College, Pa. 16803. Information on Federal assistance for library training is available from: Center for Libraries and Education Improve ment, U .S . Department o f Education, 400 Maryland A ve. SW ., Brown Bldg., Room 613, Washington, D.C. 20202. Those interested in a position as a librarian in the Federal service should write to: Office o f Personnel Management, 1900 E St. N W „ Washington, D.C. 20415. Information concerning require ments and application procedures for positions in the Library of Congress may be obtained directly from: Personnel Office, Library o f Congress, Wash ington, D.C. 20540. State library agencies can furnish information on scholarships available through their offices, requirements for certification, and general information about career prospects in the State. Several of these agencies maintain job 140/Occupational Outlook Handbook “ hotlines” which report current open ings for librarians in the State. State boards of education can fur nish information on certification re quirements and job opportunities for school librarians. Archivists and Curators (D .O .T. 101; 102 except .261-014 and .367-010; 109 except .067-010 and .137-010) Nature of the Work Curiosity about the past seems to be part of human nature. Many persons study a previous era for the sake of knowledge alone. Others want to gain more insight into some aspect of today’s world. And some hope to use this knowledge as a clue to the future. Whatever the purpose or subject—the development of armaments, changing fashions, numismatic collections, art collections, historic properties, col lections of Presidential papers, or the course of subatomic research—archi vists and curators attempt to present the information in an attractive, yet instructive, manner. Archivists and curators search for, acquire, assemble, catalog, restore if necessary, exhibit, maintain, and store items of interest. These items may be almost anything—historical docum ents, corporation records, works of art, stamp collections, min eral collections, maps, movies, medi cal and scientific instruments, plants, arboreta, animals, buildings, or battle sites. The collection may be of special interest to children, hobbyists, scien tists, researchers, corporations, in habitants of a specific locality, history buffs, or an ethnic group, or of inter est to the public at large. Archivists determine what portion of the vast amount of information pro duced by government agencies, cor porations, educational institutions, and other organizations should be made part of a historical record and sometimes an exhibit. Archivists may modify existing classification systems to facilitate retrieval of subject matter for future use. They determine the form of storage—for example, original documents, microfilm, microfiche, or magnetic tape. Since substantial amounts of information are now being stored on tape, basic knowledge of computer language and usage is in Digitized creasingly useful to archivists. for FRASER Archivists may serve in an advisory or research capacity for their employ ers or for scholars, scientists, journal ists, and various agencies and institu tions. This may require expertise in a specific discipline or knowledge of the political, economic, social, and mili tary history of a period. Curators determine the form and nature of the collection of items to be exhibited, often in consultation with museum directors, other curators, re searchers, and specialists. From ini tial research to final exhibition, cura tors oversee and, in smaller museums, personally undertake many activities. Curators select the appropriate number and kind of items to comprise the collection. Curators may acquire items through purchases, gifts, field work, intermuseum loans, or from the museum’s own inventory with the help of the registrar and collections manager. (The registrar is responsible for the movement of items—their packing, insurance, and cataloging— in and out of the museum. The collec tions manager keeps track of items in the museum’s inventory.) In preparation for an exhibition, curators work with technicians and specialists such as museum techni cians, exhibit specialists, educators, and related personnel to plan and pre pare the form and contents of the exhibit. Conservation technicians, re storers, and armorer technicians re store the exhibit items—old sculp tures, buildings, or artifacts from an other era—as closely as possible to their original condition. The restora tion may require substantial historical and archeological research by the cu rator and research associates and con sultations in the art shops and labora tories where restoration activities take place. An attractive and educational exhi bition may result in good attendance, favorable public relations, and in creased revenue for the museum. Curators may train or help establish museum education programs for mu seum attendants and docents (unpaid volunteers) who lead guided tours to enhance viewers’ appreciation and understanding of exhibits. Many vol unteers are women; increasing num bers are students hoping to acquire valuable experience. Without these volunteers, many large museums would have to restrict their activities and many small museums would prob ably close. In large museums, curators may divide their time between meetings with museum administrators such as museum directors, budget officers, and program directors to help formu late policy, and meetings with assist ant curators, conservators, and de partment heads to help implement the museum’s programs. In small muse ums, their responsibilities may in clude the functions of most, if not all, museum occupations. Working Conditions Archival work is sedentary and quiet. The work can be tedious, painstaking, and require meticulous attention to detail. Many archivists work alone, and most work in offices with only one or two other persons. This is true even for large employers such as gov ernments or universities. There is lit tle contact with the public, except when working in a library. Some times, strong interest in an archival display may require contact with the press and response to public inquiries. Teaching or research duties often re sult in interpersonal contact through attendance at classes and meetings or travel to collect information. Curators also usually work in a qui et office environm ent. H owever, working conditions vary depending upon the type and size of museum. In art museums with typically small items, little physical activity is re quired. Working in museums with col lections of large objects such as tap estries and animal specimens may be more physically demanding. Oversee ing collections in botanical gardens and other outdoor museums may re quire substantial walking. In small museums with generally limited budgets, new items can be acquired only ocasionally, but in large museums with more funds at their disposal, curators may travel exten sively to add to the collection. They might visit a private collector, a com mercial establishment, or another mu seum, or even participate in an arche ological expedition or botanical explo ration. Maintenance and restoration activities also may require travel—to studios where paintings are being re stored or laboratories where animal specimens are being prepared for dis play. Curators working as administra tors of distant historic sites may also travel. In some cases, these adminis trators temporarily live at—as in the Teachers, Counselors, Librarians, Archivists, and Curators/141 case of a historic house—or near the site. Employment Archivists and curators held an esti mated 11,000 jobs in 1984. About 40 percent were in Federal, State, and local government agencies. About 30 percent were in private museums; most of the remainder were in univer sities, colleges, and libraries. In the Federal Government, most archivists are employed in the Nation al Archives and Records Administra tion, while others are employed by the Department of Defense to manage military archives. Most museum cura tors in the Federal Government are employed in the Smithsonian Institu tion, in the military museums of the Department of Defense, and in arche ological and other museums managed by the Department of Interior. All State governments have archival or historical records sections, and many employ archivists. Both State and lo cal governments have numerous his torical museums, parks, and zoos em ploying curators. A small but growing number of large corporations have established archival or records centers, employ ing archivists to manage the growing volume of historical records required by law or necessary to the firms’ op erations. Religious and fraternal orga nizations, professional associations, and research firms also increasingly employ archivists and curators. Over 10 percent of all archivists and 20 percent of all curators work part time, primarily in small archival cen ters and museums. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employment as an archivist or cura tor generally requires graduate train ing and substantial practical or work experience. Many archivists and cura tors work in archives, museums, or libraries while completing their formal education. Most archivists have at least one master’s degree, and many have a doctorate or second master’s degree in library science. Archivists com monly earn undergraduate and gradu ate degrees in history, economics, or related fields, including courses in ar chival or library science. Of the more than 70 institutions of higher learning offering courses or practical training in archival science, about 30 offer the master’s degree and over 10 offer the doctorate. Continuing education is very impor tant. Workshops sponsored by the National Archives and Records Ad ministration include: Establishing ar chives; problems of acquisition—for example, appraisal and forgeries; problems relevant to access and se curity of information; and administra tion—for example, budgeting, pro gram planning, and resource alloca tion. M eetings and conferences sponsored by the Society of American Archivists and other archival associa tions enable archivists to keep up with developments in their field such as the increasing use of computers to store and access information. Archivists should have good eye sight, since information to be stored may be printed matter, handwritten manuscripts, or visual materials such as photographs and film, and legibility may be poor. The ability to read rap idly to extract the pertinent informa tion from large amounts of data is required. Archivists also must be able to effectively organize large amounts of information and write clear, suc cinct instructions for its efficient re trieval and use. Archival units usually are very small, and promotion opportunities are limited. Advancement generally is through transferring to a larger unit. When the archival activity is ancillary to other activities—for example, in a library or a museum—archivists may become librarians or manuscript cura tors. The minimum requirements for em ployment as a curator, even in small museums, are a bachelor’s degree in museum studies (museology) or in a discipline reflecting the museum’s spe cialty—for example, art, anthropolo gy, or archeology—and experience in museum activities such as art restora tion and exhibit design. For some po sitions, curators gain permanent em ployment status after completing an internship including full-time museum work supplem ented by self-paid courses in museum practices. In large museums, a master’s degree in muse um studies or a related subject has become the minimum educational re quirement; employers prefer appli cants with a doctorate. For some po sitions, experience may be substituted for an advanced degree. About 60 institutions of higher Some curators oversee art restoration activity. learning offer undergraduate courses in museum studies, while nearly 40 grant the bachelor’s degree and over 90 grant the master’s degree. Curatorial positions often require knowledge in a number of fields. One’s academic background should include courses in social sciences— such as history and economics—and in life sciences—such as botany and zoology. For historic and artistic con servation activities, courses in chem istry, physics, and in painting and other crafts are desirable. Since cura tors—particularly those in small mu seums—may have administrative and managerial responsibilities, courses in administration, budget, collections management, fund raising, and public relations also are recommended. Curators must be flexible because of their wide variety of duties. A good aesthetic sense is helpful in the design and presentation of exhibits. Manual dexterity may be helpful when super vising or collaborating with craft workers in the erection of exhibits or restoration of various objects. The ability to maintain good personal rela tions is important in coordinating the efforts of museum personnel. Public relations skills are valuable in increas ing museum attendance and in finding sponsors for financial backing. Continuing education is also very im portant for curators. To keep abreast of improvements in museum 142/Occupational Outlook Handbook operating techniques, they attend con ferences and meetings sponsored by the Association of American Muse ums and other museum associations. They monitor developments in muse um activities, such as restoration tech niques, by attending workshops spon sored by large museums such as the Smithsonian Institution. Curators usually advance by ac quiring a position in a larger museum. Earning an advanced degree is very important, as is the publication of articles and reports in learned jour nals. In very large museums, curators can advance to administrative posi tions such as program planner or mu seum director. Job Outlook Employment of archivists and cura tors is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occu pations through the mid-1990’s. Little expansion of governmental archival and museum activities is expected. A reversal of the decline in funding of private museums is not anticipated. Archivists can improve their job opportunities by including courses in library science in their graduate cur ricula. Graduates with doctoral de grees will be offered the most respon sible, best paying jobs. Some employ ment opportunities will arise in related fields such as librarian, records man ager, collection manager, and manu script c u r a t o r . H o w e v e r , e m p l o y m e n t in these fields also is expected to grow relatively slowly. Competition for curatorial positions will intensify because of an increasing oversupply of well-trained applicants. Many candidates may have to work part time, as an intern, or even as a volunteer in an assistant curatorial or research associate position after com pleting their formal education. For others, substantial work experience in collection management, exhibit de sign, or restoration will be necessary before permanent curatorial status is acquired. Earnings Earnings of archivists and curators vary considerably depending upon the type and size of the employer. For example, salaries of archivists in the Federal Government are, on the aver age, much higher than those of archi vists employed in religious organiza tions. Salaries of curators in large, well-funded museums may be several times higher than those in small mu seums. Natural history museums tend to pay the highest salaries; general history museums, the lowest. Gener ally, Federal salaries are higher than those in State governments which, in turn, are higher than in local govern ments. Starting salaries in the Federal Gov ernment depend upon the applicant’s degree and experience. In 1985, inex perienced archivists with a bachelor’s degree started at $14,400 while those with experience started at $17,800. Applicants with a master’s degree started at $21,800. Curators with a bachelor’s degree and experience or with a master’s degree started at $21,800. Applicants with a master’s degree and experience or with a doc torate started at either $26,400 or $31,600. Archivists and curators em ployed by the Federal Government averaged about $34,500 a year in 1984. Related Occupations Archivists’ and curators’ interests in preserving and displaying documents and objects are shared by anthropolo gists, arborists, archeologists, arti facts conservators, botanists, ethnol ogists, folklorists, genealogists, histo rians, horticulturists, information specialists, librarians, paintings re storers, records managers, and zoolo gists. Sources of Additional Information Information about careers as an archi vist and schools offering courses in archival science is available from: Society o f American Archivists, 600 South Fed eral St., Suite 504, Chicago, 111. 60605. For general information about ca reers as a curator and schools offering courses in curatorial science, contact: A m erican A sso c ia tio n o f M useum s, 1055 Thomas Jefferson St. N W ., Washington, D.C. 20007. For information about curatorial ca reers in parks, botanical gardens, and museums, contact: American Association o f Zoological Parks and Aquariums, Oglebay Park, W heeling, W est Va. 26003. American A ssociation o f Botanical Gardens and Arboreta, P.O. B ox 206, Swarthmore, Pa. 19081. For information about conservation and preservation careers, contact: American Institute for Conservation o f Historic and Artistic Works, 3545 Williamsburg Lane N W ., W ashington, D.C . 20008. National Trust for Historic Preservation, Office o f Personnel Administration, 1785 M assachu setts A ve. N W ., Washington, D.C. 20036. Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners Health practitioners diagnose, treat, and strive to prevent illness and dis ease. While all of them practice the art of healing, they differ in methods of treatment and areas of specialization. Physicians—both doctors of medicine and doctors of osteopathy—prescribe medications, exercise, proper diet, and surgery. Manipulation of muscles and bones, especially the spine, is the primary form of treatment given by chiropractors. Optometrists special ize in eye care and podiatrists treat foot diseases and deformities. Den tists emphasize not only the treatment but the prevention of problems asso ciated with the teeth and gums. Vet erinarians treat animals and inspect meat, poultry, and other food as part of public health programs. Among the health practitioners whose work is described in this sec tion of the Handbook, the most nu merous are physicians, who held 476,000 jobs in 1984. The other prac titioner occupations are much small er, as the following tabulation shows: P h y s ic ia n s ( M . D . ’s a n d D . O . ’s ) ............................................ D e n t i s t s ................................................. V e t e r i n a r i a n s .................................... C h ir o p r a c t o r s .................................... O p t o m e t r i s t s .................................... P o d i a t r i s t s ......................................... 4 7 6 ,0 0 0 1 5 6 ,0 0 0 4 0 ,0 0 0 3 1 ,0 0 0 2 9 ,0 0 0 1 1 ,0 0 0 Training to become a health practi tioner is much more rigorous than training for most other professional occupations, but practice also offers unusual rewards. Incomes of health practitioners greatly exceed the aver age and generally are higher than those of other professional workers with similar years of graduate educa tion. Furthermore, health practition ers enjoy great prestige within the community, and most derive consid erable satisfaction from knowing that their work contributes directly to the well-being of others. All health practitioners must have the ability and perseverance to com plete the years of study required. They should be emotionally stable, able to make decisions in emergen cies, and have a strong desire to help the sick and injured. Sincerity and an ability to gain the confidence of pa tients also are important qualities. Among these six health practitioner occupations, minimum training re quirements vary from 6 to 9 years of postsecondary education. After col lege, prospective physicians must complete 3- or 4-year programs of medical education, followed by at least 1 year of graduate training in a hospital (residency or internship). Physicians who specialize, and most M.D.’s do, spend several years in training after their residency to quali fy for specialty board examinations. Two years of college are required for entry to the 4-year chiropractic schools. Optometrists, podiatrists, and veterinarians all must complete a minimum of 2 years of college before beginning the 4-year program. Occupational licensing is a distinc tive feature of the health sector. The right to practice medicine, dentistry, nursing, pharmacy, and several other professions—and the right to call one self a physician, dentist, nurse, or pharmacist—is regulated by law. Each of the 50 States has legislation govern ing the kinds of tasks that may be performed by a given health profes sional and specifying the training and proof of competence necessary for practice. Complementing the occupa tional licensure laws is a system of granting professional credentials, in which associations and other nongov ernmental bodies attest to an individ ual’s competence through certifica tion or registration. The employment outlook for health practitioners is expected to remain favorable through the mid-1990’s, but the market is changing as supply over takes demand. The physician shortage identified during the 1960’s and early 1970’s has vanished as a result of legislative measures designed to ex pand supply. In fact, medical school graduates are finding it unexpectedly difficult to secure the residency of their choice and—later on—to start a practice. Established practitioners re port that they are seeing fewer pa tients than they would like. Nonetheless, physicians in private practice generally work 60 hours a week or more, and their earnings po tential exceeds that in most other oc cupations. In the years ahead, de mand for their services will continue to grow, for the population is increas ing—especially the number of older people, who are relatively heavy us ers of health care. Moreover, rural communities and inner city neighbor hoods remain underserved. The American health care system is likely to change in a number of ways in the years ahead as a result of efforts to control the very rapid increase in health care costs. For example, prac tice patterns are likely to change. Solo practice is already beginning to give way to group practice and a variety of salaried arrangements, and this trend is likely to accelerate as more and more young practitioners accept sala ried positions. Salaried positions for physicians are found in health mainte nance organizations; multispecialty group practices; ambulatory, emer gency, critical care, and subspecialty procedure facilities; the Armed Forc es and the Veterans Administration; and in other institutional settings. Es pecially in areas already well served with practitioners, new graduates ap pear willing to sacrifice traditional practice patterns (and income poten tial) in favor of ensured earnings, reg ular hours, and protection from some of the more stressful elements of prac tice. Changes in the employment situ a tion of physicians will affect other health practitioners, and competition for patients is already evident. Some specialists are moving into general practice as referrals for specialty work 143 144/Occupational Outlook Handbook fall off. Competition appears to be mounting between physicians, on the one hand, and other providers, includ ing optometrists, podiatrists, chiro practors, clinical psychologists, phys ical therapists, and nurse midwives, on the other. In dentistry, the ample supply of dentists may dampen pros pects for dental auxiliaries (hygienists and assistants). However, relations among the health occupations are complex, and the net effect of an abundance of physicians and dentists is uncertain. For more detailed infor mation about the outlook in individual p rac titio n e r occupations, see the statements that follow. Chiropractors ( D .O .T . 079.101-010) Nature of the Work Chiropractic is a system of treatment based on the principle that a person’s health is determined largely by the nervous system, and that interference with this system impairs normal func tions and lowers resistance to disease. Chiropractors take patient histo ries, conduct physical examinations, and give treatm ents for illness and injury. Because of the emphasis on the spine and its position, most chiro practors use X-rays to help locate the source of patients’ difficulties. Chiro practors treat patients primarily by manual manipulation (adjustments) of parts of the body, especially the spinal column. In addition to manipulation, chiropractors use water, light, mas sage, ultrasound, electric, and heat therapy. They also prescribe diet, supports, exercise, and rest. Most State laws specify the types of supple m en ta ry tre a tm e n t p e rm itte d in Chiropractors treat patients primarily by manually adjusting the spine. chiropractic. Chiropractors do not prescribe drugs or surgery. Working Conditions Almost all chiropractors work in pri vate offices that are clean and com fortable. The average workweek is about 40 hours, usually including some evening and weekend time to accom modate patients who work. Because most chiropractors are self-employed, they can set their own hours. Employment Chiropractors held about 31,000 jobs in 1984. About 95 percent of active chiropractors were in private prac tice; about 70 percent of these were in solo practice—that is, they had no partners. Only 8 percent practiced in groups of three or more practitioners. Some were salaried assistants of es tablished practitioners or worked for chiropractic clinics. A small number taught or conducted rese a rc h at chiropractic colleges. Chiropractors often locate in small communities—about half work in cit ies of 50,000 inhabitants or less. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Co lum bia reg u la te th e p ra c tic e of chiropractic and grant licenses to chi ropractors who meet educational re quirements and pass a State board examination. Many States have reci procity agreements that permit chiro practors already licensed in another State to obtain a license without tak ing an examination. The type of practice perm itted (scope of practice) and the education al requirements for a license vary con siderably from one State to another, but in general, State licensing boards require successful completion of a 4year chiropractic course following 2 years of college. Thirty-eight State boards recognize only academic train ing in chiropractic colleges accredited by the Council on Chiropractic Edu cation. Some States require specific college courses such as English , chem istry, biology, or physics. Several States require that chiropractors pass a basic science examination. The N a tional Board of Chiropractic Examin ers’ test given to chiropractic students is accepted by 48 State boards in place of a State examination. To maintain licensure, 41 States require that chiro practors complete a specified number of hours of continuing education each year to remain current in the field. In 1984, 9 of the 15 chiropractic colleges in the United States were fully accredited by the Council on Chiropractic Education; 5 others were r e c o g n iz e d c a n d id a te s w o rk in g toward accreditation. All chiropractic colleges require applicants to have a minimum of 2 years of undergraduate study, including courses in English, the social sciences, chemistry, biolo gy, physics, and mathematics. C hiropractic colleges em phasize courses in manipulation and spinal adjustments. M ost offer a broader curriculum, however, including sub jects such as physiotherapy and nutri tion. During the first 2 years, most chiropractic colleges emphasize class room and laboratory work in subjects such as anatomy, physiology, and bio chemistry, while the last 2 years stress clinical experience. Students complet ing chiropractic education earn the degree of D octor of C hiropractic (D.C.). Chiropractic requires keen observa tion to detect physical abnormalities and considerable hand dexterity but not unusual strength or endurance. Persons desiring to become chiroprac tors should be able to work indepen dently and handle responsibility. The ability to work with detail is impor tant. Sympathy and understanding are desirable qualities for dealing effec tively with patients. Newly licensed chiropractors usu ally seek to set up a new practice, purchase an established one, or enter into partnership with an established practitioner. Because of the financial investm ent necessary to open and equip an office, some take salaried positions with established chiroprac tors to acquire the experience and the funds needed. Job Outlook Job opportunities for chiropractors through the m id-1990’s will stem from employment growth that is expected to be faster than the average for all occupations and also from the need to replace experienced chiropractors who leave the profession. Demand for chiropractic is related to the ability of patients to pay for services, either directly or through health insurance, and to public ac ceptance of the profession, which ap pears to be growing. At present, new ly graduated chiropractors are enter Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners/145 ing practice with little difficulty. However, the number of graduates from chiropractic colleges has in creased fourfold since the early 1970’s, and enrollments are expected to continue to grow. As more students graduate, new chiropractors may en counter competition establishing a practice in areas where other practi tioners already are located. Earnings In chiropractic, as in other types of independent practice, earnings are relatively low in the beginning. From the limited data available, new gradu ates who worked as associates to es tablished practitioners earned about $15,000 a year in 1984. Experienced chiropractors averaged about $60,000, after expenses, according to a survey conducted by the American Chiro practic Association. Related Occupations Chiropractors diagnose, treat, and work to prevent diseases, disorders, and injuries. They emphasize the im portance of the nervous system for good health. Others whose profes sions require similar skills include acupuncturists, audiologists, dentists, naturopathic doctors, optometrists, osteopaths, podiatrists, speech pa thologists, and veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information The board of licensing in each State capital can supply information on State license requirements for chiro practors. Information on license re quirem ents and limitations on the scope of practice for all States is con tained in The Directory available for $10 from: Federation o f Chiropractic Licensing Boards, 501 East California A v e ., Glendale, Calif. 91206. General information on chiropractic as a career is available from: American Chiropractic Association, 1916 Wil son Blvd., Arlington, Va. 22201. International Chiropractors Association, 1901 L St. N W „ Suite 800, Washington, D.C. 20036. For a list of chiropractic colleges, as well as general information on chiropractic as a career, contact: C ouncil on C hiropractic E du cation , 3209 Ingersoll A ve., D es M oines, Iowa 50312. For information on requirements for admission to a specific chiropractic college, contact the admissions office. Dentists (D.O.T. 072) Nature of the Work Dentists examine teeth and tissues of the mouth to diagnose and treat dis eases or abnormalities. They take Xrays, place protective plastic shields on ch ild ren s’ teeth , fill cavities, straighten teeth, repair fractured teeth, and treat gum disease. Dentists extract teeth only when necessary and may provide artificial dentures. They also perform corrective surgery of the gums and supporting bones. In addi tion, they clean teeth and provide other preventive services. Although dentists spend most of their time with patients, they may devote some time to laboratory work such as making dentures and inlays. Dentists in large cities generally send their laboratory work to commercial firms, however. Some dentists em ploy dental hygienists to clean pa tients’ teeth and provide instruction for patient self-care. Dentists may also employ other assistants to per form office work, assist in “ chairside” duties, and provide therapeutic serv ices under their supervision. (The work of dental hygienists and dental assistants is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) Technological advances in dentistry affect the materials and techniques that dentists employ in their work. For example, dentists are now using new composite materials to repair fractured or disfigured teeth. As new technologies are proven and adopted, the nature of dentistry changes. Most dentists are general practi tioners who provide many types of dental care; about 20 percent practice in one of the eight specialty areas recognized by the American Dental Association (ADA). The largest group of specialists are orthodontists, who straighten teeth. The next largest group, oral and maxillofacial sur geons, operate on the mouth and jaw s. The remainder specialize in pedodontics (dentistry for children); periodontics (treating the gums); prosthodontics (making artificial teeth or dentures); endodontics (root canal therapy); public health dentistry; and oral pathology (diseases of the mouth). Working Conditions Most dental offices are open 5 days a week, and some dentists have evening hours. Dentists usually work between 35 and 45 hours a week, although some spend more than 50 hours a week in the office. Dentists often work fewer hours as they grow older, and a considerable number continue in part-time practice well beyond the usual retirement age. Employment Dentists held about 156,000 jobs in 1984. Because some dentists hold more than one job, the number of jobs exceeds the number of dentists in practice—nearly 138,000, according to the U.S. Public Health Service. Nine out of ten dentists are in pri vate practice. Of the remainder, about half do research, teach, or hold posi tions in dental schools. Some work in hospitals and clinics. About 2,000 dentists work in the Federal service, predominantly in the hospitals and clinics of the Veterans Administration and the U.S. Public Health Service. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Co lumbia require dentists to be licensed. To qualify for a license in most States, a candidate must graduate from a den tal school approved by the Commis sion on Dental Accreditation and pass written and practical examinations. In 1984, candidates in 49 States and the District of Columbia could fulfill part of the State licensing requirements by passing a written examination given Dentistry requires manual dexterity as well as diagnostic skills. 146/Occupational Outlook Handbook by the National Board of Dental Ex aminers. Most State licenses permit dentists to engage in both general and specialized practice. In 16 States and the District of Columbia, however, a dentist must obtain a specialty license before practicing as a “ specialist.” Requirements include 2 or 3 years of graduate education and, in some cas es, completion of a special State ex amination. Extra education also is necessary in the other 34 States, but the dental profession, not the State licensing authority, regulates the spe cialist’s practice. To practice in a dif ferent State, a licensed dentist usually must pass that State’s examination. However, about 20 States grant li censes to dentists from other States on the basis of their credentials. Den tists who want to teach or do research usually spend an additional 2 to 4 years in advanced dental training in programs operated by dental schools, hospitals, and other institutions of higher education. Dental schools require a minimum of 2 to 4 years of college-level predental education. In fact, most dental students are college graduates. Four out of five of the students enter ing dental schools in 1984 had a bach elor’s or m aster’s degree. Predental education must include courses in the sciences and humanities. All dental schools participate in a nationwide testing program, and, in selecting stu d en ts, they consider scores earned on these tests along with the applicants’ overall grade point average (GPA), science course G PA , and in fo rm a tio n g a th e re d through recommendations and inter views. Many State-supported dental schools give preference to residents of the State. Dental school generally lasts 4 aca demic years, although one institution condenses the program into 3 calen dar years and another program lasts 5 years. Studies begin with classroom instruction and laboratory work in ba sic sciences including anatomy, micro biology, biochemistry, and physiolo gy. Courses in preclinical technique and beginning courses in clinical sci ences also are provided at this time. During the last 2 years, the student treats patients chiefly in dental clinics. Most dental colleges award the de gree of Doctor of Dental Surgery (D.D.S). An equivalent degree, Doc tor of Dental Medicine (D.M.D.), is conferred by 20 schools. Earning a dental degree is a costly process, but financial aid is available from the Federal and State govern ments, health-related organizations, industry, and dental schools. Many dental students rely on student loans to finance their professional training. D entistry requires both manual skills and a high level of diagnostic ability. Dentists should have good vi sual memory, excellent judgment of space and shape, and a high degree of manual dexterity, as well as scientific ability. Good business sense, selfdiscipline, and the ability to instill confidence are helpful for success in private practice. High school students who want to become dentists are ad Although dental school enrollments are declining, the job outlook remains competitive. First-year enrollments (thousands) 197475 1975- 1976- 1977- 1978- 197976 77 78 79 80 1980- 198181 82 SOURCE: American Dental Association, Council on Dental Education 198283 198384 198485 vised to take courses in biology, chem istry, health, and mathematics. Most dental graduates work for es tablished dentists to gain experience and save money to equip an office of their own. Some dentists purchase established practices or open new practices. Others may enter residency training programs in approved hospi tals or dental schools. Dentists who enter the Armed Forces are commis sioned as captains in the Army and Air Force and as lieutenants in the Navy. Graduates of recognized dental schools are eligible for positions in the Federal service and for commissions (equivalent to lieutenants in the Navy) in the U.S. Public Health Service. Job Outlook Employment of dentists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Among the factors responsible for an ticipated job growth are changes in population size and structure, which are expected to boost demand for re storative dentistry. As the baby-boom generation m atures, large numbers of middle-aged Americans will be candi dates for more intensive dental care. Unlike younger people, who have benefited from advances in dental health, people born before the 1950’s tend to have intricate dental work that will require complicated maintenance as they grow older. Also contributing to job growth for dentists are growing public awareness that regular dental care helps prevent and control dental disease, and fairly widespread dental insurance, which make it easier for people to purchase dental care. Because of the abundant supply of practitioners, however, the private practice of dentistry is growing in creasingly competitive in many areas of the country. The number of dental school graduates rose sharply be tween 1965 and 1975, as new dental schools were established. The period of expansion came to an end in the late 1970’s, and first-year enrollments have fallen from a peak of 6,300 stu dents in 1978-79 to about 5,000 in 1984-85 (see chart). The downturn re flects a number of factors, including the rising cost of dental education, lower returns on the investment in dental education as greater competi tion for business dampens dentists’ earnings, and a smaller applicant pool. Dental school enrollments are expect Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners/147 ed to continue to decline through the 1980’s. Nonetheless, the total number of practicing dentists will continue to grow substantially because many more new graduates will enter the profession each year than will retire or otherwise leave dentistry. An oversupply of dentists may de velop in some localities and intensify in others. If so, various market adjust ments are likely in those places—in creased evening and weekend office hours (although total hours may be reduced), more competitive fee struc tures, and less intensive use of dental assistants and dental hygienists, for example. To build clientele, dentists are likely to experiment with new ways of providing care and may, for e x a m p le, re a c h o u t to h ith e rto underserved groups such as the elder ly. Educational advertising campaigns are being used to increase public awareness of the importance of regular dental care. Aimed at that half of our population who are not under the regu lar care of a dentist, this strategy seeks to broaden the dental care market. Fluoridation of community water supplies and improved dental hygiene prevent tooth and gum disorders and preserve teeth that might otherwise be extracted. However, since the pre served teeth may need care in the future, these measures may increase rathet than decrease the demand for dental care. There will continue to be a need for dentists to teach in dental colleges, adm inister dental public health programs, and serve in the Armed Forces. In a departure from the usual pat tern, replacement needs create rela tively few job opening for dentists. This reflects the fact that dentists have a distinctive employment pat tern: once having completed their training and entered dental practice, they tend to work continuously until they reach retirement age. Some older dentists reduce their hours of work because of ill health or desire for leisure, but very few individuals leave dentistry to take up other careers. A comparable degree of occupational at tachment is found in only a few other occupations, notably among other health practitioners, who, like den tists, have a considerable investment in training. Earnings During the first year or two of prac tice, dentists often earn little more than the minimum needed to cover expenses, but their earnings usually rise rapidly as their practice develops. Specialists generally earn consider ably more than general practitioners. The average income of dentists in general practice was about $60,000 a year in 1984, according to the limited information available. Those in spe c ia lty p ra c tic e s av erag ed a b o u t $95,000 a year. In the Federal Gov ernm ent, new graduates of dental schools could expect to start at $26,400 a year in 1985. Experienced dentists working for the Federal Gov ernment in 1984 averaged $54,000; some earned as much as $68,000. Location is one of the major factors affecting the income of dentists who open their own offices. For example, in high-income urban areas, dental services are in great demand. Howev er, a practice can be developed most quickly in small towns, where new dentists can become known easily and where they may face less competition from established practitioners. Al though income in small towns may rise rapidly at first, over the long run the level of earnings, like the cost of living, may be lower than it is in larger communities. Except for em ergencies, dental work generally can be postponed. During periods of high unemployment and economic hardship, therefore, dentists tend to experience a reduc tion in the volume of work and lower earnings. Related Occupations Dentists examine, diagnose, and treat various oral diseases and abnormali ties. Others whose work involves per sonal contact and requires a long and rigorous period of scientific training include psychologists, optometrists, physicians, veterinarians, and podia trists. Sources of Additional Information For information on dentistry as a ca reer and a list of accredited dental schools, contact: American Dental Association, Council on Den tal Education, 211 E. Chicago A ve., Chicago, 111. 60611. American Association o f Dental Schools, 1619 Massachusetts Ave. NW ., Washington, D.C. 20036. The American Dental Association also will furnish a list of State boards of dental examiners. Persons interest ed in practicing dentistry should ob tain the requirements for licensure from the board of dental examiners of the State where they plan to work. Prospective dental students should contact the office of student financial aid at the schools to which they apply for in form ation on sch o larsh ip s, grants, and loans, including Federal financial aid. Optometrists (D .O .T . 079.101-018) Nature of the Work Half the people in the United States wear glasses or contact lenses. Op tometrists (doctors of optometry) pro vide much of the vision care these people need. Optometrists should not be con fused with either ophthalmologists or dispensing opticians. Ophthalmolo gists are physicians (doctors of medi cine or osteopathy) who specialize in medical eye care, eye diseases, and injuries; perform eye surgery; and prescribe drugs or other eye treat ment, as well as lenses. Dispensing opticians fit and adjust eyeglasses and contact lenses according to prescrip tions written by ophthalmologists or optometrists; they do not examine eyes or prescribe treatm ent. (See statements on physicians and dispens ing opticians elsewhere in the Hand book.) Optometrists examine people’s eyes to diagnose vision problems and de tect signs of disease and other abnor mal conditions. They also test to in sure that the patient has proper depth and color perception and the ability to focus and coordinate the eyes. When necessary, they prescribe lenses and other treatment. When optometrists diagnose diseases requiring treatment beyond the optometric scope of prac tice, they arrange for consultation with the appropriate health care prac titioners. Most optometrists supply the prescribed eyeglasses or contact lenses. Optometrists also prescribe vi sion therapy or other treatm ent which does not require surgery. In 45 States, optometrists may use drugs for diag nosis; in 7 of these States, they may also use drugs to treat eye diseases. Although most optometrists are in general practice, some specialize in work with the elderly or with chil dren. Others work with partially sight ed persons, who use microscopic or telescopic lenses. Still others concen- 148/Occupational Outlook Handbook trate on contact lenses or vision ther apy. Optometrists teach, do research, consult, and serve on health advisory committees of various kinds. Working Conditions Optometrists work in places—usually their own offices—that are clean, well lighted, and comfortable. The work requires a lot of attention to detail. B ecause o p to m e trists, like other health practitioners, generally are selfemployed, they have considerable flexibility in setting their hours of work, and often continue to practice after the normal retirement age. Many independent practitioners work well over 40 hours a week, including time on Saturday and in the evening. Employment Optometrists held about 29,000 jobs in 1984. The number of jobs is greater than the number of practicing optom etrists because some optom etrists hold two jobs or maintain two offices. For exam ple, an optom etrist may have a full-time private practice and also work part time in another prac tice, clinic, or vision care center. In recent years, some optometrists have chosen commercial practice rather than private practice. Optometrists who work in commercial vision care centers are not always salaried em ployees, however. Recently, the trend has been for optometrists to buy fran chises from large retail optical chains, thereby operating as independent bus iness owners rather than employees of the chain. Although the majority of optome trists are in solo practice, a growing number are in partnership or group practices. This trend, especially pro nounced among younger optometrists, is associated with education-related indebtedness and the high cost of set ting up a solo practice. For the same reason, some optometrists work as salaried employees in the offices of established practitioners. Salaried jobs with health maintenance organi zations and other types of health care clinics are becoming more attractive as well. Some optometrists work in health centers and eye clinics or teach in schools of optometry. Others work for the Veterans Administration, pub lic and private health agencies, and insurance companies. Some optometrists in private prac tice also act as consultants to indus trial safety programs, insurance com panies, manufacturers of ophthalmic products, and others. More than 9 out of 10 optometrists work full time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Colum bia require that optometrists be li censed. Applicants for a license must have a Doctor of Optometry degree from an accredited optometric school or college and pass a State board examination. In some States, appli Optometrists use sophisticated instruments to examine patients’ eyes. cants can substitute the examination of the National Board of Examiners in Optometry, given in the second, third, and fourth years of optometric school, for part or all of the written State examination. Some States allow appli cants to be licensed without lengthy examination if they have a license in another State. In 46 States, optome trists must earn continuing education credits in optometry to renew their licenses. The Doctor of Optometry degree requires a minimum of 6 or 7 years of higher education consisting of a 4year professional degree program pre ceded by at least 2 or 3 years of preoptometric study at an accredited university, college, or junior college. Most optometry students enter with at least a bachelor’s degree. In 1985, there were 16 schools and colleges of optometry in the United States ac credited by the Council on Optome tric Education of the American Opto metric Association. Requirements for admission to these schools usually include courses in English, m athemat ics, physics, chemistry, and biology or zoology. Some schools also require courses in psychology, social studies, literature, philosophy, and foreign languages. All applicants must take the Optometry College Admissions Test (OCAT). Competition is keen for adm ission to o p to m etry schools. Therefore, superior grades in pre optometric college courses may en hance one’s chances for acceptance. Because most optometrists are selfemployed, business ability, self-disc ipline, and the ability to deal with patients tactfully are necessary for success. Many beginning optometrists enter into associate practice with an optom etrist or other health professional. Others purchase an established prac tice or set up a new practice. Some take salaried positions to obtain expe rience and the necessary funds to start their own practice. Optometrists wishing to advance in a specialized field may study for a m aster’s or Ph.D. degree in visual science, physiological optics, neuro physiology, public health, health ad ministration, health information and communication, or health education. One-year postgraduate clinical resi dency programs also are available in optometric specialties including fami ly practice optom etry, pediatric op tometry, geriatric optometry, low vi Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners/149 sion rehabilitation, vision training, contact lenses, hospital-based optom etry, and primary care optometry. Optometrists who enter the Armed Forces as career officers have the op portunity to work toward advanced degrees and to do research on vision problems. Related Occupations Job Outlook Sources of Additional Information Employment of optometrists is ex pected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the mid1990’s. The growth and changing age structure of the population are major factors underlying anticipated job growth. Visits to both optometrists and ophthalmologists are substantial ly higher for persons over the age of 45, reflecting the onset of vision prob lems in middle age. Also likely to spur demand for optometric services are rising per capita income (which per mits people to pay for more frequent doctor visits) and greater recognition of the importance of vision care. Replacement needs are expected to produce additional job openings in the years ahead. In this occupation, re placement needs arise almost entirely from retirements and deaths. Optom etrists, like other health practitioners, have a strong attachment to their pro fession and generally remain in prac tice until they leave the labor force; few transfer to other occupations. Be cause a third of all active optometrists are between 50 and 65 years of age, it is likely that a large number of expe rienced optometrists will leave the profession by the mid-1990’s. Earnings In 1984, net earnings of new optome try graduates in their first full year of practice averaged about $27,000. Ex p e rie n ce d o p to m e trists averaged about $55,000 annually. Optometrists working for the Federal Government earned an average of $31,600 a year in 1984. Incomes vary greatly, depend ing upon location, specialization, and other factors. Optometrists who start out by working on a salaried basis tend to earn more money initially than optometrists who set up their own solo practice. However, in the long run, those with their own private practice generally earn more than those employed by other optom e trists, hospitals, health agencies, re tail stores, or other firms. Workers in other occupations who apply logical thinking and scientific knowledge to prevent, diagnose, and treat disease, disorders, or injuries in humans or animals are chiropractors, dentists, osteopathic physicians, phy sicians, podiatrists, and veterinarians. For information on optometry as a career, write to: American Optometric Association, Education and Manpower Division, 243 North Lindbergh Blvd., St. Louis, Mo. 63141. Additional career information and a listing of accredited optometric edu cational institutions, as well as re quired preoptometry courses, can be obtained from: Association of Schools and Colleges o f Optom etry, Suite 410, 600 Maryland A ve. SW ., Wash ington, D.C. 20024. The Board of Optometry in the cap ital of each State can supply informa tion on licensing requirements. For information on admission re quirements and sources of financial aid, including Federal loans and schol arships, contact individual optometry schools. Physicians (D .O .T . 070 a n d 071) Nature of the Work Physicians perform medical examina tions, diagnose illnesses, and treat people who are suffering from injury or disease. They also advise patients on maintaining good health. There are two types of physicians: the M .D.— Doctor of Medicine—and the D.O.— Doctor of Osteopathy. Despite differ ences in training and philosophy of treatment, both M .D .’s and D .O .’s use all accepted methods of treat ment, including drugs and surgery. O steopathic physicians, how ever, p la c e s p e c ia l e m p h a s is on the musculoskeletal system of the body— b o n e s, m u sc le s, lig a m e n ts, and nerves. One of the basic treatments or therapies used by osteopathic physi cians centers on manipulating this system with the hands. Physicians may be general practi tioners or they may specialize in a particular field of medicine. Most D .O .’s are general practitioners, pro viding primary care; about 25 percent are specialists. On the other hand, about 85 percent of the M .D .’s who provide patient care are specialists. (See chart). The largest of the medical specialties for which there is graduate medical training are internal medi cine, family medicine, general sur gery, obstetrics and gynecology, psy chiatry, pediatrics, radiology, anes thesiology, ophthalmology, pathol ogy, and orthopedic surgery. Some of the prim ary care specialties have shown especially rapid growth—fam ily practice, internal medicine, and pediatrics. Some physicians combine the practice of medicine with research or teaching in medical schools. Advances in medical technology in recent years have been many and dra- Specialists outnumber general practitioners. Percent of physicians by specialty group, 1983 General practice and family practice Source: American Medical Association 150/Occupational Outlook Handbook made. Liver and kidney transplants, laser surgery, and ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging are but a few of these new technologies. Some are opening entirely new areas of medical practice; others are replacing traditional treatm ent methods. The emphasis on technology has implications for the way physicians are trained and the way they practice medicine. High-technology medicine requires extensive skills and training. Its dominant role in American medical care underlies the system of specialty medicine, whereby most M .D .’s are specialists and few are general practi tioners. Further, the cost of technolo gy is largely responsible for making the hospital the site of the most ad vanced medical care. Only hospitals and very large clinics or group medi cal practices can afford to purchase the most costly equipment. It is be yond the means of individual physi cians or small groups. Working Conditions Physicians who practice alone or in small groups generally work long, ir regular hours. Most specialists work fewer hours each week than general practitioners. As doctors approach re tirement age, they may accept fewer new patients and tend to work shorter hours. However, many continue in practice well beyond 70 years of age. Contractual arrangem ents in the rapidly evolving outpatient care sec tor vary enormously. An outpatient surgical center, for example, may be operated by several physicians as a group medical practice. Work pat terns of such physicians resemble those of other physicians in group practice. Physicians in many outpa tient care settings such as health maintenance organizations (HMO’s) and urgent care centers are salaried employees. They generally work a standard 40-hour week, although some are moonlighters and work on a parttime basis. Employment Physicians held about 476,000 jobs in 1984. Because young physicians in particular frequently “ m oonlight,” the number of jobs exceeds the num ber of individuals who are in prac tice—about 435,000 M .D .’s and 20,000 D .O .’s in 1984, according to the Amer ican Medical Association and the American Osteopathic Association. About half of all physicians are in office-based practice. Few of these are solo practitioners. As medical care shifts from hospitals to outpa tient settings, the number and size of group medical practices are growing. Sometimes organized as clinics and sometimes as a group of physicians in the same or different specialties, large groups can realize economies of scale and can afford expensive equipment that is beyond the means of solo prac titioners. About one-fourth of all physicians were residents or full-time staff mem bers in hospitals in 1984. The rest practiced in a variety of settings, in The number of physicians in salaried positions is growing. cluding HM O’s, clinics, urgent care centers, birthing centers, surgicenters, public health clinics, schools, prisons, and business firms. The N ortheast has the highest ratio of physicians to population; the South, the lowest. M ore than half of all D .O .’s practice in cities and towns of fewer than 50,000 residents. M .D .’s, on the other hand, have tended to locate in urban areas, close to hospital and educational centers, so many ru ral areas have been underserved. Cur rently, more medical students are be ing exposed to practice in rural com munities with the direct support of educational centers and hospitals in more populous areas. Some rural ar eas offer physicians guaranteed mini mum incomes to offset the relatively low earnings typical in rural medical practice. Osteopathic physicians are located chiefly in those States that have osteo pathic hospitals. In 1984, three-fifths of all D .O .’s were in Florida, Michi gan, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Ohio, T ex as, and M isso u ri. S ev en teen States and the District of Columbia each had fewer than 50 osteopathic physicians in 1984. Training and Other Qualifications All States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico require physicians to be licensed. Licensure requirements for both D .O .’s and M .D .’s include graduation from an accredited profes sional school, successful completion of a licensing examination, and, in most States, 1 or 2 years of supervised practice in an accredited graduate medical education program (internship/residency). The licensing exami nation taken by most graduates of U.S. medical schools is the National Board of Medical Examiners (NBME) test that all States except Texas and Louisiana accept. G ra d u a te s o f fo re ig n m ed ical schools generally begin practice in the United States after completing a U.S. hospital residency training program. To enter an approved residency, grad uates of foreign medical schools usu ally must pass an examination admin istered by the Educational Commis sion for Foreign Medical Graduates and be certified by that organization. After 1 year of work in an approved residency, foreign medical graduates, as well as graduates of U.S. medical schools who have not taken the NBME test, must take the Federation Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners/151 Licensure Examination (FLEX) that alljurisdictions accept. Although phy sicians licensed in one State usually can get a license to practice in another without further examination, some States limit reciprocity. Of the 127 accredited schools in the United States in which students can begin study for the M.D. degree, 126 award the degree of Doctor of Medi cine (M.D.). One school offers a 2year program in the basic medical sciences to students who transfer to another medical school for the last semesters of study. Fifteen schools of osteopathic medicine award the de gree of Doctor of Osteopathic Medi cine (D.O.). The minimum educational require ment for entry to a medical or osteo pathic school is normally 3 years of college; some schools require 4 years. A few medical schools allow excep tional students to begin their profes sional study after 2 years of college. Most students have at least a bache lor’s degree, and many have advanced degrees. Required premedical study includes undergraduate work in English, phys ics, biology, and inorganic and organ ic chemistry. Students also should take courses in the humanities, math ematics, and the social sciences to acquire a broad general education. Studies have shown that medical stu dents with undergraduate majors in the humanities do as well in their medical studies as those who major in the sciences or a “ premedical curric ulum .” Medicine is a popular field of study, and applicants must compete for entry with highly motivated students who generally have excelled in preprofes sional education. Factors considered by the schools in admitting students include their academic record and their scores on the Medical College Admission Test, which almost all ap plicants take. Consideration also is given to the applicant’s character, personality, and leadership qualities, as shown by personal interviews, let ters of recommendation, and extracur ricular activities. Osteopathic colleges give considerable weight to a favor able recommendation by an osteo pathic physican familiar with the ap plicant’s background. Many Statesupported schools give preference to State residents and, sometimes, to residents of nearby States. Students spend the first semesters of medical school primarily in labora at least 3 years in the Armed Forces tories and classrooms learning basic upon graduation. Persons who wish to become phy meclical sciences such as anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacol sicians must have a strong desire to ogy, microbiology, and pathology. serve the sick and injured. They must Students in most schools gain some be self-motivated and competitive to clinical experience with patients dur survive the pressures of premedical ing the first 2 years of study, learning and medical education and the de to take case histories, perform exam manding workload during the interninations, and recognize symptoms. ship/residency that follows medical During the last semesters, students school. They must study a great deal work under supervision in hospitals to keep up with the latest advances in and clinics to learn the important as medical science. Sincerity and a pleas pects of acute, chronic, preventive, ant personality are helpful in gaining and rehabilitative care. Through these the confidence of patients. Physicians required rotations in internal medi should be emotionally stable and able cine, obstetrics and gynecology, pedi to make decisions in emergencies. In view of the variation in State atrics, psychiatry, and surgery, they gain experience in the diagnosis and laws, students interested in becoming physicians should study carefully the treatment of illness. After graduation, almost all M .D .’s professional and legal requirements of complete 1 or 2 years of graduate the State in which they plan to prac medical education (residency). Nearly tice. all D .O .’s serve a 12-month rotating internship (including experience in Job Outlook surgery, pediatrics, internal medicine, Job o p p o rtu n itie s for physicians through the mid-1990’s will reflect and other specialties.) Physicians who have completed 1 fa s te r than average em ploym ent year of graduate medical education growth plus the need to replace expe and enter active military duty initially rienced physicians who leave the med serve as captains in the Army or Air ical profession. Population growth and aging con Force or as lieutenants in the Navy. Graduates also qualify for profession tribute to the need for more physi al medical positions in the Federal cians. Especially rapid growth is pro civil service. jected for the elderly population, Physicians seeking certification in a which makes much greater use of phy specialty spend from 3 to 5 years— sicians’ services than younger per depending on the specialty—in ad sons. Demand for medical care is gov vanced residency training, followed erned by ability to pay, and access to by 2 or more years of practice in the physicians’ services is widespread as specialty. Training in a medical spe a result of broad health insurance cov cialty is lengthy and rigorous but vir erage—through private insurance, tually indispensable in view of the now a standard employee benefit, as enormous amount of information to well as through public programs in be absorbed. Moreover, technologi cluding Medicare and Medicaid. In cally based medical practice requires addition, more physicians will be such a high level of skill that an ex needed for medical research and for tensive period of supervised experi the growing fields of public health, ence is necessary. Passing the appro rehabilitation, and industrial medi priate specialty board examination is cine. the final step in becoming a boardReplacement needs in medicine and certified M.D. or D.O. osteopathic medicine account for few Physicians who want to teach or do er job openings than in most other research may take graduate work occupations, because physicians ex leading to a m aster’s or Ph.D. degree hibit very strong attachment to their in a field such as biochemistry or work. Once having completed training microbiology. and entered medical practice, physi A physician’s training is very cost cians tend to remain in the labor force ly. However, loans and scholarships until they retire. M oreover, relatively are available from the Federal Gov few leave medicine for other careers. ernment, State and local governments, The supply of physicians may ex and private sources. To receive this ceed demand in the decade ahead. aid, the student may have to demon The prospective oversupply reflects strate financial need or agree to serve past decisions about expanding the 152/Occupational Outlook Handbook capacity of the N atio n ’s m edical schools, and has relatively little to do with sweeping changes in the organi zation and financing of health care that are currently underway. About 20 years ago, a perceived shortage of doctors ignited an explosion in medi cal school enrollments that ended in the late 1970’s. Enrollm ent levels have changed little since then, but that expansion left in place an en larged student “ pipeline” that will produce an abundant supply of newly trained practitioners through the mid1990’s. Foreign-trained physicians (includ ing U.S. citizens who receive their medical training abroad) are an impor tant element in the N ation’s supply of physicians, although the Bureau of Health Professions expects fewer for eign-trained physicians to enter prac tice in the decade ahead than was true in the past. The N ation’s health care system is being altered in im portant ways. Changes in the way government pays for hospital care under Medicare and Medicaid, together with efforts by in surance companies and major corpo rations to contain outlays for employ ee health benefits, have sharply blunt ed the rising use of hospitals and shifted some of that demand to outpa tient facilities. The implications of these changes for physicians will be greatest in the area of practice setting and contractu al arrangements (salaried employee or fee-for-service practitioner). The in creased popularity of HM O’s, free standing birthing centers, and other outpatient facilities means that more physicians are working in what are still viewed as “ nontraditional” prac tice settings. As these and other emerging organizations play an in creasingly dominant role in the medi cal care market, more and more phy sicians will work for a salary. It is possible that prepaid arrange ments such as HM O’s could dampen demand for physicians. If, as scat tered evidence suggests, HM O’s can provide care with fewer physicians than fee-for-service practice, acceler ated growth of HMO’s would mean fewer new jobs for physicians than currently anticipated. Competition for graduate medical residencies will intensify since the number of first-year residency posi tions will closely match the number of graduates from U.S. medical schools. Newly trained physicians are likely to experience competition as they seek to launch a practice. Competition will be especially stiff in large cities, and in areas considered attractive due to ed ucational or recreational resources or natural beauty. Physicians in many such areas already report declines in patient load or earnings. Those who are willing to locate in inner cities, rural areas, and other places where doctors are not in oversupply should have little difficulty. Intensified competition due to sub stantial growth in the supply of newly qualified M .D .’s and D .O .’s is certain to affect physicians’ earnings. High medical school enrollments have contributed to the increasingly competitive outlook for physicians. First-year enrollments (thousands) Earnings Stipends of medical school graduates serving as residents in hospitals vary according to the type of residency, geographic area, and size of the hos pital, but allowances of $20,000 to $24,000 a year are common. Many hospitals also provide full or partial room and board and other mainte nance allowances to residents. Graduates who had completed ap proved 3-year residencies but had no other medical experience received a starting salary at V eterans’ Adminis tration hospitals of about $44,400 a year in 1985. In addition, those work ing full time received up to $13,000 in other cash benefits or “ special” pay ments. Newly qualified physicians who es tablish their own practice must make a sizable financial investment to equip a modern office. During the first year or two of independent practice, phy sicians probably earn little more than the minimum needed to pay expenses. As a rule, however, their earnings rise rapidly as their practice develops. Physicians have among the highest average annual earnings of any occu pational group. According to informa tion from the American Medical As sociation, physicians in pediatrics and family or general practice had average earnings, after expenses, of just over $71,000 in 1984. Surgeons averaged about $152,000 after expenses. The average income of all physicians for 1984 was about $108,400. Earnings of physicians depend on factors such as the region of the country; patients’ income; and the physician’s skill, per sonality, professional reputation, and experience. Self-employed physicians usually earn more than those in sala ried positions. Related Occupations Physicians work to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, disorders, and in juries. Professionals in other occupa tions that require similar kinds of skill and critical judgm ent include audiolo gists, chiropractors, dentists, optom etrists, podiatrists, speech patholo gists, and veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information SOURCES: Association of American Medical Colleges; American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine For a list of approved medical schools, as well as general information on pre medical education, financial aid, and medicine as a career, contact: A m e ric a n M e d ic a l A s s o c ia t io n , 535 N . Dearborn St., Chicago 111. 60610. Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners/153 Association o f American Medical Colleges, One Dupont Circle N W ., Suite 200, Washing ton, D.C. 20036. For general information on osteo pathic medicine as a career, contact: American O steopathic A ssociation, Depart ment o f Public Relations, 212 East Ohio St., Chicago, 111. 60611. American Association o f Colleges o f O steo path ic M ed ic in e , 6110 E x e c u tiv e B lv d ., Rockville, Md. 20852. Information on Federal scholar ships and loans is available from the directors of student financial aid at schools of medicine and osteopathic medicine. Information about Armed Forces Health Professions Scholar ships is available from any local mili tary recruiting office. Persons who wish to practice med icine or osteopathic medicine in a par ticular State should inquire about licensure requirements directly from the board of examiners of that State. Podiatrists (D.O.T. 079.101-022) Nature of the Work Because we use them so often in walking, running, or just standing, we are constantly and painfully aware when our feet hurt. A growing number of foot sufferers visit a doctor of podiatric medicine, or podiatrist, for relief. Podiatrists diagnose and treat diseases and disorders of the foot. Much of their practice is devoted to treating soft-tissue complaints such as corns, bunions, calluses, ingrown toe nails, and skin and nail diseases. To help in diagnosis, podiatrists take Xrays and order laboratory tests. De pending on the condition, they may fit corrective devices, prescribe drugs, order physical therapy, or recom mend proper shoes. Surgery, per formed in hospitals, outpatient sur gery centers, clinics, or podiatrists’ offices, is an increasingly important part of podiatric practice. Podiatrists are trained to identify systemic diseases such as arthritis, diabetes, and heart disease. If they find symptoms of a systemic disorder, they refer the patient to a medical doctor while continuing to treat the foot problem. Most podiatrists provide all types of foot care. After completing additional training, however, some specialize in podiatric surgery, orthopedics (bone, muscle, and joint disorders), podo- pediatrics (children’s foot ailments, or podogeriatrics (foot problems of the elderly). Working Conditions Podiatrists usually work independent ly in their own offices. They generally work 40 hours a week, and they set their hours to suit their practice. Employment Podiatrists held about 11,000 jobs in 1984. While the majority of podiatrists are in private practice, some are em ployed by other podiatrists. Hospi tals, health maintenance organiza tions, and podiatric medical colleges employ podiatrists as well. The Vet erans A dm inistration and public health departments also employ podi atrists. Like other health practitioners, po diatrists work mainly in large cities, but geographic imbalances are espe cially pronounced in podiatric medi cine. This reflects the fact that the majority of podiatry students are res idents of the six States in which podiatric education is offered, and, after graduation, many of them prefer to set up practice close to home. This pattern has left large areas of the country, particularly in the South and Southw est, with few practitioners even though the total number of podi atrists has grown substantially in re cent years. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Colum bia require a license for the practice of podiatric medicine. To qualify for a license, an applicant must graduate from an accredited college of podiatric medicine and pass a written and oral examination. In some States, appli cants can substitute the examination of the National Board of Podiatric Examiners, given in the second and fourth years of podiatry school, for part or all of the written State exami nation. Many States grant licenses without further examination to podia trists already licensed by another State. The six colleges of podiatric medi cine are located in California, Illinois, Iowa, New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. Minimum entrance require ments include 3 years of undergradu ate college work with courses in En glish, chemistry, biology or zoology, physics, and mathematics. Most en trants surpass the minimum require ments. About 85 percent of the class entering in 1984 held at least a bache lor’s degree, and the average enrollee had an overall grade point average of “ B” or better. All colleges of podiatric medicine require applicants to earn an acceptable score on the Medical Col lege Admissions Test. Of the 4 years in podiatry school, the first 2 are spent in classroom in struction and laboratory work in anat omy, bacteriology, chemistry, pathol ogy, physiology, pharmacology, and other basic sciences. During the final 2 years, students gain clinical experi ence while continuing their academic studies. Graduates are awarded the degree of Doctor of Podiatric Medi cine (D.P.M.). Additional education and experi ence are necessary to practice in a specialty. C urrently, about threefourths of all graduates complete 1-3 years of graduate education (some times called a residency or preceptorship) following the D.P.M. degree. Competition for admission to residen cy programs is keen. Since licensure requirements in eight States (Arizona, California, Georgia, Michigan, New Jersey, Oklahoma, Rhode Island, and Virginia) call for completion of at least 1 year of post graduate education, failure to secure a residency can limit a new graduate’s practice options. First-year residencies provide clinical training and experience in primary care in one or more disciplines such as orthopedics, pathology, radiology, surgery, and emergency care. Sec ond- and third-year residencies pro vide more extensive training in a spe cialty, usually in surgery. Board cer- Podiatrists diagnose and treat foot prob lems. 154/Occupational Outlook Handbook tification is offered in two specialties: Podiatric orthopedics and podiatric surgery. Federal, State, and private loans are available for students to pursue full-time study leading to a degree in podiatric medicine. Private funding and work-study programs are also available. Persons planning a career in podia try should have scientific aptitude and manual dexterity, and like detailed work. A good business sense and con geniality also are assets, as in any medical profession. Most newly licensed podiatrists set up their own practices. Some pur chase established practices, or take salaried positions to gain the experi ence and money they need to begin their own practices. Earnings Newly licensed podiatrists build their practices over a number of years. In come during the first several years is usually low but generally rises signif icantly as the practice grows. From the limited information available, a net income of about $50,000 a year is common for established podiatrists. Newly licensed podiatrists hired by V eterans A dm inistration hospitals earned starting salaries betw een $26,381 and $31,619 in 1985. Related Occupations Podiatrists work to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, disorders, and in juries. Other occupations that require similar skills include audiologists, chi ropractors, dentists, optometrists, os teopathic physicians, speech patholo gists, and veterinarians. Job Outlook Employment of podiatrists is expect ed to grow much faster than the aver age for all occupations through the mid-1990’s as podiatric medicine con tinues to gain recognition as a health profession, causing more people to turn to podiatrists for foot care. The growing popularity of jogging, tennis, racquetball, and other fast-moving sports will spur demand in the special ty of podiatric sports medicine. The aging of the population will also in crease demand for podiatrists. Many older people have foot problems. Because health insurance helps peo ple pay for podiatric care, widespread access to health insurance will con tribute to increased demand in the years ahead—provided current bene fit patterns are not altered substantial ly. Generally speaking, Medicare and most private health insurance pro grams cover acute medical and surgi cal foot services as well as diagnostic X-rays, fracture casts, and leg braces; Medicaid podiatry benefits vary enor mously from State to State. Routine foot care—including the removal of corns and calluses—is not ordinarily paid for by health insurance. Health maintenance organizations and other prepaid plans may provide routine foot care, however. In addition to opportunities created by rapid growth in employment, many openings will result from the need to replace podiatrists who retire or stop working for other reasons. Opportuni ties for graduates to establish new practices, as well as to enter salaried Digitized forpositions, should be favorable. FRASER Sources of Additional Information Information on colleges of podiatric medicine, entrance requirements, curriculums, and student financial aid is available from: American Association of Colleges of Podiatric Medicine, 6110 Executive Blvd., Suite 204, Rockville, Md. 20852. F o r ad d itio n al in fo rm atio n on podiatric medicine as a career, con tact: American Podiatric Medical Association, 20 Chevy Chase Circle NW., Washington, D.C. 20015. For information about financial as sistance programs administered by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, write to: Division of Student Assistance, Health Re sources and Services Administration, 5600 Fishers Lane, Rockville, Md. 20857. Veterinarians (D.O.T. 073. except .361-010) Nature of the Work Think of a veterinary doctor and you may picture someone caring for the family cat or dog. Three out of four veterinarians engage in private prac tice—they may treat small animals or pets exclusively, concentrate on large animals (livestock, generally), or have a mixed practice of both large and small animals. Veterinarians diagnose medical conditions, perform surgery on sick and injured animals, and pre scribe and administer medicines and drugs. Some veterinarians engage in re search, inspection, or education. It is not generally understood that veteri narians contribute to medical research in the field of human health care. Veterinarians may join physicians and scientists in carrying out research at an academic medical center, for ex ample, and explore such topics as techniques of organ transplantation or the efficacy of a new drug. Some vet erinarians are in regulatory medicine or public health: They inspect food, investigate outbreaks of disease, and work in scientific laboratories. These veterinarians help prevent the out break and spread of animal diseases, some of which—like rabies—can be transmitted to human beings. Protection of the population from environmental hazards is a major con cern of the small but significant num ber of veterinarians who specialize in toxicology or animal pathology. Al though there have been impressive successes in controlling diseases transm itted through food anim als, changing technology and more com plex methods of food production pre sent new threats to food safety. Resi dues from herbicides, pesticides, and antibiotics used in food production pose a particular problem. Scientific advances in livestock production have, paradoxically, created a need for veterinarians capable of dealing with contamination of the food chain by toxic chemicals. Some veterinarians teach in veteri nary colleges, work in zoos or animal laboratories, or engage in a combina tion of clinical and research activities. Working Conditions Veterinarians usually treat pet ani mals in hospitals and clinics. Those in large animal practice usually work out of well-equipped mobile clinics and drive considerable distances between farms and ranches to care for their animal patients. V eterinarians are sometimes exposed to injury, disease, and infection. Those in private prac tice often work long hours. Veterinar ians in rural areas may work outdoors in all kinds of weather. Because they are self-employed, veterinarians in private practice usually can continue working beyond normal retirem ent age. Employment Veterinarians held about 40,000 jobs in 1984. Most were in private practice. Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners/155 The Federal Government employed about 2,300 veterinarians in civilian jobs, chiefly in the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Public Health Service. Other employers of veterinarians are State and local gov ernments, international health agen cies, colleges of veterinary medicine, medical schools, research laborato ries, livestock farm s, animal food companies, and pharmaceutical com panies. Veterinarians are located in all parts of the country, and the type of prac tice generally varies according to geo graphic setting. Veterinarians in rural areas mainly treat farm animals; those in small towns usually engage in gen eral practice; those in cities and sub urban areas often limit their practice to pets. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Colum bia require that veterinarians be li censed. To obtain a license, appli cants must have a Doctor of Veteri nary Medicine (D.V.M. or V.M.D.) degree from an accredited college of veterinary medicine and pass written and, in most States, oral State board pro ficien cy e x a m in a tio n s. Som e States issue licenses without further examination to veterinarians already licensed by another State. For veterinarians seeking positions in research and teaching, an addition al m aster’s or Ph.D. degree usually is required or, increasingly, specialty board certification in a field such as pathology, toxicology, or laboratory animal medicine. Veterinarians who seek specialty board certification must complete an approved residency pro gram, pass the board’s examination, and meet any other board require ments. The D.V.M. or V.M.D. degree re quires a minimum of 6 years of college consisting of at least 2 years of preveterinary study that emphasizes the physical and biological sciences and a 4-year professional degree pro gram. Several veterinary medical col leges require 3 years of preveterinary work, and most successful applicants have completed 4 years of college. In addition to rigorous academic instruc tion, professional training includes considerable practical experience in diagnosing and treating animal dis eases, performing surgery, and per forming laboratory work in anatomy, biochemistry, and other scientific and medical subjects. In 1985, all 27 colleges of veterinary medicine in the United States were accredited by the Council on Educa tion of the American Veterinary Med ical Association (AVMA). Admission to these schools is highly competitive. Each year there are many more qual ified applicants than the schools can accept. Serious applicants usually need grades of “ B ” or better, espe cially in science courses. Experience in part-time or summer jobs working with animals is advantageous. Colleg es usually give preference to residents of the State in which the college is located, because these schools are largely State supported. In the South and West, regional educational plans permit cooperating States without vet erinary schools to send students to designated regional schools. In other areas, colleges that accept out-ofState students give priority to appli cants from nearby States that do not have veterinary schools. The Federal Government provides some loans for students in schools of veterinary medicine, subject to the availability of funds; service in an underserved area after graduation may cancel the student’s obligation to re pay the loan. Most veterinarians begin as em ployees or partners in established practices. Those who can afford the substantial investm ent needed for drugs, instruments, and other startup costs may set up their own practices. An even greater investment is needed to open an animal hospital or pur chase an established practice. Newly trained veterinarians may qualify for civilian jobs with the U.S. Government as meat and poultry in spectors, disease-control workers, ep idemiologists, research assistants, or commissioned officers in the U.S. Public Health Service. A license is not required for Federal employment. Job Outlook Employment of veterinarians is ex pected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the mid1990’s, primarily because of growth in the companion animal (horses, dogs, and other pets) population. Emphasis on scientific methods of raising and breeding livestock and poultry, and growth in public health and disease control programs also will stimulate the demand for veterinarians. In addi- Veterinarians usually treat pets in hospi tals or clinics. tion, many new veterinarians will be needed each year to replace those who retire or die. The supply of veterinarians is pro jected to grow even faster than de mand, however, which means that new veterinary school graduates may encounter stiff competition as they set out to establish a clinical practice. Veterinary school enrollments have nearly doubled since the mid-1960’s. It seems likely that graduations will stabilize at current levels through 1995, but even so, the number of active veterinarians will grow so sub stantially that an oversupply is a strong possibility. This would affect new graduates setting up “ small ani mal” or pet practices the most. An oversupply might mean competition among practitioners for business; lower-than-anticipated earnings; or diffi culty securing a salaried position. The outlook is bright for veterinar ians with specialty training, which generally involves at least 2 years of formal education beyond the basic veterinary medicine degree. Demand for specialists in toxicology and pa thology is expected to remain strong, as is the demand for faculty at colleg es of veterinary medicine. Earnings Newly graduated veterinarians work ing in private practices of established veterinarians typically earned $19,000 to $21,000 in 1984. After 2 years, 156/Occupational Outlook Handbook earnings rise significantly. The aver age net earnings of all veterinarians in private practice were about $46,000 in 1984. Newly graduated veterinarians em ployed by the Federal Government started at $24,700 a year in 1985. The average annual salary of veterinarians in the F e d e ra l G overnm ent was $40,000 in 1985. Related Occupations Veterinarians use their professional training to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, disorders, and injuries. Others who require similar skills are audiologists, chiropractors, dentists, optometrists, physicians, podiatrists, and speech pathologists. Sources of Additional Information A pamphlet entitled Today’s Veteri narian presents information on veter inary medicine as a career and lists accredited colleges of veterinary med icine. A free copy may be obtained by submitting a request, together with a self-addressed, stam ped, businesssize envelope, to: American Veterinary Medical Association, 930 N. Meacham Rd., Schaumburg, 111. 60196. Information on opportunities for veterinarians in the U.S. Department of Agriculture is available from: Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Field Service Office, Employment Services, Butler Square West, 5th Floor, 100 N. 6th St., Minneapolis, Minn. 55403. Food Safety and Quality Service, Personnel Division, Butler Square West, 4th Floor, 100 N. 5th St., Minneapolis, Minn. 55403. For information on scholarships, grants, and loans, contact the finan cial aid officer at the veterin ary schools to which you wish to apply. Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants The health professionals described in this section of the Handbook care for the sick, help the disabled, and advise individuals and communities on ways of maintaining and improving their health. Nursing is by far the largest of these occupations: Registered nurses held nearly 1.4 million jobs in 1984. Most of the other occupations de scribed here are much smaller. Physi cian assistants and occupational ther apists, for example, each held about 25,000 jobs in 1984, while recreational therapists accounted for 17,000 jobs. Registered nurses work primarily in hospitals, where they provide direct patient care, assist in surgery and di agnostic procedures, train and super vise other members of the staff, pro vide health education for patients and their families, organize health promo tion activities for the community, and handle administrative tasks. A grow ing number of registered nurses work in long-term care facilities such as nursing homes, rehabilitation centers, and mental hospitals. Some engage in occupational or school nursing, while others work in clinics, health mainte nance organizations, or physicians’ offices, or do private duty nursing. Community and home health is an increasingly important practice set ting for registered nurses. With addi tional training and experience, regis tered nurses may assume the respon sibilities of nurse practitioners, nurse midwives, or nurse anesthetists. In these expanded roles, nurses perform tasks that otherwise would be per formed by a physician. Three principal kinds of nursing ed ucation prepare students for careers as registered nurses: Diploma, associ ate degree, and bachelor’s degree pro grams. The differences should be un derstood by the prospective nursing student. However, all nursing educa tion programs share the goals of teach ing nurses the scientific basis of nurs ing practice, familiarizing them with of therapists, are discussed in the the latest treatment and rehabilitation Handbook statement on counselors. A number of other therapists aid in techniques, and equipping them to understand patients’ medical, social, rehabilitation. Orientation therapists fo r the blind help newly blinded per and psychological needs. The relatively new occupation of sons learn to move about unassisted; physician assistant (PA) involves di to handle such everyday activities as rect patient care by workers who are dressing, grooming, eating, and using trained to perform many of the more the telephone; and to communicate by routine tasks normally carried out by means of Braille, reading machines, a physician. These include taking or other devices. Art, dance, and mu medical histories, doing routine exam sic therapists help patients resolve inations, and making hospital rounds. physical, emotional, or social prob Physician assistants work under the lems through nonverbal means of direction of a physician, usually right communication. Horticultural thera in the office. Some, however, practice pists use gardening for therapeutic in rural health clinics, prisons, and purposes—as a group activity for per other places where physicians are not sons with mental or emotional prob readily available. Training commonly lems, for example. A bachelor’s de lasts 2 years. Admission to PA train gree with a health profession special ing is highly competitive, and most ization is standard preparation for students already have a background in most therapy occupations. For some one of the health professions. Legal jobs, a m aster’s degree is essential. Dietitians and pharmacists also use provisions permitting physician assis tants to practice are not uniform special skills and expertise to assist throughout the country, in part be sick or disabled persons, although they do not provide direct patient cause the occupation is so new. Therapists use a variety of tech care. Having completed college pro niques to help patients who are in gram s th at include b acteriology, jured, physically or mentally disabled, chemistry, and other sciences, these or emotionally disturbed. Physical workers draw on scientific knowledge therapists use exercise and other treat to devise therapeutic treatments or m ents to help p a tie n ts in cre ase give advice on the effects of diet or strength, mobility, and coordination. drugs. Both fields offer opportunities Occupational therapists teach skills to practice in a variety of settings. of everyday living, including voca Dietitians plan diets to meet the nutri tional skills. Their goal is to help pa tional needs of groups as diverse as tients adapt to their limitations and hospital patients, school children, learn to be as self-sufficient as possi prisoners, and hotel guests. Pharma ble. Speech pathologists and audiolo cists generally work in hospitals or gists work with children and adults community pharmacies where they who have speech, language, or hear dispense drugs and medicines pre ing impairments. Recreational thera scribed by health practitioners. Like pists, also known as therapeutic rec other health professionals, dietitians reation workers, use sports, games, and pharmacists sometimes teach or crafts, and hobbies as part of the do consulting work in addition to their rehabilitation of mentally ill, mentally primary job. retarded, or physically handicapped Pharm acists, physical therapists, persons. Rehabilitation counselors, and registered nurses must have a whose work is closely related to that license to practice. Students consider- 157 158/Occupational Outlook Handbook ing one of these careers should inves tigate the licensing requirements in the State where they plan to work. C om plem enting the occu p atio n al licensure laws is a voluntary system of gaining credentials, in which pro fessional associations and other non governmental bodies attest to an indi vidual’s competence through certifi cation or registration. Employment in these occupations is expected to grow at different rates through the mid-1990’s, reflecting the impact of anticipated changes in the health care system. Growing concern about cost has set in motion a number of developments that are likely to transform the entire system by 1995. Of foremost importance is the trend toward greater reliance on outpatient, in-home, and community-based serv ices, and less reliance on inpatient hospital care. Health insurance terms that pre scribe which services are reimburs able will be more important than ever in determining the industry and occu pational “ mix” of health sector em ployment. Providing Medicare cover age for hospice services, for example, has helped stimulate demand for nurs es, social workers, and pastoral coun selors in hospices, although it is impor tant to bear in mind that volunteers provide most hospice care. Similarly, if nursing home and other long term care benefits were covered by private health insurance, demand for nursing and therapy personnel might rise even faster than currently anticipated. Several other sections of the Hand book contain statements on health ca reers. Check the alphabetical index at the back to locate the statements on health services managers, dental as sistants, medical assistants, nursing aides and psychiatric aides, dispens ing opticians, and dental laboratory technicians. Books and brochures on health ca reers are available in libraries, coun seling centers, and bookstores. The Sources of Additional Information section at the end of each Handbook statement identifies organizations that can provide pamphlets, lists of ac credited schools, and sources of fi nancial aid. For an overview of jobs in the health field, including some jobs not covered in the H andbook, request a copy of “ 200 Ways to Put Your Tal ent to Work in the Health Field” from: National Health Council, 70 West Fortieth St., Digitized forNew York, N.Y. 10018. FRASER Dietitians and Nutritionists (D-O.T. 077 except .121-010) Nature of the Work Nutrition is the science of food and its effect on the body. It is concerned with the nutrients in food, their use in body chem istry, and—in the final analysis—the relationship betw een diet and health. Nutritionists counsel individuals and groups; set up and supervise food service systems for institutions such as hospitals, hotels, prisons, and schools; and promote sound eating habits through education and research. The term “ nutritionist” applies to a number of different pro fessionals involved with food science and human nutrition. Among these are dietitians, food technologists, and home economists. Among dietitians, major areas of specialization include administration, education, research, and clinical and community dietetics. Administrative dietitians apply the principles of nutrition and sound man agement to large-scale meal planning and preparation, such as that done in company cafeterias, schools, and oth er institutions. They supervise the planning, preparation, and service of meals; select, train, and direct food service supervisors and workers; bud get for and purchase food, equipment, and supplies; enforce sanitary and safety regulations; and prepare rec ords and reports. Increasingly, dieti tians utilize computer programs to plan meals that satisfy nutritional re quirements and are economical at the same time. Dietitians who are direc tors of dietetic departments also de cide on departmental policy; coordi nate dietetic services with the activi ties of other departments; and are responsible for the dietetic depart ment budget, which in large organiza tions may amount to millions of dol lars annually. Clinical dietitians, sometimes called therapeutic dietitians, generally work in hospitals, nursing homes, or clin ics. They assess patients’ nutritional needs, develop and implement nutri tion care plans, and evaluate and re port the results. Clinical dietitians confer with doctors and other mem bers of the health care team about patients’ nutritional care, instruct pa tients and their families on the re quirements and importance of their diets, and suggest ways to maintain these diets at home. Computer pro grams enable dietitians to provide pa tients and their physicians with a com plete nutritional analysis of food in take. Technological advances in nutri tional support for the critically ill have enhanced the clinical dietitian’s role. In the hospital, dietitians oversee the preparation of custom-mixed highnutrition formulas for patients who are critically or terminally ill. In the home health field, they help develop and oversee sophisticated nutritional therapies for hom ebound patients who, because of surgery or illness, are unable to eat regular foods. Community dietitians or nutrition ists may counsel individuals and groups on sound nutrition practices to prevent disease, maintain health, and rehabilitate persons recovering from illness. They may engage in teaching and research with a community health focus. This work covers areas such as special diets, meal planning and prep aration, and food budgeting and pur chasing. Dietitians or nutritionists in this field usually are associated with community health programs; they may be responsible for planning, develop ing, coordinating, and administering a nutrition program or a nutrition com ponent within the community health program. They work mainly for public and private health and social service a g e n c ie s , in c lu d in g “ m e a ls-o n wheels” programs, congregate meals for older Americans, and nutritional programs for women with infants and young children. Research dietitians seek ways to improve the nutrition of both healthy and sick people. They may study nu trition science and education, food management, food service systems and equipment, or how the body uses food. Other research projects may in vestigate the nutritional needs of the aging, persons who have chronic dis eases, or space travelers. Research dietitians need advanced training in this field and usually are employed in medical centers or educational facili ties, or they may work in community health programs. Working Conditions Although most work 40 hours a week, dietitians and nutritionists in hospitals may sometimes work on weekends, and those in commercial food services Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/159 have somewhat irregular hours. Dieti tians and nutritionists spend much of their time in clean, well-lighted, and well-ventilated areas, such as research laboratories, classrooms, or offices near food preparation areas. Howev er, they do spend time in kitchens and serving areas that often are hot and steamy. Dietitians and nutritionists in clinical settings may be on their feet a lot; those involved in consulting spend a significant amount of time traveling. Employment Dietitians and nutritionists held about 48,000 jobs in 1984. Health care facil ities, including hospitals, nursing homes, and clinics, are a major source of jobs in this field, accounting for nearly 3 out of 5 jobs in 1984. Business firms that provide food services for hospital patients on a contract basis employ a small but growing number of dietitians and nutritionists. Colleges, universities, and school systems provide approximately 1 job in 10, as do child care or residential care facilities. Other jobs are found in a variety of settings, including prison systems, hotel and restaurant chains, and business firms that provide food service for their employees. Many dietitians work as consult ants, either full time or part time. In addition to serving on the staff of a hospital, for example, a dietitian may be a consultant for another health care facility. Nursing homes use consult ants to provide much of their dietitic supervision. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in foods and nutrition or institution man agement is the basic educational re quirement for this field. This degree can be earned in about 270 colleges and universities, usually in depart ments of home economics and food and nutrition sciences. Required col lege courses include food and nutri tion, institution management, chemis try, bacteriology, and physiology. Other important courses are mathe matics, statistics, computer science, psychology, sociology, and econom ics. It is also possible to prepare for this profession by receiving an ad vanced degree in nutrition, food ser vice management, or related sciences and providing evidence of qualifying work experience. To qualify for professional creden Hospital dietitians supervise the preparation of meals for patients on special diets. tials as a Registered Dietitian (R.D.), the American Dietetic Association (ADA) recommends completion of a coordinated undergraduate program which includes an internship; comple tion of a bachelor’s degree, plus an approved dietetic internship or 3 years of approved qualified experience; or 6 months of approved qualified experi ence plus an advanced degree. The internship lasts 6 to 12 months and combines clinical experience under a qualified dietitian with some class room work. In 1984, 104 internship program s were accredited by the ADA. Coordinated undergraduate programs enable students to complete their clinical experience requirement while obtaining their bachelor’s de gree. In 1984, 67 such programs were offered by medical schools and by departments of allied health and home economics in colleges and universi ties. These programs are accredited by the ADA. Experienced dietitians may advance to assistant or associate director or director of a dietetic department. Ad vancement to higher level positions in teaching and research requires gradu ate education; public health nutrition ists usually must earn a graduate de gree. Graduate study in institutional or business administration is valuable to those interested in administrative dietetics. Clinical specialization offers anoth er path to career advancement. As a result of scientific advances that have increased our understanding of the role of nutrition in treating disease, clinical specialization is on the rise. Specialty areas for clinical dietitions include cancer, heart disease, and di abetes. Persons who plan to become dieti tians or nutritionists should have or ganizational and administrative ability as well as scientific aptitude, and should be able to work well with peo ple. Among the courses recommend ed for high school students interested in careers as dietitians are home eco nomics, business administration, biol ogy, health, mathematics, and chem istry. Job Outlook Employment of dietitians is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s to meet the expanding needs for individ ual and group meals in nursing homes, hospitals, retirem ent and life care communities, and social service pro grams of various kinds. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace experienced work 160/Occupational Outlook Handbook ers who stop working or transfer to other occupations. A number of expe rienced dietitians and nutritionists are moving into management positions in private industry, for example. The factors that underlie future growth in demand for health serv ices—population growth and aging, emphasis on health education and promotion of prudent lifestyles, and widespread ability to pay for care through public and private health in surance—will spur demand for dieti tians and nutritionists. Demand is also expected to grow in commercial set tings, including catering firms, restau rant chains, and medical supply firms. In addition, dietitians and nutritionists will be needed to staff community health programs, to provide nutrition al counseling for employer-sponsored wellness and fitness programs, and to conduct research in food and nutri tion. Staffing flexibility can be facilitated by using full-time and part-time staff. For this reason, opportunities for part-time employment should remain favorable. Earnings Entry level salaries of hospital dieti tians averaged $18,980 a year in 1984, according to a national survey con ducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Many experienced hospital dietitians earned more than $28,000 a year. The starting salary in the Federal Government for those with a bache lor’s degree was about $14,390 in 1984. The average Federal salary for dietitians was about $27,800 in 1984. Dietitians usually receive benefits such as paid vacations, sick leave, holidays, health insurance, and retire ment benefits. Related Occupations Dietitians and nutritionists apply the principles of nutrition in a variety of situations. Other workers with similar duties include food and home econo mists, executive chefs, and food ser vice managers. Sources of Additional Information For information on accredited dietetic internship and coordinated undergrad uate programs, scholarships, registra tion, and a list of colleges providing training for a professional career in contact: dietetics, The American Dietetic Association, 430 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 1 1 60611. 1. The U.S. Office of Personnel Man agement, Washington, D.C. 20415, has information on hiring require ments for dietitians in Federal hospi tals and for public health nutritionists and dietitians in the U .S. Public Health Service. The Veterans Administration em ploys dietitians and maintains a list of eligible applicants. Graduates inter ested in VA positions may obtain ap plication forms by calling, toll free, 800-368-6008. Residents of Virginia should call 800-552-3045. Those inter ested in a VA career as a dietitian are encouraged to visit the personnel of fice of any VA medical center. Occupational Therapists (D.O.T. 076.121-010) Nature of the Work Occupational therapists treat people of all ages who are mentally, physical ly, developmentally, or emotionally disabled. Therapists provide their pa tients with specialized activities which aid them in mastering the skills neces sary to perform daily tasks at home, at work, at school, and in the communi ty. For those with a disability, being able to perform a daily activity such as getting dressed without assistance is an important step toward a life that is as independent, productive, and satisfying as possible. Like other health professionals, oc cupational therapists usually work as a member of a team which may in clude a physician, nurse, physical therapist, psychologist, rehabilitation counselor, and social worker. Team members evaluate the patient in terms of their individual specialties and con sult with each other to arrive at an overall assessment of the patient’s capacities, skills, and abilities. To gether they develop goals that meet the patient’s needs, and decide what treatment methods to use. Various activities^ are used as ther apy tools. They are designed to pre pare patients to return to work, devel op or restore basic functions, and aid in adjustment to disabilities. When working with children, occupational therapists often use toys and games to teach a variety of skills. With other patients, occupational therapists use activities of daily living such as meal preparation, bathing, and dressing, which patients practice in clinic areas set up as kitchens and bathrooms. Woodworking, leatherwork, or other therapeutic activities are used to in crease motor skills, strength, endur ance, concentration, and motivation as preparation for applying these skills to the tasks of daily life. Occupational therapists often work with patients who have lost basic functional skills such as unaided movement of their limbs. Loss of mo tor skills and coordination may result from spinal cord injury, for example, or be associated with a chronic dis ease such as m uscular dystrophy. Therapists provide individuals with adaptive equipment such as wheel chairs, splints, and aids for eating and dressing. They may design and make special equipment for disabled pa tients and recommend changes in the home or work environment to facili tate functioning. C om puter-aided adaptive equip ment offers the prospect of indepen dence to some severely disabled per sons. Examples are devices that would allow paraplegic and quadriplegic pa tients to communicate while confined to a wheelchair or bed, and micropro cessors designed to help paraplegics walk. As such devices move out of the research and development stage, oc cupational therapists will be involved in helping patients learn to use them. Occupational therapists in mental health settings treat individuals who may be mentally ill, mentally retard ed, or emotionally disturbed. Among the emotional disorders that occupa tional therapists encounter are alco holism, drug abuse, depression, eat ing disorders, and stress-related disor ders. The occupational therapist’s goal is to provide the patient with the functional as well as cognitive, social, and organizational skills necessary to develop a healthier lifestyle. Thera pists provide individual and group ac tivities to help people learn to cope with the daily stresses of life and to manage their work and leisure more efficiently. These activities may in clude crafts that require planning and time management skills, budgeting, shopping, meal preparation and home making, self-care, and using commu nity resources such as public trans portation and service agencies. Although they are not necessarily Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/161 expert in all these activities, occupa tional therapists must know enough about them to understand their thera peutic values and to set them into motion. O ccupational therapists tend to work with specific disability or age groups. For instance, approximately 3 out of 5 occupational therapists work principally with persons who have physical disabilities; the rest work with patients who have psychological, emotional, or developmental prob lems. Some work only with children and young adults; others work exclu sively with the elderly. Besides working with patients, oc cupational therapists may supervise student therapists, occupational ther apy assistants, volunteers, and auxil iary nursing workers. The chief occu pational therapist in a hospital may teach medical and nursing students the principles of occupational thera py. Many therapists supervise occu pational therapy departments, coordi nate patient activities, or are consult ants to public health departments and mental health agencies. Some teach or conduct research in colleges and uni versities. Keeping notes is an important part of an occupational therapist’s job. Some of the records for which an occupational therapist may be respon sible include an initial evaluation, progress notes, reports to the physi cian, special internal staff notes, Medi care records, and discharge notes. Working Conditions Although occupational therapists gen erally work a standard 40-hour week, they may occasionally have to work evenings or weekends. Their work environment varies according to the setting and available facilities. In a large rehabilitation center, for exam ple, the therapist may work in a spa cious room equipped with machines, handtools, and other devices that of ten generate noise. In a nursing home, the therapist may work in a kitchen when using food preparation as ther apy. In a hospital, therapists may work directly with patients in the ward. W herever they work and what ever equipment they use, they gener ally have adequate lighting and venti lation. The job can be physically tiring because therapists are on their feet much of the time. Employment Occupational therapists held more than 25,000 jobs in 1984. The largest number of jobs were in hospitals, in cluding a substantial number in reha bilitation and psychiatric hospitals. Employment of occupational thera pists in school systems rose sharply in response to requirements established by the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975. Today, large numbers of therapists work in school systems and schools for handicapped children. Other major employers in clude nursing homes, home health agencies, community mental health centers, adult day care programs, out patient clinics, and residential care facilities. A small but rapidly growing number of occupational therapists are in pri vate practice. Some are solo practi tioners, while others are in multi specialty group practices or consult ing firms. They typically see patients referred to them by physicians or oth er health professionals. Private practitioners also provide occupational therapy services on a contract or consultant basis. Largely because of incentives in the health care financing system, much of the occupational therapy furnished in nursing homes, adult day care pro grams, and home health agencies is provided by contract rather than by staff therapists. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Preparation for this field requires a bachelor’s degree in occupational therapy. Twenty-nine States and the District of Columbia require a license to practice occupational therapy. Ap plicants for a license must have a degree or certificate from an accredit ed educational program and pass the American Occupational Therapy As sociation’s certification examination. Certification is available by exami nation through the American Occupa tional Therapy Association, which awards the title of registered occupa tional therapist (OTR) to qualified ap plicants. In 1984, entry Jevel education was offered in 62 bachelor’s degree pro grams, 11 postbaccalaureate certifi cate programs for students with a de gree other than occupational therapy, and 36 m aster’s degree programs. Coursework in occupational thera py programs includes physical, bio- Occupational therapists help patients re gain manual dexterity and coordination. logical, and behavioral sciences and the application of occupational thera py theory and skills. These programs also require students to work for 6 to 9 months in hospitals, health agen cies, or schools to gain experience in clinical practice. Entry to educational programs is highly competitive, and applicants are screened carefully. Persons consider ing this profession should have aboveaverage academic performance and grades of “ B ” or better in biology, chemistry, and other high school sci ence courses. In addition to biology and chemistry, high school students interested in a career as an occupa tional therapist are advised to take courses in health, art, and the social sciences. In choosing among appli cants, many educational programs weigh heavily any previous job expe rience in a health care setting. College students who consider transferring from another academic discipline to an occupational therapy program in their sophomore or junior year need superior grades because competition for entrance to programs is more in tense after the freshman year. Persons considering this career must be able to work with people of all ages, temperaments, and personal ities. To gain patients’ confidence, it is necessary to have a warm, friendly personality that inspires both trust and respect. It is also necessary to have ingenuity and imagination in adapting activities to individual needs. The potential therapist also needs to 162/Occupational Outlook Handbook be skilled, patient, and resourceful in teaching, since patients often have difficult learning problems. Newly graduated occupational ther apists generally begin as staff thera pists. Advancement is chiefly to su pervisory or administrative positions; some therapists pursue advanced ed ucation to teach or conduct research. Job Outlook Employment in this occupation is ex pected to increase much faster than the av erag e for all o c c u p atio n s through the mid-1990’s due to antici pated demand in the areas of rehabil itation, mental health, and long-term care. The number of people who need re h a b ilita tiv e s e rv ic e s w ill rise through 1995. Advances in medical technology will continue to save young lives that only a few years ago would have been lost—children with birth defects, for example, and acci dent victims, a disproportionate num ber of whom are teenagers and young adults. M oreover, as the baby-boom generation begins to move into middle age, a period of increased risk of heart disease and stroke, demand for cardi ac rehabilitation programs is expected to rise. Finally, substantial growth is projected for the population 85 years of age and above, an age group that suffers a very high incidence of dis abling conditions. Demand for occupational therapists will be affected in the years ahead by changes in the way health care is delivered and paid for. Perhaps the foremost consequence of current and anticipated changes in the payment system is a redefinition of the role of the hospital. In the future, more health services will be delivered on an out patient basis. This will affect occupa tional therapy as well as other health professions. Occupational therapists in general hospitals will provide their services on a more intensive basis since pa tients will be hospitalized for shorter periods, and therapists will be less likely than in the past to see a patient through the entire course of treat ment. Instead, they will refer patients for further care to occupational ther apists in rehabilitation facilities, nurs ing homes, and home health agencies. Not surprisingly, hospitals are expect ed to provide relatively few of the new jobs for occupational therapists over Digitized forthe next decade. Hospitals, nonethe FRASER less, are likely to remain the largest single employer of occupational ther apists, and turnover alone will create numerous openings. Restructuring of the health industry is likely to create more jobs for occu pational therapists in private practice. Private practitioners often work on a contract basis and treat patients in a wide variety of settings, including hospitals, nursing homes, rehabilita tion centers, adult day care programs, and at home. The home is emerging as an increas ingly important practice site, not only because of changes in the way treat ment is provided in hospitals, but be cause of the prevalence of functional disabilities among older persons, plus consumer preference for health care in home or community-based settings. The home health field is expected to experience spectacular growth by the mid-1990’s, and should provide excel lent opportunities for occupational therapists. Job prospects in occupational ther apy are expected to be excellent through the mid-1990’s. Enrollments in occupational therapy program s have leveled off in recent years, pri marily because programs are operat ing at capacity. Barring a significant expansion in the number or size of educational programs, the number of graduates is projected to fall short of job openings due to em ploym ent growth and replacement needs. Earnings Beginning salaries for occupational therapists in hospitals averaged about $18,900 a year in 1984, according to a national survey conducted by the Uni versity of Texas Medical Branch. Ex perienced occupational therapists earned between $21,300 and $25,700; some administrators earned as much as $33,000. In 1985, the starting salary for ther apists employed by the Federal Gov ernment, most of whom worked for the V eterans Adm inistration, was $17,824 a year. The average salary paid occupational therapists with the F e d e ra l G o v ern m en t w as a b o u t $24,000 in 1984. Related Occupations Occupational therapists use special ized knowledge to help patients return to their normal activities and achieve maximum independence. Other work ers performing similar duties include orthotists, prosthetists, physical ther apists, speech pathologists and audi ologists, rehabilitation counselors, recreational therapists, art therapists, music therapists, and dance thera pists. Sources of Additional Information For more information on occupational therapy as a career, a list of education programs, and requirements for certi fication, write to: American Occupational Therapy Association, 1383 Piccard Dr., Rockville, Md. 20850. Pharmacists (D .O .T. 074.161-010 and -014) Nature of the Work The complexity and potential side ef fects of the thousands of drugs on the market have caused health profes sionals and the public alike to rely increasingly on the special knowledge of the pharmacist. In addition to pro viding information about drugs and drug treatm ents, pharm acists dispense drugs and medicines prescribed by physicians, podiatrists, and dentists. Pharmacists must understand the use, composition, and effect of drugs and how they are tested for purity and strength. They may maintain patient medication profiles and advise physi cians on the proper selection and use of medicines. Compounding—the ac tual mixing of ingredients to form powders, tablets, capsules, ointments, and solutions—is now only a small but important part of a pharm acist’s prac tice, since most medicines are pro duced by manufacturers in the dose and form used by the patient. Pharmacists practicing in communi ty pharmacies may have other duties. Besides dispensing medicines, some pharmacists buy and sell nonhealthrelated merchandise, hire and super vise personnel, and oversee the gen eral operation of the pharmacy. Other pharm acists, how ever, practice in community pharmacies that dispense only medicines, medical supplies, and health accessories. Increasingly, phar macists give advice about and provide home health care supplies. Pharmacists in hospitals and clinics dispense inpatient and outpatient pre scription medications and advise the medical staff on the selection and ef fects of drugs. They may make sterile solutions, buy medical supplies, teach Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/163 in health professions schools, and per form administrative duties. They also may be involved in patient education, monitoring of drug regimens, and drug use review. In addition, pharmacists work as consultants to the medical team on drug therapy and patient care in hospitals, nursing homes, and other health care facilities. Their role is cru cial to safe, efficient, and proper ther apeutic care. Some pharmacists prepare and dis pense radioactive pharm aceuticals. Called radiopharmacists or nuclear pharmacists, they apply the principles and p ra c tic e s o f p h a rm a cy and radiochemistry to produce radioactive drugs that are used for patient diagno sis and therapy. Working Conditions Pharmacists usually work in a clean, well-lighted, and well-ventilated area that resembles a small laboratory. Shelves are lined with hundreds of different drug products. In addition, some items are refrigerated and many controlled substances (narcotics, de pressants, and stimulants) are kept under lock and key. Pharm acists spend a lot of time on their feet. When working with potentially dangerous substances—such as certain antican cer drugs suspected of having long term side effects—pharmacists must take the proper safety precautions, such as wearing gloves and masks. Because pharmacies in many commu nities and hospitals are open around the clock, pharmacists in those set tings may have to work evenings, nights, weekends, and holidays. Employment Pharmacists held about 151,000 jobs in 1984. About a fifth of all pharmacists own their own businesses; the others hold salaried positions. As the accompany ing chart shows, most pharmacists practice in community pharmacies— independently owned or part of a chain. The rest practice in hospitals, pharmaceutical manufacturing com panies, wholesaling companies, and government and educational institu tions, for the most part. A growing number are employed in ambulatory care settings such as health mainte nance organizations (HMO’s), ambu latory surgery centers, and outpatient care centers. Pharmacy services in nursing homes generally are provided Hospital pharmacists prepare injections and intravenous solutions. on a consultant or contract basis rath er than by staff pharmacists. Pharmacists employed by the Fed eral Government work chiefly in hos pitals and clinics of the Veterans Ad m inistration and the U .S. Public Health Service. Other Federal agen cies that employ pharm acists—for their drug knowledge, as well as to dispense drugs—include the Depart ment of Defense, the Food and Drug Administration and other branches of the Department of Health and Human Services, and the Drug Enforcement Administration. State and local health agencies and pharmaceutical and oth er professional associations also em ploy pharmacists. Some pharmacists hold more than one job. They may work a standard week in their primary work setting and work several hours a week in a secondary setting, as a consultant to a nursing home or clinic, for example. Pharmacy also offers opportunities for part-time employment; about 1 phar macist in 8 works part time. Most towns have at least one pharmacy with one pharmacist or more in atten dance. Most pharmacists, however, practice in or near cities and in those States that have the largest popula tions. All States require a licensed pharmacist to be in attendance during pharmacy hours. Self-employed phar macists usually work more hours per week than those in salaried positions because of the additional responsibil ity of managing a business. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license to practice pharmacy is re quired in all States, the District of Columbia, and U.S. territories. To obtain a license, one must graduate from an accredited pharmacy program (a few States allow graduation from certain foreign pharmacy programs), pass a State board examination, be over 21, demonstrate good character, and—in all States—have a specified amount of practical experience or serve an internship under the supervi sion of a licensed pharmacist. Intern ships generally are served in a com munity or hospital pharmacy. In 1984, all States except California, Florida, and Hawaii granted a license without reexamination to qualified pharma cists already licensed by another State. Many pharmacists are licensed to practice in more than one State. Many States require continuing edu cation for license renewal. At least 5 years of study beyond high school are required to graduate from program s accredited by the American Council on Pharmaceutical Education in the 72 colleges of phar macy. Five years are needed to obtain a Bachelor of Science (B.S.) or a Bachelor of Pharmacy (B.Pharm.) de gree, the degrees received by most graduates. A Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.) degree normally requires 6 years during which an intervening baccalaureate degree is not awarded. Students who already hold the bacca- 164/Occupational Outlook Handbook laureate degree may be admitted to Pharm.D. program s, but the com bined period of study is usually longer than 6 years. Most pharmacy schools offer the baccalaureate degree, and over one-third also offer the profes sional doctorate degree; seven schools offer only the latter. The Pharm.D. degree as well as the B .S. and B.Pharm. degrees may serve as the entry degree for licensure as a phar macist. Admission requirements vary. A few colleges admit students directly from high school. Most colleges of pharmacy, however, require entrants to have completed 1 or 2 years of prepharmacy education in an accred ited junior college, college, or univer sity. A prepharmacy curriculum usu ally emphasizes mathematics and ba sic sciences, such as chem istry, biology, and physics, but also in cludes courses in the humanities, so cial sciences, and business adminis tration. Because entry requirements vary among colleges of pharmacy, prepharm acy students should ac quaint themselves with the require ments of the school they wish to at tend. The bachelor’s degree in pharmacy is the minimum educational qualifica tion for most positions in the profes sion. An increasing number of stu dents are enrolled in advanced profes sio n a l p ro g ra m s le a d in g to th e Pharm.D. degree. The Pharm.D. de gree is increasingly required for clini cal pharmacy work. A m aster’s or Digitized for Ph.D. degree in pharmacy or a related FRASER field usually is required for research work, and a Pharm.D., m aster’s, or Ph.D. usually is necessary for admin istrative work or college teaching. At least 55 colleges of pharmacy offer the M aster of Science degree and at least 48 offer the Ph.D. degree. Although a number of pharmacy graduates inter ested in further training pursue an advanced degree in pharmacy, there are other options. Some enter 1- or 2-year residency programs in hospital or clinical pharmacy. Others go to medical, dental, or law school, or pur sue graduate degrees in related disci plines. A reas of special study include pharm aceutics and pharm aceutical chem istry (physical and chem ical properties of drugs and dosage forms), pharmacology (effects of drugs on the body), pharmacognosy (drugs derived from plant or animal sources), hospi tal pharmacy, clinical pharmacy, and pharm acy adm inistration. Clinical pharmacy is the application of basic and pharmaceutical science education and the use of this knowledge to solve drug management problems in the care of institutionalized patients. Courses in pharmacy administration are particularly helpful to pharmacists who become executives or managers. All colleges of pharm acy offer courses in pharmacy practice, de signed to teach students the skills in volved in compounding and dispens ing prescriptions, and to strengthen their understanding of professional ethics and responsibilities. In many cases, professional training increas ingly emphasizes direct patient care as well as consultative services to other health professionals. Colleges of pharmacy are offering a growing number of courses that in struct students in the use of comput ers in the pharm acy. Increasingly, pharmacists use computers to file and record prescriptions. Some use them for patient medication profiles, so that they can alert patients and their phy sicians of potential problems, such as drug interactions. Computers are also used for inventory control, billing, and other administrative and clerical tasks. P h a rm a c e u tic a l m a n u fa c tu re rs, chain drug stores, State and national pharm acy associations, colleges of pharm acy, and other organizations award scholarships annually to stu dents studying full time toward a de gree in pharmacy. P rospective p harm acists should have business sense and the ability to gain the confidence of clients and pa tients. H onesty, integrity, orderli ness, and accuracy are important at tributes. Pharmacists often begin as employ ees in community pharmacies. After they gain experience and secure the necessary capital, they may become owners or part owners of pharmacies. A pharmacist with experience in a chain drug store may advance to a managerial position, and later to a higher executive position within the company. Hospital pharmacists who have the necessary training and expe rience may advance to director of pharmacy service or to other admin istrative positions. Pharmacists in in dustry often have opportunities for advancement in management, sales, research, quality control, advertising, production, packaging, and other ar eas. Some individuals put their pharma ceutical training to work in related fields. For example, pharmacists are hired as sales or medical service rep resentatives by pharm aceutical manu facturers and wholesalers. They pro vide medicines to community pharm a cies and to hospitals and inform health personnel about new drugs. Other pharmacists teach in colleges of phar macy, supervise the manufacture of pharmaceuticals, or are involved in research and the development of new medicines. Pharmacists also edit or write technical articles for pharma ceutical journals. Some combine phar Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/165 maceutical and legal training in jobs as patent lawyers or consultants on phar maceutical and drug laws. for example, report difficulty attract ing and retaining pharmacists. Earnings Job Outlook Employment of pharmacists is ex pected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. This reflects the fact that most jobs for pharmacists are found in drug stores or hospitals, in dustry sectors that are expected to experience slower growth than in the past. Nevertheless, the growth and aging of the population will create some new jobs. The projected in crease in the elderly population is especially important, for the number of prescriptions influences demand for pharmacists, and the elderly are rela tively heavy users of medicine. Other factors likely to increase de mand for pharm acists through the mid-1990’s include the likelihood of scientific advances that will make more drug products available for the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases; new developments in ad ministering medication, such as skin patches and implantable pumps; wellinformed consumers, increasingly so phisticated about health care and avid for detailed information about drugs and their consequences; and the wide spread availability of health insur ance, which generally pays for pre scription drugs. Health maintenance organizations and other facilities in the rapidly ex panding outpatient care sector should offer good employment opportunities for pharmacists, but it is important to bear in mind that such facilities ac count for a very small share of jobs in this field. As in most other occupations, the majority of job openings will result from the need to replace pharmacists who leave the profession. In pharma cy, this generally means retirement, for pharmacists, like physicians and dentists, tend to remain in the field until they retire. Relatively few trans fer to other lines of work. The job outlook for pharmacists is expected to be good; a rough balance between supply and demand is antic ipated through the mid-1990’s. More over, if enrollments in pharmacy col leges decline while demand for phar macists continues to grow, shortages may develop in some communities or employment settings. Some hospitals, Salaries of pharmacists are generally influenced by the location, size, and type of employer, as well as the duties and responsibilities of the position. Median annual earnings of full-time, salaried pharm acists w ere about $29,600 in 1984; the middle 50 percent earned between $24,200 and $36,200. Ten percent earned less than $16,600 and 10 percent more than $41,900. Pharmacists working in chain drug stores had an average base salary of $32,200 per year, while pharmacists working in independent drug stores averaged $28,200, according to a sur vey by Drug Topics magazine. In gen eral, the highest salaries were paid on the West Coast. The average starting salary for phar macists working in hospitals, medical schools, and medical centers was about $24,700 a year in 1984, accord ing to a national survey by the Uni versity of Texas Medical Branch; ex p e rie n c e d p h a rm a c is ts in th e s e workplaces averaged about $31,600 a year. Pharmacists who do consulting work in addition to their primary job may have total earnings considerably higher than this. Experienced phar macists, particularly owners or man agers of pharmacies, often earn con siderably more. The minimum entrance salary in the Federal Government for a new gradu ate with a bachelor’s degree from an approved pharmacy degree program was about $17,800 a year in 1985. However, most graduates qualified for a beginning salary of about $21,800 a year; those with 2 years of graduate work, about $26,400 a year. Pharma cists with additional years of experi ence may start at a higher salary. The average salary for all federally em ployed pharmacists was about $29,200 in 1984. According to a survey conducted by the American Association of Col leges of Pharmacy, average annual salaries of full-time personnel in col leges of pharmacy during 1984 were as follows: Deans, about $62,800; assist ant and a s so c ia te d e a n s, a b o u t $47,100; full p ro fe sso rs, around $49,400; associate professors, around $38,300; assistant professors, about $31,100; and in stru cto rs, around $26,500. With the proliferation of chain drug stores, the increasing difficulty of owning a pharmacy, and reductions in hospital budgets, some pharmacists have joined unions. The main unions organizing pharmacists are the United Food and Commercial Workers Inter national Union, Local 1199—Drug, Hospital, and Health Care Workers, an affiliate of the Retail, Wholesale and Department Store Union, and the National Union of Hospital and Health Care Employees. Related Occupations Pharmacists dispense the prescription orders of physicians, dentists, and other health practitioners and are re sponsible for selecting, compounding, dispensing, and preserving drugs and medicines. Workers in other profes sions requiring similar educational training and who work with pharma ceutical compounds or perform relat ed duties include pharmaceutical sci entists, pharmaceutical chemists, and pharmacologists. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on pharmacy as a career, preprofessional and pro fessional requirements, programs of fered by all the colleges of pharmacy, and student financial aid is available from: American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy, 4720 Montgomery Lane, Suite 602, Bethesda, Md. 20814. General information on pharmacy is available from: American Pharmaceutical Association, 2215 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20037. General information on indepen dent retail pharmacies is available from: National Association of Retail Druggists, 205 Daingerfield Road, Alexandria, Va. 22314. General information on the chain drug store industry is available from: National Association of Chain Drug Stores, Inc., 413 N. Lee St., P.O. Box 1417-D49, Alexandria, Va. 22313. Inform ation concerning hospital pharmacy can be obtained from: American Society of Hospital Pharmacists, 4630 Montgomery Avenue, Bethesda, Md. 20814. For a list of accredited colleges of pharmacy, contact: American Council on Pharmaceutical Educa tion, 311 West Superior St., Chicago, 11 . 60610. 1 Information on requirem ents for licensure in a particular State is avail able from the Board of Pharmacy of the State or from: 166/Occupational Outlook Handbook National Association of Boards of Pharmacy, O’Hare Corporate Center, 1300 Higgins Rd., Suite 103, Park Ridge, 1 1 60068. 1. Information on specific college en trance requirements, curriculums, and financial aid is available from the dean of any college of pharmacy. Physical Therapists (D .O .T. 076.121-014) Nature of the Work Physical therapists plan, organize, and administer treatment in order to restore functional mobility, relieve pain, and prevent or limit permanent disability for those suffering from a disabling injury or disease. Their pa tients include accident victims, hand icapped children, and stroke victims. Physical therapy also is used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis, cere bral palsy, nerve injuries, amputa tions, fractures, arthritis, heart dis ease, and other conditions. Therapists may treat patients with a wide variety of problems, or they may specialize in pediatrics, geriatrics, or thopedics, sports medicine, neurolo gy, or cardiopulmonary diseases. Initially, physical therapists review and evaluate the patient’s condition and medical records, perform tests or measurements, and interpret the find ings. Then they develop a treatment plan in cooperation with the patient’s physician. The goal is to help patients attain maximum functional indepen dence, muscle strength, and physical skills and, at the same time, adapt to what may be a drastic change in phys ical abilities. Patients often are suffer ing emotional as well as physical stress, and treatment requires sensi tivity in addition to technical profi ciency on the part of the therapist. Since treatments may be prolonged, the full cooperation of the patient is very important. As a first step., there fore, physical therapists familiarize themselves with patients’ personal backgrounds, as well as with their medical histories, and make an effort to gain their trust and confidence. The therapist-patient relationship can be highly important in determining the effectiveness of the treatment. Therapeutic procedures include ex ercise for increasing strength, endur ance, coordination, and range of mo tion; electrical stimulation to activate paralyzed muscles; instruction in car rying out everyday activities and in the use of assistive devices; and the application of massage, heat, cold, light, water, electricity, or ultrasound to relieve pain or improve the condi tion of muscles and skin. To carry out these procedures, therapists must have detailed knowledge of human anatomy and physiology and know what steps may be taken to treat the effects of disease and injury. Treatment can be more effective and progress faster if patients and their families understand the purpose and plan and know just how they can help. Physical therapy services in clude instructing patients and their families in how to carry on prescribed treatm ent programs at home. They may need specific instruction in the techniques of muscle contraction and relaxation or in the care and use of braces or prosthetic appliances. As they treat their patients, physi cal therapists continually monitor and assess them, in order to identify prob lems and evaluate progress. This helps them decide whether to modify the treatm ent plan, to end treatm ent, or to continue as before. Physical thera pists may provide the treatm ent per sonally or supervise the work of an other therapist or a physical therapist assistant. Physical therapists keep a variety of notes and records, including initial evaluations, daily progress notes, phy sician reports, internal staff notes, in terdisciplinary conference notes, and discharge notes. Documentation must be maintained to track the patient’s progress and to identify areas requir ing more or less attention in subse quent treatm ent visits. Records are also kept for legal purposes; physical therapists are legally responsible for their actions whenever they evaluate a patient, plan a physical therapy pro gram, and carry it out. Finally, accu rate records are needed for reimburse ment purposes to justify the cost of each treatm ent billed. Working Conditions The working environment of physical th e ra p is ts v a rie s from sp e cia lly equipped physical therapy depart ments of hospitals or clinics to private homes where furniture may need to be moved to provide room for treatment. Thus, a physical therapist must be adaptable. Evening and weekend hours may be required, especially for those in pri vate practice, who must be available at times convenient for their patients. The job can be physically demanding. In addition to standing for long peri ods, therapists must move equipment and help patients turn, stand, or walk. Employment Gaining a patient’s confidence is an important part of a physical therapist’s job. Physical therapists held about 58,000 jobs in 1984. Some jobs are part time. Hospitals are the largest single em- Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/167 ployer of physical therapists, provid ing 2 out of 5 jobs in 1984. Many other jobs in this field are in rehabilitation facilities, home health agencies, and nursing homes. These may be either staff or contract positions. Therapists also work in residential facilities for handicapped children, school sys tems, clinics, health maintenance or ganizations, and physicians’ offices. A substantial number of physical therapists are in private practice. (See chart.) W hether in solo practice, group practice, or associated with a rehabil itation consulting firm, private practi tioners normally treat clients referred to them by physicians. (In some States, physical therapists treat cli ents who come directly to them with out a physician referral.) Private prac titioners also provide physical therapy services on a contract or consultant basis. Their clients are institutions or organizations such as nursing homes, home health agencies, adult day care programs, and hospitals. Some therapists teach, conduct re search, or serve as consultants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States, the District of Columbia, and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico require a license to practice physical therapy. Applicants must have a degree or certificate from an accredited physical therapy educa tional program prior to taking the licensure examination. Three different types of programs provide educational preparation for entry level jobs in this field: Bache lor’s degree program s in physical therapy; certificate (or second bache lor’s degree) programs for those who already hold a bachelor’s in another field, such as biology; and entry level m aster’s degree programs in physical therapy. In 1985, entry level training was offered in 89 bachelor’s degree pro grams, 5 certificate programs, and 13 m aster’s degree programs. One of the m aster’s degree programs is spon sored jointly by the U.S. Army and Baylor University; graduates are com missioned as officers in the Army. Efforts are underway to raise entry level educational requirements from the bachelor’s to the m aster’s degree level. More than half of the programs currently offering bachelor’s degrees expect to have a m aster’s degree pro gram in place by 1990. The majority of physical therapists work in nonhospital settings. Percent employed by work setting, 1984 0 Hospitals 10 20 30 40 50 — Private practice l Rehabilitation centers Home health agencies XllliiSifi iilSSIlSI Nursing homes School systems Other SOURCE: American Physical Therapy Association The physical therapy curriculum in cludes science courses such as anato my, physiology, neuroanatomy, and neurophysiology; it also includes spe cialized courses such as biomechan ics, human growth and development, manifestations of disease and trauma, and courses in specific therapeutic procedures. Besides receiving class room instruction, students get super vised clinical experience administer ing physical therapy to patients in hospitals and other treatment centers. Competition for entry to physical therapy programs is keen. Conse quently, students interested in enroll ing in a physical therapy program must attain superior grades in their earlier studies, especially in science courses. High school courses that are useful include health, biology, chem istry, social science, mathematics, and physics. Personal traits that physical thera pists need include patience, tact, re sourcefulness, and emotional stability to help patients and their families un derstand the treatments and adjust to their handicaps. Physical therapists also should have manual dexterity and physical stamina. Many persons who want to determine whether they have the personal qualities needed for this occupation volunteer for summer or part-time work in the physical therapy department of a hospital or clinic. Indeed, such experience is required for admission to most education pro grams. A graduate degree combined with clinical experience increases opportu nities for advancement, especially to teaching, research, and administrative positions. Job Outlook Employment of physical therapists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s because of anticipated growth in the areas of rehabilitation and long-term care. Many additional openings will result from replacement needs. Most new positions for physical therapists will result from the expan sion of services for people with phys ical disabilities—a highly diverse group. It includes the elderly, whose number will rise sharply by 1995. Es pecially rapid growth is projected for the population age 85 and above, a group that suffers a high incidence of disabling conditions such as arthritis or stroke. Also, some surgical proce dures are more common among elder ly patients. Anticipated growth in hip replacements, knee replacements, and other surgical procedures used to treat diseased or arthritic joints, as well as other conditions, will heighten demand for postoperative physical therapy. Only part of the growth in the num ber of persons requiring rehabilitation services will stem from the elderly population. As the baby-boom gener ation moves into middle age, a period of increased risk of heart disease and stroke, demand for cardiac rehabilita tion programs is expected to rise. Young persons, too, may need physi 168/Occupational Outlook Handbook cal therapy. Advances in medical technology have saved lives that only a few years ago would have been lost: Children with severe birth defects, for example, and car crash victims, a dis proportionate number of whom are teenagers and young adults. Future biomedical developments are certain to permit even more people to survive traumas that in the past would have been fatal, thereby creating a need for rehabilitative care. Other factors likely to spur demand for physical therapy services include the growing importance of sports med icine and widespread interest in health promotion. As more people engage in regular exercise programs, the num ber of injuries that require physical therapy treatm ent will grow as well. Among the health promotion and dis ease prevention programs that are gaining in popularity are those de signed to prevent or treat osteoporosis (a degenerative bone disease) and low back pain. These call upon the exper tise of the physical therapist. Demand for physical therapists will be affected in the years ahead by changes in the way health care is delivered and paid for. Perhaps the forem ost consequence of the new payment system is a redefinition of the role of the hospital. In the future, more and more health services will be delivered on an outpatient basis. Phys ical therapists in general hospitals will be expected to provide their services on a more intensive basis since pa tients will be hospitalized for shorter periods, and they will be less likely than in the past to see a patient through the entire course of treat ment. Instead, they will refer patients for further care by physical therapists in rehabilitation facilities, nursing homes, and home health agencies. Not surprisingly, hospitals are expect ed to provide fewer new jobs for phys ical therapists than they did in the past. Hospitals, nonetheless, will re main a major employer of physical therapists, and turnover alone will create many openings. Restructuring of the health industry is likely to create additional opportu nities for physical therapists in private practice; favorable third-party reim bursement policies will contribute to the very rapid growth anticipated in this area. Home health is an increasingly im portant area of practice, not only be Digitized forcause of changes in the way treatment FRASER is provided in hospitals, but because of the prevalence of functional disabil ities among older persons, plus con sumer preference for health care in home or community-based settings. The home health field is expected to experience spectacular growth by the mid-1990’s, and should provide excel lent opportunities for physical thera pists. Job prospects in physical therapy should continue to be ex cellen t through the mid-1990’s. New gradu ates are in great demand, and the number of people completing training programs is expected to fall short of that needed to fill job openings. Total enrollments in accredited physical therapy programs have remained rel atively stable since the mid-1970’s. If program completions remain at cur rent levels while demand for rehabili tation services continues to grow, prospects for jobseekers may become even more favorable than they are today. Earnings Starting salaries in hospitals for new physical therapy graduates averaged about $19,600 a year in 1984, accord ing to a national survey conducted by the U niversity of Texas M edical Branch. Beginning therapists employed by the Federal Government earned start ing salaries of $17,824 a year in 1985. The average salary paid therapists was about $24,600 annually; supervi sory therapists may earn more than $35,000. Physician Assistants (D .O .T . 079.364-018) _______ Nature of the Work The occupation of physician assistant (PA) cam e into being during the 1960’s, when physicians were in short supply. Additional education enabled medical corpsmen trained during the Vietnam conflict, as well as some nurses and others with patient-care experience, to relieve physicians of many essential but time-consuming tasks. PA’s interview patients, take medical histories, perform physical examinations, order laboratory tests, make tentative diagnoses, and pre scribe appropriate treatm ents. Studies show they have the ability to care for 8 out of 10 people who visit a family practitioner’s office in any one day. PA’s, however, always work under the direction of a licensed “ supervis ing p h y sic ia n .” A lternative titles sometimes used by these workers are MEDEX and physician associate. About half of all PA ’s assist physi cians in such specialty areas as pedi atrics and surgery. They perform rou tine procedures such as physical ex am inations, provide postoperative care, and assist during complicated medical procedures such as cardiac c a th e te riz a tio n s. T hese specialist PA’s include child health associates, o rth o p e d ic p h y s ic ia n a s s is ta n ts , urologic physician assistants, sur geon assistants, and emergency room physician assistants. Working Conditions Related Occupations Physical therapists are concerned with the treatment and rehabilitation of persons with physical or mental dis abilities or disorders. They may use exercise, massage, heat, water, elec tricity, and various therapeutic devic es to help their patients gain indepen dence. Others who do similar work include o c c u p a tio n a l th e ra p is ts , speech pathologists and audiologists, orthotists, prosthetists, respiratory therapists, chiropractors, and athletic trainers. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on a career as a physical therapist and a list of ac credited educational program s in physical therapy are available from: American Physical Therapy Association, 1111 North Fairfax St., Alexandria, Va. 22314. Physician assistants work in the same places as physicians. Hospitals, clin ics, and physicians’ offices usually provide a comfortable, well-lighted environment, although PA ’s must of ten stand for long periods and do considerable walking. The workweek and schedule vary according to the setting. Some emer gency room PA ’s work 24-hour shifts twice weekly, and others work three 12-hour shifts each week. The work week of PA ’s who work in physicians’ offices may include some night office hours or early morning hospital rounds to visit patients. PA ’s in clinics usual ly work a 5-day, 40-hour week. Employment Physician assistants held about 25,000 jobs in 1984. They most commonly work for physicians in private prac- Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/169 tice. However, hospitals employ an increasing proportion of PA’s—now about 20 percent. A small but growing number work for health maintenance organizations (HMO’s), other prepaid health plans, or clinics. Despite efforts to encourage physi cians to practice where they are need ed most, many rural areas and inner cities remain underserved. Almost 20 percent of all Americans live in coun ties with a population of less than 50,000, yet less than 10 percent of all active physicians practice in these ar eas. The PA’s who practice there— amounting to 40 percent of all PA’s— provide badly needed health care. Although most PA’s in medically underserved areas are associated with physicians in private practice, some work in clinics, where a physician may be available just 1 or 2 days each week. For the rest of the week, a PA working with one or more nurses, technicians, or medical assistants pro vides all health care services. PA’s in these clinics usually have quick tele phone access to a physician for con sultation. The Rural Health Clinics Service Act of 1977 helped promote this type of practice by making reim bursement by Medicare easier. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In the early years of the occupation, informal training was not uncommon, but today, nearly all States require that new PA ’s complete an approved program. Approximately 16,500 PA’s had completed such training programs by 1984. Fifty-two educational pro grams for primary care physician as sistants and three programs for sur geon assistants were approved by the Committee on Allied Health Educa tion and Accreditation (CAHEA) of the American Medical Association. Admission requirements vary, but 2 years of coursework at the college level in science or one of the health professions is usually the minimum requirement. About half of all appli cants hold a bachelor’s or m aster’s degree but fully one-third hold no for mal degree beyond high school. A background that includes “ hands on” health care experience is an im portant qualification for entry to these highly competitive programs. Most programs require applicants to have experience working directly with pa tients. Jobs that provide the requisite clinical experience range from medi Long-term job prospects for physician assistants are difficult to assess. cal technologist to registered nurse. The type of job is not particularly important; what counts is a back ground in direct patient contact. Educational programs are generally 2 years in length, although some are longer and a few are shorter. Most PA program s are located in m edical schools, schools of allied health, or 4-year colleges; a few are located in community colleges or are hospital based. Regardless of the institutional sponsorship, most accredited PA pro grams have clinical teaching affilia tions with medical schools or medical school faculty. PA education begins with a class room or didactic phase that lasts 6 to 24 months. Classroom instruction in cludes human anatomy, physiology, microbiology, clinical pharmacology, applied psychology, clinical medicine, and medical ethics. During the pro gram’s last 9 to 15 months, students do supervised clinical work designed to develop practitioners’ skills. Clini cal training begins with a series of clinical practice assignments or rota tions. These rotations include family practice, inpatient and ambulatory medicine, general surgery, obstetrics and gynecology, emergency medi cine, internal medicine, psychiatry, and pediatrics. Sometimes, one or more of the rotations are served under the “ preceptorship” or supervision of a physician who is seeking to hire a PA. This learning experience often leads to a permanent position. The number of PA programs that award a bachelor’s degree has been growing, and currently about twothirds of the programs do so. Most of the remaining programs offer a certif icate and/or associate degree; two lead to a m aster’s degree. M ED EX p ro g ram s, w hich last about 18 months, are slightly shorter than other PA programs. MEDEX programs are designed for people who have had extensive patient-care expe rience, usually as medical corpsmen or registered nurses. This background allows for a shorter period of class room training and increased emphasis on clinical experience. MEDEX stu dents usually gain most of their super vised clinical experience working with the physician who will hire them upon graduation. Postgraduate education for PA’s, termed the “ PA residency,” is a re cent developm ent. Residency pro grams, as yet unaccredited, are avail able in emergency medicine, general surgery, neonatology, and occupa tional medicine. State laws and regulations govern the use of the title “ physician assist ant” and the scope of PA practice in all but a few States. Most States re quire that PA’s be graduates of ac credited educational programs, and 39 States require that PA ’s be certified by the National Commission on Cer tification of Physician A ssistants, (NCCPA). NCCPA certification at tests to clinical knowledge; in 1984, about 13,000 PA’s had gained certifi cation. 170/Occupational Outlook Handbook The PA ’s scope of practice—the duties he or she may perform—is de termined in some States by the super vising physician and in others by the State’s regulatory agency. There is considerable variation in State laws and regulations, and changes com monly occur. Aspiring PA’s should investigate the laws and regulations where they wish to practice. Individuals planning a career as a physician assistant should be consci entious and willing to study a great deal throughout their career to keep up with m edical advances. They should exhibit leadership, self-conf idence, and emotional stability. A pleasant personality, patience, and the ability to deal with all kinds of people are essential. Formal lines of advancement have not evolved within this young profes sion. There are no head PA’s in hos pitals or nursing homes as there are head nurses; by the very nature of the profession, individual PA’s are super vised by physicians. Since a supervis ing physician shares responsibility for the quality of care rendered by the PA, this relationship must be a close one. Some PA ’s advance after additional education to practice in a specialty area such as emergency medicine; others advance with experience to added responsibilities and higher earn ings, although earnings generally level off within 7 or 8 years after gradua tion. Job Outlook Employment of PA ’s is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the mid1990’s. The occupation, though still small, has already experienced ex traordinary growth: The number of formally trained PA’s was fewer than 100 in 1970. Over the past decade, as the num ber of PA’s has grown, their role in delivering health care has expanded as well. In the early years, PA ’s worked mostly in physicians’ offices and rural clinics. Although many jobs for PA’s continue to be found in pri vate practice, particularly in family practice, PA’s work in a variety of settings. (See chart.) A trend toward practice in institu tions is taking hold. A growing num ber of PA’s provide care to medically underserved populations—prison in Digitized formates or residents of nursing homes FRASER and other long-term care institutions, for example. In addition, hospitals are an increasingly attractive workplace for PA’s. Hospitals hire PA’s to re place resident physicians and foreign medical graduates as the number of surgical residency programs is re duced and fewer foreign graduates enter the country. Followup data reveal that nearly all newly trained PA’s find work. New graduates may have to accept jobs in medically underserved areas, but they do not view this as a hardship. Most PA students report a preference to practice in a small city or town. Long-term prospects for PA’s are difficult to assess, largely because of unresolved issues in payment for their services. Restrictions on health insur ance, Medicare, and other kinds of third-party reimbursement for serv ices provided by PA’s is one of the most important questions clouding the profession’s future. Studies have es tablished that substituting PA’s for some physicians can lower costs with out reducing the quality of care. How ever, the majority of health insurance programs do not pay for services per formed solely by a PA. Uncertainty regarding payment makes some phy sicians reluctant to hire PA’s. Another unsettling factor is the di versity of State laws that regulate the kinds of services PA’s may perform. In some States, they have the author ity to make medical decisions and prescribe treatment without the im mediate supervision of a physician. In others, they are allowed to practice only where a licensed physician is present. Most States restrict the types of drugs a PA can prescribe, and some States prohibit PA’s from writing pre scriptions altogether. Furtherm ore, laws regarding PA practice are under review in some States, where propos als to expand their scope of practice have aroused the opposition of other health providers. Some physicians may be reluctant to hire PA’s without knowing what rules will govern their use in coming years. The now-plentiful supply of physi cians affects prospects for PA ’s. In the early 1960’s, the Federal Govern ment took steps to expand the number of g rad u a tes from U .S . m edical schools. Medical school enrollment has doubled in the past two decades, and the number of physicians in prac tice has risen sharply. Barring a major surge in demand for medical services, the increasingly abundant supply of physicians is expected to lower pa tient loads for physicians and possibly decrease the demand for PA’s in ur ban areas. Some developments could heighten rather than curtail demand for PA ’s. More doctors are locating in medical ly underserved areas, which could open up additional employment op portunities for PA ’s. The growing popularity of health maintenance or ganizations and other kinds of prepaid health plans is also likely to spur de mand. Such plans, which provide complete health care services to mem bers for a set annual charge, employ physican assistants, nurse-midwives, Physician assistants work in a variety of settings. D is trib u tio n o f e m p lo y m e n t, 1 9 8 4 P h ysic ia n s’ 1 / o ffice s 1 X 9% / O ther |— SOURCE: American Academy of Physician Assistants V -------- 1H ospitals 31 % 35% 25% / ___ | n iin io s Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/171 and nurse practitioners in place of some physicians. If HM O’s take on a significantly expanded role in health care, demand for PA’s would un doubtedly rise. The aging of the population could also affect employment of PA’s. Com pared to younger people, the elderly visit physicians more often, spend more money on medicine and drugs, and spend much more time in hospi tals. Resolution of the third-party re imbursement issue could lead to great er employment of PA’s by nursing homes and home health agencies that serve the elderly. Also affecting the outlook for PA’s are enrollments in PA training pro grams. In recent years, enrollments have leveled off. If enrollments re main stable while demand for PA’s continues to grow, job opportunities for these workers should be even more favorable. 1117 North 19th St., Suite 300, Arlington, Va. 22209. The Association’s publication enti tled National Directory o f Physician Assistant Programs lists educational programs and describes each pro gram’s accreditation status, admis sion procedures and requirements, and cost. Information on certification requirements is also given. Contact the Association for price and ordering information. For eligibility requirements and a description of the Physician Assistant N ational C ertifying Exam ination, write to: National Commission on Certification of Physi cian Assistants, Inc., 3384 Peachtree Rd. NE., Suite 560, Atlanta, Ga. 30326. Recreational Therapists (D.O.T. 076.124-014) Earnings In 1984, physician assistants starting work in hospitals and medical centers averaged about $20,500, according to a national survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Typically, the highest pay for PA’s in these settings was about $27,000, al though some earned as much as $39,000. The average salary of PA’s in all settings was about $27,500 in 1984. PA’s in HM O’s, hospitals, and physi cians’ offices earn slightly more than those in clinics. Veterans Administration hospitals started PA’s at about $17,800 a year in 1985. Average earnings for all federal ly employed PA ’s were about $26,400 in 1984. Related Occupations Other health workers who provide direct patient care that requires a sim ilar level of skill and training include nurse practitioners, physical thera pists, occupational therapists, and speech and hearing clinicians. Sources of Additional Information For more information about the pro fession, send for the brochure, Physi cian Assistant, available free from: American Academy of Physician Assistants, 1117 North 19th St., Suite 300, Arlington, Va. 22209. Information on individual PA train ing programs also is available from: Association of Physician Assistant Programs, Nature of the Work Recreational therapists provide serv ices to people who are mentally, phys ically, or emotionally disabled. These workers are also known as therapeu tic recreation specialists, a job title that draws attention to the fact that theirs is a health profession. The work of the recreational therapist should not be confused with that of the rec reation worker, who provides recre ational activities for the sole purpose of enjoyment. (See the statement on recreation workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Recreational therapists employ rec reational and leisure activities as a form of treatment—much as other practitioners use surgery, drugs, nu trition, exercise, or psychotherapy. Therapists strive to minimize patients’ symptoms and to improve their phys ical, mental, and emotional well-be ing. Enhancing the patient’s ability to function in everyday life is the pri mary goal of recreational therapy; en joyable and rewarding activities pro vide the means for working toward that goal. Activities employed by recreational therapists are as varied as the inter ests and abilities of the people they serve. They might, for example, orga nize athletic events, dances, arts and crafts or musical activities, atten dance at movies, field trips, or poetry readings. Apart from sheer enjoy ment, activities such as these provide opportunities for exercise and social participation. Other goals that the therapist might have in mind when planning an activity include relieving anxiety, building confidence, or pro moting independence. Recreational therapy is a relatively new field. Closely related to occupa tional therapy, it shares with that pro fession a view that activities that seem ordinary to most of us can put dis abled persons on the road to recov ery—or lead to improvement, at any rate. Together with the “ expressive” therapies—art, music, dram a, and dance—recreational therapy owes much to the discovery that soldiers suffering from battle fatigue, shock, and emotional trauma responded fa vorably to organized treatment pro grams. During World War II, for ex ample, the Veterans Administration (VA) organized medical recreational activities in VA hospitals. Recreational therapists are found in a variety of settings, including mental hospitals, psychiatric “ day hospi tals,” community mental health cen ters, nursing homes, adult day care programs, residential facilities for the mentally retarded, school systems, and prisons. They are often located in the activities department or therapy department of an organization. These departments are staffed by therapists and their assistants from several dis ciplines—occupational therapy, mu sic, dance, and art therapy, to name a few. Together with other health pro fessionals, they assess the patient’s functioning, develop a treatment plan, and monitor progress as the plan is carried out. Job responsibilities also include directing the support staff. At times, it is the therapeutic assistant who actually conducts recreational programs and spends the most time with the patients. The specifics of the recreational therapist’s job vary with the employ ment setting and capacities of the pa tients or clients served. In a hospital setting, for example, the recreational therapist usually works as a member of a team that may include a physi cian, nurse, clinical psychologist, so cial worker, and other rehabilitation professionals. Team members evalu ate the patient from the perspective of their various specialties and then de velop a coordinated treatm ent plan. During the initial session in a hos pital therapy department, the recre ational therapist might chat with the 172/Occupational Outlook Handbook patient and family to put them at ease before directing the conversation toward the patient’s interests, enthu siasms, or hobbies—anything that of fers a clue to activities that could be incorporated into a treatm ent pro gram. The therapist needs information about the patient’s physical, mental, and emotional status in order to set realistic goals and recommend suit able activities. To obtain this informa tion, the therapist pores through med ical records, talks with other members of the staff, and observes the patient’s behavior. Next, the therapist prepares a list of activities that capitalize on the patient’s strengths and interests. Progress is likely to be slow; some times, there is no progress at all. Rec reational therapists understand this, and set goals accordingly. A patient who has trouble socializing, for exam ple, may express interest in chess but be overwhelmed by the prospect of actually playing since that involves interaction with another person. The therapist would proceed slowly, first letting the patient observe a game and then assigning a therapeutic assistant to serve as a chess partner for weeks or even months—as long as it took for the patient to gain the confidence to seek out other patients as partners. Recreational therapists are careful to observe patients’ reactions to the activities in which they are involved. The therapist might note, for exam ple, that one patient participates in outdoor activities more enthusiasti cally than before; another is ready for activities that require teamwork; still another patient, formerly coopera tive, has become combative and dis ruptive. Observations such as these provide the basis for the therapist’s periodic review of each patient’s ac tivity program. The program is apt to be modified as the patient’s condition changes. Documentation is an important part of the recreational therapist’s job. Among the records the therapist must keep are th e in itia l e v a lu a tio n , progress notes, reports to the physi cian, internal staff notes, Medicare records, and discharge notes. These records are used to keep track of the patient’s condition, document treat ment programs, and monitor progress. In nursing homes, recreational ther apists evaluate residents’ capabilities much as they do in hospitals. They Digitized forlook at medical records, talk with res FRASER idents to learn about their interests, and discuss their condition with other members of the staff. Often, the ther apist groups residents according to common or shared interests and sim ilar ability levels, and plans field trips, entertainment events, baking, exer cise, dancing activities, and the like for the group. The therapist docu ments residents’ responses to the ac tivities and continually searches for ways of heightening residents’ enjoy ment of recreational and leisure activ ities, not just in the facility, but in the surrounding community as well. Because nursing home residents are likely to remain in the facility for months or even years, the activities program makes a big difference in the quality of their lives. Without the stimulation of interesting events, the daily routine of a nursing home can be monotonous and depressing, and res idents are apt to deteriorate. In some nursing homes, recreational therapists direct the activities program. In other facilities, activities coordinators plan and carry out the program under the part-time supervision of a consultant who is either a recreational therapist or an occupational therapist. The recreational therapist in a com munity setting might work in a day care center for the elderly, for exam ple, or in a program for mentally re tarded adults operated by a county recreation departm ent. No m atter what the disability, recreational ther apists in community settings have a challenging job in pulling together the resources to provide recreational op portunities for disabled persons. Or ganizational ability, flexibility, and in genuity are essential. Before an activ ity such as wheelchair basketball can take place, for example, space must be secured and equipment rented; prospective participants interviewed; and clients, staff, and volunteers ad vised of timetables and logistics. Be cause clients generally live at home with their families or in group residen tial facilities such as halfway houses, transportation to and from the activity site is an important concern. In insti tutional settings such as hospitals and nursing hom es, transportation re quires less planning and coordination. Therapeutic goals are identified be fore the event takes place. Once the program has been planned and publi cized, the therapist interviews each individual who signs up, and may also discuss the upcoming event with the client’s physician to be sure that the event is suitable for the client’s con dition. For example, if the physician indicates that an individual would get very upset in a competitive situation, the therapist may suggest a team event rather than a chess match: Less intense competition may help clients learn how to deal with losing and eventually to gain enough control of their impulses to participate in more competitive activities. In addition, the therapist acts as the leader of these events and many times supervises as sistants as well. Working Conditions Working conditions vary according to the em ploym ent setting, facilities available, and the activity being im plemented. In a clinical setting, for example, recreational therapists might work directly in a hospital ward or a spacious activity room. In a nursing home, the recreational therapist might work in a room equipped with arts and crafts materials. In a community setting, the recre ational therapist is likely to be in sev eral different places in the course of a day or a week. Interviewing clients and planning events take place in an office, but when leading activities, the therapist might be in a gymnasium, outdoors on a nature walk, or in a swimming pool. In general, recreational therapists work in well-lighted, well-ventilated areas. The job may be physically tir ing because therapists often are on their feet all day. Recreational thera pists generally work a standard 40hour week, although weekend and evening hours occasionally are re quired. Therapists holding superviso ry positions may be required to work overtime depending upon the work load. Employment Recreational therapists held about 17,000 jobs in 1984. Many of the jobs were in rehabilitation, psychiatric, and other specialty hospitals. Other employers of recreational therapists include general hospitals, nursing homes, community mental health cen ters, adult day care programs, school systems, residential facilities for the mentally retarded, and a variety of community programs for people with disabilities. A small number of therapists are self-employed, providing recreational Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/173 therapy services on a contract basis, for the most part. A self-employed therapist might develop and oversee activities programs for several small nursing homes or community pro grams, for example. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A degree in therapeutic recreation, or in recreation with an emphasis on therapeutic recreation, is the usual requirement for professional positions in this field. An associate degree sat isfies hiring requirements in many nursing homes, while a bachelor’s de gree ordinarily is necessary in com munity and clinical settings. Hiring requirements are changing. In the past, individuals with degrees in psychology, sociology, social work, and other human service fields found jobs as recreation therapists. Increas ingly, however, formal preparation in therapeutic recreation is expected. In dividuals without such preparation are likely to be hired as therapeutic assistants rather than as therapists. Three States—Georgia, Maryland, and Utah—regulate the practice of recreational therapy. Georgia and Utah have licensure requirem ents, while Maryland requires recreational therapists in long-term care facilities to be certified (or eligible for certifica tion). Certification is available through the National Council for Therapeutic Recreation Certification (NCTRC), which awards credentials for thera peutic recreation specialists and ther apeutic recreation assistants. Many employers prefer to hire certified rec reational therapists; some insist on the NCTRC credential. More than 160 accredited programs in recreational therapy are offered at the college or university level. Most of these are bachelor’s degree pro grams, although some are associate or m aster’s degree programs. There are a few doctoral programs in therapeu tic recreation. Entry level preparation for a job as a recreational therapist is available at both the bachelor’s and m aster’s lev el. Associate degree programs do not ordinarily lead to therapist jobs. In stead, graduates qualify for hospital jobs as therapeutic assistants, or for nursing home jobs as activities spe cialists. A graduate degree is general ly required for teaching, research, and administrative positions in this field. Helping patients enjoy themselves is an important part of a recreational therapist’s job. Academic programs in therapeutic recreation emphasize coursework in the physical, biological, and behavior al sciences and require 360 hours of internship under the supervision of a certified therapeutic recreation spe cialist. To put disabling and handicapping conditions into context, these pro grams provide a solid foundation in human anatomy and physiology. They deal with society’s response to dis ability as well as biological, psycho logical, and social consequences for the disabled individual. In the realm of professional practice, courses deal with programming for special popula tions; assessment and referral proce dures; assistive techniques including self-help skills, signing, and orienta tion and mobility; adaptive devices and medical equipment; current treat ment approaches; legal issues in deliv ering services to special populations; and professional ethics. Persons considering this career must be able to work with people of all ages, temperaments, and personal ities. To gain patients’ confidence, it is necessary to have a warm, friendly personality that inspires both trust and respect. In addition to these qual ities, it is necessary to have ingenuity and imagination in adapting activities to individual needs. The potential therapist must be skilled, patient, and resourceful in teaching and dealing with patients. Newly graduated recreational ther apists generally begin as staff thera pists. Advancement is chiefly to su pervisory or administrative positions. Some therapists teach, conduct re search, or do consulting work on a contract basis. Job Outlook Employment of recreational thera pists is expected to grow faster than the av erag e for all o c c u p atio n s through the mid-1990’s due to antici pated growth in the areas of rehabili tation and long-term care. Future changes in the size and age structure of the population mean that there will be many more people with disabilities in 1995 than there are to day. Substantial growth is expected for the population age 85 and above, an age group that suffers a very high incidence of disabling conditions. Be cause of better health care, people with developmental disabilities such as Down’s syndrome are living longer than they used to, so the number of mentally retarded persons is expected to grow. Significant growth is also projected for the mentally ill, in part because of the very large number of young adults who have reached the age of peak risk for schizophrenia and other chronic mental illnesses. Public and private response to the needs of older people is expected to spur rapid employment growth in nursing homes, retirement and life care communities, adult day care pro grams, and social service agencies. In the areas of mental health and mental retardation, continued support for deinstitutionalizing residents of large public facilities is expected to create 174/Occupational Outlook Handbook strong and sustained pressure, at State nity-based programs. Internships may and local levels, for community resi prove especially valuable for students dences and programs for the physical interested in community practice. In ly and mentally disabled. recreational therapy, as in other hu Hospitals will account for practical man service fields, internships and ly none of the projected employment volunteer work provide contacts that increase, and most job openings in may prove invaluable in finding a job. hospitals will be generated by the Job prospects are expected to be need to replace experienced workers favorable for graduates of accredited who transfer to other occupations or programs in therapeutic recreation. stop working. Currently, there are reports of a short In the large public mental hospital age of qualified recreational therapists sector, for example, little job growth in some areas, rural areas in particu is foreseen because of constraints on lar. In metropolitan areas and locali State government spending and con ties where training programs abound, tinued support for the policy of dein competition for jobs is keener. stitutionalization. If current trends persist, private psychiatric hospitals Earnings will diverge from the rest of the hos Salaries of recreational therapists vary pital sector and register rapid employ according to employment setting, ed ment growth. Among the reasons for ucational background, work experi this are broad third-party coverage for ence, and region of the country. Start acute inpatient psychiatric care; grow ing salaries for recreational therapists ing public acceptance of formal treat in institutions and programs funded ment for drug abuse and alcoholism; by State mental health or mental re and lessening of the stigma attached tard atio n agencies ranged from to receiving mental health care. Job $14,500 to $19,500 a year in 1985, prospects for recreational therapists according to a survey by the National in private psychiatric facilities should Theraputic Recreation Society. The be favorable, although it is important starting salary for theraputic recrea to bear in mind that this specialty tion specialists in Veterans Adminis tration facilities was $17,824 a year in sector is small. Slow growth in the hospital sector 1985. Recreational therapists employed will be more than offset, however, by by hospitals, medical schools, and burgeoning demand for recreational therapists in nursing homes, commu medical centers had average starting nity programs, and residential facili salaries of $17,000 a year in 1984, ties for people with handicapping con according to a survey by the Univer ditions. Demographic trends and in sity of Texas Medical Branch. Top dustry expansion are the main reasons salaries of experienced recreational for very rapid growth in recreational therapists averaged $23,400. therapy jobs in the nursing home sec tor. Growth could be even more rapid Related Occupations than currently anticipated, depending Recreational therapists design activi on future developments in nursing ties to help people with disabilities home staffing. A broad-based effort to lead more fulfilling and independent improve the quality of care in nursing lives. Other workers who have similar homes would undoubtedly lead to ad jobs are orientation therapists for the ditional jobs for recreational thera blind, art therapists, drama therapists, pists, since there is general agreement dance therapists, music therapists, that well-designed activities programs occupational therapists, and rehabili promote residents’ physical and men tation counselors. tal health. Quality of nursing home Sources of Additional Information care is the subject of attention at all For information about careers in rec levels of government, but it is impos reational therapy, contact: sible to predict whether public con N ational Therapeutic R ecreation S o c iety , 3101 cern will produce pressure for staffing Park C enter D r., A lexandria, V a. 22302. changes. Certification information may be Community programs for special obtained from: populations are expected to expand N ational C ouncil for T herapeutic R ecreation significantly in the years ahead. Lo C ertification, P.O . B ox 16126, A lexandria, V a. cating a job may require persistence, 22302. Academic programs in therapeutic however, in view of the small scale and developmental nature of commu recreation are listed in the National Recreation and Park Association’s Di rectory o f College!University Pro grams in Recreation, Leisure Services and Resources. The latest edition may be purchased from: N R P A , 3101 Park C enter D r., A lexandria, Va. 22302. The A m erican A sso ciatio n of Health, Physical Education, Recrea tion, and Dance also publishes a di rectory listing academic programs in therapeutic recreation. For price and ordering information, contact: A A H P E R D , P .O . B o x 704, W aldorf, M d. 20601. For a pamphlet on careers in mental health, write: Public Inquiries, N ation al In stitute o f M ental H ealth , 5600 F ish ers L a n e, R o ck v ille, M d. 20857. For a pamphlet on careers in nurs ing homes, write: A m erican H ealth Care A sso c ia tio n , 1200 15th St. N W „ W ash in gton , D .C . 20005. Information about employment op portunities in Veterans Administra tion medical centers is available from local VA medical centers. Registered Nurses (D .O .T . 075.124-010 and -014, .127-014, -018, -022, -026, and -030, .137-010, .264-010 and -014, .371-010, .374-010, -014, -018, and -022) Nature of the Work Registered nurses (R.N.’s) handle a variety of tasks related to both health and illness. Typically concerned with the “ whole person,” registered nurs es deal with patients’ mental and emo tional functioning as well as their physical needs. They observe, assess, and record symptoms, reactions, and progress; administer medications; as sist in convalescence and rehabilita tion; instruct patients and their fami lies in proper care; and help individu als and groups take steps to improve or maintain their health. The work setting determines the scope of the nurse’s responsibilities. Hospital nurses constitute by far the largest group of nurses. Most are staff nurses who provide skilled bed side nursing care and carry out the medical regimen prescribed by physi cians. They may also supervise li censed practical nurses, aides, and orderlies. Hospital nurses usually work with groups of patients who re quire similar nursing care. For in stance, some nurses work with pa tients who have had surgery; others Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/175 care for children, the elderly, or the mentally ill. Registered nurses working in nurs ing homes provide bedside nursing care to patients convalescing from surgery or an illness, and to those suffering from chronic illnesses and disabilities. They also supervise li censed practical nurses and nursing aides. Private duty nurses give individual care to patients who need constant attention. They may work in a home, a hospital, or a nursing home or reha bilitation center. Community health nurses care for patients in clinics, schools, retirement and life care communities, and other community settings. A growing num ber provide home health care. They instruct patients and families in health care and give periodic care as pre scribed by a physician. They may instruct community groups in proper nutrition and exercise and arrange for immunizations, blood pressure test ing, and other health screening mea sures. These nurses work with com munity leaders, teachers, parents, and physicians in community health edu cation. Some community health nurs es work in schools. Office nurses assist physicians, den tal surgeons, and, occasionally, den tists in private practice, clinics, and health maintenance organizations. Sometimes they perform routine lab oratory and office work in addition to their nursing duties. Occupational health or industrial nurses provide nursing care to em ployees in industry and government and, along with physicians, promote employee health. As prescribed by a doctor, they treat minor injuries and illnesses at work, provide needed nursing care, arrange for further med ical care if necessary, and offer health counseling. They also may assist with health examinations and inoculations. Working Conditions Nurses generally work indoors in well-lighted, comfortable buildings. Community health nurses may be re quired to travel to patients in all types of weather. For those nurses who care for the ill and infirm, the physical demands of patient care can be stren uous. Nurses in general need physical stamina because they spend consider able time walking and standing. When treating patients with infectious dis eases such as hepatitis and AIDS, nurses must rigidly adhere to guide lines regarding cleanliness and sterili ty. Emotional stability is required to cope with human suffering and fre quent emergencies. Because patients in hospitals and nursing homes re quire care at all times, staff nurses in these institutions may have to work nights, weekends, and holidays. Employment R e g iste re d n u rs e s h eld ab o u t 1,377,000 jobs in 1984. Two out of three jobs were in hospitals, as the following tabulation shows: P ercent T o t a l ......................................... 100 H o s p i t a l s .............................................. O ffic e s o f p h y s ic ia n s ( M .D . ’s a n d D . O . ’s ) .................................... G o v e r n m e n t ......................................... N u r s in g a n d p e r s o n a l c a r e f a c i l i t i e s ............................................ E d u c a t io n a l s e r v i c e s ..................... P e r s o n n e l s u p p ly s e r v i c e s .......... H e a lt h a n d a llie d s e r v ic e s n o t e ls e w h e r e c l a s s i f i e d .................. O u tp a tie n t c a r e f a c i l i t i e s ............. O t h e r ........................................................ 69 7 7 6 3 3 2 1 2 Between one-fourth and one-third of all nursing jobs are part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To obtain the license to practice that is required by all States and the Dis trict of Columbia, nurses must gradu ate from an approved school of nurs ing and pass a national examination administered by each State. Nurses may be licensed in more than one State, either by examination or en dorsement of a license issued by an other State. Some States require con tinuing education for license renewal. In 1984, about 1,477 nurse training programs were offered in the United States. In addition, 154 master’s de gree and 31 doctoral degree programs provided advanced education in nurs ing. Nursing training programs vary in length from 2 to 5 years after gradua tion from high school, depending on the nature of the program. Programs offered by community and junior col leges take about 2 years and lead to an associate degree; hospital-based pro grams last 3 years and lead to a diplo ma; college and university programs require 4 or 5 years and lead to a baccalaureate degree. There is considerable controversy Job prospects for registered nurses are expected to be highly favorable. about the relative merits of the vari ous nurse training programs. Some employers have specific preferences, but, with few exceptions, graduates of all these programs qualify for entry level staff nurse positions after pass ing the licensing examinations. Individuals considering a career in nursing should bear in mind that the kind of program they choose—associ ate, diploma, or bachelor’s degree— will affect their future opportunities. For supervisory or administrative po sitions, for jobs in public health agen cies, and for admission to graduate nursing programs, for example, a bachelor’s degree in nursing is neces sary. Those considering research, consulting, teaching, or a clinical spe cialization also should start their nurs ing education in a bachelor’s program. Some R .N .’s trained in diploma or associate degree programs subse quently enter baccalaureate degree programs to prepare for a broader scope of nursing practice, but this can be a costly and time-consuming way of securing baccalaureate level prepa ration. All nurse training programs include classroom instruction and supervised nursing practice in hospitals and other health facilities. Students take cours es in anatomy, physiology, microbiol ogy, nutrition, psychology, and nurs ing. Increasingly, nursing students learn the latest clinical and adminis trative uses of computers in medicine. In hospitals, for example, nurses rou 176/Occupational Outlook Handbook tinely use computers to enter or re trieve information about patients such as X-rays, laboratory test results, or medication orders. Nursing students also receive su pervised clinical experience in various hospital departments—pediatrics and surgery, for example. Students in bachelor’s degree programs as well as in some of the other programs are assigned to public health departments, visiting nurse associations, and other community agencies to learn how to care for patients in clinics and in pa tients’ homes. Varying amounts of general education are combined with nursing education in all three types of programs. Persons who want to pursue a nurs ing career should have a sincere de sire to serve humanity and be sympa thetic to the needs of others. Nurses must be able to accept responsibility and direct or supervise the activity of others; they must have initiative, and in appropriate situations be able to follow orders precisely or determine if additional consultation is required; and they must use good judgment in emergencies. From staff positions in hospitals, experienced nurses may be promoted to increasingly responsible jobs, many of which can be obtained through experience and good performance. For nurses who choose a career in management, advancement can in clude the assistant head nurse or head nurse position. From there, assistant director, director, and vice president positions are possible. Increasingly, positions at the management level re quire a graduate degree in nursing or health services administration, with emphasis on finance. Executive level nursing positions require business judgment and strong negotiation skills. Graduate programs are offered in col leges or universities and usually last 12 years. Applicants must be R.N .’s, preferably with some experience in beginning management. For nurses who prefer close contact with patients, career advancement may mean becoming a clinical nurse specialist, nurse practitioner, nurse clinician, or nurse anesthetist. Gradu ate level preparation is necessary to reach these positions, all of which are distinguished by the ability to exercise a high degree of independent judg ment in assessing nursing problems and determining priorities of care. Digitized forTraining is offered in hospitals and FRASER universities, normally lasts 1-2 years, registered nurses and “ multicompetand leads to a certificate or master’s ent” technicians for allied health degree. Applicants must be R .N.’s workers is likely to occur in some and many programs require up to 2 hospitals. In addition, registered nurs years of nursing experience in a rele es will be sought for technically de vant specialty. manding but “ generalist” responsibil Nurse anesthetists complete a cer ities in the rapidly growing outpatient tificate program allowing them to ad care sector. They may be preferred minister anesthesia under the direc over more specialized personnel for tion of a physician. Nurse practition jobs in health maintenance organiza ers and nurse midwives have graduate tions, ambulatory surgery centers, level training in diagnostic and health group medical practices, and other assessment skills that enables them to outpatient settings. perform certain duties normally per The home is an increasingly impor formed by a physician. Clinical nurse tant practice site, not only because of specialists and nurse clinicians have changes in the way treatment is pro expertise in a clinical area such as vided in hospitals, but because of the pediatrics or gerontology/geriatrics prevalance of functional disabilities which usually is obtained through among older persons and consumer completion of a master’s degree pro preference for care in home or com gram. munity-based settings. The home A growing number of nurses are health field is expected to experience moving into the business side of health spectacular growth by the mid-1990’s, care. Their nursing expertise and and should provide excellent opportu training to work as members of a team nities for R .N .’s. prepare them for management posi The nursing home sector—a major tions in fields such as ambulatory, employer of registered nurses—is also acute, and chronic care services. expected to expand due to the project Some are employed by large health ed increase in the number of elderly care corporations in areas like health people requiring this level of care. In planning and development, market addition, cost containment pressures ing, and quality assurance. Others run on hospitals to release patients as their own businesses, such as home soon as possible will require nursing home care for those recovering from health care agencies. surgery, stroke, or other major epi sodes. Patients such as these will stay Job Outlook Employment of registered nurses is in the nursing home for a relatively expected to rise much faster than the brief time, but they will require inten average for all occupations through sive services—intravenous therapy, the mid-1990’s in response to the feeding tubes, and respirator sup health care needs of a growing and port—that necessitate advanced nurs aging population. ing skills. Job opportunities for R .N .’s The rapidly growing demand for in nursing homes should be excellent, registered nurses is in part a function especially in view of the chronic short of their training, which permits them age of nurses experienced by many to work effectively in a wide variety of facilities. The supply of registered nurses is roles and employment settings. Over the years, staffing patterns for hospital roughly in balance with demand at nursing personnel have shifted in the present, although there are shortages direction of greater reliance on regis in certain areas—in rural communi tered nurses and less use of licensed ties, big city hospitals, and such spe practical nurses and nursing aides. cialties as geriatrics. At the same The growth of intensive care, coro time, competition is expected to per nary care, and other special units for sist for the more desirable, higher seriously ill patients has spurred de paying jobs, especially in areas con mand for clinically specialized nursing sidered highly attractive because of personnel. Such nurses are equipped climate or recreational or cultural fa to handle the highly sophisticated cilities, and in areas where training programs abound. Nurses with a bach equipment used in hospitals. The trend toward greater reliance elor’s degree should have the best on registered nurses is expected to prospects in those areas. Overall, job opportunities for nurs accelerate because of prospective pay ment, Medicare's new system of pay es during the coming decade will re ing for hospital care. Substitution of flect the interplay of demand and sup Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/177 ply, and a highly favorable job market seems likely. Recent graduates of nursing school are a major source of supply for the profession. The number of new graduates is expected to de cline by the mid-1990’s, although de mand is projected to burgeon. In set tings or communities that experience a shortage of nurses, employers are likely to respond with higher pay and other incentives designed to attract licensed R.N .’s not currently active in the field. Some are at home caring for families; others have transferred to other kinds of jobs. Supply might also be augmented by R .N.’s who rein state their licenses in order to return to work, and by part-time workers who switch to full time. Earnings Median annual earnings of registered nurses who worked full time in 1984 were about $21,000. The middle 50 percent earned between about $18,000 and $26,000. The lowest 10 percent earned about $15,000 or less. The top 10 percent, many of whom probably were head or supervisory nurses, earned more than $31,000. RN staff nurses in nursing homes had median annual salaries of approx imately $17,300 in 1984, according to a survey by the Hospital Compensa tion Service. In 1985, the Veterans Administra tion paid inexperienced nurses who had a diploma or an associate degree a starting salary of $16,040 a year; those with a bachelor’s degree, $18,763. Nurses employed in all Federal Gov ernment agencies earned an average of about $24,500 in 1984. Starting salaries of registered nurs es employed in hospitals, medical schools, and medical centers aver aged about $18,800 a year in 1984, according to a national survey con ducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Experienced R.N .’s averaged about $25,300. This survey also showed that head nurses aver aged starting salaries of about $23,100; salaries for experienced head nurses averaged $30,600. Beginning nurse anesthetists averaged $28,200; those with experience, $37,300. Registered nurses in home health agencies had average salaries of about $17,500 a year in 1983, according to a Home Care Agency Survey conduct ed by the Select Committee on Aging of the U.S. House of Representatives. Most hospital and nursing home nurses receive extra pay for work on evening or night shifts. Nearly all re ceive from 5 to 13 paid holidays a year, at least 2 weeks of paid vacation after 1 year of employment, and health and retirement benefits. Related Occupations Other occupations with responsibili ties and duties similar to those of registered nurses include: Occupa tional therapists, paramedics, physi cal therapists, physician assistants, and respiratory therapists. Sources of Additional Information The National League for Nursing (NLN) publishes a variety of materi als about nursing and nursing educa tion, including a list of approved schools of nursing and information on student financial aid. One brochure describes master’s degree programs to prepare nurse practitioners, clinical specialists, and nurse educators. For a complete list of NLN publications, write for a career information bro chure. Send your request to: C om m unications Departm ent, N ational L eague for N ursing, 10 Colum bus C ircle, N e w York, N .Y . 10019. Information on career opportunities as a registered nurse is available from: A m erican N u rses’ A ssociation , 2420 Pershing R d ., K ansas C ity, M o. 64108. Information about employment op portunities in Veterans Administra tion medical centers is available from local Veterans Administration medi cal centers and also from: Recruitm ent and P lacem ent S ervice, V eterans A dm inistration, 810 V erm ont A ve. N W ., W ash ington, D .C . 20420. For information on nursing careers in hospitals, contact: Am erican H ospital A ssociation , D ivision o f Nursing, 840 North Lake Shore D r., C hicago, 111. 60611. For a copy of Health Careers in Long-Term Care, write: A m erican H ealth Care A ssociation , 1200 15th St. N W ., W ashington, D .C . 20005. Respiratory Therapists (D.O.T. 079.361) Nature of the Work Respiratory therapists treat patients who have cardiopulmonary (heartlung) problems that interfere with breathing. Treatment may range from giving temporary relief to patients with chronic asthma or emphysema to emergency care for heart failure, stroke, drowning, or shock. Respira tory therapists are among the first specialists called for emergency treat ment of acute respiratory conditions arising from head injury or drug poi soning. Their role is a highly respon sible one because a patient who stops breathing for longer than 3 to 5 min utes has little chance of recovery without serious brain damage. If oxy gen is cut off for more than 9 minutes, death results. Respiratory care usually involves one or more of the four major kinds of treatment: Administering oxygen and oxygen mixtures; using humidity and aerosol mists to keep the respiratory tract moist or to deliver medication; administering chest physical therapy, which includes exercises to reduce the effort of breathing, as well as tapping and coughing procedures to help clear the lungs; and operating mechanical ventilators that replace or assist natural breathing. Mechanical ventilators help sustain life when a patient is unable to breathe spontane ously. This may happen for a number of reasons—because a patient is in a coma, for example, or has paralysis of the respiratory muscles, severe lung, head, or chest injury, or damage from smoke inhalation. Respiratory therapists set up, oper ate, and monitor special equipment, including ventilators, positive pres sure breathing machines, and oxygen tents. They help with a variety of diagnostic procedures to determine the levels of oxygen and carbon diox ide in the blood, the volume of air taken into the lungs, and so on. They also administer treatments such as bronchopulm onary drainage and breathing exercises. Respiratory therapists often treat patients who have undergone surgery; anesthesia depresses respiration, so respiratory therapy may be prescribed to restore full, deep breathing and protect the patient against respiratory illness that could complicate recov ery. In addition, respiratory therapists commonly treat patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases such as emphysema, bronchitis, and asth ma. Such diseases are a major cause of illness and death in the United States. Providing respiratory care at home is a rapidly expanding area of prac- 178/Occupational Outlook Handbook tice. Respiratory therapists have long tory therapists are potentially hazard administered oxygen to patients in ous because they are used and stored their homes. Increasingly, however, under pressure. However, adherence mechanical ventilators and other so to safety precautions and regular phisticated life support systems are maintenance and testing of equipment being used in the home. Therapists minimize the risk of injury. show patients and their families how to use the equipment. Many of the Employment people who receive home respiratory Respiratory therapists held about care will need it for the rest of their 55,000 jobs in 1984. About 9 out of 10 lives. They can be taught how to op jobs were located in hospitals in de erate complex equipment themselves, partments of respiratory care, anes with several visits a month from res thesiology, or pulmonary medicine. piratory therapists to inspect or clean Oxygen equipment rental companies, the equipment and ensure its proper ambulance services, nursing homes, use. and home health agencies accounted Respiratory care is moving into new for most of the remaining jobs. areas, notably cardiac care, and a growing number of respiratory thera Training, Other Qualifications, and pists are being cross-trained in pulmo Advancement nary and cardiac procedures. Respiratory care equipment has be Other duties include keeping rec come more complex in recent years, ords of the cost of materials and and formal training is increasingly im charges to patients, and maintaining portant for entry to the field. Volun and making minor repairs to equip tary certification is available through ment. Some therapists teach or super the National Board for Respiratory vise other respiratory therapy person Care. Many employers consider such nel. certification important in choosing among candidates. Several States re quire respiratory therapy workers to Working Conditions Respiratory therapists generally work be licensed. Training for respiratory therapy is a 40-hour week. Because hospitals operate around the clock, therapists offered at the postsecondary level in may be required to work evenings or hospitals, medical schools, colleges weekends. Respiratory therapists and universities, trade schools, voca spend long periods standing and, in an tional-technical institutes, and the emergency, may work under a great Armed Forces. In 1984, about 220 deal of stress. Gases used by respira programs in respiratory therapy were The growing number of patients with cardiopulmonary problems will spur demand for respiratory therapists. accredited by the Committee on Al lied Health Education and Accredita tion (CAHEA) of the American Med ical Association. Another 178 pro grams offered CAHEA-accredited preparation for respiratory therapy technicians. Formal training programs vary in length and in the credential or degree awarded. About 23 of the CAHEAaccredited therapist programs are 4year programs that lead to a bache lor’s degree; most of the others are somewhat shorter in length and lead to an associate degree. Technician courses usually last about 1 year and graduates are awarded certificates. Areas of study for both types of pro grams include human anatomy and physiology, ch em istry , physics, m icrobiology, and m athem atics. Technical courses deal with proce dures, equipment, and clinical tests. People who want to enter this field should enjoy working with people and should be sensitive to patients’ phys ical and psychological needs. Respira tory therapy workers must pay atten tion to detail, follow instructions, and work as part of a team. Operating com plicated resp irato ry therapy equipment requires mechanical ability and manual dexterity. High school students interested in a career in respiratory care are encour aged to take courses in health, biolo gy, mathematics, and physics, for a working knowledge of science and math is essential. Respiratory care involves basic mathematical problem solving—an ability to use percentag es, fractions, logarithms, exponents, and algebraic equations, and a knowl edge of the English and metric sys tems of measuring. Calculus is not required but is helpful. An under standing of chemical and physical principles such as general gas laws, the states of matter, chemical reac tions at the atomic level, and the pe riodic table is also important. Com puting medication dosages and calcu lating gas concentrations are just two examples of the need for knowledge of science and mathematics. Respiratory therapy technicians and assistants can advance to the therapist level by taking the appropriate cours es. Some technicians work part time while studying to be therapists. Respiratory therapists advance in clinical practice by moving from care of “ general” to “ critical” patients. Extra skills are needed to judge the Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/179 condition of patients with problems in other organ systems (heart, kidney, etc.) as well as in breathing. Thera pists require the ability to combine breathing care with many other nurs ing and medical functions. Therapists may also advance into supervision and management posi tions and, with additional academic training or experience, may direct the respiratory therapy department. Cre dentials as a Registered Respiratory Therapist (RRT) often are required for administrative positions. The field of education also offers opportunities for career development. Jobs for hospital “ in-service” educa tors are widely available, especially for therapists with skills or training in teaching. Many therapists have found careers as instructors in respiratory therapy education programs; with ad ditional academic preparation, they are eligible to advance up the line to professor or program director. Job Outlook Employment of respiratory therapists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s, despite pressures to curb the rising cost of health care and a marked slowing of job growth in hospitals. Public support for high quality care, technological advances in the diagnosis and treatment of res piratory disease, and the increasing incidence of cardiopulmonary dis eases such as emphysema are the ma jor factors contributing to anticipated growth in this occupation. In addition, the rate of surgery is on the rise, particularly among the rapidly grow ing population 65 years of age and older. An acceleration of the trend toward outpatient surgery, together with a change in the amount and kind of respiratory care delivered in hospi tals, could cause employment of res piratory therapists to grow more slow ly than currently anticipated. The lat ter is a strong possibility, for medical opinion as to the treatment value of the various forms of respiratory care is mixed, and hospital administrators and third-party payers (chiefly Medi care, Medicaid, and insurance compa nies) are expected to try to limit the use of respiratory care to situations where it is clearly appropriate and beneficial. Pressures to cut labor costs may lead some hospitals to alter staff ing patterns—replacing respiratory therapists with respiratory therapy technicians, registered nurses, or car diopulmonary technicians, for exam ple. Home health care is a bright spot on the horizon, but it is important to bear in mind that this very rapidly growing field accounts for a relatively small share of respiratory therapy jobs. Op portunities in respiratory care should be highly favorable through the mid1990’s in home health agencies, equip ment rental companies, and firms that provide respiratory care on a contract basis. Hospital-based home health programs will provide excellent job prospects, too. As in other occupa tions, however, most job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other jobs or stop working altogether. Information on gaining credentials as a respiratory therapy worker can be obtained from: The N ational Board for R espiratory Care, In c., 11015 W est 75th T errace, S h aw n ee M ission , K ans. 66214. For the current list of CAHEAaccredited educational programs for respiratory therapy occupations, write: Joint R ev iew C om m ittee for R espiratory Ther apy E d u cation , Suite 200, 1701 W . E u less B lv d ., E u le ss, T ex. 76040. Many respiratory therapy workers receive formal training in hospitals, vocational-technical institutes, pri vate trade schools, and other noncollegiate settings. Local hospitals can provide information on training opportunities for this and other health occupations. Earnings The starting salary of respiratory ther Speech Pathologists apists employed in hospitals averaged and Audiologists about $17,136 a year in 1984, accord ing to a survey by the University of (D.O.T. 076.101 and .107) Texas Medical Branch. Experienced respiratory therapists in hospitals Nature of the Work earned an average salary of $23,100 a Almost 1 American in 10 is unable to speak or hear clearly. Speech, lan year in 1984. guage, and hearing impairments can In 1985, the Federal Government paid respiratory therapists with 2 hinder communication and cause years of CAHEA-accredited post problems throughout life. Children secondary school training starting sal who have difficulty speaking, under standing language, or hearing cannot aries of about $13,000. Respiratory therapy workers in hos participate fully with others in play or pitals receive the same benefits as classroom activities. Sometimes these other hospital personnel, including children are thought to have mental or health insurance, retirement benefits, emotional problems, when in fact the vacations, and sick leave. Some em problem is language or hearing. Adults ployers provide tuition assistance and with speech, language, or hearing im other educational benefits, uniforms, pairments may have problems on the job, and withdraw socially to avoid and parking. frustration and embarrassment. Old age almost invariably brings some de Related Occupations gree of hearing loss. Severe loss, if Respiratory therapy workers, under not treated, can result in diminished the supervision of a physician, admin pleasure in everyday activities, social ister respiratory care and life support isolation, and—even worse—wrong to patients with heart and lung diffi ful labeling of elderly people as “ con culties. Other workers who care for, fused.” treat, or train people to improve their Speech pathologists and audiolo physical condition include: Dialysis gists assist people such as these by technicians, emergency medical tech evaluating their speech, language, or nicians, licensed practical nurses, reg hearing abilities and providing treat istered nurses, occupational thera ment. Speech pathologists work with pists, and physical therapists. those who have communicative disor ders resulting from total or partial hearing loss, brain injury, cleft palate, Sources of Additional Information Information concerning a career in voice pathology, learning disabilities, mental retardation, emotional prob respiratory care is available from: lems, foreign dialect, or other causes. A m erican A ssociation for R espiratory Therapy, Audiologists assess and treat hearing 1720 Regal R ow , Suite 112, D allas, T ex. 75235. 180/Occupational Outlook Handbook problems, sometimes by fitting and dispensing hearing aids. However, speech and hearing are so interrelated that, to be competent in one of these fields, one must be familiar with both. The duties of speech pathologists and audiologists vary with education, experience, and place of employment. In clinics, such as those in schools and hospitals, they use diagnostic pro cedures to identify and evaluate speech, language, and hearing disor ders. Then, in cooperation with phy sicians, psychologists, physical thera pists, and counselors, they develop and implement an organized program of therapy. Those in school systems generally have other duties as well. They work with administrators in de veloping programs, counsel parents on prevention, and assist teachers with classroom activities to develop oral communication skills. Although most speech pathologists and audiologists do some administra tive work, directors of clinics and coordinators of speech, language, and hearing in schools, health depart ments, or other government agencies may be totally involved in administra tion. Working Conditions Work is generally performed in clean, comfortable surroundings, and speech pathologists and audiologists spend most of their time at a desk or table. Although the job is not physically demanding, the close attention to de tail and intense concentration needed can be mentally exhausting. A great deal of satisfaction can be gained from seeing a client improve. Lack of progress, on the other hand, can be very frustrating. Employment Speech pathologists and audiologists held about 47,000 jobs in 1984. Over two-thirds of these jobs were in ele mentary and secondary schools and colleges and universities. Speech, lan guage, and hearing centers, hospitals, nursing homes, and offices of physi cians employed most of the remain der. A relatively small number of speech pathologists and audiologists are in private practice. Some are solo prac titioners who operate their own of fices, while others are in multi specialty group practices or consult ing firms. They typically see patients referred to them by physicans or other health practitioners. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A master’s degree in speech-language pathology or audiology is the standard credential in this field. Medicare, Med icaid, and other third-party payers, for example, pay for speech-language pathology services only if they are provided by a licensed practitioner (licensure requires a master’s degree). For reimbursement in States that do not have licensure laws, Medicare and Industrial audiologist testing a worker’s hearing. Medicaid require a master’s degree and completion or participation in 300 hours of supervised clinical experi ence. Speech and hearing specialists in public schools must have a practice certificate issued by the State educa tional agency. While some States per mit individuals with a bachelor’s de gree in speech pathology or audiology to practice in public schools, they may be classified as special education teachers rather than speech patholo gists or audiologists. In 36 States, licenses are required for those offering speech pathology and audiology services in private prac tice, clinics, or other settings outside of schools. Although licensure re quirements vary somewhat, all States require graduation from a master’s degree program in speech-language pathology or audiology, 300 hours of supervised clinical experience, and an examination. About 235 colleges and universities offered master’s or Ph.D. programs in speech-language pathology and audi ology in 1985. Approximately twothirds of the master’s degree pro grams were accredited by the Ameri can Speech-Language-Hearing Asso ciation (ASHA). Courses include ad vanced anatomy and physiology of the areas involved in hearing, speech, and language; acoustics; psychologi cal aspects of communication; and analysis of speech production, lan guage abilities, and auditory pro cesses. Graduate students also take courses in the evaluation and treat ment of speech, language, and hearing disorders and receive supervised clin ical training in communicative disor ders. Most individuals with a master’s degree acquire the Certificate of Clin ical Competence (CCC) offered by the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. To earn the CCC, a per son must have a master’s degree or its equivalent, complete a 9-month in ternship, and pass a national written examination. Speech pathologists and audiolo gists should be able to approach prob lems objectively and have a concern for the needs of others. They also should have considerable patience and compassion, because a client’s progress often is slow. In addition, they should be able to work with detail, to accept responsibility, to Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/181 work independently, and to direct others. Job Outlook Employment of speech pathologists and audiologists is expected to in crease about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid1990’s. Anticipated changes in the size and age structure of the popula tion will mean a substantial increase in the number of people with commu nicative disorders. Because hearing loss is strongly associated with old age, very rapid growth in the popula tion age 75 and above will cause the number of hearing-impaired persons to skyrocket by 1995. While the aging of the population is expected to spur job growth, it is important to understand that clinical need alone does not govern demand. Other factors that will influence job growth through 1995 include the de gree to which the public seeks treat ment for speech and hearing disor ders; the extent of referrals from fam ily m em bers, te a c h e rs, n u rses, physicians, and others; the price of speech and hearing services; ability to pay for them, whether out of pocket or through third-party reimbursement; legal mandates requiring services for the handicapped; and the impact of health care cost containment mea sures. Substantial growth in the number of speech pathologists and audiologists in school systems has already oc curred in response to the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975. Consequently, little job growth is foreseen in elementary and second ary schools, which presently provide the majority of jobs in this field. This reflects anticipated enrollment trends, as well as the availability of special education teachers, who provide some speech and hearing services. Hospitals, nursing homes, rehabili tation centers, and home health agen cies are expected to provide nearly half the new jobs in this field through 1995, in response to projected demand for rehabilitation and long-term care services. Contributing to employment growth in this area, for example, is the anticipated expansion of rehabilita tion programs for stroke victims. Speech and hearing services in nurs ing homes and home health agencies are often provided by private practi tioners employed on a contract basis. Opportunities for private practitioners are expected to be excellent in the years ahead, and the number of speech pathologists and audiologists in pri vate practice—though small—is likely to rise sharply. This reflects practice patterns as well as reimbursement policies. Evaluation and treatment of communicative disorders usually in volve outpatient visits unless other conditions are present. Thus, speech and hearing services can be brought into the home, or to a school, hospi tal, nursing home, or rehabilitation facility on an as-needed basis. This flexibility in treatment site is an im portant factor in the anticipated ex pansion of private practice opportuni ties. Job prospects in speech pathology and audiology should be very good through the mid-1990’s. New gradu ates are in demand, and the number of people completing training programs could fall short of that needed to fill job openings. Enrollments in master’s degree programs have remained rela tively stable since the late 1970’s. If program completions remain at cur rent levels and demand for rehabilita tion services continues to increase, prospects for jobseekers should be come even more favorable than they are today. Earnings Audiologists in hospitals and medical centers were paid about $19,800 to $34,900 a year in 1984, compared to about $20,200 to $34,000 for speech pathologists, according to a national survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. The annual starting salary in the Federal Government for speech pa thologists and audiologists with a master’s degree was about $21,800 in early 1985. Those having a doctoral degree were eligible to start at about $26,400. Related Occupations Speech pathologists and audiologists specialize in the diagnosis and treat ment of speech, language, and hearing problems. Workers in other rehabili tation occupations include occupa tional therapists, physical therapists, recreational therapists, and rehabilita tion counselors. Sources of Additional Information State departments of education can supply information on certification re quirements for those who wish to work in public schools. General information on speech pa thology and audiology is available from: A m erican S p eech-L angu age-H earing A sso c ia tion, 10801 R ock ville P ik e, R o ck v ille, M d. 20852. Health Technologists and Technicians Many jobs in the health field owe their existence to the development of new laboratory procedures, diagnostic techniques, and treatment methods. Quite a few of these involve clinical applications of the computer made possible by the microchip. Clinical laboratories have been transformed by the installation of automated in struments that offer low-cost analyses in minutes. Elsewhere in the hospital, new kinds of equipment—computed tomography (CT) scanners, dialysis machines, and ultrasound scanners, for example—have made possible ear lier and more accurate diagnoses and more effective treatment. Technolo gies that are candidates for wide spread use in the years ahead include magnetic resonance imaging, brain wave mapping, laser surgery, and or gan transplantion. However, the field of medicine is changing so rapidly that it is impossible to predict what the next generation of devices will bring. Four statements in this section of the Handbook describe health careers that involve operating or monitoring biomedical equipment: Radiologic technologists, electrocardiograph technicians, electroencephalographic technologists and technicians, and clinical laboratory technologists and technicians. Most radiologic technologists oper ate the familiar X-ray machine, but some specialize. Computed tomographers, for example, use equipment linked to a computer for cross-section X-rays of the brain or other parts of the body. Diagnostic medical sonographers use equipment which pro duces an image from sound waves reflected from the body to examine internal organs. Nuclear medicine technologists use radioactive sub stances that show up during imaging, and radiation therapy technologists operate the equipment used to treat cancer patients. Electrocardiograph (EKG) techni cians operate equipment that moni tors a patient’s heart action. Cardiol ogy technology includes far more than the EKG, however, and cardiology Digitized for 1 8 2 FRASER technologists of various kinds per form or assist with phonocardiograms, echocardiograms, angiograms, stress tests, cardiac catheterizations, and other tests that enable physicians to detect and diagnose heart problems. For example, heart patients scheduled for surgery may be given an echocar diogram (an ultrasound procedure) before cardiac catheterization, often the last step before an operation. Nu clear cardiology and digital subtrac tion angiography are new cardiac technologies that are likely to gain in importance. Dialysis technicians, who operate kidney machines, and perfusionists, who operate the heart-lung machines used in coronary bypass surgery, are examples of health workers who op erate equipment on which patients’ lives depend. Some health occupations are auxil iary jobs redesigned to extend the services of highly skilled health prac titioners. Dental hygienists expand dental services without sacrificing the quality of care. Emergency medical technicians are specially trained to provide medical attention when no physician or nurse is available—typi cally at the site of a fire, automobile accident, or other emergency. Practical nursing is by far the larg est of the health occupations de scribed in this section of the Hand book. Other large occupations are clinical laboratory technologist and radiologic technologist. Most other health technologist occupations are small. In fact, fragmentation into a large number of small and highly spe cialized occupations is typical of the health field today. The distinction between a health technologist and a health technician lies in the complexity of the job. Tech nologists have more responsibility than technicians, and therefore need more training, which varies with the occupation. For example, medical technologists, who use laboratory techniques to test specimens of body fluids and tissues for evidence of dis ease, need a bachelor’s degree in medical technology, chemistry, or biochemistry. Medical technicians usually are graduates of 2-year pro grams. Preparation for these careers var ies. Some workers learn their skills on the job through classroom and labora tory study combined with closely su pervised clinical experience. As a rule, the newer the occupation, the more likely that training will be pro vided on the job. Such is the case, for example, for hospital personnel who operate magnetic resonance scanners. In most health technologist occupa tions, however, workers are trained formally in hospitals, medical centers, community colleges, 4-year colleges and universities, vocational-technical institutes, or trade schools. Training requirements for specific occupations are described in the statements that follow. The Committee on Allied Health E d u c a t i o n a nd A c c r e d i t a t i o n (CAHEA) accredits educational pro grams for 23 allied health occupa tions. Information about accredited programs is published annually in the Allied Health Education Directory, which may be purchased from: Departm ent o f A llied H ealth E ducation and A ccreditation , A m erican M ed ical A sso cia tio n , 535 N . D earborn S t., C h icago, Illinois 60601. Books and brochures on health ca reers are available in libraries, coun seling centers, and bookstores. The Sources of Additional Information section at the end of each Handbook statement identifies organizations that can provide career information, in cluding brochures that describe the work and lists of training programs. For an overview of jobs in the health field, including some not covered in the Handbook, request a copy of “ 200 Ways to Put Your Talent to Work in the Health Field” from: N ation al H ealth C ou n cil, In c., 70 W est 40th S t., N e w Y ork , N .Y . 10018. A wide-ranging effort to slow the rate of increase in health care costs is changing the organization and deliv ery of health care in the United States. Health Technologists and Technicians/183 New approaches to paying for care, more stringent review prior to the purchase of expensive equipment, fewer diagnostic tests and procedures per episode of illness, fewer hospital admissions, and far greater use of outpatient and home care are among the trends that will shape the health industry in the years ahead. A slow down in industry employment growth is a virtual certainty. The various health occupations will fare differ ently, however, reflecting differences in patterns of illness, sources of pay ment, the kinds of organizations that provide care, and staffing. Specific factors that are expected to influence demand through the mid-1990’s are explained in the Job Outlook sections of the statements that follow. Clinical Laboratory Technologists and Technicians (D.O.T. 078.121-010, .161-010, .221-010, .261-010 and -014, .281-010, .361-014 and -030, .381-010 and -014, and .687-010) Nature of the Work Laboratory tests play an important part in the detection, diagnosis, and treatment of disease. They are essen tial in detecting the presence of ill nesses in which there are changes in the body fluids and tissues. Examples of such changes include chemical changes in the blood, urine, or other body fluids; increases or decreases in the count of various types of white or red blood cells; microscopic changes in the structure of the cells of a dis eased tissue or organ; and the pres ence of parasites, viruses, or bacteria in the blood or tissue. Although physicians use the results of laboratory evaluation and diagno sis, they do not perform the tests themselves. Instead, the tests are done by clinical laboratory personnel. These specialists provide laboratory services ranging from routine tests to highly complex analyses, and their level of skill and educational prepara tion vary accordingly. This section of the Handbook discusses the work of two levels of laboratory personnel: Technologists and technicians. Medical technologists have a bach elor’s degree in science, as a rule. They perform complicated chemical, biological, hematological, microscop ic, and bacteriological tests. These handling of specimens, materials, and may include chemical tests to deter equipment are used. The work can be mine, for example, the blood choles stressful because patients’ lives or terol level, or microscopic examina types of treatment often depend on tion of the blood to detect the pres the quick and accurate analysis of ence of diseases such as leukemia. laboratory tests. Technologists microscopically exam ine other body fluids; make cultures of Employment body fluid or tissue samples to deter Clinical laboratory technologists and mine the presence of bacteria, para technicians held about 236,000 jobs in sites, or other micro-organisms; and 1984. Most worked in hospitals. Oth analyze the samples for chemical con ers worked in independent laborato tent or reaction. They also type and ries, physicians’ offices, clinics, pub cross-match blood samples for trans lic health agencies, pharmaceutical fusions. firms, and research institutions. Large Technologists in small laboratories reference laboratory facilities general perform many types of tests, while ly are concentrated in metropolitan those in large laboratories usually spe areas. Some laboratory workers work cialize. Among the areas in which part time. they can specialize are biochemistry In 1984, Veterans Administration (the chemical analysis of body fluids), hospitals and laboratories employed blood bank technology (the collection about 3,900 medical technologists and and preparation of blood products for about 1,800 medical laboratory tech transfusion), cytotechnology (the nicians. Others worked for the U.S. study of human body cells), hematol Public Health Service. ogy (the study of blood cells), histol ogy (the study of human tissue), and Training, Other Qualifications, and microbiology (the study of bacteria Advancement and other micro-organisms). The usual requirement for a beginning Most medical technologists perform job as a medical technologist is a tests related to the examination and bachelor’s degree with a major in treatment of patients. Others do re medical technology or in one of the search, develop laboratory tech life sciences, biology or biochemistry, niques, teach, or perform administra for example. It is also possible to tive duties. qualify through on-the-job experience, Medical laboratory technicians gen specialized training, or a combination erally have an associate degree or a of these. diploma or certificate from a private Bachelor’s degree programs in med postsecondary trade or technical ical technology include substantial school. They are midlevel laboratory workers who function under the su pervision of a medical technologist or laboratory supervisor. They perform a wide range of routine tests and lab oratory procedures which do not re quire the analytical knowledge of medical technologists. Like technolo gists, they may work in several areas or specialize in one field. Working Conditions Clinical laboratory personnel general ly work a 5-day, 40-hour week. Be cause hospital laboratories provide service round the clock, workers there may work evenings, nights, week ends, and holidays. Laboratory work ers may spend a great deal of time on their feet. Laboratories generally are well lighted and clean. Although unpleas ant odors and infectious materials of ten are present, few hazards exist if proper methods of sterilization and Medical technologists use sophisticated equipment to detect specimen changes. 184/Occupational Outlook Handbook course work in chemistry, biological sciences, microbiology, and mathe matics, with the senior year of course work devoted to acquiring the knowl edge and skills used in the clinical laboratory. These programs are of fered by colleges and universities as well as by hospitals. The hospital pro grams generally are affiliated with col leges or universities and lead to a bachelor’s degree, although a few hospital programs require a bache lor’s degree for entry. Many universities offer advanced degrees in medical technology and related clinical laboratory sciences for technologists who plan to specialize in a certain area of laboratory work or in teaching, administration, or research. Medical laboratory technicians ac quire their training in a variety of ways, including community and junior colleges, hospitals, and vocational and technical schools. Many pro grams last 2 years and lead to an associate degree. Some medical labo ratory technicians are trained in the Armed Forces. Persons interested in a clinical lab oratory career should be careful about selecting an educational program. Pro spective employers—hospitals and in dependent laboratories—may have preferences as to program accredita tion. (Accreditation indicates that an educational program m eets estab lished standards.) Educational pro grams should be able to provide infor mation about the kinds of jobs ob tained by g rad u ates, educational costs, the length of time the educa tional program has been in operation, instructional facilities, and faculty qualifications. Nationally recognized accrediting agencies in the allied health field in clude the Committee on Allied Health E d u c a ti o n a n d A c c r e d i t a t i o n (CAHEA) in cooperation with the Na tional Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sciences (NAACLS), and the Accrediting Bureau of Health Ed ucation Schools (ABHES). CAHEA accredits programs that provide edu cation for 23 allied health occupations including m edical te c h n o lo g ists, cytotechnologists, histologic techni cians, specialists in blood bank tech nology, and medical laboratory tech nicians. ABHES accredits training programs for medical laboratory tech nicians and medical assistants. Licensure and certification are well in the health field as meth established ods of assuring the skill and compe tence of personnel. Licensure refers to the process by which a government agency authorizes individuals to en gage in a given occupation and use a particular job title. Occupational li censing takes place at the State level. Five States—California, Florida, Ha waii, Nevada, and Tennessee—re quire medical technologists or medi cal laboratory technicians to be li censed. Other States, such as Georgia, require registration. More information is available from State boards of oc cupational licensing or from State Oc cupational Information Coordinating Committees. Certification is a voluntary process by which a nongovernmental organi zation such as a professional society grants recognition to an individual who m eets prescribed standards. Widely accepted by employers in the health industry, certification is a pre requisite for some jobs, and often is necessary for career advancement. Agencies that certify medical labora tory technologists and technicians in clude the Board of Registry of the American Society of Clinical Patholo gists in conjunction with the Ameri can Association of Blood Banks, the American Medical Technologists, the National Certification Agency for Medical Laboratory Personnel, and the Credentialing Commission of the International Society of Clinical Lab oratory Technology. These agencies have different requirements for certi fication and different organizational sponsors. Accuracy, dependability, and the ability to work under pressure are important personal characteristics for a medical laboratory worker. These workers must be able to pay close attention to detail and be very precise in their work because small differ ences or changes can be important. Manual dexterity and normal color vision are highly desirable. With the rapid spread of automated laboratory equipment, mechanical and electronic skills are increasingly valued. Technologists may advance to su pervisory positions in certain areas of laboratory work, or, after several years’ experience, to chief medical technologist in a large hospital. Man ufacturers of laboratory equipment and supplies hire technologists as sales or technical representatives or to work in the research and develop ment of new products. Graduate edu cation in one of the biological scienc es, chemistry, management, or educa tion usually speeds advancem ent. Technicians can advance to technolo gists by getting additional education and experience. Job Outlook Em ploym ent of clinical laboratory workers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occu pations through the mid-1990’s. Most openings will result from the need to replace experienced laboratory per sonnel who transfer to other occupa tions or stop working altogether. The pressure to contain health care costs is expected to slow job growth in this field. Hospitals, the leading employer of clinical laboratory per sonnel, will be more severely affected by the slowdown than other kinds of employers (commercial laboratories, clinics, and offices of physicians) if current trends persist through 1995. Implementation of a new approach to paying hospitals for the services they provide has affected clinical laborato ries. M any tests, previously per formed routinely as part of either a regular physical examination or the normal admissions procedure, have been dropped. There is a strong push to “ target” laboratory tests, doing only those that are essential. Laboratory tests nevertheless are an integral part of modern medicine and the volume of testing is expected to continue to grow. The increase will be caused by population growth; by the rapid increase in middle-aged and older people and the concomitant in crease in disease and disability; and by the development of new diagnostic tests, such as the blood test for the antibody to the virus believed to cause Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). An area of labora tory testing that is likely to expand significantly is imm unodiagnostics, tests that are able to spot major dis eases such as cancer and heart disease in their early, presymptomatic stages. Also contributing to the relatively slow rate of job growth projected through 1995 is automation. While use of automated equipment in clinical laboratories is already widespread, new equipment is certain to be intro duced during the coming decade. Some of this new equipm ent will mechanize operations that are now done manually, such as a complete automated urine analysis, but much of Health Technologists and Technicians/! 85 it will represent more sophisticated versions of existing technologies. New, improved machines will per form more tests from more depart m ents more quickly. The greater speed will allow a faster “ turnaround tim e,” so the results can be utilized sooner by physicians, and patients can be released sooner. Computerization of clinical labora tories is bound to be implemented in ever more wide-ranging and creative ways. The use of computers, especial ly microcomputers or personal com puters, will not only aid in the testing aspect—in quality control, for exam ple—but also in the managerial, ad ministrative, and clerical aspects of laboratory operations. Clinical labora tories will likely be run in a more efficient, cost-saving manner than be fore. The use of robots for clinical labo ratory testing is in the early stages. Due to the high cost of such equip ment, the use of robots will likely be restricted to large commercial labora tories for the foreseeable future. As they are im plem ented, how ever, robotic applications will put an addi tional damper on employment growth. Due to financial incentives in the new payment system for hospital care, some laboratory testing is likely to shift from hospitals to other settings. These settings include commercial laboratories (sometimes called refer ence laboratories), physicians’ of fices, health maintenance organiza tions, surgicenters, and ambulatory care clinics. Employment of clinical laboratory personnel is expected to rise more rapidly in these settings than in hospitals because their share of the market for laboratory services will grow. Nonetheless, several forces will op erate to restrain growth in nonhospital settings. In addition to the laborsaving effect of automation and computeriza tion, the regulatory environment will play a role. Currently, physicians’ of fices—and other places, such as clin ics, that are directed by physicians— are the least regulated area of labora tory testing. As long as a physican so directs, any employee can perform the tests, whether a nurse, medical assistant, secretary, or medical tech nologist. M anufacturers of clinical laboratory equipment have been mak ing strenuous efforts to produce ma chinery specifically tailored to these environments, and have succeeded in making the equipment “ user friend ly.” Hence it is feasible, from a prac tical as well as a legal standpoint, for nonclinical laboratory personnel in physicians’ offices to perform lab work. Assuming no change in the reg ulatory climate, employment of clini cal laboratory workers in physicians’ offices almost certainly will grow more slowly than the volume of lab work performed in those offices. B ecause the new er lab o ra to ry equipment is easier to use and labora tory owners seek to restrain labor costs, employment of technicians is expected to grow faster than that of technologists through the mid-1990’s. Technologists will still be needed, however, to analyze the more com plex tests and to advise physicians on the use of tests. Earnings Salaries of clinical laboratory person nel vary depending on the employer and geographic location. In general, those in large cities receive the high est salaries. Starting salaries for medical tech nologists employed by hospitals, med ical schools, and medical centers av eraged about $18,200 a year in 1984, according to a survey conducted by the U niversity of Texas M edical B ra n c h . B eg in n in g s a la rie s fo r cytotechnologists averaged about $16,900; for histology technicians, about $14,200; and for medical labo ratory technicians, about $13,800. Ac cording to the same survey, experi enced medical technologists working in hospitals, medical schools, and m edical c e n te rs av erag ed a b o u t $23,700 a year in 1984; cytotechnolo gists, about $21,200; medical labora tory technicians, about $18,200; and histology technicians, about $18,000. Chief medical technologists em ployed in hospitals earned average annual salaries ranging from $25,300 to $31,000 in 1985, depending on the size of the establishment, according to the Executive Compensation Service, Inc., a subsidiary of The Wyatt Com pany, Fort Lee, New Jersey. The Federal Government paid med ical technologists a starting salary of about $14,400 a year in 1985. Those having experience, superior academic achievement, or a year of graduate study entered at about $17,800. Start ing salaries for technicians began at $12,900 a year in 1985, depending on education and experience. Medical technologists in the Federal Govern ment averaged about $22,800 in 1984, and medical laboratory technicians, about $17,700. Related Occupations Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians perform a wide variety of tests to help physicians diagnose and treat disease. Their principal activity is the analysis and identification of substances. Other workers who per form laboratory tests include biology specimen technicians, criminalists, food testers, sample testers, veteri nary laboratory technicians, and wa ter purification chemists. Sources of Additional Information Career information is available from: American Society of Clinical Pathologists, Board of Registry, P.O. Box 12270, Chicago, 1 60612. 11. American Society for Medical Technology, 330 Meadowfern Drive, Houston, Tex. 77067. American Medical Technologists, 710 Higgins Rd., Park Ridge, 1 60068. 11. American Association of Blood Banks, Suite 600, 1117 N. 19th St., Arlington, Va. 22209. American Association for Clinical Chemistry, 1725 K St. NW., Suite 1010, Washington, D.C. 20006. American Society of Cytology, Attn: CPRC Secretary, 130 South 9th Street, Suite 810, Philadelphia, Pa. 19107. Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools, Oak Manor Office, 29089 U.S. 20 West, Elkhart, Ind. 46514. National Certification Agency for Medical Lab oratory Personnel, 1725 DeSales St. NW., Suite 403, Washington, D.C. 20036. International Society for Clinical Laboratory Technology, 818 Olive St., St. Louis, Mo. 63101. For a list of CAHEA-accredited ed ucational programs for clinical labora tory personnel, write: Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation, 535 N. Dearborn St., Chicago, 111. 60610. For a list of training programs for medical laboratory technicians ac credited by the Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools, write: Secretary-ABHES, 29089 U.S. 20 West, Elkhart, Ind. 46514. For information about employment opportunities in a Veterans Adminis tration medical center, contact the personnel office of that center. Information about employment op portunities with the National Insti tutes of Health is available from the Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md. 20205. 186/Occupational Outlook Handbook Dental Hygienists (D.O.T. 078.361-010) Nature of the Work Dental hygienists, working under the direction of a dentist, provide direct patient care; they remove deposits and stains from patients’ teeth, ex pose and develop dental X-ray films, and perform various other preventive and therapeutic services. Helping the public develop and maintain good oral health is another important aspect of the job, and hygienists may instruct patients in the proper selection and use of toothbrushes and other devic es, for example, or explain the rela tionship between diet or smoking and oral health. Depending on the State law, hy gienists may remove deposits from teeth; apply topical fluoride to prevent tooth decay; take medical and dental histories; take X-rays; make impres sions of teeth for study models; and prepare other diagnostic aids. In a few States, dental hygienists may perform pain control and restorative proce dures. Dental hygienists in school sys tems serve in several capacities. Clin ical functions include exam ining children’s teeth, assisting the dentist in determining the dental treatment needed, and reporting the findings to parents. They also scale and polish teeth and give oral hygiene instruc tion. In addition, they develop and deliver classroom and assembly pro grams on oral health. A few dental hygienists assist in research projects. Those having ad vanced training may teach in schools of dental hygiene. Working Conditions Dental hygienists usually work in clean, well-lighted offices. Important health safeguards for persons in this occupation are regular medical check ups and strict adherence to estab lished procedures for using X-ray equipment. The occupation is one of several covered by the ConsumerPatient Radiation Health and Safety Act of 1981, which encourages the States to adopt uniform standards for the training and certification of indi viduals who perform medical and den tal radiologic procedures. Most hygienists work fewer than 35 hours per week. Some of this work may be on Saturdays or during evening hours. Employment Dental hygienists held about 76,000 jo b s in 1984. B e c a u se m ultip le jobholding is common in this field, the number of jobs greatly exceeds the number of people at work that year. Dentists frequently hire hygienists to work only 2 or 3 days a week, so hygienists who want a full-time sched ule must often hold more than one job. It is not uncommon for dental hygienists to hold several part-time jobs. Most dental hygienists work in pri vate dental offices. Other places of em ploym ent include public health agencies, school systems, business firms, hospitals, clinics, and schools of dental hygiene. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Dental hygienists must be licensed. To obtain a license, a candidate must graduate from an accredited dental hygiene school and pass both a writ ten and a clinical examination. For the clinical examination, the applicant is required to perform dental hygiene procedures, such as removing depos its and stains from a patient’s teeth. In 1984, candidates in 49 States and the District of Columbia could complete part of the State licensing require ments by passing a written examina tion given by the National Board of Dental Examiners. Few States permit dental hygienists licensed in other States to practice in their jurisdictions without further examination. In 1984, 200 schools of dental hy giene in the United States were ac credited by the Commission on Dental Accreditation. Most programs grant an associate degree; others lead to a bachelor’s degree. A few institutions offer both types of programs. Six schools offer m aster’s degree pro grams in dental hygiene. Completion of an associate degree program usually is sufficient for the dental hygienist who wants to practice in a private dental office. To do re search, teach, and work in public or school health programs, at least a bachelor’s degree usually is required. Dental hygienists with a m aster’s de gree work as teachers or administra tors in dental hygiene and dental as sisting training program s, public health agencies, and in research. The minimum requirement for ad mission to a school of dental hygiene is graduation from high school. Sever al schools that offer the bachelor’s degree admit students to the dental hygiene program only after they have completed 2 years of college. Dental hygiene training given in the Armed Forces usually does not fully prepare one to pass the licensing exam, but credit for that training may be granted to those who seek admission to ac credited dental hygiene programs. The curriculum in a dental hygiene program consists of courses in the basic sciences, dental sciences, clini Health Technologists and Technicians/187 cal sciences, and liberal arts. These schools offer laboratory, clinical, and classroom instruction in subjects such as anatomy, physiology, chemistry, pharm acology, nutrition, histology (the stu d y o f tissu e s tru c tu re ), periodontology (the study of gum dis eases), pathology, dental materials, and clinical dental hygiene. People who want to become dental hygienists should enjoy working with others. The ability to put patients at ease is helpful, for patients often are under stre ss. P ersonal n eatn ess, cleanliness, and good health also are important qualities. Dental hygienists must have manual dexterity because they use various dental instruments with little room for error within a patient’s mouth. Among high school courses recommended for aspiring dental hygienists are biology, health, chemistry, psychology, speech, and mathematics. Job Outlook Employment of dental hygienists is expected to grow faster than the aver age for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Demand for dental care is expected to rise in the years ahead because of population growth, rising real incomes, growing public aware ness of the importance of oral health, and the availability of dental insur ance. Many additional job openings for dental hygienists will result from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Job prospects for dental hygienists are affected by practice patterns in dentistry as well as by the level of demand for dental care. At present, the use of dental hygienists is preva lent in some places, but not in others. This is changing as greater numbers of recent dental school graduates set up practice. Young dentists are disposed to hire hygienists because they are taught in dental school how to make effective use of support staff in their dental practices. The trend toward group practice and retail dentistry should also contribute to job growth for hygienists. Groups of dentists gen erally hire more support staff per den tist than do solo practitioners. Practice patterns in dentistry are expected to sustain strong demand for dental hygienists. Nonetheless, those patterns could change, in view of the rapidly expanding supply of dentists and improvements in dental health due to fluoridation and other forms of preventive dentistry. There already is evidence of growing com petition among dentists for jobs. Should pa tient load fall sharply, dentists could choose to perform more functions themselves and job growth for dental hygienists would be slower than cur rently anticipated. Earnings Earnings of dental hygienists are af fected by the type of employer, edu cation, and experience of the individ ual hygienist, and the geographic lo cation. Dental hygienists who work in private dental offices are commonly paid by the hour or day, although they may earn a salary or a commission for work performed. The median hourly earnings of den tal hygienists were about $11 in 1984. In 1985, the Federal Government paid dental hygienists with no experience starting salaries of between $12,862 and $14,390 a year depending upon the length of their training. Dental hygienists working for the Federal Government averaged about $17,300 a year in 1984. Dental hygienists who work for school systems, health agencies, the Federal Government, or State agen cies have the same hours, vacation, sick leave, retirement, and health in surance benefits as other workers in these organizations. Related Occupations Dental hygienists relieve dentists from many routine tasks. Other occupa tions performing similar duties for dentists and physicians include dental assistants, dental laboratory techni cians, general duty nurses, nurse anes thetists, and radiologic technologists. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career in dental hygiene, contact: Division of Professional Development, Ameri can Dental Hygienists’ Association, Suite 3400, 444 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, 1 60611. 11. For information about accredited programs and the educational require ments to enter this occupation, con tact: Commission on Dental Acccreditation, Suite 1814, American Dental Association, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. The State Board of Dental Examin ers in each State, or the American Association of Dental Examiners, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611, can supply information on licensing requirements. Dispensing Opticians (D.O.T. 299.474-010) Nature of Work Half the people in the United States use glasses or contact lenses, and workers in a variety of occupations are involved in providing vision care. Among these are dispensing opti cians, who fit eyeglasses and contact lenses. The health practitioners who exam ine eyes and prescribe corrective lenses are ophthalmologists and op tometrists. (See the statement on phy sicians, which includes ophthalmolo gists, and the one on optometrists elsewhere in the Handbook.) After a checkup by one of these eye doctors, people who need corrective lenses generally visit a dispensing optician (also called an ophthalmic dispenser) to have the prescription for lenses filled. Some optometrists and ophthal mologists do their own dispensing, or employ an optician to do it for them. Dispensing opticians order the nec essary ophthalmic laboratory work, help the customer select appropriate frames, and adjust the finished eye glasses. In many States, they fit con tact lenses. During the custom er’s visit, the op tician measures the distance between the centers of the pupils of the eyes to determine where lenses should be placed in relation to them. In helping customers select from the various styles and colors of eyeglass frames, they may consider the custom er’s hairstyle and facial features, occupa tion and habits, and the weight and thickness of the corrective lenses. The optician then prepares work orders that give the ophthalmic labo ratory the information it needs to grind the lenses and insert them in a frame. The work orders include lens prescriptions and information on lens size, color, and style. Some dispens ing opticians do their own lab work, preparing the lenses themselves. Af ter the glasses are made, the optician checks the power and surface quality of the lenses with special instruments, then adjusts the frame to the contours of the custom er’s face and head so that it fits properly and comfortably. Adjustments are made with handtools, such as optical pliers, files, and screw drivers. In fitting contact lenses, dispensing 188/Occupational Outlook Handbook opticians measure the corneas of cus tom ers’ eyes, and then prepare spec ifications for the contact lens manu facturer which include the doctor’s prescription and information on size. Fitting contact lenses requires consid erably more skill, care, and patience than fitting eyeglasses. Dispensing op ticians tell customers how to insert, remove, and care for contact lenses during the initial adjustment period, which may last several weeks. At each visit, to be sure that the fit is correct, the dispensing optician looks at the patient’s eyes, corneas, lids, and contact lenses with special instru ments and microscopes. Ophthalmol ogists or optometrists recheck the fit, as needed. Opticians may make minor adjustments; lenses are returned to the prescription laboratory for major changes. The majority of dispensing opti cians fit eyeglasses and contact lens es, but some specialize in fitting cos metic shells to cover blemished eyes. Still others specialize in fitting artifi cial eyes (prostheses). In some shops, they may do lens grinding and finish ing and sell other optical goods such as binoculars, magnifying glasses, and nonprescription eyeglasses (sunglass es, for instance). cause they sell and service eye lenses, they deal with customers most of the time. They spend part of their time on their feet. If they work part of the time in a lab where eyeglasses are made, they need to take precautions to guard against the hazards associated with glass dust in the air, as well as in handling various chemical solutions and machines with moving parts. Dis pensing opticians generally work a 40-hour week, although a 45- or 50hour week is not uncommon. Some, especially those employed in retail shops in large shopping centers, work in the evenings and on Saturdays. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most dispensing opticians learn their skills on the job. However, employers generally prefer applicants who are familiar with the trade, and an in creasing number of trainees have some formal training in optical dispensing and fabricating. On-the-job training in dispensing work may last several years and usually includes instruction in optical mathematics, optical phys ics, and the use of precision measur ing instruments and other machinery and tools. Training programs vary from employer to employer. In large com panies, on-the-job training is structured much like an apprentice Employment D ispensing o p tician s held about ship program, while training in small 42,000 jobs in 1984. Most worked full establishments is largely informal. Employers considering applicants time. Most dispensing opticians work for for entry level jobs in optical dispens optical shops or for department stores, ing look for high school graduates drug stores, and other retail outlets. who have had courses in science and About one-third work for ophthalmol mathematics. Knowledge of physics, ogists or optometrists who sell glasses algebra, geometry, and mechanical directly to patients. A few work in drawing is particularly valuable. Pre hospitals and eye clinics or teach in vious experience in a related job is an schools of ophthalmic dispensing. asset. Because dispensing opticians Some own retail optical shops. Re deal directly with the public, they cently, some dispensing opticians should be tactful and have a pleasant have bought franchises from large op personality. Good communications tical store chains; they become inde skills are highly valued. Formal training in opticianry is of pendent owners of the business, but fered by community colleges, voca use the chain name. Working Conditions tio n a l-te c h n ic a l in s titu te s , tra d e Employment of dispensing opti Dispensing opticians work indoors in schools, and manufacturers in pro pleasant, quiet surroundings that are cians is widely dispersed and tends to grams that last from a few weeks to well lighted and well ventilated. Be follow overall population patterns. several years. In 1984, 25 schools of fered 2-year programs in optical fabri cating and dispensing leading to an associate degree or a certificate or diploma of completion. The Commis sion on Opticianry Accreditation— consisting of representatives from the American Board of Opticianry, the National Academy of Opticianry, the Opticians Association of America, the National Federation of Opticianry Schools, and the public—accredited 12 of these programs. A number of schools offer shorter programs, usual ly 6 months to 1 year in length, that lead to a certificate or diploma in opticianry. In addition, some medical schools, contact lens manufacturers, and professional societies offer short, nondegree courses in contact lens fit ting. A small number of opticians learn their trade in the Armed Forces. Some opticians acquire their skills through 2- to 4-year apprenticeship programs offered by optical dispens ing companies. Apprentices with ex Digitized forDispensing opticians help customers choose attractive eyeglass frames. FRASER Health Technologists and Technicians/189 ceptional ability may complete their training in a shorter period. Individual States set the entrance requirements for these programs, with high school graduation ordinarily required. Ap prentices receive training in optical mathematics and optical physics and in the use of laboratory equipment. In addition to technical training, appren tices may work directly with patients in fitting eyeglasses and contact lens es. Trainees also are taught the basics of office management and sales. In States requiring dispensing opticians to be licensed, information about ap prenticeships is available from the State agency responsible for occupa tional licensing. In the other States, information is available from the Di vision of Apprenticeship Training of the State Department of Labor. Credentials for dispensing opticians are gained through licensure—re quired by law in 22 States and Puerto Rico—and through voluntary certifi cation or registration. In most States that require a license to dispense eye glasses, continuing education is nec essary for relicensure. For specific information about licensing proce dures, consult the State board of oc cupational licensing. Certification is offered by the Amer ican Board of Opticianry and by the National Contact Lens Examiners. Continuing education is required to maintain certification. Many experienced dispensing opti cians go into business for themselves. Others become managers of retail op tical stores or sales representatives for wholesalers or manufacturers of eyeglasses or lenses. Job Outlook Employment in this occupation is ex pected to increase faster than the av erage for all occupations through the mid-1990’s in response to the demand for corrective lenses, which is expect ed to rise as a result of demographic trends. Not only is the population growing, but, over the next decade, the number of middle-aged and elder ly persons is projected to rise substan tially. Middle age is a time when many persons begin using corrective lenses for the first time, and elderly persons require more vision care, on the whole, than others. Increasing public awareness of the importance of good eyesight (stimu lated by the vision screening pro grams in schools) is also likely to spur demand. Nowadays, thanks in part to advertising by optical companies, less stigma is attached to wearing eye glasses than in the past, especially by young people. Industrial safety pre cautions may require more safety gog gles and glasses. Increased participa tion in various sports may require some people to use special lenses and frames. Fashion, too, is likely to in fluence demand. The growing variety of frame styles and colors—as well as the increasing popularity of contact lenses—encourages people to buy more than one pair of corrective lens es. Finally, demand is expected to grow in response to products such as photochromic lenses (glasses that be come sunglasses in sunlight), tinted contact lenses, bifocal contact lenses, and extended wear contact lenses. This occupation is vulnerable to changes in the business cycle, with employment falling somewhat during downturns and rising during periods of economic recovery. As is generally the case, however, most openings will arise from the need to replace experi enced workers who transfer to other kinds of work or leave the labor force. Employment opportunities should be excellent for dispensing opticians who have an associate degree in opticianry. Opportunities will be best in metropolitan areas. Not only are there more optical shops and a larger population in cities, but owners of many retail shops in small communi ties also tend to be the dispensing optician and do not need others. Earnings The starting weekly wage rate for newly licensed dispensing opticians in the New York City area—one of the higher paying areas—ranged from $300 to $360 in 1985, based on infor mation from a small number of union contracts. The average experienced dispensing optician in the same area earned at least $400 a week. Dispensing opticians who own and operate their own shops can expect to earn considerably more, generally from $30,000 and more a year. Apprentices start at a wage of about 60 percent of the skilled worker’s rate and receive periodic increases so that, upon completion of the apprentice ship program, they are earning the beginning rate for experienced work ers. Some dispensing opticians are mem bers of unions. The principal union in this field is the International Union of Electronic, Electrical, Technical, Sal aried and Machine Workers (AFLC IO ). Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers use machines and tools for precise, delicate w ork include biom edical equipment technician, calibrator, den tal laboratory technician, glass blow er, instrument repairer, locksmith, ophthalm ic laboratory technician, orthodontic technician, prosthetics technician, and watch repairer. Sources of Additional Information For general information about this oc cupation, contact: National Federation of Opticianry Schools, New York City Technical College, Ophthalmic Dispensing Department, 300 Jay St., Brooklyn, N.Y. 11201. Opticians Association of America, 10341 De mocracy Lane, P.O. Box 10110, Fairfax, Va. 22030. National Academy of Opticianry, 10111 George Palmer Highway, Suite 112, Bowie, Md. 20716. Chairperson of Optical Council, IUE-AFLCIO, 200 Park Ave. South, Suite 1701, New York, N.Y. 10003. A list of schools of opticianry is available from either of the following organizations: Commission on Opticianry Accreditation, 10111 George Palmer Hwy., Suite 110, Bowie, Md. 20716. National Federation of Opticianry Schools, New York City Technical College, Ophthalmic Dispensing Department, 300 Jay St., Brooklyn, N.Y. 11201. Electrocardiograph Technicians______ (D.O.T. 078.362-018) Nature of the Work E le ctro c a rd io g ra m s (E K G ’s) are graphic tracings of heartbeats record ed by an instrument called an electro cardiograph. These tracings indicate the electrical changes that occur dur ing and between heartbeats. EKG technicians operate the electrocardio graph to produce the tracings for re view by a physician. Physicians order e lectro card io grams to help diagnose certain forms of h eart d isease and to analyze changes in the condition of a patient’s heart over a period of time. The test is done before most kinds of surgery, including outpatient surgical proce- 190/Occupational Outlook Handbook dures. Some physicians use electro cardiograms as a routine diagnostic procedure for persons who have reached a certain age. In many fields, electrocardiograms are required as part of preemployment physical ex aminations. Since the equipment is mobile, EKG technicians can record electrocardio grams in a doctor’s office, in a hospital heart station (cardiology department), or at the patient’s bedside. After ex plaining the procedure to the patient, the tech n ician a tta c h e s 10 e le c trodes—also called “ leads” —to the chest, arms, and legs of the patient. Normally the technician applies a gel between the electrodes and the pa tient’s skin to facilitate the passage of the electrical impulses. By manipulat ing switches on the electrocardio graph and positioning the electrodes across the chest, the technician ob tains a recording of the heart’s electri cal action. A stylus records the trac ings on graph paper. The test may be given while the patient is resting or while exercising. The technician must know the anatomy of the chest and heart to select the exact locations for the ch est e le c tro d e s. E le ctro d e s placed in the wrong location result in an inaccurate reading. After the recording is completed, the technician prepares the electro cardiogram for analysis by a physi cian, usually a heart specialist. Newer EKG equipment employs a computer to analyze the tracing, and the techni cian may need to enter information into the console using a keyboard. Technicians must be able to recognize and correct any technical errors, such as crossed leads, incorrect lead place ment, or electrical interference, that prevent an accurate reading. They also must call the doctor’s attention to any significant deviations from the average normally recorded by the technique used. Physicians then re view the recordings and study these and other deviations identified. Cardiology is one of the most rap idly developing fields in medicine to day, and increasingly sophisticated procedures for diagnosing and treat ing heart and circulatory problems are being introduced all the time. These have raised skill requirements and created new occupations in the areas of card io v ascu lar and c a rd io p u l monary technology. EKG technicians perform a relatively simple task and do not have the skills to assist in the newer cardiac procedures unless they complete additional training. For example, recognition of the val ue of monitoring heart action while the patient is normally active has led to widespread use of 24-hour ambula tory monitoring (also called Holter monitoring, after the physician who developed the equipment) and exer cise stress testing—a test that records the EKG during physical activity. Careful placement of the electrodes by the EKG technician insures an accurate reading. Technicians who perform these tests need highly specialized EKG training. Some EKG technicians schedule appointm ents, type d o cto rs’ diag noses, maintain patients’ EKG files, care for equipment, and assist in more specialized cardiac testing. Working Conditions Technicians generally work a 5-day, 40-hour week, which may include Sat urdays and Sundays. Those in hospi tals and private clinics also may work evening hours. A lot of time is spent standing. The work can become hec tic. Employment Electrocardiograph technicians held about 21,000 jo b s in 1984. M ost worked in cardiology departments of large hospitals. Others worked part time in small general hospitals where w ork lo ad s are usually not great enough to demand full-time techni cians. Some worked full or part time in clinics and cardiologists’ offices. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement EKG technicians are trained on the job, as a rule. Training usually is con ducted by an EKG supervisor or a cardiologist and lasts no more than 4 to 6 weeks for the basic “ resting” EKG. Training for specialized EKG testing is much more extensive—usu ally 12 to 24 months—and involves in-depth study of cardiovascular anat omy and physiology. Applicants for trainee positions gen erally must be high school graduates. High school courses recommended for students interested in this field include health, biology, and typing. Familiarity with medical terminology can be acquired in classes on human anatomy and physiology and by study ing a medical dictionary. Applicants for EKG training must be reliable, have mechanical aptitude, ability to follow detailed instructions, and pres ence of mind in emergencies. A pleas ant, relaxed manner for putting pa tients at their ease is an asset. There are no licensing requirements for EKG technicians; acquiring cre dentials—available through the Amer ican Cardiology Technologists Asso ciation and the National Alliance for Cardiovascular Technologists—is vol untary. With suitable experience and addi tional training, EKG technicians may Health Technologists and Technicians/191 advance to monitor technician, Holter m onitor technician, stress testing technician, echocardiography techni cian, and cardiac catheterization tech nician. Promotion to supervisory po sitions is possible, too. Job Outlook Employment of EKG technicians is expected to grow as fast as the aver age for all occupations through the mid-1990’s, primarily as the result of major strides in the prevention, diag nosis, and treatment of heart disease, together with continued acceptance of the EKG as a baseline test. Because middle-aged and elderly people are much more likely than young people to have heart or blood vessel disease, the very rapid increase in these population groups will height en demand for cardiac care in the years ahead and will spur demand for EKG technicians. Further, the EKG is widely used in prevention efforts— both in mass health screenings and routine physical examinations. Employment of EKG technicians would grow even faster were it not for the advanced skills required for the newer cardiac procedures, coupled with hospitals’ efforts to cut labor costs. There is little doubt that EK G ’s will continue to be widely used. But the equipment used for a resting EKG is so simple that the necessary skills can be mastered fairly quickly. This has already led some hospitals to “ cross train’’ registered nurses, respi ratory therapists, and other hospital personnel in EKG procedures, there by reducing requirements for EKG technicians. Should cross-training be come a dominant trend in hospital staffing, there would be even fewer new jobs for EKG technicians than currently expected. An increasing number of jobs will be in offices of cardiologists, cardiac catheterization laboratories, cardiolo gy clinics, health maintenance organi zations, and other outpatient settings. Facilities such as these are expected to experience very rapid grow th through the mid-1990’s. Nonetheless, hospitals are likely to remain the dom inant employer of EKG technicians. Because entry requirem ents are minimal, the pool of prospective jobseekers is very large. In some com munities, individuals seeking posi tions as EKG technicians may find that employers prefer applicants with previous EKG experience or formal training, including Armed Forces training. National Society for Cardiopulmonary Tech nology, In c., Suite 307, 1 Bank S t., Gaithersburg, Md. 20878. Earnings For information about acquiring credentials in cardiopulmonary tech nology, contact: EKG technicians employed in hospi tals, medical schools, and medical centers earned starting salaries of about $12,000 a year in 1984, accord ing to a survey by the University of Texas Medical Branch. EKG techni cians who perform more sophisticated tests are paid more than those who perform only basic ones. Some expe rienced EKG technicians earned as much as $25,000 a year. EKG technicians employed by the Federal Government are called Medi cal Machine Technicians. Depending on their education and experience in this occupation, newly hired workers could earn annual salaries ranging from $12,862 to $19,740 in 1985. EKG technicians in hospitals re ceive the same fringe benefits as other hospital personnel, including health insurance, pension benefits, vaca tions, and sick leave. Some institu tions provide tuition assistance, uni forms, and other benefits. Related Occupations Other occupations requiring operation of diagnostic or therapeutic equip ment include audiometrists, electroencephalographic (EEG) technolo gists and technicians, radiologic tech nologists, clinical laboratory technol ogists and technicians, cardiovascular technologists, cardiopulmonary tech nologists, and electroneurodiagnostic technicians. Sources of Additional Information Local hospitals can supply informa tion about employment opportunities. For a list of training programs in cardiovascular technology, contact: American Cardiology Technologists Associa tion, Inc., 1980 Isaac Newton Square, South Reston, Va. 22090. National Alliance of Cardiovascular Technolo gists, 1100 Raleigh Building, P.O. Box 2598, Raleigh, N.C. 27602. For information about acquiring credentials in cardiovascular technol ogy, contact: National Board of Cardiovascular Testing, Inc., 1980 Isaac Newton Square, South Reston, Va. 22090. National Alliance of Cardiovascular Technolo gists, 1100 Raleigh Building, P.O. Box 2598, Raleigh, N.C. 27602. For a list of training programs in cardiopulmonary technology, contact: National Board for Cardiopulmonary Certifica tion, 2801 Far Hills, #309, Dayton, Ohio 45419. Electroencephalographic Technologists and Technicians (D.O.T. 078.362-022) Nature of the Work Electroencephalography is a proce dure that measures the electrical ac tivity of the brain. A machine called an electroencephalograph records this activity and produces a written trac ing of the brain’s electrical impulses. This rec o rd of brain w aves, an electroencephalogram (EEG), can be taken while patients are at rest, while they are subjected to stimuli such as loud sounds and blinking lights, or during periods of exaggerated breath ing. Neurologists use electroencephalo grams to help diagnose the extent of injury for patients suspected of having brain tumors, strokes, or epilepsy; to measure the effects of infectious dis eases on the brain; and to determine whether individuals with mental or behavioral problems have any organic impairment. E E G ’s are conducted on confused or disoriented patients sus pected of having Alzheimer’s disease, for example. Surgeons use them to monitor the patient’s condition during open heart surgery. E EG ’s are stan dard in intensive care units as well, since absence of electrical activity in the brain is a basis for determining that a patient is “ clinically” dead. The people who operate electro encephalographs are called EEG tech nologists or technicians. The titles are used interchangeably and do not nec essarily denote different skill levels, although EEG technologists usually have a broader knowledge of the work than technicians. Before EEG personnel produce electroencephalograms, they take a short medical history and help the patient relax. Then they apply elec trodes to designated spots on the pa tient’s head and make sure that the 192/Occupational Outlook Handbook machine is working correctly. The technologist or technician chooses the most appropriate combination of in strument controls and electrodes to produce the kind of record needed. EEG personnel must recognize and correct any artifacts that appear (an artifact is an electrical or mechanical event that comes from somewhere other than the brain, such as eye movement or interference from elec trical sources). Mechanical problems with the electroencephalograph are reported to the supervisor, so that the machine can be repaired promptly. EEG personnel must know how to recognize changes in the patient’s neurologic, cardiac, and respiratory status. To react properly in an emer gency, they must understand the kinds of medical emergencies that can occur while they are taking the electroen cephalogram. For example, if a pa tient suffers an epileptic seizure, the technician or technologist must take the proper action. Sometimes EEG technologists op erate EEG equipm ent and o th er electrophysiologic monitoring devices hooked up to tape recorders, comput ers, or video equipment. Specialized equipment permits an EEG to be tak en while the patient is moving about (ambulatory monitoring) or while the patient’s movements are being re corded on camera (split-screen vid eo). Sophisticated electroneurodiagnos tic techniques include “ evoked poten tial” and brain wave mapping. In evoked potential, a patient’s brain is stimulated with a series of auditory clicks, blinking lights, or electrical impulses. A computer collects and averages the results for the doctor to study. Brain wave mapping uses a computer to translate brain waves into color-coded maps of variations in the electrical firing of the brain’s nerve cells. It can be used in conjunc tion with the evoked potential tech nique. EEG personnel using these techniques have special training. B esides supervising technicians during recordings, some EEG tech nologists may arrange work schedules and teach EEG techniques. Technol ogists may also have administrative responsibilities, such as managing the laboratory, keeping records, schedul ing appointments, ordering supplies, and establishing .correct treatm ent procedures. In some hospitals, job duties are not confined to electroencephalography. EEG technologists and technicians perform other kinds of procedures as well. To acquire the requisite skills, health tech n o lo g ists are “ crosstrained” to handle several different machines. A new trend in hospital staffing, the cross-training of “ multicompetent” technicians, is seen as a way of holding down labor costs. Working Conditions EEG technologists and technicians usually work in clean, well-lighted surroundings, and spend about half of their time on their feet. A lot of bend ing is necessary as they may work with patients who are unruly or very ill and require assistance. EEG ’s can be taken while the patient is seated or lying down. A 5-day, 40-hour workweek with little overtime is normal, although some hospitals require EEG technol ogists and technicians to be “ on call” (ready to report to work at a mo m ent’s notice) after hours and on weekends and holidays. These em ployees generally work during the day, but those involved in sleep stud ies work evenings and nights. Employment An EEG records the electrical activity ot the brain. Electroencephalographic technolo gists and technicians held about 5,900 jobs in 1984. Most EEG jobs are in hospitals, but other health care set tings are gaining in importance. EEG technologists and technicians work in neurology laboratories; offices of neu rologists and neurosurgeons; group medical practices; health maintenance organizations; urgent care centers and clinics; and psychiatric facilities. Most EEG personnel work full time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement EEG technologists and technicians generally learn their skills on the job, although some complete formal train ing programs. Applicants for trainee positions in hospitals need a high school diploma, as a rule. Often, EEG trainees transfer to the neurology de partment from other jobs in the hos pital, such as laboratory aide or li censed practical nurse. Formal training for EEG technolo gists is offered at the postsecondary level by hospitals, medical centers, community colleges, vocational-tech nical institutes, and colleges and uni versities. In 1984, the Committee on Allied Health Education and Accred itation (CAHEA) had approved 20 formal training programs for EEG personnel. Programs usually last from 1 to 2 years and include laboratory experience as well as classroom in struction in neurology, anatom y, neuroanatomy, physiology, neuro physiology, clinical and internal med icine, psychiatry, and electronics and instrum entation. Graduates receive associate degrees or certificates. Credentials for EEG personnel are available through the American Board of Registration of Electroencephalo graphic T ech n o lo g ists (A B R ET), which awards the title “ Registered EEG Technologist” (R. EEG T.) to qualified applicants. Although not gen erally required for entry level jobs, registration indicates professional competence, and may be necessary for supervisory or teaching jobs. Persons who want to enter this field should have manual dexterity, good vision, an aptitude for working with electronic equipment, and the ability to work with patients as well as with o th er health p ro fe ssio n a ls. High school students considering a career in this occupation should take courses in health, biology, human anatomy, and mathematics. EEG personnel in large hospitals can advance to chief EEG technolo gist and take on increased responsibil ities in laboratory management and in teaching basic techniques to new per sonnel or students from EEG training programs. Chief EEG technologists generally are supervised by a physi Health Technologists and Technicians/193 cian—an electroencephalographer, neurologist, or neurosurgeon. Job Outlook Employment of EEG technologists and technicians is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupa tions through the mid-1990’s, despite mounting concern about health care costs and a marked slowdown in hos pital industry growth. While some EEG positions may be lost to nurses and multicompetent technicians, de mand for EEG personnel in hospitals is likely to be sustained by a number of factors: Public support for high quality care; continued growth of in tensive care units, which affect de mand because electroencephalogra phy is so important in establishing brain death; widespread use of E EG ’s as a monitoring device during surgery; and the medical community’s accept ance of the EEG as a general diagnos tic tool. Advances in clinical neurophysiol ogy are likely to spur demand as well. Such advances include “ evoked po tential” testing, increasingly used by office-based neurologists to aid in the diagnosis of a variety of conditions, including multiple sclerosis. Brain wave mapping could heighten demand for these workers if the procedure is widely adopted. Still performed ex perimentally, for the most part, brain wave mapping is expensive but ex traordinarily powerful. Like magnetic resonance imaging and CT scanning, it enables physicians to look at what is going on inside a patient’s skull with out resorting to surgery. Because job growth through the mid-1990’s is expected to be very rap id in outpatient settings, including of fices of neurologists, group medical practices, and health maintenance or ganizations, opportunities are likely to be especially favorable in those settings. As in other occupations, however, most job openings will re sult from the need to replace workers who transfer to other jobs or stop working. of exp erienced EEG technicians ranged as high as $19,500 a year. Highly qualified technologists may earn more as teachers for special training, supervisors of EEG labora tories, or program directors of schools of EEG technology. EEG technologists and technicians employed by the Federal Government are called Medical Machine Techni cians. Depending on education and experience, beginning annual salaries ranged from about $12,862 to $19,740 in 1985. EEG technologists and technicians in hospitals receive the same benefits as other hospital personnel, including hospitalization, vacation, and sick leave benefits. Some institutions pro vide tuition assistance or free courses, pension program s, uniform s, and parking. Related Occupations Related occupations in supervised medical activities are audiometrists, dental assistants, electrocardiograph technicians, electroneurodiagnostic technicians, licensed practical nurses, nursing aides, occupational therapy assistants, surgical technicians, phys ical therapy aides, and psychiatric aides. Sources of Additional Information Local hospitals can supply informa tion about employment opportunities. For general information about a ca reer in electroencephalography as well as a list of accredited training pro grams, contact: Executive Office, American Society of EEG Technologists, Sixth at Quint, Carroll, Iowa 51401. Information on becoming a regis tered EEG technologist is available from: The Psychological Corporation, ABRET Exam, 7500 Old Oak Blvd., Cleveland, Ohio 44130. Emergency Medical Technicians (D.O.T. 079.374-010) Earnings Starting salaries of EEG technicians em ployed by h o s p ita ls , m edical schools, and medical centers aver aged $13,269 a year in 1984, according to a survey by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Starting salaries for registered EEG technologists were $1,000 to $2,000 higher. Top salaries Nature of the Work An automobile accident, a heart at tack, a near drowning, an unscheduled childbirth, a poisoning, a gunshot wound—all of these situations de mand urgent medical attention. See ing medical emergencies like these handled on television has made mil lions of Americans aware of the cru cial role played by emergency medical technicians (EMT’s), formerly called ambulance attendants. A call from a dispatcher sends EM T’s—who work in teams of two— to the scene of the emergency. Al though speed is essential, EM T’s obey the traffic laws for the operation of emergency vehicles. They also must know the best route to take in the face of traffic, road construction, and weather conditions. Upon arriving at the scene, the driver parks the ambulance in a safe place to avoid accidents. If no police are present, bystanders may be enlist ed to lend a hand. For instance, in the case of an automobile accident, by standers can help control traffic by placing road flares, removing debris, and redirecting traffic. EM T’s first determine the nature and extent of the victims’ illnesses or injuries and establish priorities for emergency medical care. They look for medical identification emblems that denote if the victim has epilepsy, diabetes, or other medical conditions, so they can provide the correct treat ment. EM T’s give appropriate emer gency care, including opening and m aintaining an airw ay, restoring breathing, controlling bleeding, treat ing for shock, immobilizing fractures, bandaging, assisting in childbirth, managing mentally disturbed patients, treating and resuscitating heart attack victims, and giving initial care to poi son and burn victims. When persons are trapped, such as in an automobile accident, EM T’s face a double problem. First, they must assess the victims’ injuries and supply all possible emergency medical care and protection to the trapped persons. Then they must use the cor rect equipment and techniques to re move the victims safely. EM T’s may request additional help or special res cue or utility services by radio or telephone from a dispatcher. In case of death, EM T’s notify the proper authorities and arrange for the protection of the deceased’s property. When patients must be transported to a hospital, EM T’s place the pa tients on stretchers, lift them into the ambulance, and secure both the pa tients and the stretchers for the ride. EM T’s then drive to the hospital their instructions call for, or, if none has been stipulated in advance, they choose the nearest hospital appropri- 194/Occupational Outlook Handbook ately equipped to treat their patients. To assure prompt treatment upon ar rival, EM T’s report by radio directly to the hospital emergency department about the nature and extent of injuries or illness and the number of persons being transported, or they may relay this information and their destination to the emergency dispatcher. They may ask for additional instructions from the hospital’s emergency medi cal staff. On the way to the emergency de partment, EM T’s monitor patients’ vital signs and give additional care as needed or as directed by a physician with whom they have radio contact. Some EM T’s work in large hospital shock trauma units which use helicop ters to transport critically ill or injured patients. Upon receiving a call for help, the helicopter transports the EM T’s to a point as close to the accident as possible. Once at the site of the accident, they perform all the standard emergency duties: Treating and loading patients and monitoring them during the trip to the hospital. Because operating costs are so high, helicopters are usually reserved for patients who require the immediate or specialized attention available only at a shock trauma unit. Upon arrival at the hospital, EM T’s help transfer patients from the ambu lance to the emergency department. They report their observations and care of the patients to the emergency department staff for diagnostic pur poses and as a m atter of record. EM T’s may help the emergency de partment staff. One of the duties of EM T’s is to maintain a clean, well-equipped am bulance. After each run, EM T’s re place the used linen, blankets, and other supplies, send reuseable items to be sterilized, and carefully check all equipment so that the ambulance is ready for the next trip. If they have carried patients who have a conta gious infection, they decontaminate the interior of the ambulance and re port such calls to the proper authori ties. In cases of radiation contamina tion, they seek special experts to re move the radiation. EM T’s make sure that the ambulance is in good operat ing condition by checking the gaso line, oil, tire pressure, lights, siren, heater, brakes, and communications equipment before their shift begins. In addition to the basic EMT, whose work has been described, there are two other types of EM T’s: EMTIntermediates and EMT-Paramedics. EMT-Intermediates possess a wider range of medical skills than the basic EMT and are certified to assess trau ma patients, administer intravenous therapy, and use antishock garments and esophageal airways. The EMT-Paramedic is trained in the most advanced life support skills. Working with radio communication under the direction of a physician, EMT-Paramedics may, depending on State law, administer drugs, both oral ly and intravenously, use more com plex equipment such as a defibrillator, and p erform the m ost advanced prehospital procedures allowed by law. Working Conditions Because EM T’s must treat patients indoors and out, they are exposed to all kinds of weather. Much of their time is spent standing, kneeling, bend ing, and lifting. At times the work is very strenuous and stressful. EM T’s employed by fire depart ments often have a 56-hour work week. Those employed by hospitals, private firms, and police departments usually work 40 hours a week. Some EM T’s, especially those in police and fire departments, have to be on call for ex te n d e d p e rio d s. V o lu n teer EM T’s have varied work schedules, but many put in from 8 to 12 hours a week. Because many ambulance serv ices function 24 hours a day, EM T’s often work nights and weekends. Ir regular working hours add to the stress of the job. Employment In 1984, there were an estimated 47,000 paid EM T’s, a small number of whom were EMT-Paramedics. Anoth er 86,000 EM T’s worked as volun teers on rescue squads—mostly asso ciated with fire departments. Most paid EM T’s work full time, while most volunteers work part time. Paid EM T’s are distributed about equally among private am bulance services, hospitals, and municipal po lice and fire departments. Not surprisingly, volunteers are generally basic EM T’s. Those with more education and training, such as EM T-Intermediates, are more likely to hold a paid position. At the highest level, EMT-Paramedic, relatively few are volunteers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Quick work by EMT’s helps save lives. Few EM T’s received formal training until recent years. Now instruction in Health Technologists and Technicians/195 emergency medical care techniques is mandatory. A national standard train ing course is the 110-hour program designed by the U.S. Department of Transportation. This program, or its equivalent, is available in all 50 States and the District of Columbia. It is offered by police, fire, and health de partm ents; in hospitals; and as a nondegree course in medical schools, colleges, and universities. This course provides instruction and practice in dealing with emergen cies such as bleeding, fractures, air way obstruction, cardiac arrest, and emergency childbirth. Students learn to use and care for common emergen cy equipment, such as backboards, suction machines, splints, oxygen de livery systems, and stretchers. Physi cians, nurses, and experienced EM T’s usually give the lectures and demon strations. After completing the basic EMT program, students may take a 2-day course dealing with the removal of trapped victims, as well as a 5-day course on driving emergency vehi cles. EMT-Intermediates must have ba sic EMT training plus some of the EMT-Paramedic courses. The addi tional training includes instruction in patient assessment as well as the use of esophageal airways, intravenous fluids, and antishock garments. Training programs for EMT-Paramedics, of which there were about 440 in 1985, generally last from 3 to 5 months. The American Medical Asso ciation’s Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation accred its these programs. In many places, refresher courses and continuing edu cation are available to EM T’s. Although requirements vary, appli cants to an EMT training course gen erally must be at least 18 years old, have a high school diploma or the equivalent, and have a valid driver’s license. Among high school subjects recommended for persons interested in the field are driver education and health and science courses. Training in the Armed Forces as a “ medic” is good preparation for prospective EM T’s. Graduates of approved EMT train ing programs who meet certain expe rience requirements and pass a writ ten and practical examination admin istered by the National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians earn the title of Registered EMT-Ambu lance. To maintain their proficiency, EM T’s must register again every 2 years. To reregister, an individual must be working as an EMT, meet a continuing education requirem ent, and pay a fee. Registration for EMT-Paramedics requires current registration or State certification as an EMT-Ambulance, successful completion of an EMTParamedic training program, 6 months of field experience as an EMT-Paramedic, and passing a written and practical examination. Reregistration is required every 2 years. The level of registration for EMTIntermediate is above that for basic EM T’s, but below that for EMTParamedics. The examination covers the first part of the EMT-Paramedic training curriculum and builds upon the basic EMT skill levels. Current registration or certification at the ba sic EMT level is a prerequisite. Although not a general requirement for employment, registration is ac knowledgment of an EMT’s qualifica tions and makes higher paying jobs easier to obtain. In 1985, about 59,000 basic EM T’s were registered. In addition, all 50 States have some kind of certification procedure. In 24 States, registration with the National Registry is required at some or all levels of certification. Fifteen other States offer the choice of their own certification examination or the N a tional Registry examination. EM T’s should have good dexterity and physical coordination. They must be able to lift and carry up to 100 pounds. EM T’s need good eyesight (corrective lenses may be used) with accurate color vision. Because EM T’s often work under trying conditions, they must exercise good judgment under stress and have leadership ability. Emotional stability and the ability to adapt to many dif ferent situations help them handle dif ficulties. They should have a neat and clean appearance and a pleasant per sonality. Job Outlook Employment of EM T’s is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid1990’s. Conflicting forces will shape the job outlook. On the one hand, population growth and especially an increase in the number of older people are expected to spur demand for EM T’s. The very rapid increase in the population age 75 and above, for ex ample, will lead to greater use of am bulance services. Developments in the field of emergency medicine are likely to heighten demand as well. As more physicians and nurses specialize in emergency medicine, appropriately trained EM T’s are likely to be used more effectively. Upgrading of the profession is expected to stimulate job growth for paid EM T’s. Other factors are likely to constrain job growth, however. Of foremost im portance is the rising cost of training and equipping EM T’s. Cost contain ment will doubtless remain a preoccu pation of emergency medical service providers for some time to come. The clinical value of EMT services will accordingly be weighed against the cost to a greater extent than was true in the past. Other factors that may adversely affect demand for EMT’s include the termination of Federal startup funds for community EMT services, taxpayer resistance to in creased local government expendi tures, and the availability of unpaid volunteers. Opportunities for paid EM T’s are expected to be best in municipal gov ernments and hospitals. In many lo calities, taxpayers have come to re gard emergency medical services as a basic municipal service—as essential as police and fire protection, for ex ample. Competition for municipal jobs will remain keen, however, reflecting the abundance of applicants who vie for these jobs. Those hospitals that expect emer gency medical services to be poten tially profitable are likely to expand their programs, putting them in direct competition with private ambulance services in some cases. Few of the new jobs for EM T’s will be found in private ambulance companies, reflect ing the difficulty many companies are expected to encounter in covering training and operating costs. Some companies will go out of business. In addition to job openings created by increased demand from municipal and hospital employers, many open ings will occur due to replacement needs resulting from the relatively high level of turnover in this occupa tion. Earnings Earnings of EM T’s depend on the employment setting and geographic location as well as the individual’s 196/Occupational Outlook Handbook training and experience. According to a 1984 survey by the J o u r n a l o f E m e r g e n c y M e d i c a l S e r v i c e s ( J E M S ) , an nual average earnings for an EMTAmbulance (basic) were $14,520; for an EMT-Intermediate, $14,716; and for an EMT-Paramedic, $18,540. EM T’s working for police and fire departments usually are paid the same salaries as police officers and firefight ers. (See statements on police officers and firefighters elsew here in the H a n d b o o k .) The employee benefits offered by private companies, such as vacation, sick leave, and health insurance, vary widely. EM T’s employed by hospitals and police and fire departments re ceive the same benefits as the other employees. Related Occupations Other workers in occupations that re quire quick and level-headed reac tions to life-or-death situations are police officers, firefighters, and regis tered nurses. Sources of Additional Information In fo rm a tio n c o n c e rn in g tra in in g courses, registration, and job oppor tunities for prospective EM T’s can be obtained by writing to the Emergency Medical Service D irector of your State. Information about the registration of EM T’s also is available from: National Registry o f Emergency Medical Tech nicians, P.O. B ox 29233, Columbus, Ohio 43229. General information about EM T’s is available from: National Association o f Emergency Medical Technicians, P.O. Box 334, Newton Highlands, Mass. 02161-0334. Licensed Practical. Nurses____________ (D.Q.T. 079.374-014)____________________________ Nature of the Work Licensed practical nurses (L PN ’s) help care for the physically or mental ly ill and infirm. Under the direction of physicians and registered nurses, they provide nursing care that re quires technical knowledge but not the professional education and train ing of a registered nurse. (The work of registered nurses is described else where in the H a n d b o o k .) In California and Texas, licensed practical nurses Digitized forare called l i c e n s e d v o c a t i o n a l n u r s e s . FRASER In hospitals, LPN ’s provide bed side care. They take and record tem peratures and blood pressures, change dressings, adm inister certain pre scribed medicines, and help patients with bathing and other personal hy giene. They assist physicians and reg istered nurses in examining patients and in carrying out nursing proce dures. They also assist in the delivery, care, and feeding of infants, as well as in the rehabilitation of patients. Some licensed practical nurses work in spe cialized units such as intensive care or recovery rooms. There they perform special nursing procedures and oper ate sophisticated equipment to pro vide care for seriously ill or injured patients. In some instances, experi enced LPN ’s supervise hospital atten dants and nursing aides. LPN ’s who work in private homes provide day-to-day patient care that may involve nursing treatments and use of technical equipment. In addi tion to providing nursing care, they may prepare meals, see that patients are comfortable, and help keep up their morale. They may teach family members how to perform simple nurs ing tasks. In doctors’ offices and in clinics, LPN ’s prepare patients for examina tion and treatment, administer medi cations, apply dressings, assist the physician in selected procedures, do some laboratory work, and teach pa tients prescribed health care regi mens. They also may make appoint ments and record information about patients. Working Conditions Licensed practical nurses in hospitals generally work 40 hours a week, but often this includes some work at night and on weekends and holidays. They often must stand for long periods and help patients move in bed, stand, or walk. They must be able to handle the emotional stress involved in working with sick patients and their families. In private homes, L PN ’s usually work 8 to 12 hours a day and go home at night. Private duty nursing affords a great deal of freedom in setting work hours and the length and frequency of work assignments. Employment Licensed practical nurses held about 602,000 jobs in 1984. Over half the wage and salary jobs were in hospi tals, as the accom panying ch art shows. A substantial number were in nursing homes, and the rest were in schools, clinics, and doctors’ offices, for the most part. Some LPN jobs are held by private duty nurses. These L PN ’s are either self-employed, imwhich case they are hired directly by patients or their fam ilies, or they are employees of a nurs es’ registry or tem porary help agency. About a quarter of all L PN ’s work part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Colum bia require practical nurses to have a license. To become licensed, appli cants must complete a State-approved program in practical nursing and pass the national written examination. Ed ucational requirements for enrollment in State-approved training programs range from completion of ninth grade to high school graduation, but a high school diploma is usually preferred. In 1984, about 1,279 State-approved programs provided practical nursing training. Trade, technical, or voca tional schools offered more than half of these programs. Other programs were available af community and jun ior colleges, hospitals, and health agencies. Several programs operated by the Armed Forces for military per sonnel were State-approved for prac tical nurse training. Graduates of these programs can apply for licensure. Practical nurse training programs generally last 1 year and include both classroom study and clinical practice. Classroom instruction covers nursing concepts and principles and related subjects including anatomy, physiolo gy, medical-surgical nursing, pediat rics, obstetrics, psychiatric nursing, adm inistration of drugs, nutrition, first aid, and community health. In addition, students receive supervised clinical experience—usually in a hos pital. L P N ’s should have a deep regard for human welfare and be emotionally stable because work with the sick and injured can be upsetting. As part of a health care team, they must be able to follow orders and work under close supervision. Advancement opportunities are lim ited, although in-service educational programs prepare some L PN ’s for work in specialized areas, such as postsurgery recovery rooms or inten sive care units. Health Technologists and Technicians/197 Increasingly, however, practical nurse training programs are designed to allow practical nurse graduates to continue their education and eventu ally satisfy the formal requirements for registered nurse. For example, in over 80 associate degree RN pro grams, the first year of study satisfies the educational requirem ents for LPN. After this first year of study, students can apply for licensure as a practical nurse and begin working, or they can com plete both years of coursework and seek licensure as* a registered nurse. Job Outlook Employment of L PN ’s is expected to rise about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s, largely in response to the long-term care needs of a growing and aging population. The emphasis of American medi cine on acute care and high technolo gy has already had the effect, over the past decade, of restraining employ ment growth in practical nursing. This trend is expected to continue. It will shift more and more LPN jobs to nursing and personal care homes, psy chiatric hospitals, private duty nurs ing, and other settings where care and treatment is less technologically ori ented. W idespread use of sophisticated medical technologies has produced a demand for highly skilled support staff. In academic medical centers, teaching hospitals, and other institu tions where the most advanced tech nology is in place, registered nurses, physician assistants, and health tech nologists are sought for the additional training these positions generally re quire; L P N ’s are being phased out. Efforts to restrain the increase in health care costs are likely to limit job growth for L PN ’s. The trend toward less costly outpatient care is expected to affect staffing patterns in hospitals, for example, dampening demand for both LPN ’s and nursing aides. In ad dition, opportunities for LPN ’s in the rapidly growing outpatient care sector may be fairly limited, since health maintenance organizations, clinics, and urgent care centers generally pre fer to hire registered nurses. In addition, home health agencies are expected to call upon the skills of personnel more highly trained than LPN ’s. Home delivery of complex treatments such as kidney dialysis, Taking vital signs is part of a licensed practical nurse’s normal routine. chemotherapy, antibiotic therapy, and intravenous nutritional therapy is ex pected to heighten demand for regis tered nurses—but not for LPN ’s—in many home health agencies. In addi tion, reimbursement policies favor use of registered nurses in formal home health care programs. A grow ing number of licensed practical nurs es specialize in home care, but they generally work on a private duty ba sis, contracting directly with patients (or their families), or working through a nursing registry or temporary help agency. The number of elderly and disabled persons in need of long-term care is rising rapidly. This will produce ex ceptionally rapid growth in the nurs ing home sector during the coming decade, spurring job grow th for LPN ’s. Nursing home regulations en courage utilization of LPN ’s: States typically require specified levels of staffing by licensed nursing personnel in nursing homes, but do not distin guish between L PN ’s and R N ’s, ex cept in the position of nursing direc tor. This encourages facilities to hire LPN ’s since they are paid less than R N ’s. T aken to g e th e r, in d u stry growth and facility staffing patterns More than half of all licensed practical nurses work in hospitals. Distribution of employment, 1984 Hospitals Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 198/Occupational Outlook Handbook are expected to generate a substantial number of LPN jobs in nursing hom es. Very rapid growth also is expected in the number of nonlicensed personal care facilities, which should produce a d d itio n a l jo b o p p o rtu n itie s for LPN ’s. The number of LPN ’s in pri vate duty nursing is growing rapidly as well. Overall, the 1990’s will see the emergence of long-term care as a major area of employment for LPN ’s. As in most other occupations, re placement needs will be the main source of jobs, despite the fact that L PN ’s show an unusually strong at tachment to their field. Compared to workers in other occupations requir ing a similar amount of training, LPN ’s are much less likely to transfer to other jobs. Individuals who stop work ing as practical nurses tend to stop working altogether. L P N ’s not cur rently active in the field thus augment the supply of approximately 40,G O O45,000 persons who complete formal training programs each year. Earnings Median annual earnings of L PN ’s who worked full time in 1984 were about $15,000. The middle 50 percent earned between $13,000 and $17,000. The lowest 10 percent earned $11,000 or less. The top 10 percent earned more than $20,000. LPN ’s in nursing homes had medi an annual salaries of $13,500 in 1984, according to a survey by the Hospital Compensation Service. Starting salaries of L PN ’s employed in hospitals, medical schools, and m edical c e n te rs av e ra g e d ab out $13,600 a year in 1984, according to a national survey conducted by the Uni versity of Texas Medical Branch. Ex perienced L P N ’s averaged about $17,800. In 1985, the Veterans Administra tion paid L PN ’s with no experience annual salaries of $11,458. L P N ’s with 6 months of experience received $12,862 and those with 1 year, $14,390. LPN ’s employed by the Federal Gov ernment earned an average of about $15,500 in 1984. Many hospitals give pay increases after specific periods of satisfactory service. Paid holidays and vacations, health insurance, and pension plans are typical benefits provided by hos pitals. Related Occupations Other jobs that involve working close ly with people while helping them include: Emergency medical techni cian, social service aide, and teacher aide. Sources of Additional Information A list of State-approved training pro grams and information about practical nursing is available from: Communications Department, National League for Nursing, 10 Columbus Circle, New York, N .Y . 10019. National Association for Practical Nurse Edu cation and Service, Inc., 10801 Pear Tree Lane, Suite 151, St. Louis, Mo. 63074. For information about a career in practical nursing, contact: National Federation of Licensed Practical Nurs es, Inc., P.O. Box 11038, Durham, N.C . 27703. Information about employment op portunities in Veterans Administra tion medical centers is available from local VA medical centers and also from: Recruitment and Placement Service, Veterans Adiminstration, 810 Vermont A ve. N W ., Wash ington, D.C. 20420. For information on nursing careers in hospitals, contact: American Hospital Association, Division o f Nursing, 840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, 111. 60611. For a copy of L ong-T erm C are, H e a l t h C a r e e r s in write: American Health Care Association, 1200 15th St. N W ., Washington, D.C. 20005. Medical Record Technicians (D .O .T. 079.367-014) Nature of the Work A medical record is a permanent doc ument giving a complete account of a person’s illness or injury and the med ical services rendered while in a health care facilty. Ordinarily, it includes such items as a patient’s medical his tory, results of physical examinations, reports of X-ray and laboratory tests, diagnosis and treatment plans, doc tors’ orders and notes, and nurses’ notes. This record shows at a glance what treatment has been given and what treatment is planned for the pa tient. Medical records also are used for research, insurance claims, legal actions, professional review of treat ment and medications prescribed, and for training of medical personnel. In addition, medical records are used to evaluate the quality and cost of vari ous medical and surgical procedures, and to plan health care in the commu nity. Managing an information system that meets medical, administrative, ethical, and legal requirem ents in volves the team w ork of m e d i c a l re c o rd a d m in istra to rs, m e d ic a l re co rd t e c h n i c i a n s , and m e d i c a l r e c o r d c l e r k s , known collectively as medical record personnel. Directing the activ ities of the medical record department is the medical record administrator, whose job it is to develop systems for documenting, storing, and retrieving medical information. Administrators train and supervise the medical record staff. They are responsible for compil ing statistics required by Federal and State agencies, assisting the medical staff in evaluations of patient care or research studies, and may be required to testify in court about records and record procedures. Prospective payment, M edicare’s new method of paying hospitals for inpatient care based on physician di agnosis, has thrust medical records into the limelight in most hospitals. Increasingly, medical record adminis trators are viewed as key members of the management team, and they work closely with the finance department to monitor hospital spending patterns. The goal is to improve efficiency with out sacrificing quality of care. Medical record technicians are the people who actually handle the rec ords, organizing and evaluating them for completeness and accuracy. Using standard classification systems, they code symptoms, diseases, operations, procedures, and therapies, and post these codes on patients’ records to facilitate retrieval of information at a later time. Using standard definitions, technicians list each patient’s primary and secondary diagnoses. The techni cian is also responsible for coding each diagnosis and entering these codes into a computer. In addition, technicians prepare records for micro film or microfiche storage. Technicians assist the medical staff by tabulating data from records for research purposes and may, for exam ple, maintain special registries show ing occurrences of disease by type, such as cancer, injury, or stroke. T echnicians also m aintain health record indexes and compile adminis trative and health statistics for public Health Technologists and Technicians/199 health officials, administrators, plan ners, and others. In response to inquiries from law firms, insurance companies, and gov ernm ent agencies, medical record technicians gather statistics and pre pare reports on such topics as types of diseases treated, surgery, and use of hospital beds. They may present med ical records during legal proceedings. The day-to-day tasks of medical record personnel vary with the size of the facility. In a small facility, for example, a technician may have full responsibility for managing the record department, whereas in a large facili ty, technicians are likely to specialize in just one aspect of the work. If the department is large enough to employ medical record clerks, a technician would be responsible for teaching them standardized coding systems. In many nursing homes, a record clerk— working under a consultant who is a R egistered R ecord A dm inistrator (RRA) or an Accredited Record Tech nician (ART)—is responsible for main taining the medical record system. Public health departments hire techni cians to supervise data collection from health care institutions and to assist in research. Manufacturers of medical record systems, services, and equipment employ them to develop and market their products. Some medical record technicians provide services to nursing homes on a consultant basis. Other self-em ployed record technicians specialize in medical transcription—the typing of physicians’ records and notes from dictating or recording equipment or, occasionally, from written notes. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer to hire gradu ates of 2-year associate degree pro grams accredited by the Committee on Allied Health Education and Ac creditation (CAHEA) of the American Medical Association in collaboration with the American Medical Record Association (AMRA). In 1984, com munity and junior colleges offered more than 85 accredited programs. Required courses include biological sciences, medical terminology, medi Working Conditions Medical record personnel generally cal record science, business manage work a standard 40-hour week. Some ment, and data processing. Gaining credentials as a medical overtime may be required. In hospi tals where coding and transcription record technician is voluntary and is take place 24 hours a day, 7 days a offered through the American Medical week, medical record personnel work Record Association (AMRA), which on day, evening, and night shifts. awards the title of Accredited Record Part-time work is generally available. Technician (ART) to those who pass a The work environment is usually written examination. Hospitals often advance promising pleasant and comfortable, but some aspects of the job are stressful. The medical record clerks to jobs as med utmost accuracy is essential, and this ical record technicians. This generally demands concentration and close at requires 2-4 years of job experience tention to detail. The emphasis on and successful completion of the hos accuracy can cause fatigue and mental pital’s in-house training program. strain. Medical record technicians Medical record clerks with several who work at video display terminals years’ experience can advance to the for prolonged periods may experience technician level after completing the AMRA Independent Study Program, eyestrain and musculoskeletal pain. obtaining 30 credit hours in designat ed liberal arts, science, and business Employment Medical record technicians held about courses from an accredited college, 33,000 jobs in 1984. Three out of four and passing the ART examination for jobs were in hospitals. Most of the accreditation. remainder were in nursing homes, clinics, m edical group p rac tic e s, Job Outlook health maintenance organizations, and Em ploym ent is expected to grow other facilities that deliver health much faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s care. In addition, insurance firms, ac due to the heightened importance of counting firms, and law firms that spe medical records in an era of health cialize in health matters employ med care cost containment. Management’s ical record technicians to tabulate and need for accurate clinical data for pur analyze data from medical records. poses of financial control is expected Medical records departments play a key role in keeping hospital costs under control. to spur job growth. N evertheless, most openings will occur because of replacement needs. Most job openings will be in hospi tals. Medical records are pivotal to the hospital’s control of its finances under the prospective payment sys tem , and em ploym ent of medical record personnel in hospitals is ex pected to rise sharply due to the great ly increased need for complete, accu rate, and timely clinical data. Office hours are expected to expand. Also contributing to projected growth are the likelihood of more detailed record analysis, shortened billing time, addi tional quality control and manage ment efficiency m easures, and in creased contact with physicians to clarify entries on the medical record and assure that the record is com plete. Greater need for accurate and upto-date medical records is not con fined to the hospital sector. Health maintenance organizations, surgicenters, medical group practices, nursing homes, and home health agencies share the need for complete and time ly data for reimbursement purposes, professional review of the quality of care, and financial management. The value of well-maintained medical rec ords in financial management is likely to be an especially important consid eration, given the for-profit orienta tion of many newly emerging health care facilities. This should fuel de mand for medical record personnel in a variety of health care settings. The outlook for experienced techni cians who have completed a formal 200/Occupational Outlook Handbook training program will be excellent through the mid-1990’s. Demand for experienced or credentialed techni cians is expected to be very strong due to the emphasis on accuracy in coding and abstracting data. New graduates, too, are expected to en counter an extremely favorable job market. Graduates are reported to be in great demand, and the number of people completing training programs is expected to fall short of that needed to fill job openings. Jobseekers without formal training in medical record technology will probably not be hired as medical record technicians since highly accu rate coding and abstracting skills are essential. Such individuals may be hired as medical record clerks, how ever, with the prospect of promotion to positions as medical record techni cians once they master the requisite skills. Earnings Earnings of medical record techni cians vary according to locality. Be ginning technicians in hospitals and medical schools averaged $13,200 in 1984, according to a national survey conducted by the University of Tex as. Experienced technicians in hospi tal record departments averaged about $16,700. Some earned over $20,000 a year. In 1984, medical record technicians employed by the Federal Government averaged about $15,600 a year. Out standing record technicians may work up to higher supervisory positions with corresponding pay increases, al though Registered Record Adminis trators fill most positions. Like other hospital em ployees, medical record personnel generally receive paid holidays and vacations, health insurance, life insurance, and retirement benefits. Related Occupations Medical record technicians perform a variety of technical and clerical du ties, including verification, transcrip tion, and filing. Other workers with similar duties include information clerks, insurance clerks, library tech nical assistants, medical secretaries, and medical transcriptionists. Sources of Additional Information A list of CAHEA-approved programs for medical record technicians, infor about independent study pro mation grams, and general information on ca reers in medical record management is available from: American Medical Record Association, Suite 1850, 875 N . Michigan A ve., Chicago, 111. 60611. Radiologic Technologists (D.O.T. 078.161-018, .162-010, .361-018 and -034, .362-026 and .364-010)__________________________ Nature of the Work The field of radiology had its begin nings in 1895, when Wilhelm Roent gen discovered X-rays, which permit a physician to view the interior of the human body and diagnose conditions such as fractures, ulcers, blood clots, and tumors. With the application of computer technology to radiology dur ing the 1970’s, the field has been rev olutionized. Today, the chances of obtaining an accurate diagnosis are vastly improved as vague symptoms are routinely transformed into sharp, clear pictures. Sophisticated comput er imaging devices can screen nonsurgically for disorders, often on an outpatient basis. This means less risk for the patient than in the past, when there often was no alternative to inva sive tests and exploratory surgery. New applications of radioisotopes and radioactive tracers led to the growth of nuclear medicine, while the invention of therapeutic X-ray ma chines led to the birth of radiation therapy, also known as radiation oncology. More recently, advances in computer technology have made pos sible such imaging systems as com puted tomography, ultrasound, digital subtraction radiology, and magnetic resonance, all of which provide phy sicians with a good “ look” at internal organs with little risk to the patient. Although discovered many years ago, some of these imaging techniques have become clinically practical only during the last decade, thanks to im provem ents in electronic circuitry that enable computers to handle the vast amount of data involved in a single test. One system coming into use prom ises to provide more than just imaging capabilities. Nuclear magnetic reso nance, or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) as it is increasingly known, has the potential to provide valuable in formation about body chemistry—a step that ordinarily requires explor atory surgery to remove samples of body tissues for testing. MRI repre sents a new generation in medical diagnostics and is a potential compet itor with computed tomography for the diagnosis of brain, brain stem, and spinal cord cases because it provides very effective imaging of soft tissues. Magnetic resonance imaging can also identify multiple sclerosis, for exam ple, or show the effects of a heart attack as it is happening. Magnetic resonance scanners em ploy huge superconductive magnets and radio waves to reveal detailed information about the body’s anatomy and chem ical composition. The information is processed by a computer and the res u ltin g im a g e d i s p l a y e d on a videoscreen in a control room. While some analysts believe MRI will be a “ boom technology,” it is difficult to predict how rapidly the new, extreme ly expensive, equipment will be put into place. Operators of radiologic equipment are called radiologic technologists. They should not be confused with radiologists—physicians who special ize in the interpretation of radio graphs. These workers are still known as X-ray technologists in some places. How ever, as imaging technologies based on concepts other than X-ray exposure have come into use, radiologic technologist has become the standard job title. Most technologists operate equip ment that is used for diagnostic imag ing: X-ray machines, fluoroscopes, computed tomography (CT) scanners, magnetic resonance scanners, and ul trasonic scanners, for example. Radi ation is used for treatm ent, not just for diagnosis, and a distinction is drawn between r a d i a t i o n t h e r a p y t e c h n o l o g i s t s , on the one hand, and d i a g n o s t i c r a d i o l o g i c t e c h n o l o g i s t s or r a d i o g r a p h e r s , on the other. The emergence of nuclear medicine, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging has cre ated additional job titles. Before a radiologic technologist can perform any work on a patient, a physician must issue a requisition for the work. Similar to prescriptions for drugs, these requisitions assure that radiologic technologists examine or treat only people certified by physi cians as needing such studies or treat ment. At all times, technologists must follow precisely not only physicians’ instructions but also regulations con cerning use of radiation to insure that they, patients, and coworkers are pro tected from its dangers. Because radiologic technologists often work with patients who cannot help themselves, good health, moder ate strength, and stamina are impor tant. A sympathetic and understand ing manner is helpful, for technolo gists need to give clear instructions and explanations to patients who of ten are worried and anxious. Patients may be very ill or dying. Radiation therapy technologists in particular are called upon to develop a close and compassionate relationship with pa tients and their families, for in con trast to other areas of radiology, these technologists are likely to administer therapy to cancer patients every day for several weeks or more. In all areas of radiologic technology, it is not un common for patients to have breath ing difficulties or to go into shock or cardiac arrest; if this happens, the technologist must be ready to assist until other medical personnel can be called in. R a d i o g r a p h e r s take X-ray films (ra diographs) of all parts of the human body for use in diagnosing medical problems. They prepare patients for radiologic examinations, assuring that they remove any articles, such as belt buckles or jewelry, through which Xrays cannot pass. Then they position the patients, who either lie on a table, sit, or stand, so that the correct parts of the body can be radiographed, al ways taking care not to aggravate in juries or make the patients uncomfort able. To prevent unnecessary radia tion e x p o s u re , the te c h n o lo g ist surrounds the exposed area with radi ation protection devices, such as lead shields, or in some way limits the size of the X-ray beam. After the necessary preparations, the technologist positions the radia tion equipment at the correct angle and height over the appropriate area of a patient’s body. Using instruments similar to a measuring tape, the tech nologist measures the thickness of the section to be radiographed and then sets the controls on the machine to produce radiographs of the right den sity, detail, and contrast. The technol ogist then places a properly identified X-ray film of the correct size under the part of the patient’s body to be examined, and makes the exposure. Digitized for Afterward, the technologist removes FRASER Health Technologists and Technicians/201 the film and develops it. Throughout the procedure, the technologist is careful to use only as much radiation as is necessary to obtain a good diag nostic examination. Before a radiologist examines a pa tient by fluoroscopy (watching a pa tient’s internal organs on a monitor or screen), the radiologic technologist prepares a solution of contrast medi um for the patient to drink. As this solution passes through the patient’s digestive tract, for example, the radi ologist looks for diseases, injuries, or defects in the patient’s digestive sys tem. When fluoroscopic examinations are performed, whether on the diges tive tract or on other parts of the body such as chest, heart, or blood vessels, the technologist assists the physician by preparing and positioning the pa tient, adjusting the machine, applying the correct exposure, and making any necessary followup radiographs. N u c le a r m e d icin e te ch n o lo g ists (D.O.T. 078.361-018), also known as radioisotope technologists, partici pate in or direct various activities in volving radiopharmaceuticals in med ical diagnosis and treatment. They may work directly with patients; con duct laboratory studies; do research; or handle administrative functions re lating to the purchase, use, and dis posal of radioactive isotopes and safe ty procedures required in using them. Nuclear medicine technologists cal culate and prepare the correct dosag es of radionuclides or radiopharma ceuticals given to patients by mouth, injection, or other means and then position the patient for the imaging procedures. Using special equipment, technologists make images of the ra dioisotopes or radionuclides as they pass through or localize in different parts of a patient’s body. They view images on a screen or on films to detect the existence of pathologic conditions, which are determined by the distribution of radioactive iso topes in various organs, glands, and body systems. This information is used by physicians in diagnosis. Small quantities of radioactive isotopes may be administered to a patient, and body specimens, such as blood and urine, collected and measured for radioac tivity level. Radioactive substances may also be added to body specimens to determine hormone and drug con tent. Other responsibilities include insur ing that radiation safety procedures are carefully followed by all workers in the nuclear medicine laboratory and that complete and accurate rec ords are kept. This includes patient medical records, patient procedures performed, and amounts and kinds of radioisotopes received, used, and dis posed of. R a d ia tio n th era p y te ch n o lo g ists (D.O.T. 078.361-034) treat cancer pa tients. They prepare patients for ra diotherapy and administer prescribed doses of ionizing radiation to diseased body areas. Technologists operate various kinds of equipment, including high-energy linear accelerators and particle generators. They must posi tion patients under the equipment with absolute accuracy, in order to expose diseased body areas to treat ment while protecting the rest of the body from radiation. Radiation therapy can produce side effects such as nausea and vomiting. Hair loss and redness of skin can also occur in exposed areas, so the tech nologist must observe the patient’s reactions and keep the physician in formed. Other responsibilities include as sisting in maintaining the proper oper ation of controlling devices and equip ment, observing safety measures for patients and clinical personnel, and keeping or helping keep patient rec ords, as well as assisting in the prep aration and handling of radioactive materials used in treatment proce dures. With additional education, avail able at major cancer centers, radiation therapy technologists can specialize an d b e c o m e m e d ic a l ra d ia tio n dosimetrists. In this specialty, they work with health physicists in deter mining the best radiation dosages for various problems as well as the spe cial devices needed to expose only a small section of a body part to radia tion. U l t r a s o u n d t e c h n o l o g i s t s (D.O.T. 0 7 8 . 3 6 4 - 0 1 0 ) , a l s o k n o w n as sonographers, use non-ionizing equip ment to transmit sound waves at high frequencies into the patient’s body, then collect reflected echoes to form an image. The image, which results from the “ bounce-back” of sound from the areas being scanned, is viewed on a screen and may be auto matically recorded on a printout strip or photographed from the screen for permanent records and for use in in terpretation and diagnosis by physi- 202/Occupational Outlook Handbook and may be required to lift or turn disabled patients. There are potential radiation haz ards in this field; however, these haz ards have been reduced by the use of safety devices such as instruments that measure radiation exposure, lead aprons, gloves, and other shielding. Because of the presence of radiation and radioactive materials, technolo gists wear special badges that mea sure radiation levels while they are in the radiation area. The badge mea surement rarely approaches or ex ceeds established safety levels be cause of safety programs and built-in safety devices. Radiologic technologists, radiation therapy technologists, and nuclear medicine technologists are among the occupations covered by the Consum er Patient Radiation Health and Safe ty Act of 1981, which aims to protect the public from the hazards of unnec essary exposure to medical and dental radiation by making sure that opera tors of radiologic equipment are prop erly trained. The act requires the Fed eral Government to set standards that the States, in turn, may use for ac crediting training programs and certi fying individuals who engage in med ical or dental radiography. Employment Proper positioning of patient and equipment is crucial for obtaining good X-rays. dans. Ultrasound images can be dis played as moving pictures—an impor tant feature for cardiovascular and prenatal studies. U ltrasound has quickly become a mainstay in obstet rics and gynecology, and is coming into widespread use in other clinical areas as well. Sonographers select equipment ap propriate for use in ultrasound tests ordered by physicians. They also check the patient’s other diagnostic studies for information. Sonographers explain the procedure, record any ad ditional medical history considered necessary, and then position the pa tient for testing. Viewing the screen as the scanning device is moved over the patient’s body, sonographers must be able to recognize subtle differences between healthy and pathological ar Digitized for eas, to check for factors such as posi FRASER tion, obstruction, or change of shape; and to judge if the images are satisfac tory for diagnostic purposes. A high degree of technical skill and knowl edge of anatomy and physiology are essential to recognize the significance of all body structures present in the ultrasound image. In addition to the duties involved in preparing patients and operating equipment, technologists may have administrative tasks. They may pre pare work schedules, evaluate equip ment, and, in general, manage ultra sound departments or facilities. Working Conditions Radiologic technologists generally work a 40-hour week that may include evening and weekend or on-call hours. Technologists are on their feet a lot Radiologic technologists held about 115,000 jobs in 1984. Many worked part time and most were radiograph ers. Nuclear medicine technologists, radiation therapy technologists, and sonographers hold a relatively small proportion of the jobs in this field. About 2 out of every 3 jobs are in hospitals. The rest are located in phy sicians’ and dentists’ offices, clinics, and laboratories. About 3,100 radiologic technologists worked for the Federal Government in 1984: these included 2,700 diagnostic radiograph ers, 300 nuclear medicine technolo gists, and approximately 100 radiation therapy technologists. Many technologists work part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Preparation for this field is offered at the postsecondary level in hospitals, medical centers, colleges and univer sities, trade schools, vocational-tech nical institutes, and the Armed Forces. Hospitals, which employ most radiologic technologists, prefer to hire in dividuals who have completed a for mal training program . Those em ployed in physicians’ offices may be trained on the job, however. Formal training programs are of fered in radiography, nuclear medi cine technology, radiation therapy technology, and diagnostic medical sonography (ultrasound). These pro grams vary in a number of respects: Length of training, prerequisities, class size, and cost. Programs range in length from 1 to 4 years and lead to a certificate, associate degree, or bachelor’s degree. Tw o-year pro grams are most prevalent, however. Magnetic resonance imaging is a new field, and no formal programs have yet been developed to prepare technologists to operate MRI scan ners. Most training is provided by hospitals and equipment manufactur ers. Radiologic technologists are among those most often chosen to train on the equipment. Some of the 1-year certificate pro grams are designed for individuals from other health professions who wish to change fields—medical tech nologists, registered nurses, and res piratory therapists, for example. Cer tificate programs also attract radiologic tec h n o lo g ists in te re ste d in developing a specialization in nuclear medicine, radiation therapy, or ultra sound technology. A bachelor’s or m aster’s degree in one of the radiologic technologies is desirable for su pervisory, administrative, or teaching positions. The Committee on Allied Health E d u c a ti o n and A c c r e d i ta t io n (CAHEA) accredits most formal train ing programs for this field. Approxi mately 1,020 CAHEA-accredited pro grams graduated about 8,800 persons in 1984: 7,400 in radiography, 800 in nuclear medicine technology, 500 in radiation therapy technology, and 100 in diagnostic medical sonography. Radiography programs require, at a minimum, a high school diploma or the equivalent. High school courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology are helpful. The programs provide both classroom and clinical instruction in anatomy, physiology, patient care procedures, physics, ra diation protection, principles of imag ing, medical terminology, positioning, medical ethics, radiobiology, and pa thology. While it is difficult to generalize about prerequisities for training pro Digitized for grams in nuclear medicine, radiation FRASER Health Technologists and Technicians/203 th e ra p y , and diagnostic m edical sonography, a health professions background generally is preferred. For some programs, it is essential. About half of the CAHEA-accredited radiation therapy programs, and sev eral of the diagnostic medical sonog raphy programs, accept applications only from radiologic technologists and registered nurses. Nuclear medicine technology programs accept medical laboratory technologists as well as radiologic technologists and nurses. Nuclear medicine programs that do not require a health professions back ground generally expect applicants to have completed 2 to 3 years of col lege; many require a bachelor’s de gree. Procedures for acquiring profes sional credentials in radiologic occu pations include licensure—required by law in some States—and certifica tion or registration, which is volun tary. Many jobs are open only to registered or registry-eligible technol ogists. Hospitals, for example, gener ally require CAHEA-accredited train ing plus credentials in the appropriate radiologic technology. Public health departments and private physicians are more likely to hire workers with out such credentials. The number of States that regulate the practice of radiologic technology is growing. By 1984, 14 States re quired radiographers to be licensed. Radiation therapy technologists need ed a license in order to work in 10 States, and 4 States required that nu clear medicine technologists be li censed. (Puerto Rico requires a li cense for the practice of all three specialties: Radiography, radiation therapy technology, and nuclear med icine technology.) Registration is offered by the Amer ican Registry of Radiologic Technolo gists (ARRT) in three technologies: Radiography, radiation therapy, and nuclear medicine. Credentials in nu clear medicine technology are award ed by the Nuclear Medicine Technol ogy Certification Board (NMTCB). The American Registry of Diagnostic Medical Sonographers (ARDMS) cer tifies the competence of ultrasound technologists. With experience and additional training, staff technologists in large radiography departments may be pro moted to positions that require ad vanced skills in special procedures including CT scanning, ultrasound, and angiography, or they may move into supervisory positions such as quality assurance technologist, chief technologist, and—ultim ately—de partment administrator or manager. Some technologists progress by be coming instructors or directors in radiologic technology programs; oth ers take jobs as sales representatives or instructors with equipment manu facturers. Job Outlook Employment in the field of radiologic technology is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s, reflecting the importance of these technologies in the diagnosis and treatment of dis ease. Nonetheless, most openings will come from the need to replace expe rienced technologists who leave the profession. Supply/demand conditions in radiologic technology have been character ized by regional imbalances for some time. The ample supply of trained radiographers in suburban areas and big cities stands in contrast to chronic shortages in rural areas and small towns. Current imbalances could in tensify as a result of far-reaching changes now taking place in the health care system. In the years ahead, a growing num ber of radiologic technologists will find jobs in offices of physicians, radi ology clinics, health maintenance or ganizations, and other outpatient set tings. Facilities such as these are ex pected to experience exceptionally rapid growth through the mid-1990’s. This trend reflects increased competi tion for patients, a shift toward outpa tient care, and technological advances (remote transmission of X-rays, for example) that permit procedures to be performed outside the hospital set ting. Hospitals are under pressure to keep costs under control. Fewer of the new jobs for radiologic technolo gists will be in hospitals, a result of administrators’ efforts to reduce the number of tests per patient and to discourage procedures that mean rev enue losses for the hospital. Some radiologic procedures, however, pro duce cost savings—those that substi tute for more expensive surgical pro cedures, for example, and those that hasten diagnosis or discharge. The dominance of the hospital sec tor means that prospects for radio- 204/Occupational Outlook Handbook lo g ic te c h n o l o g i s t s w ill b e b e t t e r in s o m e lo c a litie s t h a n in o t h e r s , d e p e n d in g o n c o n d i t i o n s in th e h o s p ita l in d u s t r y . I n c o m m u n itie s t h a t e x p e r i e n c e h o s p i t a l c lo s in g s o r m e r g e r s , f o r e x a m p le , th e n u m b e r o f o p e n in g s f o r t r a i n e d r a d i o g r a p h e r s c o u ld d e c lin e p r e c i p i t o u s l y . I n a d d i t i o n , h o s p ita ls a r e e x p e c t e d to m a k e g r e a t e r u s e o f s ta f f “ c r o s s - t r a i n e d ” t o p e r f o r m m o r e th a n o n e j o b . T h is c o u ld r e d u c e th e n u m b e r o f o p e n in g s f o r r a d i o g r a p h e r s in a n a l r e a d y w e ll- s u p p lie d m a r k e t. A t th e s a m e t im e , h o s p i t a l s in r u r a l c o m m u n itie s a r e lik e ly to c o n t i n u e to h a v e t r o u b l e r e c r u itin g a n d r e ta in in g q u a li fie d r a d i o g r a p h e r s , e s p e c ia lly in s p e c ia lty a r e a s s u c h a s r a d i a t i o n t h e r a p y , n u c l e a r m e d ic in e , a n d u l t r a s o u n d . O p p o r t u n i t i e s in r a d i o g r a p h y v a r y b y s p e c ia lty . F o r e x a m p le , p r o s p e c t s fo r r a d ia tio n th e r a p y te c h n o lo g is ts s h o u ld c o n t i n u e to b e e x c e l l e n t , a l t h o u g h it is i m p o r t a n t to b e a r in m in d t h a t th is s p e c ia lty is v e r y s m a ll. C u r r e n t l y , r a d i a t i o n t h e r a p y te c h n o lo g is ts a r e in g r e a t d e m a n d , a n d r e p o r t s o f a s h o r ta g e a r e w i d e s p r e a d . T r e n d s in t h e in c id e n c e o f c a n c e r a n d o t h e r m a lig n a n c ie s w ill c o n t i n u e to b e th e p r i n c ip a l f a c t o r a f f e c tin g d e m a n d f o r t h e s e w o r k e r s . N o t o n ly h a s t h e r e b e e n a n i n c r e a s e in t h e n u m b e r o f c a n c e r c a s e s d e te c te d , b u t m o re c a s e s a re b e in g t r e a t e d b y r a d ia tio n — e ith e r a lo n e o r in c o m b i n a t i o n w ith s u r g e r y o r c h e m o th e ra p y . A p p lic a tio n s o f d ia g n o s tic u ltr a s o u n d a r e e x p e c t e d to g r o w v e r y r a p id ly , in c a r d io lo g y a n d o b s te tr ic s /g y n e c o lo g y in p a r t i c u l a r . M o r e w id e s p r e a d u s e o f u l t r a s o u n d t e s t s w ill s p u r d e m a n d f o r d ia g n o s tic m e d ic a l s o n o g r a p h e r s . T h e y a r e lik e ly to fin d j o b s in a w id e r a n g e o f h e a l t h c a r e s e ttin g s , in c lu d in g o ffic e s o f p h y s i c i a n s , c lin ic s , d ia g n o s tic im a g in g c e n te r s , h e a lth m a in te n a n c e o rg a n iz a t i o n s , a n d h o s p ita ls . In n u c le a r m e d ic in e te c h n o lo g y , lo n g - r a n g e t r e n d s a r e u n c l e a r . E m p l o y m e n t g r o w th m a y b e c o n s t r a i n e d b y c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m o t h e r n o n in v a s iv e im a g in g m e t h o d s , n o t a b l y C T a n d m a g n e tic r e s o n a n c e im a g in g . A t th e s a m e t im e , a d v a n c e s in n u c l e a r m e d ic in e d i a g n o s tic s c o u ld le a d t o g r e a t e r u s e o f n u c l e a r m e d ic in e p r o c e d u r e s . T h e u s e o f r a d i o p h a r m a c e u t i c a l s , in c o m b i n a t i o n w ith m o n o c l o n a l a n t i b o d ie s , is j u s t o n e il l u s t r a t i o n o f th e e n o r m o u s d ia g n o s tic p o t e n t i a l o f n u c l e a r m e d ic in e . M o n o c lo n a l a n t i b o d ie s h a v e a n a ffin ity f o r t u m o r s . W h e n r a d i o a c t i v e l y m a r k e d , th e y a r e e a s ily f o llo w e d b y s c a n n in g e q u i p m e n t a s th e y g a t h e r a r o u n d o t h e r w i s e in v is ib le p a r t s o f th e b o d y . T h e y c a n b e u s e d to d e t e c t c a n c e r , f o r e x a m p le , a t f a r e a r lie r s ta g e s th a n is c u s t o m a r y t o d a y , a n d w i th o u t r e s o r t to s u r g e r y . I t is d iffic u lt to s a y w h e t h e r t e c h n o lo g ic a l p r o g r e s s o r f in a n c ia l r e s t r a i n t w ill h a v e th e g r e a t e r e f f e c t o n j o b g r o w t h in r a d i o l o g i c t e c h n o l o g y t h r o u g h t h e m id - 1 9 9 0 ’s . E f f o r t s to b r in g h e a lth c a r e s p e n d in g u n d e r c o n tr o l w ill c e r ta in ly a f f e c t e m p lo y m e n t. I n n o v a t i o n s in h e a lth c a r e f in a n c in g h a v e a lr e a d y b e g u n to c h a n g e th e w a y p h y s ic ia n s a n d h o s p ita ls p r o v id e c a r e . P h y s ic ia n s a r e u n d e r p r e s s u r e to b e s e le c tiv e a b o u t o r d e r in g d ia g n o s tic r a d io lo g y s e r v i c e s , a n d m a n y h o s p ita ls a r e r e l u c t a n t to a p p r o v e o u t l a y s f o r c o s tly n e w te c h n o lo g y a n d e q u ip m e n t. I f th e y g a in m o m e n tu m , t r e n d s s u c h a s t h e s e c o u ld c a u s e e m p l o y m e n t o f r a d io lo g ic te c h n o l o g i s t s to g r o w le s s r a p id ly th a n c u r r e n t l y a n t i c ip a te d . L o n g - te r m p r o s p e c t s f o r r a d io lo g ic te c h n o lo g is ts w ill a ls o b e in f lu e n c e d b y f u t u r e t r e n d s in e n r o llm e n ts in f o r m a l tr a in in g p r o g r a m s , w h ic h a r e e x p e c t e d to le v e l o f f o r p o s s ib ly d e c lin e d u r in g th e 1 9 8 0 ’s d u e to th e s h a r p d e c r e a s e in th e c o lle g e - a g e p o p u l a tio n . A s ta b le o r s o m e w h a t s m a lle r s u p p ly o f n e w ly q u a lifie d t e c h n o l o g is ts w o u ld c r e a t e a f a v o r a b l e s i t u a tio n f o r j o b s e e k e r s , p r o v i d e d th e n u m b e r o f q u a lifie d w o r k e r s s e e k in g to r e e n t e r th e o c c u p a t i o n r e m a in s a b o u t th e sa m e . Earnings S ta r tin g s a la r ie s o f r a d io lo g ic t e c h n o l o g is ts e m p lo y e d in h o s p i t a l s , m e d ic a l s c h o o l s , a n d m e d ic a l c e n t e r s a v e r a g e d a b o u t $ 1 5 ,7 0 0 a y e a r in 1 984, a c c o r d in g to a n a tio n a l s u r v e y b y th e U n i v e r s i t y o f T e x a s M e d ic a l B r a n c h . E x p e r i e n c e d r a d io lo g ic te c h n o l o g i s t s a v e r a g e d a b o u t $ 2 4 ,1 0 0 a y e a r . W o r k e r s w ith s p e c ia liz e d s k ills e a r n m o r e . U l t r a s o u n d te c h n o l o g i s t s s t a r t e d a t a b o u t $ 1 7 ,9 0 0 in 1 984, a c c o r d in g to th e U n i v e r s i t y o f T e x a s s u r v e y ; ra d ia tio n th e r a p y te c h n o lo g is ts , a t a b o u t $ 1 8 ,0 0 0 ; a n d n u c l e a r m e d ic in e t e c h n o l o g i s t s , a t $ 1 8 ,0 0 0 a yectr. E x p e rie n c e d u ltra s o u n d te c h n o lo g is ts a v e r a g e d $ 2 6 ,3 0 0 a y e a r . E x p e r i e n c e d r a d i a t i o n th e r a p y te c h n o l g i s t s a v e r a g e d $ 2 5 ,7 0 0 , a n d e x p e r i e n c e d n u c l e a r m e d ic in e te c h n o lo g is ts e a r n e d $ 2 5 ,9 0 0 a y e a r , o n th e a v e r a g e . In 1985, th e F e d e ra l G o v e rn m e n t o f f e r e d s a l a r i e s o f a b o u t $ 1 4 ,4 0 0 a y e a r t o r a d io lo g ic t e c h n o l o g i s t s in e n t r y le v e l p o s i t i o n s . A v e r a g e F e d e r a l s a la r ie s in 1984 w e r e a b o u t $ 1 8 ,6 0 0 a y e a r f o r d i a g n o s t i c r a d io lo g ic t e c h n o l o g i s t s , $ 2 0 ,0 0 0 f o r r a d i a t i o n t h e r a p y t e c h n o l o g i s t s , a n d $ 2 0 ,0 0 0 f o r n u c l e a r m e d ic in e t e c h n o l o g i s t s . S ic k l e a v e , v a c a t i o n s , h e a l t h i n s u r a n c e , a n d o t h e r b e n e f its a r e c o m p a r a b le to t h o s e c o v e r i n g o t h e r w o r k e r s in th e sa m e o rg a n iz a tio n . Related Occupations R a d io lo g ic t e c h n o l o g i s t s o p e r a t e s o p h i s t i c a t e d e q u i p m e n t to h e lp p h y s i c ia n s , d e n tis ts , a n d o th e r h e a lth p r a c t i t i o n e r s d ia g n o s e a n d t r e a t p a t i e n t s . W o r k e r s in r e l a t e d o c c u p a t i o n s in c lu d e d e n t a l h y g i e n i s t s , e l e c t r o c a r d i o g r a p h t e c h n i c i a n s , c a r d io lo g y t e c h n o l o g is ts , e l e c t r o e n c e p h a l o g r a p h i c t e c h n ic ia n s a n d t e c h n o l o g i s t s , p e r f u s i o n is t s , r e s p i r a t o r y t h e r a p i s t s , a n d c lin i c a l la b o ra to ry te c h n o lo g is ts . Sources of Additional Information F o r c a r e e r in fo rm a tio n , e n c lo s e a s t a m p e d , s e l f - a d d r e s s e d b u s i n e s s s iz e e n v e l o p e w ith y o u r r e q u e s t to : American Society of Radiologic Technologists, 15000 Central Ave. SE., Albuquerque, N. Mex. 87123. Society of Nuclear Medicine, 136 Madison Av enue, New York, N.Y. 10016. Society of Diagnostic Medical Sonographers, 10300 N. Central Expressway Building 1, Suite 276, Dallas, Tex. 75231. I n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a c a r e e r in r a d i a t i o n t h e r a p y te c h n o l o g y is a ls o a v a il a b le f r o m : Vice President for Professional Education, American Cancer Society, 90 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016. F o r th e c u r r e n t lis t o f a c c r e d i t e d e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s in r a d i o g r a p h y , r a d ia tio n th e r a p y te c h n o lo g y , n u c le a r m e d ic in e t e c h n o l o g y , o r d ia g n o s tic m e d ic a l s o n o g r a p h y , w r ite : Division of Allied Health Education and Ac creditation, American Medical Association, 535 N. Dearborn St., Chicago, 1 1 60610. 1. Surgical Technicians (D .O .T. 079.374-022) Nature of the Work S u r g ic a l t e c h n i c i a n s , a ls o c a lle d s u r g i c a l te c h n o lo g is ts o r o p e ra tin g ro o m te c h n ic ia n s , a s s is t s u rg e o n s , a n e s th e s io lo g is ts , a n d o t h e r s b e f o r e , d u r in g , a n d a f te r s u rg e ry . T h e y w o rk p rin c i Health Technologists and Technicians/205 p a lly u n d e r t h e s u p e r v is io n o f r e g is te re d P u rse s. T h e y h e lp s e t u p th e o p e r a tin g r o o m w ith s u r g ic a l i n s t r u m e n t s , e q u ip m e n t, s te r ile l i n e n s , a n d flu id s s u c h a s g lu c o s e t h a t w ill b e n e e d e d d u r in g a n o p e r a t i o n . S u r g ic a l t e c h n i c i a n s a ls o m a y p re p a re p a tie n ts fo r su rg e ry b y w a s h in g , s h a v in g , a n d d is in fe c tin g b o d y a r e a s w h e r e th e s u r g e o n w ill o p e ra te . T h e y m a y tr a n s p o r t p a tie n ts to th e o p e r a t i n g r o o m a n d h e lp d r a p e th e m a n d p o s i t i o n th e m o n th e o p e r a tin g ta b le . D u r in g s u r g e r y , th e y p a s s i n s t r u m e n ts a n d o t h e r s te r ile s u p p lie s to th e s u r g e o n s a n d th e s u r g e o n s ’ a s s i s t a n t s . T h e y h o ld r e t r a c t o r s , c u t s u t u r e s , a n d h e lp c o u n t th e s p o n g e s , n e e d l e s , s u p p lie s , a n d i n s t r u m e n t s u s e d d u r in g th e o p e r a t i o n . S u r g ic a l t e c h n i c i a n s h e lp p r e p a r e , c a r e f o r , a n d d is p o s e o f s p e c im e n s t a k e n f o r la b o r a t o r y a n a ly s is d u r in g th e o p e r a t i o n a n d h e lp a p p ly d r e s s in g s . T h e y m a y o p e r a t e s t e r iliz e r s , lig h ts , s u c tio n m a c h i n e s , a n d a s s is t w ith th e o p e r a t i o n o f d ia g n o s tic e q u ip m e n t. A f te r t h e o p e r a t i o n , s u r g ic a l t e c h n i c ia n s m a y h e lp t r a n s f e r p a t i e n t s to th e r e c o v e r y r o o m a n d a s s i s t n u r s e s in c le a n in g a n d s to c k in g t h e o p e r a tin g ro o m fo r th e n e x t o p e ra tio n . Working Conditions S u r g ic a l t e c h n i c i a n s w o r k in c le a n , w e ll- lig h te d , c o o l e n v i r o n m e n t s . T h e y n e e d s ta m in a to b e o n t h e i r f e e t th e w h o le tim e th e y a r e o n d u t y a n d to p a y c lo s e a t t e n t i o n to d e ta il d u r in g o p e ra tio n s . M o s t s u r g e r y is p e r f o r m e d d u r in g th e d a y , b u t s o m e w o r k p l a c e s , s u c h a s e m e r g e n c y s u r g ic a l u n i t s , r e q u ir e 2 4 - h o u r c o v e r a g e . A 4 0 - h o u r , 5 -d a y w o r k w e e k is n o r m a l f o r s u r g ic a l t e c h n ic ia n s , a lth o u g h m a n y a r e r e q u i r e d a t tim e s to b e “ o n c a l l ” ( a v a ila b le to w o r k o n s h o r t n o tic e f o r e m e r g e n c ie s ) . Employment S u r g ic a l t e c h n i c i a n s h e ld a b o u t 3 6 ,0 0 0 j o b s in 1984. I n a fe w r e g io n s o f th e c o u n t r y , te c h n i c i a n s k n o w n a s p r i v a t e s c r u b s a r e e m p lo y e d d ir e c t l y b y s u r g e o n s . M o s t, h o w e v e r , a r e e m p lo y e d b y h o s p ita ls a n d o t h e r p la c e s t h a t h a v e o p e r a t i n g r o o m , d e liv e r y r o o m , a n d e m e r g e n c y r o o m f a c ilitie s . Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement N e a r l y a ll te c h n i c i a n s r e c e i v e th e ir tr a in in g in f o r m a l p r o g r a m s o f f e r e d b y c o m m u n ity a n d j u n i o r c o lle g e s , v o c a tio n a l a n d t e c h n ic a l s c h o o ls , o r h o s p i t a l s . A lth o u g h m o s t p r o g r a m s la s t f r o m 9 to 10 m o n th s , s o m e c o m m u n ity c o lle g e p r o g r a m s la s t 2 y e a r s a n d le a d to a n a s s o c i a t e d e g r e e . In 1984, th e r e w e r e 203 tr a in in g p r o g r a m s f o r s u r g i c a l t e c h n i c i a n s , o f w h ic h 103 w e r e a c c r e d i t e d b y th e C o m m itte e o n A l lie d H e a l t h E d u c a t i o n a n d A c c r e d i t a tio n o f th e A m e r ic a n M e d ic a l A s s o c i a tio n . H ig h s c h o o l g r a d u a tio n n o r m a l ly is r e q u i r e d f o r a d m is s io n . A c c re d ite d p ro g ra m s p ro v id e c la s s r o o m tr a in in g a s w e ll a s s u p e r v is e d c lin ic a l e x p e r ie n c e . R e q u ir e d c o u r s e s in c lu d e a n a to m y , p h y s io lo g y , a n d m ic r o b io lo g y . O t h e r c o u r s e s in c lu d e th e c a r e a n d s a f e ty o f p a t i e n t s d u r in g s u r g e r y , u s e o f a n e s t h e s i a a n d its h a z a r d s , a n d s u r g ic a l c a r e p r o c e d u r e s . S t u d e n t s a ls o le a r n h o w to s te r iliz e i n s t r u m e n t s ; p r e v e n t a n d c o n t r o l in f e c t i o n ; a n d h a n d le s p e c ia l d r u g s , s o l u tio n s , s u p p lie s , a n d e q u ip m e n t. S o m e s u r g ic a l te c h n ic ia n s r e c e iv e t h e i r tr a in in g in h o s p ita l- b a s e d p r o g r a m s t h a t la s t f r o m 6 m o n th s to 1 y e a r , d e p e n d in g o n th e p r o g r a m ’s a d m is s io n r e q u i r e m e n t s . T h e s h o r t e r p r o g r a m s a r e d e s ig n e d f o r lic e n s e d p r a c t i c a l n u r s e s , w h o a lr e a d y h a v e s o m e b a c k g r o u n d in a n a t o m y , p h y s i o lo g y , a n d c lin ic a l p r a c t i c e . T h e lo n g e r p r o g r a m s , f r o m 9 m o n th s to a y e a r , a r e f o r in d iv id u a ls w ith n o b a c k g r o u n d in h e a lth c a r e . S o m e s u rg ic a l te c h n ic ia n s a re t r a i n e d in th e A r m e d F o r c e s . R e g a r d le s s o f w h e r e th e y a r e e d u c a t e d a n d t r a i n e d , s u r g ic a l t e c h n i c i a n s a r e e x p e c te d to k e e p a b re a s t o f n e w d e v e l o p m e n t s in th e fie ld . W ith a d d itio n a l tr a i n i n g , t h e y c a n w o r k w ith n e w e q u ip m e n t s u c h a s la s e r s a n d a s s i s t in c o m p le x p r o c e d u r e s s u c h a s o p e n h e a rt su rg e ry . O b ta in in g p r o f e s s io n a l c r e d e n tia ls f o r th is o c c u p a t i o n is v o l u n t a r y ; th e L ia is o n C o u n c il o n C e r tif ic a tio n c e r t i fie s t e c h n i c i a n s w h o d e m o n s t r a t e e n t r y le v e l k n o w le d g e b y s u c c e s s f u lly p a s s in g a n a tio n a l c e r tif ic a ti o n e x a m in a tio n . C o n tin u in g e d u c a t i o n o r r e e x a m in a tio n is r e q u i r e d to m a in ta in c e r tif ic a ti o n , w h ic h m u s t b e r e n e w e d e v e ry 6 y e a rs. M a n u a l d e x t e r i t y is a n e c e s s i t y f o r s u r g ic a l te c h n ic ia n s b e c a u s e th e y m u s t h a n d le i n s t r u m e n t s q u ic k ly , o f te n h a v in g to a n t i c i p a t e w h ic h i n s t r u m e n t is n e e d e d . T h e y m u s t b e c o n s c i e n t i o u s , o r d e r l y , a n d e m o tio n a lly s t a b le . In s u r g e r y , t h e r e is little m a r g in f o r e r r o r . H ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s i n t e r e s t e d in c a r e e r s in th is o c c u p a t i o n a r e a d v i s e d to ta k e c o u r s e s in h e a lth a n d b io lo g y . S o m e s u r g ic a l t e c h n i c i a n s a d v a n c e to s u p e r v i s o r y o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o s i ti o n s . T h e y m a y b e p r o m o t e d to o p e r a tin g r o o m a d m i n i s t r a t o r , f o r e x a m p le , w h o d e a ls w ith th e d a y - to - d a y r u n n in g o f a n o p e r a t i n g r o o m , o r th e y m a y d i r e c t a h o s p ita lw id e s te r ile s u p p ly s e r v ic e . 206/Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Outlook E m p l o y m e n t in th is fie ld is e x p e c t e d to g r o w a b o u t a s f a s t a s t h e a v e r a g e f o r a ll o c c u p a t i o n s t h r o u g h t h e m id 1 9 9 0 ’s. A s in o t h e r o c c u p a t i o n s , m o s t j o b o p e n in g s w ill r e s u l t f r o m t h e n e e d to r e p l a c e e x p e r i e n c e d w o r k e r s w h o t r a n s f e r to o t h e r o c c u p a t i o n s o r s to p w o r k in g a l t o g e t h e r . F u t u r e p r o s p e c t s f o r s u r g ic a l t e c h n ic ia n s w ill b e a f f e c te d b y b o t h th e r is in g v o lu m e o f s u r g e r y a n d s h if ts in s u rg ic a l p r a c tic e p a tte r n s . T h e n u m b e r o f s u rg ic a l p r o c e d u r e s is e x p e c te d to g r o w r a p id ly d u e to p o p u la tio n g r o w th , th e in c r e a s in g n u m b e r o f o ld e r p e o p le , te c h n o lo g ic a l a d v a n c e s t h a t p e r m it s u r g ic a l in te r v e n tio n f o r m o r e c o n d itio n s t h a n e v e r b e f o r e , a n d w id e s p r e a d in s u r a n c e c o v e r a g e f o r s u r g ic a l c a r e . T h e r a t e o f s u r g e r y h a s c lim b e d s te a d ily a m o n g p e r s o n s 65 y e a r s o f a g e a n d a b o v e . E ld e rly p a tie n ts ty p i c a lly u n d e r g o s u r g e r y f o r c a t a r a c t s , h ip r e p l a c e m e n t s , h e r n i a r e p a i r , o r p ro s ta te r e p a ir o r re m o v a l, fo r e x a m p le . A s n e w p r o c e d u r e s a n d i m p r o v e m e n ts in t e c h n o l o g y c o n t i n u e to m a k e s u r g e r y le s s r i s k y a n d m o r e s u c c e s s f u l, th e p o t e n t i a l b e n e f its t o e ld e r ly p a tie n ts in c re a s in g ly o u tw e ig h th e r i s k s . R a p id g r o w t h o f t h e 6 5 -a n d o v e r p o p u l a t i o n in t h e y e a r s a h e a d is a lm o s t c e r t a i n to s u s t a i n a h ig h le v e l o f d e m a n d fo r su rg e ry . S u rg ic a l p r a c tic e p a tte r n s a re c h a n g in g , h o w e v e r; th e d o m in a n t t r e n d is a s h if t t o o u t p a t i e n t o r a m b u l a t o r y s u r g e r y . A d v a n c e s in l a s e r t e c h n o l o g y , f ib e r o p t i c s , a n d a n e s t h e s ia h a v e m a d e it p o s s ib le f o r m a n y m o re p ro c e d u re s to b e p e rfo rm e d o n a n o u t p a t i e n t b a s i s , w h ile t h e e f f o r t to c o n ta in h e a lth c a re c o s ts h a s c r e a te d a p o w e r f u l in c e n t i v e to d o s o . S o m e h e a l t h i n s u r a n c e p l a n s , f o r e x a m p le , c o v e r th e fu ll c o s t o f o u t p a t i e n t s u r g e r y b u t p a y o n ly p a r t o f th e c o s t if t h e s a m e p r o c e d u r e e n ta ils a h o s p ita l s ta y . A s a r e s u l t , a g r o w in g n u m b e r o f s u r g ic a l p r o c e d u r e s a r e b e in g p e r f o r m e d b y s u r g e o n s in h o s p ita l o u t p a t i e n t d e p a r t m e n t s , w h ic h e m p lo y s u r g ic a l t e c h n i c i a n s a s a s s i s t a n t s . A m b u l a t o r y s u r g e r y is p e r f o r m e d in p h y s i c i a n s ’ o ffic e s , c lin ic s , a n d f r e e s ta n d in g s u r g i c e n t e r s , b u t r e la tiv e ly f e w s u r g ic a l t e c h n i c i a n s a r e e m p lo y e d in t h e s e s e ttin g s . D e p e n d in g o n h o w m u c h s u r g e r y s h if ts a w a y f r o m h o s p i t a l s , t h e r e f o r e , j o b g r o w th f o r s u r g ic a l t e c h n i c i a n s c o u ld b e c u r t a i l e d — d e s p ite t h e r is in g v o lu m e o f s u r g e r y . C o s t- c u ttin g m e a s u r e s w ith in h o s p i ta ls c o u ld a ls o d a m p e n e m p l o y m e n t g r o w th : S o m e h o s p ita ls a r e tr y in g to h o ld d o w n l a b o r c o s t s b y r e d u c in g t h e n u m b e r o f e m p l o y e e s w ith o n ly o n e s k ill a n d p u ttin g g r e a t e r e m p h a s is o n “ m u l t i c o m p e t e n t ” s ta f f w h o h a v e t h e tr a in in g t o p e r f o r m a v a r i e t y o f ta s k s . In th e o p e ra tin g ro o m , th is c o u ld m e a n g r e a t e r r e lia n c e o n r e g i s t e r e d n u r s e s a n d f e w e r p o s itio n s f o r n u r s in g a s s i s t a n t s a n d s u r g ic a l t e c h n i c i a n s . Earnings T h e a v e r a g e s ta r tin g s a la r y f o r s u r g i c a l t e c h n i c i a n s w a s a b o u t $ 1 2 ,7 0 0 a y e a r in 1 9 8 4 , a c c o r d i n g t o a n a tio n a l s u rv e y b y th e U n iv e rs ity o f T e x a s M e d ic a l B r a n c h . E x p e r i e n c e d t e c h n i c ia n s e a r n e d a n a v e r a g e s a l a r y o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y $ 1 6 ,8 0 0 a n n u a l l y . S u r g i c a l te c h n ic ia n s e m p lo y e d b y th e F e d e ra l G o v e r n m e n t a r e c la s s ifie d a s n u r s i n g a s s i s t a n t s . S t a r t i n g s a la r ie s r a n g e d f r o m a b o u t $ 1 0 ,4 9 8 t o $ 1 8 ,6 0 3 in 1 9 8 4 , d e p e n d i n g o n e d u c a t i o n a n d e x p e rie n c e . S a la r ie s v a r y w id e ly b y g e o g r a p h ic lo c a t i o n , w ith t h o s e o n t h e e a s t a n d w e s t c o a s t s g e n e r a l l y h ig h e r . S u r g ic a l te c h n ic ia n s e m p lo y e d b y su rg e o n s t e n d to e a r n m o r e t h a n t h o s e e m p l o y e d b y h o s p i t a l s a n d s im ila r i n s t i tu tio n s . Related Occupations O t h e r w o r k e r s w h o p e r f o r m m e d ic a l a c tiv itie s u n d e r s u p e rv is io n a re c h iro p r a c to r a s s is ta n ts , d e n ta l a s s is ta n ts , e le c tro c a rd io g ra p h te c h n ic ia n s , e le c tro e n c e p h a lo g ra p h ic te c h n o lo g i s t s , l i c e n s e d p r a c t i c a l n u r s e s , m e d i c a l a s s is ta n ts , n u rs in g a id e s , o c c u p a ti o n a l t h e r a p y a s s i s t a n t s T o r d e r l i e s , a n d p h y s i c a l t h e r a p y a id e s . Sources of Additional Information A d d itio n a l in fo rm a tio n o n a c a r e e r as a s u r g ic a l t e c h n i c i a n , o n tr a in in g p r o g ra m s fo r th e o c c u p a tio n , a n d o n c e r tif ic a tio n is a v a i l a b l e f r o m : Association of Surgical Technologists, 8307 Shaffer Parkway, Caller No. E, Littleton, Colo. 80120. Writers, Artists, and Entertainers C r e a t i v i t y , im a g in a tio n , a n d t a l e n t a r e p re re q u is ite s fo r a c a r e e r a s a w rite r, a r t i s t , o r e n t e r t a i n e r . P e o p le in th e s e fie ld s u s e a v a r i e t y o f m e d ia to e x p r e s s id e a s a n d e m o tio n s a n d to d e s c r ib e a n d i n t e r p r e t th e h u m a n e x p e r ie n c e . F o r w r i t e r s a n d o t h e r s in c o m m u n i c a tio n o c c u p a t i o n s , la n g u a g e is a “ to o l o f th e t r a d e . ” T h e y u s e th e w r i t t e n o r s p o k e n w o r d to in f o r m , p e r s u a d e , o r e n t e r t a i n — o r to e x p r e s s t h e i r o w n in d iv id u a lity . P o e t s , p l a y w r ig h ts , ly r i c i s t s , n o v e l i s t s , a n d s h o r t - s t o r y w r it e r s u s e la n g u a g e p r im a r ily f o r c r e a tiv e e x p re s s io n . A m o n g th o s e w h o u se la n g u a g e to in f o r m o r p e r s u a d e a r e jo u r n a lis ts , s p e e c h w rite rs , s c rip t w rit e r s , t e c h n i c a l w r i t e r s , a n d a d v e r tis in g c o p y w r i t e r s . S o m e p e o p le in c o m m u n ic a tio n s o c c u p a t i o n s d o r e la tiv e ly lit tle w r itin g . A m o n g th e m a r e e d i t o r s , w h o r e v is e a n d c o o r d i n a t e th e w o r k o f o th e rs ; p ro o fre a d e rs , w h o re a d a n d c o r r e c t c o p y ; li t e r a r y a g e n ts , w h o a p p ra is e m a n u s c rip ts fo r p u b lic a tio n ; a n d r a d io a n d t e l e v i s i o n a n n o u n c e r s a n d i n t e r p r e t e r s , w h o r e ly o n th e s p o k e n w o r d to d o t h e i r j o b s . A r t i s t s a n d o t h e r s in d e s ig n o c c u p a tio n s u s e v is u a l m e a n s s u c h a s lig h t, s p a c e , c o lo r , f o r m , a n d t e x t u r e to c o n v e y f e e lin g s o r c r e a t e a p a r t i c u l a r e ffe c t. T h e y n e e d e s t h e t i c s e n s itiv ity , c o lo r s e n s e , a n d ta l e n t . A fin e a r t i s t c r e a t e s a p a in tin g o r s c u l p t u r e p r i m a r ily to e x p r e s s a n e m o tio n o r id e a . A p p lie d a r tis ts c r e a te e s th e tic a lly p le a s in g o b je c ts t h a t s e r v e a p r a c tic a l p u r p o s e . W o r k in g b y h a n d , f o r th e m o s t p a r t , th e y e m p lo y a r tis tic s k ills a n d te c h n iq u e s to p r o d u c e u tilita r ia n o b je c ts . T h e d e s ig n fie ld in c lu d e s p e o p le a s d i v e r s e a s s c u l p t o r s , g r a p h ic a n d fin e a r t i s t s , s ig n p a i n t e r s , i l l u s t r a to rs , p h o to g ra p h e rs , e n g ra v e rs , p a in t in g r e s t o r e r s , p r o p m a k e r s , s i l v e r s m ith s , d e c o r a t o r s , e x h ib it d e s ig n e r s , c lo th in g d e s ig n e r s , a n d f u r n itu r e d e s ig n e r s . P e r f o r m in g a r t i s t s a n d e n t e r t a i n e r s e x p r e s s th e m s e l v e s th r o u g h m u s ic , d r a m a , d a n c e , o r m o v e m e n t. W h e r e a s w r i t e r s a n d v is u a l a r t i s t s c a n c a p t u r e a m o m e n t f o r e v e r b y tr a n s f e r r in g it to p a p e r o r c a n v a s , p e r f o r m in g a r t i s t s e x p r e s s th e ir c r e a tiv ity th ro u g h a “ p e r f o r m a n c e . ” A n d n o tw o liv e p e r f o r m a n c e s a r e e x a c tly th e s a m e . P e r f o r m in g a r t i s t s m a y u s e th e ir t a l e n t to s a y s o m e th in g s e r io u s o r p r o f o u n d a b o u t th e h u m a n c o n d itio n o r th e y m a y s im p ly p r o v id e e n t e r t a i n m e n t . B e c a u s e c o m m u n ic a tin g w ith a n a u d i e n c e is s u c h a n in te g r a l p a r t o f th e p e r f o r m e r ’s a r t , s ta g e p r e s e n c e a n d r a p p o r t w ith a n a u d ie n c e a r e q u a litie s a n a r t i s t m u s t d e v e lo p a n d re fin e . A c t o r s a n d a c t r e s s e s , s in g e r s , d a n c e r s , m u s ic ia n s , c o m e d ia n s , m a g ic ia n s , m im e s , t r a p e z e a r t i s t s , a n d f ig u r e s k a t e r s a r e j u s t a f e w o f th e m a n y d if f e r e n t e n t e r t a i n m e n t o c c u p a t i o n s . In so m e o f th e s e o c c u p a tio n s , p a r t i c u la r ly t h o s e in th e p e r f o r m in g a r t s , fe w jo b s o ffe r p e r m a n e n t e m p lo y m e n t; m o s t a re s h o rt-te rm e n g a g e m e n t s . W ith a n o v e r s u p p l y o f q u a li fie d p e o p l e v y in g f o r w o r k , m a n y w r i t e r s , a r t i s t s , a n d e n t e r t a i n e r s h a v e to s e ttle fo r o c c a s io n a l o r p a rt-tim e e m p l o y m e n t in t h e i r c h o s e n fie ld . T h e r e s t o f t h e tim e , th e y s t u d y , p r a c t i c e , a n d t a k e t e m p o r a r y j o b s u n r e l a t e d to t h e i r a r t — s u c h a s w a itin g o n ta b le s o r s a le s c le r k in g . P e o p le w h o a s p ir e to a c r e a t i v e c a r e e r n e e d to b e r e a l i s t i c a b o u t th e i r t a l e n t , f o r t h a t is w h a t c o u n t s m o s t in g e ttin g a j o b o r e s ta b l i s h i n g a r e p u t a tio n . P r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e — in lo c a l th e a tric a l p ro d u c tio n s o r o n a c o m m u n ity n e w s p a p e r , f o r e x a m p l e — c a n h e lp in g e ttin g s t a r t e d . H o w e v e r , e v e n v e r y t a l e n t e d p e o p le m u s t b e w illin g to s p e n d y e a r s m a s t e r i n g a s k ill a n d th e n w a it f o r a “ b r e a k ” — a n o p p o r t u n ity to p e r f o r m , t o e x h i b i t t h e i r w o r k , o r to h a v e a m a n u s c r i p t p u b lis h e d . W rite rs , a r tis ts , a n d e n te rta in e rs n e e d to b e fle x ib le e n o u g h to c o p e w ith j o b in s e c u r i t y a n d w illin g to liv e o n a n i r r e g u la r in c o m e . J o b p r o s p e c t s in a n u m b e r o f c re a tiv e o c c u p a tio n s a re d e s c r i b e d in th e s t a t e m e n t s t h a t f o l lo w . 207 Communications Occupations T h e a r t o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n s is a s o ld a s h u m a n i t y . I t s i m p o r t a n c e in m o d e r n s o c ie ty b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t w h e n y o u t r y t o im a g in e t h e w o r ld w i t h o u t r a d io , t e l e v i s i o n , n e w s p a p e r s , m a g a z i n e s , o r b o o k s . F r o m th e e a r l i e s t d is c o v e rie s o f p a p e rm a k in g te c h n iq u e s t o t o d a y ’s u s e o f c o m p u t e r s a n d s a te l l i t e s t h a t t r a n s m i t i n f o r m a tio n a r o u n d t h e w o r ld i n s t a n t a n e o u s ly , p e o p l e h a v e s o u g h t w a y s o f r e c o r d in g t h e e v e n t s a r o u n d th e m a n d c o n v e y in g t h e in f o r m a t i o n to o t h e r s . C o m m u n i c a t i o n is t h e p r o c e s s o f t r a n s m i t t i n g in f o r m a t i o n to a n a u d i e n c e t h r o u g h a v a r i e t y o f m e d ia . T h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s fie ld i n c lu d e s a b r o a d r a n g e o f o c c u p a t i o n s h a v in g t o d o w ith r e s e a r c h , w r itin g , e d itin g , a n d p r o d u c tio n . It e n c o m p a s s e s e d u c a t i o n a l , m e d ic a l, b u s i n e s s , s p e e c h , j o k e , s c r e e n , a n d fic tio n w r itin g ; a n d i n t e r p r e t i n g , t r a n s l a t i n g , p u b lic r e l a tio n s , a d v e rtis in g , a n d m a n y o th e r s p e c ia ltie s . T h is s e c t i o n o f t h e Hand book d e s c r i b e s f o u r o f t h e s e o c c u p a tio n s — r e p o r te r s a n d c o r r e s p o n d e n ts , p u b lic r e l a t i o n s s p e c i a l i s t s , r a d io a n d te le v is io n a n n o u n c e rs a n d n e w s c a s t e rs , a n d w rite rs a n d e d ito rs . C o m m u n ic a tio n s o c c u p a tio n s r e q u ir e a b r o a d e d u c a t i o n , w ith p r e p a r a t i o n e i t h e r in t h e lib e r a l a r t s a n d h u m a n i t i e s o r in a s c ie n tif ic o r t e c h n i c a l fie ld , d e p e n d in g o n s p e c if ic c a r e e r in te re s t. T h e in te lle c tu a l h a b its a c q u ir e d d u r in g c o lle g e a r e im p o r t a n t . A c u te p o w e rs o f o b s e rv a tio n a n d th e a b ility t o t h i n k c l e a r l y a n d lo g ic a lly a r e n e c e s s a r y t r a i t s , b e c a u s e p e o p le in t h e s e j o b s n e e d t o u n d e r s t a n d th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f t h e e v e n t s t h e y o b s e rv e . A n e x c e lle n t c o m m a n d o f la n g u a g e — b o t h w r i t t e n a n d o r a l— is e s s e n t i a l . I t is t h r o u g h a p p r o p r i a t e c h o ic e o f w o rd s o r p h ra s e s th a t w rit e rs , fo r e x a m p le , g e t th e d e s ire d e ffe c t f r o m t h e i r m a t e r i a l . A fe e lin g f o r l a n g u a g e e n a b le s r e p o r te r s a n d c o r r e s p o n d e n t s to b r e a t h e life a n d m e a n in g in to e v e n t s t h a t o c c u r e v e r y d a y . A k n a c k f o r d r a m a t i z a t i o n t h r o u g h th e s p o k e n w o rd m a k e s ra d io a n d te le v i s io n a n n o u n c e r s a n d n e w s c a s t e r s a t t r a c t i v e to a u d i e n c e s o f a ll k in d s . I n a d d i t i o n to a b r o a d e d u c a t i o n a n d Digitized208 FRASER for o u t s t a n d i n g la n g u a g e s k ills , p e o p le in c o m m u n ic a tio n s j o b s m a y n e e d to b e v e r y w e ll in f o r m e d a b o u t a p a r t i c u l a r s u b je c t. D e p e n d in g o n t h e j o b , th e y m a y n e e d t o b e v e r s e d in e c o n o m ic s , la w , p o l i t i c s , s c i e n c e , e n g i n e e r i n g , c o m p u t e r s c ie n c e , e d u c a t i o n , m u s ic , o r s p o r t s . T h e y m a y b e c a lle d u p o n t o e x p la in c o m p le x le g a l i s s u e s t h a t a r is e f r o m a m a jo r S u p r e m e C o u r t d e c is io n ; n a tio n a l e c o n o m ic a n d p o litic a l e v e n t s f o r r e a d e r s o f a s m a llto w n n e w s p a p e r ; t h e l a t e s t d e v e lo p m e n ts in a h ig h t e c h n o lo g y fie ld f o r r e a d e r s o f a t r a d e j o u r n a l ; o r th e h i s t o r y o f j a z z , c l a s s i c a l, b l u e g r a s s , o r o t h e r m u s ic f e a t u r e d o n a r a d io s h o w . M a n y c o m m u n ic a tio n s w o rk e rs m u s t p e r f o r m w e ll u n d e r p r e s s u r e . A r e p o r t e r w h o m is s e s th e d e a d lin e o n a n im p o r t a n t s t o r y m a y d a m a g e t h e n e w s p a p e r ’s p r e s tig e . A t e l e v i s i o n a n n o u n c e r w h o d o e s n o t r e a c t q u ic k ly t o e m e r g e n c ie s o n th e a i r c a n c a u s e t h e s h o w ’s r a tin g s to d e c lin e . A p u b lic r e la tio n s w o r k e r w h o g iv e s o u t i n c o r r e c t in f o r m a tio n a b o u t a c o m p a n y ’s o p e r a t i o n s c a n d a m a g e its p u b lic im age. C o m p e titio n f o r m o s t c o m m u n i c a t io n s j o b s is k e e n b e c a u s e t h e fie ld tra d itio n a lly a ttr a c ts m a n y m o re j o b s e e k e r s th a n t h e r e a r e j o b o p e n in g s . S o m e p e o p le a r e a t t r a c t e d b y t h e g la m o r o u s im a g e o f m e d ia j o b s — t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s to m e e t p u b lic f ig u r e s , to a p p e a r b e f o r e n a tio n w id e a u d i e n c e s , a n d to a t t e n d t o p n e w s m a k in g e v e n t s . T h is g la m o r o u s a s p e c t o f t h e jo b o b s c u re s th e h a rd w o rk m o s t o f t h e s e j o b s e n ta il. J o u r n a l i s t s , f o r e x a m p le , s p e n d h o u r s e v e r y d a y o n th e te d i o u s b u t e s s e n t i a l t a s k s o f m a k in g c o n t a c t s , c h e c k in g f a c t s , f o llo w in g l e a d s , a n d w r itin g u p t h e i r fin d in g s . D e s p ite th e k e e n c o m p e titio n , j o b s w ill b e a v a ila b le t h r o u g h t h e m id 1 9 9 0 ’s f o r t a l e n t e d in d iv id u a ls w h o h a v e a c q u ire d a p p ro p ria te e d u c a tio n a n d e x p e r i e n c e . W illin g n e s s to t a k e a j o b w h e r e o n e is a v a ila b le in a s m a ll to w n i n s t e a d o f L o s A n g e le s o r N e w Y o r k C ity a n d w illin g n e s s to s t a r t a t t h e b o t t o m m a y m a k e t h e d if f e r e n c e b e t w e e n s u c c e s s a n d f a ilu r e in b r e a k in g in to t h e fie ld . A f t e r t h a t , a c o m b i n a t i o n o f t a l e n t , m o t i v a t i o n , im a g in a ti o n , h a r d w o r k , a n d lu c k c a n l e a d to a re w a rd in g c a r e e r. Public Relations Specialists (D .O .T. 165.017-010, .067-010, and .167-010)________ Nature of the Work A n o r g a n i z a t i o n ’s im a g e , p r o f ita b ility , a n d e v e n i ts c o n t i n u e d e x i s t e n c e c a n d e p e n d o n h o w s u c c e s s f u lly it p r e s e n t s its g o a ls a n d p o lic ie s t o th e p u b lic . P u b lic r e la tio n s s p e c ia lis ts h e lp b u s i n e s s e s , g o v e r n m e n t s , u n i v e rs itie s , h o s p ita ls , s c h o o ls , a n d o th e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s b u ild a n d m a in ta in p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e p u b lic . P u b lic r e l a t i o n s s p e c i a l i s t s a p p l y t h e i r t a l e n t s a n d s k ills in m a n y d if f e r e n t a re a s . T h e y m a y h a n d le p re s s , c o m m u n ity , o r c o n s u m e r re la tio n s , p o litic a l c a m p a ig n s , in te re s t-g ro u p r e p r e s e n ta tio n , fu n d ra is in g , o r e m p l o y e e r e c r u i t m e n t . P u b lic r e l a t i o n s is n o t o n ly “ te llin g t h e e m p l o y e r ’s s t o r y ,” h o w e v e r. U n d e rs ta n d in g th e a t titu d e s a n d c o n c e r n s o f c u s to m e rs , e m p lo y e e s , a n d v a rio u s o th e r “ p u b l i c s ” — a n d c o m m u n i c a t i n g t h is i n f o r m a t i o n t o m a n a g e m e n t t o h e lp f o r m u l a te p o lic y — is a l s o a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f t h e j o b . I n im p r o v in g c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , p u b lic r e l a t i o n s w o r k e r s p r o m o te u n d e r s ta n d in g a n d c o o p e ra tio n a m o n g th e d iv e rs e g ro u p s th a t m a k e u p o u r s o c ie ty . A v a rie ty o f o rg a n iz a tio n s h a v e p u b lic r e la tio n s d e p a r tm e n ts , a n d w o r k e r s m u s t t a i l o r t h e i r p r o g r a m s to a n e m p l o y e r ’s p a r t i c u l a r n e e d s . A p u b lic r e l a t i o n s d i r e c t o r o f a c o lle g e o r u n iv e rs ity , fo r e x a m p le , m a y s p e n d m o s t o f t h e tim e r e c r u i t i n g a s t u d e n t b o d y , w h ile o n e in a la r g e c o r p o r a t i o n m a y w o rk w ith s to c k h o ld e r s , g o v e rn m e n t a g e n c ie s , a n d c o m m u n ity g ro u p s. P u b lic r e l a t i o n s w o r k e r s p u t t o g e t h e r in f o r m a t i o n t h a t k e e p s t h e p u b lic a w a r e o f t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n ’s p o lic ie s , a c tiv itie s , a n d a c c o m p lis h m e n ts , a n d k e e p s m a n a g e m e n t a w a r e o f p u b lic Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/209 a t t i t u d e s . A f t e r p r e p a r i n g th e in f o r m a tio n , t h e y m a y c o n t a c t p e o p le in th e m e d i a w h o m ig h t b e i n t e r e s t e d in p r in tin g , te le v is in g , o r b r o a d c a s t i n g t h e i r m a te r ia l. M a n y r a d io o r t e l e v i s io n a n n o u n c e m e n t s , s p e c ia l r e p o r t s , n e w s p a p e r i te m s , a n d m a g a z in e a r t i c le s s t a r t a t th e d e s k s o f p u b lic r e l a tio n s w o r k e r s . S o m e tim e s th e s u b je c t is a c o m p a n y a n d its p o lic ie s to w a r d s its e m p l o y e e s o r its r o le in th e c o m m u n ity . O f te n th e s u b je c t is a p u b lic is s u e , s u c h a s h e a l t h , n u t r i t i o n , e n e r g y , o r th e e n v i r o n m e n t . A r r a n g in g a n d c o n d u c t i n g p r o g r a m s in w h i c h c o m p a n y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s w ill h a v e d i r e c t c o n t a c t w ith th e p u b lic is a n i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e o f p u b lic r e la tio n s w o r k . S u c h w o r k in c lu d e s s e ttin g u p s p e a k in g e n g a g e m e n ts a n d h e lp in g p r e p a r e s p e e c h e s f o r c o m p a n y o ffic ia ls . T h o s e w o r k e r s o f te n r e p r e s e n t e m p lo y e rs a t c o m m u n ity p r o j e c t s o r o c c a s io n a lly m a y s h o w film s a t s c h o o l a s s e m b l i e s , p la n c o n v e n t i o n s , o r m a n a g e f u n d r a is in g c a m p a ig n s . P u b lic r e l a t i o n s s ta f f m e m b e r s in v e r y la r g e firm s m a y n u m b e r 2 0 0 o r m o r e , b u t in m o s t firm s th e n u m b e r is m u c h s m a lle r . T h e d i r e c t o r o f p u b lic r e l a t i o n s , w h o is o f te n a v ic e p r e s i d e n t o f t h e c o m p a n y , m a y d e v e lo p o v e r a ll p la n s a n d p o lic ie s w ith a to p m a n a g e m e n t e x e c u t i v e . I n a d d itio n , la r g e p u b lic r e l a t i o n s d e p a r t m e n t s e m p lo y w r i t e r s , r e s e a r c h w o r k e r s , a n d o t h e r s p e c ia lis ts w h o p r e p a r e m a te r ia l f o r t h e d if f e r e n t g r o u p s th e c o m p a n y w is h e s t o r e a c h . W o r k e r s w h o h a n d le p u b lic ity f o r a n in d iv id u a l o r d i r e c t p u b lic r e la tio n s f o r a u n i v e r s i t y , s m a ll b u s i n e s s , o r n o n p r o f it o r g a n i z a t i o n m a y h a n d le a ll a s p e c ts o f th e jo b . T h e y c o n ta c t p e o p le o u t s i d e t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n , d o th e n e c e s s a r y p l a n n in g a n d r e s e a r c h , a n d p r e p a r e m a t e r i a l f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n . In s m a ll f ir m s , t h e s e w o r k e r s m a y c o m b in e p u b lic r e l a t i o n s d u tie s w ith a d v e r tis in g o r s a le s p r o m o t i o n w o r k ; th e y m a y b e t o p le v e l o ffic ia ls o r in m o re ju n io r p o s itio n s . T h e m o st s k ille d p u b lic r e l a t i o n s w o r k o f m a k in g o v e r a l l p la n s a n d m a in ta in in g c o n t a c t s u s u a lly is d o n e b y th e d e p a r t m e n t d i r e c t o r a n d h ig h ly e x p e r i e n c e d s ta f f m e m b e r s . a g a in s t d e a d lin e s . P r e p a r in g a n d d e liv e r in g s p e e c h e s , a tte n d in g m e e tin g s a n d c o m m u n ity a c tiv itie s , a n d o u t- o f to w n t r a v e l m a y a ll b e a p a r t o f th e p u b lic r e la tio n s s p e c i a l i s t ’s r o u tin e . T h u s , w o r k e r s o c c a s io n a lly m a y h a v e to b e a t th e j o b o r o n c a ll a r o u n d th e c lo c k . Employment A b o u t 9 5 ,0 0 0 j o b s w e r e h e ld b y p u b lic r e la tio n s w o r k e r s in 1984. M a n u f a c tu r in g firm s , p u b lic u tilitie s , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o m p a n ie s , i n s u r a n c e c o m p a n ie s , a n d tr a d e a n d p r o f e s s io n a l a s s o c ia tio n s e m p lo y m a n y o f th e m . A s iz a b le n u m b e r w o r k f o r g o v e r n m e n t a g e n c ie s ( th e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t a lo n e e m p lo y s s e v e r a l t h o u s a n d p u b lic in f o r m a t i o n s p e c i a l i s t s ) , o r f o r s c h o o ls , c o lle g e s , m u s e u m s , a n d o t h e r e d u c a tio n a l, re lig io u s , a n d h u m a n s e r v ic e o r g a n iz a tio n s . T h e r a p id ly e x p a n d in g h e a lth fie ld a ls o o ffe rs o p p o r t u n itie s f o r p u b lic r e la tio n s w o r k , in h o s p ita ls , p h a r m a c e u t i c a l c o m p a n ie s , a n d m e d ic a l a s s o c i a t i o n s , f o r e x a m p le . M a n y w o r k e r s a r e e m p lo y e d b y p u b lic r e la tio n s c o n s u ltin g firm s w h ic h s e r v e c lie n ts f o r a f e e . S o m e w o r k f o r a d v e r tis in g a g e n c ie s . P u b lic r e la tio n s w o r k e r s a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d in la r g e c itie s w h e r e p r e s s s e r v ic e s a n d o t h e r c o m m u n ic a tio n s f a c ilitie s a r e r e a d ily a v a ila b le , a n d w h e re m a n y b u s in e s s e s a n d tra d e a s s o c ia tio n s h a v e t h e i r h e a d q u a r t e r s . M a n y p u b lic r e la tio n s c o n s u ltin g firm s , f o r e x a m p le , a r e in N e w Y o r k , L o s A n g e le s , C h ic a g o , a n d W a s h in g to n , D .C . A t r e n d , h o w e v e r , is th e d is p e r s a l o f p u b lic r e la tio n s jo b s th r o u g h o u t th e N a tio n , in c lu d in g s m a lle r to w n s . Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A c o lle g e e d u c a t i o n c o m b in e d w ith p u b lic r e l a t i o n s e x p e r i e n c e is e x c e l l e n t p r e p a r a t i o n f o r p u b lic r e la tio n s w o r k . A lth o u g h m o s t b e g in n e r s h a v e a c o lle g e m a jo r in j o u r n a l i s m , c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , o r p u b lic r e l a t i o n s , s o m e e m p lo y e r s p r e f e r tr a in in g in a fie ld r e l a t e d to t h e f ir m ’s b u s i n e s s — s c i e n c e , f in a n c e , o r e n g in e e r in g , f o r e x a m p le . R e g a r d le s s o f a c a d e m ic b a c k g r o u n d , m o s t e n t r a n t s t r a n s f e r fr o m o th e r o c c u p a tio n s w h e re th e y o b ta in e d v a lu a b le w o rk e x p e r ie n c e . M a n y firm s s e e k c o lle g e g r a d u a te s w h o h a v e w o r k e d in e l e c t r o n i c o r p rin t jo u rn a lis m . O th e rs p re fe r w o rk e r s w ith s a le s , e n g in e e r in g , o r o t h e r e x p e r i e n c e t h a t p r e p a r e s th e m to d e a l k n o w le d g e a b ly w ith th e o r g a n iz a t i o n ’s p r o d u c t s o r s e r v ic e s . I n 1 9 8 4 , a b o u t 140 c o lle g e s a n d 25 g r a d u a t e s c h o o ls o f f e r e d d e g r e e p r o g r a m s o r s p e c ia l c u r r i c u l u m s in p u b lic r e l a t i o n s , u s u a lly a d m i n i s t e r e d b y th e jo u rn a lis m o r c o m m u n ic a tio n s d e p a r t m e n t. I n a d d i t i o n , a b o u t 300 c o lle g e s o f f e r e d a t l e a s t o n e c o u r s e in th is fie ld . T y p ic a l c o u r s e s in c lu d e p u b lic r e l a tio n s th e o r y a n d t e c h n i q u e s , o r g a n i z a tio n a l c o m m u n ic a tio n , p u b lic r e la tio n s m a n a g e m e n t a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , a n d o t h e r c o u r s e s in p u b lic r e la tio n s . S p e c ia ltie s a r e o f f e r e d in p u b lic r e l a t io n s in b u s i n e s s , g o v e r n m e n t , a n d n o n p r o f it o r g a n i z a t i o n s . C o u r s e s in a d v e r tis in g , j o u r n a l i s m , b u s i n e s s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , p o litic a l s c ie n c e , c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , p s y c h o lo g y , s o c io lo g y , a n d c r e a t i v e w r itin g a ls o h e lp in p r e p a r in g f o r a c a r e e r in p u b lic r e la tio n s . F a m ilia r ity w ith w o r d p r o c e s s i n g a n d o t h e r c o m p u t e r a p p l i c a t i o n s a ls o is h e lp f u l. P e r s o n s w h o h a v e a b a c h e l o r ’s d e g r e e in p u b lic r e l a t i o n s o r a Working Conditions A lth o u g h p u b lic r e l a t i o n s s ta ffs g e n e r a lly w o r k 35 to 4 0 h o u r s a w e e k , s c h e d u le s m a y b e r e a r r a n g e d b e c a u s e p u b lic r e la tio n s p r o g r a m s o p e r a te Public relations specialists must tailor programs to an employer’s particular needs. 210/Occupationat Outlook Handbook r e l a t e d fie ld g e n e r a lly e n t e r s ta f f p o s i ti o n s , w h e r e a s t h o s e w ith a g r a d u a t e d e g r e e in p u b lic r e l a t i o n s a r e m o r e q u a lif ie d f o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a n d m a n a g e r ia l j o b s . E x tr a c u r r ic u la r a c tiv itie s s u c h as w r itin g f o r a s c h o o l p u b lic a tio n o r te le v is io n o r ra d io s ta tio n p ro v id e v a lu a b le e x p e r i e n c e . M a n y s c h o o ls h e lp s t u d e n t s g a in p a r t - t i m e o r s u m m e r i n t e r n s h i p s in p u b lic r e l a t i o n s w h ic h p r o v i d e tr a in in g t h a t c a n h e lp in c o m p e tin g f o r e n t r y p o s i t i o n s . M e m b e r s h i p in th e P u b lic R e l a t i o n s S t u d e n t S o c ie ty o f A m e ric a p ro v id e s a n o p p o r t u n i t y f o r s t u d e n t s to e x c h a n g e v ie w s w ith p u b lic r e l a t i o n s w o r k e r s a n d to m a k e p ro fe s s io n a l c o n ta c ts t h a t m a y h e lp l a t e r in s e c u r in g a f u ll tim e j o b in t h e fie ld . A p o r tf o lio o f p u b lis h e d a r t i c l e s , t e l e v i s i o n o r r a d io p r o g r a m s , s lid e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , a n d o t h e r w o r k s a m p le s u s u a lly is a n a s s e t in fin d in g a j o b . P u b lic r e la tio n s w o r k e r s s p e n d m u c h tim e g a th e r in g in f o r m a tio n . C r e a ti v i t y , i n itia tiv e , a n d t h e a b ility to e x p r e s s t h o u g h t s c l e a r ly a n d s im p ly a r e i m p o r t a n t to t h e p u b lic r e la tio n s w o r k e r . F r e s h id e a s a r e s o v ita l in p u b lic r e l a t i o n s t h a t s o m e e x p e r t s s p e n d a ll t h e i r tim e d e v e lo p in g n e w id e a s . P e o p le w h o c h o o s e p u b lic r e la tio n s a s a c a r e e r n e e d a n o u tg o in g p e r s o n a lity , s e lf - c o n f id e n c e , a n d a n u n d e r s ta n d in g o f h u m a n p s y c h o lo g y . T h e y s h o u ld h a v e t h e e n t h u s i a s m f o r m o ti v a tin g p e o p l e . T h e a b ility to b e c o m p e t i t i v e b u t f u n c t i o n a s p a r t o f a te a m a r e i m p o r t a n t q u a lif ic a tio n s . P u b lic in f o r m a tio n p o s i t i o n s in th e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t g e n e r a lly r e q u i r e a c o lle g e d e g r e e . M e d ia , w r itin g , o r e d itin g e x p e r i e n c e m a y h e lp in g a in in g su c h a p o s itio n . R e q u ire m e n ts fo r s im ila r p o s i t i o n s in S t a t e a n d lo c a l g o v e rn m e n ts v a ry . S o m e c o m p a n ie s — p a rtic u la rly th o s e w ith la rg e p u b lic r e la tio n s s ta ffs — h a v e f o r m a l tr a in in g p r o g r a m s f o r n e w e m p l o y e e s . I n o t h e r firm s , n e w e m p l o y e e s w o r k u n d e r th e g u id a n c e o f e x p e r i e n c e d s ta f f m e m b e r s . B e g in n e r s o f t e n m a in ta in file s o f m a t e r ia l a b o u t c o m p a n y a c t i v i t i e s , s c a n n e w s p a p e r s a n d m a g a z in e s f o r a p p r o p r ia te a r t i c l e s to c lip , a n d a s s e m b le in f o r m a tio n f o r s p e e c h e s a n d p a m p h l e ts . A f t e r g a in in g e x p e r i e n c e , th e y w o r k o n m o r e d iffic u lt a s s ig n m e n ts , s u c h a s w r itin g p r e s s r e l e a s e s , s p e e c h e s , a n d a r t i c l e s f o r p u b lic a tio n . In Digitized forsFRASERir m s , w o r k e r s g e t a ll - r o u n d om e f e x p e r i e n c e w h e r e a s in o t h e r firm s th e y s p e c ia liz e . P r o m o tio n to s u p e r v i s o r y j o b s m a y c o m e a s w o r k e r s s h o w th e y c a n h a n d le m o r e d e m a n d in g a n d c r e a t i v e a s s ig n m e n ts . S o m e e x p e r i e n c e d p u b lic r e la tio n s w o r k e r s s t a r t t h e i r o w n c o n s u ltin g firm s . T h e P u b lic R e l a t i o n s S o c i e t y o f A m e r i c a a c c r e d i t s p u b lic r e l a t i o n s w o r k e r s w h o h a v e a t le a s t 5 y e a r s ’ e x p e r i e n c e in th e fie ld a n d h a v e p a s s e d a c o m p re h e n s iv e 6 -h o u r e x a m in a tio n (4 h o u r s w r i t t e n , 2 h o u r s o r a l) . E m p lo y e r s c o n s i d e r p r o f e s s io n a l r e c o g n i tio n t h r o u g h s u c h a c c r e d i t a t i o n a sig n o f c o m p e t e n c e in th is fie ld . Job Outlook E m p l o y m e n t o f p u b lic r e la tio n s w o r k e r s is e x p e c t e d to i n c r e a s e m u c h f a s t e r th a n th e a v e r a g e f o r a ll o c c u p a t i o n s t h r o u g h th e m id -1 9 9 0 ’s. N e w j o b s w ill r e s u l t f r o m g r o w th in d e m a n d f o r th e se w o rk e rs as c o rp o ra tio n s , a s s o c ia tio n s , h e a lth f a c ilitie s , a n d o t h e r la r g e o r g a n iz a tio n s e x p a n d t h e i r p u b lic r e la tio n s s ta ffs . T h e t r e n d to w a r d th e u s e o f p u b lic r e la tio n s s p e c ia lis ts b y s m a lle r o r g a n iz a tio n s a ls o s h o u ld s tim u la te e m p lo y m e n t g r o w th . T h e v a s t m a jo r ity o f j o b o p e n in g s , h o w e v e r , w ill r e s u l t f r o m th e n e e d to r e p l a c e w o r k e r s w h o le a v e t h e o c c u p a tio n . E x p e r i e n c e in p u b lic r e l a t i o n s is g o o d p r e p a r a t i o n f o r m a n a g e m e n t a n d o t h e r c lo s e ly r e l a t e d j o b s , a n d t h e r e is a lo t o f m o v e m e n t in to a n d o u t o f th is o c c u p a tio n . C o m p e titio n f o r b e g in n in g j o b s is k e e n , f o r th e g la m o u r a n d e x c i t e m e n t o f p u b lic r e la tio n s a t t r a c t la rg e n u m b e r s o f J o b s e e k e r s , in c lu d in g m a n y w ith r e l a t e d e x p e r ie n c e . P r o s p e c t s f o r a c a r e e r in p u b lic r e l a t i o n s a r e b e s t f o r h ig h ly q u a lifie d a p p l i c a n t s — t a l e n t e d p e o p le w ith s o u n d a c a d e m ic p r e p a r a tio n a n d s o m e m e d ia e x p e r i e n c e . Earnings M e d ia n a n n u a l e a r n in g s f o r p u b lic r e la tio n s p e c ia lis ts w h o a r e n o t se lfe m p lo y e d w e r e $ 2 5 ,8 0 0 in 1984. T h e m id d le 50 p e r c e n t e a r n e d b e t w e e n $ 2 1 ,0 0 0 a n d $ 4 0 ,7 0 0 a n n u a l l y ; t h e lo w e s t 10 p e r c e n t e a r n e d le s s th a n $ 1 3 ,5 0 0 ; a n d th e t o p 10 p e r c e n t e a r n e d m o r e t h a n $ 5 2 ,0 0 0 . S a la rie s o f e x p e r ie n c e d w o r k e r s g e n e r a lly a r e h ig h e s t in la r g e o r g a n i z a tio n s w ith e x t e n s i v e p u b lic r e la tio n s p r o g r a m s . A c c o r d in g to a 1984 s u r v e y , t h e m e d ia n a n n u a l s a la r y o f to p le v e l p u b lic r e l a t i o n s w o r k e r s w a s $ 4 4 ,0 0 0 . M e d ia n a n n u a l s a l a r i e s r a n g e d f r o m a b o u t $ 3 2 ,0 0 0 in lo c a l g o v e r n m e n t to $ 5 1 ,1 0 0 in p u b lic u tili tie s . In th e F e d e ra l G o v e rn m e n t, p e r s o n s w ith a b a c h e l o r ’s d e g r e e g e n e r a lly s t a r t e d a t $ 1 7 ,0 0 0 a y e a r in 1985; t h o s e w ith a m a s t e r ’s d e g r e e g e n e r a lly s t a r t e d a t $ 2 1 ,0 0 0 a y e a r . A d d itio n a l e d u c a t i o n o r e x p e r i e n c e c o u l d q u a lif y a p p l i c a n t s f o r a h i g h e r s a l a r y . P u b lic in f o r m a t i o n s p e c i a l i s t s in t h e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t a v e r a g e d a b o u t $ 3 2 ,4 0 0 a y e a r in 1984. Related Occupations P u b lic r e l a t i o n s w o r k e r s d e v e l o p a n d d i s t r i b u t e p e r s u a s i v e m a t e r i a l in o r d e r to c r e a t e f a v o r a b l e p u b lic a t t i t u d e s . O t h e r w o r k e r s w i t h s im ila r j o b s in c lu d e f u n d r a i s e r s , a c c o u n t e x e c u t i v e s , lo b b y is ts , p r o m o tio n m a n a g e rs , a d v e r t i s i n g m a n a g e r s , a n d p o lic e o ffic e rs i n v o lv e d in c o m m u n i t y r e l a t i o n s . Sources of Additional Information C a r e e r in f o r m a tio n a n d a lis t o f s c h o o ls a c c r e d i t e d b y t h e P u b lic R e l a t i o n s S o c i e t y o f A m e r i c a a n d th e A c c r e d i t i n g C o u n c il o n E d u c a t i o n in J o u rn a lis m a n d M a ss C o m m u n ic a t io n s a r e a v a ila b le f o r $1 f r o m : Career Information, Public Relations Society of America, Inc., 845 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10022. C u r r e n t i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e p u b lic r e la tio n s fie ld , s a l a r i e s , a n d o t h e r ite m s is a v a ila b le f r o m : Dudley House, P.O. Box 600, Exeter, N.H. 03833. P R R e p o r te r , A d d itio n a l in f o r m a t i o n o n j o b o p p o r t u n i t i e s a n d t h e p u b lic r e l a t i o n s fie ld in g e n e r a l m a y b e p u r c h a s e d f o r $1 f r o m : Service Department, P u b lic R e la tio n s N e w s , 127 East 80th St., New York, N.Y. 10021. Radio and Television Announcers and Newscasters________ (D .O .T 131.067-010, and -018, .267-010; 159.147-010, and -014) Nature of the Work A n n o u n c e r s a n d n e w s c a s t e r s a r e th e m o s t f a m ilia r o f th e m a n y o c c u p a t i o n s in r a d io a n d t e l e v i s i o n b r o a d c a s t i n g . A t s m a ll r a d i o s t a t i o n s , m o s t a n n o u n c e r s a r e a ls o d is c j o c k e y s . T h e y in tr o d u c e r e c o r d e d m u s ic ; p r e s e n t n e w s, s p o rts , w e a th e r, a n d co m m e r- Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/211 c ia ls ; i n t e r v i e w g u e s t s ; a n d r e p o r t o n c o m m u n ity a c t i v i t i e s a n d o t h e r m a t t e r s o f i n t e r e s t t o th e a u d ie n c e . O f te n th e y “ a d - l i b ” m u c h o f th e c o m m e n t a r y . I n s m a ll s t a t i o n s , th e y m a y a ls o o p e r a t e th e c o n t r o l b o a r d , s e ll c o m m e r c ia l tim e to a d v e r t i s e r s , a n d w r ite c o m m e r c ia l a n d n e w s c o p y . M a n y r a d io s t a t i o n s a ls o h a v e n e w s r e p o r t e r s w h o b r o a d c a s t d ir e c tly fro m th e scene. A n n o u n c e r s a t te le v is io n s t a tio n s a n d la r g e r a d io s t a t i o n s u s u a lly s p e c ia liz e in a p a r t i c u l a r k in d o f p r o g r a m m in g s u c h a s s p o r t s e v e n t s , g e n e r a l n e w s b r o a d c a s ts , o r w e a th e r re p o rts . T h e y m u s t b e th o r o u g h ly f a m ilia r w ith t h e s e a r e a s a n d , if a w r i t t e n s c r ip t is r e q u i r e d , m a y d o th e r e s e a r c h a n d w r itin g . T e le v is io n n e w s b r o a d c a s t i n g r e q u ir e s s p e c ia liz e d “ o n - c a m e r a ” p e r s o n n e l— a n c h o r p e r s o n s , te le v is io n n ew s re p o rte rs , a n d b ro a d c a s t n ew s a n a l y s t s . I n la r g e n e w s o p e r a t i o n s , s u c h a s t h o s e o f s t a t i o n s in m a jo r c itie s o r n a tio n a l n e t w o r k s , a ll th r e e o f te n t a k e p a r t in th e n e w s b r o a d c a s t . T h e n e w s a n c h o r, o r a p a ir o f c o a n c h o r s , p r e s e n t s th e d a y ’s im p o r ta n t n e w s s to r ie s . T h r o u g h o u t th e b r o a d c a s t , t h e a n c h o r s , s o m e tim e s c a lle d n e w s c a s te r s , in tro d u c e v id e o ta p e d n e w s o r liv e t r a n s m i s s i o n s f r o m o n t h e - s c e n e r e p o r t e r s t h a t p r o v id e in d e p t h in f o r m a tio n o n t h e e v e n t b e in g co v e re d . R a d io a n d te le v is io n b r o a d c a s t n e w s a n a l y s t s , c a lle d c o m m e n t a t o r s , a ls o p r e s e n t c u r r e n t n e w s s t o r i e s , b u t n o r m a lly i n t e r p r e t th e m o r d i s c u s s h o w s p e c ific e v e n t s m a y a f f e c t th e N a t i o n o r u s p e r s o n a lly . F r e q u e n t l y , a s m a lle r te le v is io n s t a tio n e m p lo y s o n ly a n e w s a n c h o r w h o r e a d s a c c o u n t s o f th e d a y ’s s to r ie s a n d in tr o d u c e s b a c k g ro u n d r e p o rts p r o v id e d b y th e n e t w o r k s o r b y a t e le v is io n n e w s s e r v ic e . A n n o u n c e rs fre q u e n tly p a rtic ip a te in c o m m u n ity a c t i v i t i e s . A s p o r t s a n n o u n c e r , f o r e x a m p l e , m ig h t b e th e m a s te r o f c e re m o n ie s a t a to u c h d o w n c lu b b a n q u e t o r g r e e t c u s t o m e r s a t th e o p e n in g o f a n e w s p o r tin g g o o d s s to r e . S o m e a n n o u n c e r s b e c o m e w e ll- k n o w n a n d h ig h ly p a id p e r s o n a l i t i e s . Working Conditions A n n o u n c e r s a n d n e w s c a s t e r s u s u a lly w o r k in w e ll- lig h te d , a ir - c o n d itio n e d , s o u n d p ro o f s tu d io s . H o w e v e r, w h e n b r o a d c a s t i n g f r o m a w a r z o n e o r th e s ite o f a c iv il d i s t u r b a n c e , fire , flo o d , o r o t h e r e m e r g e n c y s itu a tio n , n e w s c a s t e r s m a y b e e x p o s e d to b a d w e a t h e r a n d lo n g h o u r s a n d m a y r is k in ju r y . W o r k in g w ith in a tig h t s c h e d u le r e q u ir e s s p lit- s e c o n d tim in g a n d c a n b e p h y s ic a lly a n d m e n ta lly d e m a n d in g . T h o s e w h o e n jo y th e w o r k , h o w e v e r , fe e l t h a t th e in ta n g ib le r e w a r d s — c r e a tiv e w o r k , m a n y p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t s , a n d th e s a tis f a c tio n o f b e c o m in g w id e ly k n o w n — f a r o u tw e ig h th e d i s a d v a n ta g e s o f ir r e g u la r a n d o f te n u n p r e d i c t a b le h o u r s , w o r k p r e s s u r e s , a n d d i s r u p t e d p e r s o n a l liv e s . Employment R a d io a n d te le v is io n a n n o u n c e r s a n d n e w s c a s t e r s h e ld a b o u t 5 6 ,0 0 0 j o b s in 1984. N e a r ly a ll a r e s ta f f a n n o u n c e r s , b u t s o m e a r e f r e e la n c e a n n o u n c e r s w h o se ll t h e i r s e r v ic e s f o r in d iv id u a l a s s ig n m e n ts to n e tw o r k s a n d s ta t i o n s , o r to a d v e r tis in g a g e n c ie s a n d o t h e r in d e p e n d e n t p r o d u c e r s . Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement E n t r y to th is p r o f e s s io n is h ig h ly c o m p e titiv e . W h ile f o r m a l tr a in in g in a c o lle g e o r te c h n ic a l s c h o o l is v a lu a b le , s ta tio n o ffic ia ls p a y p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n to t a p e d a u d itio n s t h a t p r e s e n t s a m p le s o f a n a p p l i c a n t ’s d e liv e r y a n d — in t e l e v i s i o n — a p p e a r a n c e a n d s ty le o n c o m m e r c ia ls , n e w s , in t e r v i e w s , a n d o t h e r c o p y . C o lle g e g r a d u a te s a n d o th e r s h ir e d b y t e l e v i s io n s t a tio n s u s u a lly s t a r t o u t a s p r o d u c tio n s e c r e t a r i e s , p r o d u c t i o n a s s i s ta n ts , re s e a rc h e rs , o r re p o rte rs an d a r e g iv e n a c h a n c e to m o v e in to a n n o u n c in g if t h e y s h o w a n a p titu d e f o r b r o a d c a s tin g . A n n o u n c e r s m u s t h a v e a p le a s a n t a n d w e ll- c o n tr o lle d v o ic e , g o o d tim in g , a n d e x c e lle n t p r o n u n c ia tio n . C o r r e c t E n g lis h u s a g e a n d a k n o w le d g e o f d r a m a t i c s , s p o r t s , m u s ic , a n d c u r r e n t e v e n t s im p r o v e c h a n c e s f o r s u c c e s s . G o o d ju d g m e n t a n d th e a b ility to r e a c t q u ic k ly in e m e r g e n c ie s a r e i m p o r ta n t b e c a u s e a n n o u n c e r s m a y b e r e q u ir e d to “ a d - lib ” a ll o r p a r t o f a s h o w . A n e a t , p le a s in g a p p e a r a n c e is e s s e n tia l, o f c o u r s e , f o r te le v is io n a n n o u n c e r s a n d n e w s b ro a d c a s te rs . T h e m o st su c c e s s f u l a n n o u n c e r s a t t r a c t a la r g e v ie w in g o r lis te n in g a u d ie n c e b y c o m b in in g a p le a s in g p e r s o n a lity w ith a n a p p e a lin g s ty le . H ig h s c h o o l c o u r s e s in E n g lis h , p u b lic s p e a k in g , d r a m a , f o r e ig n l a n g u a g e s , a n d e l e c t r o n i c s , p lu s s p o r ts a n d m u s ic h o b b ie s , a r e v a lu a b le b a c k - A neat, pleasing appearance is essential for television announcers and news broadcasters. g ro u n d fo r p r o s p e c tiv e a n n o u n c e rs . A lib e r a l a r t s e d u c a t i o n p r o v i d e s a n e x c e lle n t b a c k g r o u n d f o r a n a n n o u n c e r , a n d m a n y u n iv e rs itie s o ffe r c o u rs e s o f s tu d y in th e b r o a d c a s t i n g fie ld . S tu d e n t s a t t h e s e in s t i t u t i o n s a ls o m a y g a in v a lu a b le e x p e r i e n c e b y s u p p le m e n tin g t h e i r c o u r s e s w ith p a r t- tim e w o r k a t th e c a m p u s r a d io s t a t i o n a n d s u m m e r w o r k a t lo c a l s t a t i o n s , fillin g in f o r v a c a tio n in g s ta f f m e m b e r s . A n u m b e r o f p riv a te b ro a d c a s tin g s c h o o ls o ffe r tr a in in g in a n n o u n c in g . P e r s o n s c o n s i d e r i n g e n r o l l i n g in a n y s c h o o l, w h e t h e r p u b lic o r p r iv a te , t h a t o ffe rs tr a in in g f o r a b r o a d c a s tin g c a r e e r s h o u ld c o n t a c t th e p e r s o n n e l m a n a g e r s o f r a d io a n d t e l e v is io n s t a tio n s a n d b r o a d c a s t i n g t r a d e o r g a n iz a tio n s to d e t e r m i n e th e s c h o o l ’s r e p u ta t i o n f o r p r o d u c in g s u ita b ly t r a in e d c a n d id a te s . A n n o u n c e r s g e n e r a lly g e t t h e i r firs t b r o a d c a s t i n g j o b s in a s m a ll s ta tio n . B e c a u s e a n n o u n c e r s in s m a ll r a d io s ta t i o n s s o m e tim e s o p e r a t e t r a n s m i t t e r s , p r o s p e c t i v e a n n o u n c e r s o f te n o b ta in a F e d e r a l C o m m u n ic a tio n s C o m m is s io n ( F C C ) r e s t r i c t e d r a d i o t e l e p h o n e o p e r a t o r p e r m it. T h is q u a l ifie s th e m to b e c o m e i n v o lv e d in th e r o u t i n e o p e r a t i o n o f r a d io t r a n s m i t t e r s a n d m a k e s th e m m u c h m o r e u s e f u l to t h e s e s t a t i o n s . ( F o r a d d itio n a l in f o r m a tio n o n F C C r e q u i r e m e n t s , s e e th e s t a t e m e n t o n b r o a d c a s t te c h n i c i a n s e ls e w h e r e in t h e Handbook .) A n n o u n c e r s u s u a lly w o r k in s e v e r a l d if f e r e n t s t a t i o n s in th e c o u r s e o f th e ir c a r e e r . A f t e r a c q u ir in g e x p e r i e n c e a t 212/Occupational Outlook Handbook a s t a t i o n in a s m a ll c o m m u n ity , a n a m b itio u s a n d t a l e n t e d a n n o u n c e r m a y m o v e to a b e t t e r p a y in g j o b in a la r g e c ity . A n a n n o u n c e r a ls o m a y a d v a n c e b y h o s tin g a r e g u l a r p r o g r a m a s a d is c j o c k e y , s p o r t s c a s t e r , o r o t h e r s p e c ia lis t. I n th e n a t io n a l n e t w o r k s , c o m p e t i t i o n f o r j o b s is p a r tic u la r ly in t e n s e , a n d a n n o u n c e r s o f te n m u s t b e c o lle g e g r a d u a t e s a n d h a v e s e v e r a l y e a r s o f s u c c e s s f u l a n n o u n c in g e x p e r i e n c e b e f o r e th e y a r e g iv e n a n a u d i tio n . Job Outlook C o m p e t i t i o n f o r b e g in n in g j o b s a s a n n o u n c e r s w ill b e v e r y k e e n t h r o u g h th e m id -1 9 9 0 ’s. T h e b r o a d c a s t i n g fie ld ty p ic a lly a t t r a c t s m a n y m o r e j o b s e e k e r s t h a n t h e r e a r e j o b s . I t w ill b e e a s i e r to g e t a j o b in r a d io t h a n in t e l e v is io n b e c a u s e m o r e r a d io s t a tio n s h ir e b e g in n e r s . M a n y o f t h e s e j o b s w ill b e in s m a ll s t a t i o n s , h o w e v e r , w h e r e th e p a y is r e la tiv e ly lo w . B e c a u s e c o m p e t i t i o n f o r r a tin g s is so in t e n s e in m a jo r m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a s , la r g e r a d i o a n d te l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n s w ill c o n t i n u e to s e e k h ig h ly e x p e r i e n c e d a n n o u n c e rs an d n e w s c a s te rs w h o h a v e p r o v e n t h a t th e y c a n a t t r a c t a la r g e a u d ie n c e . E m p l o y m e n t o f a n n o u n c e r s is e x p e c t e d to in c r e a s e a b o u t a s f a s t a s th e a v e r a g e f o r a ll o c c u p a t i o n s t h r o u g h th e m id - 1 9 9 0 ’s a s n e w r a d io a n d t e l e v is io n s t a t i o n s a r e l ic e n s e d a n d th e n u m b e r o f c a b le t e l e v i s i o n s y s te m s c o n t i n u e s to g r o w . E m p l o y m e n t o f r a d io a n n o u n c e r s m a y n o t k e e p p a c e w ith th e in c r e a s e in th e n u m b e r o f s t a t i o n s , h o w e v e r , b e c a u s e o f th e in c re a s e d u se o f a u to m a tic p ro g ra m m in g e q u i p m e n t . A lth o u g h a n n o u n c e r s a r e r a t h e r s tr o n g ly a t t a c h e d to t h e i r o c c u p a t i o n , m o s t o p e n in g s in th is r e l a t i v e l y s m a ll o c c u p a t i o n w ill a r is e f r o m th e n e e d to r e p la c e t h o s e w h o t r a n s f e r to o t h e r fie ld s o f w o r k , r e t i r e , o r d ie . O v e r th e y e a r s , e m p lo y m e n t in th is o c c u p a t i o n h a s n o t b e e n s ig n i fic a n tly a f f e c te d b y d o w n t u r n s in th e e c o n o m y . W h e n p o o r b u s in e s s c o n d itio n s a n d d e c r e a s in g a d v e rtis in g r e v e n u e s n e c e s s i t a t e e m p lo y m e n t r e d u c t i o n s , r a d io a n d t e l e v is io n s t a tio n s te n d t o c u t b a c k th e n u m b e r o f p ro d u c tio n a n d “ b e h in d -th e s c e n e s ” w o r k e r s r a t h e r th a n r e d u c e th e n u m b e r o f a n n o u n c e r s a n d b r o a d c a s te rs . Earnings S a la r ie s in b r o a d c a s tin g v a r y w id e ly w ith th e ty p e o f s t a t i o n , t h e s iz e o f th e m a r k e t it s e r v e s , a n d w ith w h a t t h e a n n o u n c e r h a s to o ffe r. M e d ia n a n n u a l e a r n in g s o f f u ll- tim e a n n o u n c e r s w e r e a b o u t $ 1 4 ,0 0 0 in 1984. T h e m id d le 50 p e r c e n t e a r n e d b e t w e e n $ 1 0 ,4 0 0 a n d $ 2 0 ,0 0 0 y e a r ly ; th e l o w e s t 10 p e r c e n t e a r n e d le s s th a n $ 9 ,0 0 0 ; a n d th e t o p 10 p e r c e n t e a r n e d m o r e th a n $ 5 2 ,0 0 0 . A c c o r d in g to a s u r v e y c o n d u c t e d b y th e N a tio n a l A s s o c ia tio n o f B r o a d c a s t e r s , 1984 s a la r ie s o f r a d io a n n o u n c e r s r a n g e d f r o m a lo w o f $ 1 2 ,0 0 0 to a h ig h o f $ 3 3 ,0 0 0 . S a la r ie s o f T V a n n o u n c e r s r a n g e d f r o m $ 1 2 ,8 0 0 to m o r e th a n $ 1 8 2 ,0 0 0 a n n u a lly . M o s t a n n o u n c e r s in la r g e s ta t i o n s w o rk a 4 0 -h o u r w e e k a n d re c e iv e o v e r tim e p a y f o r a d d itio n a l h o u r s . M a n y a n n o u n c e r s in s m a ll s ta t i o n s w o r k a c o n s id e r a b le a m o u n t o f o v e r tim e . W o r k in g h o u r s c o n s i s t o f b o th tim e o n th e a ir a n d tim e s p e n t in p re p a rin g f o r b r o a d c a s ts . E v e n in g , n ig h t, w e e k e n d , a n d h o lid a y d u ty o c c u r s f r e q u e n t l y s in c e m a n y s t a tio n s b r o a d c a s t 24 h o u r s a d a y , 7 d a y s a w eek. Related Occupations T h e s u c c e s s o f r a d io a n d te le v is io n a n n o u n c e r s a n d n e w s b r o a d c a s t e r s is la r g e ly d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e i r a b ility to s p e a k e f f e c tiv e ly to t h e i r a u d i e n c e s . O th e r s f o r w h o m o r a l c o m m u n i c a tio n s s k ills a r e v ita l a r e i n t e r p r e t e r s , n a r r a t o r s , s a le s w o r k e r s , p u b lic r e l a tio n s w o r k e r s , a n d d r a m a tic a n d c o m ed y p e rfo rm e rs. Sources of Additional Information F o r a lis t o f s c h o o ls t h a t o f f e r p r o g r a m s a n d c o u r s e s in b r o a d c a s t i n g , c o n ta c t: Broadcast Education Association, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, D C. 20036. F o r in f o r m a tio n o n F C C lic e n s u r e , w r ite to : Federal Communications Commission, 1919 M St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20552. G e n e r a l in f o r m a tio n o n th e b r o a d c a s tin g in d u s tr y is a v a ila b le f r o m : National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. F o r in f o r m a tio n o n c a r e e r s in th e c a b le in d u s tr y , w r ite to : Cable Television Association, 1724 Massachu setts Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Reporters and Correspondents (D .O.T. 131 except .267-010 and -018; and 132) Nature of the Work R e p o r t e r s a n d c o r r e s p o n d e n t s p la y a n i m p o r t a n t r o le in s o c i e t y . T h e y g a t h e r in fo rm a tio n a n d p r e p a r e s to rie s th a t in f o r m u s a b o u t lo c a l , S t a t e , n a tio n a l, a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l e v e n t s ; p r e s e n t d if f e r in g p o i n t s o f v ie w o n c u r r e n t i s s u e s ; a n d m o n ito r th e a c tio n s o f p u b lic o ffic ia ls a n d o t h e r s w h o e x e r c i s e p o w e r. In c o v e rin g a s to r y , th e y m a y d o b a c k g ro u n d r e s e a r c h , r e v ie w p u b lic r e c o r d s , a n d i n t e r v i e w a v a r i e t y o f p e o p le . A s a r u l e , r e p o r t e r s t a k e n o t e s o r u s e a t a p e r e c o r d e r w h ile c o lle c tin g fa c ts a n d w rite th e ir s to rie s u p o n r e tu r n i n g t o t h e o ffic e . I n o r d e r to m e e t d e a d lin e s , h o w e v e r, m a n y n o w u se s m a ll, e a s y - t o - c a r r y , lig h tw e ig h t c o m p u t e r s to e n t e r t h e s t o r y , w h ic h is th a n s e n t b y p h o n e m o d e m t o r e w r i t e r s w h o w r i t e o r t r a n s c r i b e t h e s to r i e s f o r th e m . R e p o r t e r s in r a d i o a n d t e l e v i s i o n b ro a d c a s tin g o fte n r e p o r t “ liv e ” fro m th e s c e n e o f a n e w s w o rth y e v e n t, w h e r e t h e y h a v e to c o m p o s e t h e i r s t o r y o n t h e s p o t. L a t e r , t h e y m a y d o c o m m e n t a r y f o r a film r e p o r t in th e s t u d io a n d a p p e a r o n c a m e r a to i n t r o d u c e th e s t o r y . L a rg e n e w s p a p e r a n d ra d io a n d t e l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n s f r e q u e n t l y a s s ig n r e p o r t e r s to i n v e s t i g a t e s p e c if ic l o c a t io n s o r “ b e a t s , ” s u c h a s p o lic e s t a t io n s o r t h e c o u r t s , o n a r e g u l a r b a s is to g a t h e r n e w s o r ig in a tin g in t h e s e p la c e s . G e n e ra l a s s ig n m e n t re p o r te r s w r ite u p lo c a l n e w s a s a s s i g n e d , s u c h as a s to ry a b o u t a sc h o o l b o a rd m e e t in g o r a n o b i t u a r y o f a c o m m u n ity l e a d e r . M a n y n e w s p a p e r , m a g a z in e , a n d w ir e s e r v i c e r e p o r t e r s w ith a b a c k g r o u n d o r i n t e r e s t in a p a r t i c u l a r s u b je c t a n a ly z e a n d in te r p r e t th e n e w s in s p e c i a l i z e d fie ld s s u c h a s m e d ic in e , p o litic s , f o r e ig n a f f a ir s , s p o r t s , f a s h io n , a r t , t h e a t e r , c o n s u m e r a f f a ir s , t r a v e l , f in a n c e , s o c ia l e v e n t s , s c i e n c e , e d u c a tio n , b u s in e s s , la b o r, a n d re li g io n . C r itic s r e v i e w r e s t a u r a n t s a n d m o v ie s a s w e ll a s l i t e r a r y , a r t i s t i c , a n d m u s ic a l w o r k s a n d liv e p e r f o r m a n c e s , w h ile e d i t o r i a l w r i t e r s p r e s e n t v ie w p o i n t s o n t o p i c s o f p u b lic i n t e r e s t . N e w s p a p e r s , m a g a z i n e s , w ir e s e r v ic e s , a n d r a d i o a n d t e l e v i s i o n n e t w o rk s fre q u e n tly s ta tio n r e p o r te r s , k n o w n a s c o r r e s p o n d e n t s , in la r g e c i t Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/213 ie s a s w e ll a s in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s to p r e p a r e s t o r i e s o n m a jo r n e w s e v e n t s o c c u r r i n g in t h e s e l o c a tio n s . R e p o r t e r s o n s m a ll n e w s p a p e r s c o v e r all a s p e c t s o f lo c a l n e w s , a n d a ls o m a y ta k e p h o t o g r a p h s , w r ite h e a d lin e s , la y o u t p a g e s , e d it w ir e s e r v ic e c o p y , a n d w r ite e d ito r ia ls . O n s o m e s m a ll w e e k lie s , t h e y a ls o m a y s o lic it a d v e r t i s e m e n t s , s e ll s u b s c r i p t i o n s , a n d p e r f o r m g e n e r a l o ffic e w o r k . Working Conditions T h e w o rk o f r e p o rte rs a n d c o rre s p o n d e n t s is u s u a lly h e c t i c . T h e y a r e u n d e r p r e s s u r e to m e e t d e a d lin e s a n d m a n y w o r k u n d e r tr y in g c o n d itio n s . I n t h e o ffic e , f o r e x a m p le , th e y o f te n m u s t c o n t e n d w ith lo u d c o n v e r s a t i o n a n d t h e c o n f u s io n o f p e o p le c o n s t a n t ly o n t h e g o . W h e n r e p o r t i n g f r o m th e s c e n e , r a d io a n d t e l e v is io n r e p o r t e r s m a y b e d i s t r a c t e d b y c u r io u s o n l o o k e r s , p o lic e , o r o t h e r e m e r g e n c y w o r k e r s . S o m e a s s ig n m e n ts c o v e r in g w a r s , p o litic a l u p r is in g s , f ir e s , f lo o d s , a n d o th e r e v e n ts m a y b e d a n g e ro u s . W o r k in g h o u r s v a r y b y ty p e o f e m p lo y e r . R e p o r t e r s w o r k in g f o r m o r n in g p a p e r s u s u a lly w o r k f r o m la te a f t e r n o o n u n til m id n ig h t. T h o s e o n a f t e r n o o n o r e v e n in g p a p e r s g e n e r a lly w o r k f r o m e a r ly m o r n in g u n til e a r ly o r m id a f te r n o o n . R a d io a n d te le v is io n r e p o r t e r s g e n e r a lly a r e a s s ig n e d to a d a y o r e v e n in g s h if t s o t h a t th e n e w s c a n b e c o v e r e d w h e n e v e r it h a p p e n s . A lth o u g h m a g a z in e r e p o r t e r s o f te n c a n s c h e d u le t h e i r w o r k d u r in g th e d a y , all r e p o r t e r s m a y h a v e to c h a n g e t h e i r w o r k h o u r s to m e e t a d e a d lin e o r to u p d a t e a n e a r l i e r r e p o r t b e c a u s e o f la te -b re a k in g d e v e lo p m e n ts . T h e ir w o r k m a y d e m a n d lo n g h o u r s , i r r e g u la r s c h e d u l e s , a n d s o m e tr a v e l. F o r e ig n c o r r e s p o n d e n t s o f te n w o r k la te a t n ig h t to s e n d n e w s to t h e i r p a p e r s in tim e f o r p r in tin g d e a d lin e s . Employment R e p o r t e r s a n d c o r r e s p o n d e n t s h e ld a b o u t 6 9 ,0 0 0 j o b s in 1984. N e a r l y 3 o f e v e r y 4 w o r k e d f o r n e w s p a p e r s , e i t h e r la r g e c ity d a ily p a p e r s o r d a ily o r w e e k ly p a p e r s in s u b u r b a n c o m m u n i tie s a n d s m a ll t o w n s . O th e r s w o r k e d in r a d io a n d te le v is io n b r o a d c a s t i n g a n d f o r m a g a z in e s a n d w ir e s e r v ic e s . Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement M o s t e d i t o r s p r e f e r c o lle g e g r a d u a t e s w h o h a v e a d e g r e e in j o u r n a l i s m , w h ic h in c lu d e s t r a in in g in th e lib e r a l a r t s a lo n g w ith p r o f e s s io n a l tr a in in g in j o u r n a l i s m . A f e w p r e f e r a p p lic a n ts w h o h a v e a b a c h e l o r ’s d e g r e e in li b e r a l a r ts a n d a m a s t e r ’s d e g r e e in j o u r n a lis m . H ig h s c h o o l c o u r s e s in E n g lis h , jo u r n a l i s m , s o c ia l s tu d ie s , a n d ty p in g p r o v id e a g o o d f o u n d a tio n . B u t s o m e la r g e c ity n e w s p a p e r s p r e f e r a s u b j e c t - m a t t e r s p e c i a l t y h e lp f u l to s p e c ific b e a ts s u c h a s e c o n o m ic s , p o litic a l s c ie n c e , f in a n c e , o r b u s in e s s . T h a t s u b j e c t - m a t t e r s p e c ia lty m a y b e o n e d e g r e e w ith a s e c o n d d e g r e e in jo u rn a lis m . I n 1984, th e v a s t m a jo r ity o f j o u r n a lis m g r a d u a te s w h o la n d e d j o b s o n n e w s p a p e r s , m a g a z in e s , o r w ith n e w s w ir e s e r v ic e s p r e p a r e d s p e c if ic a lly f o r n e w s w o r k b y m a jo r in g in n e w s - e d it o r ia l j o u r n a lis m . B a c h e l o r ’s d e g r e e p r o g r a m s in j o u r n a lis m a r e a v a ila b le in o v e r 3 0 0 c o l le g e s . A b o u t th r e e - f o u r th s o f th e c o u r s e s in a ty p ic a l u n d e r g r a d u a t e j o u r n a l i s m c u r r ic u lu m a r e in lib e r a l a r t s , w ith th e r e m a in d e r r e q u i r e d j o u r n a lis m c o u r s e s . T h e s e jo u r n a lis m c o u r s e s in c lu d e i n t r o d u c t o r y m a s s m e d ia , b a s ic r e p o r tin g a n d c o p y e d i t in g , h i s to r y o f jo u r n a l i s m , a n d p r e s s la w a n d e th ic s . I n a d d itio n , s tu d e n ts p la n n in g a c a r e e r in b r o a d c a s tin g ta k e c o u r s e s in r a d i o a n d t e l e v i s i o n n e w s c a s tin g a n d p r o d u c t i o n . O t h e r jo u r n a l i s m c o u r s e s a r e s e le c te d in th e s t u d e n t ’s s p e c ific a r e a o f i n t e r e s t . O v e r 350 c o m m u n ity a n d j u n i o r c o l le g e s o ffe r j o u r n a l i s m c o u r s e s o r p r o g r a m s . C r e d it e a r n e d a t s o m e o f t h e s e s c h o o ls m a y b e t r a n s f e r a b l e to 4 - y e a r c o lle g e p r o g r a m s in j o u r n a l i s m . S o m e j u n i o r c o lle g e s a ls o o ffe r p r o g r a m s e s p e c ia lly d e s ig n e d to p r e p a r e t h e s t u d e n t d ir e c tly f o r e m p lo y m e n t a s a g e n e r a l a s s ig n m e n t r e p o r t e r . H o w e v e r , s u c h g r a d u a te s fin d it in c r e a s in g ly d iffic u lt to c o m p e te w ith g r a d u a t e s o f 4 -y ear p ro g ra m s. T h e A rm e d F o rc e s a ls o p r o v id e s o m e tr a in in g in j o u r n a l ism . A m a s t e r ’s d e g r e e in j o u r n a l i s m w a s o f f e r e d b y o v e r 100 s c h o o ls in 1985; a b o u t 20 s c h o o ls o f f e r e d th e P h .D . d e g r e e . S o m e g r a d u a t e p r o g r a m s a r e i n te n d e d p r im a r ily a s p r e p a r a t i o n f o r n e w s c a r e e r s , w h ile o t h e r s c o n c e n t r a t e o n p r e p a r in g j o u r n a l i s m te a c h e rs , re s e a rc h e rs a n d th e o ris ts , a n d a d v e r tis in g a n d p u b lic r e la tio n s w o rk e rs. L ib e r a l a r t s c o u r s e s u s e f u l to p e r s o n s p r e p a r in g f o r a r e p o r tin g c a r e e r in c lu d e E n g lis h c o u r s e s w ith a n e m p h a s is o n w r itin g , s o c io lo g y , p o litic a l Reporters on small newspapers cover all aspects of local news. s c ie n c e , e c o n o m i c s , h i s t o r y , p s y c h o l o g y , c o m p u te r s c ie n c e , b u s in e s s , a n d s p e e c h . T h e a b ility to r e a d a n d s p e a k a f o r e ig n la n g u a g e a ls o is d e s ir a b le . T h o s e w h o a s p ir e t o r e p o r t i n g in a s p e c ia liz e d fie ld — s c ie n c e o r f in a n c e , f o r e x a m p le — s h o u ld c o n c e n t r a t e o n c o u r s e w o r k in t h o s e s u b j e c t a r e a s . T y p in g s k ill is e s s e n t i a l b e c a u s e r e p o r t e r s ty p e t h e i r o w n n e w s s to r ie s . V ir tu a lly a ll r e p o r t e r s n o w u s e c o m p u t e r i z e d w o r d p r o c e s s i n g e q u ip m e n t to w r ite a n d e d it s t o r i e s , s o j o b s e e k e r s s h o u ld b e f a m ilia r w ith th is ty p e o f e q u ip m e n t. T h e a b ility to t a k e s h o r t h a n d a ls o is u s e f u l. O f te n , a k n o w l e d g e o f n e w s p h o t o g r a p h y is v a lu a b le . T he D ow Jo n es N ew sp ap er F und a n d in d iv id u a l n e w s p a p e r s a n d m a g a z in e s a s w e ll a s m a n y r a d io a n d T V n e w s o r g a n iz a tio n s o f f e r s u m m e r in t e r n s h i p s t h a t p r o v i d e c o lle g e s t u d e n t s w ith a n o p p o r t u n i t y to p e r f o r m a v a r i e t y o f b a s ic r e p o r t i n g o r e d itin g d u tie s . E x p e r i e n c e a c q u i r e d th r o u g h s u c h in t e r n s h i p s h e lp s im m e a s u r a b ly in j o b p l a c e m e n t a f t e r g r a d u a t i o n . In a d d itio n , m o r e th a n 3 ,0 0 0 j o u r n a l i s m s c h o l a r s h i p s , f e llo w s h ip s , a n d a s s is t a n t s h i p s w e r e a w a r d e d t o c o lle g e jo u rn a lis m s tu d e n ts b y u n iv e rs itie s , n e w s p a p e rs , fo u n d a tio n s , a n d p ro fe s s io n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s in 1985. N e w s r e p o r t i n g i n v o lv e s a g r e a t d e a l o f re s p o n s ib ility , b e c a u s e w h a t a r e p o r t e r w r i t e s f r e q u e n t l y in f lu e n c e s th e o p in io n o f th e r e a d in g p u b lic . R e p o r t e r s s h o u ld b e d e d i c a t e d to s e r v in g th e p u b l i c ’s n e e d f o r a c c u r a t e a n d im p a r tia l n e w s . A lth o u g h r e p o r t e r s w o r k a s p a r t o f a te a m , th e y h a v e a n o p p o r t u n i t y f o r s e l f - e x p r e s s io n . T h e a b ility to p r e s e n t f a c t s a n d o p in io n s c le a r ly a n d s u c c i n c t l y is e s s e n t i a l f o r s u c c e s s in th is fie ld . A c c u r a c y a n d 214/Occupational Outlook Handbook objectivity are equally important, be cause, among other reasons, untrue or libelous statements can lead to costly lawsuits. Important personal characteristics include a “ nose for n ew s,” curiosity, p ersisten ce, in itiative, p o ise, re sourcefulness, an accurate memory, and the physical stamina and emotion al stability to deal with pressing dead lines, irregular hours, and sometimes dangerous assignments. Being at ease on camera or in front of a microphone is essential for broadcast reporters. Because some assignments lead re porters to unfamiliar places, they must be able to adapt to strange sur roundings and feel at ease with a va riety of people. Some who compete for full-time reporter jobs find it is helpful to have had experience as a “ stringer” —a part-time reporter who covers the news in a particular area of the com munity and is paid on the basis of the stories printed. High school and col lege newspapers and church or com munity newsletters also provide writ ing and editing experience that may be helpful in getting a job. Most beginners start with small publications as general assignment re porters or copy editors. A few out standing journalism graduates are hired by large city papers and national magazines, but this is the exception rather than the rule. Large employers generally require several years of re porting experience. Beginning reporters are assigned duties such as reporting on civic and club meetings, summarizing speech es, writing obituaries, interviewing important visitors to the community, and covering police court proceed ings. As they gain experience, they may report more important events, cover an assigned “ beat,” or special ize in a particular field. Reporters may advance to reporting for larger papers or press services. However, competition for such posi tions is keen, and news executives receive many applications from highly qualified reporters every year. Some experienced reporters become colum nists, correspondents, editorial writ ers, editors, or top executives; these positions represent the top of the field, and competition for them is ex tremely keen. Other reporters transfer to related fields such as public rela tions or preparing copy for radio and television news programs. Job Outlook Employment of reporters and corre spondents is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupa tions through the mid-1 9 9 0 ’s. This growth will come about primarily be cause of an anticipated increase in the number of smalltown and suburban daily and weekly newspapers. For the most part, little or no increase is ex pected in the number of big city dai lies, although some of them may in crease the size of their reporting staffs. Magazines and radio and tele vision broadcasting should continue to provide a significant number of jobs, but major news magazines and large radio and television stations pri marily seek only experienced report ers. The need to replace experienced reporters and correspondents who leave the occupation each year will account for the vast majority of all job openings. Compared to other profes sional workers, a somewhat larger proportion of reporters and corre spondents transfer to other occupa tions—reflecting the somewhat stress ful and hectic nature of the job. Some people decide they don’t like the lifestyle and transfer to other occupa tions where their skills are valuable, especially public relations and adver tising work. Overall, graduates who have ma jored in news-editorial journalism and com pleted an internship while in school should have the best prospects for reporting jobs. Most editors prefer to hire the top graduates of accredited programs. Talented writers who can handle highly specialized scientific or technical subjects will be at an advan tage in the job market. Small newspa pers often look for beginning report ers who are acquainted with the com m unity and w ho can help w ith photography and other aspects of newspaper production. Persons with out at least a bachelor’s degree in journalism will face increasingly stiff competition for entry level positions. Newspapers and magazines located in small towns and suburban areas are expected to continue to offer the most opportunities for beginning reporters. Journalism graduates who are willing to relocate and start at relatively low salaries are likely to find reporting jobs on these newspapers. Openings arise on small publications as report ers gain experience and move up to editorial positions, or transfer to re porting jobs on larger newspapers and magazines. Competition for reporting jobs on large metropolitan newspapers and national magazines will be keen. Most o f these employers require experience and do not ordinarily hire new gradu ates. Sometim es, however, new grad uates find jobs on major publications because they have credentials in an area for which the paper has a press ing need. Occasionally, the experi ence and contacts gained through an internship program or summer job lead to a reporting job directly after graduation. Because enrollments in journalism education programs are expected to continue rising moderately through the mid- 1 9 9 0 ’s, college teaching op portunities are expected to be good for qualified applicants— generally, P h .D .’s with practical reporting expe rience. Some highly qualified report ers with a master’s degree will find teaching positions in journalism de partments o f colleges and junior col leges. This favorable outlook for jour nalism educators contrasts with the generally bleak prospect for college faculty in many other academic disci plines, because the student-teacher ratio in journalism courses is much lower than for many other college courses. Employment o f reporters and cor respondents generally is not cut back sharply during slack econom ic peri ods, but when business conditions force publishers and broadcasters to reduce spending, new hiring may be temporarily slowed or even halted. College graduates who have ma jored in journalism also have the background for work in such closely related fields as advertising and public relations. Every year, a substantial number of journalism graduates take media jobs in these fields. Other grad uates accept sales, managerial, and other nonmedia positions, while still others continue their training and then find jobs in fields such as law, busi ness, public administration, and polit ical science. Earnings Weekly salaries o f radio reporters ranged from $ 2 2 5 to $ 5 0 0 in 1 9 8 4 , according to a survey conducted by the National Association o f Broad casters. Salaries o f TV reporters ranged from $ 2 9 0 to more than $ 1 ,0 0 0 . Reporters working for daily news Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/215 papers having contracts negotiated by the Newspaper Guild had starting sal aries ranging from about $ 1 8 0 to over $ 8 0 0 a week in 1 9 8 5 . The majority started at between $ 3 0 0 and $ 4 5 0 a week. Journeyman reporters averaged $ 5 4 0 a week in 1 9 8 5 , according to figures provided by the Newspaper Guild. Virtually all experienced re porters earned over $ 4 0 0 a week, while the top contractual salary was $ 8 4 3 a week. A number of top report ers on big city dailies earned even more, on the basis o f merit. In gener al, earnings o f reporters are above the average earnings of nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Most reporters generally work a 5 -day, 3 5 - or 4 0 -hour week and re ceive extra pay for overtime work. Benefits may vary widely according to length of service and the size and location of the employer. Most report ers, however, receive benefits such as paid vacations, group insurance, and pension plans. Related Occupations Reporters and correspondents must write clearly and effectively to suc ceed in their profession. Others for whom writing ability is essential in clude technical writers, advertising copy writers, public relations work ers, educational writers, fiction writ ers, biographers, screen writers, and editors. Sources of Additional Information Career information, including pamph lets entitled Y o u r F u t u r e in N e w s p a p e r s and F a c ts a b o u t N e w s p a p e rs , is available from: American Newspaper Publishers Association Foundation, The Newspaper Center, Box 17407, Dulles International Airport. Washing ton, D.C. 20041. Information on careers in journal ism, colleges and universities that of fer degree programs in journalism or co m m u n ica tio n s, and jou rn alism scholarships and internships may be obtained without charge from: The Dow Jones Newspaper Fund, Inc., P.O. Box 300, Princeton, N.J. 08540. For a list of junior and community colleges offering programs in journal ism, contact: National Community College Journalism Asso ciation, Midland College, Midland, Tex. 79701. Information on union wage rates for newspaper and magazine reporters is available from: The Newspaper Guild, Research and Informa tion Department, 1125 15th St. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20005. For a list of schools with accredited programs in their journalism depart ments, send a stamped, self-addressed envelope to: Accrediting Council on Education in Journal ism and Mass Communications, University of Missouri, P.O. Box 838, Columbia, Mo. 65205. For general information about ca reers in journalism, contact: Association For Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, 1621 College St., Uni versity of South Carolina College of Journal ism, Columbia, S.C. 29208. C a r e e r s in C o m m u n ic a t io n s , a booklet providing information on op portunities for women in newspaper reporting and other communications fields, is available from: Women In Communications, Inc., P.O. Box 9561, Austin, Tex. 78766. A pamphlet titled A C a r e e r in N e w s p a p e rs can be obtained from: National Newspaper Association, 1627 K St. NW., Suite 400 Washington, D.C. 20006. Names and locations of newspapers and a list of schools and departments of journalism are published in the E d it o r a n d P u b lis h e r I n t e r n a t io n a l Y e a r B o o k , available in most public librar ies and newspaper offices. W r it e r s a n d E d it o r s (D.O.T. 131 except .267-010 and -018; and 132) Nature of the Work Writers and editors com m unicate through the written word. Writers de velop original fiction and nonfiction prose for books, magazines, trade journals, newspapers, technical stud ies and reports, company newsletters, radio and television broadcasts, and advertisem ents. Editors supervise writers and select and prepare materi al for publication or broadcasting. Writers start by selecting a topic or being assigned one by an editor. They then gather information on the topic through personal observation, library research, and interviews. Sometimes the information gathered may cause writers to change the focus to a relat ed topic that is more interesting. From the information gathered, they select and organize the material to be used, and finally put it into words that will convey it to the reader with the de sired effect. Writers often revise or rewrite sections, searching for the best organization of the material or just the right phrasing. Newswriters— writers employed by newspapers and radio and television news depart ments—write news items for inclusion in newspapers or news broadcasts. Starting with information supplied by reporters or wire services, they write news stories or scripts for newscast ers. Reporters and correspondents are described elsewhere in this section of the H a n d b o o k . Technical writers put scientific and technical information into readily un derstandable language. They prepare manuals, catalogs, parts lists, and in structional materials used by sales representatives to sell machinery or scientific equipment and by techni cians to install, maintain, and service it. Copy writers write advertising copy for use by publication or broadcast media to promote the sale of goods and services. Established writers may work on a freelance basis where they sell their work to publishers or publication units, manufacturing firms, and public relations and advertising departments or agencies. They sometimes are hired to complete specific assignments such as writing about a new product or technique. Editors frequently do some writing and almost always do much rewriting and editing, but their primary duties are to plan the contents of the publi cation and to supervise its prepara tion. They decide what will appeal to readers, assign topics to writers, and oversee the production of the book, magazine, or newspaper. In small or ganizations, one editor has full re sponsibility for the publication. In larger ones, an executive editor over sees the activities of associate or as sistant editors who have responsibili ty for particular subjects, such as fic tion, international news, or sports. Administrative duties o f editors in clude hiring and firing writers and other em ployees, planning budgets, negotiating contracts with freelance writers, and general managerial du ties. In broadcasting companies, pro gram directors have responsibilities comparable to those of editors. Editors and program directors are often helped by assistants who may have the title of assistant editor, edi torial assistant, copy editor, or pro duction assistant. Many of these as sistants hold entry level jobs. They review copy for errors in grammar, 216/Occupational Outlook Handbook punctuation, and spelling. They check manuscripts for readability, style, and agreement with editorial policy. They add and rearrange sentences to im prove clarity or delete incorrect and unnecessary material. Researchers, research assistants, and some editori al assistants perform research for writers and verify facts, dates, and statistics. Assistants also may help prepare material for publication or broadcast by arranging page layouts of articles, photographs, and advertis ing or by planning the use of films. They may also com pose headlines, prepare copy for typesetters, and proofread the printer’s galleys. Some editorial assistants read and evaluate manuscripts submitted by freelance writers or answer letters about pub lished or broadcast material. Produc tion assistants clip stories that come over the wire services’ printers, an swer phones, and make copies of ma terial for news writers, editors, and program directors. Working Conditions Working conditions for writers and editors vary with the kind o f publica tion they work on and the kind of articles they produce. Some work in comfortable, private offices; others work in noisy rooms filled with the sound of typewriters and other word processing equipment and other writ- Writers gather information through obser vation, research, and interviews. ers tracking down information over the telephone. The search for infor mation sometimes requires travel and visits to diverse workplaces, such as factories, offices, laboratories, the ballpark, or the theater, but many have to be content with telephone interviews and the library. The workweek usually runs 35 to 4 0 hours. Night and weekend work is required of those who prepare morn ing or w eekend publications and broadcasts. Some workers must also put in overtime to meet deadlines or to cover a late-developing story. The more frequently the publication is is sued, the more frequent the deadlines and the greater the pressure to meet them. The need to understand com plex technical data may also be a source of stress or pressure. Employment Writers and editors held about 1 9 1 ,0 0 0 jobs in 1 9 8 4 . Nearly 4 0 percent of writers and editors work for newspa pers, magazines, and book publishers. Substantial numbers also work on journals and newsletters published by business and nonprofit organizations, such as professional associations, la bor unions, and religious organiza tions. Others write and edit advertis ing and public relations materials for advertising agencies, public relations firms, and large corporations. Some also work in radio and television broadcasting; others develop publica tions for Federal, State, and local gov ernments. Many technical writers work for firms manufacturing aircraft, chemi cals, pharmaceuticals, and computer and other electronic equipment. Firms in the energy, communications, and computer software fields also employ many technical writers. Persons who write and edit for ma jor book p u b lish ers, m agazin es, broadcasting companies, advertising agencies and public relations firms, and the Federal Government tend to be concentrated in N ew York, Chica go, Los Angeles, Boston, Philadel phia, San Francisco, and Washington, D.C. More widely dispersed through out the country, on the other hand, are those who work for newspapers; corporations; and professional, reli gious, business, technical, and trade union magazines or journals. Techni cal writers are employed throughout the country but the largest concentra tions are in the Northeast, Texas, and California. Thousands of other persons work as freelancers— earning some income from their articles, books, and, less com m on ly, te le v isio n and m ovie scripts. Most support them selves pri marily with income from other sourc es. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Formal educational requirements for writing and editing jobs vary. A col lege degree is required by many em ployers, but there is little agreement as to the preferred major. Some em ployers look for a broad liberal arts background or a major in literature, history, philosophy, or one o f the so cial sciences. Others prefer to hire people with degrees in communica tions or journalism. Some jobs, such as technical writ ing, require a degree in or some knowledge about a specialized field— engineering, business, or one of the scien ces. R elatively few technical writers enter the occupation directly from college. The majority work ini tially in other jobs, usually as techni cians, scientists, or engineers. Some begin as research assistants, editorial assistants, or trainees in a com pany’s technical information or advertising department. In time, these people may assume writing duties and devel op technical communication skills. Whatever their educational back ground, writers and editors must be able to express ideas clearly and log ically. Creativity, intellectual curiosi ty, a broad range of knowledge, selfmotivation, and perseverance are also valuable assets. For some jobs, the ability to concentrate amid confusion and to produce under pressure is es sential. Familiarity with word proc essing equipment is useful, because a growing number of organizations are using the equipment for writing and editing. Since writing requires re search, writers must be familiar with research techniques. Editors must have good judgment in deciding what material to accept and what to reject. They must also have tact and the ability to guide and encourage others in their work. All prospective writers need practi cal writing experience. High school and college newspapers, literary mag azines, and small community newspa pers and radio stations all provide Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/217 valuable— but som etim es unpaid— experience. Many magazines, news papers, and radio and TV stations have summer internships in which students can learn about the publish ing and broadcasting business. Interns might run errands, answer phones, conduct some research and inter views, or even write short pieces, depending on the employer. Advancement for writers and edi tors depends, in part, on the size of the organization for which they work. In small firms, beginning writers and editors may do a little bit of every thing, not only working as editorial or production assistants but also writing or editing material right away. They often advance by moving to other firms, so turnover among beginning writers and editors is high. In larger firms, jobs are usually structured more formally. Persons in entry level posi tions generally do research, fact checking, or copy editing. They take on full-scale writing or editing duties less rapidly than do the employees of sm all c o m p a n ie s. A d v a n cem e n t comes as they are assigned more im portant articles to write or edit. Job Outlook Employment of writers and editors is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1 9 9 0 ’s. Employment of sala ried writers and editors by newspa pers, periodicals, book publishers, and nonprofit organizations— includ ing research agencies and religious, business, professional, and civic asso ciations—is expected to increase with growing demand for their publica tions. Growth of advertising and pub lic relations agencies should also be a source of new jobs. Demand for tech nical writers is expected to increase because of the continuing expansion of scientific and technical information and the continued need to communi cate it to researchers, corporate man agers, sales representatives, and tech nicians. With the increasing complex ity o f in d u stria l and sc ie n tific equipment, more users will depend on the technical writer’s ability to pre pare precise but simple explanations and instructions. Besides jobs created by increased demand for writers and editors, many job openings will occur as experienced workers in this field transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Each year, thousands of young peo ple with college degrees in English, journalism, communications, and the liberal arts seek writing and editing jobs. Many end up in other occupa tions because the number of people qualified to work as writers and edi tors greatly exceeds the number of positions available, despite the high tu rn o v er in th e se o c c u p a tio n s . Throughout the mid- 1 9 9 0 ’s, the out look for writing and editing jobs is expected to continue to be keenly com petitive. Opportunities will be best in firms that prepare business and trade publications and in technical writing. Persons considering careers in writing and editing should keep their options open. Academic prepa ration in a field unrelated to writing may prove useful to some people, either to qualify them as writers spe cializing in that field, or to qualify them for a job in the field itself in the event that they are unable to get a salaried writing job. Earnings In 1 9 8 4 , beginning salaries for writers and editorial assistants ranged from $ 1 6 ,4 0 0 to $2 1 ,0 0 0 annually, accord ing to surveys by the Executive Com pensation Service. Salaries for expe rienced writers and researchers gener ally ranged betw een $2 3 ,2 0 0 and $3 1 ,9 0 0 a year, depending on their qualifications and the size of the pub lication on which they worked. Tech nical writers had salaries ranging from $ 1 9 ,3 0 0 to $3 1 ,9 0 0 . Experienced edi tors generally earned between $2 2 ,0 0 0 and $3 9 ,0 0 0 a year; supervisory edi tors, $2 5 ,3 0 0 to $4 2 ,5 0 0 a year. Starting salaries for copy editors on daily papers in towns with a popula tion o f less than 2 0 ,0 0 0 averaged $9 ,7 0 0 in 1 9 8 4 ; copy editors in cities of 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 or more earned $ 1 3 ,0 0 0 , according to a survey by the Dow Jones Newspaper Fund. Senior edi tors on large circulation newspapers and magazines, however, averaged over $6 0 ,0 0 0 per year. In addition, many writers and editors supplement th eir sa la ried in c o m e by d oin g freelance work. Writers and editors employed by the Federal Government earned an average o f $2 8 ,0 0 0 a year in 1 9 8 4 . Related Occupations Writers and editors com m unicate ideas and information to individuals for their education and entertainment. Other communications occupations include newspaper reporters and cor respondents, radio and television an nouncers, advertising and public rela tions workers, and teachers of jour nalism. Sources of Additional Information For information on writing and editing careers in the field of communica tions, contact: Women in Communications, Inc., P.O. Box 9561, Austin, Tex. 78766. For a guide to journalism careers and scholarships, contact: The Dow Jones Newspaper Fund, P.O. Box 300, Princeton, N.J. 08540. For information on college intern ships in magazine editing, contact: American Society of Magazine Editors, 575 Lexington Ave., New York, N.Y. 10022. For information on careers in tech nical writing, contact: Society for Technical Communication, Inc., 815 15th St. NW„ Suite 516, Washington, D.C. 20005. For information on careers in busi ness communication, contact: The Association for Business Communications, 100 English Building, 608 South Wright St., Urbana, 1 1 61801. 1. Visual Arts Occupations The visual arts occupations include both fine and applied artists. Fine art ists create objects of beauty that are appreciated for purely aesthetic rea sons. Applied artists create or design objects that are both practical and attractive. Applied artists design clothing, au tomobiles, appliances, and other prod ucts, arrange flowers, draw cartoons, illustrate publications, and com pose and take photographs. Manufactur ers, retail and wholesale trade estab lishments, advertising agencies, print ing and publishing firms, theatrical producers, and television and motion picture studios employ most applied artists. In addition, some are selfemployed, doing contract work for these organizations. Fine artists, on the other hand, are more dependent on the general public for their livelihood. Although some well-established artists support them selves exclusively by sales of their work, most fine artists supplement their income with earnings from an other job. Visual arts occupations cover a wide variety of specialties. For exam ple, sculptors create three-dimension al works from stone, concrete, plas ter, wood, metal, and other materials. Painters use watercolors, oils, and acrylics to paint portraits, landscapes, still lifes, and other subjects. Printmakers produce images in paper and cloth from designs etched in wood, metal, and stone. Graphic artists de sign newspaper and TV advertise ments as well as catalogs, books, and instructional materials; photographers and camera operators take or record pictures to convey an idea or tell a story; industrial designers develop functional, attractive articles and packages for everyday use; set de signers design movie, television, and theater sets. Fashion designers design clothes, fabrics, and accessories; and floral designers create floral arrange ments to express the thought and sen timents o f the sender. Artistic talent is crucial in all visual arts occupations. People in this field need strong color sense, an eye for Digitized for218 FRASER detail, a sense of balance and propor tion, and sensitivity to beauty. They must be creative, imaginative, persist ent, and able to communicate visually and verbally. A good portfolio— a col lection o f examples of a designer’s best work—is sometimes more impor tant in finding a job than formal edu cation. Although artistic talent remains the major qualification, technical skills are becoming more important. For example, industrial designers increas ingly use computer-aided design to create new products or to improve existing ones. In addition, illustrators develop computer-generated images for television broadcasting. Design careers require varying lev els of training. While floral designers often learn their skills on the job and may not even need a high school di ploma, industrial designers as a rule must complete 4 or more years of college. Persons with appropriate work experience and a major in engi neering, architecture, and fine arts may also gain entry to this field. A liberal arts education and training in painting, sculpture, and architecture are important for graphic and fine art ists. Fashion designers get their train ing in 2 - or 3 -year programs in schools of fashion design or in 4 -year colleges leading to a bachelor’s degree in fash ion design. The curriculum for these occupations includes principles o f de sign, art and art history, mechanical and architectural drawing, painting, architecture, and basic engineering. Although a college degree is not nec essary for photographers and camera operators, 2 -year and 4 -year institu tions offer courses or degree programs in photography and cinematography. Creative work can be frustrating, even discouraging, during periods when new ideas don’t come— or when the designer’s ideas clash with those o f a client or boss. Tact, problem solving skills, the ability to work in dependently as well as with others, and sound professional judgment are important traits for individuals in this field. The statements that follow discuss design occupations in more detail. Workers in several other occupations that require design skills— urban and regional planners, engineers, and ar chitects— are discussed elsewhere in the H a n d b o o k . D e s ig n e r s (D .O .T . 141.031, .051, .061-018, .067, .081-014; and 142 except .061-030) Nature of the Work Designers arrange and design articles, products, and materials in such a way that they are not only functional, serv ing the purpose for which they were intended, but also visually pleasing. Products and packaging that are both functional and eye catching are more likely to attract buyers than those that are not. Pleasant surroundings, beau tiful clothes, and floral arrangements can boost our spirits. Designers usually specialize in one type of product or activity, for exam ple, automobiles, clothing, furniture, home appliances, industrial equip ment, movie and theater sets, packag ing, or floral arrangements. In devel oping a new design or altering an existing one, they first determine the needs o f their clients and potential users. Then they consider the size, shape, weight, color, materials used, and the way the product functions, as well as ease o f maintenance, safety, and cost of the design. Designers may compare similar or competitive prod ucts. They take into account and often set style and fashion trends. Design ers usually develop sketches o f sever al designs which they present for final selection to an art or design director; a product development team; a play, film, or television producer; or a cli ent. The designer then makes a mod el, a sample, or scaled detailed plans and drawings. Designers may also su pervise craft workers who carry out their designs. Those with their own businesses also must find clients and do administrative work. The design field includes a variety of specialties. I n d u s t r ia l d e s ig n e rs de Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/219 velop and design countless manufac tured products like cars, home appli ances, computers, stethoscopes, filing cabinets, fishing rods, pens, and piggy banks. They combine artistic talent with research on product use, market ing, materials, and production meth ods to create the best and most ap pealing design and to make the prod uct competitive with similar ones in the marketplace. P a c k a g e d e s ig n e rs create product containers that are not only attractive but easy to handle and store. G r a p h ic d e s ig n e rs draw or paint illustrations to advertise a product or an event. They also draw or design commercial logos such as corporate symbols or letterheads. S e t d e s ig n e rs design movie, televi sion, and theater sets. They study scripts, confer with directors, and conduct research to determine appro priate architectural styles. F a s h io n d e s ig n e r s design coats, suits, dresses, hats, handbags, shoes, gloves, jewelry, underwear, and other apparel. Some high-fashion designers are self-employed and design for indi vidual clients. They make fashion news by establishing the “ line,” col ors, and kinds of materials that will be worn each season. Other high-fashion designers cater to specialty stores or high-fashion department stores. They design original garments as well as follow the established fashion trends. Designers who work for apparel man ufacturers do less original work; they adapt for the mass market the fash ions set by other designers. C lo th d e s ig n e rs design fabrics for garments, upholstery, rugs, and other products, utilizing their knowledge of textile materials and fashion trends. F l o r a l d e s ig n e rs cut and arrange fresh, dried, or artificial flowers and foliage into a design to express the sentiments of the sender. They trim flowers and arrange bouquets, sprays, wreaths, dish gardens, and terrari ums. They usually work from a writ ten order indicating the occasion, cus tomer preference for color and type of flower, price, and the date, time, and place the arrangement or plant is to be delivered. The variety o f duties per formed by a floral designer depends on the size o f the shop and the number of designers employed. In a small op eration, the floral designer may own the shop and do almost everything from growing flowers to keeping books. A r t d ir e c to r s and la y o u t a r tis ts pro duce the artwork for advertising cam paigns. Working Conditions Working conditions and places of em ployment vary, depending on the spe cialty. Designers employed by manu facturing establishm ents or design firms generally work regular hours in well-lighted and comfortable settings. Those who are self-employed usually work longer hours and have a lot of paperwork connected with running their business. Designers frequently must adjust their workday to suit their clients, meeting with them evenings or on weekends when necessary. They may transact business in clients’ homes or offices, in their own offices, or in other locations such as decorator show rooms. Industrial designers usually work regular hours and only occasion ally work overtime to meet deadlines. In contrast, set designers, especially those in television broadcasting, often work long and irregular hours. Televi sion production tempo is very fast and the set designers are often under pres sure to make rapid changes in the sets. Fashion designers who work in the apparel industry usually have reg ular hours; however, their work may be seasonal and require long hours before fashion showings. Floral de signers usually work regular hours in a pleasant work environment, except during the holidays when overtime may be required. All designers face frustration at times when their designs are rejected or when they cannot be as creative as they would like. Indepen dent consultants, who are paid by the assignment, are under pressure to please clients and to find new ones to maintain their incomes. Employment Designers held about 2 0 5 ,0 0 0 jobs in 1 9 8 4 . More than two-fifths were in wholesale and retail trade— in florist shops, furniture and home furnishings stores, department stores, and appar el stores. About one-fourth were in manufacturing industries— primarily machinery, motor vehicles and air craft, apparel, metal products, instru ments, printing and publishing, and textiles. Service industries, primarily business services and engineering and architectural firms, accounted for about 2 out o f 10 jobs. Construction firms and government agencies also employed some designers. Self-em ployed designers accounted for about one-fourth of all jobs. Nearly all floral designers work in retail flower shops. Many florist shops are small and employ only a few de signers. Many floral designers manage their own shops. Most industrial de signers work for consulting firms or large manufacturing companies. Some work for architectural firms or do freelance work. Fashion designers work in the apparel industry, private ly owned salons, high-fashion depart ment stores, and specialty shops. Some work for pattern manufacturers or as freelancers. Some fashion de- Floral designers are especially busy during holidays. 220/Occupational Outlook Handbook signers work in the entertainment in dustry designing costumes for theater, television, and m ovies. Set designers usually work for theater companies, the film industry, and television broad casting. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Creativity is crucial in all design oc cupations. People in this field also need a strong color sense, an eye for detail, a sense of balance and propor tion, and sensitivity to beauty. A good portfolio— a collection o f examples of a person’s best work— is sometimes more important in finding a job than formal education. However, formal training and technical skills are be coming increasingly important. Al most 2 out of 3 designers entering the field in 1983 had a college degree or some college education. Some design occupations such as industrial design ers require 4 or more years of college. Computer-aided design is increasingly being utilized in industrial and textile design. Many employers require new em ployees to have these technical skills. Schools that incorporate this type of technical training into their academic curriculum find it easier to place their graduates. Formal training is available in 2 and 3 -year professional schools which award certificates or associate de grees in design. Four-year colleges and universities grant the degree of Bachelor o f Fine Arts. The curricu lum in these schools includes art and art history, principles of design, fash ion designing and sketching, garment construction, textiles, mechanical and architectural drawing, computerized design, sculpture, architecture, and basic engineering. A liberal arts edu cation with courses in merchandising and business administration along with training in art is also a good background. Persons with training or experience in architecture also qualify for some design occupations. In 1 9 8 5 , the National Association of Schools of Art and Design accredited 133 colleges and schools with pro grams in art and design. Eighteen of these schools offer programs in indus trial design that are listed by the In dustrial Designers Society of Ameri ca. Most of these schools award a degree in art, industrial design, textile design, graphic design, or fashion de sign. Many schools do not allow for Digitized mal entry into a bachelor’s degree for FRASER program until a student has success fully finished a year of basic art and design courses. Applicants may be required to submit sketches and other examples of their artistic ability. Some colleges and universities offer degrees in floriculture and floristry and pro vide training in flower marketing and shop management. Junior colleges, adult education programs, and corre spondence schools also offer courses in design. Floral designers may also get training in commercial floral de sign schools. Regardless of the amount of formal training required, people in the design field must be creative, imaginative, persistent, and able to communicate their ideas visually. Because tastes in style and fashion can change quickly, designers need to be open to new ideas and influences. Problem-solving skills and the ability to work indepen dently are important traits. People in this field need self-discipline to start projects on their own, and to budget their time in order to meet deadlines. Business sense and sales ability are important for those who are freelan cers or run their own businesses. Beginning designers are usually giv en on-the-job training. Usually a per son can become a qualified floral de signer after 2 years of on-the-job train ing; beginners in industrial design usually need 1 to 3 years of training before they advance to higher level positions. Experienced designers may advance to chief designer, design de partment head, or other supervisory positions. Some experienced design ers open their own firms. Although most States have no li censing requirements in the field, membership in a professional associ ation is a recognized mark of achieve ment for many designers. Member ship usually requires the completion of 3 or 4 years of postsecondary school education in design and at least 2 years of practical experience in the field. others assume household responsibil ities or retire. Despite projected faster than aver age em ploym ent grow th, persons seeking beginning jobs in most design fields, with the exception o f floral de sign, are expected to face stiff com pe tition. Many talented individuals are attracted to design work, and those with only average talent or without formal education and technical skills are likely to find it difficult to find jobs. Continued em phasis on product quality and safety, on design of new products for businesses and offices, and on high-technology products in medicine and transportation should expand the demand for industrial de signers. Growth in population and in personal incomes should increase the demand for fashion designers, floral designers, and set designers. Job Outlook Employment in design occupations is expected to grow faster than the aver age for all occupations through the mid-1 9 9 0 ’s. However, most of the openings will result from the need to replace those who leave. Designers tend to leave their field at a somewhat higher rate than other professional and technical workers. Most who leave transfer to other occupations; A brochure about careers and a list of schools offering courses and de grees in industrial design are available for $2 from: Earnings Median annual earnings of experi enced full-time designers were almost $2 1 ,9 0 0 in 1 9 8 4 . The middle 5 0 per cent earned b etw en $ 1 4 ,8 0 0 and $3 2 ,5 0 0 a year. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $ 1 0 , 5 0 0 , and the top 10 percent earned more than $4 0 ,5 0 0 . Floral designers generally earned somewhat less than the median. Earn ings o f self-employed designers varied greatly, depending on their talent and business ability, but generally were higher than those of salaried designers. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who design or arrange objects, materials, or interiors to improve their appear ance and function include architects, engineers, photographers, merchan dise displayers, fur designers, graphic designers, com m ercial artists, and fine artists. Sources of Additional Information For information about careers in floral arrangement, contact: Society of American Florists, 901 North Wash ington St., Alexandria, Va. 22314. Industrial Designers Society of America, 1360 Beverly Road, Suite 303, McLean, Va. 22101. For information about careers in apparel design, contact: International Association of Clothing Design ers, 450 Seventh Avenue, Suite 811, New York, N.Y. 10123. Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/221 G r a p h ic a n d F in e A r t is t s (D.O.T. 102.261-014; 141.061-010, -014, -022, -26, -030; .081-010; 144; and 149.041, and .261) Nature of the Work Fine artists include painters, sculp tors, and printmakers who produce works of art for their own pleasure and for display in museums, art gal leries, and homes. P a in te r s use a wide variety of substances, including watercolors, oils, and acrylics to paint their interpretations o f objects, peo ple, and nature. S c u lp to r s design three-dim ensional art works from stone, concrete, plaster, metal, or wood. P r in tm a k e r s create printed im ages from designs etched in stone, metal or wood. A large proportion of artists, however, are graphic artists who illustrate and design the flood of magazine, newspaper, and TV adver tisements as well as catalogs, bro chures, instruction manuals, technical literature, book and record jackets, textiles, and many other items requir ing visual appeal. The field of graphic art, also called commercial art or design, is very broad and includes some activities only loosely related to what is usually thought o f as art. Most people in the field work in either illustration or de sign. E d it o r ia l a r tis ts specialize in il lustrations for magazines, record al bum covers, theater posters, and oth er publications. This specialty is perhaps the most glamorous and “ ar tistic” commercial art specialty. I l lu s t r a t o r s paint or draw pictures for books, magazines, and film. Many do a variety o f illustrations, while others specialize in a particular field. For example, m e d ic a l and s c ie n tific illu s t r a t o r s combine an interest in art with knowledge o f the biological and physical sciences. They draw illustra tions of parts of the human body, or animals and plants. These illustrations are used in medical textbooks and in slide presentations for teaching pur poses. F a s h io n illu s t r a t o r s draw styl ish illustrations o f the latest fashions in wom en’s and men’s clothing. Som e illu strators draw “ story boards” for TV commercials. Story boards present TV commercials in a series of scenes in much the same way as a newspaper comic strip tells a story, so that the advertising agency and the client (the company doing the advertising) can evaluate the effec tiveness o f proposed commercials. Story boards may also serve as guides to placement of actors and cameras and to other details during the produc tion o f commercials. Some illustrators draw for children’s books; others spe cialize in book and record jacket illus tration, posters, and magazine adver tisements. C a r to o n is ts form another illustra tion specialty. They draw political cartoons, newspaper comic strips, and comic books. Some cartoonists work with others who create the idea or story and write the captions. Most cartoonists, however, must have hu morous, critical, or dramatic talents in addition to drawing skills. A n im a t o r s draw the large series of pictures which, when transferred to film, form the animated cartoons seen in movies and on TV. Animators are employed almost exclusively in the motion picture industry, which pro duces animated cartoons for TV and movies. Working Conditions Many graphic artists are salaried em ployees who work in offices and stu dios. Their working conditions are similar to those of other office work ers. Many graphic artists, especially il lustrators, are freelancers who do in dividual projects for those wishing to use their services. Until an illustrator develops a reputation and a regular clientele, he or she can’t count on a steady income. Much effort often must be expended on selling potential customers on the quality of one’s work and to acquire experience and a reputation. Freelancers can set their own hours and working conditions. However, both freelance and salaried graphic artists must frequently meet tight deadlines which necessitate long hours of work until the project is complete. Fine artists generally are self-em ployed, earning income only when they sell a painting or other work. This is a very competitive field in which most people fail to support them selves solely though sales of their art. Consequently, many fine art ists must hold down another job in order to make ends meet. Most teach in a college, university, or art school for an income. Often they are expect ed to exhibit their work in major shows. Employment Graphic and fine artists held about 2 0 4 ,0 0 0 jobs in 1 9 8 4 . Many graphic artists are employed by the advertis ing industry, either directly or indi rectly as freelancers, or by graphic art studios that do much of their work for advertising agencies. The publishing industry also employs many graphic artists. In addition, organizations such as department stores and other retail ers, durable goods manufacturing firms, motion picture producers, and government agencies employ graphic Illustrators do precision work, requiring close attention to detail. 222/Occupational Outlook Handbook artists for in-house advertising, graph ic arts, and related activities. Graphic artists are concentrated in large cities. N ew York City has by far the largest concentration because it is the center of both advertising and publishing. B oston , Chicago, Los Angeles, and San Francisco also have many artists. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In the graphic arts field, demonstrated ability and appropriate training or oth er qualifications are needed for suc cess. The device used by almost all in the graphic arts field to gain employ ment or freelance work is the “ port fo lio,” a collection o f examples o f the artist’s best work. Evidence of appro priate talent and flair shown in the portfolio is the most important factor used by art directors and others in deciding whether to hire or contract out work to an artist. In theory, a person with a good portfolio but no training or experience could succeed in graphic arts. In reality, assembling a successful portfolio requires skills generally developed in a postsecond ary art school— usually in a 4 -year program. Generally, a commercial artist is better prepared for a success ful career if he or she has such spe cialized training. For some fields such as scientific and medical illustration, highly specialized training is absolute ly essential. A bachelor’s degree in fine arts is less useful because it is focused more on art for its own sake than on art for marketing and other purposes. There are many kinds of art schools, some with 2 -year associate degree programs, as well as vocation al education programs. Some o f these provide the technical skills necessary to get an entry level job but may not give the background necessary for ad vancement. Persons hired in advertising agen cies or graphic arts studios often start with relatively routine work such as paste-ups or mechanicals. While do ing this work, however, they may observe and practice their skills on the side. Those with talent may ad vance to assistant art director and then to art director. Others may gain enough skill to succeed as a freelancer or may prefer to specialize in an area such as calligraphy. Many freelancers get started by working part time as a freelancer while continuing to hold a full-time job. Others have enough tal ent and confidence in their ability to start out as a freelancer immediately after they graduate from art school. Many actually freelance part time while still in school, an excellent way to develop experience and a portfolio of published work. The freelancer develops a set of clients who regularly contract for work at good rates. Some successful freelancers are widely recognized for their skill in sp ecialties such as children’s book illustration or editori al illustration. These freelancers earn high incomes and can pick and choose the type of work they will do. Fine artists and illustrators advance as their work circulates and as they establish a reputation for a particular style. The best artists and illustrators continue to grow in ideas, and their work constantly changes and evolves over time. Job Outlook The graphic and fine art field has a glamorous and exciting image. B e cause formal entry qualifications are few, many people at least partially qualify for entry. Consequently, com petition is keen for salaried jobs and freelance work. Many artists find only enough freelance work to occupy them part time and must have another job in order to support them selves. Many freelancers have to charge very low prices until they acquire experi ence and a good reputation. Despite an oversupply o f those seeking graph ic art jobs, those with outstanding talent are eagerly sought. Employment of graphic artists is expected to grow faster than the aver age for all occupations through the mid- 1 9 9 0 ’s as advertising and design continue to expand with the economy and as producers o f information, goods, and services stress visual ap peal. Many new jobs will be created in advertising agencies and graphic art studios. The demand for fine artists will remain about the same even as the population expands and incomes rise. H owever, undoubtedly the sup ply o f those seeking entry to this field will continue to exceed requirements. Those with above-average talent and a mastery o f graphic art skills will continue to be in demand. More than 3 out of 5 graphic and fine artists are self-employed. Distribution of employment, 1984 Wage and salary workers SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics Earnings The median earnings for salaried graphic artists who usually work full time were about $ 1 8 ,6 0 0 a year in 1 9 8 4 . The middle 5 0 percent earned between $ 1 3 ,0 0 0 and $2 6 ,0 0 0 a year. Earnings for freelancers— particu larly those in the fine arts field— vary widely. Those struggling to gain expe rience and a reputation may some tim es be forced to charge what amounts to less than the minimum wage for their work. Well-established freelancers are able to make a very com fortable living. Freelancers of course do not receive any o f the usual fringe benefits such as health insur ance or retirement benefits that sala ried em ployees receive. Writers, Artists, And Entertainers/223 Related Occupations Many occupations in the advertising industry, such as account executive or creative director, are closely relat ed to commercial and graphic art and design. Workers in other occupations which apply visual art skills are archi tects, display workers, floral design ers, industrial designers, interior de signers, landscape architects, and photographers. The various printing occupations are related to graphic art, as are teachers o f art and design. Sources of Additional Information For additional information on graphic artists, write to: The Graphic Artists Guild, 30 East 20th St., Room 405, New York, N.Y. 10003. The National Art Education Association, 1916 Association Dr., Reston, Va. 22091. The American Institute of Visual Arts, 1059 3rd Ave., New York, N.Y. 10021. P h o to gra p h e rs an d C a m e ra O p e ra to rs (D.O.T. 143.) Nature of the Work Photographers and camera operators use their cameras and film to portray people, places, and events much as a writer uses words. Because the proce dures involved in still photography are quite different from those used in news and motion picture photogra phy, workers generally specialize in one or the other. Those who are skill ful can capture the personality of in dividuals or the mood of scenes on film. Photographers specializing in scientific, medical, or engineering photography expose worlds normally hidden from our view. Camera opera tors film new s ev en ts, television shows, m ovies, commercials and even cartoons. Although their subject matter varies widely, many photographers and cam era operators use the same basic equipment. The most important tool remains the camera. Some camera operators use 3 5 mm cameras to film motion pictures, 16 mm cameras to film documentary and industrial films, and videotape cameras to record news events for later showing on television. Most other photographers use a wide variety o f cameras to achieve desired results. Unlike snapshot cameras, which have a lens permanently at tached to the camera body, the pro fessionals’ cameras are generally con structed to use a variety of lenses designed for close-up, medium-range, or distance photography. In addition, professional photographers and cam era operators use a vast array of me chanical equipment—from the simple tripod to specially constructed motor ized vehicles. Besides cameras and lenses, pho tographers and camera operators use a variety of film and colored filters to obtain the desired effect under differ ent lighting conditions. When taking pictures indoors or after dark, they may use electronic flash units, flood lights, reflectors, and other special lighting equipment. Some photographers develop and print their own photographs in the darkroom and may enlarge or other wise alter the basic image. Many photographers send their work to lab oratories for processing. (See the statement on photographic workers elsewhere in the H a n d b o o k .) In addition to the skilled use of cameras and accessories, photogra phers must be able to compose their pictures with creativity and style. Still photographers may specialize in a particular type of photography, such as portrait, fashion, or advertis ing. Portrait photographers take pic tures of individuals or groups of per sons and often work in their own studios. For special events, such as weddings or christenings, however, they take photographs in churches and homes. Portrait photographers in small studios, like other small busi ness owners, frequently handle all as pects of their business. They arrange for advertising and schedule appoint ments; set and adjust equipment be fore taking the pictures; develop and retouch negatives; develop proofs; and mount and frame pictures. They also purchase supplies and take care of billing and recordkeeping. Advertising or industrial photogra phers take pictures of a wide range of subjects including livestock, manufac tured articles, buildings, and groups of people. They frequently do photog raphy for catalogs. Companies use their work in publications to report to stockholders or to advertise company products or services. To create attrac tive, eye-catching promotional pic tures, advertising photographers must command a broad array of photo graphic techniques. Industrial photog raphers also photograph groups of people for employee news magazines or take motion pictures of workers operating equipment and machinery for management’s use in analyzing production or work methods. Scientific photographers and bio logical photographers provide illustra tions and documentation for scientific publications and research reports. The photographs and slides they pro duce are also used for teaching pur poses. These photographers usually specialize in a particular field, such as engineering, aerodynamics, medicine, biology, or chemistry. Some design photographic equipment for use as a research tool. For example, medical researchers often use ultraviolet and infrared photography, fluorescence, and X-rays to obtain information not visib le under normal con d ition s. Time-lapse photography (where time is stretched or condensed), photomi crography (where the subject of the photography may be magnified 5 0 or 7 0 times or more), and photogrammetry (surveying an area using aerial photography) are other special tech niques. Photojournalists photograph news worthy events, places, people, and things for publications such as news papers and magazines. They may also prepare educational slides, filmstrips, and movies. Some camera operators work for television networks and individual stations, covering news events as part of a team that includes a reporter and other technicians. These camera oper ators use special photographic equip ment—called electronic news gather ing cameras—to capture events on videotape. Images from these camer as can be transmitted via satellite from the news scene back to the newsroom in time for the news tele cast. Camera operators also are em ployed in the entertainment field. They use 3 5 mm and 16 mm motion picture cameras to film movies, tele vision programs, and commercials. Animation camera operators film car toons; optical-effects camera opera tors create illusions for television and movies. Camera operators in the en tertainment business are usually su pervised by directors o f photography. Working Conditions Working conditions for photographers and camera operators vary consider- 224/Occupational Outlook Handbook flicts. When working on assignment or on location, photographers and cam era operators may be away from home for long periods. Most photographers and camera operators work under pressure. Dead lines and demanding customers must be satisfied. Freelance photographers may find soliciting new clients frus trating and tedious. Employment To get a perfect shot, precise adjustments must be made. ably. Photographers in government, commercial studios, and advertising agencies usually work a 5-day, 35- to 40-hour week. Freelancers, newspa per photographers, and camera oper ators may work longer or more irreg ular hours. Many photographers work part time. Freelance, press, and commercial photographers may travel frequently and may work in uncomfortable sur roundings. Sometimes the work can be dangerous, especially for photo journalists assigned to cover stories on natural disasters or military con Photographers and camera operators held about 101,000 jobs in 1984. About half of all jobs are salaried positions. The rest are held by self-employed photographers who do individual projects for those wishing to use their services. Photographic or commercial art studios provide the most jobs; oth er employers include newspapers, magazines, radio and television broad casters, motion picture companies, government agencies, and manufac turing firms. Some photographers were employed by colleges, universi ties, and other educational institutions to prepare promotional and educa tional materials. Camera operators are employed primarily in television broadcasting and motion picture stu dios. Jobs for photographers are found in all parts of the country—both small towns and large cities—but are con centrated in the more populated ar eas. Almost all camera operators are employed in metropolitan areas, but assignments may take them far away from home. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although a high school education is desirable, entry level jobs for photog raphers have no formal education or training requirem ents. Employers usually seek applicants who have a broad technical understanding of pho tography as well as other photograph ic talents, such as imagination, cre ativity, and a good sense of timing. Technical expertise can be obtained through practical experience, postsec ondary training, or some combination of the two. Some jobs do require that applicants have specialized knowl edge of the subject areas that will be photographed. Photographic training is available in colleges, universities, junior colleges, public vocational education programs, and private photography and art schools. Over 100 colleges and uni versities offered 4-year curriculums leading to a bachelor’s degree in pho tography in 1984. Many of these schools offer courses in cinematogra phy. However, very few schools offer a degree in cinematography. Many schools offer photography courses as part of their communications and journalism programs. Some colleges and universities grant master’s de grees in photography. In addition, some colleges have 2-year curricu lums leading to a certificate or an associate degree in photography. A formal education in photography gives a fundamental background in a variety of equipment, processes, and tech niques. Art schools offer useful train ing in design and composition, but not the technical training needed for pro fessional photographic work. The Armed Forces also train people in photographic skills. On-the-job training is an important source of training for both camera operators and photographers. Be cause academic programs are not ori ented toward motion picture photog raphy, informal job training is often the only way camera operators can acquire the necessary skills. Trainees begin as first and second assistants to camera operators, helping set up equipment and learning the craft by observing experienced workers. People may prepare for work as photographers in a commercial studio through 2 or 3 years of on-the-job training as a photographer’s assistant. Trainees generally start in the dark room where they learn to mix chemi Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/225 cals, develop film, and do photoprint ing and enlarging. Later they may set up lights and cameras or help an ex perienced photographer take pictures. Amateur experience is helpful in getting an entry job with a commercial studio, but post-high school education and training usually are needed for industrial or scientific photography. Here success in photography depends on being more than just a competent photographer, and adequate career preparation requires some knowledge of the field in which the photography is used. Photographers and camera opera tors must have good eyesight and col or vision, artistic ability, and manual dexterity. They should be patient, ac curate, and enjoy working with detail. Some knowledge of mathematics, physics, and chemistry is helpful for understanding the use of various lens es, films, light sources, and develop ment processes. Some photographic specialties re quire additional qualities. Commercial or freelance photographers must be imaginative and original in their think ing. Those who specialize in photo graphing news stories must recognize a potentially good photograph and act quickly; otherwise, an opportunity to capture an important event on film may be lost. Writing ability some times is important for photojournal ists, who may write captions and ac companying articles for their photo graphs. Portrait photographers need the ability to help people relax in the presence of the camera. Newly hired workers are given rel atively routine assignments that do not require split-second camera ad justments or decisions on what sub ject matter to photograph. News pho tographers, for example, may be as signed to cover events such as civic meetings or snowstorms. After gain ing experience, they advance to more demanding assignments, and may move to larger newspapers or maga zines. A few gain national recognition for their work and exhibit their photo graphs in art and photographic galler ies, or publish them in books. Camera o p e ra to rs—like news p h o to g ra phers—advance in their profession as their work circulates and as they de velop a reputation. The best known camera operators may become direc tors of photography on movies and TV programs. A few industrial or sci entific photographers may be promot ed to supervisory positions. Magazine and news photographers may eventu ally become heads of graphic arts de partments or photography editors. Job Outlook Employment of photographers and camera operators is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupa tions through the mid-1990’s. In addi tion to openings resulting from in creased demand for photographers, others will occur each year as workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Demand for photographers will be stimulated as business and industry place greater importance upon visual aids in meetings, stockholders’ re ports, sales campaigns, and public re lations work. Photography is becom ing increasingly important in scientific and medical research, where opportu nities are expected to be good for those with appropriate technical skills. Employment in photojournalism is ex pected to grow slowly. Although employment of camera operators is expected to grow rapidly as entertainment industries expand, competition for jobs is expected to remain keen. This is considered an exciting and glamorous field and it attracts many more applicants than there are jobs. Earnings Photographers and camera operators in private industry who did relatively routine work averaged $17,400 a year in early 1984; those at midlevel aver aged between $21,800 and $26,000; and those doing difficult w ork, $28,800. In general, camera operators earned more than photographers. In early 1985, beginning photogra phers who worked for newspapers that have contracts with the Newspa per Guild had weekly earnings be tween $180 and $856; the majority earned between $285 and $400. Earn ings of newspaper photographers with some experience (usually 4 or 5 years) ranged between $280 and $885 a week in early 1985. Most experienced pho tographers earned between $510 and $640 a week. Photographers in the Federal Gov ernment earned an average of $23,600 a year in 1985. Some self-employed and freelance photographers earn more than sala ried workers. Many self-employed photographers, however, earn very little from their photography work. Earnings of freelancers are affected greatly by general business conditions and the type and size of their commu nity and clientele. Related Occupations Other workers who rely on their visu al arts talents in their jobs include graphic and fine artists, floral design ers, illustrators, industrial designers, painters, and sculptors. Sources of Additional Information Career information on photography is available from: P rofession al P hotographers o f A m erica, In c., 1090 E x ecu tiv e W ay, D e s P lain es, 111. 60018. A m erican S o ciety o f M agazine Photographers, 205 L exin gton A v en u e, N e w Y ork, N .Y . 10016. Performing Arts Occupations The performing arts include acting, dancing, instrumental music, and sing ing. These fields have the common goals of entertaining, communicating with, and affecting the emotions of (D .O .T. 150 except .027-014; 159.067-010, 014, .117audiences. A performer’s work de 010, .167-014, -018, .267-010, and .647-014; 184.117-034, and pends entirely upon his or her person 010, .167-014, -022, -030,962.167-014)-074; 187.167-174, -178, -182; 961.364-010; al qualities—such as speech, appear ance, facility in body movement, fin ger dexterity, and mental capacities. Nature of the Work Performing arts occupations also in Actors, directors, and producers work clude choreographers, composers, in theater, film, television, and radio. and directors, who create or interpret Actors play parts to entertain, inform, works of art or rehearse and instruct or instruct audiences. Directors and performers, and producers who plan producers plan and supervise shows and coordinate shows and perfor and performances. Actors and actresses entertain and mances. communicate with people through The excitement of opening night, the thrill of an audience’s applause, their interpretation of dramatic roles. the love of one’s art, and the oppor They rely on facial and verbal expres tunity for creative self-expression are sion as well as body motion for their some inducements for people to enter creative affect. Making a character the performing arts. Most aspiring art come to life before an audience is a ists spend many years in intensive job that has great glamour and fasci training and practice before they are nation. However, acting requires per ready for professional performances. sistence, practice, and hard work as They not only need talent but also well as a special talent. Only a few determination, a willingness to work actors achieve recognition as stars on long and hard in their chosen field, the stage, in motion pictures, or on television. A somewhat larger number and some luck. Within the performing arts, the are well-known, experienced perform number of talented persons seeking ers, who frequently are cast in sup employment generally exceeds by far porting roles. However, most actors the number of positions available. As struggle for a toehold in the profession a result, many performers are not able and pick up parts wherever they can. to find enough work in their field to be Employment for actors is characteris employed full time all year long. Many tically unsteady. Most actors experi supplement their incomes by teaching ence frequent periods of unemploy or by working much of the time in ment, and many take temporary jobs, occupations unrelated to the perform often as waiters or sales workers, ing arts. Only the most successful while waiting for their next acting performers can earn a living solely parts to come along. Beginning stage actors generally from their art; therefore, persons in terested in these careers may wish to start in “ bit” parts where they speak consider training for a backup or al only a few lines. If successful, they may progress to larger, supporting ternative field of work. roles. They frequently serve as under The statements that follow give de tailed information on actors, directors studies for the principals. Film and and producers, dancers and choreog television actors, in contrast, may be gin in large roles or move into pro raphers, and musicians. grams from working in commercials. In addition to the actors with speak ing parts, “ extras,” who have no lines to deliver, are used in almost all mo tion pictures and many television shows and theater productions. 226 Actors, Directors, and Producers Some actors move into acting-rela ted jobs as drama coaches or directors and producers of stage, television, radio, or motion picture productions. A few teach drama in colleges and universities. Some professional actors employed by theater companies also teach acting in courses offered to the public. Directors interpret plays or scripts and usually choose cast members for stage, movie, television, and radio productions. They conduct auditions, rehearsals and direct the work of the cast and crew. They use their knowl edge of acting, voice, and movement to achieve the best possible perform ance and usually approve the scenery, costumes, choreography, and music. Producers select plays or scripts and hire directors, principal members of the cast, and key production staff members. They coordinate the activi ties of writers, directors, managers, and other personnel, arrange financ ing, and decide on the size of the production and its budget. Working Conditions Acting demands patience and total commitment, since aspiring actors must wait for parts or filming sched ules, work long hours, and travel of ten. Evening work is a regular part of a stage actor’s life. Flawless perfor mances require the tedious memoriz ing of lines and repetitive rehearsals. Performances on television programs often allow little time for rehearsal, so that the actor must deliver a good performance with very little prepara tion. An actor needs stamina to with stand the heat of stage or studio lights, the long irregular hours, and the ad verse weather conditions that may exist “ on location.” When plays are on the road, traveling often is neces sary. Actors may face the anxiety of intermittent employment and rejec tions when auditioning for work. Directors and producers often work under stress as they try to meet sched ules, stay within budgets, and resolve personnel problems. Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/227 Employment At any one time in 1984, actors held an average of about 50,000 jobs in motion pictures, stage plays, and com mercials. Directors and producers held an additional several thousand jobs. Many others were between jobs, so that the total number of people actually employed as actors, direc tors, and producers over the course of the year was higher. In the winter, most employment opportunities on the stage are in New York and other large cities. In the summer, stock companies in suburban and resort ar eas provide employment. In addition, many cities have nonprofit profession al companies such as “ little theaters,” repertory companies, and dinner the aters, which provide opportunities for local amateur talent as well as for professional entertainers. Normally, casts are selected in New York City for shows that go “ on the road.” Employment in motion pictures and films for television is centered in Hol lywood and New York City, although a few studios are located in Florida and Texas and other parts of the coun try. In addition, many films are shot on location and employ local profes sionals and nonprofessionals as “ day players” and “ extras.” A number of American-produced films are shot in foreign countries. In television, most opportunities are at the headquarters of the major networks—in New York, Los Angeles, and, to a lesser extent, Chicago. Sometimes employment op portunities are available with a few local television stations. Training and Other Qualifications Aspiring actors and directors should take part in high school and college plays, or work with little theaters and other acting groups for experience. Formal dramatic training or acting experience is generally necessary, al though some people enter the field without it. Training can be obtained at dramatic arts schools in New York and Los Angeles, and at about 600 colleges and universities throughout the country offering bachelor’s or higher degrees in dramatic and theater arts. College drama curriculums usu ally include courses in liberal arts, stage speech and movement, direct ing, play writing, play production, de sign, and history of the drama, as well as practical courses in acting. From Digitized for these, the student develops an appre FRASER Acting demands patience and total commitment. ciation of the great plays and the roles he or she may play or direct. The best way to start is to use local opportunities and to build on them. Local and regional theater experience may help obtain work in New York or Los Angeles. Modeling experience may also be helpful. Actors need tal ent, creative ability, and training that will enable them to portray different characters. They must have poise, stage presence, and the ability to af fect an audience, plus the ability to follow directions. Physical appear ance is often a deciding factor in being selected for particular roles. Many professional actors rely on agents or managers to find them per forming engagements, negotiate con tracts, and plan their careers. To become a movie extra, one must usually be listed by a casting agency, such as Central Casting, a no-fee agency that works with the Screen Extras Guild and supplies all extras to the major movie studios in Holly wood. Applicants are accepted only when the number of persons of a particular type on the list—for exam ple, athletic young men, old ladies, or small children—is below the foresee able need. In recent years, only a very small proportion of the applicants have succeeded in being listed. Extras in a film have very little opportunity to advance to a speaking role in that film. There are no specific training re quirements for directors and produc ers. Talent, experience, and business acumen are very important. Directors and producers come from different backgrounds. Actors, writers, film ed itors, and businessmen often enter these fields. Formal training in direct ing and producing is available at some colleges and universities. Individuals with a bachelor’s degree or 3 years of experience may qualify for an assist ant directors training program offered by the Directors Guild of America. To qualify, individuals must take an 8hour written test and then an oral exam. However, of more than 1,000 applicants who take the exam every year, only a dozen or so qualify for the program. 228/Occupational Outlook Handbook The length of a performer’s working life depends largely on training, skill, versatility, and perseverance. Some actors, directors, and producers never retire. Many leave the occupation, however, because they cannot find enough work to make a living. Job Outlook The large number of people desiring acting careers, the lack of formal en try requirements, and the relatively small number of job openings cause keen competition for acting and di recting jobs. Only the most talented find regular employment. Through the mid-1990’s, many openings will occur as actors leave the occupation. Faster than average growth in employment is expected as theatrical and motion pic ture productions increase. Neverthe less, there probably will not be open ings for all jobseekers, and the keen competition for acting jobs is expect ed to continue. Earnings Actors who appear on the stage be long to the Actors’ Equity Associa tion; in motion pictures, including television films, to the Screen Actors Guild, Inc., or to the Screen Extras Guild, Inc.; and in television or radio, to the American Federation of Televi sion and Radio Artists (AFTRA). Stage directors belong to the Society of Stage Directors and Choreogra phers; film and television directors belong to the Directors Guild of Amer ica. These unions and the producers of the shows sign basic collective bar gaining agreements which set mini mum salaries, hours of work, and oth er conditions of employment. Each actor, director, or producer may also sign a separate contract, which may provide for a higher salary than that specified in the basic agreement. The minimum weekly salary for ac tors in Broadway productions was $700 in 1985. Those in small “ offBroadway” theaters received minimums ranging from $200 to $420 a week, depending on the seating ca pacity of the theater. For shows on the road, the minimum rate was $67 extra per day. In 1985, motion picture and televi sion actors and actresses earned a minimum daily rate of $361, or $1,256 for a 5-day week. For extras, the minimum rate was $87 a day. Televi sion actors also receive additional compensation for reruns. However, earnings of most actors and actresses from acting work are low because their employment is ir regular. According to data from Ac tors Equity Association, which repre sents about 35,000 actors in the legit imate theater, about 20,000 of their members had no earnings in 1983; 4,700 members made less than $2,500; 6,000 members earned $5,000 or more; and only 650 members earned more than $35,000. The Screen Actors Guild (SAG) reports that over 80 percent of all performers who worked under SAG contracts in 1983 earned less than $5,000 from acting jobs; about 6 percent earned $25,000 or more. Therefore, many actors must supple ment their incomes from acting by holding other jobs. Some well-known actors have sala ry rates well above the minimums, and the salaries of the few top stars are many times the figures cited. Eight performances amount to a week’s work on the legitimate stage, and any additional performances are paid for as overtime. Actors usually work long hours during rehearsals; once the show opens, the hours be come more regular. Many actors who earn more than a set minimum per year are covered by a union health, welfare, and pension fund, including hospitalization insur ance, to which employers contribute. Under some employment conditions, Equity and AFTRA members have paid vacations and sick leave. The average salary for stage direc tors was $22,000 a year in 1983. Stage directors’ salaries vary widely, how ever. They can range from $1,800 for directing one small show to over $1 million for a successful Broadway show. The minimum weekly salary for movie directors ranged between $3,900 and $6,200 in 1985, depending on the type of film. In 1985, minimum weekly earnings for television direc tors ranged between $2,700 and $6,700 for a half-hour program, depending on the type of program. Producers usually do not get sala ries; instead, they get a percentage of a show’s earnings. Sometimes pro ducers work for a set fee. Theater directors work for a set fee and usu ally receive a percentage of the show. Related Occupations Actors and actresses entertain people through their interpretations of dra matic roles by facial and verbal expression and body motions. Related occupations for people with these skills include dancers, choreogra phers, disc jockeys, drama teachers or coaches, and radio and television announcers. Other people working in theatrical occupations related to act ing are playwrights, script writers, stage managers, and set designers. Occupations involved with the busi ness aspects of theater productions include company managers, booking managers, and actors’, directors’, and playwrights’ agents. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in the theater is available from: A m erican T heater A sso c ia tio n , 1010 W iscon sin A v e . N W ., W ash in gton, D .C . 20007. Information about nonprofit region al theaters may be obtained from: T h eater C o m m u n ica tio n s G rou p , In c ., 355 L exin gton A v e ., N e w Y ork , N .Y ., 10017. Information about grants and fel lowships in the performing arts is available from: Public Inform ation O ffice, N ation al E n d o w m ent for the A rts, 1100 P en n sy lv a n ia A v e. N W ., W ash in gton, D .C . 20506. Information on training institutions may be obtained from: L eagu e o f P rofession al T heatre Training Pro gram s, Suite 1515, 1860 B road w ay, N e w Y ork, N .Y . 10023. For information on the training pro gram offered by the Directors Guild of America, contact: A ssistan t D irectors Training Program , 14144 V entura B lv d ., Sherm an O aks, C alif., 91423. Dancers and Choreographers (D .O .T . 151.027-010, and .047-010) Nature of the Work Dancing is an ancient and worldwide art used to interpret an idea or a story, or simply to physically express rhythm and sound. Many professional danc ers perform in classical ballet, which includes the stylized, traditional rep ertory, or modern dance, which al lows more free movement and selfexpression. Others perform in dance adaptations for musical shows, in folk, ethnic, and jazz dances, and in other popular kinds of dancing. In addition to being an art form for its own sake, dance also is used to com plement opera, musical comedy, and television performances. Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/229 In dance productions, performers most often work as a group, although a few top artists dance solo. Many dancers combine stage work with teaching. Choreographers often cre ate original dances, teach them to performers, and sometimes direct and stage the presentations of their work. Working Conditions Dancing is strenuous. Rehearsals re quire very long hours and usually take place daily, including weekends and holidays. For shows on the road, weekend travel often is required. Most performances take place in the evening, and dancers must become accustomed to working late hours. Therefore, many dancers, by their thirties, transfer to related occupa tions such as choreographer or dance teacher or find work in other occupa tions. Certain celebrated dancers, however, continue performing be yond the age of 50. Employment Professional dancers held an average of about 10,000 jobs at any one time in 1984. Many others were between en gagements so that the total number of people employed as dancers over the course of the year was greater. In addition, there were several times as many dance instructors in secondary schools, colleges and universities, dance schools, and private studios. Many teachers also performed from time to time. New York City is the home of about one-half of the major dance compa nies. Other cities with full-time dance companies are Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle, Chicago, Dallas, Houston, Salt Lake City, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Boston, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, and Atlanta. Training and Other Qualifications Serious training for a career in danc ing traditionally begins by about age 12. Early ballet training begins at age 7 or 8 and is usually given by private teachers and independent ballet schools. Students who demonstrate potential in the early teens receive more intensive and advanced profes sional training at regional ballet schools or schools conducted under the auspices of the major ballet com panies. Leading dance school compa nies often have summer training pro grams from which they select candi dates for admission to their regular Dancing is strenuous and requires many hours of rehearsals. full-time training program. Early and intensive training also is important for the modern dancer, but modern dance generally does not require as many years of training as ballet. Most danc ers have their professional auditions by age 17 or 18, but training and practice never end. For example, pro fessional ballet dancers take from 10 to 12 lessons a week for 11 or 12 months of the year, and must spend many additional hours practicing and rehearsing. Because of the strenuous and timeconsuming training required, a danc er’s general education may be mini mal. However, a broad, general edu cation including music, literature, history, and the visual arts is helpful in the interpretation of dramatic epi sodes, ideas, and feelings. About 210 colleges and universities confer bachelor’s or higher degrees in dance, generally through the depart ments of physical education, music, theater, or fine arts. Most programs concentrate on modem dance but also offer courses in ballet/classical tech niques. A college education is not essential to obtaining employment as a profes sional dancer. In fact, ballet dancers who postpone their first audition until graduation may compete at a disad vantage with younger dancers. On the other hand, a college degree can be helpful for the dancer who retires at an early age, as often happens, and wishes to enter another field of work. A college education is an advantage for college or university teaching. However, it is not necessary for teach ing dance or choreography in a studio. Studio schools usually require teach ers to have experience as performers; colleges and conservatories generally require graduate degrees, but per formance experience often may be substituted. The dancer’s life is one of rigorous practice and self-discipline; therefore, patience, perseverance, and a devo tion to dance are essential. Good health and physical stamina are nec essary in order to practice and per form and to follow the rugged sched ule often required. Seldom does a dancer perform unac companied. Therefore, ability to func tion as part of a team is important. Dancers also should be prepared to face the anxiety of intermittent em ployment and rejections when audi tioning for work. Body height and build should not vary much from the average. Good feet and normal arches also are re quired. Above all, one must have agil ity, coordination, grace, a sense of rhythm, and a feeling for music, as 230/Occupational Outlook Handbook well as a creative ability to express oneself through movement. Employment Outlook Although employment of dancers is expected to grow faster than the aver age for all occupations through the mid-1990’s, the number of dancers seeking professional careers will con tinue to exceed the number of job openings, causing keen competition. Only the most talented will find regu lar employment. Some job openings will occur as dancers leave the occu pation. Best job opportunities are expected to be with regional ballet companies. Opera companies will also provide some em ploym ent opportunities. Dance groups affiliated with colleges and universities will be another source of employment. Television will also offer some opportunities. The general popularity of dance in recent years has also resulted in increased employ ment opportunities in teaching dance. Earnings Some dancers in the major opera bal let, classical ballet, and modem dance corps belong to the American Guild of Musical Artists, Inc.; those on live or videotaped television belong to the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists; those who perform in films and TV belong to the Screen Actors Guild or the Screen Extras Guild; and those in musical comedies join Actors Equity Association. The unions and producers sign basic agree ments specifying minimum salary rates, hours of work, and other con ditions of employment. However, the separate contract signed by each danc er with the producer of the show may be more favorable than the basic agreement. In 1984, the minimum salary for dancers in opera and other stage pro ductions was $60 per performance. The single performance rate for ballet dancers was $220. Dancers on tour received an allowance of $50 a day in 1984 for room and board. Minimum performance rates for dancers on tele vision ranged from $530 to $540 for a 1-hour show. The performance rate covers 18 hours of rehearsal over a 3-day period, in addition to the per formance. The normal workweek is 30 hours (6 hours per day maximum) spent in rehearsals and matinee and Digitized evening performances. Extra com for FRASER Information about the related field of dance therapy, along with a list of schools that offer degrees in the field, is available from: music. They may perform alone or as part of a group on stage, radio, or in TV or movie productions. Instrum ental musicians (D.O.T. 152.041-010) play a musical instru ment in an orchestra, band, rock group, or jazz “ combo.” Classical musicians play string, brass, wood wind, or percussion instruments. Pop ular music performers usually play the trumpet, trombone, clarinet, flute, sa x o p h o n e , o rg a n , one of the “ rhythm” instruments—the piano, string bass, drums, guitar—or one of the many electronic synthesizers. Singers (D.O.T. 152.047-022) inter pret music using their knowledge of voice production, melody, and har mony. They sing character parts or perform in their own individual styles. Singers are classified according to their voice range—soprano, contralto, tenor, baritone, or bass—or by the type of music they sing, such as op era, rock, folk, or country and west ern. Composers (D.O.T. 152.067-014) create original music such as sympho nies, operas, sonatas, or popular songs. They transcribe ideas into mu sical notation using harmony, rhythm, melody, and tonal structure. O rchestra conductors (D .O .T. 152.047-014) lead orchestras and bands. They audition and select musi cians and direct rehearsals and perfor mances. They use conducting tech niques, music theory, and harmony to achieve desired musical effects. Choral directors (D.O.T. 152.047010) conduct choirs and glee clubs. They audition and select singers and direct them at rehearsals and perfor mances to achieve harmony, rhythm, tempo, shading, and other desired musical affects. To achieve these, they use conducting techniques and music theory. A m erican D an ce Therapy A sso cia tio n , Suite 108, 2000 Century Plaza, C olum bia, M d. 21044. Working Conditions pensation is paid for additional hours worked. However, the earnings of most dancers from dancing are low because their employment is irregular. They often must supplement their incomes by taking temporary jobs unrelated to dancing. Dancers covered by union con tracts are entitled to some paid sick leave and various health and welfare benefits provided by their unions. Employers contribute toward these benefits. Most other dancers do not receive any fringe benefits. Related Occupations Dancers express concepts and emo tions through their body movements. They need grace, rhythm, and body control. Some related occupations that use actual training in dance or specialized knowledge of dance forms include acrobat, athlete, ice skater, dance critic, dance instructor, dance notator, dance therapist, and recrea tion worker. Sources of Additional Information Information on colleges and universi ties that teach dance is available from: N ational D an ce A sso cia tio n , a D ivision o f the A m erican A llian ce for H ealth, P hysical E d u ca tion, R ecreation , and D an ce, 1900 A ssociation D r., R eston , Va. 22091. For information on all aspects of dance, including job listings, contact: A m erican D an ce G uild, 570 7th A v e ., 20th F lo o r, N e w Y ork, N .Y . 10018. E n c lo se a stam ped, self-addressed en velop e. Information about wages and work ing conditions in classical ballet and modern dance is available from: The A m erican G uild o f M usical A rtists, 1841 B roadw ay, R oom 911, N e w Y ork, N .Y . 10023. Musicians (D .O .T. 152 except .021-010) Nature of the Work Professional musicians—those whose livelihoods depend upon performing for others—may play musical instru ments, sing, write musical composi tions, or conduct instrumental or vo cal performances. They usually spe cialize in either classical or popular Musicians generally perform at night and on weekends, and also spend time in practice and rehearsal. Performanc es often require travel. Many musi cians find only part-time work or experience unemployment between engagements. They often supplement their income with other types of jobs. Employment Musicians held an average of about 192,000 jobs at any one time in 1984. Others were between engagements, so that the total number of people Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/231 employed as musicians during the course of the year was greater. Many work in cities in which enter tainment and recording activities are concentrated, such as New York City, Chicago, Los Angeles, Nashville, Mi ami Beach, and New Orleans. Many classical musicians perform with one of the 30 major symphony groups, the 37 regional orchestras, the 95 metro politan orchestras, or the hundreds of other orchestras. Musicians also work in opera, musical comedy, and ballet productions. Some play in small cham ber music groups like quartets or tri os. Musicians also perform in church es, synagogues, clubs, and restau rants, and for weddings and other events. Well-known musicians and groups give their own concerts, ap pear on “ live” radio and television, make recordings, or go on concert tours. The Armed Forces, too, offer careers in their musical organizations. Training and Other Qualifications Many people who become profession al musicians begin studying an instru ment at an early age. They may gain valuable experience by playing in a band or orchestra. Singers usually start training whenever their voices mature. Participation in school musi cals or in a choir often provides good early training. Musicians need exten sive and prolonged training to acquire the necessary skill, knowledge, and ability to interpret music. This train ing may be obtained through private study with an accomplished musician, in a college or university music pro gram, in a music conservatory, or through practice with a group. For study in an institution, an audition frequently is necessary. Formal cours es include musical theory, music in terpretation, composition, conduct ing, and instrumental and voice in struction. Composers, conductors, and arrangers need advanced training in these subjects as well as experi ence. About 500 colleges, universities, and music conservatories offer bach elor’s or higher degrees in music. About 600 conservatories and colleg es and universities offer a bachelor’s degree in music education to qualify graduates for a State certificate to teach in an elementary or secondary school. Those who perform popular music must have an understanding of and feeling for that style of music, but classical training may expand their employment opportunities. Although voice training is an asset for singers of popular music, many with untrained voices have successful careers. As a rule, they take lessons with private teachers when young, and seize every opportunity to make amateur or pro fessional appearances. As musicians gain experience and become known, they perform with better known bands and orchestras. Young persons who consider ca reers in music should have musical talent, versatility, creative ability, and poise and stage presence to face large audiences. Since quality performance requires constant study and practice, self-discipline is vital. Moreover, mu sicians who play concert and night club engagements must have physical stamina because of frequent traveling and night performances. They must also be prepared to face the anxiety of intermittent employment and rejec tions when auditioning for work. Many musicians rely on agents or managers to find them performing en gagements, negotiate contracts, and plan their careers. Employment Outlook The large number of people desiring to be professional musicians, the lack of formal entry requirements for many types of jobs, and the relatively small number of job openings cause keen competition for jobs. Only the most talented find regular employment. Through the mid-1990’s, many open ings will occur as musicians leave the occupation. In addition, employment is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. How ever, there are not likely to be open ings for all jobseekers, and the keen competition for jobs as a musician is expected to continue. Earnings Earnings often depend on a perform er’s professional reputation as well as on geographic location—and on the number of hours worked. In 1984, median earnings for salaried musi cians who usually work full time were about $400 a week. The middle 50 percent earned between $267 and $520 a week. Minimum salaries for musicians in major symphony orchestras in 1984 ranged from $331 to $778 a week, according to the American Symphony Orchestra League. Minimums in the Musicians need intensive training and practice to acquire the necessary skill. regional symphony orchestras ranged from about $150 to $550 a week. Min imum wages for musicians in metro politan symphony orchestras were generally between $10 and $60 per rehearsal and $23 to $71 per concert. Some musicians earned substantially more than the minimums, however. The 30 major symphony orchestras have seasons ranging from 36 to 52 weeks, with an average of 48 weeks. Metropolitan and regional orchestras generally have shorter seasons. Musicians employed in motion pic ture recording earned a minimum of about $150 for a 3-hour session in 1984. Those employed by recording companies were paid a minimum of about $190 for a 3-hour session in 1984. The union minimum rate for con cert singers who were part of a chorus was $65 per performance in 1984. Members of an opera chorus earned a minimum daily rate of $60 per per formance. A featured soloist received a minimum of $216 for each single performance. A few opera soloists and popular singers, however, earned thousands of dollars per performance. Minimum wage rates for group singers on network or syndicated television ranged between $227 and $242 per singer for a 1-hour show. Solo or duo singers received minimums of about $490 each for a 1-hour TV show. The 232/Occupational Outlook Handbook minimum scale for phonograph re cording artists is $110 per side. Musicians employed by some sym phony orchestras work under master wage agreements, which guarantee a season’s work up to 52 weeks. Many other musicians may face relatively long periods of unemployment be tween jobs. Even when employed, however, many work part time. Thus, their earnings generally are lower than those in many other occupations. Moreover, since they may not work steadily for one employer, some per formers cannot qualify for unemploy ment compensation, and few have ei ther sick leave or vacations with pay. For these reasons, many musicians give private lessons or take jobs unre lated to music to supplement their earnings as performers. Many musicians belong to a branch of the American Federation of Musi cians, an AFL-CIO union. Profession al singers usually belong to a branch of the Associated Actors and Artistes of America, an AFL-CIO union. Related Occupations There are many music-related occu pations. These include librettists, songwriters, and music therapists. A large number of music teachers work in elementary and secondary schools, music conservatories and colleges and universities, or are self-employed. Many who teach music also perform. A technical knowledge of musical instruments is required by instrument repairers, tuners, and copyists. In ad dition, there are a number of occupa tions in the business side of music such as booking agents, concert man agers, music store owners and manag ers; salespersons of records, sheet music, and musical instruments; and music publishers. Others whose work involves music are disc jockeys, mu sic critics, sound and audio techni cians, music librarians, and radio and TV announcers. Sources of Additional Information For answers to specific questions about wages, hours of work, and working conditions for professional musicians, contact: A m erican F ed eration o f M usician s (A F L -C IO ), 1500 B roadw ay, N e w York, N .Y . 10036. For information about wages and working conditions for singers, con tact: A m erican G uild o f M usical A rtists (A F L -C IO ), 1841 B road w ay, N e w Y ork, N .Y . 10023. The requirements for certification of organists and choirmasters are available from: A m erican G uild o f O rgan ists, 815 S eco n d A v e ., Suite 318, N e w Y ork, N .Y . 10017. For programs in music teacher ed ucation, contact: M usic E du cators N ation al C on feren ce, 1902 A sso cia tio n D r., R esto n , V a. 22091. Information about certification of private music teachers is available from: M usic T each ers N ation al A sso c ia tio n , 2113 C arew T ow er, C incinn ati, O hio 45202. Information on accredited schools of music is available from: N ation al A s so c ia tio n o f S c h o o ls o f M u sic, 11250 R oger B acon D r.. R eston , V a. 22090. A brochure entitled Careers in Mu sic, produced jointly by the three or ganizations listed above, is available from any of the three. Information about careers in or chestra management is available from: A m erican S ym p h on y O rchestra L eagu e, 633 E S t., N W „ W ash in gton, D .C . 20004. Technologists and Technicians, Except Health Technologists and technicians per form much of the detailed technical work necessary in engineering, scien tific, computer, library, legal, broad casting, and other professional activi ties. They focus on the practical ele ments of the activities, operating and maintaining technical equipment and systems, or providing skilled help with the research, design, testing, and actual creation of the end product of the activity. Related managerial and professional personnel, with whom they work closely, establish the over all theory, design, and method of pro duction; technologists and technicians bring their ideas to fruition. Technologists and technicians em ploy specialized skills to perform the day-to-day tasks needed to carry out a project or run an operation. They may operate testing and measuring equip ment in the laboratory or the field; make detailed drawings of new de signs of buildings or machinery; record and transmit radio and televi sion programs; comb reference mate rials for past instances of a legal argu ment having been successfully used in court, or organize and maintain the reference materials for use by others; program computers or machine tools to perform desired operations; or guide airplanes safely to their destina tions. They are employed in nearly every industry, wherever technical assistance in a specialized area is needed. Most technologists and technicians are supervised by professional work ers—for example, engineering techni cians by engineers, library technicians by librarians, and legal assistants by lawyers. They are usually part of a team that is engaged in a particular project or operation. In most specialties, technologists and technicians use complex electron ic equipment or mechanical instru ments, technical manuals, or other specialized materials. For example, air traffic controllers use radar track ing devices to monitor the positions of airplanes and guide pilots to safe land ings; legal assistants use specialized law books and reference materials to research legal topics; and program mers use complex programming lan guages to direct computers to perform specific tasks. Because of the diversity of technol ogist and technician occupations, training requirements vary widely. A high school diploma is a minimum requisite; most jobs, in fact, require specialized postsecondary training. Training is offered at junior and com munity colleges, technical institutes, vocational schools, and extension di visions of colleges and universities. These programs usually emphasize practical courses and “ hands-on” experience in a particular specialty. Programs vary in length. For exam ple, most legal assistant programs re quire 2 years’ work. On the other hand, many programmers complete 4-year bachelor’s degree programs. In addition to acquiring a formal education, technologists and techni cians often receive on-the-job train ing. For example, programmers gen erally work under close supervision for several months; air traffic control lers must complete several years of progressively more responsible work to become fully qualified. Occasional ly, technologists and technicians take additional courses to keep abreast of technological advances in their spe cialty. The knowledge and personal char acteristics required in these jobs vary. For example, engineering, science, and electrical and electronics techni cians need a good foundation in math ematics and the basic sciences—phys ics, chemistry, and biology. Legal as sistants and library technicians need strong communication skills. Whatever their occupation, tech nologists and technicians must be able to apply practical knowledge to solve particular problems. Because they are often part of a team, the ability to follow directions well is important. They must be patient, precise, and organized in their work habits. Also, many need manual dexterity to work with various kinds of equipment. The following section describes the nature of the work, employment, training requirements, job outlook, earnings, and working conditions for a representative sample of technologist and technician occupations. 233 Engineering and Science Technicians Engineering and science technicians apply scientific, engineering, and mathematical principles to practical situations to assist scientists in re search and development, manufac turing, sales, and service. Technicians frequently use and sometimes repair complex electronic and mechanical instrum ents and laboratory equip ment. Many use computers or com puter-aided design and drafting sys tems. Drafters prepare detailed plans of m anufactured products, buildings, and other structures to serve as a guide for manufacturing and construc tion w orkers. Their drawings are based on rough sketches and specifi cations prepared by engineers, archi tects, and scientists. Engineering technicians, science technicians and electrical and elec tronics technicians assist scientists and engineers in research and devel opment by setting up experiments and calculating results. Technicians in production test product quality and check that plans and procedures are followed. Some technicians work as m anufacturers’ field representatives, giving advice on the installation or maintenance of complex machinery. Other technicians sell or service tech nical products. Engineering and science technicians usually need post-high school train ing, which is often obtained in a tech nical institute or junior or community college. Some technicians gain their training in the Arm ed Forces or through on-the-job training. Others, especially science technicians, obtain their training in a 4-year college. Drafters (D.O.T. 001.261; 002.261; 003.281; 005.281; 007.161010, -014, and -018, .261, and .281; 010.281-010, -014, -018; 014.281; -017 except .261-010; 019.161010, and .261-014) Nature of the Work When building a satellite, television set, or bridge, workers follow draw ings prepared by drafters that show 34 the exact dimensions and specifica tions of the entire design and each of its parts. Drafters prepare detailed drawings based on rough sketches, specifica tions, and calculations made by scien tists, engineers, architects, and de signers. Final drawings contain a de tailed view of the object from all sides as well as specifications for materials to be used, procedures to be followed, and other information to carry out the job. In preparing drawings, drafters use compasses, dividers, protractors, tri angles, and other drafting devices. They also use technical handbooks, tables, and calculators to help solve problems. Drafters are increasingly using com puter-aided design (CAD) systems. Instead of sitting at drafting boards, drafters who use CAD systems sit at computer work stations and may make the drawing on a TV-like screen. In some cases, the design may never be placed on paper. It may be stored electronically or, in some factories, may be used to guide automatic ma chinery. These systems free drafters from much routine drafting work, per mit many variations of a design to be easily prepared, and allow a design to be viewed from various angles and perspectives not usually available with more traditional drafting methods so that design work can be better, faster, and more thorough. However, much drafting, especially in small offices or at field sites, will continue to be done by traditional methods. Drafters usually specialize in a par ticular field of work, such as mechan ical, electrical, aeronautical, civil, or architectural drafting. Working Conditions Although drafters usually work in w ell-lig h ted and w e ll-v e n tila te d rooms, they often must sit at drawing boards or computer terminals and do very detailed work for long periods of time. This work may cause eyestrain and back discomfort. Employment Drafters held over 345,000 jobs in 1984. About one-third of all drafters worked for engineering and architec tu ral firm s, and a b o u t o n e-th ird worked in durable goods manufac turing industries, such as machinery, electrical equipment, and fabricated metals. Drafters also were employed in the construction, transportation, communications, and utilities indus tries. Over 16,000 drafters worked in gov ernment in 1984, primarily at the State and local level. Most drafters in the Federal Government worked for the Department of Defense. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer applicants for draft ing positions who have 2 years of post-high school training in technical institutes, junior and community col leges, or extension divisions of uni versities. Some persons receive train ing and experience in the Armed Forces. Over 40 percent of those who obtained jobs as drafters recently had some college or technical institute training. In addition, many had other postsecondary training. Training for a career in drafting should include courses in mathemat ics, physical sciences, mechanical drawing, and drafting. Courses in shop practices and shop skills also are helpful since most higher level draft ing jobs require knowledge of manu facturing or construction methods. Many technical schools offer courses in structural design, architectural drawing, and engineering or industrial technology. An exposure to computer-aided de sign techniques is helpful, but em ployers mainly look for applicants with a thorough knowledge of drafting fundamentals, knowledge of design theory, and neatness. Because there are many different kinds of CAD sys tems in use, training and experience in one particular system may not be very helpful. Many employers provide onthe-job training in their CAD system. Those planning careers in drafting Technologists and Technicians, Except Health/235 1984, while more experienced drafters averaged between $16,100 and $23,100 a year. Senior drafters averaged about $29,000 a year. Related Occupations Other workers who are required to prepare or understand detailed draw ings, make accurate and precise cal culations and measurements, and use various measuring devices include ar chitects, engineering technicians, en g in e e r s , la n d s c a p e a r c h i t e c t s , photogrammetrists, and surveyors. Sources of Additional Information Information on schools offering pro grams in drafting and other areas is available from: National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, 2021 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Neatness and the ability to pay close attention to detail are important for drafters. should be able to do freehand draw ings of three-dimensional objects and also detailed work requiring a high degree of accuracy. Neatness and the ability to pay close attention to details are important qualities for drafters. They should also have good eyesight and manual dexterity. In addition, they should be able to function as part of a team since they work directly with engineers, architects, designers, and other workers. Artistic ability is helpful in some specialized fields. Beginners usually start as junior drafters doing routine work under close supervision. After gaining expe rience, they do more difficult work with less supervision and may ad vance to senior drafters or supervi sors. With appropriate college cours es, they may become engineers, de signers, or architects. Job Outlook Employment of drafters is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid1990’s. Industrial growth and the in creasingly complex design problems associated with new products and processes will greatly increase the de mand for drafting services. However, widespread use of CAD equipment— which increases drafters’ productivi ty—is expected to partially offset this growth in demand. Although earlier it had been expected that CAD systems would eliminate many drafters, in most situations where CAD systems have been installed, there have been few if any layoffs. Instead, CAD sys tems have been used to produce more and better variations of a design. As with computer applications in other areas, the ease of obtaining computer generated information stimulates a de mand for more information. Howev er, in some situations, lower level drafters doing routine work could be replaced by CAD technology, and lay offs of drafters unable or unwilling to switch to CAD techniques are possi ble. In addition to jobs arising from growth in demand for drafters, a large number of openings will result each year from the need to replace drafters who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Drafters are highly concentrated in industries that are sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy, such as engi neering and architectural services and durable goods manufacturing. During an economic recession, drafters may be laid off as fewer buildings and manufactured products are designed and fewer drafting services are need ed. Earnings Median annual earnings of drafters were about $20,900 in 1984; the mid dle 50 percent earned between $15,900 and $26,700 annually. Ten percent earned less than $12,000 and 10 per cent, more than $33,000. In private industry, beginning draft ers averaged about $12,600 a year in Electrical and Electronics Technicians (D.O.T. 003.161; .261; 019.281; 194.381; 726.261; .281-010; and 828.261-018) Nature of the Work Knowledge of science, mathematics, and principles of electricity and elec tronics enables electrical and elec tronics technicians to work in all phases of business and government— from research and design to manufac turing, sales, and customer service. Although their jobs are more limited in scope and more practically oriented than those of engineers or scientists, they often apply the theoretical knowl edge developed by engineers and sci entists to actual situations. Electrical and electronics technicians develop, manufacture, and service equipment and systems such as radios, radar, sonar, television, industrial and med ical measuring or control devices, navigational equipment, and comput ers. Because the field is so broad, these technicians often specialize in one area, such as automatic control devices or electronic amplifiers. Technicians working in design, pro duction, or customer service use so phisticated measuring and diagnostic devices to test, adjust, and repair equipment. In many cases, they must understand the purpose for which the electronic device is being used. To design equipment for space explora 236/Occupational Outlook Handbook tion, for example, a technician must consider the need for minimum weight and volume and maximum resistance to shock, extreme temperature, and pressure. In research and development, one of the largest areas of employment, technicians set up equipment, prepare experiments, and calculate the re sults, sometimes with the aid of com puters. They also assist engineers and scientists by making prototype ver sions of newly designed equipment and, frequently, by doing routine de sign work. In production, technicians usually follow the general directions of engi neers and scientists, but often without close supervision. They may prepare specifications for components and de vise and conduct tests to insure prod uct quality. They often supervise pro duction workers to make sure they follow prescribed procedures. As sales workers or field represen tatives for manufacturers, wholesal ers or retailers, technicians give ad vice on the installation, operation, and maintenance of complex equip ment and may write specifications and technical manuals. Although electrical and electronics technicians often repair equipment, workers whose main job is the repair of electronic equipment are included elsewhere in the Handbook under electrical and electronic equipment repairers. Electrical and electronics technicians often use test equipment. Working Conditions Most electrical and electronics techni cians work regular hours in laborato ries, offices, electronics shops, or in dustrial plants. Those in sales and service usually work much of the time in custom ers’ facilities. Some occa sionally are exposed to electric shock hazards from equipment. Employment Electrical and electronics technicians held about 404,000 jobs in 1984, over one-third of which were in manufac turing. The largest manufacturing em ployers were the electrical equipment, machinery, and professional and sci entific equipment industries. Over one-fourth worked in wholesale trade, mainly for distributors of machinery, equipm ent, and electrical goods. Large numbers also worked for public utilities and service and repair compa nies. The Federal Government employed about 20,000 electrical and electronics technicians, mainly in the Depart ments of Defense and Transportation. State and local governments employed about 6,000. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although persons can qualify for elec trical or electronics technician jobs through many combinations of work experience and education, most em ployers prefer applicants who have had some specialized technical train ing. Specialized training is available at technical institutes, junior and com munity colleges, extension divisions of colleges and universities, and pub lic and private vocational-technical schools. Persons with college courses in engineering, science, and mathe matics may qualify for some positions but additional specialized training or experience may be needed. Many electrical and electronics technicians qualify for their jobs through on-the-job training or on the basis of experience gained in the Armed Forces. Some qualify through correspondence schools. Some of the types of schools that provide electrical and electronic train ing are discussed in the following paragraphs. Technical Institutes. Technical insti tutes offer training to qualify students for a job immediately after graduation with a minimum of on-the-job train ing. They may be publicly or privately operated. Many offer 2-year associate degree programs, and are similar to or part of a community college, or are part of State university systems; oth ers award certificates of completion for various programs, many of which are of less than 2 years’ duration. In general, technical institute students receive intensive technical training but less theory and general education than they would in junior or commu nity colleges. However, because the kind and quality of programs operated by technical institutes vary consider ably, prospective students should in vestigate carefully the accreditation status of the school they are consider ing and the suitability of the various programs offered. Junior and Community Colleges. Curriculums in junior and community col leges which prepare students for tech nician occupations are often similar to those in technical institutes but may also em phasize theory and liberal arts. After completing the 2-year pro gram, some graduates qualify for jobs as electrical or electronics technicians while others continue their education at 4-year colleges. Area Vocational-Technical Schools. These postsecondary public institu tions serve students from surrounding areas and emphasize training in skills needed by employers in the local area. Most require a high school diploma or its equivalent for admission. Other Training. Some large corpora tions conduct training programs and operate private schools to meet their needs for electrical and electronics technicians trained in specific areas; such training rarely includes general studies. The Armed Forces also train many types of electrical and electron ics technicians. Although military job requirem ents generally differ from those in the civilian economy, military technicians often find private or civil ian government jobs with only mini mal additional training. Many private technical and corre spondence schools specialize in elec tronics. Some of these schools are owned and operated by large corpora tions that have the resources to pro vide up-to-date training in a technical field. Persons interested in a career as an electrical or electronics technician Technologists and Technicians, Except Health/237 should have an aptitude for mathe matics and science and enjoy techni cal work. An ability to do detailed work with a high degree of accuracy is necessary; for design work, creative talent also is desirable. Electrical and electronics technicians are part of a scientific team, and often work close ly with engineers and scientists as well as other technicians and skilled workers. Technicans in service and sales should be able to work indepen dently and deal effectively with cus tomers. Electrical and electronics techni cians usually begin work as trainees in routine positions under the close su pervision of an experienced techni cian, scientist, or engineer. As they gain experience, they carry out more difficult assignments under only gen eral supervision. Some eventually be come supervisors and, a few, electri cal engineers. Job Outlook Employment of electrical and elec tronics technicians is expected to in crease much faster than the average for all occupations through the mid1990’s due to anticipated continued strong demand for computers, com munications equipment, and electric products for military, industrial, and consumer use. More technicians will be needed to help develop, produce, and service these products. Opportu nities will be best for graduates of 2-year postsecondary school technical training programs. Although a relatively small propor tion of electrical and electronics tech nicians leave the occupation each year, most job openings will be to replace those who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force. Since many jobs for electrical and electronics technicians are defense re lated, cutbacks in defense spending could result in layoffs in defenserelated industries. Earnings Median annual earnings of full-time electrical and electronics technicians were about $21,800 in 1984; the mid dle 50 percent earned between $17,300 and $28,000. Ten percent earned be low $13,700 and 10 percent earned over $34,700. In the Federal Government, electri cal and electronics technicians could start at $11,458, $12,862, or $14,390 in 1985, depending on their education and experience. Related Occupations Electrical and electronics technicians apply scientific principles in their work. Others whose work involves the application of scientific principles include engineering technicians, sci ence technicians, broadcast techni cians, drafters, surveyors, and health technicians and technologists. Others who repair electrical and electronic equipment are communications equip ment m echanics, data processing equipment repairers, electronic home entertainment equipment repairers, and office machine repairers. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as an electrical and electronics technician, contact: Jets Inc., 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. International Society of Certified Electronics Technicians, 2708 W. Berry, Suite 3, Fort Worth, Tex. 76109. Engineering Technicians (D.O.T. 002.280, .281; 005.261; 006.261; 007.161-026 and -030, .167-010 and -022, .181; 008.261; 010.261010 and -026; 011.261-010 and -014, .281, .361; 012.261-014, .267; 013.161; 017.261-010; 019.161-014, .261-022, .267, .381; 194.262-014, -018, .362-014, .382; 199.261-014; 761.281-014; 962.167-010 and .382) Nature of the Work Engineering technicians use their knowledge of science, engineering, mathematics, machinery, and techni cal processes in research and develop ment, manufacturing, sales, and cus tomer service. They often apply the principles, designs, or procedures de veloped by engineers to practical sit uations. Many engineering techni cians assist engineers and scientists, especially in research and develop ment. Other technicians, such as those in service jobs, work on their own. In research and development, engi neering technicians set up equipment, prepare experim ents, calculate or record the results, sometimes with the aid of computers, and assist engineers in developing laboratory equipment. Some build experimental equipment or models and others do routine de sign work, sometimes using comput er-aided design equipment. In manufacturing, engineering tech nicians follow the general directions of engineers, often without close su pervision. They may prepare specifi cations for materials, devise and run tests to ensure product quality, or study ways to improve manufacturing efficiency. They may also supervise production workers to make sure they follow prescribed procedures. Engineering technicians also work as field representatives of manufactur ers, wholesalers, or retailers. They advise customers on the installation, operation, and maintenance of com plex technical equipment, and may write repair or operating manuals. Civil engineering technicians assist civil engineers in planning, designing, and constructing highways, buildings, bridges, dams, wastewater treatment systems, and other structures and do related surveys and studies. Some civil engineering technicians inspect water and wastewater treatment sys tems to ensure that pollution control requirements are met. Others esti mate costs, specify materials to be used, and participate in designing highways, dams, and other structures. Industrial engineering technicians assist industrial engineers on prob lems involving the efficient use of per sonnel, materials, and machines to produce goods and services. They prepare layouts of machinery and equipment, plan the flow of work, make statistical studies, and analyze production costs. They also conduct time and motion studies to improve efficiency in manufacturing plants. Mechanical engineering techni cians assist engineers in design and development work by making sketch es and rough layouts of proposed ma chinery and other equipm ent and parts. In planning and testing experi mental machines, they record data, make computations, plot graphs, ana lyze results, and write reports. When a product is ready for production, mechanical engineering technicians prepare layouts and drawings of the assembly process and of parts to be manufactured. They estimate labor costs, equipment life, and plant space. Some test and inspect machines and equipment in manufacturing depart ments or work with engineers to elim inate production problems. Working Conditions Most engineering technicians work regular hours in laboratories, offices, 238/Occupational Outlook Handbook ten there may be little or no difference between technical institute and com munity college programs. However, courses taken at junior or community colleges are more likely to be accept ed for credit at 4-year colleges than those at technical institutes. Four-year Colleges. Many engineer ing technicians obtained some or all of their training in a 4-year college. Al though 4-year colleges usually do not offer engineering technician training, college courses in science, engineer ing, and mathematics are useful for obtaining a job as an engineering tech nician. Engineering technicians set up experimental equipment. and industrial plants. Service repre sentatives usually spend much of their time working in custom ers’ establish ments. ify for some positions with additional training and experience. Persons also can qualify through on-the-job training, apprenticeship programs, or correspondence schools. Employment Armed Forces experience also may be Engineering technicians held almost acceptable for some kinds of engi 326,000 jobs in 1984. Over 40 percent neering technician jobs. Some of the worked in manufacturing, mainly in types of schools that provide training the transportation equipment, electri for engineering technicians are dis cal equipment, machinery, and pro cussed in the following paragraphs. fessional and scientific equipment in dustries. Almost one-quarter worked Technical Institutes. Technical insti in service industries, mostly in engi tutes offer training to qualify students neering or business services compa for a job as an engineering technician nies. immediately after graduation with a In 1984, the Federal Government minimum of on-the-job training. In employed about 30,000 engineering general, students receive intensive technicians. Over half worked for the technical training but less theory and Defense Department; others worked general education than they would in for the Agriculture and Interior De junior or community colleges. Many partments, the Tennessee Valley Au technical institutes are similar to or thority, and the National Aeronautics are part of a community college, and and Space Agency. State govern others are part of State university ments employed about 28,000 and lo systems. These schools usually offer cal governments about 13,000. 2-year associate degree programs. Other technical institutes are run by private, often for-profit, organizations Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement (s o m e tim e s c a lle d p r o p r i e ta r y Although there are many ways to ob schools). Programs in these schools tain training as an engineering techni vary considerably in length and type cian, most employers prefer appli of courses offered. Some are 2-year cants who have had specialized tech programs, many of which offer an nical training in associate-degree- associate degree at completion. granting technical institutes, junior and community colleges, extension Junior and Community Colleges. Curdivisions of colleges and universities, riculums in junior and community col or public and private vocational-tec leges which prepare students for tech hnical schools. Persons with college nical occupations are similar to those courses in science, engineering, and in technical institutes but in addition mathematics may also be able to qual emphasize theory and liberal arts. Of Area Vocational-Technical Schools. These postsecondary public institu tions serve local students and empha size training needed by employers in the area. Most require a high school diploma or its equivalent for admis sion. Other Training. The Armed Forces offer training in many areas, some of which can be applied in civilian engi neering technican jobs. Some addi tional training may be needed, de pending on the military skills acquired and the kind of job, but often this is gained on the job. Some correspon dence schools also offer training for engineering technicians. Persons interested in a career as an engineering technician should have an aptitude for mathematics and science and should take as many high school science and math courses as possible. They should enjoy technical and me chanical work and be able to work well with others since they are often part of a team of engineers and other technicians. Engineering technicians in sales, service, and repair work should be able to work independently and deal effectively with customers. Engineering technicians usually be gin doing routine work under the close supervision of an experienced techni cian, engineer, or scientist. As they gain experience, they are given more difficult assignments with only general supervision. Some engineering techni cians eventually become supervisors, and a few, engineers. Job Outlook Employment of engineering techni cians is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the m id-1990’s due to antici Technologists and Technicians, Except Health/239 pated continued rapid growth in the output of technical products as indus try increases its investment in facto ries and machinery and as defense expenditures increase. Competitive pressures and advancing technology will force companies to improve and update product designs more rapidly than in the past, further adding to the growth in requirements. Despite the projected faster than average growth, most job openings will be to replace technicians who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Earnings Median annual earnings of full-time engineering technicians were about $21,300 in 1984; the middle 50 percent earned between $16,500 and $29,300. Ten percent earned less than $12,800, and 10 percent earned over $37,000. In the Federal Government, engi neering technicians could start at $11,458, $12,862, or $14,390 in 1985, depending on their education and experience. Related Occupations Engineering technicians apply scien tific and engineering principles in their work. Other workers who apply sim ilar principles include science techni cians, electrial and electronics techni cians, drafters, surveyors, broadcast technicians, and health technologists and technicians. Source of Additional Information For information on a career as an engineering technician, contact: Jets, Inc., 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. Science Technicians (List o f D.O .T. codes available on request. See p. 495.) Nature of the Work Science technicians use their knowl edge of science, mathematics, and technical processes to assist scientists in research and development and in a variety of production-related tasks. In research and development, sci ence technicians construct or main tain experimental equipment, set up and monitor experiments, and calcu late and record the results. In produc tion, science technicians follow the general directions of scientists and engineers, often without close super vision. Many do quality control test ing to ensure that products contain the proper proportions of ingredients or meet strength and durability stan dards. In the petroleum industry, sci ence technicians perform a wide vari ety of technical services. Science technicians usually special ize in a particular area and often have a more specific job title, such as chemical technician, for example, rather than the general title of science technician. Agricultural technicians work with agricultural scientists in food produc tion and processing. Some conduct tests and experiments to improve the yield and quality of crops or to in crease the resistance of plants and animals to disease, insects, or other hazards. Other agricultural techni cians do animal breeding and nutrition work. Biological technicians work with biologists studying living organisms. Microbiological technicians study mi croscopic organisms and may do med ical research. Biological technicians also analyze biological substances such as blood, food, and drugs; some examine evidence in criminal investi gations. Chemical technicians work with chemists and chemical engineers, de veloping and using chemicals and re lated products and equipment. Most do research and development, testing, or other laboratory work. They often set up and conduct tests and experi ments and collect and analyze data. Some chemical technicians collect and analyze samples of air and water to monitor pollution levels. Nuclear technicians operate nucle ar test and research equipment, mon itor radiation, and assist nuclear engi neers and physicists in research. Some also operate remote control equip ment to manipulate radioactive mate rials or materials to be exposed to radioactivity. M athematical technicians work with scientists and engineers to solve computational problems encountered in research and development and oth er areas. They also apply standard ized mathematical formulas to trans late data into graphs and charts. Petroleum technicians perform a variety of tasks related to oil and natural gas production. Some petro leum technicians measure and record physical and geologic conditions in oil or gas wells using instruments low ered into wells or by analysis of the mud that is circulated down and back up wells. Other petroleum technicians help geologists search for new oil and gas deposits by collecting and exam ining geological data or by testing geo logical samples to determine petro leum and mineral content. Some pe troleum technicians are called scouts. They investigate and collect informa tion about oil and gas well drilling operations, geological and geophysi cal prospecting, and land or lease con tracts. Other science technicians collect weather information, test manufac tured products to ensure their quality, or assist oceanographers. Working Conditions Science technicians work under a wide variety of conditions. Many work indoors, usually in laboratories, and have regular hours. Some occa sionally work irregular hours to mon itor experiments that can’t be com pleted during regular working hours. Others such as agricultural and petro leum technicians perform much of their work outdoors, sometimes in remote locations, and some may be exposed to hazardous conditions. Chemical technicians sometimes work with toxic chemicals, nuclear techni cians may be exposed to radiation, and biological technicians sometimes work with disease-causing organisms. However, there is little risk if the proper safety procedures are fol lowed. Many science technicians work in labora tories. 240/Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment S c ien c e te c h n ic ia n s held a b o u t 239,000 jobs in 1984. About 40 percent worked in manufacturing, especially in the chemical, petroleum refining, and food processing industries. Over one-quarter worked in service indus tries, mainly in colleges and universi ties. In 1984, the Federal Government employed almost one-fifth of all sci ence technicians, mostly in the De partments of Defense, Agriculture, Commerce, and Interior. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are several ways to qualify for jobs as science technicians. Most em ployers prefer applicants who have at least 2 years of specialized training or experience. Many junior and commu nity colleges offer associate degree programs which either give training for a specific type of science techni cian job or give a more general educa tion in science and m athem atics. Technical institutes generally offer the technical training needed for a specific type of job but less theory and general education than junior or community colleges. The length of programs at technical institutes varies, although 2-year associate degree programs are common. Many science technicians have a bachelor’s degree in science or mathematics, or have had science and math courses in 4-year colleges. Some with bachelor’s degrees become sci ence technicians because they can’t find ajob as a scientist. In some cases, they may be able to move into jobs as scientists, managers, or sales workers in the organization. Some companies offer training pro grams or extensive on-the-job training for science technician jobs. Techni cians also qualify for their jobs with training obtained in the Armed Forc es. Persons interested in a career as a science technician should have an ap titude for science and mathematics and should take as many high school science and math courses as possible. They should also be able to work well with others since technicians often are part of a team. Advancement opportunities for sci ence technicians vary by the type of technician and employer. Technicians usually begin work as trainees in rou tine positions under the direct super vision of a scientist or experienced technician. As they gain experience, they take on more responsibility and carry out a particular assignment un der only general supervision. Some eventually become supervisors. Job Outlook Employment of science technicians is expected to increase about as fast as the av erage for all o c c u p atio n s through the mid-1990’s due to an ex pected increase in the need for sci ence technicians to work on research projects and to help develop and pro duce technical products. However, employment in the various technician specialties will be affected by diff ering industry growth patterns or product demand. For example, since the chem ical and oil industries are expected to grow slowly, employment of chemical and petroleum technicians may grow more slowly than employment of bio logical technicians, more of whom will be needed in the rapidly growing field of biotechnology research. Despite the projected growth, most job openings will be to replace techni cians who transfer to other occupa tions or leave the labor force. Earnings Median annual earnings of science technicians were about $21,000 in 1984; the middle 50 percent earned between $15,000 and $28,000. Ten percent earned less than $12,000, and 10 percent earned over $37,000. In the Federal Government in 1985, science technicians could start at $11,458, $12,862, or $14,390, depend ing on their education and experience. The average salary for science techni cians employed by the Federal Gov ernment was $20,300 in 1984. Related Occupations Other technicians who apply scientific principles in their work include engi neering technicians, electrical and electronics technicians, broadcast technicians, drafters, and health tech nologists and technicians. Some of the work of agricultural and biological technicians is related to that of agri culture and forestry occupations. Sources of Additional Information For information about a career as a chemical technician, contact: American Chemical Society, Education Divi sion, Career Services, 1155 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Norman J. Worth, Chairman, National Confer ence of Chemical Technicians Affiliates, E 302/ 315 , DuPont Experimental Station, Wilmington, Del. 19898. For information about a career as a biological technician and other biolo gy-related careers, contact: American Institute of Biological Sciences, 1401 Wilson Blvd., Arlington, Va. 22209. Other Technicians Air Traffic Controllers (D .O .T. 193.162 except -022; .167-010) Nature of the Work Air traffic controllers are the guard ians of the airways. They keep track of planes flying within their assigned area and make certain that they are safe distances apart. Their immediate concern is safety, but controllers also must direct planes efficiently to mini mize delays. Some regulate airport traffic; others regulate flights between airports. Although airport tower or terminal controllers watch over all planes trav elling through the airport’s airspace, their main responsibility is to organize the flow of aircraft in and out of the airport. Relying on radar and/or visual observation, they closely m onitor each plane to maintain a safe distance between all aircraft and to guide pilots between the hangar or ramp and the end of the airport’s airspace. During arrival or departure, each plane is handled by several control lers. As a plane approaches an air port, the pilot radios ahead to inform the terminal of its presence. The ar rival controller in the radar room just beneath the control tower has a copy of the plane’s flight plan and already has observed the plane on radar. If the way is clear, the arrival controller directs the pilot to a runway; if the airport is busy, the plane is fitted into a traffic pattern with other aircraft waiting to land. As the plane nears the runway, the pilot is asked to contact the tower. There, a local controller, who also is watching the plane on radar, monitors the aircraft the last mile or so to the runway, delaying any departures that would interfere with the plane’s landing. Once the plane has landed, a ground controller in the tower directs it along the taxiways to its assigned gate. The ground control ler works almost entirely by sight, but may use radar if visibility is very poor. A similar procedure is used for de partures. The ground controller di rects the plane to the proper runway. The local controller then informs the pilot about conditions at the airport, such as the weather, speed and direc tion of wind, and visibility. The local controller also issues runway clear ance for the pilot to take off. Once in the air, the plane is guided out of the airport’s airspace by the departure controller. After each plane departs, airport tower controllers notify enroute con trollers who will next take charge. There are 24 enroute control centers located around the country. Airplanes generally fly along designated routes; each center is assigned a certain air space containing m any different routes. Enroute controllers work in teams of up to three members, de pending on how heavy traffic is; each team is responsible for a section of the center’s airspace. A team, for exam ple, might be responsible for all planes that are between 30 to 100 miles north of an airport and flying at an altitude between 6,000 and 18,000 feet. To prepare for planes about to enter the team ’s airspace, the radar associ ate controller organizes flight plans coming from printing machines. If two planes are scheduled to enter the team ’s airspace at a similar time, lo cation, and altitude, this controller may arrange with the preceding con trol unit for one plane to change its flight plans. The previous unit may have been another team at the same or an adjacent center, or a departure controller at a neighboring terminal. As a plane approaches a team ’s air space, the radar controller accepts responsibility for the plane from the previous controlling unit. The control ler also delegates responsibility for the plane to the next controlling unit when the plane leaves the team ’s air space. The radar controller, who is the senior team member, observes the planes in the team ’s airspace on radar and communicates with the pilots when necessary. Radar controllers warn pilots about nearby planes, bad weather conditions, and other possi ble hazards. Two planes on a collision course will be directed around each other. If a pilot wants to change alti tude in search of better flying condi tions, the controller will check to de termine that no other planes will be along the proposed path. As the flight progresses, the team responsible for the aircraft notifies the next team in charge. Through team coordination, the plane arrives safely at its destina tion. Both airport tower and enroute con trollers usually control several planes at one time and often have to make quick decisions about completely dif ferent activities. For example, a con troller might direct a plane on its land ing approach and at the same time provide pilots entering the airport’s airspace with information about con ditions at the airport. While instruct ing these pilots, the controller also would observe other planes in the vicinity, such as those in a holding pattern waiting for permission to land, to ensure that they remain well sepa rated. In addition to airport towers and enroute centers, air traffic controllers also work in flight service stations operated at over 300 locations. These controllers provide pilots with infor mation on the station’s particular area, including terrain, preflight and inflight weather information, suggest ed routes, and other information im portant to the safety of a flight. Working Conditions C ontrollers work a basic 40-hour week; however, they may work addi tional hours for which they receive overtime pay or equal time off. Be cause most control towers and centers operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, controllers rotate night and weekend shifts. During busy times, controllers must work rapidly and efficiently. This re quires total concentration to keep track of several planes at the same time and make certain all pilots re ceive correct instructions. 241 242/Occupational Outlook Handbook agement or staff jobs in air traffic control and top administrative jobs in the FAA. Job Outlook Controllers usually are responsible for several planes at one time. Employment Air traffic controllers held about 22,000 jobs in 1984, at airports—in towers and flight service stations— and in enroute traffic control centers. The overwhelming majority worked for the Federal Aviation Administra tion (FAA); a small number of civilian controllers worked for the Depart ment of Defense. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Air traffic controller trainees are se lected through the competitive Feder al Civil Service system. Applicants must pass a written test that measures their ability to learn the controller’s duties. Applicants with experience as a pilot, navigator, or military control ler can get points added to their rating by scoring well on the occupational knowledge portion of the examina tion. Arithm etic com putation, ab stract reasoning, and three-dim en sional spatial visualization are among the aptitudes measured by the exami nation. In addition, applicants gener ally must have 3 years of general work experience or 4 years of college, or a combination of both. Applicants must pass physical and psychological ex aminations. For airport tower and enroute center positions, applicants must be less than 31 years old. Those 31 years old and over are eligible for positions at flight service stations. Potential controllers should be ar ticulate, since directions to pilots must be given quickly and clearly. A Digitized forgood memory also is important be FRASER cause controllers constantly receive information which they must immedi ately grasp, interpret, and remember. Decisiveness is also required since controllers often have to make quick decisions. Successful applicants receive a combination of on-the-job and formal training to learn the fundamentals of the airway system, FAA regulations, controller equipment, and aircraft per formance characteristics. They re ceive 11-17 weeks of intensive screen ing and training at the FAA Academy in Oklahoma City. It then takes sev eral years of progressively more re sponsible work experience, inter spersed with considerable classroom instruction and independent study, to become a fully qualified controller. At airports, new controllers begin in the tower, where they first serve as ground controller, then local control ler, departure controller, and finally, arrival controller. At an enroute traffic control center, new controllers first deliver printed flight plans to teams, gradually advancing to radar associate controller and then radar controller. Failure to become certified in any position at a facility within a specified time may result in dismissal. Control lers who fail to complete either the academy or the on-the-job portion of the training are dismissed. Controllers must pass a physical examination each year and a job performance ex amination twice each year. Controllers can transfer to jobs at different locations or advance to su pervisory positions, including man Competition for air traffic controller jo b s is expected to rem ain keen through the mid-1990’s because the occupation’s relatively high pay and liberal retirem ent program attract many more qualified applicants than the number of job openings. College graduates or individuals who have ci vilian or military experience as con trollers, pilots, or navigators will have the best employment opportunities. Employment of air traffic control lers is expected to show little or no change through the m id-1990’s. De spite the increase in the number of aircraft flying, few, if any, additional air traffic controllers will be needed because of the greater use of new, automated control equipment. Virtu ally all job openings will arise from the need to replace experienced control lers who transfer to other occupa tions, retire, die, or stop working for other reasons. Air traffic controllers who continue to meet the proficiency and medical requirements enjoy more job security than most workers. The demand for air travel and the workloads of air traffic controllers decline during re cessions, but controllers seldom are laid off. Earnings Air traffic controllers who started with the FAA in 1985 earned about $17,800 (grade 7) a year. Controllers at the grade 9 level and above earn 5 percent more than other Federal workers in an equivalent grade. A controller’s pay is determined by both the w orker’s job responsibilities and the location of the particular facility. Earnings are higher at facilities where traffic patterns are more complex. In 1984, controllers averaged $35,400 a year. Depending on length of service, they receive 13 to 26 days of paid vacation and 13 days of paid sick leave each year, life insurance, and health benefits. In addition, control lers can retire at an earlier age and with fewer years of service than other Federal employees. Related Occupations Other occupations which involve the direction and control of traffic in air Technologists and Technicians, Except Health/243 transportation are airline-radio opera tor and airplane dispatcher. Sources of Additional Information A pamphlet providing general infor mation about controllers and instruc tions for submitting an application is available from any U.S. Office of Per sonnel Management Job Information Center. Look under U.S. Govern ment, Office of Personnel Manage ment, in your telephone book to ob tain a local Job Information Center telephone number and call for a copy of the Air Traffic C ontroller An nouncement. If there is no listing in your telephone book, dial the toll-free number 800-555-1212 and request the number of the Office of Personnel Management Job Information Center for your location. Broadcast Technicians (D.O.T. 193.167-014, 262-018, and -038; 194.262-010, .282-010, .362-010 and -018) Nature of the Work Broadcast technicians operate and maintain the electronic equipment used to record and transmit radio and television programs. They work with microphones, sound and video tape recorders, light and sound effects, television cameras, transmitters, and other equipment. In the control room of the radio or television broadcasting studio, these technicians operate equipment that regulates the signal strength, clarity, and range of sounds and colors in the material being recorded or broadcast. They also operate control panels that select the source of the material being broadcast. Technicians may switch from one camera or studio to another, from film to live programming, or from network to local programs. By means of hand signals and, in televi sion, by use of telephone headsets, they give technical directions to per sonnel in the studio. When events outside the studio are to be broadcast, technicians go to the site and set up, test, and operate the remote equipment. After the broad cast, they dismantle the equipment and return it to the station. As a rule, broadcast technicians in small stations perform a variety of duties. In large stations and at net works, on the other hand, technicians are more specialized, although spe cific job assignments may change from day to day. Transmitter operators monitor and log outgoing signals and are responsible for operating the trans mitter. Maintenance technicians set up, adjust, service, and repair elec tronic broadcasting equipment. Audio control engineers regulate sound pick up, transmission, and switching, and video control engineers regulate the quality, brightness, and contrast of television pictures. Recording engi neers operate and maintain video and sound recording equipment. Some technicians operate equipment de signed to produce special effects, such as the illusions of a bolt of lightning or the sound of a police siren. When programs originate outside the studio, field technicians set up and operate broadcasting equipment. Television news coverage requires so much elec tronic equipment that a growing num ber of stations now assign technicians to work exclusively in news opera tions. The terms “ operator,” “ engi neer,” and “ technician” often are used interchangeably in describing these jobs. Supervisory personnel with job ti tles such as chief engineer or trans mission engineer direct activities concerned with the operation and maintenance of studio broadcasting equipment. Working Conditions Broadcast technicians generally work indoors in pleasant surroundings. Sta tions are air-conditioned because transm itters and other electronic equipment must be operated at cool temperatures. Broadcasts outside the studio, however, may require techni cians to work out of doors under less favorable conditions. Technicians do ing maintenance work may climb poles or antenna towers. Setting up equip ment requires some heavy lifting. Network technicians may occasion ally have to work long hours under great pressure to meet broadcast dead lines. As more television stations broadcast program 24 hours a day, more technicians are required to work one of three shifts—days, evenings, or nights. employ, on the average, many more technicians than radio stations. Al though broadcast technicians are em ployed in every State, most are locat ed in large metropolitan areas. The highest paying and most specialized jobs are concentrated in New York City, Los Angeles, and Washington, D.C.—the originating centers for most of the network programs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Federal law requires that anyone who operates broadcast transmitters in ra dio and television stations must have a restricted radiotelephone operator permit, for which no examination is required. Persons who work with mi crowave or other internal radio com m unications equipm ent, how ever, must have a general radiotelephone operator license, issued after the ap plicant passes a series of written ex aminations. These cover communica tions law and regulations, radio oper ating practices, and basic communi cations electronics. Technical school, community col lege, or college training in engineering or electronics is the best way to pre pare for a broadcast technician job, particularly for those who hope to advance to supervisory positions or to the more specialized jobs in large sta tions and in the networks. Because most broadcast equipment contains microprocessors and other sophisti cated electronics, it is becoming more important for technicians to have high school courses in algebra, trigonome try, physics, electronics, and other Employment B roadcast technicians held about 25,000 jobs in radio and television stations in 1984. Television stations Broadcast technicians give technical di rections to personnel in the studio. 244/Occupational Outlook Handbook scien ces. Building electronic hobby kits and operating a “ ham ” or ama teur radio also are good introductions to broadcasting tech n o lo g y . Som e persons gain work exp erience as tem porary em p loyees w hile filling in for regular broadcast technicians w ho are on vacation, and som e gain experi ence in college cam pus radio and tele vision stations. Broadcast technicians must have an aptitude for working with electrical and m echanical system s and equip ment. Manual dexterity— the ability to perform tasks requiring precise, coordinated hand m ovem ents— is n ec essary for su ccess in this occupation. Entry level workers are instructed and supervised by the ch ief engineer, or by other experienced technicians, concerning the work procedures o f the station. T hey generally begin their careers in small stations, operating the transm itter and handling other technical duties after a brief instruc tion period. A s they acquire more exp erien ce and skill, they are as signed to m ore r e sp o n sib le jo b s . T hose w ho dem onstrate ab ove-ave rage ability may m ove into top level technical positions such as superviso ry technician or ch ief engineer. A co l lege degree in engineering is becom ing increasingly important for advance ment to supervisory and execu tive positions. Job Outlook P eop le seek in g begin n in g jo b s as broadcast technicians are expected to face strong com petition in major m et ropolitan areas, w here the number o f qualified job seek ers greatly ex ceed s the number o f openings. A s is the case with other occupations in radio and television broadcasting, stations in major m etropolitan areas seek highly experienced personnel to fill broad cast technician job s. Prospects for en try level positions generally are good in small cities for people with appro priate training in electronics. Em ploym ent o f broadcast techni cians is exp ected to increase faster than a v era g e for all o c c u p a tio n s through the m id-1990’s. N ew job op portunities for technicians will arise as new com m ercial radio and televi sion stations go on the air, established stations increase their broadcasting hours, and the number o f cable tele vision system s continues to increase. H ow ever, demand for broadcast tech nicians may not keep pace with the increase in broadcasting industry em ploym ent because o f laborsaving tech nical advances such as com putercontrolled programming and remote control o f transmitters. T echnological developm ents such as these have shift ed the em phasis from operations to m aintenance work, which frequently is performed by service personnel em ployed by broadcasting equipm ent m anufacturers. M ost job openings will result from the need to replace experienced technicians who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Earnings Median w eekly earnings o f full-time broadcast technicians were about $330 in 1984. The middle 50 percent earned betw een $230 and $550 w eekly; the low est 10 percent earned less than $190; and the top 10 percent earned more than $1,000. In 1984, average earnings for tech nicians at radio stations were $300 a w eek , according to a survey conduct ed by the National A ssociation o f Broadcasters. In television, earnings w ere som ewhat higher, about $350 a w eek. A s a rule, technician w ages are highest in large cities and large sta tions. Technicians in the largest sta tions earned, on the average, about tw ice as much as those in the sm allest sta tio n s. Earnings o f exp erien ced technicians were much higher, and technicians who can perform the full range o f tasks are, of course, the highest paid. T elevision stations usu ally pay higher salaries than radio stations because television work is generally more com plex. Technicians em ployed by educational broadcast ing stations generally earn less than those w ho work for com m ercial sta tions. M ost technicians in large stations work a 40-hour w eek with overtim e pay for additional hours. Broadcast technicians in small stations generally work a considerable amount o f over time. E vening, night, and w eekend work frequently is necessary since m ost stations are on the air 18-24 hours a day, 7 days a w eek. Related Occupations Broadcast technicians need electron ics training and eye-hand coordination to operate technical equipment; they g e n e r a lly c o m p le t e s p e c i a l i z e d postsecondary program s, including courses in electronics and engineer ing. Others w hose jobs have similar requirem ents include drafters, engi neering and scien ce technicians, sur veyors, air traffic controllers, radiologic tech n ologists, respiratory thera p y w o r k e r s , e le c t r o c a r d io g r a p h tech n ician s, electroencephalographic technicians, and m edical laboratory technicians. Sources of Additional Information For information about the general ra diotelephone operator licen se, write to: Federal Communications Commission, 1919 M St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20554. F or in form ation on ca reers for broadcast technicians, write to: National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. National Cable Television Association, 1724 Massachusetts Ave. NW ., Washington, D.C. 20036. For a list o f sch ools that offer pro grams or co u rses in broadcasting, contact: Broadcast Education Association, National As sociation of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Computer Programmers (D .O .T. 020.162-014, .167-018, -022, .187-010, and .262) Nature of the Work Com puters can p rocess vast quanti ties o f information rapidly and accu rately, but only if they are correctly programmed. Com puter programmers write the detailed instructions (called programs or softw are) that list in a logical order the steps the machine must follow to organize data, solve a problem , or do som e other task. ■Programmers often work from de scriptions prepared by system s ana lysts w ho have carefully studied the task that the com puter system is going to perform— perhaps organizing data collected in a survey or estim ating the stress on portions o f a building during a hurricane. T hese descriptions con tain a detailed list o f the steps the com puter m ust follow , such as re trieving data stored on a tape or disk, organizing it in a certain w ay, and perform ing the n e c e ssa r y c a lcu la tions. (A more detailed description o f the work o f system s analysts is pre sented elsew here in the H a n d b o o k . ) S om e o rgan ization s, particularly smaller o n es, do not em ploy system s Technologists and Technicians, Except Health/245 analysts. Instead, workers called pro gramm er-analysts are responsible for both system s analysis and program ming. A programmer writes the spe cific program for the problem by breaking dow n each step into a series o f instructions coded in one o f the languages, such as BASIC or CO BO L, developed especially for com puters. Programmers developing instruc tions for billing custom ers, for exam ple, w ould first take the appropriate com pany records and then specify a solution by show ing the steps the com puter must follow to obtain old balances, add new charges, deduct p a y m e n ts , and c a lc u la te fin a n ce charges and the new amount due. Pro grammers then code the actual in structions the com puter will follow in a programming language, such as CO BO L, w hich is com m only used for business applications. They also in sert com m ents in the coded instruc tions so other programmers can un derstand the program. N ex t, programmers test the opera tion o f the program to be sure the instructions are correct and will pro duce the desired information. Pro grammers prepare sample data that will test every part o f the program and review the results to see if any errors were m ade. If errors did occur, the p r o g r a m m u st b e c h a n g e d an d rechecked until it produces the cor rect results. This is called “ debug ging” the program. Finally, programmers prepare an instruction sheet for the com puter op erator w ho will run the program. (The work o f com puter operators is de scribed in the statem ent on com puter equipm ent operators.) Programs vary with the type o f problem to be solved. For exam ple, the arithmetical calculations involved in payroll accounting procedures are different from the mathem atical calcu lations required to determ ine the flight path o f the Space Shuttle. Although simple programs can be written in a few hours, programs that use com plex mathem atical form ulas or many data files may require more than a year o f work. In som e ca ses, several pro grammers may work together in team s under a senior programmer’s supervi sion. Programmers often are grouped into tw o broad types: A pplications pro grammers and system s programmers. Applications programmers are usually oriented toward business, engineer ing, or science. They write software to handle specific job s, such as a pro gram used in an inventory control system or one to control the tem per ature in an entire office building. S y s tem s programmers, on the other hand, maintain the software that controls the operation o f the entire computer system . These workers make changes in the sets o f instructions that deter mine how the central processing unit o f the computer handles the various job s it has been given and com m uni cates with peripheral equipment, such as terminals, printers, and disk drives. B ecause o f their knowledge o f entire com puter system s, system s program mers often help applications program mers determine the source o f prob lem s that may occur with their pro grams. Working Conditions Programmers work in offices in com fortable surroundings. They usually work about 40 hours a w eek, but their hours are not always from 9 to 5. Programmers may report early or work late to use the computer when it is available; occasionally, they work on w eekends to meet deadlines. Employment Computer programmers held about 341,000 jobs in 1984. M ost are em ployed by manufacturing firms, data processing service organizations— in cluding firms that write and sell soft ware— governm ent agencies, banks, insurance com panies, and colleges and universities. Jobs for program mers are found throughout the coun try. Compared to the total labor force, a larger proportion o f programmers work in the N ortheast and W est, re flecting the concentration o f computer manufacturers and data processing service firms. Applications programmers work for all types o f firms that use computer system s. System s programmers, on the other hand, usually work for orga nizations with large com puter centers and for firms that manufacture com puters or develop software. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are no universal training re quirements for progammers because em p lo y ers’ n eed s vary. Com puter programming is taught at public and private vocational sch ools, com m uni ty and junior colleges, and universi ties. High schools in many parts o f the country also offer introductory cours es in data processing. M any program mers are college graduates; others have taken special courses in com put er programming to supplem ent their Computer programmers may have to adjust their work schedules to use the computer when it’s available. 246/Occupational Outlook Handbook experience in fields such as account ing, inventory control, or other busi ness areas. The level o f education and quality o f training that em p loyers seek, how ever, has generally been rising due to the growth in the number o f qualified applicants and the increas ing com plexity o f som e programming tasks. E m ployers using com puters for sci entific or engineering applications pre fer college graduates w ho have d e grees in com puter or information sci en ce, m athem atics, engineering, or the physical scien ces. Graduate de grees are required for som e job s. E m ployers w ho use com puters for business applications prefer to hire people w ho have had college courses in programming and business; h o w ev er, a bachelor’s degree is not required by all em ployers. A lso , exp erience in accounting, inventory control, and other business skills generally is pre ferred by em ployers. Som e em ployers prom ote workers such as com puter operators w ho have taken courses in programming to programmer job s b e cause o f their work experience. An indication o f exp erien ce and professional com p eten ce at the senior programmer level is the Certificate in Computer Programming (CCP). This designation is conferred by the Insti tute for C ertification o f C om puter Professionals upon candidates w ho have passed a basic five-part exam i nation. In addition, individuals may take another section o f the exam in order to sp ecialize in b u sin ess, sci en ce, or system s applications. In hiring programmers, em ployers look for people w ho can think logical ly and are capable o f exacting analyt ical work. The ability to work with abstract concepts and do technical analysis is especially important for system s programmers because they work with the software that controls the com puter’s operation. The job calls for patience, persistence, and the ability to work with extrem e accuracy even under pressure. Ingenuity and imagination are particularly important w hen programmers must find new w ays to solve a problem. Beginning programmers may spend their first w eeks on the job attending training c la s s e s . A fter this initial in stru ctio n , th ey w ork on sim ple a ssig n m en ts, su ch as m aintaining existing programs. Programmers gen erally must spend at least several months working under close supervi sion. B ecau se o f rapidly changing technology, programmers must con tinue their training by taking courses offered by their em ployer and soft ware vendors. For skilled w orkers, the prospects for advancem ent are good. In large organizations, they may be promoted to lead programmers and be given supervisory responsibilities. Som e ap plications programmers becom e sy s tem s programmers after they gain experience and take courses in system softw are. Both applications program mers and system s programmers may becom e system s analysts or be pro m oted to managerial positions. The number of college graduates in computer and information science has risen sharply. Bachelor’s degrees (thousands) 77 78 79 80 Source National Center for Education Statistics 81 82 83 Job Outlook E m ploym ent o f programmers is ex pected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the m id-1990’s as com puter usage ex pands. The need for applications pro grammers will increase as b u sin esses, governm ent, sch o o ls, and scientific organizations seek new applications for com puters and im prove the soft ware already in use. Em ploym ent, how ever, is not exp ected to grow as rapidly as in the past as im proved softw are and programming techniques sim plify or elim inate som e program ming tasks. The greater use o f pack aged softw are that can m eet the needs o f many users also may m oderate the growth in dem and for applications programmers. M ore system s program mers will be needed to develop and maintain the com plex operating pro grams that allow the use o f higher level com puter languages, and the networking o f com puter equipm ent and system s. In addition to jo b s resulting from increased dem and for programmers, many openings will arise each year from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. A lthough the proportion o f programmers leaving the occupation each year is smaller than in m ost occupations, m ost o f the job openings for programmers will re sult from replacem ent needs. M ost o f the programmers w ho leave the o ccu pation transfer to other occupations, such as manager or system s analyst. Job prospects should be best for college graduates w ho are familiar with a variety o f programming lan guages, particularly new er languages that apply to com puter networking and data base m anagem ent. Participa tion in a w ork-study program or train ing in an applied field such as account ing, m anagem ent, engineering, or sci en ce also will im prove prospects for college graduates seeking entry level job s. Graduates o f 2-year programs in data processing and people with less than a 2-year degree or its equivalent in work experience will face com peti tion. The rapid growth o f em ploym ent opportunities in this occupation has led to substantial increases in the number o f courses in programming b e in g o ffe r e d b y p o s t s e c o n d a r y sch ools, junior co lleg es, and 4-year co lleg es and, co n seq u en tly, in the number o f people seeking job s. A s the number and quality o f applicants have Technologists and Technicians, Except Health/247 increased, em ployers have b ecom e more selective. B ecau se shorter curriculums may offer lim ited training in applied fields and som e aspects o f programming, graduates o f those curriculums are exp ected to have more difficulty finding job s than in the past. Earnings M edian earnings o f programmers who worked full time in 1984 w ere about $500 a w eek. The middle 50 percent earned betw een $380 and $630 a w eek. The low est 10 percent earned less than $285 a w eek , the highest 10 per cent more than $780. A verage earnings o f beginning pro grammers in private industry were about $385 a w eek in 1984, according to a survey conducted in urban areas by the Bureau o f Labor Statistics. E x p e r ie n c e d p rogram m ers earned about $475 a w eek . W eekly salaries for lead program m ers w ere about $575. In the Federal G overnm ent, the entrance salary for programmers with a college degree w as about $345 a w eek in early 1985. Programmers working in the North and W est earned som ew hat more than those working in the South. Those working in manufacturing and public utilities had higher earnings than pro grammers em ployed in other indus tries. On average, system s program mers earn more than applications pro grammers. Related Occupations Other w orkers in m athem atics, busi ness, and science w ho solve detailed problem s include system s analysts, mathematical statisticians, engineers, financial analysts, actuaries, m athe matical technicians, and operations research analysts. Sources of Additional Information Additional information about the o c cupation o f programmer is available from: Data Processing Management Association, 505 Busse Hwy. Chicago, 111. 60068. Legal Assistants (D.O.T. 119.267-022 and -026) Nature of the Work N ot all legal work requires a law yer’s expertise. In recent years, law yers have increasingly used legal a ssis tants— also called “ p aralegals” or “ legal technicians” — to provide legal services to more persons at less cost. Legal assistants work directly un der the supervision o f a lawyer. While the law yer assum es responsibility for the legal assistant’s work, a legal as sistant is often allowed to perform all the functions o f a lawyer other than accepting clients, setting legal fees, giving legal advice, or presenting a case in court. Legal assistants generally do back ground work for the lawyer. To help a law yer prepare a case for trial, a legal assistant investigates the facts o f the case to make sure that all relevant information is uncovered. The legal assistant conducts research to identify the appropriate law s, judicial deci sions, legal articles, and other materi al that w ill be used to determ ine whether the client has a good case or not. After analyzing all the informa tion, the legal assistant prepares a written report that is used by the attorney to decide how the case should be handled. If the attorney decides to bring a lawsuit for the client, the legal assistan t m ay prepare legal argu m ents, draft pleadings to be filed with the court, obtain affidavits, and assist the attorney during the trial. The legal assistant also may keep files o f all docum ents and correspondence im portant to the case. B esides trial-related work, legal as sistants may help draft docum ents such as contracts, mortgages, separa tion agreem ents, and trust instru m ents. They may help prepare tax returns and plan estates. Som e legal assistants coordinate the activities of law office em ployees and keep the financial records for the office. Legal assistants who work for cor porations help attorneys handle cor porate matters such as em ployee con tracts, shareholder agreem ents, stock option plans, and em ployee benefit plans. They may help prepare and file annual financial reports and secure loans for the corporation. Legal assis tants also review governm ent regula tions to make sure that the corpora tion operates within the law. The duties o f legal assistants who work in government vary depending on the type o f agency that em ploys them . Generally, legal assistants in governm ent analyze legal material for internal use, maintain reference files, conduct research for attorneys, co l lect and analyze evidence for agency hearings, and prepare informative or explanatory material on the law , agen cy regulations, and agency policy for general use by the agency and the public. Legal assistants em ployed in com munity legal service projects help the poor, the aged, and other persons in need o f legal aid. They file form s, conduct research, and prepare docu m ents. W hen authorized by law , they may represent clients at administra tive hearings. Som e legal assistants, usually those in small and m edium -sized law firms, have varied duties. One day the legal assistant may do research on judicial decisions on improper police arrests and the next day may help prepare a mortgage contract. This requires a general know ledge o f many areas of the law. M ost legal assistants work for large, departm entalized law firms, govern ment agencies, and corporations and specialize in one area o f the law. Som e specialties are real estate, es tate planning, family law , labor law, litigation, and corporate law. E ven within specialties, functions often are broken down further so that a legal assistant deals with one narrow area o f the specialty. For exam ple, legal assistants w ho specialize in labor law may deal exclu sively with em ployee benefits. A growing number o f legal assis tants are using com puters in their work. Computer software packages are increasingly used to search legal literature stored in the com puter and identify legal texts relevant to a spe cific subject. In litigation that involves many supporting docum ents, legal as sistants may use com puters to orga nize and index the material. Legal assistants may also use com puter soft ware packages to perform tax com pu tations and explore the consequences o f possible tax strategies for clients. Working Conditions Legal assistants do m ost o f their work at desks in offices and law libraries. O ccasionally, they travel to gather information and perform other duties. They may work alone or with others. M ost legal assistants work a stan dard 40-hour w eek. Som etim es, they work very long hours and are under pressure to m eet deadlines. They usu ally do not get paid for overtim e work, although they may receive com pensa tory time off. Legal assistants handle many rou- 248/Occupational Outlook Handbook To help lawyers prepare a case, legal assistants do research on relevant laws and judicial decisions. tine assignm ents. Som e find that these assignm ents offer little challenge and becom e frustrated with their duties. On the other hand, many law yers as sign more responsible tasks as the legal assistant gains experience. Fur therm ore, as new laws and judicial interpretations em erge, legal a ssis tants are exp osed to many new legal problem s that make their work more interesting and challenging. Employment Legal assistants held nearly 53,000 jobs in 1984; private law firms em ployed the majority. Legal assistants are found in nearly every Federal Governm ent agency; the Departm ents o f Justice, Treasury, Interior, and H ealth and Human Services and the General Services Adm inistration are the largest em ployers. State and local governm ents and publicly funded le gal service projects also em ploy legal assistants. Banks, real estate d evelop ment com panies, insurance com pa nies, accounting firms, m anagement consulting firms, manufacturing firms, and other corporate offices hire legal assistants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are several w ays to enter the legal assistant profession. Increasing ly, em ployers require formal legal as sistant training. H ow ever, som e em ployers prefer to train their legal as sistants on the job. Entrants to this occupation include legal secretaries and high school and college graduates with no legal experience. Other en trants have experience in a technical field that is useful to law firms, such as a background in tax preparation for tax and estate practice or nursing or health administration for personal in jury practice. Several hundred formal programs in legal assistance are available from 4year colleges and universities, law sch ools, com m unity and junior colleg e s , b u sin e ss s c h o o ls , proprietary sch ools, legal assistant associations, and a few law firms. In 1984, about 80 programs had been approved by the American Bar A ssociation (ABA); ap proval by the A B A is not required and many programs do not seek it. The requirements for adm ission to formal training programs vary w idely. Som e require som e college courses or a bachelor’s degree. Others accept high school graduates or persons with legal experience. A few schools require standardized tests and personal inter view s. M ost legal assistant programs are com pleted in 2 years, although som e take as long as 4 years and others only a few months. Som e schools offer general legal assistant training with courses in m any different areas o f the law , including legal research tech niques. Others provide training in sp e cialized areas o f the law , such as real estate, estate planning and probate, litigation, fam ily law , contracts, crim inal law , and incom e taxation. M any em p lo y e r s p refer a p p lica n ts w ith training in a specialized area o f the law. M any legal assistant training pro grams include an internship in which students gain practical experience by working in a law office, corporate le gal departm ent, or governm ent agen cy. D epending on the program, grad uates may receive a certificate, an associate degree, or, in som e ca ses, a bachelor’s degree in legal assistance. The quality o f legal assistant train ing programs varies; the better pro grams generally em phasize job place m ent. Prospective students should ex am in e th e e x p e r ie n c e s o f rec e n t graduates o f programs in w hich they are considering enrolling. Currently, legal assistants need not be certified. The N ational A ssociation o f Legal A ssistants, how ever, has e s tablished standards for voluntary cer tification w hich require various com binations o f education and experi ence. Legal assistants w ho m eet these standards are eligible to take a 2-day exam ination given by the Certifying Board o f Legal A ssistants each year at several regional testing centers. Persons w ho pass this exam ination may use the designation Certified L e gal A ssistant (C LA ). This designation is a sign o f com petence in the field and enhances o n e ’s em ploym ent and ad vancem ent opportunties. Legal assistants must be able to handle legal problem s logically and effectively com m unicate (both orally and in writing) their findings and opin ions to their supervising attorney. They must understand legal term inol ogy and have good research and in vestigative skills. Familiarity with the operation and applications o f com put ers in legal research is increasingly important. Legal assistants must al w ays stay abreast o f new d evelop m ents in the law that affect their du ties. B ecau se legal assistants often deal with the public and other em p loyees, they must be courteous and uphold the high ethical standards o f the legal profession. A few States have estab lished ethical guidelines that legal as sistants in the State must follow . E xperienced legal assistants usually Technologists and Technicians, Except Health/249 are given progressively more respon sible duties and less supervision. In large law firms, corporate legal de partm ents, and governm ent agencies, experienced legal assistants may su pervise other legal assistants and del egate work assigned by the attorneys. W hile a d v a n cem en t o p p o rtu n ities usually are lim ited, a few legal assis tants are prom oted to managerial po sitions. Job Outlook The number o f job openings for legal assistants is exp ected to increase sig nificantly through the mid-1990’s, but so will the number o f persons pursu ing this career. Thus, com petition for jobs should increase as the number o f graduates from legal assistant training programs rises. Still, job prospects are exp ected to be good for graduates o f highly regarded formal programs. Em ploym ent o f legal assistants has grown trem endously since the em er gence o f this occupation in the late 1960’s. Em ploym ent is expected to continue to grow m uch faster than the average for all occupations through the m id-1990’s. The em phasis on hir ing legal assistants should continue in both legal and law-related fields so that the co st, availability, and effi ciency o f legal services can be im proved. B esid es em ploym ent growth, numerous job openings are expected to arise as persons leave the occupa tion for various reasons. Private law firms will continue to be the largest em ployers o f legal a ssis tants as a growing population sustains the need for legal services. The growth o f prepaid legal plans also should con tribute to the demand for the services o f law firms. Other organizations, such as corporate legal departm ents, insurance com panies, real estate and title insurance firms, and banks will continue to hire legal assistants. Job opportunities are exp ected to expand throughout the private sector as com panies becom e aware o f the value o f legal assistants. Job opportunities for legal a ssis tants will expand even in the public sector. Com m unity legal service pro grams provide assistance to the poor, the aged, m inorities, and middleincom e fam ilies. B ecau se these pro grams operate on limited budgets, le gal assistants will be used to keep exp en ses dow n w ithout having to lim it services. Federal, State, and local governm ent agencies, consum er orga nizations, and the courts also should continue to hire legal assistants in increasing numbers. To a limited extent, legal assistant job s are affected by the business c y cle. During recessions, the demand for som e discretionary legal services, such as planning esta tes, drafting w ills, and handling real estate transac tions, declines. Corporations are less inclined to initiate litigation w hen fall ing sales and profits lead to fiscal belt tightening. A s a result, legal assistants em ployed in offices adversely affected by a recession may be laid off. On the other hand, during recessions, corpo rations and individuals face other le gal problem s, such as bankruptcies, foreclosures, and divorces, that re quire legal solutions. Furthermore, the continuous em ergence o f new laws and judicial interpretations cre ates new business for lawyers and legal assistants without regard to the business cycle. Earnings Earnings o f legal assistants vary great ly. Salaries depend on the training and experience the legal assistant brings to the job , the type o f em ployer, and the geographic location o f the job. Generally, legal assistants who work for large law firms or in large m etro politan areas earn more than those w ho work for smaller firms or in less populated regions. According to an American Bar A s sociation survey, legal assistants had an average starting salary o f $14,400 in 1984. Top salaries o f legal assis tants averaged $20,500 in 1984, but m an y ea rn ed an n u al s a la r ie s o f $25,000 or more. Legal assistants hired by the Feder al G overnm ent in 1985 started at $14,400 or $17,800 a year, depending on their training and experience. The average annual salary o f legal assis tants w ho worked for the Federal G o v e r n m e n t in 1984 w a s a b o u t $27,700. Related Occupations Several other occupations also call for a specialized understanding o f the law and the legal system but do not re quire the extensive training o f a law yer. Som e o f these are abstractors, claim exam iners, com pliance and en forcem ent inspectors, occupational safety and health w orkers, patent agents, police officers, and title exam iners. Sources of Additional Information General information on a career as a legal assistant and a list o f legal assist ant schools approved by the Ameri can Bar A sso cia tio n are available from: Standing Committee on Legal Assistants, American Bar Association, 750 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, 111. 60611. For information on certification o f legal assistants and schools that offer training programs in a specific State, contact: National Association of Legal Assistants, Inc., 1420 South Utica, Tulsa, Okla. 74104. Information on local training pro grams and job prospects is available from your local legal assistant associ ation. A list o f these associations can be obtained from: National Federation of Paralegal Associations, Inc., P.O. Box 40158, Overland Park, Kan. 66204. Library Technicians (D.O.T. 100.367-018)_______________________________ Nature of the Work Library technicians perform many support activities needed to operate a library. They help professional librar ians acquire, organize, and make ma terial accessible to users. Like librar ians, library technicians work either in technical or user services. Those in user services help people find infor mation. T hose in technical services acquire and prepare materials for use and deal less frequently with the pub lic. L i b r a r y t e c h n i c i a n s are also known as l ib r a r y t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n t s . They answer questions about use o f the card catalog, direct library users to standard references, perform routine cataloging o f library m aterials, file cards in catalog drawers, verify infor mation on order requests, and may supervise other support staff. Som e library technicians operate and main tain audiovisual equipm ent such as projectors and tape recorders. They may also assist library users with mi crofilm or m icrofiche readers, or re trieve information from a computer data base. T ech n ician s som etim es work on special projects. A technician w ith artistic ab ility, for exam p le, might design posters and displays. Working Conditions Library technicians work with people, books, audiovisual materials, and me- 250/Occupational Outlook Handbook libraries, reflecting rapid enrollment increases in elem entary schools but little change in secondary schools. Som e growth also m ay result as tech nicians increasingly perform routine tasks form erly done by librarians. Em ploym ent is exp ected to decline in academ ic libraries because o f declin ing college enrollm ents. E m ploym ent in public libraries is likely to grow slow ly, as is governm ent em ploym ent in general. Earnings Library technician uses microfiche reader to retrieve information. Salaries for library technicians vary w idely, depending on the size o f the library or library system as w ell as the geographic location and size o f the com m unity. Salaries o f library technicians in the Federal G overnm ent averaged $16,895 in 1984. Related Occupations chanical equipm ent. A t tim es, their jobs may be very repetitive— w hen calculating circulation statistics, for exam ple. A t other tim es, how ever, they may work on special projects such as designing posters and setting up displays. The jo b m ay require much standing, stoop in g, bending, lifting, and reaching. Library techni cians in sch ools work regular school hours. T hose in public libraries and college and university libraries may work w eekend and evening hours. L i brary technicians in governm ent and other special libraries— such as those in b u sin esses, law firms, and research centers— usually work a regular 40hour w eek. Employment Library technicians held about 42,000 job s in 1984. M ost worked in school, academ ic, or public libraries. The Federal G overnm ent em ployed about 2,800 library technicians. M ost worked in Departm ent o f D efen se li braries or in the Library o f C ongress. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although som e individuals with a high school education may find job s as library technicians, m ost em ployers prefer people with at least som e co l lege training. Post-high school educa tion has becom e increasingly n eces sary as libraries with tight budgets seek technically trained individuals w ho are able to assum e greater re Digitized for sponsibilities and as the number o f FRASER people with college training seeking library technician job s has increased. Som e library technicians are trained on the job. H ow ever, libraries encour age support staff members to take courses in library technology to im prove their job skills. Tw o-year colleges offer training for library technicians. Junior and com munity college programs leading to an associate o f arts degree in library technology include 1 year o f liberal arts courses and 1 year o f libraryrelated study. Students study the pur p oses and organization o f libraries and how they operate. They learn to order, process, catalog, and circulate library materials. Som e receive train ing in library automation. M any learn to produce audiovisual materials such as posters, transparencies, and audio and video tapes and to use and main tain audiovisual equipment. Credits earned for an associate degree in li brary technology do not apply toward a professional degree in library sci ence. Library technicians keep records; cat alog, sort, and shelve materials; and a ssist p eop le seek in g inform ation. Workers in other occupations with similar duties include records man agem ent technicians, information spe c ia lis t s , d a ta p r o c e s s in g c o n tr o l clerks, m edical records technicians, title s e a r c h e r s , in su r a n c e c la im s clerks, reservation clerks, secretaries, mail clerks, records custodians, and teacher aides. Sources of Additional Information Information about a career as a library technician and a directory o f schools offering training programs in this field can be obtained from: C ouncil on Library/M edia T ech n ician s, Cuyahoga Community C ollege, Attention Margaret R. Barron, 2900 Community College Ave., Cleveland, Ohio 44115. For inform ation on training pro grams for library-media technical as sistants, write: American Library Association, Office for Li brary Personnel Resources, 50 East Huron St., Chicago, 111. 60611. Job Outlook Em ploym ent o f library technicians is expected to grow more slow ly than th e a v e r a g e for all o c c u p a tio n s through the m id-1990’s. H ow ever, many library technicians will be need ed annually to replace those w ho transfer to other fields, retire, or die. Continued em ploym ent growth is expected in special libraries such as business, governm ent, and law librar ies. Slow growth is expected in school Tool Programmers, Numerical Control (D .O .T 007.167-018) Nature of the Work Aircraft, industrial m achinery, m edi cal and scientific instrum ents, and many other durable goods require pre cision-m achined metal parts. M ost o f Technologists and Technicians, Except Health/251 these parts are made with m achine tools— drill p resses, lathes, milling m achines, and others. A growing num ber o f m achine tools are numerically controlled. T hese have tw o com po nents: An electronic controller and the m achine tool itself. The controller “ reads” a program— a coded list o f the steps necessary to perform a spe cific machining jo b — and runs the ma chine to o l’s m echanism s through the steps. The efficient operation o f these machine tools depends, in large part, on the skill o f tool programmers, who write the programs. T ool program m ers m ust have a broad know ledge o f machining opera tio n s, m ath em atics, and blueprint reading. T hey must know how various machine tools operate and the work ing properties o f the m etals and plas tics used to make parts. B ecause the various brands and m odels o f numer ically controlled machine tools use different programming languages, tool programmers must know the languag es for each o f the m achines they work with. Programmers begin the task o f writ ing a program by analyzing the blue prints o f the item to be made by the m achine. T hey then determ ine the se quence o f m achine operations and se lect the proper cutting tools needed to machine the w orkpiece into the d e sired shape. For simple jo b s, they manually com pute the size and p osi tion o f the cuts that must be made on the w orkpiece, and also calculate the machine speed and feed rate needed for the type o f material being ma chined. They then write the program in the language o f the m achine’s con troller and put it on a storage medium such as punch tape, magnetic tape, or disc. For m ost jo b s, programmers use com puters to write the program for the m achine controller. U sing com puter languages called general proces sors, programmers can write the pro gram for a controller as a series o f simple com m ands. The com puter does the m athem atics and uses programs called post processors to translate the general processor program into the language o f the controller and store it on tape or disc. A growing number o f firms have com p u ter-aid ed design (CAD) system s that programmers can use to write the program for the con troller. W hen a part is designed using a CA D system , data about its dim en sions are calculated. In a C A D system with the proper softw are, the tool programmer can use these data to d e v e lo p the co n tro ller’s program. Tool programmers do not write or maintain the general or post proces sors and CAD software; they only use them as aids in their work. Programmers also write an instruc tion list to help the machine operator set up and tend the machine. Finally, programmers may watch the opera tion o f a trial run o f the machine to insure that it is functioning properly and check the output to be sure the specifications are met. Computer sim ulations may be used instead o f a trial run to check the program. Working Conditions Tool programmers work in com fort able surroundings. T he room s in w hich they work generally are sepa rated from the areas where the ma chine tools are in use, so they are not exp osed to machine noise. Their work generally is not as active as that o f the workers w ho operate the m achine tools. Employment Tool programmers held about 11,000 job s in 1984. A lm ost all work for man ufacturing firms or small machining shops that produce durable goods such as aircraft, industrial machinery, and instruments. M ost jobs for tool programmers are in large m etropoli tan areas where most factories and machine shops are located. Tool programmers need a broad knowl edge of machining operations, mathemat ics, and blueprint reading. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Tool programmers learn their jobs through a com bination o f work exp e rience and vocational study. E m ploy ers prefer to prom ote or hire skilled m achinists or m achine operators for programmer job s. To learn program ming, these experienced workers take courses at vocational schools or jun ior colleges; em ployers may pay for these courses. B ecause programming m ethods differ among the brands o f numerically controlled machine tools, Increased use of automated machine tools is expected to make tool programmers the fastest growing machining occupation. P r o j e c t e d p e r c e n t c h a n g e in e m p l o y m e n t , 1 9 8 4 - 9 5 0 Tool programmers, numerical control Numerical-control machine-tool operators Machinists Tool-and-die makers Metalworking and plastic working machinetool operators1 1Less than 0.5 percent. Source Bureau of Labor Statistics 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 252/Occupational Outlook Handbook manufacturers usually provide train ing in programming for em ployees o f firms that purchase their m achines. Although this is not generally consid ered an entry level job , som e em ploy ers will hire people without machining experience if they have com pleted v o cational sch ool or junior college cours es in tool programming and dem on strate the ability to learn m achine op erations. T hose w ho have com pleted high school courses and have dis played ability in m athem atics, blue print reading, m etalw ork in g, data processing, p h ysics, and drafting will have the best chance o f landing a job. Tool programmers can advance to supervisory job s or transfer to skilled machining job s such as tool designer. Job Outlook Em ploym ent o f tool programmers is expected to increase m uch faster than th e a v e r a g e fo r all o c c u p a tio n s through the m id-1990’s. B esides open ings arising from growth in demand for these w orkers, m any openings are expected to occur each year as pro grammers transfer to other fields o f work, retire, or die. H ow ever, since this is a relatively small occupation, the total number o f job openings will be much smaller than in other m achin ing occupations such as metalworking m achine operator, m ach in ist, and tool-and-die maker. A s the econom y grow s, the demand for industrial machinery, aircraft, m o tor veh icles, and other products that use m achined parts or tooling for molded parts will increase. In order to com pete with foreign manufacturers o f these goods, American firms are expected to increase sharply their use o f numerical control and other types o f automated machining equipment. This equipment will enable these firms to better control their costs and to m achine parts and tooling to more exact specifications. A s more firms install numerically controlled machine tools, the demand for tool program mers also will rise. H ow ever, this increase in demand will be limited by advances in the software used in tool programming. The link betw een com puter-assisted design system s and ma chine controllers, for exam ple, is ex pected to improve— making the writ ing o f programs easier and quicker. survey by the N ational Tooling and M achining A ssociation . In com pari son, the hourly rate for all production workers in private industry, except farming, w as $8.33. T ool program mers generally w ork a 40-hour w eek; how ever, overtim e is com m on during periods o f high manufacturing activ ity. Related Occupations Tool programmers apply their know l edge o f m achining operations, blue prints, and m achine programming to write programs that run m achine tools. Other highly skilled w orkers involved in metal m achining w ork are: Tooland-die designers, tool planners, tooland-die m akers, and m achinists. Sources of Additional Information For more information about this o ccu pation, contact: The National Machine Tool Builders, 7901 Westpark Dr., McLean, Va. 22102. The National Tooling and Machining Associa tion, 9300 Livingston Rd., Ft. Washington, Md. 20744. Earnings The National Screw Machine Products Associ ation, 6700 W. Snowville Rd., Breckville, Ohio 44141. In 1984, tool programmers earned about $12 an hour, according to a The Tool and Die Institute, 777 Busse High way, Park Ridge, 111. 60068. Marketing and Sales Occupations Sales work offers a wide range o f career opportunities. In som e sales job s, people are their ow n b o sses, set their ow n schedules, and have their earnings depend entirely upon their perform ance. Other jo b s are more routine, with structured work sched ules and guaranteed hourly w ages. Supervisory positions in sales enable individuals to use their leadership and administrative abilities to plan, orga nize, and coordinate retail, w holesale, insurance, real estate, and other sales activities. In all kinds o f sales work, opportunities are good for flexible or part-time working hours. This section o f the Handbook de scribes sales workers in retail trade, w holesale trade, manufacturing, in surance, real estate, and securities and financial services. A lso discussed are travel agents and cashiers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirem ents for sales work are as varied as the work itself. For job s selling standardized m erchandise such as m agazines, candy, cigarettes, and c o s m e tic s , em p lo y ers u su ally seek high school graduates and have experienced sales workers train them on the job. In som e large establish m ents, they may also attend training courses. T hose w ho sell more com plex products or services, such as electronic equipm ent or liability insur ance, need substantial education and training. For som e sales positions, em ployers recruit college graduates with majors in scien ce or engineering. For other jo b s, em ployers seek co l lege graduates in the liberal arts, or individuals with com parable job ex p e rience, and train them on the job or in training programs. M any sales work ers learn through years o f on-the-job experience, often supplem ented by hom e study, em ployer training, and college courses. For exam ple, a real estate agent may take university e x tension courses; a department store beauty counselor may participate in an industry-sponsored training pro gram; and a retail furniture sales worker may learn through years o f observation and experience on the jo b , com bined with visits to the facto ry to see how the furniture is made. E ven in the m ost routine kinds o f selling, a high school diploma is an asset to a beginner. Courses in busi n ess, marketing, and merchandising are particularly useful. M any high sch ools have w ork-study programs that allow students to work part time in local businesses while attending classes in retailing. The proportion o f sales workers w ho are college gradu ates has risen rapidly, from about 12 percent in 1970 to 26 percent in 1984. This is due in part to a need for more highly trained workers in som e sales jo b s. It also reflects the fact that many college graduates w ho were unable to secure a job in their field o f study took job s in retail sales. Personal attributes are extrem ely important in sales occupations— more so than in many other job s. Sales workers must be outgoing, enthusias tic, and persuasive. They have to be poised and at ease with strangers, and good at striking up a conversation and relating to other people. S u ccess in sales takes initiative, energy, selfconfidence, and self-discipline. Arith m etic skills are an asset. Sales work ers often find their sales ability and product knowledge can be used in a variety o f job s. For exam ple, a retail clothing sales worker may becom e a clothing manufacturer’s sales repre sentative. Job Outlook Em ploym ent in m ost sales occupa tions is expected to rise about as fast as or faster than the average for all occupations through the m id-1990’s. In addition to jo b s resulting from growth, millions o f openings will o c cur each year as experienced workers transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other rea sons. Earnings Earnings vary w idely among occupa tions. For som e job s, such as sales clerks, earnings are usually low — many pay at or only a little above the minimum w age, $3.35 an hour in 1985. For others, such as w holesale and m anufacturers’ sales workers and in surance and securities and financial services sales workers, earnings can be as high as for professional workers such as accountants and engineers. Som e sales workers receive a guaran teed salary plus a com m ission, a per centage o f the sales they make. Oth ers are paid only on a com m ission basis. In addition, retail sales workers o ften r e c e iv e g en ero u s d isco u n ts w hen they buy m erchandise from their store. Cashiers (D.O.T. 209.567-014; 211.362-010, .367, .462, .467, .482; 249.467; and 294.567) Nature of the Work Su p erm ark ets, departm ent sto res, m ovie theaters, restaurants, and many other businesses em ploy cashiers to handle p aym ents from cu stom ers. M ost cashiers receive m oney, make change, fill out charge form s, and give receipts. The related occupation o f bank teller is discussed elsew here in the Handbook. In addition to these duties, cash iers, depending on their place o f em ploym ent, may do other work and have different job titles. T hose em ployed in theaters, for exam ple, often called box office cashiers or ticket sellers, operate ticket-dispensing ma chines and answer telephone inquir ies. Som e order clerks are em ployed by fast-food restaurants to take orders over the telephone or intercom sy s te m s. O ther restau ran t c a sh ie r s, som etim es called cashier checkers, may handle reservations for meals and special parties, type m enus, or sell item s at the candy and cigarette counter. In supermarkets and other self-service stores, cashiers known as checkout clerks, checkers, or grocery clerks wrap or bag purchases. They also may restock shelves and mark 253 254/Occupational Outlook Handbook prices, rearrange displays of merchan dise, and take inventory. In many offices, agency or front-office cashiers type, operate the switchboard, do bookkeeping, and act as receptionists. Some cashiers act as clerks for auc tioneers, keeping track of bids and accepting payment for sales items. Cashiers operate several types of machines. Scanners are increasingly being used in grocery stores. An opti cal or magnetic scanner transmits the code num ber (U niversal P roduct Code) of each item to a computer. The computer reads the code which iden tifies the item and price, totals the items purchased, computes the sales tax, and prints out a receipt. The use of sophisticated cash regis ters is not restricted to grocery stores, however. Cashiers in many establish ments use cash registers that print the amount of the transaction on a paper tape. A rapidly growing number of cashiers operate electronic or com puterized point-of-sale registers. Such registers are replacing less versatile, conventional models in many stores. Cashiers who work in hotels and hos pitals use machines that record charg es for telephone, medical, and other services and prepare itemized bills. Cashiers may also operate adding and change-dispensing machines. Working Conditions Most cashiers work indoors, often in small booths or behind counters locat ed near store entrances. They may have to stand for long periods of time. In some cases, they are exposed to cold drafts in the winter and consider able heat during the summer. Hours of work may vary depending on the needs of the employer. Cash iers in theaters, restaurants, and food stores often work during rush periods such as holidays, weekends, late af ternoons, and evenings; many work part time or on split shifts. Full-time cashiers in supermarkets and other large retail stores usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week; however, they may work on weekends and have time off during the week. Employment Cashiers held about 1,902,000 jobs in 1984. Supermarkets and other food stores employed the largest number. Other retail establishments providing large numbers of jobs are department stores, drug stores, shoe stores, hard ware stores, furniture stores, and gas oline service stations. Restaurants, hotels, theaters, schools, and hospi tals also employ a large number of cashiers. Since cashiers are needed in businesses and organizations of all types and sizes, jobs are distributed much like the general population. The Federal Government employs a rela tively small number, primarily in the Department of Defense, in clubs, caf eterias, and exchanges on military in stallations. Opportunities for part-time work are very good—especially during peak Cashiers should enjoy dealing with the public. business periods such as the Christ mas shopping season or durng the summer months. More than one-half of all cashiers work part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Cashier jobs tend to be entry level positions requiring little or no experi ence and little education. Although there are no specific educational re quirements, employers prefer persons with a high school diploma. Courses in business arithmetic, bookkeeping, typing, and other business subjects are good preparation for cashier jobs. Training is offered as part of many public school vocational programs. Cashier jobs attract individuals who want to gain work experience or to earn money while in school or while tending to household responsibilities. Typically, about one-half of all job openings are filled by persons who are 19 years or younger, and almost threequarters are 24 years or younger. About 1 in 4 cashiers is a student. Relatively few transfer into this occu pation from other jobs. Many employers offer on-the-job training. In a small firm, the beginner is trained on the job by an experi enced worker. In large firms, training programs often include classroom in struction in the use of electronic or computerized registers and in other phases of the work. Sometimes em ployers seek persons who have spe cial skills or business experience, such as typing or selling. Many open ings, especially full-time positions, are filled by promoting qualified parttime workers. Persons who want to become cash iers should be able to do repetitious work accurately. They need finger dexterity, a high degree of eye-hand coordination, and an aptitude for working with figures. Because they meet the public, cashiers should be neat in appearance and able to deal tactfully and pleasantly with custom ers. Promotion opportunities for cash iers tend to be limited. However, the job affords a good opportunity to learn an employer’s business and so may serve as a steppingstone to a more responsible job, such as bookkeeper or manager. Cashiers working in chain stores and other large retail busi nesses, for example, may advance to department or store managers. Marketing and Sales Occupations/255 Job Outlook More job openings are expected to be available for cashiers than for any other occupation through the mid1990’s. The occupation is large, and employment is expected to grow fast er than the average for all occupa tions. Nevertheless, the vast majority of openings will occur as cashiers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. As is the case for other sales workers, the proportion of cashiers who leave the occupation each year is very high; about onethird of cashiers leave their jobs annu ally—more than one and one-half times the rate for all workers. Most who leave the labor force assume full time household responsibilties or re turn to school. Cashiers also transfer to other jobs at a higher than average rate. Opportunities for part-time em ployment are expected to continue to be very good. Despite projected faster than aver age growth, employment of cashiers will not keep pace with the expected increase in the volume of goods and services sold because the shift of re tailers to self-service operations has just about run its course. Employment of cashiers grew rapidly in the 1970’s and early 1980’s as more and more retail establishments introduced cen tralized cashier operations. This great ly expanded job opportunities for cashiers at the expense of other sales occupations. Since most retail stores now have centralized cashiers, the rate of employment growth in this section can be expected to moderate. Growth in the number of eating and drinking places, particularly in fastfood chains, is expected to be partic ularly rapid, and this will greatly ex pand job opportunities for cashiers. Earnings Beginning cashiers often earn only the minimum wage. The minimum in es tablishments covered by Federal law was $3.35 an hour in 1984. In addition, minimum wages in many establish ments are governed by State law. Where State minimums are higher, the establishment pays at least that rate. Cashiers earn wages ranging from the minimum to several times that amount. Median weekly earnings for full-time cashiers were about $170 in 1984. The middle 50 percent earned between $140 and $250; 10 percent earned below $120; and 10 percent Digitized for earned above $350. FRASER Wages for union cashiers are gener fessionals help individuals or compa ally higher than those for nonunion nies select the right policy for their cashiers. Experienced full-time cash needs. Insurance sales workers sell iers who were members of the United policies that provide individuals and Food and Commercial Workers Inter businesses with financial protection national Union, to which many cash against loss. They plan for the finan iers belong, earned average wages of cial security of individuals, families, $11.16 per hour in 1984; beginners and businesses; advise about insurance averaged $4.99 per hour. Cashiers protection for an automobile, home, generally receive health insurance, business, or other property; prepare annual and sick leave, pension bene reports and maintain records; and fits, and similar benefits available to help a policyholder obtain settlement of an insurance claim. Specialists in group other workers. policies may help an employer provide employees the opportunity to buy in Related Occupations Cashiers receive and pay money and surance through payroll deductions. Insurance sales workers sell one or keep account of such exchanges. Oth er workers with similar duties include more of the three basic types of insur bank tellers, ticket sellers, postal ser ance: Life, property-liability (casual vice clerks, toll collectors, and sales ty), and health. Life insurance agents offer policies that pay survivors when clerks. a policyholder dies. Depending on the Sources of Additional Information policyholder’s circumstances, a life Details about employment opportuni policy also can be designed to provide ties are available from local busi retirement income, funds for the edu nesses and the local office of the State cation of children, or other benefits. employment service. (Life insurance sales workers are sometimes called life underwriters; see the statement on underwriters elsewhere in the Handbook.) Casualty insurance sales workers Insurance Sales sell policies that protect individuals Workers and businesses from financial losses as a result of automobile accidents, (D.O.T. 239.267 and 250.257) fire or theft, or other losses. Casualty insurance can also cover workers’ Nature of the Work Most people have their first contact compensation, product liability, or with an insurance company through medical malpractice. Many life and an insurance sales worker. These pro casualty insurance sales workers also Sales workers must be able to communicate effectively with potential customers. 256/Occupational Outlook Handbook sell health insurance policies covering the costs of hospital and medical care or loss of income due to illness or injury. An increasing number of insurance sales workers offer comprehensive fi nancial planning services to their cli ents. As a result, many insurance sales workers are also licensed to sell securities, such as mutual fund shares or annuities. with potential or proven sales ability or those who have been successful in other types of work. In fact, most entrants have transferred from other occupations. Understandably, they tend to be older, on average, than entrants to other occupations. Many colleges and universities offer courses in insurance, and some schools offer a bachelor’s degree in insurance. College courses in finance, Working Conditions mathematics, accounting, economics, Insurance sales workers do a consider business law, government, and busi able amount of local travel to meet with ness administration enable the insur clients. They generally arrange their ance sales worker to relate insurance own hours of work, and often schedule to other personal finance problems evening and weekend appointments and to economic conditions. Courses for the convenience of clients. Many in psychology, sociology, and public work more than 40 hours a week. speaking can prove useful in improv ing sales techniques. Increasingly, ba sic knowledge of computer science Employment Insurance sales workers held about will be useful. College training may 371,000 jobs in 1984. Many work part help the sales worker grasp the funda time, especially beginners who have mentals and procedures of insurance other jobs while they attempt to build selling more quickly. All insurance sales workers must up a clientele. About 1 sales worker in 3 is self-employed. While most sales obtain a license in the State where workers specialize in life insurance, a they plan to sell insurance. In most growing number (called multiline sales States, licenses are issued only to workers) offer both life and casualty applicants who pass written examina policies. The following tabulation tions covering insurance fundamen presents the percent distribution of tals and the State insurance laws. wage and salary jobs by category of Sales workers who plan to sell mutual fund shares and other securities also insurance. must be licensed by the State. New Percent sales workers usually receive training T o t a l......................................... 100 at the agencies where they work and frequently also at the insurance Insurance carriers ........................... 70 company’s home office. Beginners Life in su ra n ce ........................... 58 sometimes attend company-spon Fire, marine, and casualty sored classes to prepare for examina in s u r a n c e ................................ 8 tions. Others study on their own and A ccident and health insur accompany experienced sales work ance and m edical service ers when they call on prospective cli p la n s ......................................... 3 Other insurance c a r r ie r s----1 ents. Insurance agents, brokers, and Sales workers can broaden their s e r v i c e s ........................................... 28 knowledge of the insurance business Real e s t a te ........................................... 1 by taking courses at colleges and uni Com bined real estate, insurance, versities and attending institutes, con loan, and law o f f ic e s .................. 1 ferences, and seminars sponsored by Sales workers are employed in cit insurance organizations. The Life Un ies and towns throughout the country, derwriter Training Council (LUTC) but most work in or near large popu awards a diploma in life insurance lation centers. Some insurance sales marketing to sales workers who suc workers are employed in the head cessfully complete the Council’s 2quarters of insurance companies but year program. This program empha most work out of local company of sizes practical selling skills. There also are courses in health insurance fices or independent agencies. and advanced sales techniques. The National Association of Health Un Training, Other Qualifications, and derwriters awards the Registered Advancement Although many employers prefer col Health Underwriter (RHU) designa lege graduates for jobs selling insur tion to those individuals who success Digitized ance, most hire high school graduates for FRASER fully complete a series of courses. Life insurance sales workers can qual ify for the Chartered Life Underwriter (CLU) designation by passing a series of examinations given by the Ameri can College of Bryn Mawr, Pa. Insur ance sales workers who are interested in financial planning can earn the Cer tified Financial Planning (CFP) desig nation from the College of Certified Financial Planning in Denver, Colo., or the Chartered Financial Consultant (ChFC) designation from the Ameri can College of Bryn Mawr, Pa. Both designations reflect knowledge of tax laws, estate planning, investments, and other subjects. Casualty insur ance sales workers can qualify for the Chartered Property Casualty Under writer (CPCU) designation by passing a series of examinations given by the American Institute for Property and Liability Underwriters. These desig nations, RHU, CLU, CFP, ChFC, and CPCU, are recognized marks of achievement in their respective fields. Sales workers can qualify for another designation, Accredited Advisors in Insurance, by passing a series of three 1-semester courses covering princi ples of insurance production, multiline sales, and agency operation and mar keting. A growing number of States have mandatory continuing education re quirements. Insurance sales workers should be enthusiastic, self-confident, disci plined, hard working, and able to communicate effectively. They should be able to inspire customer confi dence. Some companies give person ality tests to prospective employees because personality attributes are im portant in sales work. Since they usu ally work without supervision, sales workers must be able to plan their time well and have initiative to locate new clients. An insurance sales worker who shows sales ability and leadership may become a sales manager in a local office. A few advance to agency su perintendent or executive positions. However, many who have built up a good clientele prefer to remain in sales work. Some, particularly in the casualty field, establish their own in dependent agencies or brokerage firms. Job Outlook Employment of insurance sales work ers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. While the vol ing relatively few sales workers. In ume of insurance sales may continue addition, large firms may increasingly to expand, increasing productivity hire risk managers to analyze their among insurance sales workers and insurance needs and select the best changing business practices are ex policies. Most individuals and businesses pected to limit growth of insurance sales jobs. Most job openings are ex consider insurance a necessity, re pected to result from the need to re gardless of economic conditions. place sales workers who leave the Therefore, sales workers are not like occupation. Turnover is high because ly to face unemployment because of a many beginners are unable to estab recession. lish a sufficiently large clientele in this highly competitive business. Opportu Earnings nities should be best for ambitious Beginners in this occupation often are people who enjoy sales work and who guaranteed a moderate salary while develop expertise in a wide range of they learn the business and build a clientele. In 1984, many large compa insurance and financial services. Future demand for sales workers nies paid new sales workers a median depends on the volume of insurance salary of about $1,200 a month during sales. The volume of life and health this training period, which usually insurance should increase rapidly over lasts about 6 months. They usually the next decade as many more work subsidize their sales workers at the ers enter the 25-54 age group. People training period level for about 30 in this group have the greatest need months providing they meet estab for life and health insurance, and for lished goals. Thereafter, most sales protection for homes, automobiles, workers are paid on a commission and other valuables. Life insurance basis. The size of the commission sales also should grow as more fami depends on the type and amount of lies seek policies designed to provide insurance sold, and whether the trans retirement income and educational action is a new policy or a renewal. funds for their children. Working Life insurance sales workers with 5 to women’s growing need for life insur 10 years of experience had a median ance and disability protection should income of about $35,000 in 1983; increase insurance sales. Rising in those with 10 or more years of expe comes as well as a concern for finan rience had a median income of cial security also may stimulate sales $55,000, and many earned more than of mutual funds, variable annuities, $100,000. Casualty insurance sales and other financial products and serv workers usually earned higher in ices. Sales of casualty insurance comes. Insurance sales workers generally should rise as more people seek cov erage not only for their homes and pay their own automobile and travel cars but also for expensive, advanced expenses. Independent sales workers technology products such as home must also pay office rent, clerical sal computers and video recorders, and aries, and other operating expenses as complex types of commercial cov out of their earnings. Most sales workers have paid vaca erage, such as product liability, work ers’ compensation, prepaid legal, kid tions, group life and health insurance nap, and pollution liability insurance plans, and retirement pensions. The size of most pensions depends on are expanded. Employment of sales workers will sales volume. not keep pace with the rising level of insurance sales because more policies Related Occupations will be sold to groups and by mail and Other workers who sell complex or telephone. In addition, each sales expensive products or services in worker should be able to handle more clude real estate agents and brokers, business as computers take over more securities and financial services sales routine clerical tasks. The trend workers, financial advisors, estate toward multiline sales workers also planning specialists, and manufactur will cause employment to rise more ers’ sales workers. slowly than the volume of insurance sales. Firms outside the insurance in Sources of Additional Information dustry—such as department stores— General occupational information will increasingly offer various finan about insurance sales workers is avail Digitized for cial services, including insurance, us able from the home office of many life FRASER Marketing and Sales Occupations/257 and casualty insurance companies. In formation on State licensing require ments may be obtained from the de partment of insurance at any State capital. Information about a career as a life insurance sales worker also is avail able from: American Council of Life Insurance, 1850 K St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. The National Association of Life Underwriters, 1922 F St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. For career information on casualty insurance sales workers, contact: Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, N.Y. 10038. Independent Insurance Agents of America, 100 Church St., New York, N.Y. 10007. Alliance of American Insurers, 1501 Woodfield Rd., Suite 400 W., Schaumburg, 111. 60195. The National Association of Independent Insur ers, Public Relations Department, 2600 River Rd., Des Plaines, 111. 60018. Professional Insurance Agents, 400 N. Wash ington St., Alexandria, Va. 22314. Manufacturers’ Sales Workers___________ (List o f D .O .T . codes available on request. See p. 495.) Nature of the Work Most manufacturers employ sales workers to market their products. Manufacturers’ sales workers sell mainly to other businesses—factories, banks, wholesalers, and retailers. They also sell to institutions—hospi tals, schools, libraries, and others. Manufacturers’ sales workers visit prospective buyers to inform them about the products they sell, analyze the buyers’ needs, suggest how their products can meet these needs, and take orders. Sales workers visit firms in their territory, using an approach adapted to their line of merchandise. Those who handle bakery items, for example, may emphasize wholesome ness, packaging, and variety. Some times sales workers promote their firm’s products at trade shows and conferences. Sales workers who deal in technical products, such as electronic equip ment, often are called industrial sales workers. Some engineers, often called sales engineers, also sell technical products. In addition to providing in formation on their firm’s products, they help prospective buyers with technical problems. For example, they 258/Occupational Outlook Handbook may recommend improved materials and machinery for a firm’s manufac turing process, draw up plans of pro posed machinery layout, and estimate cost savings from buying their equip ment. They present this information to company officials and negotiate a sale, a process which may take many months. They may work with engi neers in their own companies, adapt ing products to a customer’s special needs. Technical sales workers some times train customers’ employees to operate and maintain new equipment, and make frequent visits to make cer tain that it is functioning properly. Manufacturers’ sales workers spend most of their time visiting prospective customers. They also prepare reports on sales prospects or customers’ cred it ratings, plan their work schedules, draw up lists of prospects, make ap pointments, handle correspondence, and study literature about their prod ucts. Working Conditions Some manufacturers’ sales workers have large territories and do consider able traveling. Because a sales region may cover four or five States, they may be away from home for several days or weeks at a time. Others usu ally work near their “ home base.” Manufacturers’ sales workers call at the time most convenient to custom ers and may have to travel at night or on weekends. Frequently, they spend Electronic ordering systems often link manufacturers directly to wholesale dis Digitized for tributors. FRASER evenings writing reports. However, some are able to plan their schedules for time off when they want it. Employment Manufacturers’ sales workers held over 547,000 jobs in 1984. Some worked out of their company’s home office, often located at a manufac turing plant. The majority, however, worked out of branch offices, usually in big cities near prospective custom ers. Large numbers of sales workers are employed in printing and publishing, chemical, fabricated metal products, and electrical and other machinery industries. In addition, there are many self-employed sales representatives who work for a straight commission based on the dollar amount of their sales. These workers are called inde pendent sales representatives and they may represent more than one manu facturer. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although a college degree is increas ingly desirable for a job as a manufac turers’ sales worker, many employers hire individuals without a degree who have previous sales experience. Most entrants to this occupation, even those with college degrees, transfer from other occupations, but some are re cent graduates. Entrants are older, on average, than entrants to other occu pations. Manufacturers of nontechni cal products usually seek persons with degrees in liberal arts or business administration. Manufacturers of technical products usually seek those with degrees in science or engineer ing. Drug sales workers, also known as pharmaceutical detailers, usually need a background in biology and chemistry. Manufacturers of electri cal equipment, heavy machinery, and some types of chemicals prefer to hire people who have studied engineering, physics, or chemistry. (Information on chemists, engineers, and others with the technical training suitable for work as manufacturers’ sales workers is given elsewhere in the Handbook.) Many companies, especially those that manufacture technical products, have formal training programs for be ginning sales workers that last 2 years or longer. In some programs, trainees rotate among jobs in plants and offices to learn all phases of production, in stallation, and distribution of the prod uct. In others, trainees take formal classroom instruction at the plant, fol lowed by on-the-job training in a branch office under the supervision of a field sales manager. A pleasant personality and appear ance and the ability to get along well with people are important. Because sales workers may have to walk, stand for long periods, or carry prod uct samples, some physical stamina is necessary. As in most selling jobs, arithmetic skills are an asset. Sales representatives who have good sales records and leadership ability may advance to sales supervi sors, branch managers, or district 'managers. Those with managerial abil i t y eventually may advance to sales manager or other executive positions; (many top executives in industry start ed as sales workers. Frequent contact with business peo ple in other firms helps sales workers transfer to other jobs. Some go into business for themselves as indepen dent representatives. Others find op portunities in advertising and market ing research. Job Outlook Employment in this field is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid1990’s. Industrial firms, chain stores, and institutions that purchase large quantities of goods at one time fre quently buy directly from the manu facturer. The need for sales workers should continue as manufacturers em phasize sales activities to compete for the growing number of these valuable accounts. However, offsetting the de mand somewhat will be the increased use by manufacturers of wholesalers and independent sales representatives to sell their products, particularly dur ing economic downturns. Despite slower than average em ployment growth, many openings will occur each year because of the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. As is the case for other sales jobs, this is a large occupation and turnover is fairly high. Each year, a number of new manufacturers’ sales workers discov er that they are not cut out for selling and leave the occupation. Because sales are affected by changing eco nomic conditions and consumer pref erences, employment opportunities and earnings may fluctuate from year to year. Marketing and Sales Occupations/259 Brokers are independent business people who not only sell real estate owned by others, but also rent and manage properties, make appraisals, and develop new building projects. In closing sales, brokers often arrange for loans to finance the purchases, for title searches, and for meetings be tween buyers and sellers when details of the transactions are agreed upon and the new owners take possession. A broker’s knowledge, resourceful ness, and creativity in arranging fi nancing that is most favorable to the prospective buyer often mean the dif ference between success and failure in closing a sale. In some cases, agents assume the responsibilities in closing sales. Brokers also manage their own offices, advertise properties, and han dle other business matters. Some combine other types of work, such as the sale of insurance or the practice of law, with their real estate business. Real estate agents generally are in Related Occupations dependent sales workers who provide Manufacturers’ sales workers must their services to a licensed broker on a have sales ability and a specific knowl contract basis. Today, relatively few edge of the products they sell. Some agents work as employees of a broker related occupations that require these or realty firm. skills are wholesale and retail buyers, In selling or renting real estate, bro field-contact technicians, wholesale kers and agents generally first meet trade sales workers, real estate sales with potential buyers to get a feeling workers, insurance sales workers, for the type of home they would like and securities sales workers. and can afford. Then, they may take the client to see a number of homes Sources of Additional Information that appear to meet the needs and For details about job opportunities for income of the client. Because real manufacturers’ sales workers, contact estate is so expensive, agents may manufacturers in your area. have to meet several times with a prospective buyer to discuss proper ties. In answering questions, agents emphasize those selling points that Real Estate Agents are likely to be most important to the buyer. To a young family looking at a and Brokers house, for example, they may point (D.O.T. 250.157, .357 except -022) out the convenient floor plan and the fact that schools and shopping centers Nature of the Work A house or an apartment, whether are close by. To a potential investor purchased as a residence or an invest seeking the tax advantages of owning ment property to be rented out, is the a rental property, they may point out single most expensive item in most the proximity to the city and the ease people’s budgets. Thus, people gener of finding a renter. Whenever bargain ally seek the help of a real estate agent ing over price becomes necessary, or broker when buying or selling a agents carefully follow the seller’s in home. These workers have a thorough structions and may present counterof knowledge of the housing market in fers in order to get the best possible their community. They know which price. There is more to agents’ and bro neighborhoods will best fit their cli ents’ budgets, local zoning and tax kers’jobs, however, than just selling. laws, and where to obtain financing Since they must have properties to for the purchase. Agents and brokers sell, they spend a significant amount also act as a medium for price negoti of time obtaining “ listings” (owner agreements to place properties for ations between buyer and seller. Earnings Manufacturers’ sales workers may be paid under different types of compen sation plans. Some manufacturers pay experienced sales workers a straight commission, based on the dollar amount of their sales (as in the case of independent representatives); others pay a fixed salary. Most use a combi nation of salary and commission; sal ary and bonus; or salary, commission, and bonus. Bonus payments may de pend on individual performance, on the performance of all sales workers in the group or district, or on the company’s performance. Median annual earnings of full-time manufacturers’ sales workers were about $23,400 in 1984. The middle 50 percent earned between $16,600 and $33,800 a year. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $12,500; the top 10 percent earned more than $44,200 a year. sale with the firm). Much time is spent on the telephone exploring leads gath ered from advertisements and person al contacts. When listing property for sale, agents and brokers make com parisons with similar property being sold to determine its fair market val ue. Most real estate agents and brokers sell residential property. A few, usu ally in large firms, specialize in com mercial, industrial, agricultural, or other types of real estate. Each spe cialty requires knowledge of that par ticular type of property and clientele. Selling or leasing business property, for example, requires an understand ing of leasing practices, business trends, and location needs. Agents who sell or lease industrial properties must know about transportation, util ities, and labor supply. To sell resi dential properties, the agent must know the location of schools, reli gious institutions, shopping facilities, and public transportation, and be fa miliar with tax rates and insurance coverage. Working Conditions Although real estate agents and bro kers generally base their operations in offices, most of their time is spent outside the office—showing proper ties to clients, evaluating properties for sale, meeting with prospective cli ents, and performing a wide range of other duties. Brokers provide office space, but agents generally furnish their own automobiles. Agents and brokers often work more than a standard 40-hour week. In addition, they often work evenings and weekends to suit the convenience of their clients. Employment Real estate agents and brokers held about 363,000 jobs in 1984. Many worked part time. Most real estate firms are relatively small; indeed, some brokers operate a one-person business. Some large firms have several hundred real estate agents operating out of many branch offices. About one-sixth of all brokers have franchise agreements with na tional or regional real estate organiza tions. Under this type of arrangement, similar to many fast-food restaurant operations, the broker pays a fee in exchange for the privilege of using the more widely known name of the par ent organization. Although franchised 260/Occupational Outlook Handbook Real estate agents show prospective customers homes that fit their needs and income. brokers often receive help in training salespeople and in running their of fices, they bear the ultimate responsi bility for the success or failure of the firm. Real estate is sold in all areas, but employment is concentrated in large urban areas and in smaller but rapidly growing communities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Real estate agents and brokers must be licensed in every State and in the District of Columbia. All States re quire prospective agents to be a high school graduate, be at least 18 years old, and pass a written test. The ex amination—more comprehensive for brokers than for agents—includes questions on basic real estate transac tions and on laws affecting the sale of property. Most States require candi dates for the general sales license to complete at least 30 hours of class room instruction and those seeking the broker’s license to complete 90 hours of formal training in addition to a specified amount of experience in selling real estate (generally 1 to 3 years). Some States waive the experi ence requirements for the broker’s license for applicants who have a bachelor’s degree in real estate. A small, but increasing number of States require that agents have 60 hours of college credit—roughly the equivalent of an associate degree. State licenses generally must be renewed every year or two, usually without reexamina tion. Some States, however, require continuing education for license re newal. Persons who take real estate sales positions are older, on average, than entrants to most other occupations. Many homemakers and retired per sons are attracted by the flexible and part-time work schedules characteris tic of this field and may enter, leave, and later reenter the occupation, de pending on the strength of the housing market, family responsibilities, and other personal factors. In addition to labor force entrants and reentrants, others transfer into real estate sales jobs from a wide range of occupa tions, including clerical and other sales jobs. As real estate transactions have be come more complex, many of the large firms have turned to college graduates to fill sales positions. A large number of agents have some college training, and the number of college graduates selling real estate has risen substantially in recent years. However, personality traits are fully as important as academic background. Brokers look for applicants who pos sess such characteristics as a pleasant personality, honesty, and a neat ap pearance. Maturity, tact, and enthusi asm for the job are required in order to motivate prospective customers in this keenly competitive field. Agents also should have a good memory for names and faces and business details, such as taxes, zoning regulations, and local land-use laws. Persons interested in beginning jobs as real estate agents often apply in their own communities, where their knowledge of local neighborhoods is an advantage. The beginner usually learns the practical aspects of the job, including the use of computers to lo cate or list available properties or identify available sources of financ ing, under the direction of an experi enced agent. Many firms offer formal training programs for both beginners and ex perienced agents. Larger firms gener ally offer more extensive programs than smaller firms. Over 1,000 univer sities, colleges, and junior colleges offer courses in real estate. At some, a student can earn an associate or bach elor’s degree with a major in real estate; several offer advanced de grees. Many local real estate boards that are members of the National As sociation of Realtors sponsor courses covering the fundamentals and legal aspects of the field. Advanced courses in appraisal, mortgage financing, prop erty development and management, and other subjects also are available through various National Association affiliates. Trained and experienced agents can advance in many large firms to sales or general manager. Persons who have received their broker’s license may open their own offices. Training and experience in estimating property value can lead to work as a real estate appraiser, and people familiar with operating and maintaining rental prop erties may specialize in property man agement. Those who gain general experience in real estate and a thor ough knowledge of business condi tions and property values in their lo calities may enter mortgage financing or real estate investment counseling. Job Outlook Employment of real estate agents and brokers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s as a result of growing demand for sales and rental housing and other properties. Howev er, most job openings will occur each year as workers transfer to other oc cupations, retire, or stop working for other reasons. Many beginners be come discouraged by their inability to close a sufficient number of sales and subsequently leave the occupation. Marketing and Sales Occupations/261 Employment growth in this field will stem primarily from increased de mand for home purchases and rental units. Shifts in the age distribution of the population over the next decade will result in a larger number of prime working age persons (25-54 years old) with careers and family responsibili ties. This is the most geographically mobile group in our society and the one that traditionally makes most of the home purchases. As their incomes rise, these people also may be expect ed to invest in additional real estate. However, employment of agents and brokers is not expected to keep pace with real estate sales because the use of computers to locate and list prop erties or identify available sources of financing allows each agent and bro ker to handle more business. During periods of declining economic activity and tight credit, the volume of sales and the resulting demand for sales workers may decline. During these periods, the number of persons seek ing sales positions may outnumber openings. Real estate sales positions should continue to be relatively easy to ob tain. Not everyone is successful in this highly competitive field, howev er; well-trained, ambitious people who enjoy selling should have the best chance for success. Earnings Commissions on sales are the main source of earnings—very few real es tate agents work for a salary. The rate of commission varies according to the type of property and its value; the percentage paid on the sale of farm and commercial properties or unim proved land usually is higher than that paid for selling a home. Commissions may be divided among several agents and brokers. The broker and agent in the firm that obtained the listing generally share their part of the commission when the property is sold; the broker and agent in the firm that made the sale also generally share their part of the com mission. Although an agent’s share varies greatly from one firm to anoth er, often it is about half of the total amount received by the firm. The median income of full-time real estate agents was estimated to be about $19,000 a year in 1984. Real estate brokers earned an estimated median gross personal income (after expenses) of $31,600 a year. The most successful agents and brokers earn considerably more. Some firms, espe cially the large ones, furnish group life, health, and accident insurance. Income usually increases as an agent gains experience, but individual ability, economic conditions, and the type and location of the property also affect earnings. Sales workers who are active in community organizations and local real estate boards can broad en their contacts and increase their earnings. A beginner’s earnings often are irregular because a few weeks or even months may go by without a sale. Although some brokers allow an agent a drawing account against fu ture earnings, this practice is not usu al with new employees. The beginner, therefore, should have enough money to live on until commissions increase. Related Occupations Selling expensive items such as homes requires maturity, tact, and a sense of responsibility. Other sales workers who find these character traits impor tant in their work include automobile sales workers, securities sales work ers, insurance agents and brokers, yacht brokers, travel agents, and man ufacturers’ representatives. Sources of Additional Information Details on licensing requirements for real estate agents and brokers are available from most local real estate organizations or from the State real estate commission or board. For more information about oppor tunities in real estate work, as well as a list of colleges and universities of fering courses in this field, contact: National Association of Realtors, 430 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. Retail Sales Workers (D.O.T. 261.354; .357-046, -058, -062 through -074; 270.357-038; 277.357-046; 279.357-054; 290.477; 299.377, .467, and .677-010) Nature of the Work The success of any retail establish ment depends largely on its sales workers. Courteous and efficient ser vice from behind the counter or on the sales floor does much to satisfy cus tomers and build a store’s reputation. Whether selling furniture, electrical appliances, or clothing, a sales work er’s primary job is to interest custom ers in the merchandise. This is done by describing the product’s construc tion, demonstrating its use, and show ing various models and colors. For some jobs, particularly those selling expensive, “ big ticket’’ items, special knowledge or skills are needed. Per sonal computer sales workers, for ex ample, must have sufficient knowl edge of electronics to explain to cus tomers the features of various brands and models and the meaning of man ufacturers’ specifications. In addition to selling, most retail sales workers make out sales checks, receive cash payments, and give change and receipts. More and more stores are installing point-of-sale ter minals that register sales, adjust in ventory figures, and perform simple calculations. This equipment in creases workers’ productivity—en abling them to provide better custom er service. They also handle returns and exchanges of merchandise and keep their work areas neat. In addi tion, they may help stock shelves or racks, mark price tags, take invento ry, and prepare displays. However, in jobs selling standardized articles such as food, hardware, linens, and housewares, sales workers often do little more than take payments and wrap purchases. (Cashiers, who have similar job duties, are discussed else where in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Most sales workers in retail trade work in clean, comfortable, welllighted stores. Some, however, work outside the store. Kitchen equipment sales workers may visit prospective customers’ homes, for example, to help them plan renovations, and usedcar sales workers may spend much time at an outdoor lot. Many sales workers must stand for long periods. Although many sales workers have a 5-day, 40-hour week, the standard workweek is longer in some stores. Because Saturday is a busy day in retailing, employees usually work that day and have a weekday off. Longer than normal hours may be scheduled before Christmas and during other peak periods. Some, especially those employed by stores in suburban shop ping centers, regularly work one evening or more a week. Part-time sales workers generally work during peak hours of business— daytime rush hours, evenings, and weekends. 262/Occupational Outlook Handbook coming increasingly important for these jobs. Large retail businesses generally prefer to hire college gradu ates as management trainees. Despite this trend, capable employees without a college degree should still be able to advance to administrative or supervi sory work in large stores. Opportunities for advancement are limited in small stores, where one person, often the owner, does most of the managerial work. Retail selling experience may be an asset in quali fying for sales work with wholesalers or manufacturers. Many sales workers are employed on a part-time basis. Employment Retail sales workers held about 4 mil lion jobs in 1984. They worked in stores ranging from the small drug or grocery store employing one part-time sales person to the giant department store with hundreds of sales workers. In addition, some were self-employed representatives of direct sales compa nies and mail-order houses. The largest employers of retail sales workers are department and other general merchandise stores, apparel and accessories stores, food, drug, and furniture stores, and car dealers. Most of the sales workers who sell “big ticket” items work full time; three-fifths of other sales workers work part time. Retail sales jobs are distributed geo graphically much the same way as the population; most sales workers are employed in cities and their nearby suburbs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For many persons, a job as a retail sales worker serves as a source of immediate income rather than a ca reer. Most entrants are under 25 years of age. Many have little or no work experience and are students or home makers looking for part-time work. Thousands of high schools across the country have distributive educa tion programs, generally a coopera tive arrangement between the school and businesses. Students work part time at local stores while taking cours Digitizedes in merchandising, accounting, and for FRASER other aspects of retailing. The experi ence and education gained can im prove their prospects for permanent employment. Persons interested in sales jobs should apply to the personnel offices of large retail stores, where they are likely to be interviewed and, in some cases, given an aptitude test. Employ ers prefer persons who enjoy working with people and have the tact to deal with difficult customers. Among other desirable characteristics are an inter est in sales work, a pleasant personal ity, a neat appearance, and the ability to communicate clearly. In most small stores, an experi enced employee or the proprietor in structs newly hired sales personnel in making out sales checks and operating the cash register. In many larger stores, training programs are more formal and include specialized train ing in selling certain products. Inexperienced sales workers in de partment stores typically begin in housewares, notions, and other de partments where a customer needs little assistance. As they gain experi ence and seniority, they move to po sitions of greater responsibility. The most experienced—and the highest paid—sales workers sell “big ticket” items such as large appliances, furni ture, and rugs. This work requires the most knowledge of the product and the greatest talent for persuasion. Traditionally, capable sales work ers without a college degree could advance to management positions. However, a college education is be Job Outlook Employment of retail sales workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all workers through the mid-1990’s. While the volume of goods sold is expected to grow rapidly, the continuation of self-service and the increase in computerized checkout systems will reduce somewhat the need for additional sales workers. However, employment in stores sell ing “big ticket” items will be much less affected since these items are not likely to be sold self-service. Retail trade sales work will contin ue to provide more job openings than almost any other occupation through the mid-1990’s. Prospects for sales jobs are good because retail selling is a large occupation and turnover is high. There will continue to be many opportunities for part-time workers, as well as for temporary workers dur ing peak selling periods such as the Christmas season. During recessions, sales volume and the resulting demand for sales workers may decline. Purchases of durable goods and “ big ticket” items, such as cars and appliances, are likely to be postponed during difficult eco nomic times. In areas of high unem ployment, sales of all types of goods may decline. Layoffs, however, are unlikely. Since sales worker turnover is usually very high, employers often can cut employment simply by not replacing all those who leave. Earnings In 1984, the starting wage for most retail sales positions (including part time and temporary) not covered by union contracts was the Federal min imum wage, $3.35 an hour. Some stores doing less than $362,500 in bus iness per year paid less, since they are not required to pay the minimum Marketing and Sales Occupations/263 wage. Median weekly earnings of full time retail sales workers were about $290 in 1984. The middle 50 percent earned between $170 and $360 a week; 10 percent earned less than $130 a week; and 10 percent earned more than $510. Earnings vary widely by type of goods sold, as the following table shows. Table 1. Average weekly earnings of retail sales workers by industry, 1984 Industry All retail sales workers..................... Motor vehicles and boats__ Radio, television, hi-fi, appliances............................ Door-to-door sales.................... Furniture and home furnishings............................ Hardware and building supplies............................... Newspapers and magazines.. Automotive parts..................... Shoes...................................... Apparel.................................. Other commodities.................. SOURCE: Weekly earnings U.S. Department of Education, Division of Vocational/Technical Education, Washington, D.C. 20202. $288 427 341 324 314 Securities and Financial Services Sales Workers (D.O.T. 162.157-014, -042; 251.157, .257-010) 305 Nature of the Work 303 294 236 212 244 Bureau of Labor Statistics. Some sales workers receive salary plus commissions—that is, a percent age of the sales they make. Others are paid only on a commission or salary basis. Those paid by commission may find their earnings greatly affected by ups and downs in the economy. Sales workers in many retail stores may buy merchandise at a discount, often from 10 to 25 percent below regular prices. This privilege some times is extended to the employee’s family. Some stores, especially the large ones, pay part or all of the cost of life insurance, health insurance, and a pension. Related Occupations Sales workers apply a general knowl edge of sales techniques and specific knowledge of the products they sell. These skills are used by people in a number of other occupations, in cluding demonstrators, route drivers, real estate sales agents, telephone so licitors, wholesale and retail buyers, insurance agents and brokers, manu facturers’ representatives, and cash iers. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in retail sales may be obtained from the personnel offices of local stores; from State mer chants’ associations; or from local unions of the United Food and Com mercial Workers International Union. Information on distributive educa tion programs may be obtained from your State employment service. A list of schools that offer programs in retailing is available from: offer advice on the purchase or sale of a particular security. Not all customers have the same investment goals. Some individuals may prefer long-term investments de signed either for capital growth or to provide income over the years; others might want to invest in short-term securities that they hope will rise in price quickly. Securities sales work ers furnish information about the ad vantages and disadvantages of an in vestment based j£>n each-person’s objective^-Ihey also supply the latest price quotations qel any security in which the investor is interested, as “well as information on the activities and financial positions of the corpora tions issuing these securities. Securities sales workers may serve all types of customers or they may specialize in one type only, such as institutional investors. In institutional investing, most sales workers special ize in a specific financial product such as stocks, bonds, options, annuities, or commodity futures. Some handle the sale of new issues, such as corpo ration securities issued to finance plant expansion. Beginning securities sales workers spend much of their time searching for customers—relying heavily on tele phone solicitation. They may meet some clients through business and so cial contacts. Many sales workers find it useful to get additional exposure by teaching adult education investment courses or giving lectures at libraries or social clubs. Securities sales workers. Most inves tors—whether they are individuals with a few hundred dollars or large institutions with millions to invest— call on securities sales workers when buying or selling stocks, bonds, shares in mutual funds, or other financial products. Securities sales workers of ten are called registered representa tives, account executives, or brokers. When an investor wishes to buy or sell securities, sales workers may re lay the order through their firms’ of fices to the floor of a securities ex change, such as the New York Stock Financial services sales workers. Fi Exchange. There, securities sales nancial services sales workers call on workers known as brokers’ floor rep various businesses to solicit applica resentatives buy and sell securities. If tions for loans and new deposit ac a security is not traded on an ex counts for banks or savings and loan change, the sales worker sends the associations. They also locate and order to the firm’s trading depart contact prospective customers to pre ment, which trades it directly with a sent their bank’s financing services dealer in the over-the-counter market. and to ascertain the customer’s bank After the transaction has been com ing needs. At most smaller and medi pleted, the sales worker notifies the um-size banks, branch managers and customer of the final price. commercial loan officers are responsi Securities sales workers also pro ble for marketing the bank’s financial vide many related services for their services. customers. Depending on a custom er’s knowledge of the market, they Working Conditions may explain the meaning of stock Securities sales workers usually work market terms and trading practices; in offices where there is much activi offer financial counseling; devise an ty. They have access to “ quote individual financial portfolio for the boards” or computer terminals that client including securities, life insur continually provide information on ance, tax shelters, mutual funds, an the prices of securities. When sales nuities, and other investments; and activity increases, due perhaps to un- 264/Occupational Outlook Handbook York) and approximately 14,000 branch offices in other areas. Financial services sales workers are employed by banks, savings and loan associations, and other credit institu tions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because securities sales workers must be well informed about economic con ditions and trends, a college education is increasingly important, especially in the larger securities firms. In fact, the overwhelming majority of entrants to this occupation are college gradu ates. Although employers seldom re quire specialized academic training, courses in business administration, economics, and finance are helpful. Many employers consider personal qualities and skills more important Securities sales workers spend most of than academic training. Employers seek applicants who have good com their time talking to clients. munication skills, are well groomed, anticipated changes in the economy, and have a strong desire to succeed. Self-confidence and an ability to han the pace may become very hectic. Established securities sales work dle frequent rejections also are impor ers usually work the same hours as tant ingredients for success. Because maturity and the ability to others in the business community. Be ginners who are seeking customers work independently also are impor may work much longer hours, howev tant, many employers prefer to hire er. Most securities sales workers ac those who have achieved success in commodate customers by meeting other jobs. Some firms prefer candi with them in the evenings or on week dates with sales experience, particu larly those who have worked on com ends. Financial services sales workers mission in areas such as real estate or generally work in a comfortable, less insurance. Understandably, most en stressful office environment. They trants to this occupation transfer from generally work 40 hours a week. They other jobs. Some begin working as may spend considerable time outside securities sales workers following re the office meeting with present and tirement from other fields. Securities sales workers must meet prospective clients, attending civic functions, and participating in trade State licensing requirements, which generally include passing an examina association meetings. tion and, in some cases, furnishing a personal bond. In addition, sales Employment Securities and financial services sales workers must register as representa workers held about 81,000 jobs in tives of their firm according to regula 1984. In addition, a substantial num tions of the securities exchanges ber of people in other occupations where they do business or the Nation al Association of Securities Dealers, sold securities. These include part Inc. (NASD). Before beginners can ners and branch office managers in qualify as registered representatives, securities firms as well as insurance they must pass the Securities and Ex agents and brokers offering securities change Commission’s General Securi to their customers. ties Examination, or examinations Securities sales workers are em prepared by the securities exchanges ployed by brokerage and investment or the NASD. Large national broker firms in all parts of the country. Many age firms may require a second exam of these firms are very small. Most ination—the Uniform Securities sales workers, however, work for a Agents State Law Examination—that small number of large firms with main allows sales workers to do business big cities (especially in New nationwide. These tests measure the offices in prospective representative’s knowl edge of the securities business, cus tomer protection, and recordkeeping procedures. Most employers provide on-the-job training to help securities sales work ers meet the requirements for registra tion. In most firms, the training period takes at least several months. Train ees in large firms may receive class room instruction in securities analy sis, effective speaking, and the finer points of selling; take courses offered by business schools and other institu tions and associations; and undergo a period of on-the-job training lasting up to 2 years. In small firms, sales work ers generally receive training in out side institutions and on the job. Many trainees take correspondence courses in preparation for the securities exam inations. Securities sales workers periodical ly take training, through their firms or outside institutions, to keep abreast of new financial products as they are introduced on the market. Training in the use of computers is important, as the securities sales business is highly automated. The principal form of advancement for securities sales workers is an in crease in the number and size of the accounts they handle. Although be ginners usually service the accounts of individual investors, eventually they may handle very large institu tional accounts such as those of banks and pension funds. Some experienced sales workers become branch office managers and supervise other sales workers while continuing to provide services for their own customers. A few representatives advance to top management positions or become partners in their firms. Banks and other credit institutions prefer to hire college graduates for financial services sales jobs. A busi ness administration degree with a spe cialization in finance or a liberal arts degree including courses in account ing, economics, and marketing serves as excellent preparation for this job. Financial services sales workers learn through on-the-job training un der the supervision of bank officers. Outstanding performance can lead to promotion to managerial positions. Job Outlook The number of securities sales work ers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations Marketing and Sales Occupations/265 through the mid-1990’s. Most job tion requirements. After registration, openings, however, are expected to a few firms continue to pay a salary be created by workers who transfer to until the new representative’s com other jobs, retire, or stop working for missions increase to a stated amount. other reasons. Due to the highly com The salaries paid during training usu petitive nature of securities sales ally range from $900 to $1,200 a work, many beginners leave the field month. because they are unable to establish a I After candidates are licensed and sufficient clientele. Once established, registered, their earnings depend on however, securities sales workers commissions from the sale or pur have a relatively strong attachment to chase of stocks and bonds, life insur their occupation because of high earn ance, or other securities for custom ings and the considerable investment ers. Commission earnings are likely to in training. Faster than average employment be high when there is much buying growth is expected among financial and selling and lower when there is a services sales workers as a result of slump in market activity. Most firms the continued expansion in banking provide sales workers with a steady services and the need to finance an income by paying a “draw against increasing level of commercial activi commission”—that is, a minimum salary based on the commissions ty. Employment of securities sales which they can be expected to earn. workers is expected to expand as eco Securities sales workers who can pro nomic growth, rising personal in vide their clients with the most com comes, and greater inherited wealth plete financial services should enjoy increase the funds available for in the greatest income stability. vestment. Growth in the number and Financial services sales workers are size of institutional investors will be paid a salary; some receive bonuses if particularly strong as more people en they meet certain established goals. roll in pension plans, set up individual Average earnings of financial services retirement accounts, establish trust sales workers are considerably less funds, and contribute to the endow than those of securities sales workers. ment funds of colleges and other non profit institutions. In addition, more workers will be needed to sell securi Related Occupations ties issued by new and expanding cor Similar sales jobs requiring special porations and by State and local gov ized knowledge include insurance ernments financing public improve agents and real estate agents. ments. Job opportunities should be best for mature individuals with suc Sources of Additional Information cessful work experience. Further information concerning a ca The demand for securities sales reer as a securities sales worker is workers fluctuates as the economy available for $1 from: expands and contracts. Thus, in an Securities Industry Association, 120 Broadway, economic downturn the number of New York, N.Y. 10271. persons seeking jobs usually exceeds Career information also may be ob the number of openings—sometimes tained from the personnel depart by a great deal. Even during periods ments of individual securities firms. of rapid economic expansion, howev For information about job opportu er, competition for securities sales nities for financial services sales work training positions is keen because of ers in various States, contact State potentially high earnings. bankers’ associations. Or write direct ly to a particular bank to inquire about Earnings According to the Securities Industry job openings. For the names and ad Association, earnings of full-time, ex dresses of banks in a specific location perienced securities sales workers as well as the names of their principal who served individual investors aver officers, consult one of the following aged about $64,000 a year in 1984. The directories, which are published twice relatively small number of sales work each year: ers who handled institutional accounts The American Bank Directory (Norcross, Ga., averaged about $156,000. McFadden Business Publications). Trainees usually are paid a salary Polk’s World Bank Directory (Nashville, R.L. until they meet licensing and registra Polk & Co.). Travel Agents (D .O .T. 252.157) Nature of the Work Planning your vacation or a business trip can be frustrating and time con suming. Many travelers, therefore, seek the assistance of travel agents— specialists who have the information and know-how to make the best pos sible travel arrangements, with their clients’ tastes, budgets, and other re quirements in mind. Consider, for example, the contrast between arrangements for an execu tive with a tight schedule and for a family of four on a restricted budget, both planning a visit to Washington, D.C. For the executive, an agent might arrange a first class flight, a hotel suite that could be used for business meetings, and a limousine ready upon arrival for business calls. For the family, on the other hand, the travel agent would recommend less expensive, off-season, all-inclusive packages and special air fares. The agent would describe a wide range of hotel facilities and arrange the most economical but pleasurable trip. The agent also might arrange for car rental or escorted bus tours, suggest local tourist attractions and restaurants, and acquaint the family with the city’s climate. For international travel, the agent might also provide information on customs regulations, required papers (passports, visas, and certificates of vaccination), and the most recent cur rency exchange rates. When making travel arrangements, travel agents consult a variety of sources for information on departure and arrival times, fares, and hotel ratings and accommodations. Most travel agents rely on computers for up-to-the minute information on fares and schedules. They often use their own or co-workers travel experiences as a basis for making recommenda tions. Travel agents may devote some of their time to visiting hotels, resorts, and restaurants to rate their comfort, cleanliness, and quality of food and service. Travel agents also do considerable promotional work. They may give slide or movie presentations to social and special interest groups, arrange advertising displays, and meet with 266/Occupational Outlook Handbook business managers to suggest compa ny-sponsored trips. Working Conditions Travel agents spend most of their time behind a desk conferring with clients, completing paperwork, contacting air lines and hotels for travel arrange ments, and promoting group tours. They may be under a great deal of pressure during busy vacation sea sons. Many agents, especially those who are self-employed, frequently work long hours. When they do trav el, travel agents usually get substan tially reduced rates. Sometimes hotels or resorts offer travel agents free pro motional holidays. Employment Travel agents held 72,000 jobs in 1984. Though travel agents work in every part of the country, they are concentrated in major population centers where the best business op portunities exist. About one-half of all travel agencies are in large cities; one-third, in suburban areas; and one-fifth, in small towns and rural areas. Some travel agents are self-em ployed. Generally, these persons gained experience and recognition in an established travel agency before going into business for themselves. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Travel courses are offered in private vocational schools, adult education programs in public high schools, com munity colleges, and 4-year colleges. A few colleges offer a bachelor’s and a master’s degree in travel and tourism. Although few college courses relate directly to the travel industry, a col lege education is sometimes desired by employers. Courses in computer science, geography, foreign languag es, and history are most useful. Cours es in accounting and business man agement also are important, especial ly for those who expect to manage or start their own travel agencies. Sever al home-study courses provide a basic understanding of the travel industry. Employers prefer applicants with computer skills. Since these are be coming increasingly important, a sig nificant part of training courses and on-the-job training consists of com puter instructions. Persons can prepare for careers as travel agents by working part time as reservation clerks or receptionists in travel agencies. As they gain experi ence, they may enter either a formal or informal training program given by the agency, take on greater responsi bilities, and eventually assume the full workload of a travel agent. In large travel agencies with offices in many Personal experience in visiting other countries can help travel agents advise clients. cities, travel agents may advance to office manager or to other managerial positions. Experience as an airline reservation agent also is a good back ground for a travel agent. Broad expe rience as a national or international traveler is an asset, since the ability to speak with some personal knowledge about a city or foreign country often helps to influence clients’ travel plans. As a sales representative, the travel agent must be pleasant and patient. Agents often must demonstrate their efficiency and sense of responsibility to hard-to-please clients. Experienced travel agents can take an advanced course, leading to the designation of Certified Travel Coun selor, offered by the Institute of Cer tified Travel Agents. Another recog nized mark of achievement in this field is a certificate of proficiency from the American Society of Travel Agents. It is awarded to those who pass a test covering the duties of trav el agents. Travel agents who start their own agencies must gain formal conference approval before they can receive com missions. Conferences are organiza tions of airlines, shiplines, or rail lines. The Airlines Reporting Corpo ration, for example, is the conference of airlines. To gain conference ap proval, an agency must be in opera tion, be financially sound, and employ at least one experienced travel agent. Since conference approval can take time to obtain, most self-employed agents make very little profit in their first year. Their income generally is limited to commissions from hotels, cruises, and tour operators and to nominal fees for making complicated arrangements. For those starting their own agency, working capital of more than $35,000 will be needed to carry the agency through a profitless first year. There are no Federal licensing re quirements for travel agents. Howev er, Ohio, Rhode Island, and Hawaii now have licensing requirements. In California, travel agents not approved by a conference are required to have a license. Job Outlook Employment of travel agents is ex pected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Many job openings will arise as new agencies open and existing agencies expand, but most Marketing and Sales Occupations/267 will occur as experienced agents trans fer to other occupations or leave the labor force. However, since the in dustry generally is sensitive to the fluctuations of the economy, opportu nities at any given time depend heavi ly upon whether or not people or businesses can afford travel. Long distance travel plans are likely to be deferred during economic downturns. Despite economic fluctuations, spending on travel is expected to in crease significantly through the mid1990’s. As business activity expands, so will business-related travel. Also, with rising incomes and increasing emphasis on leisure-time activities, more people are expected to travel— and to do so more frequently—than in the past. The use of charter flights and larger, more efficient planes, especially for trips to other countries, has brought air transportation within the budget of many Americans. The recent easing of Government regulation of air fares and routes should also help increase traveling by fostering greater compe tition among airlines to offer better and more affordable service. More travel agents will be needed to handle this extra business. In addition, Amer ican travel agents often organize tours for the growing number of foreign visitors. Although most travel agen cies now have automated reservation systems, this has not weakened de mand for travel agents. Deregulation has resulted in more work for travel agents. New airline entrants and vol atility of airfares and schedules have made the computer an essential tool. Earnings Experience, sales ability, and the size and location of the agency determine the salary of a travel agent. Based on limited information, salaries of travel agents generally ranged from $10,000 to over $20,000 a year in 1984. Sala ried agents usually have standard ben efits—pension plans, insurance cover age, paid vacations—that self-e mployed agents must provide for themselves. Earnings of travel agents who own their agencies depend mainly on com missions from airlines and other car riers, cruise lines, tour operators, and lodging places. Commissions for do mestic travel arrangements, cruises, hotels, sightseeing tours, and car rent als are about 10 percent; and for inter national travel, about 8 percent. When travel agents arrange individual plans that require several connections on different kinds of transportation, they generally charge the customer a ser vice fee for the time and expense involved. During the first year of business or while awaiting conference approval, self-employed travel agents generally have low earnings. Even established agents experience less profitable years during periods of economic downturn. Related Occupations Travel agents organize and schedule business, educational, or recreational travel or activities. Other workers with similar responsibilities include secretaries, tour guides, airline reser vation agents, rental car agents, and travel counselors. Sources of Additional Information For further information on training opportunities, contact: American Society of Travel Agents, 4400 MacArthur Blvd. NW ., Washington, D.C. 20007. Wholesale Trade Sales Workers______ (List o f D.O .T. codes available on request. See p. 495.) pendable service so buyers will be come regular customers. Wholesale trade sales workers per form many services for retailers, such as checking the store’s stock and or dering items that will be needed be fore the next visit. Some wholesale sales workers help retailers improve and update ordering and inventory systems and advise them about adver tising, pricing, and window and counter displays. Sales workers who handle machinery may give technical assistance on installation and mainte nance. Sales workers keep records of sales, forward orders to their wholesale firms, prepare reports and expense accounts, plan work schedules, draw up lists of prospects, make appoint ments, and study literature describing their products. Some collect pay ments for their companies. Working Conditions Sales workers often have long, irreg ular working hours. Although they call on customers during business hours, they may travel at night or on weekends in order to meet their sched ules. However, most sales workers seldom are away from home for more than a few days at a time. They may spend evenings writing reports and orders, carry heavy catalogs and sam ple cases, and be on their feet for long periods. Nature of the Work Sales workers in wholesale trade fa cilitate the movement of goods from Employment the factory to the consumer. They Wholesale trade sales workers held represent wholesalers who distribute about 1.2 million jobs in 1984. Firms products to stores selling directly to selling machinery to industrial and the consumer. A wholesale drug sales business users are the largest employ worker, for example, may sell many ers of wholesale trade sales workers. brands of drugs, soap, and cosmetics to local pharmacies. Likewise, a wholesale construction materials dis tributor sells lumber, bricks, glass, and other construction materials to builders who would otherwise have to deal with many manufacturers. Wholesale trade sales workers visit buyers for retail, industrial, and com mercial firms, and institutions such as schools and hospitals. They show samples, pictures, or catalogs which describe items that their company stocks. They may also show custom ers how their products can save mon ey and improve productivity. These sales workers seldom urge customers to purchase any particular product, since they handle a large number of Wholesale trade sales workers occasion items. Instead, they offer prompt, de ally monitor inventory levels. 268/Occupational Outlook Handbook Other large employers are companies that sell food products, motor vehi cles and parts, hardware and plumb ing, and electrical goods. Most wholesale trade sales workers operate out of the home office of their firm, which usually is located in a large city. Sales workers may cover a territory in a small section of a city with many retail stores and industrial users; or, in less populated regions, they may cover half a State or more. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The background needed for sales jobs varies by product line and market. Complex products require technical backgrounds. Drug wholesalers, for example, seek people with a college degree in chemistry, biology, or phar macy as trainees. Wholesalers pro vide training on characteristics of their products and how to sell them. For nontechnical products such as food, sales ability and familiarity with manufacturers and brands are more important than knowledge about the product itself. Most wholesale trade sales workers get their jobs by working up the lad der, or by transferring into the firm if they have the appropriate back ground. Some employers hire high school graduates for nonselling jobs or as sales trainees. These beginners usually work in several kinds of nonselling jobs before being assigned to sales. They may start in the stockroom or shipping department to be come familiar with the thousands of items the wholesaler carries or in the bookkeeping department to learn about prices and recordkeeping. They are likely to work on “ inside” sales, writing telephone orders, before they actually observe and work with expe rienced sales workers on visits to cus tomers. Usually, it takes 2 years or longer to prepare trainees for outside selling. In very large wholesale firms, sales trainees participate in formal training programs that combine classroom in struction with short rotations in nonselling jobs. In most firms, howev er, trainees learn informally by ob serving experienced workers and try ing the different aspects of the work. As they become familiar with custom ers and procedures, they gradually take on the full responsibility of the job. Experienced sales workers also transfer from manufacturing and retail trade sales positions. Their experi ence with a particular product line gives them an advantage over the newcomers to the field because they don’t require as much on-the-job train ing. Sales workers sometimes can aug ment their on-the-job training with college courses relevant to wholesale distribution; courses in marketing and business administration are especially useful. Trade associations also spon sor training programs. Experienced sales workers with leadership and sales ability may ad vance to supervisor, sales manager, or other executive positions. Job Outlook The number of wholesale sales work ers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s as the volume and kinds of goods produced in the econ omy expand. Most businesses and in stitutions that require a wide variety of products for their own use and for eventual resale will continue to pur chase these products from wholesal er-distributors. Also, manufacturers are expected to rely more extensively on wholesalers and independent sales representatives, who sell manufactur ers’ products solely on a commission basis. As wholesalers expand their product lines and the number of sales districts, the demand for capable sales workers will rise. In addition to new positions created by increased demand, many openings each year will result as experienced sales workers transfer to other jobs, retire, or stop working for other rea sons. The number of replacements will be quite large because the occu pation is large and turnover is very high. Earnings Compensation plans differ among firms. One plan is salary plus a com mission based on sales; other types are straight commission or straight salary. Some include a bonus. Al though most wholesale trade sales workers have steady, year-round work, sales (and commissions) on products like air-conditioners fluctu ate through the year. To provide sales workers with a steady income, many companies pay them a “ draw” against annual commissions. Median weekly earnings of full-time wholesale trade sales workers were about $450 in 1984. The middle 50 percent earned between $320 and $650 a week; 10 percent earned less than $240; and 10 percent earned more than $850 a week. Related Occupations In addition to sales ability, wholesale trade sales workers often have a knowledge of hundreds of similar products. Some occupations requiring the same skills are buyers, salesservice promoters, manufacturing sales workers, field contact techni cians, and demonstrators. Sources of Additional Information Information on jobs in wholesale sell ing may be obtained directly from local wholesale houses or from asso ciations of wholesalers in many of the larger cities. Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical In 1984, there were about 19 million practices. High schools, community jobs in administrative support occupa and junior colleges, business schools, tions, including clerical. Workers in and home study schools teach these this group prepare and keep records; skills. Business education programs operate office machines; arrange typically include courses in typing, schedules and make reservations; col word processing, shorthand, clerklect, distribute, or account for money, typist skills, and office procedures. material, mail, or messages; or per Work-study programs provide stu form similar administrative duties. dents with experience in a clerical job Administrative support jobs can be while still in school. Whether or not they have had for found in virtually all industries. Employment of these workers is mal business training, beginning cler expected to grow more slowly than ical workers generally receive on-thethe average for all occupations job training. They learn how their through the mid-1990’s. In large part, employers keep records and become this is due to the spread of automated familiar with the kinds of business office equipment. From word proces forms used. Workers may learn to sors in business offices to optical char operate duplicating machines, calcu acter readers in post offices to com lators, word processors, and personal puterized reservation systems in air computers, or learn stock handling or ports, these new machines have raised inventory control procedures. workers’ productivity and have led to The rapid spread of office automa faster and more efficient services. tion has produced a demand for work While eliminating some jobs and cre ers who are able to cope with change ating others, this technological revo and adapt to new technologies. Secre lution—based on the computer micro taries and typists, for example, may chip—has altered the way many cler periodically attend classes to learn to ical workers perform their jobs. operate word processing equipment, Far-reaching changes in the office information storage systems, and oth environment are expected to continue er automated equipment. Opportunities for beginners to ad through the mid-1990’s. Employers prefer high school grad vance to other clerical occupations uates for clerical jobs. They look for are good. Junior typists, for example, people who understand what they may be promoted to senior typists as read, know basic spelling and gram their speed and accuracy improve. mar, and can use arithmetic. The abil Receptionists who learn typing and ity to type and do neat, accurate pa office procedures may become secre perwork is required for nearly all en taries. In large establishments, there try level positions; some employers may be opportunities to move into give applicants typing or clerical apti professional and managerial positions. tude tests. For jobs such as bank Many employers facilitate career ad clerk, bookkeeper, cashier, collection vancement by providing courses in worker, and statistical clerk, an abili skills needed for more demanding ty to work with numbers is particular jobs. As workers become more highly ly important. For bank teller, hotel skilled, they are assigned more diffi clerk, receptionist, and reservation cult tasks. Promotion to such jobs as and passenger agent jobs—jobs re administrative assistant, office manag quiring constant contact with custom er, or clerical supervisor generally de ers—employers seek persons who are pends on leadership ability, work pleasant, tactful, and outgoing. experience, and knowledge of the or Many employers prefer applicants ganization. who have some knowledge of office A small but growing number of cler ical workers belong to unions. The largest labor unions representing cler ical workers include the American Federation of State, County, and Mu nicipal Employees, the Service Em ployees International Union, the Com munications Workers of America, and the Teamsters, as well as several Fed eral Government employee unions. 9 to 5, the National Association of Working Women, is a membership organization that represents the inter ests of nonunionized clerical workers. Sources of Additional Information The “ Where to Go for More Informa tion’’ section at the beginning of the Handbook identifies directories of schools offering courses in secretarial skills, accounting, business, data processing, and travel and tourism. For the names of organizations that can provide information about spe cific occupations, see the discussions of individual clerical occupations that follow. Bank Tellers (D.O.T. 211.362 except -010; 216.362-018; and 219.462-010) Nature of the Work Most bank customers have contact with the teller, the individual who cashes checks and processes deposits or withdrawals. Many banks employ one or two “ all-purpose” tellers; larg er banks employ tellers in more spe cialized functions. One specialized teller, for example, sells savings bonds; another accepts payment for customers’ utility bills. A third re ceives deposits for Christmas club ac counts; and a fourth keeps records and performs the necessary paper work for customer loans. Others proc ess the proliferating variety of certifi cates of deposit and money market accounts. Still other tellers handle for eign currencies, sell travelers’ checks, 269 270/Occupational Outlook Handbook or compute interest on savings ac counts. Commercial tellers, the most com mon kind of teller, cash customers’ checks and handle deposits and with drawals from checking and savings accounts. Before cashing a check, the teller must see that the written and numerical amounts agree, verify the identity of the person to receive pay ment, and be certain that the account has sufficient funds to cover the check. The teller must carefully count out the cash to avoid errors. Often a customer withdraws money in the form of a cashier’s check, which the teller types up and verifies. When accepting a deposit, the teller checks the accuracy of the deposit slip and enters the total in a passbook or on a deposit receipt. Tellers may use ma chines to make change and total de posits. In most banks, tellers use com puter terminals to record deposits and withdrawals. In some banks, they write deposit receipts and passbook entries by hand. Tellers’ duties begin before and continue after banking hours. They begin the day by receiving and count ing an amount of working cash for their drawer; this amount is verified by a supervisor, usually the head tell er. Tellers use this cash for payments during the day and are responsible for its safe and accurate handling. After banking hours, tellers count cash on hand, list the currency-received tick ets on a settlement sheet, and balance the day’s accounts. They also sort checks and deposit slips. Paying and receiving tellers may supervise one clerk or more. Many tellers process the large number of transactions conducted by bank customers using the growing number of automatic teller machines (ATM’s). During certain periods when ATM’s are not available for custom ers’ use, tellers replenish cash with drawals, corroborate deposits, and update customers’ accounts. When not balancing and settling ATM’s, highly experienced tellers may occa sionally assume the duties of custom er service representatives, explaining the various types of accounts and fi nancial services offered by their banks. Working Conditions Most tellers work during the day, Monday through Friday. Some tellers work evenings or weekends. The job also offers ample opportunity to work part time and flexible hours. Continu al communication with customers, re petitive tasks, and prolonged standing within a fairly small area also charac terize the job. Many bank customers prefer the convenience of drive-up windows. Employment Bank tellers held about 493,000 jobs in 1984; about one-fifth worked part time. The following tabulation indi cates the distribution of wage and salary jobs by type of banking or credit institution. Banking................................. 377,000 Commercial and stock savings banks............... 346,000 Mutual savings banks....... 28,000 Establishments closely related to banks............ 2,000 Credit agencies other than banks................................. Savings and loan associations................ Personal credit institutions.................. Other credit agencies....... 116,000 95,000 21,000 1,000 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In hiring tellers, banks seek people who have good clerical skills and who are friendly and attentive. Most en trants transfer from other occupa tions; virtually all have at least a high school education. Maturity, neatness, tact, and courtesy are also important because customers deal with tellers far more frequently than with other bank employees. Although a teller works independently, his or her recordkeeping is closely supervised. One should enjoy working with num bers and feel comfortable handling large amounts of money. New tellers usually learn their du ties through on-the-job and formal training. They observe experienced workers for a few days before doing the work themselves. Training may last from a few days to 3 weeks or longer and, as experience is gained, includes instruction on equipment such as ATM’s or on-line video termi nals. Beginners usually start as com mercial tellers; in large banks which have a separate savings teller’s “ cage,” they may start as savings tellers. Often banks simultaneously train tellers for other clerical duties. Experienced tellers may advance to head teller or customer service repre sentative. Banks encourage this up ward mobility by providing access to education and other sources of addi tional training. Outstanding tellers who have had some college or special ized training offered by the banking industry may be promoted to a mana gerial position. (See the statement on Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/271 bank officers and managers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Tellers can prepare for better jobs by taking courses accredited by the American Institute of Banking (AIB), an educational affiliate of the Ameri can Bankers Association; the Bank Administration Institute (BAI); and the Institute of Financial Education, an educational affiliate of the United States League of Savings Institutions. These institutes have several hundred chapters in cities across the country and numerous study groups in small communities. Most banks use the fa cilities of these institutes, which assist local banks in conducting cooperative training programs or developing inde pendent training programs. Some banks have their own training pro grams which result in teller certifica tion—a sign of competence in this field. Experienced tellers qualify for certification by taking required cours es and passing examinations. Job Outlook The number of bank tellers is expect ed to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s because of the increas ing use of automatic teller machines and other electronic equipment. Nev ertheless, qualified applicants should have good prospects for both full-time and part-time employment, since this occupation provides a relatively large number of job openings. The overwhelming majority of job openings for tellers are expected to be created by replacement needs—char acteristic of occupations that general ly require limited formal education and offer relatively low pay. Most tellers who leave transfer to other occupations. Others stop working— primarily to assume household duties. Cyclical swings in the economy seem to have little immediate effect on bank activities. Consequently, tellers are generally immune to layoffs. Earnings In 1984, average annual earnings of full-time tellers were $10,800. The lowest 10 percent earned about $8,000, while the top 10 percent earned about $17,200. In general, a greater range of responsibilities results in a higher sal ary. However, experience, length of service, and, especially, the location and size of the bank are also impor tant. Related Occupations Tellers combine a knowledge of bank procedures with quickness and accu racy to process money, checks, and other financial items for customers. Other workers with similar duties in clude new accounts tellers, cashiers, toll collectors, post office clerks, auc tion clerks, and ticket sellers. Sources of Additional Information General information about banking occupations, training opportunities, and the banking industry itself is available from: American Bankers Association, 1120 Connect icut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Bank Administration Institute, 60 Gould Cen ter, Rolling Meadows, 111. 60008. National Association of Bank Women, Inc., National Office, 500 N. Michigan Ave., Chica go, 111. 60611. The Institute of Financial Education, 111 E. Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60601. Information on careers with the Federal Reserve System is available from: Board of Governors, The Federal Reserve Sys tem, Personnel Division, Washington, D.C. 20551, or from the personnel department of the Federal Reserve bank serving each geographic area. State bankers’ associations can fur nish specific information about job opportunities in their State. Or write directly to a particular bank to inquire about job openings. For the names and addresses of banks, savings, and related institutions, as well as the names of their principal officers, con sult one of the following directories. The American Bank Directory (Norcross, Ga., McFadden Business Publications). Polk’s World Bank Directory (Nashville, R.L. Polk & Co.). Rand McNally International Bankers Directory (Chicago, Rand McNally & Co.). The U.S. Savings and Loan Directory (Chica go, Rand McNally & Co.). Bookkeepers and Accounting Clerks (D.O.T. 209.687-010; 210.362, .367, .382 except -022 and -026; 214.362-018; 216.362 except -018 and -030, .367-010, .382 except -034, -042, -046, -050, -054, -062, and -066, .387, .482-010 and -026, and .587; 219.362-062 and -066, .387-018, .487, and .587; and 249.367-038) Nature of the Work Every business needs systematic and up-to-date records of accounts and business transactions. Bookkeepers and accounting clerks maintain these records in journals and ledgers or in the memory of a computer. They also prepare periodic financial statements showing all money received and paid out. The duties of bookkeepers and the “tools of the trade” vary with the size of the business. However, virtu ally all of these workers use calculat ing machines and many work with computers. In many small firms, a general book keeper handles all the bookkeeping. He or she analyzes and records all financial transactions, such as orders and cash sales. General bookkeepers also check money taken in against money paid out to be sure accounts balance, calculate the firm’s payroll, and make up employees’ paychecks. General bookkeepers also prepare and mail customers’ bills and answer telephone requests for information about orders and bills. In large businesses, several book keepers and accounting clerks work under the direction of a head book keeper or accountant. In these orga nizations, bookkeeping workers often specialize in certain types of work. Some, for example, prepare state ments of a company’s income from sales or its daily operating expenses. Some enter information on accounts receivable and accounts payable into a computer and review computer printouts for accuracy and complete ness. Others record business transac tions, including payroll deductions and bills paid and due, and compute interest, rental, and freight charges. They also may type vouchers, invoic es, and other financial records. Working Conditions For the most part, working conditions for bookkeepers and accounting clerks are the same as those for other office employees in the same company. Bookkeeping requires sitting for long periods and involves examining de tailed numerical information. Some persons may find this tiring. Workers who operate older bookkeeping ma chines may be exposed to high noise levels. Newer equipment is relatively quiet, however. Bookkeepers and ac counting clerks who spend a lot of time working on video display termi nals may encounter problems of eyestrain, musculoskeletal strain, and stress. 272/Occupational Outlook Handbook occupations through the mid-1990’s. Job prospects should be good, none theless, in view of the large number of openings that will occur because of the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or stop working. As in most other clerical occupations, there is considerable movement into and out of the labor force due to homemaking responsibil ities and relatively low wages. Since the occupation is exceptionally large, replacement needs produce numerous openings each year. The volume of business transac tions is expected to grow rapidly, with a corresponding increase in the need for financial and accounting records. However, the need for bookkeepers, who maintain these records, will not increase nearly as fast because of the increasing use of computers to record, store, and manipulate data. ranged by high schools and local bus Earnings inesses. Work experience, together Beginning accounting clerks in private with a firsthand knowledge of office firms averaged $11,704 a year in 1984. procedures, can help when students Salaries are higher for more complex look for jobs after graduation. jobs, up to an average of $20,244 a In a few States, bookkeepers and accounting clerks who work on tax year for top level accounting clerks. Median annual earnings of full-time returns must be licensed. State licens bookkeepers and accounting clerks ing agencies can provide information were about $13,500 in 1984; the mid on the requirements in your area. Bookkeepers need to be good at dle 50 percent earned between $11,200 working with numbers and concen and $17,700 a year. Ten percent trating on details. Small mistakes can earned less than $9,000 and 10 percent be very serious in this field, so book more than $23,200. Training, Other Qualifications, and In 1985, the Federal Government keepers need to be careful, accurate, Advancement High school graduates who have tak and orderly in their work. Because paid accounting clerks with 2 years pf en business arithmetic, bookkeeping, they often work with others, book experience or postsecondary educa and principles of accounting meet the keepers should be cooperative and tion a starting salary of $12,862 a year. minimum requirements for most book able to work as part of a team. According to a survey by the Inter Beginning bookkeepers record rou national Personnel Management As keeping jobs. Increasingly, employers prefer applicants who have completed tine transactions such as accounts re sociation, in 1984 the average begin accounting programs at the communi ceivable or accounts payable. As they ning salary for accounting clerks in ty or junior college level or those who gain experience, they advance to more municipal, State, and Federal Gov have attended business school. The responsible assignments, such as pre ernment was $12,636 a year; the aver ability to use bookkeeping machines paring income statements, reconciling age salary for experienced workers and computers is an asset. A knowl accounts, and reviewing computer was $16,248. An Administrative Man printouts. edge of typing also is useful. agement Society survey showed entry Some bookkeepers are promoted to level accounting clerks averaged Training for this occupation is wide ly available. Bookkeeping is taught in supervisory jobs. Others who enroll in high schools, community and junior college accounting programs may ad $13,832 a year in 1985, while account colleges, and business schools and vance to jobs as accountants. Book ing clerks with more responsibility colleges. Business education pro keeping experience provides a good averaged $16,484. Experienced book grams typically include courses in background for college courses in ac keepers in the private sector earned bookkeeping and accounting, busi counting but normally cannot be cred average annual salaries of $17,264 in 1985, according to a survey by the ness arithmetic, office practices, and ited towards a degree in accounting. Executive Compensation Service. , principles of data processing and com Accounting clerks’ salaries vary by puter operation for office workers. Job Outlook Some programs give business stu Employment of bookkeepers and ac industry. They tend to be highest in dents an opportunity to learn on the counting clerks is expected to grow public utilities and mining and lowest job through work-study programs ar more slowly than the average for all in finance, insurance, and real estate. Employment Bookkeepers and accounting clerks held about 1,973,000 jobs in 1984. Jobs for bookkeepers are found throughout the economy—in business firms mostly, but also in schools, hos pitals, nonprofit organizations, and government agencies. Approximately 1 bookkeeper in 3 works for a retail or wholesale firm. About a quarter of all bookkeepers and accounting clerks work part time. Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/273 Related Occupations Workers in a number of other jobs also must be good at working with figures. Among such workers are bank tellers, collection workers, insurance clerks, and statistical clerks. Sources of Additional Information A brochure describing a career as a bookkeeper or accounting clerk is available upon request from: A ssociation of Independent Colleges and Schools, 1 Dupont Circle NW., Suite 350, Washington, D.C. 20036. State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for bookkeeping workers. Computer and Peripheral Equipment Operators (D.O.T. 208.685-030; 213.362, .382, .582, .682, and .685) _______________ Nature of the Work Since their invention in the 1940’s, computers have become steadily more important in our society. At first used only for military and scientific re search, today computers are essential to the operation of stores, banks, col leges and universities, government agencies, hospitals, factories, and many other organizations. Like all machines, the usefulness of comput ers is dependent upon the skill of the people who run them. The duties of computer and periph eral equipment operators vary with the size of the installation, the type of equipment used, and the policies of the employer. In organizations with small computer systems, for example, computer operators may run both the computer and all the peripheral equip ment such as printers, disk drives, and tape readers. In large computer installations, computer operators spe cialize in console operation while pe ripheral equipment operators run the related devices. Generally, the duties of computer operators and peripheral equipment operators involve the fol lowing tasks. Working from operating instruc tions prepared by programmers or op erations managers, computer opera tors set controls on the computer and on peripheral devices required to run a particular job. Computer operators or, in large installations, peripheral equipment operators load the equip ment with tapes, disks, and paper as needed. While the computer is run ning—which may be 24 hours a day for large computers—computer oper ators monitor the computer console and respond to operating and comput er messages. If an error message oc curs, for example, operators must lo cate the problem and solve it or ter minate the program. Peripheral equipment operators may have to prepare printouts and other output for distribution to com puter users. Operators also maintain log books listing events such as ma chine malfunctions that occurred dur ing their shift. Computer operators also may supervise and train periph eral equipment operators and comput er operator trainees. They also may help programmers and systems ana lysts test and debug new programs. (Detailed descriptions of these occu pations are presented elsewhere in the Handbook .) Working Conditions Computer operating personnel work in well-lighted, well-ventilated, and generally comfortable rooms. When the equipment is operating, however, the computer room can be noisy. Computer and peripheral equipment operators may be required to work evening or night shifts and weekends because many organizations use their computers 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Employment In 1984, computer operators and pe ripheral equipment operators held 241,000 and 70,000 jobs, respectively. Although some jobs for computer and peripheral equipment operators are found in almost every industry, most are in government agencies, data proc essing service firms, banks, insurance firms, colleges and universities, and hospitals. These organizations have data processing needs that require large computer installations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In many firms, clerical workers such as secretaries, typists, bookkeeping clerks, and computer tape librarians may be transferred to jobs as periph eral equipment or computer operators and trained on the job. Employers who recruit from outside their firms look for workers who already have experience or training in operating the brand and type of equipment they use. Many high schools, public and private vocational schools, business schools, and community colleges offer training in computer operations. The military services also offer training. Employers usually require a high school education, and many prefer computer operators with some trade school or junior college training in data processing. Employers who se lect operators from within their orga- Preparing output for distribution is the responsibility of a peripheral equipment operator. 274/Occupational Outlook Handbook nization may pay for training at such schools. Many employers test appli cants to determine their aptitude for computer work, particularly their abil ity to reason logically. Workers usually receive some onthe-job training to become acquainted with their employer’s equipment and routines. The length of training varies with the job and the experience of the worker. New peripheral equipment operators are expected to learn their jobs in a few weeks. New computer operators, however, may require sever al months of training because they must become sufficiently familiar with the computer equipment to handle all prob lems. Operators with prior experience or training are expected to learn their employer’s system within a few weeks. Because computer technology changes often, operators must be adaptable and willing to learn. Com puter and peripheral equipment oper ators must be able to communicate well in order to work effectively with programmers and each other. Com puter operators also must be able to work independently because they may have little or no supervision on evening, night, or weekend shifts. A few computer operators may ad vance to supervisory jobs. Peripheral equipment operators may become computer operators. Through on-thejob experience and additional train ing, some computer and peripheral equipment operators advance to jobs as programmers. Job Outlook Employment of computer and periph eral equipment operators is expected to rise much faster than the average for all occupations through the mid1990’s. Advances in technology have re duced both the size and the cost of computer equipment while at the same time increasing their capacity for data storage and processing. These im provements in technology have fueled an expansion in the use of computers in such areas as factory and office automation, telecommunications, medicine, and education. As comput er usage grows, so will the need for computer operators and peripheral equipment operators. Because com puter and peripheral equipment oper ators work mainly with large comput er systems—the part of the overall computer market that has slowed down—employment of operators is not expected to rise as rapidly as in previous years. In addition to jobs resulting from growth in demand for operators, many openings will arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Earnings In 1984, median weekly earnings of full-time computer operators were $300. The middle 50 percent earned between $230 and $415. The lowest 10 percent of computer operators earned $190 or less a week, and the top 10 percent earned more than $540. Weekly earnings of beginning com puter operators averaged about $340 in 1984. Experienced workers aver aged about $345, and lead operators about $415. Peripheral equipment op erators earned about $325 a week. In the Federal Government, computer operators without work experience started at about $245 a week in 1985. Computer operators and peripheral equipment operators had higher earn ings in the North and West than in the South. Operators employed in manu facturing, transportation and public utilities, and wholesale trade had high er earnings than those employed in retail trade, banking, insurance, and services. Related Occupations Other occupations involving work with computers include systems ana lysts, programmers, and computer service technicians. Other occupa tions in which workers operate elec tronic office equipment include data entry keyers, secretaries, typists, and printing typesetters and compositors. must be updated almost continuously. Each time an individual writes a check, for example, the amount must be entered into the bank’s computer, so the correct charge can be made to his or her account. Getting data from checks, bills, invoices, and other doc uments into the computer system is the work of data entry keyers. The main function of the data entry keyer is to type data from documents quickly and accurately. This is done with a variety of typewriter-like equip ment. Many keyers use a machine that converts the information they type to magnetic impulses on tapes or disks. The information is then read into the computer from the tape or disk. Some keyers operate on-line ter minals of the main computer system that transmit and receive data. Al though brands and models of comput er terminals and data entry equipment differ somewhat, their operation and keyboards are similar. Some keyers working from termi nals use data from the computer to produce business, scientific, and tech nical reports. In some offices, keyers also operate computer peripheral equipment such as printers and tape readers, act as tape librarians, and perform other clerical duties. Working Conditions Data entry keyers usually work in offices that are clean, well lighted, and generally comfortable. However, they must sit for long periods and may be subjected to high noise levels. Keyers often work with video display termi nals and may experience stress and eyestrain as a result. Data entry lends itself to flexible working arrange ments, and many data entry keyers have part-time or temporary jobs. Sources of Additional Information People who want further information about work opportunities in computer operations should contact firms that use computers such as banks, manu facturing and insurance firms, colleg Employment es and universities, and data process Data entry keyers held about 324,000 ing service organizations. The local jobs in 1984. Although jobs for data office of the State employment service entry keyers are found in almost ev is another source of information about ery industry, the largest number are in employment and training opportunities. data processing service firms, govern ment agencies, banks, insurance firms, colleges and universities, hos pitals, and department stores. These Data Entry Keyers organizations use computers to keep (D.O.T. 203.582-022, -026, -030, -054, and -070) track of accounts, billings, invento ries, and other items for which large Nature of the Work Vast amounts of data stored and proc amounts of data must be frequently essed by modern computer systems updated. Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/275 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers usually require a high school education and the ability to key data at a certain speed. Appli cants often are tested for speed and accuracy. Some employers prefer ap plicants with experience or training in the operation of data entry equip ment. In some firms, other clerical workers such as tabulating and book keeping machine operators may be transferred to jobs as data entry key ers. Training in the use of data entry and similar keyboard equipment is available in high schools and private business schools. Data entry keyers should be able to work under close supervision. They also must feel comfortable doing re petitive work. Advancement opportunities for data entry keyers are limited. However, promotion to a supervisory position is possible after several years on the job. With additional training, often includ ing community or junior college study, a few data entry keyers advance to jobs as computer or peripheral equip ment operators. Job Outlook Little change is expected in employ ment of dgta entry operators through the mid-1990’s. Despite the lack of employment growth, many openings, including part-time openings, will oc cur each year due to the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The amount of data that must be entered into computer systems is tre mendous and growing. Improvements to data processing technology and systems enable organizations to han dle the growing volume of data with fewer data entry keyers. The use of on-line processing that enables de partments within an organization to enter data from remote terminals is an example of such an improvement. An other is the use of recognition technol ogies such as the bar code scanners now used in many grocery stores. As improvements to communications systems allow data to be transmitted great distances cheaply and quickly, many firms may choose to locate data entry facilities out of the country in areas where wage rates are lower. If this occurs, the demand for data entry keyers could decline sharply. Quick and accurate typing skills are essential for data entry keyers. Earnings In 1984, median weekly earnings of full-time data entry keyers were $255. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $220 and $330. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $185, while the top 10 percent earned more than $415 weekly. Average weekly earnings of data entry keyers in private industry ranged from $250 to $300 in 1984. Keyers in the transportation and utilities indus tries and manufacturing had higher average earnings than those in trade and the financial and service indus tries. Keyers in the West and Midwest had higher average earnings than those in the Northeast and South. In the Federal Government, data entry key ers without work experience started at about $200 a week in 1985. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers key in information on electronic office equipment include secretaries, typ ists, receptionists, and typesetters and compositors. Sources of Additional Information People who want further information about job opportunities in data entry should contact firms that use comput ers such as banks, manufacturing and insurance firms, colleges and univer sities, and data processing service or ganizations. The local office of the State employment service is another source of information about employ ment and training opportunities. Mail Carriers and Postal Clerks_______ (D.O.T. 209.687-014; 230.363-010, .367-010; 239.367018; and 243.367-014) Nature of the Work The United States Postal Service em ploys approximately 700,000 workers to move the Nation’s mail. About four-fifths of these are mail carriers or postal clerks. Most mail carriers travel planned routes delivering and collecting mail. Carriers start work at the post office early in the morning, where they spend a few hours arranging their mail for delivery and taking care of other details. A carrier may cover the route on foot, by vehicle, or a combination of both. On foot, carriers carry a heavy load of mail in a satchel or push it in a cart. In some areas, they use a car or small truck. Residential carriers cover their routes only once a day, but some carriers assigned to a business district may make two trips a day. Deliveries are made house-to-house, to roadside mailboxes, and to large buildings, such as offices or apartments, which generally have all the mailboxes on the first floor. Besides delivering and collecting mail, carriers collect money for post age-due and c.o.d. (cash on delivery) fees and obtain signed receipts for registered, certified, and insured mail. If a customer is not home, the carrier 276/Occupational Outlook Handbook leaves a notice that tells where special fices or at large central mail process ing facilities. Those at local post of mail is being held. After completing their routes, carri fices sort local mail for delivery to ers return to the post office with mail individual customers and provide re gathered from street collection boxes, tail services. Incoming mail collected homes, and businesses. They turn in from local collection boxes is for the mail receipts and money collected warded to the nearest mail processing during the day and may separate let center. There, clerks sort and prepare ters and parcels for further processing the mail for delivery. About 514 mail processing centers by clerks. Many city carriers have more spe throughout the country service post cialized duties. Some deliver only par offices in surrounding areas. There, cel post while others collect mail from mailhandlers unload the sacks of in street boxes and receiving boxes in coming mail and separate it into office buildings. In contrast, rural car groups of letters, parcel post, maga riers provide a wide variety of postal zines, and newspapers. They feed let services. In addition to delivering and ters through stamp-canceling ma picking up mail, they sell stamps and chines, then take the mail to other money orders and accept parcels, let workrooms to be sorted by postal ters, and items to be registered, certi clerks according to destination. There, clerks operating electronic letter sort fied, or insured. All carriers answer customers’ ing machines push keys correspond questions about postal regulations and ing to the ZIP code of the local post services and provide change-of- office to which each letter will be address cards and other postal forms delivered; the machine drops letters into proper slots. Other clerks sort when requested. Most people are familiar with the odd-sized letters, magazines, and post office clerk behind the counter newspapers by hand. Finally, the mail who sells stamps and accepts parcel is sent to local post offices for further post. However, most postal clerks are sorting according to delivery route. In addition to selling stamps and distribution clerks who sort incoming and outgoing mail in workrooms out money orders, clerks at post office windows weigh packages to deter of public view. Postal clerks work at local post of mine postage and check to see if their Some postal clerks deal with the public directly. condition is satisfactory for mailing. Clerks also register, certify, and in sure mail and answer questions about postage rates, mailing restrictions, and other postal matters. Occasional ly, they may help a customer file a claim for a damaged package. Working Conditions Most carriers begin work early in the morning, in some cases as early as 4 a.m. if they have routes in the busi ness district. Carriers spend most of their time outdoors, and deliver mail in all kinds of weather. Even those who drive often must walk when mak ing deliveries and must lift heavy sacks of parcel post when loading their vehicles. A carrier’s schedule has its advan tages: Carriers who begin work early in the morning are through by early afternoon, and they spend most of the day on their own, relatively free from direct supervision. Working conditions of clerks vary according to work assignments and the type of laborsaving machinery available. In small post offices, clerks may use a handtruck to move heavy mail sacks from one part of the build ing to another and sort mail by hand. In large post offices and mail process ing centers, chutes and conveyors move the mail, and much of the sort ing is done with machines. When not operating a letter sorting machine, clerks usually are on their feet, reach ing for sacks and trays of mail and placing packages and bundles into sacks and trays. Distribution clerks may become bored with the routine of sorting mail unless they try to improve their speed and accuracy. Many work at night or on weekends because most large post offices process mail around the clock, and the largest volume of mail is sort ed during the evening and night shifts. A window clerk, on the other hand, has a greater variety of duties, fre quent contact with the public, and a generally less strenuous job, although they are held accountable for the as signed stamp stock and postal funds. Window clerks rarely have to work at night. Employment The U.S. Postal Service employed about 281,000 mail carriers and 317,000 postal clerks and mailhand lers in 1984. Three-quarters of them worked full time. Although most mail Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/277 carriers worked in cities and suburban communities, about 71,000 were rural carriers. Most postal clerks work at mail processing centers, although some sort mail and provide window service at local post offices through out the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Mail carriers and postal clerks must be U.S. citizens or have been granted permanent resident-alien status in the United States. They must be at least 18 years old (or 16, if they have a high school diploma). They must qualify on a written examination that mea sures speed and accuracy at checking names and numbers and ability to memorize mail distribution proce dures. Applicants must pass a physi cal examination and may be asked to show that they can lift and handle mail sacks weighing up to 70 pounds. Ap plicants for mail carrier positions must have a driver’s license, a good driving record, and pass a road test. Those applying for jobs as postal clerks operating an electronic sorting machine must pass a special examina tion which includes a machine apti tude test. Applicants should apply at the post office or mail processing center where they wish to work to determine when an exam will be given. Applicants’ names are listed in order of their ex amination scores. Five points are add ed to the score of an honorably dis charged veteran, and 10 points to the score of a veteran wounded in combat or disabled. When a vacancy occurs, the appointing officer chooses 1 of the top 3 applicants; the rest of the names remain on the list to be considered for future openings until their eligibility expires, usually 2 years from the ex amination date. Relatively few people under the age of 25 are hired as career mail carriers or postal clerks, a result of keen com petition for these jobs and the custom ary waiting period of 1-2 years or more after passing the examination. It is not surprising, therefore, that most entrants transfer from other occupa tions. Mail carriers and postal clerks are classified as casual, part-time flexible, part-time regular, or full time. Casual workers are not career employees, but are hired to help process and deliver mail during peak mailing or vacation periods of the year. Part time flexible workers are career em ployees who do not have a regular work schedule or weekly guarantee of hours; they replace absent workers and help with extra work as the need arises. Part-time regulars have a set work schedule of less than 8 hours a day. Full-time postal employees work a 40-hour week over a 5-day period. New mail carriers are trained on the job. They may begin as part-time flex ible city carriers and become regular or full-time carriers in order of senior ity as vacancies occur. Carriers can look forward to obtaining preferred routes as their seniority increases, or higher level jobs such as carrier tech nician, or promotion to supervisory positions. New postal clerks also are trained on the job. Most clerks begin with simple tasks to learn regional group ings of States, cities, and ZIP codes. To help clerks learn these groups, many post offices offer classroom in struction. A good memory, good coordina tion, and the ability to read rapidly and accurately are important. Distri bution clerks work closely with other clerks, frequently under the tension and strain of meeting dispatch trans portation deadlines. Window clerks must be courteous and tactful when dealing with the public, especially when answering questions or receiv ing complaints. Most clerks begin as part-time flex ible employees and become full-time workers in order of seniority as va cancies occur or to comply with staff ing requirements. Full-time clerks may bid for preferred assignments such as the day shift, a window job, or a higher level nonsupervisory position as expediter or window service tech nician. Clerks also may advance to supervisory positions. Job Outlook In recent years, the number of appli cants for mail carrier and postal clerk positions has greatly exceeded the number of openings. This situation is expected to continue, and persons seeking jobs in the Postal Service should anticipate keen competition. Conflicting factors will influence the employment of mail carriers through the mid-1990’s. On the one hand, de spite competition from alternative de livery systems and new forms of elec tronic communication, the volume of mail handled by the Postal Service is expected to continue to grow, third class mail from businesses to house holds in particular. A growing popula tion—and the even more rapidly grow ing number of households—will stim ulate demand for mail deliveries. On the other hand, with the full imple mentation of the “ ZIP + 4” routing program, mail carriers will spend less time sorting their mail before deliver ing it. In addition, the Postal Service is moving towards more centralized mail delivery, such as utilizing more cluster boxes, to cut down on the number of door-to-door deliveries. These trends are expected to have an offsetting effect, and employment of mail carriers is expected to remain stable. Employment of postal clerks is ex pected to decline through the mid1990’s. In spite of the anticipated in crease in the total volume of mail, automation will continue to raise post al clerks’ productivity, and fewer will be needed. Postal clerks who sort the mail will be affected most. Automa tion in the Postal Service encompass es such things as the further imple mentation of computer forwarding, presorting programs, and the “ZIP + 4’’ routing program, as well as the installation of optical character read ers, bar code sorters, and flat-sorting machines that mechanically process large envelopes, magazines, and circulars. These and other technolog ical advances have already eliminated thousands of postal jobs. Little change is expected in the number of postal clerks who work at post office win dows, although their productivity should increase as more electronic scales and computerized terminals are installed for their use. In addition, the proliferation of self-service stamp ma chines may tend to hold down the number of customers normally served by postal clerks. Even though employment is not ex pected to increase, some jobs will be available because of the need to re place mail carriers and postal clerks who retire or stop working for other reasons. The factors that make entry to these occupations highly competi tive—attractive salaries, a good pen sion plan, steady work, and modest educational requirements—contribute to a high degree of job attachment, so that replacement needs produce fewer job openings than in most other occu pations. In contrast to the typical pat tern, postal workers generally remain 278/Occupational Outlook Handbook in their jobs until they retire; relative ly few transfer to other occupations. Although the volume of mail to be processed and delivered rises and falls with the level of business activity, as well as with the season of the year, full-time mail carriers and postal clerks have, to date, never been laid off. When mail volume is high, full time carriers and clerks work over time, part-time carriers and clerks work additional hours, and casual car riers and clerks may be hired. When mail volume is low, overtime is cur tailed, part-timers work fewer hours, and casual workers are discharged. The projected long-term employment decline of postal clerks probably will not cause layoffs of permanent work ers, but will be achieved by elimina tion of some positions vacated by workers who leave voluntarily, as was the case during the 1970’s. Earnings In early 1985, experienced, full-time, city delivery mail carriers earned an average salary of $24,528 a year, about one and one-half times the av erage earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. For full-time carriers and postal clerks, base pay for beginners was $18,532 a year, rising to a maxi mum of $25,117 after 10 1/2 years. A 10-percent supplement is paid for hours worked between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m. Carriers and postal clerks work ing part-time flexible schedules began at $9.20 an hour in early 1985, with periodic increases up to $12.48 an hour after 10 1/2 years. Rural delivery carriers had average base salaries of $24,712 in early 1985. Their earnings are determined through an evaluation of the amount of work required to service their routes. Car riers with heavier workloads generally earned more than those with lighter workloads. Rural carriers also re ceived a maintenance allowance when required to use their own vehicles. Most mail carriers and postal clerks belong to 1 of the 4 unions organizing postal workers: American Postal Workers Union, National Association of Letter Carriers, National Post Of fice Mail Handlers, and National Ru ral Letter Carriers Association. work and qualifications are closely related. Other occupations with duties related to those of mail carrier include messengers, merchandise deliverers, and delivery-route truckdrivers. Oth er occupations whose duties are relat ed to those of postal clerk include mail clerks, file clerks, routing clerks, sort ers, medical record clerks, clerk-ty pists, cashiers, data entry operators, and ticket sellers. Sources of Additional Information Local post offices and State employ ment service offices can supply details about entrance examinations and spe cific employment opportunities for mail carriers and postal clerks. Receptionists and Information Clerks (D.O.T. 203.362-014; 205.367-038; 237.267-010, .367010, -018, -022, -026, -038, -042, -046, and -050; 238.367-022 and -034; and 249.262-010 and .367-082) Nature of the Work All organizations want to make a good first impression on the public. This is an important part of the job of the receptionist or information clerk, who generally is the first person a caller sees or speaks to. Receptionists and information clerks greet customers and other vis itors, determine their needs, and refer callers to the person who can help them. They also answer questions from the public. Their day-to-day du ties vary a great deal, depending on where they work. Those in hospitals and doctors’ offices, for example, may obtain personal and financial informa tion and then direct patients to the proper waiting rooms. In beauty shops, they arrange appointments and may show customers to the operator’s booth. In factories or large business firms, they provide identification cards and arrange for escorts to take callers to the proper office. Those working for bus and train companies respond to inquiries about departures, arriv als, stops, and the like. Many receptionists and information clerks keep records of callers, the times at which they called, and the persons to whom they were referred. When they are not busy with callers, Related Occupations Mail carriers, mailhandlers, and post they may perform clerical duties, such al clerks play an important role in as typing or filing. Some open and sort Digitized formoving the Nation’s mail, and their FRASER mail and collect and distribute mes sages. Still others prepare travel vouchers and do simple bookkeeping. Often receptionists, particularly those in large cities, have a security function—seeing who belongs in a given place and who does not. They may be expected to monitor the atten dance of other employees and report this to management. Increasingly, receptionists and in formation clerks use automated office equipment such as word processors or personal computers in the course of their work. While this equipment al lows them to handle more messages, for example, it does not alter the basic content of their job—human contact and interaction. That is something that even the most sophisticated ma chine cannot replace. Working Conditions Because receptionists and informa tion clerks greet customers and visi tors, they usually work in areas that are carefully designed and furnished to make a good impression. Working conditions usually are pleasant; of fices are clean, well lighted, and rela tively quiet. Although most have regular hours, receptionists and information clerks in hospitals and some professional of fices may work weekends or in the evenings. About a third of all recep tionists work part time. Employment Receptionists and information clerks held about 458,000 jobs in 1984. Near ly half of all jobs are located in healthrelated facilities of various kinds: Doctors’ and dentists’ offices, hospi tals, nursing homes, urgent care cen- Receptionists must be attentive. Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/279 ters, surgicenters, clinics, and so jobs or stop working altogether. As in forth. Factories, wholesale and retail the past, replacement needs will cre stores, real estate offices, and firms ate an exceptionally large number of providing business and personal serv job openings, for the occupation is ices also employ large numbers of large and turnover is higher than av erage. Many opportunities for partreceptionists and information clerks. time work will be available. Employment of receptionists and Training, Other Qualifications, and information clerks is expected to grow Advancement Many receptionist and information more rapidly than employment of clerk jobs are entry level and do not clerical workers in general. This is require office or business experience. largely because so many receptionists The occupation accordingly attracts and information clerks work for firms people outside the labor force, includ providing business and professional ing homemakers and recent high services—sectors of the economy that school and college graduates. Em are expected to continue to show ployers usually require a high school strong growth—particularly doctors’ diploma, and some require typing and and dentists’ offices, law firms, and consulting firms. In addition, more other general office skills. Personal characteristics are very and more firms recognize the impor important in this occupation. Recep tance of these workers in promoting tionists and information clerks should good public relations. Because the like meeting new people and have a work of receptionists and information desire to be helpful and informative. clerks is of a person-to-person nature, A neat appearance, a pleasant voice, it is unlikely to be affected by office and an even disposition also are im automation. In addition, because es portant. Because receptionists and in tablishments need their services even formation clerks do not work under in hard economic times, receptionists close supervision, common sense and and information clerks usually are not a thorough understanding of how the subject to layoffs during recessions. Since many receptionists and infor business is organized help them han mation clerks also perform secretarial dle various situations that arise. Promotion opportunities for these duties, persons with good typing, workers are limited, especially in stenographic, and other skills should small offices. In large workplaces, have the best job prospects. however, a receptionist or informa tion clerk who has clerical skills may Earnings advance to a better paying job as a Receptionists in the private sector av secretary, administrative assistant, or eraged $13,780 a year in 1985, accord bookkeeper. ing to a survey by the Executive Com English, typing, shorthand, busi pensation Service. In 1985, the Feder ness arithmetic, basic accounting and al G overnm ent paid beginning bookkeeping, office procedures, and information receptionists with a high other useful subjects for receptionists school diploma or 6 months of work and information clerks are taught in experience $10,501 a year. Average high schools throughout the country. salaries for information receptionists College or business school training employed by the Federal Government also can be helpful in advancing to were about $13,800 a year in 1984. better paying office jobs. Many com Median annual earnings of full-time panies have their own training pro receptionists were about $11,700 in grams so that the skills needed for 1984; the middle 50 percent earned advancement can be learned on the between $9,900 and $14,600 a year. job. Ten percent earned less than $8,200 and 10 percent more than $17,900. Job Outlook Employment of receptionists and in formation clerks is expected to grow Related Occupations about as fast as the average for all A number of other workers deal with occupations through the mid-1990’s. the public, receive and provide infor Although many openings will occur as mation, or direct people to others who businesses expand, most jobs for re can assist them. Among these are cus ceptionists and information clerks will tomer-service representatives, dis result from the need to replace expe patchers, hotel clerks, reservation rienced workers who transfer to other agents, and telephone operators. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about earnings, hours, and employment opportunities in this and other clerical jobs. Reservation and Transportation Ticket Agents and Travel Clerks (D.O.T. 214.362-030; 238.167-010 and -014, .362-014, .367 except -022, and 248.382-010) Nature of the Work The manner in which a company’s employees deal with the public, and the quality of the service they pro vide, often make the difference be tween a satisfied customer and a dis satisfied one. In transportation com panies, reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks provide this important personal contact. Reservation and transportation tick et agents and travel clerks are em ployed by airline, railroad, bus, and steamship companies, automobile clubs, hotels, government agencies, and business firms to facilitate passen ger travel in a variety of ways. They help passengers plan their trips by answering questions and offering sug gestions on travel arrangements such as routes, time schedules, rates, and types of accommodation. They make and confirm reservations, calculate expenses, and write and sell tickets. When passengers are about to embark on their trips, these agents and clerks check their baggage, direct them to the point of departure, and help them to board. Airlines employ reservation agents, gate agents, and ticketing clerks. Air line reservation agents work in large central offices answering customer telephone inquiries and booking reser vations. Each agent has access to a computer terminal and, by typing in structions on the keyboard, can quick ly obtain the necessary information and make the reservations. Agents also can change or cancel reservations at the customer’s request, simply by modifying the record on the comput er. Airline ticketing clerks compile and record information to assemble airline tickets which then are sent to passengers. Airline gate agents work in airports and assist passengers to 280/Occupational Outlook Handbook board the correct airplane. Their du ties include checking flight tickets, directing passengers to the right boarding area, allowing passengers to board the airplane, and assisting eld erly, disabled, or young passengers to board or depart from the airplane. Airlines, as well as railroad, bus, and steamship companies, also em ploy ticket agents (sometimes referred to by other titles, such as passenger agent, passenger-booking clerk, reser vation clerk, ticket clerk, and ticket seller). In addition to selling tickets, these workers answer inquiries, plan routes, ensure passenger seating, check baggage, and sell travel insur ance. Railroads employ reservation clerks to handle customers’ requests for pas senger space on trains. They assign space after consulting the chart dia gram of each car, and then make the proper arrangements with other com pany employees to ensure that pas sengers can complete their trips smoothly. Passenger rate clerks work for bus companies. They arrange charter trips by providing fares to customers, plan ning travel routes, computing rates, and keeping customers informed of appropriate details. They may also arrange travel accommodations for tourists. Automobile clubs have travel clerks, often called travel counselors, who plan trips for club members. Us ing a road map, they show the best route from the point of origin to the destination, as well as the return. They indicate the points of interest, restaurants, hotels, or other housing accommodations along the route and explain what emergency repair serv ices are available during the trip. They may make reservations for club mem bers and calculate expenses and mile age. Travel clerks also work in other settings, such as hotels and motels, business firms, and government agen cies. When guests or employees are planning trips, travel clerks assist them by providing the appropriate lit erature and information, answering questions, and offering suggestions. They may make reservations, pick up and deliver tickets, arrange for visas, and make any other arrangements necessary for a safe and productive trip. Working Conditions Because the transportation industry operates at all hours, reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks may have irregular schedules. Agents and clerks with the least se niority often work nights and week ends. Reservation agents in central offices making reservations by tele phone generally sit while on duty. Ticket agents in transportation termi nals dealing face-to-face with passen gers, however, usually stand most of the time. In contrast to most other clerical occupations, there is little part-time work in these jobs. During holidays and other busy pe riods, agents and clerks may find the work hectic due to the large number of passengers who must be accommo dated rapidly. When operations are interrupted, when weather conditions or strikes lead to delays or cancella tion of airplane flights, for example, agents and clerks serve as buffers be tween the companies and their cus tomers. Trying to pacify irate passen gers under these conditions can be very difficult. Employment Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks held about 109,000 jobs in 1984. Airlines provid ed 3 out of 4 jobs. The rest were provided by automobile clubs (about 6.000) , railroad companies (nearly 5.000) , bus companies (almost 4,000), and water transportation companies (approximately 1,000). Most agents and clerks worked in downtown ticket and reservation offices and at large metropolitan transportation terminals where most passenger business origi nates. Some were employed in small er communities served by transporta tion companies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Hiring requirements vary from com pany to company within the transpor tation industry. High school gradua tion generally is required and often some college is preferred. In fact, compared to other clerical occupa tions, a higher-than-average percent age of persons entering these occupa tions have attended college. While the airline industry has traditionally drawn jobseekers who have had some college education, passenger service jobs throughout the transportation in dustry are being sought more often by college graduates as competition clos es off other job opportunities. Previous experience dealing with the public, prior employment in the transportation industry, or both, may pave the way to a passenger service job. The majority of openings are filled by persons in their twenties or thirties, many of whom transfer from other occupations, although there are no age restrictions. Because reserva tion and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks must deal directly Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/281 with the public, a good appearance and a pleasant personality are impor tant, as are problemsolving ability and good interpersonal skills. A good speaking voice is essential because these employees frequently use the telephone or public address system. Courses useful to persons wanting to enter these occupations include basic math and English, geography, U.S. history, and public speaking. Typing ability often is needed and experience with word processing equipment and computers usually is useful. Orientation and training for new reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks vary with the company. In some cases, formal in struction is given, whereas in other cases, all the training is given on the job. In airlines, for example, new res ervation agents receive about a month of classroom instruction. They are taught company policy and govern ment regulations that cover ticketing procedures and other matters related to the airline. They learn to read schedules, calculate fares, and plan passenger itineraries. They also are taught to use the computer to obtain information on schedules and seat availability, and to reserve space for passengers. They are tested daily and homework usually is assigned. To maximize their productivity, reserva tion agents are expected to minimize the time spent on each call without, of course, alienating customers. It takes practice to cut off garrulous callers without offending them. Thus, learn ing how to carry on conversations in an organized, yet pleasing manner is an important part of their training. After completing classroom instruc tion, new agents work under supervi sors or experienced agents for several weeks. On the other hand, automobile clubs train their travel clerks on the job, without formal classes. Advancement opportunities are lim ited. Some reservation and transpor tation ticket agents and travel clerks are promoted to supervisory posi tions, and a small number eventually become field sales agents or city and district sales managers. In unionized establishments, entry level positions may be the only ones open to individ uals outside the firm; higher level po sitions are generally filled through promotion from the ranks of company employees. Job Outlook Employment of reservation and trans portation ticket agents and travel clerks is expected to grow more slow ly than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. A growing and more travel-oriented population will increase the demand for transpor tation services. However, automa tion—in particular, computerization— and other productivity improvements by transportation companies will con strain the growth in employment of reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks. Most job openings will arise as ex perienced agents and clerks transfer to other jobs or leave the labor force. Applicants are likely to encounter considerable competition for open ings, for the supply of qualified appli cants far outstrips demand. For one thing, many people satisfy the entry requirements. Moreover, airline jobs, in particular, attract many applicants because of the travel benefits for al most all the employees and the glam our associated with the industry. Employment of reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. Some agents and clerks are likely to be laid off or demoted during recessions, when demand for passenger travel declines and few new agents and clerks are hired. Earnings According to a Bureau of Labor Sta tistics survey of the airline industry, reservation agents earned average weekly salaries of $449 in 1984, while gate agents averaged $482 and ticket agents, $510. AMTRAK paid reserva tion clerks between $8.85 and $11.06 an hour in 1985, and ticket clerks received $9.44 to $11.80. According to a union contract, a major bus compa ny in 1984 paid its telephone informa tion clerks hourly rates ranging from $7.01 to $8.83, while ticket agents were paid from $7.52 to $9.35. In 1985, travel clerks working for a na tional automobile club earned starting salaries of $208 to $231 a week; after a few years’ experience, travel clerks averaged between $240 and $269, with a top salary of $392. Fringe benefits for agents and clerks often include discounts on travel on their company’s carriers for themselves and their im mediate families. Many agents and clerks belong to labor unions. Five unions cover most of the organized agents and clerks: The Air Line Employees Association; the Amalgamated Transit Union; the Brotherhood of Railway, Airline and Steamship Clerks, Freight Handlers, Express and Station Employes; the International Brotherhood of Team sters, Chaffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America; and the Trans port Workers Union of America. Related Occupations Other workers who must be friendly and pleasant while providing informa tion or assisting people include ground hosts/hostesses (air transportation), appointment clerks, information clerks, and receptionists. Sources of Additional Information Information about jobs in a particular transportation company may be ob tained by writing to the personnel manager of the company. Addresses of airlines are available from: Air Transport Association of America, 1709 New York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Secretaries (D.O.T. 201) Nature of the Work The efficiency of any organization de pends in part upon secretaries, who are at the center of communications within the firm. They process and transmit information to the staff and to other organizations. Secretaries perform a variety of ad ministrative and clerical duties that are necessary to run and maintain organizations efficiently. They sched ule appointments, give information to callers, organize and maintain files, fill out forms, and take and transcribe dictation. The amount of time secre taries spend on these and other du ties—including typing—depends on the way office work is handled within the organization. In offices that have word processing centers, administrative secretaries handle everything except dictation and typing. Their duties range from filing, routing mail, and answering telephones to more complex work such as answering letters, doing re search, and preparing statistical re ports. Administrative secretaries sometimes work in clusters of three or four so that they can help each other. Because they are released from dicta 282/Occupational Outlook Handbook tion and typing, they can serve sever al members of the professional staff. Some secretaries do highly special ized work for which training is avail able in business schools and colleges as well as community colleges. Legal secretaries (D.O.T. 201.362-010) pre pare legal papers and correspondence such as summonses, complaints, mo tions, and subpoenas. They may also review law journals and assist in other ways with legal research. Medical secretaries (D.O.T. 201.362-014) tran scribe dictation, prepare correspon dence, and assist physicians or medi cal scientists with reports, speeches, articles, and conference proceedings. They need to know medical terminol ogy and be familiar with hospital or laboratory procedures. Technical sec retaries assist engineers or scientists. In addition to the usual secretarial duties, they may prepare much of the correspondence, maintain the techni cal library, and gather and edit mate rials for scientific papers. Another specialized secretary is the social secretary (D.O.T. 201.162-010), sometimes called a personal secre tary, who arranges social functions, answers personal correspondence, and keeps the employer informed about all social activities. Member ship secretaries (D.O.T.201.362-018) compile and maintain membership lists, record the receipt of dues and contributions, and give out informa tion to members of organizations and associations. They may have such other duties as sending out newslet- Typing is only one of a secretary’s duties. ters and promotional materials. good at spelling, punctuation, gram School secretaries (D.O.T. 201.362- mar, and oral communication. Short 022) handle secretarial duties in ele hand is necessary for some positions. mentary and secondary schools; they Word processing experience is in may take care of correspondence, creasingly important and more and prepare bulletins and reports, keep more employers require it. The skills needed for a secretarial track of money for school supplies and student activities, and maintain a job can be acquired in various ways. Although formal training or refresher calendar of school events. courses are not essential for most jobs, training is an asset and may lead Working Conditions Secretaries usually work in offices to higher paying jobs. Secretarial that are clean and free from high noise training ranges from high school voca levels except during peak typing peri tional education programs that teach ods. Their jobs often involve sitting office practices, shorthand, and typing for long periods, and typing often re to 1- to 2-year programs in secretarial quires working from materials that are science offered by business schools, difficult to read. If they spend a lot of vocational-technical institutes, and time at a video display terminal, they community colleges. In addition to a solid grounding in may encounter problems of eyestrain, musculoskeletal strain, and stress. secretarial skills, employers look for a Executive secretaries, who perform a good command of the English lan number of duties, have the variety in guage and an aptitude for numbers. Some firms look for individuals with their jobs that many people prefer. Secretaries generally work a stan excellent interpersonal skills, since dard 40-hour week. In some cities, secretaries must be tactful in their especially in the Northeast, the sched dealings with many different people. Discretion, judgment, organizational uled workweek is 37 hours or less. Office work lends itself to alterna ability, and initiative are important for tive or flexible working arrangements, the more responsible secretarial posi and many secretaries hold part-time tions. Continuing changes in the office or temporary jobs. A few participate in job-sharing arrangements, in which environment, many made possible by two people divide responsibility for a the computer, have increased the de mand for secretaries who are adapt single job. able and versatile. Workers must be prepared to be retrained whenever an Employment Secretaries held about 2,797,000 jobs employer introduces new equipment. in 1984, making this one of the largest Secretaries may have to attend class es to learn to operate word processing occupations in the U.S. economy. Secretaries are employed in organi equipment, information storage sys zations of every description. They tems, personal computers, and other work for firms that engage in manu automated office equipment. Some facturing, mining, construction, times, they must acquire this training wholesale and retail trade, transporta at their own expense. The frequency tion, and communications. Banks, in with which such equipment is changed surance companies, investment firms, or updated makes retraining and con and real estate firms are important tinuing education an integral part of employers, as are Federal, State, and the job, and employers seek workers local government agencies. Almost who understand and accept the inevi half of all secretaries are employed in tability of change. Advancement for secretaries gener educational institutions, hospitals and other health facilities, law firms, mem ally comes about in one of two ways: bership organizations, and companies Promotion to more responsible secre that provide business services. Among tarial positions, or transfer to another the latter are temporary help agencies kind of job. As secretaries gain expe and word processing service bureaus. rience, they can qualify for the desig nation Certified Professional Secre tary (CPS) by passing a series of ex Training, Other Qualifications, and ams given by the Institute for Advancement High school graduates qualify for Certifying Secretaries, a department most secretarial positions provided of Professional Secretaries Inter they have basic office skills. Secre national. This designation is recog taries must be proficient in typing and nized by a growing number of employ Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/283 ers as the mark of achievement in the secretarial field. Qualified secretaries who broaden their knowledge of their company’s operations may be promoted to posi tions such as administrative assistant, clerical or secretarial supervisor, and office manager. By taking college courses or completing a degree pro gram in a field such as business, mar keting, accounting, or personnel ad ministration, secretaries may progress into entry level management posi tions. Training in computing skills is an increasingly important factor in promotions. Secretaries with word processing experience can advance to jobs as word processing trainers, supervi sors, or managers within their own firms or in a secretarial or word proc essing service bureau. They also can get jobs with manufacturers of word processing and other office equipment in positions such as instructor or sales representative. Job Outlook Employment of secretaries is expect ed to grow more slowly than the av erage for all occupations through the mid-1990’s due to productivity gains made possible by office automation. In firms that have invested in word processors or personal computers, secretaries can turn out significantly more work than they did in the past, when they used typewriters. While office automation is “ old hat” in large firms, that is not yet the case in small businesses. Many small business owners are reluctant to in vest in costly, unfamiliar equipment and software programs. Manufactur ers and retailers, however, are taking steps to make automated office equip ment “ user friendly.” Once cost and psychological barriers are overcome, expanded use of word processing equipment in the small business sec tor is likely to dampen demand for secretaries. This could cause employ ment to level off by the mid-1990’s instead of growing slowly. Long-term job growth will also be affected by new office technologies such as electronic mail and voice mes sage systems. Widespread implemen tation of these technologies is not ex pected before the late 1990’s. When that happens, however, demand for secretaries will be further constrained. Widespread use of automated equipment is changing the way admin istrative support is handled in many offices, leading to reassignment of job duties and restructuring of entire de partments. Large firms are experi menting with different methods of staffing their administrative support operations. In some cases, such tradi tional secretarial duties as typing, fil ing, copying, and accounting are be ing assigned to workers in other units or departments. In some law offices and physicians’ offices, paralegals and medical assistants are taking over some secretarial duties. In addition, there is a trend in many offices for groups of professionals and managers to “ share” secretaries, as opposed to the traditional practice of having one secretary work for only one profes sional or manager. Developments in office technology are certain to continue, and they will bring about further changes in the secretary’s work environment. How ever, many of a secretary’s job duties are of an administrative nature—such as scheduling conferences, making travel arrangements, and transmitting staff instructions—and hence not sub ject to being automated. Because au tomated equipment cannot substitute for the personal skills that are essen tial to the job, the need for secretaries will continue. Despite the slower than average growth expected in this occupation, an exceptionally large number of jobs will be available through the mid1990’s due to the need to replace experienced secretaries who transfer to other jobs or stop working. As in most other occupations, replacement needs will be the primary source of jobs. Earnings Secretaries’ salaries vary a great deal, usually reflecting differences in skill, experience, and level of responsibili ty. Salaries in different parts of the country also vary; earnings generally are lowest in southern cities and high est in northern and western urban areas. In 1984, for example, secre taries averaged $18,148 a year in the Northeast, $18,720 in the North Cen tral region, $19,838 in the West, and $17,602 in the South. In addition, salaries vary by indus try. Salaries of secretaries tend to be highest in public utilities and mining and lowest in retail trade and finance, insurance, and real estate. Secretaries to supervisors in small offices averaged $15,296 a year in 1984. Secretaries to officers in small companies had an average yearly sal ary of $16,920; those working for mid dle management in large companies averaged $19,053. Secretaries holding greater responsibilities, such as exec utive secretaries to corporate officers, earned an average salary of $21,525 per year. Starting salaries for secretaries in the Federal Government ranged from $11,458 to $17,824 a year in 1985, depending on education, skills, and experience. Secretaries employed by the Federal Government in 1984 had average annual salaries of about $17,000. The average beginning salary for secretaries in municipal, State, and Federal government was $13,956 a year in 1984, according to a survey by the International Personnel Manage ment Association. The average salary for experienced secretaries was $18,012. Legal secretaries in the pri vate sector averaged $18,564 a year in 1985, according to an Executive Com pensation Service survey; bilingual secretaries averaged $17,784. Employers usually pay secretaries who have word processing experience higher salaries than those without such experience. Most secretaries in large cities re ceive 7 paid holidays or more a year and a 2-week vacation after working 1 year. With added years of service, vacations may range to 4 weeks or more. Group life and health insur ance, pension plans, and other bene fits often are provided. Related Occupations A number of other workers type, record information, and process pa perwork. Among these are bookkeep ers, receptionists, stenographers, of fice managers, personnel clerks, typ ists, administrative assistants, legal assistants, medical assistants, and medical record technicians. Sources of Additional Information For career information, write to: Professional Secretaries International, 301 East Armour Blvd., Kansas City, Mo. 64111. High school students interested in careers as legal secretaries may re quest the pamphlet So You Want To Be A Legal Secretary. Write to: National Association of Legal Secretaries 284/Occupational Outlook Handbook (International), 3005 East Skelly Dr., Suite 211, Tulsa, Okla. 74105. Brochures describing a career as a secretary or legal secretary are avail able upon request from: A ssociation of Independent Colleges and Schools, 1 Dupont Circle, NW., Suite 350, Washington, D.C. 20036. State employment offices can pro vide information about job openings for secretaries locally and nationwide. Statistical Clerks (D.O.T. 209.387-014, 214.487-010, 216.382-062 and -066, 219.387-022, 221.382-010 and .584-010, and 245.362-010) Nature of the Work Managers and administrators in orga nizations of all kinds depend on infor mation to make decisions. Statistical clerks help develop such information. In particular, they put together rec ords that primarily involve numbers, and help ensure that those numbers are complete and accurate. Although the occupational title “ statistical clerk” covers a number of different jobs, all of them can be grouped into three categories: Recording, compil ing and coding, and computing and tabulating. Recording. This work involves col lecting and verifying the accuracy of information. Chart changers (D.O.T. 221.584-010) change charts and record data from industrial recording instru ments, such as pyrometers and flowmeters. Compiling and coding. In organiza tions of all types, information must be properly filed, verified, or prepared for data processing. Compilers (D.O.T. 209.387-014) compile directo ries, survey findings, opinion polls, and census reports from data obtained from surveys or censuses. Medicalrecord clerks (D.O.T. 245.362-010) compile, check, and file medical rec ords of hospital or clinic patients and compile statistics for use in reports and surveys. Computing and tabulating. Organi zations frequently use numerical rec ords for reports and research. Statis tical clerks gather information from records to present in a graph or table for analysis. Actuarial clerks (D.O.T. 216.382- 062) use formulas, statistical tables, and insurance rate books to assist actuaries in determining insur ance rates for company customers. They also prepare graphs and tables for studies on general insurance prac tices. Statistical clerks (D.O.T. 216.382- 062) are employed by govern ment agencies, business firms, health care facilities, and research organiza tions to calculate numerical data and prepare graphs and tables on topics such as population, housing, health, and business conditions. Advertising statistical clerks (D.O.T. 216.382-066) use calculating and adding machines to tabulate statistical records for com panies on the cost, volume, and effec tiveness of their advertising. Chart calculators (D.O.T. 214.487-010) work for power companies. They compute the power factor and net amount of electric power consumed by the company’s commercial cus tomers and determine the peak load demand to verify the application of the appropriate rates. Chart clerks (D.O.T. 221.382-010) use tools such as adding machines and calculators to extract statistical data from graphs taken from flowmeters and other mea suring and recording devices used on pipelines. Planim eter operators (D.O.T. 219.387-022) are government employees who determine acreage by using a planimeter to trace the bound ary lines of land plots on aerial photo graphs. Working Conditions Most statistical clerks are employed in offices where working conditions generally are good. Work areas usual ly are clean, well lighted, and free from loud noises. Statistical clerks who work at video display terminals may encounter problems of eyestrain, musculoskeletal strain, and stress. Employment Statistical clerks held about 93,000 jobs in 1984. Although these jobs are found in nearly every sector of the economy, over half are in telephone communications; finance, insurance, and real estate; hospitals; and govern ment agencies. Jobs for statistical clerks are con centrated in major metropolitan areas that are centers of commercial, finan cial, and government activities. Statistical clerks use computers to compile, compute, and tabulate data. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer to hire high school graduates for statistical clerk jobs. They seek applicants who have an aptitude for working with numbers and the ability to do detailed work. High school students may prepare for jobs as statistical clerks by taking courses in general mathematics, alge bra, and geometry. Also recommend ed are courses in data processing, Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/285 office procedures, bookkeeping, and ducing demand for these workers. tation and do other office tasks such as typing, filing, answering tele This trend is expected to continue. typing. In spite of the expected drop in phones, and operating office ma In many companies, general clerks who have become familiar with their employment, there will be some open chines. Experienced and highly skilled stenographers take difficult dictation employers’ record systems and office ings due to replacement needs. and do more responsible clerical work. procedures are promoted to statistical They may sit in on staff meetings and clerk positions. On-the-job training Earnings may include the use of calculators, Median annual earnings of full-time later give a summary report or a wordtabulating machines, typewriters, and statistical clerks were about $17,400 for-word record of the proceedings. in 1984; the middle 50 percent earned They also supervise other stenogra personal computers. Statistical clerks must be familiar between $13,900 and $23,000 a year. phers, typists, and clerical workers. with the items or information they Ten percent earned less than $10,100 Technical stenographers must know the terms used in a particular profes observe and record. In preparing data and 10 percent more than $25,900. Statistical clerks’ salaries vary by sion. They include medical, legal, and for processing, coding clerks must use the proper computer codes to avoid industry. They tend to be highest in engineering or scientific stenogra public utilities and mining and lowest phers. Some experienced stenogra errors. Statistical clerks should be able to in finance, insurance, and real estate. phers take dictation in foreign lan Experienced statistical clerks in the guages; others work as public stenog do prompt and accurate work under close supervision. Also, they should private sector earned average salaries raphers serving traveling business be tactful and even tempered when of $16,172 a year in 1984, according to people and others. Shorthand reporters (D .O .T. working with others in the same of a survey by the Executive Compensa tion Service. 202.362- 010) are specialized stenogra fice. The entrance salary for beginning phers who record all statements made Most employers follow a promotion-from-within policy that allows statistical assistants employed by the in an official proceeding. Shorthand experienced workers to qualify for Federal Government was $12,862 a reporters often work as court report more responsible jobs as they become year in 1985. The average annual sal ers. They take down all statements available. Qualified statistical clerks ary for statistical assistants in the made at legal proceedings and present may perform more difficult assign Federal Government was $16,243 in their record as the official transcript. Many other shorthand reporters work ments or advance to supervisory po 1984. as freelance reporters who record outsitions. Some statistical clerks are of-court testimony for attorneys, pro able to advance to a technician level Related Occupations where they may deal with the techni Other workers perform calculations, ceedings of meetings and conven cal problems of statistical research keep numerical records, and prepare tions, and other private activities. Still projects. Some clerks move into com statistical reports for use by other others record the proceedings in the departments in a company. Among U.S. Congress, in State legislatures, puter-related occupations. these are accounting clerks, book and in State and Federal agencies. keepers, payroll clerks, personnel Some reporters dictate notes on mag Job Outlook netic tapes that a typist can transcribe Employment of statistical clerks is clerks, and insurance clerks. later. Other reporters transcribe their expected to decline through the midnotes with the help of note readers, 1990’s. While the amount of statistical Sources of Additional Information data to be processed is expected to State employment service offices can persons skilled in reading back short increase substantially, particularly in provide information about job open hand notes. A large and growing num the area of finance and insurance, the ings for statistical clerks. ber of reporters use Computer-Aided tremendous productivity gains associ Transcription, a system in which a ated with advances in information and computer directly translates the re data management techniques will porter’s shorthand notes into English. mean that fewer statistical clerks will Stenographers Because the reporter’s transcript is be needed. Many of the routine tasks (D.O.T. 202.362 and 203.582-058) the official record of a proceeding, performed by statistical clerks can be accuracy is vitally important. handled more quickly and more accu Nature of the Work Transcribing-machine operators rately by computers, and the applica The efficient conduct of business and (D.O.T. 203.582-058) listen to record tion of computer technology to other endeavors often requires a pre ings and use a typewriter or word recordkeeping, data retrieval, and cise written record of spoken informa analysis is widespread and growing. tion and communication. Stenogra processor to transcribe what they hear in the proper format. In addition The rapid pace of change has revo phers provide such records. Stenographers (D.O.T. 202.362- to transcribing letters, reports, and lutionized the work environment as traditional ways of handling data have 014) and stenotype operators (D.O.T. the like, they may have some other given way to computer-based meth 202.362-022) take dictation and then clerical duties. Sometimes they are ods. As professional workers and transcribe their notes on a typewriter called dictating-machine transcribers managers increasingly use personal or word processor. They may either or dictating-machine typists. Print shop stenographers (D.O.T. computers and other automated office take shorthand or use a stenotype equipment, they are performing tasks machine, which prints shorthand sym 202.362- 018) take dictation and use traditionally delegated to statistical bols. General stenographers, includ typewriters to transcribe the dictated clerks or research assistants, thus re ing most beginners, take routine dic material and to prepare metal printing 286/Occupational Outlook Handbook tems expand to handle the rising num ber of criminal court cases and civil lawsuits. Competition for entry level jobs as shorthand reporters is increas ing as more students enter the field. Opportunities will be best for those who have earned certification by the Nation al Shorthand Reporters Association. Stenographers must record every word of dictation. plates to be used by addressing ma chines. Working Conditions Stenographers usually work in clean, well-lighted offices. Sometimes they work in nonoffice settings, such as courts, legislatures, and conventions. Stenographers generally work a standard 40-hour week. In some cit ies, especially in the Northeast, the scheduled workweek is 37 hours or less. Employment Stenographers held about 239,000jobs throughout the economy in 1984. Over a quarter worked for government agencies, a reflection of the large number of shorthand reporters work ing in courts, legislatures, and agen cies in the executive branch. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers usually have no preferenc es among the many different short hand methods. For court reporters, however, the preference is for stenotype, not only because reporters can write faster using stenotype, but also because they can feed stenotype notes to a computer for high-speed tran scription. The most important factors in hiring and promotion are speed and accuracy. To qualify for jobs in the Federal Government, steonographers must be able to take dictation at a minimum of 80 words per minute and Digitized fortype at least 40 words per minute. FRASER Workers must achieve higher rates to advance to more responsible posi tions. In private firms, the require ments vary, but applicants with the best speed and accuracy will receive first consideration in hiring. Many shorthand reporting jobs require more than 225 words of dictation per minute; shorthand reporters in the Federal Government generally must take at least 175 words a minute. Some States require each court re porter to be a Certified Shorthand Reporter (CSR). A certification test is administered by a board of examiners in each State that has CSR lav/s. The National Shorthand Reporters Asso ciation confers the designation Regis tered Professional Reporter (RPR) upon those who pass a two-part exam ination and participate in continuing education programs. The RPR desig nation is recognized as the mark of excellence in the profession. Stenographers can advance to sec retarial positions. Stenographers who acquire the necessary speed through additional training can become short hand reporters. Job Outlook Employment of stenographers is ex pected to decline sharply. The wide spread use of dictation machines has greatly reduced the need for office stenographers, and the traditional “ steno pool” is becoming a thing of the past. However, demand for skilled shorthand reporters should remain strong as State and Federal court sys Earnings Stenographers’ salaries vary a great deal, usually reflecting differences in skill, experience, level of responsibil ity, and industry. Stenographers in private industry averaged $17,241 a year in 1984; ex perienced stenographers averaged $20,376. Clerk-stenographers em ployed by the Federal Government in 1984 had average annual salaries of about $14,200. Legal stenographers in the private sector earned an average annual sala ry of $17,056 in 1985, according to a survey by the Executive Compensa tion Service. Shorthand reporters generally earn higher salaries than stenographic of ficeworkers. Earnings vary, depend ing on speed, education, experience, and geographic location (earnings are generally higher in large cities than in rural areas). Stenographers’ salaries tend to be highest in public utilities and manu facturing and lowest in finance, insur ance, and real estate. Employers usually pay stenogra phers who have word processing expe rience higher salaries than those with out such experience. \ Most stenographers in larke cities receive 7 paid holidays or more a year and a 2-week vacation after working 1 year. With added years of service, vacations may range to 4 weeks or more. Group life and health insur ance, pension plans, and other fringe benefits often are provided. Related Occupations A number of other workers type, record information, and process pa perwork. Among these are bookkeep ers, receptionists, secretaries, office managers, personnel clerks, typists, administrative assistants, medical as sistants, and legal assistants. Sources of Additional Information For information about shorthand re porting, contact: National Shorthand Reporters Association, 118 Park St. SE., Vienna, Va. 22180. Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/287 Brochures describing a career as a shorthand reporter or court reporter are available upon request from: Association of Independent Colleges and Schools, 1 Dupont Circle, NW., Suite 350, Washington, D.C. 20036. State employment offices can pro vide information about job openings for stenographers locally and nation wide. both elementary and secondary schools, aides are concentrated in the lower grades. Some assist special ed ucation teachers with physically, men tally, or emotionally handicapped chil dren. Their employment is distributed geographically much the same as the population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Educational requirements for teacher aides range from less than a high school diploma to some college train Teacher Aides ing. Districts that give aides teaching (D.O.T. 099.327-010, 219.467-010 and 249.367-074,responsibilities usually require more 086) training than those which assign them clerical or monitor duties. Nature of the Work Teacher aides handle routine activi Teacher aides generally receive onties to give teachers more time for the-job training. However, a number teaching. They help and supervise of 2-year and community colleges of students in the classroom, cafeteria, fer associate degree programs that or school yard. They record grades, prepare graduates to work as teacher set up equipment, or help prepare aides. Newly hired teacher aides undergo materials for instruction. Aides’ responsibilities vary greatly a period of orientation and training. by school district. In some, aides help Aides are taught how to operate au with the instruction of children, under diovisual equipment, administer first the supervision and guidance of teach aid, and keep records. They learn to ers. They work with students individ make charts and other instructional ually or in small groups—listen to materials and how to prepare bulletin students read, help them find informa boards. In addition, they are made tion for reports, and watch them dem familiar with the organization and op onstrate a skill. Sometimes, aides take eration of a school and the methods charge of special projects and prepare used to teach handwriting, reading, equipment or exhibits for a science math, science, and other subjects. demonstration, for example. Teacher aides should enjoy working In other districts, teacher aides han with children and be able to handle dle routine nonteaching tasks. They classroom situations with fairness and grade tests and papers, check home patience. Preference may be given in work, and keep health and attendance hiring to those with previous experi records. Secretarial duties such as ence in working with children. Aides typing, filing, and duplicating materi also must demonstrate initiative and a als for the teacher’s use may be part willingness to follow teacher’s direc of the aide’s job. At other times they tions. They must have good oral and may stock supplies, operate audiovi writing skills and be able to commu sual equipment, and keep classroom nicate effectively with students and equipment in order. They also may teachers. Clerical skills may also be supervise students during lunch and necessary. recreation periods and school bus Ten States have certification proce loading. dures for general teacher aides. To qualify, an individual may need a high Working Conditions school diploma or general equivalen Many teacher aides work part time. cy degree (G.E.D.), or even some They may work outdoors when weath college training. Kansas, Louisiana, er allows and spend much of their Texas, and Wisconsin grant permits time standing, walking, or kneeling. for paraprofessionals, as some aides Working closely with the students can are called, in the field of special edu be both physically and emotionally cation. tiring. Many schools may have additional regulations regarding the hiring of Employment teacher aides. For example, some Teacher aides held 479,000 jobs in school districts give preference to per 1984. Although they are employed in sons residing within the school dis trict; some require that teacher aides pass a physical examination. School superintendents and State departments of education can provide details on employment requirements. Advancement for teacher aides, usually in the form of higher earnings or increased responsibility, comes pri marily with experience. Some school districts provide release time so that aides may take college courses. Aides who earn bachelor’s degrees may be come certified teachers. Job Outlook Employment of teacher aides is ex pected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s, primarily reflecting rising enrollments at the elementary school level. Enrollment growth will not occur at the same rate in all parts of the country, however. Largely be cause of migration to the South and West, enrollment increases are ex pected to be greater in those regions than in the Northeast and North Cen tral States. Teacher aide employment is sensi tive to changes in State and local expenditures for education. Pressures on education budgets are greater in some States and localities than in oth ers. A number of teacher aide posi- Under the teacher’s supervision, aides sometimes help with the instruction of chil dren. 288/Occupational Outlook Handbook tions are financed through Federal programs, reductions in which would affect some districts more than others. Because of relatively high turnover in the occupation, most openings for teacher aides are expected to occur as a result of the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, leave the labor force to assume full time housekeeping responsibilities, return to school, or for other reasons. police or fire department in an emer gency and arrange conference calls for business executives. Two groups of telephone operators provide these services. The operators who work in telephone company cen tral offices probably are the most fa miliar. But many businesses and large organizations receive so many calls that they employ operators to run their private branch exchange (PBX) switchboards. Often these workers Earnings act as receptionists as well as PBX In 1984-85, teacher aides involved in operators. (Receptionsts are de teaching activities earned an average scribed elsewhere in this section of of about $6 an hour; those performing the Handbook). Sometimes operators only nonteaching activities averaged place calls by inserting and removing about $5.50 an hour. Earnings varied plugs in switchboards and by listening by region and also by the work expe and speaking into their headsets. rience and academic qualifications of However, many switchboards, espe the aide. Many aides are covered by cially those in telephone company collective bargaining agreements and central offices, are operated by have health and pension benefits sim pushbuttons. ilar to those of the teachers in their Telephone company operators known as central office operators help schools. customers with calls that require as Related Occupations sistance, such as person-to-person, The educational support activities coin-station, and collect calls. They that teacher aides perform demand obtain the information needed to com organizational skills, cooperativeness, plete the call and record the details for recordkeeping ability, and a talent for billing. Those who make long-distance getting along with people. Other occu connections are called long-distance pations requiring some or all of these operators. Directory assistance oper skills include childcare attendants, ca ators answer customer inquiries for reer guidance technicians, home telephone numbers by using comput health aides, library attendants, med erized alphabetical and geographical ical record technicians, nurse aides, directories. Sometimes the directory receptionists, record custodians, and assistance operator does not even need to read the number—instead, a retail sales clerks. computerized recording provides the answer. Sources of Additional Information Information on a wide range of educa Switchboard operators, sometimes tion-related issues, including teacher called PBX attendants or operators, aide unionization, can be obtained run switchboards for business firms from: and other establishments. They con nect interoffice or house calls, answer American Federation of Teachers, 555 New Jersey Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20001. and relay outside calls, assist compa ny employees in making outgoing calls, supply information to callers, and record charges. Modern PBX Telephone Operators switchboards permit direct inward di aling. This allows calls to be made to (D .O .T. 235.222, .462, .562-014, .662-014, -018, -022, and from the office without going and -026; and 239.367-026) through the switchboard. In such es tablishments, PBX operators may do Nature of the Work Although millions of telephone num other office work as well such as typ bers are dialed directly each day, ing or sorting mail. Many act as recep making a call sometimes requires the tionists or information clerks. Qualified telephone company oper assistance of a telephone operator. An operator may be needed because a ators can become private-branchcaller wants to reverse long-distance exchange service advisors, sometimes charges, find out a telephone number called customer instructors or tele in another city, or know the cost of a phone usage counselors. They con duct training classes in the operation Digitized forcall. Operators also help contact the FRASER of switchboard and teletype equip ment at the company’s training school or on the customer’s premises. Qual ified operators also can become ser vice observers. Service observers monitor telephone conversations be tween operators and customers to ob serve the operator’s behavior, techni cal accuracy, and adherence to com pany policies. Police district switchboard opera tors run switchboards to receive and transmit police communications, such as calls from citizens for assistance or from police officers in the field. Com munication-center operators handle airport authority communication sys tems and monitor electronic equip ment alarms. For example, they use the public address system to page passengers or visitors. Telephone answering-service operators manage switchboards to provide answering service for clients. Working Conditions Telephone company operators gener ally work 37 to 40 hours a week. The scheduled hours of PBX operators generally are the same as those of other clerical workers in the firm. In telephone companies, however, and in hotels, hospitals, and other places where telephone service is needed on a 24-hour basis, operators work shifts, even on holidays and weekends. Some operators work split shifts—that is, they are on duty during the peak call ing periods in the late morning and early evening and have time off in between. Telephone companies nor mally assign shifts by seniority, allow ing the most experienced workers to choose when they will work. These operators, like all telephone company employees, are subject to 24-hour call. In general, though, they work overtime only during emergencies. Because an operator cannot make up time missed, telephone companies strictly regulate attendance and punc tuality. Operators usually work in pleasant, well-lighted, air-conditioned sur roundings. The job of a telephone operator requires little physical exer tion; however, during peak calling pe riods, the pace at the switchboard may be hectic. Often operators are unable to leave their work stations during these periods. Telephone com panies continually strive to increase operator efficiency, and this can cre ate a tense work environment. An Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/289 operator’s work generally is quite re petitive and, in telephone companies, is closely supervised. Employment Telephone operators held about 456,000 jobs in 1984. More than onehalf worked as PBX operators in man ufacturing plants, hospitals, depart ment stores, or businesses. The re mainder worked in telephone compa nies. Roughly one-third of all opera tors work part time, although relative ly few of those employed by tele phone companies do so. Employment is concentrated in heavily populated areas; large num bers of telephone operators work in the New York City, Chicago, and Los Angeles metropolitan areas. An in creasing number work in rapidly grow ing areas such as Houston and Den ver. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Persons interested in becoming tele phone operators should like to serve the public, be pleasant, courteous, and patient, and not mind sitting for long periods of time. A clear, pleasing voice and good hearing are important. In addition to being good listeners, prospective operators should have good reading, spelling, and arithmetic ability. Good eye-hand coordination and manual dexterity are useful, as is an ability to work well under pres sure. Many telephone companies and business firms require applicants, in cluding operators, to pass a physical examination. Some employers require a high school diploma for operator jobs. High school courses in speech, office practices, and business math provide a helpful background for per sons interested in this occupation. New operators are taught how to use the equipment and keep records of calls. Once they have learned the procedure, they put through practice calls. In the telephone companies, classroom instruction usually lasts up to 3 weeks and is followed by on-thejob training. Classroom instruction covers the time zones and geography so that central office operators under stand rates and know where major cities are located. Tapes are used to familiarize trainees with the dial tone, busy signal, and other telephone sounds and to improve diction and courtesy by giving them an opportu nity to hear their own voices. Training Telephone company operators use computerized directories to answer customer inquiries. is tailored to the knowledge required of the department where the employ ee is going to work. Close supervision continues after training is completed. PBX operators who handle routine calls usually have a somewhat shorter training period than telephone compa ny operators. These workers usually are trained informally by experienced personnel, although in large busi nesses an instructor from the local telephone company may train new employees. Telephone company operators may be promoted, after 1 or 2 years of experience, to junior service assistant or service observer, assisting the su pervisor by monitoring telephone con versations. Promotion to supervisor also is possible. Some operators ad vance to other clerical jobs or to tele phone craft jobs such as installer and repairer. Large firms may advance PBX operators to more responsible clerical positions; however, many small businesses have limited ad vancement opportunities. Job Outlook Overall employment of telephone op erators is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Many job op portunities for switchboard operators are expected to occur each year as businesses expand to meet the chang ing needs of the population. Employ ment of directory assistance operators and central office operators is expect ed to decline. Most job openings for telephone operators will result from the need to replace experienced em ployees who stop working or transfer to other occupations. Employment of switchboard or PBX operators is expected to grow faster than the average as businesses expand. Prospects will be especially good for switchboard operator/receptionists— receptionists who have been trained to make telephone connec tions. Many PBX systems have a di rect-inside-dialing (DID) option which relieves these operators of the need to handle every call. This frees them to concentrate on other clerical tasks. It is this flexibility that appeals to em ployers and will greatly stimulate de mand for these workers. Employment prospects for tele phone company operators will be poor. Employment of these workers has been declining for the past 25 years as technological innovations have reduced labor requirements. Pro ductivity improvements that reduce the need for operators are expected to continue, and they will more than offset the employment gains from strong growth in residential and busi ness demand for telephone services and the development of new markets, 290/Occupational Outlook Handbook including electronic funds transfer systems and home data processing. As a result, employment of telephone company operators is expected to de cline into the mid-1990’s. Technological innovations have tak en place in a number of areas. Many telephone companies have installed electronic switching systems in their central offices, thus reducing the need for manual switching. Traffic service position systems have been added; these automatically feed data about each telephone connection, such as the length and cost of the call, into a computer that processes the billing statements. Formerly, an operator tabulated and then transferred this information to the statement. It is now possible in many places to dial num bers in other countries directly, with out the help of an operator. The task of responding to “ intercept” calls (va cant, changed, or disconnected num bers) is being automated. A device automatically answers those calls and a computerized recording explains the reason for the interception and gives new number information. The moni toring and computing of charges on calls from pay telephones also are being automated, eliminating func tions normally performed by opera tors. Also, calls made with telephone company credit cards will no longer require the assistance of an operator. Directory assistance operators now can find numbers more quickly be cause they use a computerized system that shows the information on a screen, whereas before they had to leaf through paper directories. In ad dition, computerized recordings are starting to be used to give the number to the caller once it has been found by the operator. Another change, while not of a technological nature, is ex pected to reduce the demand for di rectory assistance operators. A num ber of telephone companies now charge customers for directory assist ance calls, thus prompting customers to use telephone directories instead. Employment of operators is less sensitive to fluctuations in the busi ness cycle than employment of other workers in the telephone industry. The volume of telephone calls is af fected very little by economic fluctu ations. However, telephone compa nies hire fewer operators during re cessions because there is less turnover (and consequently fewer openings) Digitized forwhen other jobs are relatively hard to FRASER find. Few PBX operators are laid off during recessions because, even in slow times, businesses must keep their lines of communication open. Technological change has had a far greater effect than the business cycle on employment of telephone company operators. However, operators are seldom laid off, for collective bargain ing agreements ensure that the com panies reduce employment either through attrition or by retraining or reassignment. months of service; 2 weeks for 1 to 6 years; 3 weeks for 7 to 14 years; 4 weeks for 15 to 24 years; and 5 weeks for 25 years and over. Depending on locality, holidays range from 9 to 11 days a year. Additional provisions may include paid sick leave; group life, medical, and dental insurance; sickness and accident benefits; retire ment and disability pensions; a sav ings plan; and an employee stock ownership plan. Insurance, pensions, holidays, va cations, and other benefits for PBX operators are the same as those for other clerical employees in the firm. Earnings Telephone operators earned median weekly salaries of $290 in 1984. The middle 50 percent earned between Related Occupations $225 and $375. The bottom 10 percent Other workers who provide informa earned less than $170; the top 10 per tion to the general public include cus cent earned more than $450 a week. tomer service representatives, dis Telephone company operators gener patchers, hotel clerks, information ally earn more than switchboard oper clerks, police aides, receptionists, reservation agents, taxicab starters, ators. Earnings of experienced telephone and travel clerks. operators are about the same as the average for all nonsupervisory work Sources of Additional Information ers in private industry, except farm For more details about employment ing. A 1984 survey by the Inter opportunities, contact your local tele national Personnel Management As phone company or the following sociation of workers at all levels of unions that represent telephone work government showed that telephone ers: operators earned between $11,290 and Communications Workers of America, 1925 K $14,480. In 1985, the Federal Govern St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. ment paid starting telephone opera International Brotherhood of Electrical Work tors $10,500 per year. The average ers, 1125 15th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. annual salary in 1984 for all operators 20005. employed by the Federal Government Telecommunications International Union, P.O. Box 5132, Hamden, Conn. 06518. was $13,560. For general information on the tele PBX operators nationwide aver aged $12,500 a year in 1984 according phone industry and career opportuni to a survey by the Administrative ties in it, request copies of Indepen dent Phonefacts and Is It for You? A Management Society. Most telephone company operators Career in the Independent Telephone are members of the Communications Industry from: Workers of America, the International United States Telephone Association, 1801 K Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, St.NW ., Suite 1201, Washington, D.C. 20006. or the Telecommunications Inter national Union. For these operators, union contracts govern wage rates, wage increases, and the time required Traffic, Shipping, to advance from one step to the next (it normally takes 4 years to rise from and Receiving Clerks the lowest paying, nonsupervisory op (D .O .T. 209.367-042; 214.587-014; 219.367-022 and erator position to the highest). Con -030; 221.367-022 and .687-014; 222.367-066, .387and tracts also call for extra pay for work 014, -022, -050, -018, -054, .485-010, .567-010 and -014, .587-010, -034, and -058, .687-022 and beyond the normal 7 1/2 hours a day -030; 248.362-010, .367-014 and -022; 919.687-010; or 5 days a week, and for all Sunday and 976.687-018) and holiday work. Most contracts provide a pay differential for Nature of the Work nightwork and split shifts. Paid vaca Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks tions are granted according to length keep track of goods transferred be of service. Many contracts provide tween businesses and their customers for a 1-week vacation beginning with 6 and suppliers. In small companies, Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/291 one clerk may record all shipments sent out and received; in larger com panies, a number of clerks take care of this recordkeeping. Traffic clerks record data about in coming and outgoing freight, such as their destination, weight, and charges. To be sure the rate charges are accu rate, they compare the classification of materials with rate charts. They may keep a file of claims for over charges and for damages to goods in transit. Shipping clerks are responsible for all shipments leaving a place of busi ness. Before goods are sent to a cus tomer, these clerks make sure the order has been filled correctly, or may fill the order themselves. They obtain merchandise from the stockroom and wrap it or pack it in shipping contain ers. Clerks also put addresses and other identifying information on pack ages, look up and compute either freight or postal rates, and record the weight and cost of each shipment. They also may prepare invoices and furnish information about shipments to another part of the company, such as the accounting department. Once a shipment is checked and ready to go, shipping clerks may move it—some times by forklift truck—to the ship ping dock and direct its loading into trucks according to its destination. Shipping and receiving clerks in small businesses may perform some stock clerk duties. When shipments arrive, receiving clerks perform tasks similar to those of shipping clerks. They determine whether their employer’s orders have been correctly filled by verifying in coming shipments against the original order and the accompanying bill of lading or invoice. They record the shipment and the condition of its con tents. As more and more industries move toward automating their ship ping and receiving operations, receiv ing clerks increasingly are recording much of the necessary data by using hand-held scanners and readers to read the bar codes on incoming prod ucts. After recording this information, they connect the scanner or reader to a personal computer and transfer the data to be processed. Clerks also ar range for adjustments with shippers whenever merchandise is lost or dam aged. The job may also include rout ing or moving shipments to the proper department, warehouse section, or stockroom and providing information Counting the merchandise in shipments is a key part of the job. that is the basis of a computerized inventory system. Working Conditions Although shipping and receiving clerks generally work in warehouses or in shipping and receiving rooms, they may spend considerable time on outside loading platforms. Work places often are large, unpartitioned areas that may be drafty, cold, and littered with packing materials. Most clerks have to stand for long periods while they check merchan dise. Locating numbers and descrip tions on cartons often requires a great deal of bending, stooping, stretching, and lifting. Also, under the pressure of getting shipments moved on time, clerks sometimes may help load or unload materials in the warehouse. Night work and overtime, including work on Saturdays, Sundays, and hol idays, may be necessary when ship ments have been unduly delayed or when materials are needed immedi ately on production lines. Shipping and receiving clerks receive time and one-half for work over 40 hours. Employment Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks held about 651,000jobs in 1984. About half were employed by wholesale es tablishments or retail stores and over one-third worked in factories. Al though jobs for traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks are found throughout the country, most clerks work in ur ban areas, where factories and whole sale establishments generally are lo cated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement High school graduation is usually re quired for beginning jobs in shipping and receiving departments. Business arithmetic, typing, and other high school business subjects are helpful. The ability to write legibly and keep orderly records is important. In gen eral, jobseekers must demonstrate that they can master company proce dures, including the use of automated equipment. With the rapidly growing use of computers for inventory con trol and other recordkeeping purpos es, the jobs of traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks are increasingly ma chine oriented. Willingness to work at repetitive tasks, dependability, and an interest in learning about the firm’s products and business activities are other qual ities that employers seek. New employees usually are trained on the job by an experienced worker. As part of their training, they often file, check addresses, attach labels, and check items included in ship ments. As clerks gain experience, 292/Occupational Outlook Handbook they may be assigned tasks requiring a good deal of independent judgment, such as handling problems with dam aged merchandise, or supervising oth er workers in shipping or receiving rooms. A job as a traffic, shipping, or re ceiving clerk offers a good opportuni ty for new workers in a firm to learn about their company’s products and business practices. Some clerks may be promoted to head traffic, shipping, or receiving clerk; warehouse manag er; or purchasing agent. (Purchasing agents are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Very experienced work ers with a broad understanding of shipping and receiving may enter re lated fields such as industrial traffic management. Job Outlook Employment of traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks is expected to in crease more slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid1990’s, in part because so many clerks work in manufacturing and wholesale trade, industry sectors that are ex pected to grow more slowly than the overall economy. Employment growth will continue to be affected by automation, as all but the smallest firms move to hold down labor costs by using computers to store and retrieve shipping and re ceiving records. Methods of materials handling have changed significantly in recent years. Large warehouses are increasingly automated, using equip ment such as computerized conveyor systems, robots, computer-directed trucks, and automatic storage and re trieval systems. This automation, cou pled with the growing use of hand held scanners and personal computers in receiving departments, is expected to hold down employment growth. Nevertheless, numerous job open ings will occur every year as traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks transfer to other jobs or leave the labor force. Because this is an entry level occupa tion, many vacancies are created by normal career progression. While the amount of movement in and out of the occupation is about average for a clerical occupation, the reasons for that movement are atypi cal. Unlike office clerical workers, who tend to be women, the majority of shipping and receiving clerks are men. Thus, few clerks leave their jobs Digitized forbecause of homemaking responsibili FRASER ties, for example. Openings for ship ping and receiving clerks generally occur because workers have taken other jobs. Earnings Median weekly earnings of full-time traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks were about $280 in 1984; the middle 50 percent earned between $220 and $380 a week. Ten percent earned less than $170 and 10 percent more than $500. Shipping and receiving clerks in ur ban areas earned average weekly sal aries of $321 in 1984. This was about as much as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private in dustry, except farming. Salaries var ied substantially, however, by type of employer. Shipping and receiving clerks employed in the services indus try averaged $292, those working for wholesale houses averaged $324, and those employed by public utilities av eraged $354. In addition, shipping and receiving clerks working in the Mid west tended to have the highest sala ries, while those in the South had the lowest. Shipping and receiving clerks em ployed in the private sector averaged $280 a week in 1985, according to an Administrative Management Society survey. Related Occupations Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks record, check, and often store the materials that a company receives. They also process and pack goods for shipment. Other workers who per form similar duties are stock clerks, material clerks, distributing clerks, routing clerks, and order fillers. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job open ings for traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks. Typists (D.O.T. 203.362-010 and -022, .382-010, .582-034, -066, and -078, and 209.382-010)____________________ Nature of the Work A rapid flow of communication is es sential to the modern office. The typ ist helps to maintain this flow by mak ing neat, typed copies of handwritten, printed, and recorded words. Beginning or junior typists usually type headings on form letters, copy directly from handwritten drafts, and address envelopes. Often, they per form other office tasks as well: An swering telephones, filing, and operat ing copiers, calculators, and other officemachines. More experienced typists do work that requires a high degree of accura cy and independent judgment. Senior typists work from rough drafts which are difficult to read or which contain technical material. They may plan and type complicated statistical tables, combine and rearrange materials from different sources, or prepare master copies to be reproduced on copying machines. Clerk typists (D.O.T. 203.362-010) combine typing with filing, sorting mail, answering telephones, and other general office work. Bordereau clerks (D.O.T. 203.382-010) compile data and type applications for insurance companies. Notereaders (D.O.T. 203.582-078) transcribe stenotyped notes of court proceedings into stan dard form ats. Continuity clerks (D.O.T. 209.382-010) aid movie edi tors by typing descriptive records of motion picture scenes, including such things as dialog, wardrobe, hairdress, and on-scene entrances and exits of actors. Increasingly, word processing cen ters handle the transcription and typ ing for several departments within an organization. Word-processingmachine operators (D.O.T. 203.362022) use word processing equipment to record, edit, store, and revise cor respondence, reports, statistical ta bles, forms, and other materials. Word processing equipment normally in cludes a keyboard, a cathode ray tube (CRT) display, and a printer, and may have “ add-on” capabilities such as optical character recognition (OCR) readers. Many word-processingmachine operators work in large, cen tralized word processing centers that are relatively isolated from other de partments. Others, however, are lo cated in smaller, more decentralized settings that are physically dispersed throughout the organization and they work fairly closely with employees from other departments. Working Conditions Typists usually work in offices that are clean. They sit for long periods and sometimes must contend with high noise levels caused by various office machines, such as printers, or Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/293 with lighting that may be inappropri ate if they are using video display terminals (VDT’s, also referred to as CRT’s). Depending on the organiza tion of the office and its equipment and furniture, these workers may experience problems such as eyestrain and musculoskeletal strain and pain. Increasingly, research on occupa tional health and safety is focusing on the hazards to physical and mental health posed by new generations of office equipment. Studies have found that typists who work full time on VDT’s experience stress, and growing attention is being paid to the risk of eye problems, miscarriage, and birth defects that may be experienced by women who use certain kinds of equip ment. Typists generally work a standard 40-hour week. In some cities, espe cially in the Northeast, the scheduled workweek is 37 hours or less. Office work lends itself to alterna tive or flexible working arrangements; many typists hold temporary jobs and one in four works part time. Some of these part-time workers are self-em ployed freelance typists; others take short-term jobs through temporary help agencies. A few employers are experimenting with “ home based” of fices; sophisticated computerized equipment installed in typists’ homes enables them to transcribe material at home and, almost instantly, produce printed copy in an office miles away. However, these jobs often do not in clude the full range of fringe benefits and they lack the advantages of social interaction on the job. Employment Typists held about 991,000 jobs in 1984. They work in every sector of the economy. Approximately one-third worked for business firms—chiefly those in manufacturing; wholesale and retail trade; transportation, com munications, and public utilities; and finance, insurance, and real estate. About one-third held jobs in educa tional institutions, hospitals, member ship organizations, and firms that pro vide business services. Among the latter are temporary help agencies and word processing service bureaus. About one-quarter worked in Federal, State, and local government agencies. Some typists work for temporary help agencies. than average, and many probably Training, Other Qualifications, and have never worked before. The pro Advancement Employers generally hire high school portion who transfer to other occupa graduates who can meet their require tions is higher than average, suggest ments for typing speed. Increasingly, ing that typing serves as a stepemployers expect applicants to have pingstone to higher paying, more word processing training or experi responsible jobs. It is common for ence. Good spelling, punctuation, and typists to transfer to another clerical grammar are important skills, and fa job, such as secretary, statistical miliarity with standard office equip clerk, or stenographer, or to be pro ment and procedures is an asset. Be moted to a supervisory job in a word cause they often work for many peo processing center. ple at one time, good interpersonal Job Outlook skills are helpful. Typing can be learned in different Employment of typists is expected to ways. Typing is taught in high schools, experience little or no change through com m unity colleges, b usiness the mid-1990’s despite the “informa schools, and home study schools. tion explosion” and rapid growth in Some individuals learn on their own, the volume of business transactions. using self-teaching aids like books, This is an indication of significant pro records, and personal computers. ductivity improvements in the clerical Some people learn to type for person sector due to widespread use of word al convenience, or because it is a processing equipment. Jobs will be available, however, be useful skill for other jobs. Word proc essing is taught in many community cause of replacement needs. In typ colleges and business schools and is ing, as in most occupations, replace beginning to be taught in high schools. ments are the main source of jobs. Large companies and government Every year, a substantial number of agencies generally have training pro typists transfer to other kinds of jobs grams to help clerical employees up or leave the labor force temporarily— grade their skills and advance to more chiefly because of household respon responsible positions, including that sibilities or to attend school. Com of typist. Nonetheless, the proportion pared to those who leave for other of job openings filled by workers who reasons, relatively few typists stop transfer from other occupations is working because of disability or re lower than average. People who be tirement. With the installation of word proc come typists tend to come from out side the labor force; they are younger essing equipment, the productivity of 294/Occupational Outlook Handbook typists has risen dramatically, for for those typists with the best tech such equipment allows work to be nical skills. In particular, the more undertaken of a degree of complexity word processing languages typists and in amounts that would have been know, especially the more complex unthinkable in the past. Improve ones, the better their job opportuni ments in optical character recognition ties will be. technology (whereby a machine reads and types documents) are occurring, Earnings and widespread commercial applica Beginning typists averaged $11,793 a tion before the mid-1990’s is possible. year in 1984; those with experience This would appreciably reduce the averaged $15,150. Median annual typing workload. In addition, as more earnings of full-time typists were and more professionals and managers about $13,000 in 1984; the middle 50 use desktop personal computers and percent earned between $10,900 and executive workstations, they will han $16,500 annually. Ten percent earned dle some of the work previously del less than $8,900 and 10 percent more egated to support staff. than $20,700. According to a survey by the Ad Nevertheless, the volume of office work to be processed is expected to ministrative Management Society, grow so rapidly that employment of word processing operators in the pri typists is not expected to decline in vate sector earned average annual sal the decade ahead. A sharp drop in aries ranging from $14,092 to $17,420 typist jobs is likely when voice data in 1985, depending on the complexity entry systems are perfected and be of the work and the level of responsi come commercially viable, but this bility. probably will not happen before the Average yearly earnings for clerklate 1990’s. typists in the Federal Government Job prospects should be brightest were about $12,400 in 1984. Typists’ salaries vary by industry. They tend to be highest in public utilities and manufacturing and lowest in finance, insurance, and real estate. Typists generally receive higher sal aries if they have word processing experience. Most typists in large cities receive 7 paid holidays or more a year and a 2-week vacation after working 1 year. With added years of service, vaca tions may range to 4 weeks or more. Group life and health insurance, pen sion plans, and other fringe benefits often are provided. Related Occupations Many other office workers use typing skills. Among these are secretaries, stenographers, receptionists, office machine operators, personnel clerks, and administrative assistants. Sources of Additional Information State employment offices can provide information about job openings for typists locally and nationwide. Service Occupations Personal service workers, who held durance are necessary for work as a Guarding and cleaning buildings, pre paring and serving food, helping phy about 1.6 million jobs in 1984, range porter, lifeguard, or firefighter; and a sicians examine patients, cutting and from barbers and cosmetologists to pleasing manner and appearance are styling hair, and caring for children sightseeing guides and flight atten especially important for a flight atten and elderly persons all are jobs per dants. The ability to deal with all dant or a waiter or waitress. Other formed by service workers. In 1984, kinds of people is a “ must” in these service workers, such as police of ficers and travel guides, need good service workers held about 16.6 mil jobs. Private household service workers, judgment and should be skillful in lion jobs. The major groups of service who held almost 1 million jobs in dealing with people. occupations are discussed below: Some service workers eventually Protective service workers, who 1984, are domestic workers who clean held over 1.9 million jobs in 1984, are their employers’ homes, prepare go into business for themselves as employed to safeguard lives and prop meals, and care for children. Others caterers or restaurant operators, for erty. Police and detectives, guards, include launderers and housekeepers. example, or proprietors of barber or beauty shops. A good basic education and workers in firefighting occupa tions accounted for four-fifths of all Training, Other Qualifications, and and extensive experience in their cho protective service jobs. Others includ Advancement sen fields are decided assets for pro ed sheriffs, bailiffs, crossing guards, Training and skill requirements differ spective business owners. correction officers, fish and game war greatly among the various service oc dens, private detectives and investiga cupations. FBI special agents, for ex Job Outlook tors, and parking enforcement offic ample, must have a college degree. ers. Most protective service workers Barbers and cosmetologists need spe More job openings are expected to be are government employees, working cialized vocational training and a li available for service workers than for primarily at the local level. Protective cense. Still other occupations—house almost any other major occupational service work is generally routine, but hold workers, janitors, and hotel bell group. The overwhelming majority of sometimes it can be dangerous. hops, for example—have no specific openings will result from replacement Cleaning and building service work educational requirements for entry, needs, as a relatively high proportion ers held about 3 million jobs in 1984; although a high school diploma is al of service workers transfer to other occupations, assume full-time house they clean and maintain buildings ways an advantage. such as apartments, houses, schools, For many service occupations, per hold responsibilities, return to school, and offices. The group includes jani sonality traits and special abilities or stop working for other reasons tors, elevator operators, maids, and may be as important as formal school each year. Job turnover is particularly pest controllers. ing. Thus, physical strength and en high among food and beverage prepaFood and beverage preparation and service workers—the largest group of Among service occupations, those in health services are expected service workers—held about 6.6 mil to grow the most rapidly. lion jobs in 1984. They prepare and Projected percent change in employment, 1984-95 serve food in restaurants, cafeterias, -20 - 10 0 10 20 30 schools, hospitals, and other institu tions. Workers in this group include cooks, waiters and waitresses, bak Protective services ers, bartenders, dining room and caf eteria attendants, food preparation Food and beverage preparation and services workers, and hosts and hostesses. Health service workers, who held Health services nearly 1.7 million jobs in 1984, include medical, dental, occupational thera Cleaning and building services py, pharmacy, and physical therapy assistants as well as ambulance driv Personal services ers and nursing and psychiatric aides. These workers are employed in hos Private household services pitals, nursing homes, rehabilitation centers, and doctors’ and dentists’ offices. They typically perform rou tine but essential tasks that involve a Source Bureau of Labor Statistics great deal of personal contact. 295 296/Occupational Outlook Handbook ration and service workers and pri continued emphasis on using auxiliary health personnel. More protective vate household workers. The service occupations are expect service workers will be needed as the ed to grow about as fast as the average population increases and the need for all occupations through the mid- grows for protection against crime, 1990’s. However, employment growth theft, and vandalism. Rising incomes, in the major groups of service occu increasing leisure time, and the grow pations is expected to vary, as shown ing number of men and women who in the accompanying chart. Demand combine family responsibilities and a for health service workers will be par job are likely to cause the demand for ticularly strong as a result of popula food and beverage preparation and tion growth, an aging population, and service workers to grow as more peo ple dine out. Despite a strong demand for private household workers, on the other hand, employment is projected to decline because of the relatively low pay and status associated with these jobs. Detailed information on the nature of the work, working conditions, em ployment, training requirements, job outlook, and earnings in many of the service occupations mentioned here is presented in the following statements. Protective Service Occupations A civilized society, if it is to survive, small number of workers, such as FBI must safeguard the lives and property special agents, must have at least a of its members. Protective service bachelor’s degree. In any case, col workers check crime, prevent and lege training is an asset for advance minimize loss of life and property, and ment. Most protective service workers enforce regulations that protect our safety and rights at home and on the must undergo formal training pro job. In 1984, they held over 1.9 million grams and get on-the-job experience before they are fully qualified. Train jobs. As the accompanying chart illus ing programs last from several days to trates, about 3 out of 5 protective a few months and emphasize specific service workers are government em job-related skills. Advancement may ployees—working primarily at the lo depend on job performance, addition cal level. Most of the remainder work al education, seniority, and scores on in the services sector. Through the written examinations. Physical fitness, a sense of fairness, mid-1990’s, employment of protective service workers is expected to in honesty, and an understanding of hu crease faster than the average for all man nature are important personal occupations. Rapid employment qualities for these jobs. Furthermore, growth is projected for guards and persons seeking careers in protective correction officers, while average em service occupations should desire to ployment growth is projected for fire serve the community and be able to fighting occupations and police of exercise good judgment under a vari ety of conditions. ficers and detectives. Protective service workers face sub High school graduates are preferred for most protective service jobs, but stantially higher risks of death or per persons with less formal education are sonal injury than most other occupa occasionally hired as guards or cor tions when confronting acts of vio rection officers if they read, write, and lence, public disorder, or destruction speak English adequately. However, of property. Most of the time, howev an increasing number of entrants to er, their jobs are routine in nature. protective service jobs have some Some afford an opportunity to exer postsecondary education. A relatively cise a great deal of responsibility, to work with a minimum of direct super vision, and to work outdoors. Be cause protecting lives and property is an around-the-clock responsibility, many protective service personnel work at night and on weekends. This section describes the work of several protective service occupa tions: Correction officers, firefighting occupations, guards, and police offic ers and detectives. Correction Officers (D.O.T. 372.367-014, .567-014, .667-018, and .677; and 375.367) Nature of the Work Correction officers are charged with the safekeeping of persons who have been arrested, are awaiting trial, or who have been tried and convicted of a crime and sentenced to serve time in a correctional institution. They main tain order within the institution, en force rules and regulations, and often supplement the counseling that in mates receive from mental health pro fessionals. To make sure inmates are orderly and obey rules, correction officers keep a close watch on everything the inmates do, such as working, exercis ing, eating, and bathing. They assign and supervise inmates’ work assign ments, as well as instruct and help them on specific tasks. Sometimes it is necessary to search inmates and their living quarters for weapons or drugs, to settle disputes between in mates, and to enforce discipline. Cor rection officers cannot show favorit ism and must report any inmate who violates the rules. To prevent es capes, officers serve as guards on tow ers and at gates. They count inmates periodically to make sure all are pre sent. Correction officers inspect the facil ities to assure the safety and security of the prisoners. They check cells and other areas of the institution for unsanitary conditions, fire hazards, and evidence of infraction of rules by inmates. Periodically, they inspect 297 298/Occupational Outlook Handbook locks, window bars, grill doors, and families, talk over personal problems that may have led to committing a gates for signs of tampering. Correction officers report orally and crime, or suggest where to look for a in writing on inmate conduct and on job after release from prison. In some the quality and quantity of work done institutions, officers have a more for by inmates. Officers also report dis mal counseling role and may lead or turbances, violations of rules, and any participate in group counseling ses unusual occurrences. They usually sions. Correction sergeants directly super keep a daily record of their activities. In some modern facilities, correction vise correction officers. They usually officers monitor the activities of pris are responsible for maintaining secur oners from a centralized control cen ity and directing the activities of a ter with the aid of sophisticated tech group of inmates during an assigned watch or in an assigned area. nical equipment. Correction officers escort inmates to and from cells and other areas and Working Conditions admit and accompany authorized vis Correction officers may work indoors itors within the facility. From time to or outdoors, according to their duties. time, they may inspect mail for con Some indoor areas are well lighted, traband (prohibited items), administer heated, and ventilated, but others are first aid, or assist police authorities by overcrowded, hot, and noisy. Out investigating crimes committed within doors, weather conditions may be the institution and by searching for disgreeable. Working in a correctional institution can be stressful and haz escaped inmates. Counseling and helping inmates ardous; correction officers occasional with problems are increasingly impor ly have been injured or killed during tant parts of the correction officer’s disturbances. Correction officers usually work an job. Correctional institutions usually employ psychologists and social work 8-hour day, 5 days a week. Prison ers to counsel inmates, but correction security must be provided around the officers informally supplement the clock, which means some officers work of the professionals. Officers work weekends, holidays, and nights. help inmates adjust to institutional During emergencies, officers may life, prepare for later civilian life, and work overtime. avoid future criminal behavior. They may arrange a change in a daily sched Employment ule so that an inmate can visit the Correction officers held about 130,000 library, help inmates get news of their jobs in 1984. More than half worked at State correctional institutions such as prisons, prison camps, and reformato ries. Most of the remainder worked at city and county jails or other institu tions run by local governments. A few thousand correction officers worked at Federal correctional institutions. Most correction officers work in relatively large institutions located outside metropolitan areas, although a significant number work in jails and other smaller facilities located in cities and towns. Correction officers count inmates periodi cally to make sure all are present. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most institutions require that correc tion officers be at least 18 years old and have a high school education or its equivalent, or qualifying work experience. However, the minimum age is 21 in some institutions. In addi tion, correctional institutions increas ingly seek correction officers with postsecondary education in psycholo gy, criminology, and related fields— reflecting an increased emphasis on personal counseling and rehabilitation of inmates. Correction officers must be in good health. Many States require candi dates to meet formal standards of physical fitness, eyesight, and hear ing. Strength, good judgment, and the ability to think and act quickly are assets. A few States require candi dates to pass a written examination. The Federal Government, as well as almost every State and a few local ities, provides training for correction officers. Some States have special training academies. Most States, how ever, provide informal on-the-job training. Academy trainees generally receive at least 4 to 8 weeks of instruction on institutional policies, regulations, and operations; counseling psychology, inmate behavior, and contraband; cus tody and security procedures; admin istrative responsibilities and prepara tion of reports; self-defense, including the use of firearms; and physical fit ness training. On-the-job trainees re ceive 2 to 6 months of similar training in an actual job setting under an expe rienced officer. Experienced officers sometimes receive inservice training to keep abreast of new ideas and pro cedures. With additional education, experi ence, or training, qualified officers may advance to correction sergeant or other supervisory, administrative, or counseling positions. Many correc tional institutions require experience as a correction officer for other cor rections positions. Officers sometimes transfer to related areas, such as pro bation and parole. Job Outlook Employment of correction officers is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s as additional officers are hired to supervise and counsel an increasing number of in mates and to relieve tensions in al ready crowded correctional institu tions. Expansion and new construc tion of correctional facilities are also expected to create many new jobs for correction officers. Most job open ings, however, will result from the need to replace experienced workers who retire or transfer to other occu pations. Difficult working conditions and the availability of jobs in other corrections or protective service oc Service Occupations/299 cupations contribute to a particularly cial, and industrial property against theft, vandalism, illegal entry, and high turnover rate. Employment of correction officers fire. Police officers and deputy sheriffs is not usually affected by changes ei maintain law and order, prevent ther in economic conditions or the crime, and arrest offenders. Other corrections careers are open overall level of government spending because security must be maintained to persons interested in working with in correctional institutions at all times. offenders. Probation and parole of Even when corrections budgets are ficers counsel offenders, process their cut, correction officers are rarely laid release from correctional institutions, off. With the high turnover in this and evaluate their progress in becom occupation, staffs can be cut quickly ing productive members of society. just by not replacing those who leave. Recreation leaders organize and in struct offenders in sports, games, arts, and crafts. Some related occupations Earnings According to a 1984 survey by the are discussed elsewhere in the Hand International Personnel Management book. Association, earnings of correction officers varied widely by level of gov Sources of Additional Information ernment. At the local level, correction Information about entrance require officers had median earnings of ments, training, and career opportuni $17,200 a year. Starting pay averaged ties for correction officers may be $15,600 in jails and other county and obtained from Federal and State civil municipal correctional institutions, service commissions, State depart and top earnings of correction officers ments of correction, or nearby correc tional institutions and facilities. averaged $20,200. Information on corrections careers, At the State level, correction offic ers had median earnings of $16,700 a as well as information about schools year in 1984. Starting pay averaged that offer criminal justice education, $14,800, and maximum earnings aver financial assistance, and job listings, is available from: aged $20,200. At the Federal level, the starting CONTACT, Inc., P.O. Box 81826, Lincoln, salary was $14,400 per year in 1985; Neb. 68501. Additional information on careers correction sergeants and other super visory officers could advance to max in corrections is available from: imum salaries of more than $34,000. The American Correctional Association, 4321 The average salary for all Federal Hartwick Rd., College Park, Md. 20740. correction officers and correction ser geants was $20,100 in 1984. Correction officers usually are pro vided uniforms or an allowance to Firefighting purchase their own. Most are provid ed or can participate in hospitalization Occupations or major medical insurance plans; (D.O.T. 373 except .117; 379.687-010; 452.134, .364many officers can get disability and 014, .687-014) life insurance. Officers employed by the Federal Government and most Nature of the Work State governments are covered by Every year, fires take thousands of civil service systems or merit boards. lives and destroy property worth bil lions of dollars. Firefighters help pro tect the public against this danger. Related Occupations A number of related careers are open This statement gives information only to high school graduates who are in about career firefighters; it does not terested in the protective services and cover the many thousands of volun the field of security. Bailiffs guard teer firefighters in communities across offenders and maintain order in court the country. During duty hours, firefighters must rooms during proceedings. Body guards escort and protect people from be prepared to respond to a fire and injury or invasion of privacy. House handle any emergency that arises. Be or store detectives patrol business es cause firefighting is dangerous and tablishments to protect against theft complicated, it requires organization and vandalism and to enforce stan and teamwork. At every fire, firefight dards of good behavior. Security ers perform specific duties assigned guards protect government, commer by an officer such as a lieutenant, captain, or chief. They may connect hose lines to hydrants, operate a pump, or position ladders. Their du ties may change several times while the company is in action. They may rescue victims and administer emer gency medical aid, ventilate smokefilled areas, operate equipment, and salvage the contents of buildings. Some firefighters operate fire appara tus, ambulances, emergency rescue vehicles, and fireboats. Most fire departments also are re sponsible for fire prevention. They provide specially trained personnel to inspect public buildings for conditions that might cause a fire. They may check building plans, the number and working condition of fire escapes and fire doors, the storage of flammable materials, and other possible hazards. In addition, firefighters educate the public about fire prevention and safe ty measures. They frequently speak on this subject before school assem blies and civic groups, and, in some communities, they inspect private homes for fire hazards. Between alarms, they have class room training, clean and maintain equipment, conduct practice drills and fire inspections, and participate in physical fitness activities. Working Conditions Firefighters spend much of their time at fire stations, which usually have facilities for dining and sleeping. When an alarm comes in, firefighters must respond rapidly, regardless of the weather or hour. They may spend long periods at fires and other emer gencies on their feet and outdoors, sometimes in adverse weather. Firefighting is one of the most haz ardous occupations. It involves risk of death or injury from sudden cave-ins of floors or toppling walls and from exposure to flames and smoke. Fire fighters also may come in contact with poisonous, flammable, and explosive gases and chemicals. In some cities, firefighters are on duty for 24 hours, then off for 48 hours, and receive an extra day off at intervals. In other cities, they work a day shift of 10 hours for 3 or 4 days, a night shift of 14 hours for 3 or 4 nights, have 3 or 4 days off, and then repeat the cycle. On average, firefighters work 50 hours a week. In addition, firefighters often work extra hours at fires and other emergencies. Fire lieu tenants and fire captains work the 300/Occupational Outlook Handbook Firefighters risk injury from toppling walls, floor cave-ins, and exposure to smoke and flames. same hours as the firefighters they supervise. Duty hours may include some time when firefighters are free to read and study. Employment Firefighters held about 308,000 jobs in 1984. More than 9 out of 10 worked in municipal fire departments. Some very large cities have several thou sand firefighters, while many small towns have only a few. Some firefight ers work in fire departments on Fed eral and State installations, including airports. Private firefighting compa nies employ a small number. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Applicants for municipal firefighting jobs may have to pass a written test, a medical examination, and tests of strength, physical stamina, and agili Digitized forty. These examinations are open to FRASER persons who are at least 18 years of age and have a high school education or the equivalent. Those who receive the highest scores have the best chanc es for appointment. Extra credit usu ally is given for military service and education. Experience as a volunteer firefighter or in the Armed Forces and completion of community college courses in fire science also may im prove an applicant’s chances for ap pointment. In fact, in recent years an increasing proportion of entrants to this occuption have some postsecondary education. As a rule, beginners in large fire departments are trained for several weeks at the department’s training center. Through classroom instruc tion and practical training, the recruits study firefighting techniques, fire pre vention, local building codes, and emergency medical techniques; also, they learn how to use axes, saws, chemical extinguishers, ladders, and other firefighting and rescue equip ment. After completing this training, they are assigned to a fire company where they are evaluated during a probationary period. A small but growing number of fire departments have accredited appren ticeship programs lasting 3 to 4 years. These programs combine formal, tech nical instruction with on-the-job train ing under the supervision of experi enced firefighters. Technical instruc tion covers subjects such as firefight ing techniques and equipment, chem ical hazards associated with various combustible building materials, emer gency medical techniques, and fire prevention and safety. Most experienced firefighters con tinue to study to improve their job performance and prepare for promo tion examinations. To progress to higher level positions, firefighters must acquire expertise in the most advanced firefighting equipment and techniques and in building construc tion, emergency medical techniques, writing, public speaking, management and budgeting procedures, and labor relations. Fire departments frequently conduct training programs, and many colleges and universities offer courses such as fire engineering and fire sci ence that are helpful to firefighters. Many fire captains and other supervi sory personnel have college training. Among the personal qualities firefighters need are mental alertness, courage, mechanical aptitude, endur ance, and a sense of public service. Initiative and good judgment are ex tremely important because firefighters often must make quick decisions in emergency situations. Because mem bers of a crew eat, sleep, and work closely together under conditions of stress and danger, they should be de pendable and able to get along well with others in a group. Leadership qualities are assets for officers, who must establish and maintain discipline and efficiency as well as direct the activities of firefighters in their com panies. Opportunities for promotion are good in most fire departments. As firefighters gain experience, they may advance to a higher rank. After 3 to 5 years of service, they may become eligible for promotion to the grade of lieutenant. The line of further promo tion usually is to captain, then battal ion chief, assistant chief, deputy chief, Service Occupations/301 and finally to chief. Advancement generally depends upon scores on a written examination, performance on the job, and seniority. Job Outlook Employment of firefighters is expect ed to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s due to the increase in the Nation’s fire protection needs. Employment should rise as new fire departments are formed and as others enlarge their fire prevention sections. Little employment growth is expected in large, urban fire departments. Much of the expected increase will occur in smaller communities with expanding populations that replace volunteer with career firefighters to better meet growing, increasingly complex fire protection needs. Some local govern ments are expected to contract for firefighting services with private com panies. Turnover of firefighter jobs is un usually low, particularly for an occu pation that requires a relatively limit ed investment in formal education. Nevertheless, most job openings are expected to result from the need to replace those who retire, transfer from the occupation, or stop working for other reasons. Firefighting attracts many people because a high school education is sufficient, earnings are relatively high, a pension is guaranteed upon retire ment, and promotion is possible to progressively more responsible posi tions on the basis of merit. In addi tion, the work is frequently exciting and challenging and affords an oppor tunity to perform a valuable public service. Consequently, the number of qualified applicants in most areas gen erally exceeds the number of job openings, even though the written ex amination and physical requirements eliminate many applicants. This situ ation is expected to persist through the mid-1990’s. Opportunities should be best in smaller communities. Layoffs of firefighters are not com mon. Fire protection is an essential service, and citizens are likely to ex ert considerable pressure on city offi cials to expand or at least preserve the level of fire-protection coverage. Even when budget cuts do occur, local fire departments usually cut expenses by postponing equipment purchases or the hiring of new firefighters, rather than by laying off staff. International Association of Fire Fighters, 1750 Earnings According to a 1984 survey by the New York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Information about firefighter pro International Personnel Management fessional qualifications may be ob Association, nonsupervisory firefight ers had a median salary of about tained from: $19,600 a year, but their earnings var N a tio n a l Fire P ro tectio n A sso c ia tio n , ied considerably depending on city Batterymarch Park, Quincy, Mass. 02269. Additional information on the sala size and region of the country. Earn ries and hours of work of firefighters ings for firefighters are lowest in the South and highest in the West, and in various cities is published annually generally are higher in large cities by the International City Management than in small ones. Entrance salaries Association in its Municipal Year for beginning full-time firefighters av book, which is available in many li eraged about $17,300 a year, while braries. maximum salaries averaged nearly $22,300 a year. Fire lieutenants had a median annu al salary of about $24,100 in 1984. Guards____________ Their starting annual salaries aver (D .O .T. 372.563, .567-010, .667-010, -014, and -030 aged nearly $22,200, and maximum through -038; 376.667-010; and 379.667-010)_________ salaries about $26,100. Fire captains had a median salary of Nature of the Work more than $26,400 a year in 1984. Guards patrol and inspect property to They started at an average annual protect against fire, theft, vandalism, salary of about $24,600, and could and illegal entry. Their duties vary advance to an average maximum sal with the size, type, and location of ary of about $29,400. Some fire cap their employer. tains had salaries in excess of $52,300 In office buildings, banks, hospitals, a year. and department stores, guards protect Practically all fire departments pro records, merchandise, money, and vide protective clothing (helmets, equipment. In department stores, they boots, and coats) and many also pro often work with undercover detec tives watching for theft by customers vide dress uniforms. Firefighters generally are covered or store employees. by liberal pension plans that often At ports, airports, and railroads, provide retirement at half pay at age guards protect merchandise being 50 after 25 years of service or at any shipped as well as property and equip age if disabled in the line of duty. ment. They insure that nothing is sto The majority of career firefighters len while being loaded or unloaded, are members of the International As and watch for fires, prowlers, and sociation of Fire Fighters (AFL-CIO). trouble among work crews. Some times they direct traffic. Guards who work in public build Related Occupations Firefighters work to prevent fires and ings, such as museums or art galleries, to save lives and property when fires protect paintings and exhibits. They do occur. Related fire protection oc also answer routine questions from cupations include fire rangers and fire- visitors and sometimes guide traffic. In factories, laboratories, govern protection engineers who identify fire hazards in homes and workplaces and ment buildings, data processing cen design prevention programs and auto ters, and military bases where valu matic fire detection and extinguishing able property or information must be systems. Other occupations in which protected, guards check the creden workers respond to emergencies in tials of persons and vehicles entering clude police officers and emergency and leaving the premises. University, park, or recreation guards perform medical technicians. similar duties and also may issue parking permits and direct traffic. Sources of Additional Information At social affairs, sports events, con Information on obtaining a job as a firefighter is available from local civil ventions, and other public gatherings, guards maintain order, give informa service offices or fire departments. Information about a career as a tion, and watch for persons who may cause trouble. firefighter may be obtained from: In a large organization, a security International Association of Fire Chiefs, 1329 18th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. officer often is in charge of the guard 302/Occupational Outlook Handbook force; in a small organization, a single worker may be responsible for secur ity. Patrolling usually is done on foot, but if the property is large, guards may make their rounds by car or mo tor scooter. As they make their rounds, guards check all doors and windows, see that no unauthorized persons remain after working hours, and insure that fire extinguishers, alarms, sprinkler sys tems, furnaces, and various electrical and plumbing systems are working properly. They sometimes set thermo stats or turn on lights for janitorial workers. Guards usually are uniformed and often carry a nightstick and gun. They also may carry a flashlight, whistle, two-way radio, and a watch clock—a device that indicates the time at which they reach various checkpoints. Correction officers—guards who work in prisons and other correctional institutions—are discussed separately in this section of the Handbook. Working Conditions Guards work indoors and outdoors patrolling buildings, industrial plants, and grounds. Indoors, they may be stationed at a guard desk to monitor electronic security and surveillance devices or check the credentials of persons entering or leaving the prem ises. They also may be stationed at gate shelters or may patrol grounds in all weather. Guards provide protection against fire, theft, vandalism, and illegal entry. Since guards often work alone, no one is nearby to help if an accident or injury occurs. Some large firms, there fore, use a reporting service that en ables guards to be in constant contact with a central station outside the plant. If they fail to transmit an ex pected signal, the central station in vestigates. Guard work is usually rou tine, but guards must be constantly alert for threats to themselves arid to the property that they are protecting. Guards who work during the day may have a great deal of contact with other employees and members of the pub lic. Many guards work alone at night; the usual shift lasts 8 hours. Some employers have three shifts where guards rotate to divide daytime, week end, and holiday work equally. Guards usually eat on the job instead of taking a regular break. Employment Guards held about 733,000 jobs in 1984. Industrial security firms and guard agencies employed about onehalf of all guards. These organizations provide security services on contract, assigning their guards to buildings and other sites as needed. The other half were in-house guards, employed in large numbers by banks; building management companies; hotels; hos pitals; retail stores; restaurants and bars; schools, colleges, and universi ties; and Federal, State, and local governments. Although guard jobs are found throughout the country, most are lo cated in metropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer guards who are high school graduates. Applicants with less than a high school education also can qualify if they pass reading and writing tests and demonstrate competence in following written and oral instructions. Some jobs require a driver’s permit. Employers also seek people who have had experience in the military police or in State and local police departments. Most per sons who enter guard jobs have prior work experience, although it is usual ly unrelated. Because of limited for mal training requirements and flexible hours, this occupation attracts many persons seeking a second job. For some entrants, retired from military careers or other protective services, guard employment is a second career. Applicants are expected to have good character references, no police record, good health—especially in hearing and vision—and good person al habits such as neatness and depend ability. They should be mentally alert and emotionally stable. Guards must be physically fit to cope with emer gencies. Candidates for guard jobs in the Federal Government must have some experience as a guard and pass a writ ten examination. Armed Forces expe rience also is an asset. For most Fed eral guard positions, applicants must qualify in the use of firearms. The amount of training guards re ceive varies. Training requirements generally are increasing as modern, highly sophisticated security systems become more commonplace. Many employers give newly hired guards instruction before they start the job and also provide several weeks of on-the-job training. Guards at nuclear power plants may undergo several months of training before being placed on duty under close supervision. Guards may be taught to use firearms, to administer first aid, to operate alarm systems and electronic security equipment, and to spot and deal with security problems. Guards who are authorized to carry firearms may be periodically tested in their use accord ing to State or local laws. Some guards are periodically tested for strength and endurance. Although guards in small compa nies receive periodic salary increases, advancement is likely to be limited. However, most large organizations use a military type of ranking that offers advancement in position and salary. Guard experience enables some persons to transfer to police jobs that offer higher pay and greater opportunities for advancem ent. Guards with some college education may advance to jobs that involve ad ministrative duties or the prevention of espionage and sabotage. A few guards with management skills open their own contract security guard agencies. Job Outlook Job openings for persons seeking work as guards are expected to be plentiful through the mid-1990’s. High turn over in this large occupation makes it rank among those providing the great- Service Occupations/303 est number of job openings in the entire economy. Many opportunities are expected for persons seeking full time employment, as well as for those seeking part-time or second jobs at night or on weekends. However, com petition is expected for in-house guard positions. Compared to contract se curity guards, in-house guards enjoy higher earnings and benefits, greater job security, and more advancement potential, and are usually given more training and responsibility. Employment of guards is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s, although not as rapidly as in recent years. Growth will be tempered by the use of technologically advanced elec tronic security systems that have greater alarm and monitoring capabil ity and are more reliable than earlier systems. The level of business investment in increasingly expensive plant and equipment has a major influence on how many guards will be required. Greater investment would cause great er growth in the number of guard jobs. Increased concern about crime, van dalism, and terrorism will also height en the need for security in and around plants, stores, offices, and recreation areas. Because engaging the services of a security guard firm is easier and less costly than assuming direct re sponsibility for hiring, training, and managing a security guard force, job growth is expected to be concentrated among contract security guard agen cies. Guards employed by industrial se curity and guard agencies occasional ly are laid off when the firm where they work does not renew its contract with their agency. Most are able to find employment with other agencies, however. Guards employed directly by the firm at which they work are seldom laid off because a plant or factory must still be protected even when economic conditions force it to close temporarily. Earnings Guards working in 23 urban areas averaged an estimated $5.25 an hour in 1984. Those working in the Mid western States earned more than the average, while guards employed in the South earned somewhat less. Hourly wages of guards were estimated to average $9.24 in manufacturing; $9.16 in public utilities; $7.17 in banking, While most protective service jobs are in government, guards are concentrated in firms that provide guard services on a contract basis. Distribution of guard employment, 1984 Source Bureau of Labor Statistics finance, insurance, and real estate; from local employers and the nearest $7.08 in wholesale trade; $6.08 in re State employment service office. tail trade; and $4.34 in the various Information about Federal Govern service industries, including security ment contract guard job requirements and guard agencies. Guards with spe is included in the Contract Guard In cialized training or some supervisory formation Manual, Publication No. responsibilities averaged $7.71 an 1984-438-028:18101, and may be pur hour, while those with less training chased from the U.S. Government and responsibility averaged $4.96 an Printing Office, Washington, D.C. hour. Guards employed by industrial 20402. security and guard agencies generally started at or slightly above the mini mum wage, $3.35 an hour in 1984. Depending on their experience, Police and Detectives newly hired guards in the Federal (D.O.T. 168.167-010; 372.137, .167-018, .363, .367010; 375.133 through .137-018, .137-026 through .167Government earned between $11,500 014, -022, -030 through -046, .263 through .363, .384; and $12,900 a year in 1985. Guards and 377.264) employed by the Federal Government averaged $15,000 a year in 1984. These Nature of the Work workers usually receive overtime pay The safety of our Nation’s cities, as well as a wage differential for the towns, and highways greatly depends second and third shifts. Many guards on the work of police and detectives, have paid vacations, sick leave, and whose responsibilities range from con insurance and pension plans. trolling traffic to preventing and inves tigating crimes. Whether on or off duty, these officers are expected to Related Occupations Guards protect property, maintain se exercise their authority whenever nec curity, and enforce regulations for en essary. As civilian police department em try and conduct in the establishments ployees and private security person at which they work. Related security and protective service occupations in nel increasingly assume routine police clude: Bailiffs, border guards, correc duties, police and detectives are able tion officers, deputy sheriffs, fish and to spend more time fighting serious game wardens, house or store detec crime. Police and detectives are also tives, police officers, and private in becoming more involved in public re lations—increasing public confidence vestigators. in the police and instructing the public in the best ways to help the police Sources of Additional Information fight crime. Further information about work op Police and detectives who work in portunities for guards is available small communities and rural areas 304/Occupational Outlook Handbook have many duties. In the course of a day’s work, they may direct traffic at the scene of a fire, investigate a housebreaking, and give first aid to an accident victim. In a large police de partment, by contrast, officers usually are assigned to a specific type of duty. Most officers are detailed either to patrol or to traffic duty; smaller num bers are assigned to special work such as accident prevention or operation of communications systems. Others are experts in chemical and microscopic analysis, firearms identification, and handwriting and fingerprint identifica tion. In very large cities, a few officers may work with special units such as mounted and motorcycle police, har bor and border patrols, helicopter pa trols, canine corps, mobile rescue teams, and youth aid services. Detectives and special agents are plainclothes investigators who gather facts and collect evidence for criminal cases. They conduct interviews, ex amine records, observe the activities of suspects, and participate in raids or arrests. State police officers (sometimes called State troopers or highway pa trol officers) patrol highways and en force laws and regulations that govern their use. They issue traffic tickets to motorists who violate the law. At the scene of an accident, they direct traffic, give first aid, call for emergen cy equipment including ambulances, and write reports which may be used to determine the cause of the acci dent. In addition, State police officers provide services to motorists on the highways. For example, they radio for road service for drivers with mechan ical trouble, direct tourists to their destination, or give information about Police officers are required to file accurate, detailed accounts of accidents. lodging, restaurants, and tourist at tractions. State police officers also provide traffic assistance and control during road repairs, fires, and other emergen cies, as well as during special occur rences such as parades and sports events. They sometimes check the weight of commercial vehicles, con duct driver examinations, and give information on highway safety to the public. In addition to highway responsibil ities, State police in the majority of States also enforce criminal laws. In communities and counties that do not have a local police force or a large sheriff’s department, the State police are the primary law enforcement agen cy, investigating crimes such as bur glary or assault. They also may help city or county police catch lawbreak ers and control civil disturbances. State highway patrols, however, nor mally are restricted to apprehending criminals on State highways, and to vehicle safety and traffic matters. Most new police recruits begin on patrol duty, riding in a police vehicle or walking on “foot” patrol. They may work alone or with other officers in such varied areas as congested bus iness districts or outlying residential neighborhoods. In any case, new of ficers become thoroughly familiar with conditions throughout their area and, while on patrol, remain alert for any thing unusual. They note suspicious circumstances, such as open windows or lights in vacant buildings, as well as hazards to public safety such as burned-out street lights or fallen trees. Officers enforce traffic regulations and also watch for stolen automobiles. At regular intervals, officers report to po lice headquarters from call boxes, ra dios, or walkie-talkies. Police and detectives also write re ports and maintain police records. They may testify in court when their arrests result in legal action. Some officers, such as division or bureau chiefs, are responsible for training or certain kinds of criminal investiga tions, and those who command police operations in an assigned area have administrative and supervisory du ties. Working Conditions Police and detectives usually work 40 hours a week. Because police protec tion must be provided around the clock in all but the smallest communi ties, some officers work weekends, holidays, and nights. Police officers are subject to call any time their serv ices are needed and may work over time during emergencies. Police officers may have to work outdoors for long periods in all kinds of weather. The injury rate among police and detectives is higher than in many occupations and reflects the risks officers take in pursuing speed ing motorists, apprehending crimi nals, and dealing with public disor ders. Employment Police and detectives held about 520,000 jobs in 1984. Most were em ployed by local governments, primar ily in cities with more than 25,000 inhabitants. Some cities have very large police forces, while hundreds of small communities employ fewer than 25 officers each. State police and in vestigative agencies employed about 10 percent of the officers and detec tives; various Federal agencies, such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Secret Service, employed an additional 5 percent. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Civil service regulations govern the appointment of police and detectives in practically all States and large cities and in many small ones. Candidates must be U.S. citizens, usually at least 21 years of age, and must meet rigor ous physical and personal qualifica tions. Eligibility for appointment de pends on performance in competitive written examinations as well as on education and experience. Physical examinations often include tests of vision, strength, and agility. Because personal characteristics such as honesty, good judgment, and a sense of responsibility are especially important in police and detective work, candidates are interviewed by a senior officer at police headquarters, and their character traits and back ground are investigated. In some po lice departments, candidates also may be interviewed by a psychiatrist or a psychologist, or be given a personali ty test. Although police and detec tives work independently, they must perform their duties in accordance with laws and departmental rules. They should enjoy working with peo ple and serving the public. In large police departments, where Service Occupations/305 most jobs are found, applicants usual years. In a large department, promo petition is expected to remain keen for ly must have a high school education. tion may allow an officer to become a job openings through the mid-1990’s. An increasing number of cities require detective or specialize in one type of Most State and local police depart some college training, and some hire police work such as laboratory analy ments have long lists of qualified can law enforcement students as police sis of evidence, traffic control, com didates. The outlook should be best interns. A few jobs, such as special munications, or working with juve for persons having some college train agents for the Federal Bureau of In niles. Promotions to sergeant, lieuten ing in law enforcement. The level of government spending vestigation or the Internal Revenue ant, and captain usually are made Service, require a college degree. A according to a candidate’s position on influences the employment of police few police departments accept appli a promotion list, as determined by officers and detectives. Layoffs are cants who have less than a high school scores on a written examination and rare because early retirements enable most staffing cuts to be handled education as recruits, particularly if on-the-job performance. Many types of training help police through attrition. However, police of they have worked in a field related to officers and detectives improve their ficers who lose their jobs from budget law enforcement. More and more, police departments job performance and advancement. cuts usually have little difficulty find are encouraging applicants to take Through training given at police de ing jobs with other police depart post-high school training in law en partment academies and colleges, of ments. forcement. Many entrants to police ficers keep abreast of crowd-control and detective jobs have completed techniques, civil defense, legal devel Earnings some formal postsecondary educa opments that affect their work, and According to a 1984 survey by the tion; a significant number are college advances in law enforcement equip International Personnel Management graduates. Many junior colleges, col ment. Many police departments offer Association, police patrol officers had leges, and universities offer programs higher salaries and pay all or part of a median annual salary of $20,500. in law enforcement or administration the tuition for officers to work toward They started at an average of $18,000 of justice. Other courses helpful in college associate and bachelor’s de a year and could reach an average preparing for a police career include grees in law enforcement, police sci maximum of $23,400 a year. psychology, counseling, English, ence, administration of justice, or Police and detective sergeants had a American history, public administra public administration. median annual salary of $24,800 in tion, public relations, sociology, bus 1984. They started at an average of iness law, chemistry, physics, and Job Outlook $22,700 a year and could advance to driver education. Physical education Employment of police officers and de an average maximum of $27,400 a and sports are especially helpful in tectives is expected to increase about year. Police and detective lieutenants developing the stamina and agility as fast as the average for all occupa had a median annual salary of $28,100 needed for police work. Knowledge of tions through the mid-1990’s due to and started at an average of $25,400 a a foreign language is an asset in cer the increase in the Nation’s popula year. With experience and satisfacto tion and police protection needs. ry job performance, they could ad tain areas. Some large cities hire high school However, employment growth will be vance to an average maximum salary graduates who are still in their teens tempered by increased use of civilian of $30,900 a year in 1984. as civilian police cadets or trainees. police department employees in park Police departments usually provide They do clerical work and attend ing enforcement and various clerical, officers with special allowances for classes and are appointed to the regu administrative, and technical support uniforms and furnish revolvers, night positions. In addition, private security sticks, handcuffs, and other required lar force at age 21 if qualified. Before their first assignments, of firms will increasingly assume some equipment. Because police officers ficers usually go through a period of routine police duties such as crowd generally are covered by liberal pen training. In small communities, re surveillance at airports and other pub sion plans, many retire at half pay cruits work for a short time with ex lic places. Although turnover of police after 20 or 25 years of service. perienced officers. In State and large and detective jobs is among the lowest city police departments, they get more of all occupations, the need to replace Related Occupations formal training that may last several workers who retire, transfer to other Police officers maintain law and order weeks or a few months. This training occupations, or stop working for oth in the Nation’s cities, towns, and rural includes classroom instruction in con er reasons will be the source of most areas. Workers in related law enforce stitutional law and civil rights, State job openings. ment occupations include guards, bai laws and local ordinances, and acci Police work is attractive to many. liffs, correction officers, deputy sher dent investigation. Recruits also re The job frequently is challenging and iffs, fire marshals, fish and game war ceive training and supervised experi involves much responsibility. Fur dens, and U.S. marshals. ence in patrol, traffic control, use of thermore, in some communities, po firearms, self-defense, first aid, and lice officers may retire with a pension Sources of Additional Information to pursue a second career before age Information about entrance require handling emergencies. Police officers usually become eligi 50. Although written examinations ments may be obtained from Federal, ble for promotion after a probationary and strict physical requirements al State, and local civil service commis period ranging from 6 months to 3 ways eliminate many applicants, com sions or police departments. Food and Beverage Preparation and Service Occupations Vacation resorts employ many of ministration is valuable for the top these workers on a seasonal basis. managerial positions. Job opportunities exist almost ev Starting pay for many of these jobs erywhere and for almost any interest is very low. However, tips may add ed person, including those who have substantially to income. Although employment of these limited skills or little formal educa tion. The widespread availability of workers is expected to increase faster part-time jobs which easily fit into than the average for all occupations people’s schedules makes these occu through the mid-1990’s, the over pations attractive to students, home whelming majority of job openings are makers, and others who want a job as expected to result from replacement a source of immediate income rather needs. A large proportion of food and beverage preparation and service than a career. Skills usually are learned through workers transfer to other occupa on-the-job training. Many restaurants tions, leave the labor force to assume household duties, or return to school hire inexperienced persons as waiters’ each year. assistants, kitchen helpers, food New jobs will be created as addi counter workers, waiters and wait tional restaurants, cafeterias, and bars resses, or bartenders. Previous em open in response to population growth ployment as a kitchen helper or assist and increased spending for food and ant cook sometimes is necessary, beverages outside the home. Higher however, to get a job in a large res average incomes and more leisure taurant or catering firm. Also, courses time will enable people to dine out and in cooking, catering, and bartending take vacations more often. Also, as offered by public and private voca more women work, more families tional schools can be helpful. Experi may find dining out a welcome conve enced workers may advance to food nience. Detailed discussions of the work, service manager, maitre d’hotel, head cook, or chef. Completion of a college training, job outlook, and earnings of program in hotel and restaurant ad bartenders, chefs and cooks, except short order, and waiters and waitress es are presented in the statements that Besides eating and drinking places, schools, hotels, and follow. health care facilities employ large numbers of food and beverage preparation and service workers. This section of the Handbook deals with workers who prepare and serve food and beverages in restaurants, catering firms, hotels, clubs, bars, fac tories, school cafeterias, hospitals, rest homes, and other establishments. These workers cook and serve food, mix and serve drinks, and do many other related tasks. Since so many of these jobs involve dealing with the public, tact, courtesy, and a pleasant personality are important. The work is often hectic, and the ability to work efficiently under pressure while main taining an even disposition and a sense of humor is necessary. Stamina is also very important, since most of these workers spend long periods of time on their feet and sometimes carry heavy loads of food and dishes. Food and beverage preparation and service workers make up one of the largest occupational groups in the Na tion’s labor force. They accounted for over 6.6 million jobs in 1984—almost five times as many jobs as in the steel and motor vehicle manufacturing in dustries combined. Part-time workers account for about one-half of total employment in these occupations. Distribution of wage and salary employment, 1984 Bartenders (D .O .T. 312.474; .477; and .677) Eating and drinking places SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics Digitized for306 FRASER Nature of the Work A skillful bartender can prepare your drink at a moment’s notice. It may be a cool, sparkling glass of champagne or a colorful, exotic mixture such as a Singapore Sling. Bartenders make these concoctions by combining, in exact proportions, ingredients select ed from what may seem to be a bewil dering variety of alcoholic beverages, mixes, and garnishes. A well-stocked bar contains dozens of types and brands of liquors, beer, and wines, Service Occupations/307 plus soft drinks, fruits and fruit juices, cream, and soda and tonic water. Bartenders fill the drink orders that waiters and waitresses take from cus tomers seated in the restaurant or lounge, as well as orders from cus tomers seated at the bar. Because some people like their cocktails made a certain way, bartenders often are asked to mix drinks to suit a custom er’s taste. Most bartenders must know dozens of drink recipes and, by sight alone, be able to mix drinks accurate ly, quickly, and without waste, even during the busiest periods. Besides mixing and serving drinks, bartenders collect payment, operate the cash reg ister, clean up after customers have left, and may also serve food items to customers seated at the bar. More establishments, especially larger ones, are using automatic equip ment to mix drinks of varying com plexity at the push of a button. How ever, bartenders still must be efficient and knowledgeable to handle unusual orders and to work when the automat ic equipment is not functioning. Also, equipment is no substitute for the friendly socializing most customers prefer. Bartenders usually are responsible for ordering and maintaining an inven tory of liquor, mixes, and other bar supplies. They also arrange the bot tles and glassware into attractive dis plays and often wash glassware used at the bar. Some bartenders own the tavern or bar and, therefore, also must keep their own business records and hire, train, and direct staff. restaurants and bars; about 20 percent attending a bartending school or tak were in hotels and private clubs. Most ing vocational and technical school of the rest were in amusement and courses that include instruction on recreation establishments. Less than State and local laws and regulations, 1 bartender in 10 was self-employed. cocktail recipes, attire and conduct, One out of every three bartenders and stocking a bar. Some of these works part time. Part-time work may schools help their graduates find involve bartending at banquets and jobs. private parties at restaurants, hotels, Generally, bartenders must be at clubs, or even in private homes. least 21 years of age. Some employers Seasonal employment is available prefer those who are 25 or older. in vacation resorts, and some bartend Since they deal with the public, bar ers migrate between summer and win tenders should have a pleasant per ter resorts rather than remain in one sonality and a neat and clean appear area the entire year. ance. Stamina and strength also are necessary, because they stand while Training, Other Qualifications, and working and may be required to lift Advancement heavy kegs of beer or cases of bever Most bartenders learn their trade on ages. Some States require bartenders the job. Although preparing drinks at to have health certificates assuring home can be good practice, it does not that they are free of contagious dis qualify a person to be a bartender. eases. In some instances, they must Besides knowing a variety of cocktail be bonded. recipes, bartenders must know how to Small restaurants, neighborhood stock a bar properly and be familiar bars, and resorts usually offer a begin with State and local laws concerning ner the best opportunities. After gain the sale of alcoholic beverages. Persons who wish to become bar ing experience, a bartender may wish tenders can acquire related experi to work in a large restaurant or cock ence by working as bartenders’ help tail lounge where pay is higher and ers, waiters’ assistants, or waiters or opportunities for promotion are great waitresses. By watching a bartender er. Although opportunities for promo at work, they can learn how to mix tion in this field are limited, it is pos drinks and do other bartending tasks. sible to advance to head bartender, However, one must practice to be wine steward, or beverage manager. Some bartenders open their own bus come proficient. Some people acquire their skills by inesses. Working Conditions Many bartenders work more than 40 hours a week, and night and weekend work and split shifts are common. Bartenders have to work quickly and under pressure in a popular bar during busy periods. For many bartenders, however, the opportunity for friendly conversation with customers, the rel ative ease of changing jobs, and the possibility of someday managing or owning a bar or restaurant more than offset these disadvantages. For oth ers, the opportunity to get part-time work is important—for example, col lege students or other persons seeking supplemental income. Employment Seventy percent of the 400,000 jobs held by bartenders in 1984 were in Bartenders should have a pleasant personality and a neat, clean appearance. 308/Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Outlook Job opportunities for bartenders are expected to be plentiful. Because many bartenders are students, home makers, or others who do not plan careers in this occupation, job turn over is very high. As a result, most job openings will arise from the need to replace bartenders who transfer to other occupations or stop working for a variety of reasons. Employment of bartenders is ex pected to increase faster than the av erage for all occupations through the mid-1990’s, as new restaurants, ho tels, and bars open in response to increased spending on food and bev erages outside the home. Chefs and Cooks, Except Short Order (D.O.T. 313.281-010; .361-014, -018, -030, and -034; .381-022, -030, and -034; 315.361-010, -018, -022; .371; and .381) Nature of the Work A reputation for serving fine food is an asset to any restaurant or hotel, whether it prides itself on “ home cooking” or exotic foreign cuisine. Chefs and cooks are largely responsi ble for the reputation a restaurant acquires. Some restaurants offer a varied menu featuring meals that are time consuming and difficult to pre pare, requiring a highly skilled cook or chef. Other restaurants emphasize Earnings fast service, offering hamburgers and In 1984, median annual earnings (ex cluding tips) of full-time bartenders sandwiches that can be prepared in a were $10,600. The middle 50 percent few minutes by a short-order cook earned from $8,800 to $14,800; the top with only limited cooking skills. Short10 percent earned at least $18,100. order cooks are not included in this Besides wages, bartenders may re Handbook statement. Besides restaurants, chefs and ceive tips that substantially increase cooks work for hotels, caterers, and their earnings. Bartenders often re ceive free meals at work and may be for various institutions such as furnished bar jackets or complete uni schools, hospitals, and cafeterias throughout industry and government. forms. In some large hotels, bartenders Professional chefs are the most highly belong to unions. The principal union skilled, trained, and experienced is the Hotel Employees and Restau members of this occupation, although rant Employees International Union the terms chef and cook are often used interchangeably. Many chefs (AFL-CIO). have earned fame for both themselves and the restaurants and hotels where Related Occupations they work because of their skill in Bartenders’ duties include taking or artfully preparing the traditional fa ders, serving drinks, and collecting vorites and in creating new dishes and payment from customers. Other work improving familiar ones. ers who serve customers in a similar The duties of a chef or cook depend way include short-order cooks, food partly on the size and kind of restau counter workers, and waiters and rant. Smaller restaurants usually fea waitresses. ture a limited number of easy-toprepare items, supplemented by shortorder specialties and readymade Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities desserts. Typically, one chef or cook may be obtained from local employers prepares all of the food with the help and the local offices of the State em of a short-order cook and one or two kitchen helpers. ployment service. Large eating places usually have General information about bartend more varied menus and prepare, from ers is available from: start to finish, more of the food they National Institute for the Foodservice Industry, serve. Kitchen staffs often include 20 North Wacker Dr., Suite 2620, Chicago, 111. several chefs or cooks, sometimes 60606. A directory of colleges and other called assistant or apprentice chefs or schools offering programs and courses cooks, and many kitchen helpers. in hospitality education is available Each chef or cook usually has a spe cial assignment and often a special job from: title—pastry, fry, or sauce cook, for Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional example. Head chefs or cooks coordi Education, Room S-208, Henderson Building, nate the work of the kitchen staff and University Park, Pa. 16802. often direct certain kinds of food preparation. They decide the size of servings, sometimes plan menus, and buy food supplies. Working Conditions Many restaurant and institutional kitchens have modern equipment, convenient work areas, and air-condi tioning; but others, particularly in old er and smaller eating places, are fre quently not as well equipped. Other variations in working conditions de pend on the type and quantity of food being prepared and the local laws gov erning food service operations. In most kitchens, cooks must stand most of the time, lift heavy pots and kettles, and work near hot ovens and ranges. Hours in restaurants may include late evening, holiday, and weekend work, while hours in cafeterias in factories, schools, or other institutions may be more regular. Cooks employed in public and private schools may work during the school year only, usually for 9 or 10 months. Vacation resorts offer seasonal employment for cooks and chefs. Job hazards include falls, cuts, and burns, but injuries are seldom serious. Employment Chefs and cooks, except short order, held 884,000 jobs in 1984. About 40 percent worked in restaurants and 30 percent worked in educational institu tions. About 1 of 6 jobs was in a hotel or health care institution. Govern ment agencies, factories, private clubs, and many other organizations also employed chefs and cooks. More than one-third worked part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many chefs and cooks start work as a short-order cook or in an unskilled position such as kitchen helper and acquire their skills on the job; howev er, an increasing number are obtaining their training through high school or post-high school vocational programs and 2- or 4-year colleges. Chefs and cooks may also be trained ^ap p ren ticeship programs offered by profes sional culinary institutes, industry as sociations, and trade unions. An ex ample is the 3-year apprenticeship program administered by local chap ters of the American Culinary Feder ation in cooperation with local em ployers and junior colleges or voca tional education institutions. In Service Occupations/309 addition, some large hotels and res programs. Cafeteria employees who taurants operate their own training have participated in these training programs often are selected for jobs programs for new employees. Only a short period of training or as cooks. Certification provides valuable for experience is required to become an assistant or fry cook, but many years mal recognition of the skills of a chef of training and experience are neces or cook. The American Culinary Fed sary to achieve the level of skill re eration certifies chefs and cooks at the quired of an executive chef or cook in levels of cook, chef, pastry chef, ex a fine restaurant. Even though a high ecutive chef, and master chef. Certi school diploma is not required for fication standards are based primarily beginning jobs, it is recommended for on experience and formal training. Persons who want to become cooks those planning a career as a cook or chef. High school or vocational school or chefs should be able to work as part courses in business arithmetic and of a team and to withstand the pres business administration are particu sure and strain of working in close larly helpful. To get experience, high quarters during busy periods. A keen school students can work part time in sense of taste and smell, the stamina to stand for hours at a time, and fast-food or other restaurants. Persons who have had courses in personal cleanliness also are impor commercial food preparation will have tant qualifications. Most States re an advantage when looking for jobs in quire health certificates indicating that large restaurants and hotels, where cooks and chefs are free from conta hiring standards often are high. Some gious diseases. Advancement opportunities for vocational programs in high schools offer this kind of training. But usually cooks are better than for most other these courses, which range from a few food and beverage preparation and months to 2 years or more and are service occupations. Many cooks ac open in some cases only to high quire higher paying positions and new school graduates, are given by trade cooking skills by moving from one schools, vocational centers, colleges, operation to another. Others gradual professional associations, and trade ly advance to chef positions or super unions. The Armed Forces also are a visory or management positions, par good source of training and experi ticularly in hotels, clubs, or the larger, more elegant restaurants. Some even ence. Although curricula may vary, stu tually go into business as caterers or dents usually spend most of their time restaurant owners; others may be learning to prepare food through actu come instructors in vocational pro al practice. They learn to bake, broil, grams in high schools, junior and and otherwise prepare food, and to community colleges, and other aca use and care for kitchen equipment. demic institutions. Training programs often include courses in menu planning, determina Job Outlook tion of portion size and food cost Job openings for chefs and cooks are control, purchasing food supplies in expected to be plentiful. Employment quantity, selection and storage of growth will create many new jobs, food, and use of leftovers. Students and additional openings will arise also learn hotel and restaurant sanita from the need to replace cooks and tion and public health rules for han chefs who transfer to other occupa dling food. Training in supervisory tions or stop working for a variety of and management skills sometimes is reasons. Employment of chefs and cooks is emphasized in courses offered by pri vate vocational schools, professional expected to increase faster than the associations, and university pro average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Contributing to demand grams. Many school districts, in cooper will be population growth, higher family ation with school food services divi and personal incomes, and more leisure sions of State departments of educa time that will allow people to dine out tion, provide on-the-job training and and take vacations more often. Also, sometimes summer workshops for as more women join the work force, cafeteria workers who wish to be families increasingly may find dining come cooks. Some junior colleges, out a welcome convenience. Employment of restaurant chefs State departments of education, and school associations also offer training and cooks is expected to grow rapid- Many chefs earn fame from their prepara tion of traditional favorites or creation of new dishes. ly. Increasing demand for restaurants that offer table service and varied menus, particularly more expensive restaurants that offer more exotic foods, will require highly skilled cooks and chefs. Employment of institution and caf eteria cooks is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations due to the anticipated moderate growth in educational serv ices, where the majority are concen trated. However, employment is ex pected to increase rapidly in nursing homes, residential care facilities, and other health care institutions that serve the growing number of elderly people. Earnings In 1984, median annual earnings of full-time chefs and cooks, except short order, were $9,400. The middle 50 percent earned between $7,600 and $12,300; the top 10 percent earned at least $17,100. Wages of chefs and cooks vary de pending on the part of the country and, especially, the type of establish ment in which they work. Wages gen erally are highest in large, well-known restaurants and hotels. Chefs and cooks in famous restaurants, of course, earn much more than the above salaries; those with national reputations earn $40,000 or more a year. Employers generally provide free meals and uniforms. 310/Occupational Outlook Handbook waiters and waitresses deal with cus four-fifths worked in restaurants; tomers. The quality of service they about 10 percent worked in hotels; provide determines in part whether and others worked in recreational, the patron is likely to return. Waiters social, and other clubs. Jobs are locat and waitresses all perform essentially ed throughout the country but are the same tasks—taking customers’ or most plentiful in large cities and tour Related Occupations ders, serving food and beverages, ist areas. Vacation resorts offer sea Chefs and cooks may manage large making out checks, and sometimes sonal employment, and some waiters restaurant or hotel kitchens employ taking payments—but the manner in and waitresses alternate between sum ing dozens of people. Other workers which they go about them may vary mer and winter resorts instead of re with similar management responsibil considerably, depending on where maining in one area the entire year. ities include food service directors, they work. In coffee shops, they are executive housekeepers, and pursers. expected to provide fast, efficient ser Training, Other Qualifications, and In addition, chefs and cooks in expen vice. In restaurants where meals are Advancement sive restaurants create and then pre served elaborately and a great deal of There are no specific educational re sent a product to its best advantage. emphasis is placed on the satisfaction quirements for waiter and waitress Workers in other occupations whose and comfort of each guest, waiters jobs, although many employers prefer work must be creative and attractive and waitresses serve food at a more to hire high school graduates. Most ly presented include artists, bakers, leisurely pace and offer more personal waiters and waitresses pick up their service to their customers. For exam skills on the job, learning to set tables, clothes designers, and decorators. ple, they may suggest a certain kind of take orders from customers, and serve wine as a complement to a particular food in a courteous and efficient man Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities entree and may explain how items on ner. Some advance to this job after may be obtained from local employers the menu are prepared. working as a waiter’s assistant, car Depending on the type of restau hop, or food counter worker, but and local offices of the State employ rant, waiters and waitresses may per many persons are able to enter this ment service. Career information about chefs and form duties in addition to waiting on occupation without related work expe cooks, as well as a directory of junior tables. These tasks may include set rience. Experience waiting on tables and senior colleges that offer courses ting up and clearing tables and carry is preferred by restaurants and hotels or programs that prepare persons for ing soiled tableware to the kitchen. which have rigid table service stan food service careers, is available from: Although very small restaurants usu dards. Jobs at these establishments ally combine waiting on tables with often have higher earnings, but may National Institute for the Foodservice Industry, 20 North Wacker Dr., Suite 2620, Chicago, 111. counter service or cashiering, larger also have higher educational stan 60606. or more formal restaurants frequently dards than less formal establishments. For information on the American relieve their waiters and waitresses of Most employers place an emphasis Culinary Federation’s apprenticeship these additional duties. on personal qualities. Waiters and and certification programs for cooks, waitresses should be well spoken and write to: Working Conditions have a neat and clean appearance be American Culinary Federation, P.O. Box 3466, Some waiters and waitresses work cause they are in close and constant St. Augustine, Fla. 32084. split shifts—that is, they work for contact with the public. An even dis For career information and a direc several hours during the middle of the position is also important since they tory of accredited private trade and day, take a few hours off in the after must serve customers quickly and un technical schools offering programs in noon, and then return to their jobs for der pressure during busy periods. the culinary arts, write to: the evening hours. Most are expected Waiters and waitresses should enjoy National Association of Trade and Technical to work on holidays and weekends. dealing with all kinds of people. A Schools, 2251 Wisconsin Ave. NW., Washing The wide range in dining hours cre good memory is essential to avoid ton, D.C. 20007. For a directory of colleges and other ates a good opportunity for flexible confusing customers’ orders and to schools offering programs and courses part-time work schedules attractive to recall the faces, names, and prefer students, homemakers, and others. ences of frequent patrons. Stamina is in hospitality education, write to: The majority of waiters and waitress necessary, as waiters and waitresses Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional es work part time, a larger proportion are on their feet for hours at a time, Education, Room S-208, Henderson Building, than in almost any other occupation. lifting and carrying trays of food from University Park, Pa. 16802. Waiters and waitresses are on their kitchen to table. Waiters and wait feet most of the time and often have to resses also should be good at arith carry heavy trays of dishes and food. metic if they have to total bills without During dining hours, they may have to the aid of a calculator. In restaurants Waiters and rush to serve several tables at once. specializing in foreign foods, knowl The work is relatively safe, but they edge of a foreign language is helpful. Waitresses must be careful to avoid slips or falls State laws often require waiters and (D.O.T. 310.357; 311.477-018 through -030; .674-018; waitresses to obtain health certificates and burns. 350.677-010, -026, and -030; and 352.677-018)________ showing that they are free of conta gious diseases. Employment Nature of the Work Some public and private vocational Whether they work in small, informal Waiters and waitresses held more diners than 1.6 million jobs in 1984. Nearly schools, restaurant associations, and or large, fancy restaurants, all In some large hotels and restaurants, chefs and cooks belong to unions. The principal union is the Hotel Employ ees and Restaurant Employees Inter national Union (AFL-CIO). Service Occupations/311 large restaurant chains provide class room training in a generalized food service curriculum. Other employers use self-instruction programs to teach new employees food preparation and service skills through the use of audio visual presentations and instructional booklets. For many persons, a job as a waiter or waitress serves as a source of im mediate income rather than a career. Many entrants to the occupation are in their late teens or early twenties and have a high school education or less. Usually, they have little or no work experience. Many are full-time students or homemakers. Due to the small size of most food serving establishments, opportunities for promotion are limited. After gain ing some experience, however, a wait er or waitress may transfer to a larger restaurant where earnings and pros pects for advancement are better. Ad vancement can be to supervisory jobs, such as host or hostess, maitre d’ hotel, or dining room supervisor. Some supervisory workers advance to jobs as restaurant managers. Job Outlook Job openings for waiters and waitress es are expected to be plentiful through the mid-1990’s. Most openings will arise from the need to replace the high proportion of waiters and waitresses who leave this very large occupation each year. There is substantial move ment into and out of the occupation due to the limited formal education and training requirements and pre dominance of part-time jobs. Many waiters and waitresses simply move to other occupations; others stop working to assume household respon sibilities or to attend school. Employment of waiters and wait resses is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Demand will stem from population growth, rising personal incomes, and increased lei sure time which, combined, will cre ate more business for restaurants. Also, as more women join the work force, families may increasingly find dining out a welcome convenience. The best opportunities for employ ment will be in moderately priced res taurants. Because potential earnings are greatest in expensive restaurants, keen competition exists for the jobs that become available in these estab lishments. Earnings In 1984, median annual earnings (ex cluding tips) of full-time waiters and waitresses were $9,400. The middle 50 percent earned between $6,600 and $12,000; the top 10 percent earned at least $15,500. For many waiters and waitresses, however, tips are greater than hourly wages. Tips generally av erage between 10 and 20 percent of guests’ checks. Most waiters and waitresses receive meals at work, and many are furnished with uniforms. In some large hotels, waiters and waitresses belong to unions. The prin cipal union is the Hotel Employees Restaurant Employees International Union (AFL-CIO). Related Occupations Other workers whose jobs involve serving customers and helping them feel at ease and enjoy themselves in- Waiters and waitresses may explain how dishes are prepared or suggest a certain wine as a complement to an entree. elude flight attendants, butlers, counter workers, hosts and hostesses, and bellhops. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employ ment service. General information on waiter and waitress jobs is available from: National Institute for the Foodservice Industry, 20 North Wacker Dr., Suite 2620, Chicago, 111. 60606. For a directory of colleges and schools offering programs and courses in hospitality education, write to: Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, Room S208, Henderson Building, University Park, Pa. 16802. Health Service Occupations Health service workers assist health professionals such as physicians, den tists, optometrists, nurses, and thera pists. They typically perform routine but essential tasks that involve a great deal of personal contact: Conversing with patients, making them comfort able, and setting them at ease. De pending on their place of work, they might make appointments, greet pa tients, keep records, set up equip ment, deliver food trays, change bed linen, transport patients, help them do exercises, and escort those who can not walk unassisted. Little formal training is required, although some workers prepare by completing 1- or 2-year programs of fered by community colleges, voca tional-technical institutes, and trade schools. Employers generally provide all the necessary training on the job. While high school graduates are pre ferred, employers do not always insist on a diploma. More important are the personal traits these jobs require: De pendability, common sense, emotion al stability, a cheerful disposition, and willingness to assume responsibility. Physical effort is involved, and at times the work is strenuous, tiring, and stressful. Nursing aides and psychiatric aides make up the largest of these occupa tions; they held nearly 1.3 million jobs in 1984. Much of their workday is spent answering patients’ bell calls, delivering and collecting food trays, and helping patients with bathing, dressing, grooming, and meals. In nursing homes and mental hospitals, aides provide most of the direct pa tient care. Ambulance drivers and am bulance attendants also provide es sential services. Physical therapists, occupational therapists, and recreational therapists also work with the support of assis tants and aides. The different job ti tles reflect different levels of training and expertise. Assistants have more formal preparation than aides; many are graduates of 2-year associate de gree programs. Assistants help the therapist test patients and administer treatments. Aides are less directly in Digitized for 312 FRASER volved in diagnosis and treatment. Instead, they help patients dress and undress, organize and maintain the equipment, make appointments, and perform other clerical duties. There were almost 300,000 medical or dental assisting jobs in 1984. Assis tants usually work in the office of a practitioner, and handle a combina tion of office and patient care duties. Optometric assistants and ophthalmic medical assistants, for example, main tain records, give preliminary eye ex aminations, and help patients do pre scribed exercises. Dental assistants held 169,000 jobs in 1984 and medical assistants held 128,000 jobs. (Medical assistants should not be confused with physician assistants, highly skilled health professionals who undergo sev eral years of rigorous training to ac quire their skill in patient care. Their work is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) Other assisting jobs in clude those of chiropractor assistant and podiatric assistant. Employment in many of these oc cupations is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. This reflects anticipated demand for health care services on the part of a growing and longer living population, and contin ued emphasis on using support per sonnel to increase the productivity of highly trained practitioners. Most job openings, however, will result from replacement needs, which will contin ue to be substantial. Turnover in these occupations tends to be very high, in part because entry requirements are minimal and pay scales are low. Growth rates and job prospects are not the same for all the health service occupations; see the Handbook state ments that follow for information on specific occupations. Dental Assistants (D.O.T. 079.371-010) Nature of the Work Dental assistants work with dentists as they examine and treat patients. The assistant makes the patient com fortable in the dental chair, prepares him or her for treatment, and obtains dental records. The assistant hands the dentist the proper instruments and materials and keeps the patient’s mouth dry and clear by using suction or other devices. Assistants sterilize and disinfect instruments and equip ment; prepare tray setups for dental procedures; provide post-operative instruction; and instruct patients in oral health practices. Some dental as sistants prepare materials for making impressions and restorations, expose radiographs, and process dental X-ray film as directed by the dentist. Dental assistants may perform a variety of laboratory, clinical, and of fice duties; some make casts of the teeth and mouth from impressions taken by the dentist. In some States, assistants apply medications to the teeth and oral tissue, remove excess cement used in the filling process, and place rubber dams on the teeth to isolate them for individual treatment. In small, single-dentist practices, den tal assistants may manage the office and arrange and confirm appoint ments, receive patients, keep treat ment records, send bills, receive pay ments, and order dental supplies and materials. In group dental practices, assistants may take on one or more of these functions in addition to working with the dentists. The work of the dental assistant should not be confused with that of the dental hygienist, who is licensed to scale and polish teeth. (See the statement on dental hygienists else where in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Dental assistants work in a welllighted, clean environment. Handling radiographic equipment poses dan gers, but the hazards can be mini mized by proper use of lead shielding and safety procedures. Dental assistants, like dentists, work in either a standing or sitting position. Their work area is near the dental chair, so that they can arrange instruments, materials, and medica- Service Occupations/313 tion, and hand them to the dentist when needed. They must be a den tist’s “third hand,’’ and, therefore, should exhibit some manual dexterity and be able to deal with people who may be under stress. Although the 40-hour workweek prevails for dental assistants, the schedule is likely to include work on Saturday. Employment Dental assistants held about 169,000 jobs in 1984. About 1 out of 4 worked part time, sometimes in more than one dentist’s office. Most dental assistants work in pri vate dental offices, either for individ ual dentists or for groups of dentists. Others work in dental schools, hospi tal dental departments, State and local public health departments, or private clinics. The Federal Government em ploys dental assistants in hospitals and dental clinics of the U.S. Public Health Service and the Veterans Ad ministration. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Dental assisting is an entry level job. The principal requirements are a con genial personality and the ability to learn the job. Consequently, entrants to this occupation tend to be young; for many, it is their first experience in the world of work. About 2 out of 5 dental assistants learn their skills on the job and an equal number are trained in dental assisting programs offered by commu nity and junior colleges, trade schools, and technical institutes. Some assis tants are trained in Armed Forces schools. About 290 formal training programs were accredited by the American Den tal Association’s Commission on Den tal Accreditation in 1984. More than three-fourths of the programs take 1 year to complete and lead to a certif icate or diploma. Graduates of 2-year programs offered in community and junior colleges earn an associate de gree. The minimum requirement for any of these programs is a high school diploma or its equivalent. Some schools require typing or a science course for admission. Some private vocational schools offer 4- to 6-month courses in dental assisting, but these are not accredited by the dental pro fession. Those receiving dental assist ant training in the Armed Forces usu Dental assistants serve as a dentist’s “third hand.” ally qualify for civilian jobs as dental assistants. High school students interested in careers as dental assistants should take courses in biology, chemistry, health, typing, and office practices. Accredited dental assisting pro grams include classroom, laboratory, and preclinical instruction in dental assisting skills and related theory. In addition, students gain practical expe rience in affiliated dental schools, lo cal clinics, or selected dental offices. A correspondence course offered by the University of North Carolina School of Dentistry is also available. This course is designed for dental as sistants who are learning on the job or who otherwise are unable to partici pate in accredited training programs on a full-time basis. The correspon dence program is equivalent to 1 aca demic year of study but generally re quires about 2 years to complete. Certification is available through the Dental Assisting National Board. Certification is an acknowledgment of an assistant’s qualifications and pro fessional competence, but is not gen erally required for employment. In several States that have set standards for dental assistants who perform 314/Occupational Outlook Handbook radiologic procedures, completion of the certification examination meets those standards. High school graduates may qualify to take the certification examination by graduating from a training program accredited by the Commission on Dental Accreditation; having 1 aca demic year of postsecondary educa tion and 2 years of full-time experi ence as a dental assistant; or having 5 years of full-time experience as a den tal assistant. In addition, all appli cants must have taken a course in cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Some dental assistants seek to qual ify for practice as dental hygienists. Prospective dental assistants who foresee this possibility should plan carefully, since credit earned in a dental assistant program often is not applicable toward requirements for a dental hygiene certificate. Some dental assistants become sales repre sentatives for firms that manufacture dental products. The field of dental assisting education offers opportuni ties in teaching and program adminis tration. Job Outlook Employment of dental assistants is expected to grow faster than the aver age for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Demand for dental care is expected to continue to rise because of population growth, rising real in comes, and more widespread avail ability of dental insurance. Provided they have a large enough practice, dentists have a powerful incentive to hire assistants—if they delegate rou tine tasks to dental assistants, they can use their time for more remuner ative procedures. A sharp decline in patient load would lead dentists to perform more functions themselves and hire fewer support staff. This is a possibility in view of improvements in dental health due to fluoridation and other forms of preventive dentistry, together with the rapidly expanding supply of den tists. Should such a decline occur, employment growth would be some what slower than currently expected. Most job openings will be created by the need to replace assistants who leave the occupation. Since dental assisting offers relatively low pay and limited advancement, a large proportion of dental assistants leave the occupation annually. Qualified ap Digitized forplicants should have little trouble lo FRASER cating a job. This is largely an occu pation of young women, and many of them leave the job to take on family responsibilities. Others return to school or transfer to other occupa tions. Few leave for retirement or disability. Earnings Salaries of dental assistants depend largely on the duties and responsibili ties attached to the particular job and on geographic location. Dentists’ pol icies with respect to salaries vary widely, but there is little evidence that individuals who have completed a for mal training program in dental assist ing command higher pay. In 1984, median earnings for dental assistants working full time were about $225 a week, according to a survey by the American Dental Asso ciation. In the Federal Government, exper ience and the amount and type of education determine starting salaries. In 1985, a high school graduate who had 6 months of experience started at $11,458 a year; graduates of a 1year accredited dental assisting pro gram who had a year of general expe rience could expect to start at nearly $12,900 a year. Dental assistants working for the Federal Government earned average salaries of about $15,200 in 1984. Related Occupations Dental assistants perform a variety of duties that do not require the dentist’s professional knowledge and skill. Oth er workers who provide similar serv ices under the supervision of a health practitioner include medical assis tants, chiropractor assistants, optometric assistants, podiatric assistants, and surgical technicians. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportuni ties, scholarships, accredited dental assistant programs, and requirements for certification is available from: American Dental Assistants Association, 666 N. Lake Shore Dr.. Suite 1130, Chicago, 111. 60611. Commission on Dental Accreditation, Ameri can Dental Association, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Suite 1814, Chicago, 111. 60611. Dental Assisting National Board, Inc., 666 N. Lake Shore Dr., Suite 1136, Chicago, 111. 60611. Medical Assistants (D .O .T . 079.364-010, -014, and -022, .367-010, and .374-018) Nature of the Work Medical assistants help physicians ex amine and treat patients and perform routine tasks needed to keep the office running smoothly. The duties of a medical assistant may be administrative, clinical, or both. The size of the office determines the scope of the job: those in small offices typically handle both clerical and clinical duties, whereas in offices with a sizable staff, medical assistants usually specialize in either the office or patient care aspects of the job. Clinical duties most commonly in clude: Recording patients’ height, weight, temperature, and blood pres sure; obtaining medical histories; per forming basic laboratory tests; pre paring patients for examination or treatment; assisting the physician in examining patients; and sterilizing in struments. Other clinical duties may be instructing patients about medica tion and self-treatment, drawing blood, preparing patients for X-rays, taking EKG’s, and applying dress ings. Medical assistants also may arrange instruments and equipment in the ex amining room; check office and labo ratory supplies; and maintain the wait ing, consulting, and examination rooms in a neat and orderly condition. Medical assistants perform a varie ty of administrative duties. They may answer the telephone, greet patients and other callers, record and file pa tient data and medical records, fill out medical reports and insurance forms, handle correspondence, schedule ap pointments, and arrange for hospital admission and laboratory services. Along with other office duties, they may transcribe dictation and handle the bookkeeping and billing. Increas ingly, medical assistants perform rou tine clerical tasks—such as record keeping and billing—on automated of fice equipm ent, prim arily word processors and personal computers (microcomputers). Medical secretaries and medical re ceptionists also perform administra tive tasks in medical offices, but, un like medical assistants, they rarely have clinical duties. (See the state ments on secretaries and receptionists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Medical assistants employed in hos High school courses in mathematics, pitals or outpatient facilities, like those health, biology, typing, bookkeeping, who work in practitioners’ offices, computers, and office practices are perform a variety of tasks. For in helpful. Many medical assistants receive stance, they may assist physicians in emergency departments by providing their training in formal programs of direct care to patients. In addition, fered in some high schools and, at the they may process paperwork without postsecondary level, by vocationalthe direct supervision of a physician, technical institutes, trade schools, for example, in the admissions or community and junior colleges, and universities. Community college and medical records departments. M edical assistants known as university programs in medical assist ophthalmic medical assistants help ing usually last 2 years and lead to an ophthalmologists to care for eyes. associate degree; the other programs They take medical histories, use pre take up to 1 year to complete and cision instruments to administer diag graduates receive a diploma or certif nostic tests, measure eyes, and test icate. Two agencies are recognized by the eye functioning. At times, they pro vide technical assistance to ophthal U.S. Department of Education to ac mologists during eye surgery. These credit programs in medical assisting: workers change eye dressings, admin The Committee on Allied Health Ed ister eye drops or oral medications, ucation and Accreditation (CAHEA) and teach patients how to insert, re and the Accrediting Bureau of Health move, and care for contact lenses. Education Schools (ABHES). The Sometimes, they may help ophthal 165 medical assisting and 8 ophthalmic mologists dispense eyeglasses and medical assisting programs approved contact lenses. Among their other du by CAHEA graduated about 6,300 ties are caring for and maintaining students in 1984. The ABHES accred its 134 medical assisting programs, optical and surgical instruments. and graduates numbered about 7,100 in 1984. The curriculum in these pro Working Conditions Medical assistants work in a well- grams consists of courses in biology, lighted, clean environment. They need anatomy and physiology, typing, tran to be careful when performing clinical scription, accounting, records and work, such as sterilizing equipment or recordkeeping, and medical terminol ogy. Many students receive instruc doing laboratory tests. tion in computer skills as they apply to the medical office. Students also Employment Medical assistants held about 128,000 receive supervised clinical experience jobs in 1984. Most jobs were in the and learn laboratory techniques, use offices of physicians and other health of medical equipment, clinical proce practitioners, including optometrists, dures, and first-aid techniques. In ad podiatrists, and chiropractors. The re dition, students receive instruction in maining jobs were in hospitals, clin administrative and office practices in ics, health maintenance organizations, cluding communications skills, human and other facilities. The following tab relations, and medical law and ethics. ulation shows the distribution of wage There are no licensing requirements and salary jobs in 1984: for medical assistants. Gaining cre Percent dentials, which is voluntary, consists of certification offered by professional T o t a l.................................. 100 organizations upon successful com pletion of an examination. The Amer Offices of physicians (M .D .’s and D .O .’s )................................ 67 ican Association of Medical Assis H ospitals......................................... 14 tants (AAMA) awards the Certified Offices of other health Medical Assistant (CMA) credential, practitioners.............................. 9 the American Medical Technologists Outpatient care fa c ilitie s........... 4 awards the Registered Medical Assist All o th e r ......................................... 6 ant (RMA) credential, and the Joint Commission on Allied Health Person Training, Other Qualifications, and nel in Ophthalmology awards the Advancement Medical assistants often are trained Ophthalmic Medical Assistant cre on the job. Applicants usually need a dential at three levels: Certified Ophthalmic A ssistant, Certified Digitized for high school diploma or the equivalent. FRASER Service Occupations/315 procedures. Ophthalmic Technician, and Certified Ophthalmic Technologist. For medical assistants, advance ment often means leaving the occupa tion, for career lines are short. Clini cal health occupations such as radiologic technologist or registered nurse require additional clinical education, whereas administrative and manageri al jobs may not. Medical assistants who demonstrate leadership abilities may, for example, be promoted to the position of office manager. (The trend toward group practice, clinics, free standing emergency centers, and oth er alternatives to solo practice is like ly to heighten demand for office man agers.) Medical assistants with computer skills are qualified for a wide variety of research and manage ment support positions. A neat, well-groomed appearance and a courteous, pleasant manner are necessary traits for medical assis tants, who have a great deal of contact with the public. Communication skills are especially important. Medical as sistants must not only be good at putting patients at ease, but be good listeners and interpret a physician’s instructions correctly the first time they are given. Conscientiousness, a sense of responsibility, and respect for the confidential nature of medical information are all necessary qualities in a medical assistant. Clinical duties require a reasonable level of manual dexterity and visual acuity. Medical 316/Occupational Outlook Handbook assistants must be able to deal with people who are under stress. Job Outlook Employment of medical assistants is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Contributing to future job growth is the projected increase in the number of practicing physicians, together with extremely rapid growth in outpatient care facilities, such as urgent care centers and surgicenters. The increased complexity and volume of the paperwork associated with medical care also will spur demand. Most job openings, however, will re sult from the need to replace experi enced assistants who leave the occu pation. In view of the preference of many physicians for trained personnel, job prospects should be very good for medical assistants with formal train ing, experience, or both. Employers view formal certification favorably. Medical assistants with word process ing and computer skills will have an advantage. Earnings The earnings of medical assistants vary widely. The assistant’s qualifica tions and experience and the size and location of the physician’s practice all help to determine the level of pay. Inexperienced medical assistants started at about $7,000 a year in 1984, according to data collected by the American Medical Association. Expe rienced medical assistants earned as much as $15,000 a year; average earn ings were about $10,300. Although medical assistants usually work 40 hours a week, some work on Saturday may be required. Related Occupations Workers in other health occupations that entail a combination of adminis trative and clinical duties include orthoptists, pharmacy helpers, dental assistants, occupational therapy aides, and physical therapist aides. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportuni ties, CAHEA-accredited educational programs in medical assisting, and requirements for the Certified Medical Assistant exam is available from: The American Association of Medical Assis tants, 20 North Wacker Dr., Suite 1575, Chica Digitized forgo, 111. 60606. FRASER Information about career opportu nities and requirements for becoming a Registered Medical Assistant is available from: years, the nursing aide must be able to sustain ongoing personal relationships with them. Often such patients are confused and disoriented, which re quires that the aide respond in a pos American Medical Technologists, Registered Medical Assistants, 710 Higgins Rd., Park itive, caring way. For example, in Ridge, 111. 60068. nursing homes that have reality orien For a list of ABHES-accredited ed tation and resocialization programs, ucational programs in medical assist aides play an important role in rein ing, write: forcing the strategies designed by the Accrediting Bureau o f Health Education professional staff. Schools, Oak Manor Office, 29089 U.S. 20 Nursing aides employed by home West, Ejkhart, Ind. 46514. health programs, usually known as Information about career opportu nities, training programs, and require home health aides, provide personal ments to become a Certified Ophthal as well as nursing care to patients in their homes. Besides caring for the mic Assistant is available from: patient, these aides have to work Joint Commission on Allied Health Personnel in closely with the family. Reliability, Ophthalmology, 1812 N. St. Paul Rd., St. Paul, honesty, and good judgment are es Minn. 55109. sential since they work without direct supervision. Psychiatric aides, known also as mental health assistants, psychiatric Nursing Aides and nursing assistants, or ward atten Psychiatric Aides dants, are found in a variety of set tings: State and county mental hospi (D.O.T. 354.374-010, .377-010, and .677-010; 355.377tals, private psychiatric hospitals, psy 014 and -018, .674-014 and -018) chiatric units of general hospitals, Nature of the Work community mental health centers, Nursing aides and psychiatric aides residential facilities for the mentally help care for people who are physical retarded, halfway houses, and, in ly or mentally ill, disabled, or infirm. creasingly, drug abuse and alcoholism Their job duties vary depending on treatment programs. They work as the work setting and the characteris part of a team that may include many tics of their patients. kinds of mental health professionals, Typical duties of nursing aides in such as psychiatrists, psychologists, general hospitals, sometimes known psychiatric nurses, social workers, as nursing assistants, orderlies, or and various types of therapists. In hospital attendants, include answer addition to their personal care du ing patients’ bell calls and delivering ties—helping dress, bathe, groom, messages, serving meals, feeding pa and feed patients—psychiatric aides tients who are unable to feed them spend a lot of time with patients. They selves, making beds, and bathing and may play cards or other games with dressing patients. Aides also may give patients, talk with them and encour massages, take temperatures, and as age them, participate in activities with sist patients in getting out of bed and them, and, in general, strive to imple walking. In some hospitals, they may ment the treatment plan designed by help registered nurses and licensed the professional staff. They observe practical nurses care for patients. The the patients and report any meaning work depends on whether the patient ful signs or actions to the professional is confined to bed after major surgery, staff. If necessary, they help restrain is recovering after a disabling accident and seclude unruly, disturbed pa or illness, or needs assistance in daily tients. Because they are the staff activities because of advanced age. At members in closest contact with pa times they may have to escort patients tients, psychiatric aides can greatly to operating and examining rooms or influence patients’ outlook and treat store and move supplies in hospital ment by being patient, understanding, and emotionally supportive. pharmacies or supply rooms. Nursing aides employed in nursing homes, sometimes referred to as geri Working Conditions atric aides, perform many of the same With few exceptions, the scheduled tasks as their counterparts in general workweek of aides in hospitals and hospitals. However, because the pa nursing homes is 40 hours or less. tients often stay for months or even Because patients need care 24 hours a Service Occupations/317 day, scheduled work hours include evenings, nights, weekends, and holi days. Workers spend many hours standing and may have to move pa tients in bed or help them stand or walk. Nursing aides often empty bed pans, change soiled bed linens, and care for disoriented and irritable patients. Psy chiatric aides sometimes are confront ed with violent patients. Such experi ences can be emotionally draining. Many gain personal satisfaction, how ever, from assisting those in need. Employment Nursing aides held about 1,204,000 jobs in 1984, while psychiatric aides held about 64,000 jobs. Most wage and salary jobs were in hospitals or nursing homes, as the accompanying chart shows. About a quarter of all aide jobs are part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement These are entry level jobs that do not ordinarily require work experience. Educational requirements are mini mal. Although employers prefer high school graduates, many, such as Vet erans Administration medical centers, do not require a high school diploma. Employers often accept applicants who are 17 or 18 years of age. In addition to providing young peo ple with an entry to the world of work, these occupations offer good opportu nities for middle-aged and older indi viduals who do not have a high school diploma. The fact that personal qualifications such as warmth, dependability, and maturity outweigh formal educational requirements is a distinctive feature of these occupations. However, hiring requirements are beginning to change in the direction of more formal prep aration. In many States, nursing aides must be certified. To receive certification, they must pass an approved course of instruction from a State-approved school. These courses, which range in length from 65 to 240 hours, are of fered in high schools, vocational edu cation schools, and schools affiliated with nursing homes. Subjects taught include body mechanics, nutrition, anatomy and physiology, infection control, and communications skills. In States which do not require cer tification, nursing aides generally are trained after they are hired. Some institutions combine on-the-job train ing, under registered nurses or li censed practical nurses, with class room instruction. Trainees learn to take and record temperatures, bathe patients, change linens on beds occu pied by patients, and move and lift patients. Initial training may last sev eral days or a few months, depending on the policies of the institution, the complexity of the duties, and the aide’s aptitude for the work. Psychi atric aides, for example, are taught interpersonal relations, group dynam ics, and socialization techniques to enable them to work constructively with the mentally ill. Opportunities for learning continue, even after the initial orientation or training period ends; most aides are required to at tend lectures, workshops, and other forms of in-service training from time to time. Courses in home nursing and first aid, offered by many public school systems and other community agen cies, provide a useful background of knowledge for the work. Volunteer work and temporary summer jobs in hospitals and similar institutions also are helpful. Applicants should be healthy, tactful, patient, understand ing, emotionally stable, and depend able. Nursing aides and psychiatric aides, as other health workers, should have a genuine desire to help people, be able to work as part of a team, and be willing to perform repetitive, rou tine tasks. Opportunities for advancement within these occupations are limited. Assisting at mealtime is an important part of a nursing aide’s job. Career ladders, where they exist at all, are very short. Nonetheless, the large and growing health industry— which comprises hundreds of occupa tions and employment settings—of fers career opportunities for aides who undertake additional training. Experience in health care almost in variably is an asset when applying for such training, which is offered by community colleges, vocational-tech nical institutes, and trade schools. Hospital occupations requiring ap proximately 1 year of training beyond high school include surgical techni cian, licensed practical nurse, EEG Most psychiatric aides work in hospitals, but fewer than a third of nursing aides do. SOURCE Bureau of Labor Statistics 318/Occupational Outlook Handbook technologist, EKG technician, respi ratory therapy technician, clinical lab oratory assistant, and dietetic techni cian. Many of these are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Job Outlook Job prospects for nursing aides and psychiatric aides are expected to be good through the mid-1990’s. Growth in demand for these workers and the need to replace experienced workers who leave their jobs will create far more openings than in most other oc cupations. Employment of nursing aides is ex pected to grow faster than the average for all occupations in response to the health care needs of a growing and aging population. O pportunities should be best in nursing homes and home health agencies, due to the an ticipated expansion of long-term care for people with chronic illnesses and disabling conditions, many of whom are elderly. Employment of these workers in hospitals is expected to decline due to shifts in staffing patterns as hospitals concentrate on providing intensive, high-technology care to seriously ill patients. Patients who are not quite so ill, and those in need of continued care after a hospital stay, will be treat ed elsewhere—in a rehabilitation unit, a nursing home, or at home. For this reason, long-term care settings are expected to replace hospitals as the principal employer of nursing aides by 1995. Employment of psychiatric aides is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations. As in the past, job prospects for aides will be tied almost exclusively to the out look for public and private mental hospitals. Demand for inpatient psy chiatric care may rise in the years ahead because of demographic fac tors. The very sharp increase in the number of older persons—many of whom experience severe depression or are unable to recognize friends and relatives—is likely to increase de mand, as is the movement of the large baby-boom generation through young adulthood, a time of life when schizo phrenia and other severe mental ill nesses peak. However, employment in public mental hospitals is not likely to grow much, if at all, due to con straints on public spending and con tinued support for a policy of dein stitutionalization, which has “ emp tied” State hospitals and diverted new admissions for more than 20 years. Demand for inpatient care in private psychiatric facilities is likely to grow somewhat, however, for several rea sons. Among them are broad thirdparty coverage for acute psychiatric episodes; growing public acceptance of formal treatment for drug abuse and alcoholism; and some lessening of the stigma attached to receiving men tal health care. While most openings for psychiatric aides are likely to occur in hospitals, additional opportunities will be avail able in such settings as community mental health centers, residential treatment facilities, halfway houses, and outpatient psychiatric clinics. In both occupations, replacement needs will constitute the major source of openings. Turnover is high, a re flection of relatively low skill require ments and low pay. Earnings Median annual earnings of nursing aides who worked full time in 1984 were about $10,000. The middle 50 percent earned between $8,000 and $13,000. The lowest 10 percent earned about $7,000 or less. The top 10 per cent earned $17,000 or more. In 1985, the Veterans Administra tion paid inexperienced nursing aides who were high school graduates annu al salaries of $10,501. Nursing aides with a year of experience received $11,458, while those with 2 years re ceived $12,862. The average salary of nursing aides employed by the Feder al Government was about $15,200 a year in 1984. Nursing aides in hospitals had me dian average salaries ranging from $10,600 to $12,800 a year in 1985, depending on the size of the hospital, according to the Executive Compen sation Service. Orderlies’ median av erage salaries ranged from $10,500 to $13,100. Nursing homes paid certified nurs ing aides median annual salaries of $8,900 and noncertified nursing aides, about $8,300 in 1984, according to a survey by the Hospital Compensation Service. Nursing aides in home health agen cies had average salaries of about $8,900 a year in 1983, according to a Home Care Agency Survey conduct ed by the Select Committee on Aging of the U.S. House of Representatives. Attendants in hospitals and similar institutions generally receive at least 1 week’s paid vacation after 1 year of service. Paid holidays and sick leave, hospital and medical benefits, extra pay for late-shift work, and pension plans also are available to many hos pital employees. Related Occupations Nursing aides and psychiatric aides help with the care and treatment of people who are sick, disabled, or in firm. They may move and assemble heavy equipment and perform house keeping chores. Workers with similar duties include homemaker-home health aides, mental health techni cians, childcare attendants, compan ions, occupational therapy aides, physical therapy aides, caretakers, and central supply workers. Sources of Additional Information For information on nursing careers in hospitals, contact: American Hospital Association, Division of Nursing, 840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, 111. 60611. For a copy of Health Careers in Long-Term Care, write: American Health Care Association, 1200 15th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. Information about employment also may be obtained from local hospitals and nursing homes. Cleaning Service Occupations Hotels, hospitals, apartment and of fice buildings, schools, factories, and other structures need to be kept clean and in good condition. This work is done by people in cleaning service occupations. They clean, replenish supplies, and do routine maintenance. Workers who have limited skills or little education can often find jobs in this field. Skills usually are learned on the job, but other training sometimes is available. Janitors, for example, may attend training programs offered by unions and government agencies. Maids and housekeepers may take home study or classroom courses in housekeeping procedures offered by their employer. Workers who do their jobs well and show they can handle responsibility may advance to supervisor. Cleaning service workers must be courteous, tactful, and neat if their job requires contact with the public. They should be able to follow instructions and work well on their own. Some of these workers perform repetitive and tiring tasks such as scrubbing and waxing floors or making up beds. They must be able to tolerate the boredom of the job. Starting pay for most cleaning and building service workers is relatively low. Employment of these workers should increase as additonal hotels, office buildings, and other structures that require cleaning and maintenance are built. Job turnover is high in these occupations. Thus, besides jobs cre ated by increased demand for cleaning services, many job openings will oc cur each year as workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Janitors and Cleaners (D.O.T. 323.687; 358.687-010; 381.687 except -010; 382.664-010; 389.667-010. .683-010, .687-014; 739.687198; 891.687-010 and -018; and 952.687-010) hospitals, stores, apartment houses, and other types of buildings clean and in good condition. Some janitors only do cleaning; others have a wide range of duties. They may fix leaky faucets, empty trash cans, do painting and carpentry, replenish bathroom sup plies, mow lawns, and see that heating and air-conditioning equipment works properly. On a typical day, janitors may wet- or dry-mop floors, vacuum carpets, dust furniture, make minor repairs, and exterminate insects and rodents. Janitors and cleaners use different equipment, tools, and cleaning mate rials. For one job they may need a mop and bucket; for another, an elec tric polishing machine and a special cleaning solution. Improved chemical cleaners and power equipment have made many tasks easier and less time consuming, but janitors must know how to use them properly to avoid harming floors and fixtures. Working Conditions Since most office buildings are cleaned while they are empty, many cleaners work evening hours. Some, however, such as school custodians, work in the daytime. When there is a need for 24-hour maintenance, janitors may be assigned to shifts. Janitors and cleaners usually work inside heated, well-lighted buildings. However, sometimes they work out doors sweeping walkways, mowing lawns, or shoveling snow. Working with machines can be noisy, and some tasks, such as cleaning bathrooms and trash rooms, can be dirty and unpleas ant. Janitors may suffer minor cuts, bruises, and burns from machines, handtools, and chemicals. Janitors and cleaners spend most of their time on their feet, sometimes lifting or pushing heavy furniture or equipment. Many tasks, such as dust ing or sweeping, require constant bending, stooping, and stretching. Employment Janitors and cleaners held 2.9 million Nature of the Work Janitors or cleaners—also called build jobs in 1984. One-third worked part ing custodians—keep office buildings, time (less than 35 hours a week). Custodians worked in every type of establishment. About 1 in 5 worked in a school, including colleges and uni versities. One in 10 worked in a hotel and 1 in 14 in a hospital. One in 6 worked for a firm supplying building maintenance services on a contract basis. Others were employed by res taurants, operators of apartment buildings; office buildings, and other types of real estate, churches and oth er religious organizations, manufac turing firms, and government agen cies. Although cleaning jobs can be found in all cities and towns, most are locat ed in highly populated areas where there are many office buildings, stores, and apartment houses. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement No special education is required for most cleaning jobs, but the beginner should know simple arithmetic and be able to follow instructions. High school shop courses are helpful for minor plumbing or carpentry work. Most janitors and cleaners learn their skills on the job. Usually, begin ners work with an experienced clean er doing routine cleaning. They are given more complicated work as they gain experience. In some cities, programs run by unions, government agencies, or em ployers teach janitorial skills. Stu dents learn how to clean buildings thoroughly and efficiently, the correct way to clean different surfaces, and how to operate and maintain ma chines used on the job, such as wet and dry vacuums, buffers, and polish ers. Instruction in minor electrical, plumbing, and other repairs may also be given. As part of their training, students learn to plan their work, to follow safety and health regulations, to deal with people in the buildings they clean, and to work without su pervision. Janitors and cleaners usually find work by answering newspaper adver tisements or applying directly to a company where they would like to work or to a building maintenance 319 320/Occupational Outlook Handbook ing personnel with these machines. Even if these robots become afford able, they could not be used in many places, particularly cluttered areas. One-third of janitors and cleaners work part time. service. They also get jobs through State employment offices. Cleaning jobs in the government are obtained by applying to the civil service per sonnel headquarters. Advancement opportunities for janitorial workers usually are limited because, in many buildings, the jani tor is the only maintenance worker. Where there is a large maintenance staff, however, janitors can be pro moted to supervisory jobs. A high school diploma improves the chances for advancement. Some janitors go into the maintenance business for themselves. Job Outlook Employment of building janitors and cleaners is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s as the number of office buildings, factories, hospi tals, apartment houses, schools, and Earnings Janitors and cleaners who usually worked full time averaged $225 a week in 1984; the middle 50 percent earned between $175 and $305. Ten percent earned less than $135, 10 per cent more than $387. In 1984, average straight-time earn ings of janitors and cleaners in metro politan areas were $5.70 an hour, which is less than three-fourths as much as the average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. The average for janitors in manufacturing industries was $8.35 and for non-manufacturing industries, $5.07. Earnings, however, vary by in dustry and area of the country. Work ers in large cities of the Northeast, North Central, and Western regions usually earn the highest wages. Many nonunion, part-time workers earned the minimum wage, $3.35 an hour. Most building service workers re ceive paid holidays and vacations and health insurance. other buildings increases. Employ ment will grow much faster than aver age in firms supplying building main tenance services as more employers contract out their cleaning work. The need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the la Related Occupations bor force will create most job open Janitors are not the only workers who ings. This large occupation is easy to clean and maintain buildings. Some enter since there are few requirements workers who have similar skills and for formal education and training and job duties are trash collectors, floor part-time jobs are plentiful. waxers, street sweepers, window In the short run, new technology is cleaners, private household workers, expected to have little effect on em gardeners, boiler tenders, pest con ployment of janitors and cleaners. Ro trollers, elevator operators, and gen bots now under development are lim eral maintenance repairers. ited to performing a single cleaning task like vacuuming and then only in large, uncluttered areas like airports. Sources of Additional Information Robots with multiple cleaning func Information about janitorial jobs may tions will probably not become avail be obtained from a local State em able until after 1995. Since they are ployment service office or from: expected to be expensive, it may not Service Employees International Union, 2020 be practical to replace low-paid clean K St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. Personal Service Occupations Personal service workers perform a variety of tasks for other people. They cut hair, make airplane passengers comfortable, conduct tours, take the ater tickets, distribute equipment and collect fees at amusement and recrea tion facilities, shine shoes, care for costumes of entertainers, check coats, carry baggage, care for children, and do household chores for people who cannot manage for themselves. Be cause the work involves doing things for others, the ability to deal effec tively with all kinds of people is a “ must.” A pleasant personality, tact, and a sense of humor are assets. Personal service workers held about 1.6 million jobs in 1984. Cosmetolo gists and childcare workers (who su pervise children in nursery schools and play groups) accounted for over two-thirds of all personal service jobs. Some personal service jobs require formal training that lasts from several weeks to a year or so. Flight atten dants go to training schools run by the airlines themselves; barbers and cos metologists generally learn their trade in public or private vocational schools. Most other personal service workers, however, acquire their skills on the job. A high school diploma is neces sary for some of these jobs. All em ployers stress the importance of such personal characteristics as poise, good grooming, and a pleasant disposition. Physical stamina is important, for much of the work involves being on one’s feet for long periods of time. For many young people, a personal service job serves as entry to the work force. The abundance of part-time job opportunities attracts persons of all ages who want to combine a job with family, school, or other responsibili ties. Starting pay in many of these jobs is at or only slightly above the minimum wage. Often, however, workers also receive tips that add substantially to their income. Some workers—cosme tologists in particular—are employed on a commission basis. Many of these workers eventually open their own businesses. Indeed, the large proportion of peo ple who work for themselves is a distinguishing characteristic of the personal service occupations. In 1984, over two-fifths of these workers were self-employed, compared to less than one-tenth of all workers. Running one’s own business is especially com mon among barbers, cosmetologists, and childcare workers (see accompa nying chart). People who aspire to Many personal service workers are self-employed. Employment, 1984 (thousands) 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 work for themselves must not only be good enough at what they do to main tain a steady flow of customers, they also must have the drive and business acumen to handle finances, suppliers, and staff. Most job openings for personal ser vice workers will result from the need to replace those who transfer to other occupations, assume full-time house hold duties, or stop working for other reasons. Replacement needs are sub stantial because turnover is high—a characteristic of occupations that re quire a relatively limited investment in training. There are exceptions, however. Barbers, for example, tend to have a relatively strong attachment to their occupation. Employment of personal service workers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupa tions through the mid-1990’s. Howev er, projected employment growth var ies by occupation. For example, em ployment of social welfare service aides, a category that includes geriat ric aides and homemaker-home health aides, should grow faster than average in response to increased demand for community and in-home services for the elderly. On the other hand, em ployment of childcare workers is ex pected to grow more slowly than av erage in response to slow growth in the number of preschool-age children and in the labor force participation of mothers of these children. For more detailed information on barbers, childcare workers, cosmetol ogists, and flight attendants, see the Handbook statements that follow. Barbers Cosmetologists and related workers Childcare workers, except private household Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics Barbers (D.O.T. 330) Nature of the Work Barbers cut, trim, shampoo, and style hair. Many people still go to a barber for just a haircut, but more and more seek services such as hairstyling and permanents. Barbers trained in these areas are called “ hairstylists” and work in styling salons, “unisex” sa- 321 322/Occupational Outlook Handbook Ions, and some barbershops. They cut must stand on their feet a great deal and style hair to suit each customer and work with both hands at shoulder and may color or straighten hair and level—a position that can be tiring. Most barbers work more than 40 fit hairpieces. Most barbers offer hair and scalp treatments, shaves, and fa hours a week, and a workweek of over 50 hours is not uncommon. Al cial massages. By tradition, most customers are though weekends and lunch hours are men. However, a growing number of generally very busy, a barber may barbers cut and style women’s hair. have some time off during slack peri They usually work in unisex salons— ods. To assure an even workload, shops that have male and female cus some barbers ask customers to make tomers. Some States require a cosme appointments. tologist’s license as well as a barber’s license, however, to permanent wave Employment or color women’s hair. (See the Hand Barbers held about 94,000 jobs in book statement on cosmetologists and 1984. Most worked in barbershops, some worked in beauty shops and related workers.) As part of their responsibilities, unisex isalons, and a few worked in barbers keep their scissors, combs, department stores, hotels, hospitals, and other instruments sterilized and in and prisons. About 2 out of every 3 good condition. They clean their work barbers operate their own businesses. Almost all cities and towns have areas and may sweep the shop as well. Some sell lotions, tonics, and other barbershops, but employment is con cosmetic supplies. Those who own or centrated in the most populous cities manage a shop order supplies, pay and States. Hairstylists usually work bills, keep records, and hire employ in large cities, where the greatest de mand for their services exists. ees. Working Conditions Barbers usually work in clean, pleas ant surroundings, with good lighting and ventilation. Good health and stam ina are important because barbers Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Nearly all States require barbers to be licensed. The qualifications necessary to get a license vary from one State to About 2 out of every 3 barbers operate their own businesses. another, however. Generally a person must be a graduate of a State-ap proved barber school and be at least 16 years old (18 in some States). In addition, education requirements vary from State to State—some require graduation from high school while others have no requirement at all. Many States require a beginner to take an examination for an apprentice license and serve 1 or 2 years as an apprentice before taking the examina tion required for a license as a regis tered barber. In the examinations, the applicant usually is required to pass a written test and demonstrate an abili ty to perform the basic services. Fees for these examinations range from $15 to $85. Some States have reciprocity agree ments that allow licensed barbers to practice in a different State without additional formal training. However, some States do not recognize training, apprenticeship work, or licenses ob tained in another State; consequently, persons who wish to become barbers should review the laws of the State in which they want to work before enter ing a barber school or seeking em ployment. Barber training is offered in about 400 schools; 9 out of 10 barber schools are private. Some State-approved schools train both barbers and cosme tologists. Some public high schools offer barbering in their vocational pro grams. Barber school programs usual ly last 9 to 12 months. Students buy their own tools, which cost about $400. They study the basic services— haircutting, shaving, facial massaging, and hair and scalp treatments—and, under supervision, practice on cus tomers in school “ clinics.” Most schools now teach unisex hairstyling and chemical styling as part of their regular curriculum. Besides attending lectures on barber services and the use and care of instruments, students take courses in sanitation and hy giene, and learn how to recognize certain skin conditions. Instruction also is given in selling and general business practices. Advanced courses are available in some localities for barbers who wish to update their skills or specialize in hair styling, col oring, and the sale and service of hairpieces. Dealing with customers requires pa tience and a better than average dis position. In addition, good eye-hand coordination is required. Barbers also Service Occupations/323 should have sound judgment about what hairstyle is most flattering. Beginners usually get their first jobs through the barber school they attend ed. Some experienced barbers advance by becoming managers of large shops or by opening their own shops. A few may teach at barber schools. Barbers who go into business for themselves must have the capital to buy or rent a shop and install equipment. New equipment for a one-chair shop aver aged about $5,000 in 1984. Some shopowners buy used equipment and fixtures at reduced prices, however. Job Outlook Over the last 15 years, the demand for barbers has decreased. However, em ployment of barbers has leveled ofF recently and is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s due to population growth and the in creasing popularity of hairstyling. Barbers have a relatively strong at tachment to their occupation—unlike most workers in occupations that re quire less than a year of formal train ing. Nevertheless, most job openings will result from the need to replace experienced barbers who retire or stop working for other reasons. Most barbers remain in the occupation until they retire—perhaps because most barbers are self-employed. The shift in consumer preferences from regular haircuts to more person alized and intensive services also has greatly affected the occupation. Bar bers who specialize in hairstyling have been much more successful than those who offer conventional serv ices. This trend is expected to contin ue, and employment opportunities should be better for hairstylists than for other barbers. bers because the services they pro vide are more personalized, complex, and therefore more expensive. Earnings depend on the size and location of the shop, customers’ tip ping habits, competition from other barbershops, and the barber’s ability to attract and hold regular customers. Some barbers receive 1- or 2-week paid vacations, insurance, and medi cal benefits. The principal union that organizes barbers—both employees and shopowners—is the United Food and Com mercial Workers International Union. The principal association that repre sents and organizes shopowners, man agers, and employees is the Associat ed Master Barbers and Beauticians of America. Related Occupations Other workers whose main activity consists of improving a patron’s per sonal appearance include cosmetolo gists, electrologists, makeup artists, and estheticians. Sources of Additional Information Lists of barber schools, by State, are available from: National Association of Barber Schools, Inc., 304 South 11th St., Lincoln, Nebr. 68508. National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, 2251 Wisconsin Ave. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20007. Every State maintains information on State licensing requirements and approved barber schools. For details, contact the State board of barber ex aminers or the equivalent authority at your State capital. Additional information on this oc cupation is available from: National Barber Career Center, 3839 White Plains Rd., Bronx, N.Y. 10467. Associated Master Barbers and Beauticians of America, 219 Greenwich Rd., P.O. Box 220782, Charlotte, N.C. 28222. Earnings Barbers receive income from commis sions or wages and tips. Most barbers Childcare Workers who are not shopowners normally re (D.Q.T. 355.674-010; and 359.677-010, -018, -026) ceive 60 to 70 percent of the money they take in; a few are paid straight Nature of the Work salaries. Childcare workers look after young Most barbers and hairstylists in children when parents are at work or their first few years of employment cannot be with their children for other earned between $14,000 and $18,000 a reasons. They do many of the things year in 1984, according to limited in parents do for their children. Those formation available. Many experi caring for infants and toddlers follow enced barbers and hairstylists earned a routine of basic care—feeding, bath over $20,000 a year. Hairstylists usu ing, diapering, playing with, and com ally earn more than conventional bar forting. Those working with older pre school children, in addition to taking care of their basic needs, plan and carry out programs to stimulate the children’s physical, emotional, and social growth. Childcare workers’ duties depend on the setting in which they work. Childcare workers in a large daycare center are in charge of groups of chil dren under the supervision of a direc tor who also handles administrative and program development responsi bilities. Self-employed childcare workers taking care of a small number of children in their own homes, often referred to as family daycare, have sole responsibility for those children. In addition to caring for children, selfemployed childcare workers are re sponsible for a safe and clean environ ment, good nutrition, games, and oth er activities. Many also handle administrative duties such as obtain ing and renewing a license, hiring help, purchasing supplies, keeping records, mailing out bills, and recruit ing children. Regardless of the children’s age or the setting, childcare workers make sure that the childrens’ basic physical, psychological, social, and educational needs are met. Typical duties may include greeting children as they ar rive, helping them remove outer gar ments, and teaching them how to dress and undress. They may organize and direct indoor and outdoor games and activities or take them on field trips. They select activities which pro vide self-expression and development through arts and crafts, music, and language. These may include painting and drawing, working with clay and wood, singing, and story reading and telling. They also organize play activ ities which not only provide physical exercise but teach the children how to get along with each other. Childcare workers are also con cerned with the children’s health and nutrition. They serve nutritious meals and snacks and use these as an oppor tunity to teach the children good eat ing habits and responsibility for clean ing up after themselves. They also see to it that the children have proper rest periods. They spot children who may be getting sick or showing signs of emo tional or developmental problems and bring these to the parents’ attention. Working Conditions Working conditions vary. Childcare facilities may range from a single 324/Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment Childcare workers held 572,000 jobs in 1984. Many work part time. Almost two-thirds of childcare workers are self-employed; most take care of chil dren in their own homes. More than half of the salaried childcare workers work in independent childcare centers and residential childcare institutions. About 15 percent work in childcare centers affiliated with churches and synagogues and in social or welfare agencies. Some are in State and local government agencies, hospitals, and employer-sponsored daycare centers. abilities. As childcare workers gain experience, they may advance to su pervisory or administrative positions in large childcare centers. Often, how ever, these positions require addition al training. Some set up their own childcare business. Job Outlook Job openings for childcare workers are expected to be plentiful through the mid-1990’s. Most openings will arise from the need to replace the high proportion of childcare workers who leave this very large occupation every year. There is considerable movement into and out of the occupation due to the ease of setting up childcare in one’s home, limited education and training requirements, the abundance of part-time jobs, and the low pay. Employment of childcare workers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s, primarily be cause of an anticipated slow growth in the number of preschool age children with working mothers. Employment of childcare workers is sensitive to ups and downs in the economy. Dur ing recessions, the number of parents who cannot find jobs increases and parents who are not employed are less likely to need or afford childcare. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Entry level positions for childcare workers require little or no experi ence, for the most part. Although Childcare workers serve nutritious meals there are no specific educational re and snacks and demonstrate good eating quirements, employers prefer individ habits. uals with a high school diploma. Some employers provide on-the-job training poorly furnished room to a large, by an experienced worker. beautifully equipped building. Some High school students who plan to facilities accommodate a few chil work with small children should take dren, others a hundred or more. courses in psychology, sociology, Childcare centers may be in private home economics, nutrition, and fami homes, churches, and on premises of ly living. Courses in art, music, dra universities, businesses, or other or ma, and physical education also pro ganizations that provide care for em vide good preparation. Volunteer or ployees’ children. Others are in new paid babysitting is helpful. or remodeled buildings used exclu Formal training or certification is sively for childcare. recommended for individuals who Earnings Childcare centers are open year wish to advance. Many 2-year and In 1984, median annual earnings of round. Many are open 12 hours a 4-year colleges offer certificate and full-time childcare workers were day. Full-time staff workers usually associate degree programs in childcare $9,200. The middle 50 percent earned have 8-hour shifts. However, many and guidance. Subjects include child between $6,800 and $12,300; the top work part time or have staggered hood development, child health care, 10 percent earned at least $15,600. Wages of childcare workers vary hours. Self-employed childcare work child psychology, and play and educa depending on the part of the country ers with young children can earn mon tional activities. The Child Development Associate and the type of childcare center in ey without having to leave them. They have great flexibility in their hours of (CDA) credential program offers an which they work. Wages are highest work and in daily routine. Since they alternative way toward certification. in the West and lowest in the South work in their own home, they also are It stresses on-the-job performance east. Wages tend to be higher in large able to handle some housekeeping re and experience. The program is open centers and lower in church-affiliated sponsibilities while looking after chil to anyone 18 years of age or older. A centers. Many entry level childcare team of childcare professionals con workers receive only the minimum dren. Childcare workers spend much of ducts the assessment and decides wage of $3.35 an hour. Earnings of whether the individual qualifies for self-employed childcare workers vary their time standing, walking, bending, the CDA credential. The CDA assess even more than those of wage and stooping, and lifting. They must be ment process may take several months salary workers, depending on the constantly alert, anticipate and pre or longer. number and ages of the children and vent trouble, deal with disruptive chil Childcare workers should like work the geographic area. dren, and provide fair but firm disci ing with small children and should be pline. This can be physically and emo kind and patient. They should be in Related Occupations tionally taxing. The work is demand excellent health since the work re Childcare work requires a wide varie ing and sometimes hectic and requires quires much energy and physical stam ty of aptitudes and skills, including a great deal of physical stamina. Re ina. Skills in music, art, drama and patience, creativity, an ability to mo wards, on the other hand, come from storytelling are also important. Those tivate, teach, and influence others, seeing young children blossom and who work for themselves must have and, in some cases, leadership and good business sense and management organizational and administrative abil Digitized forgrow under their care. FRASER Service Occupations /325 ities. Other occupations that require these aptitudes include teacher aide, children’s tutor, foster parent, recre ational therapist, social worker, and early childhood program director. Sources of Additional Information For general inform ation about childcare workers, contact: National Association for Childcare Manage ment, 1255 23rd St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20037. Childcare Employee Project, P.O. Box 5603, Berkeley, Calif. 94705. For information on childcare center accreditation standards and program development and resources, contact: National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1834 Connecticut Ave.. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. For eligibility requirements and a description of the Child Development Associate Credential (CDA), write to: CDA National Credentialing Program, 1341 G St., NW., Room 802, Washington, D.C. 20005. Cosmetologists and Related Workers (D .O .T. 331; 332; 333; 339.361, .371) Nature of the Work Hair has been a center of attention since people first began to care about their appearance. Throughout history, a great deal of effort has gone into acquiring a fashionable hairstyle or a perfectly trimmed beard. Although styles change from year to year, the cosmetologist’s task remains the same—to help people look attractive. Cosmetologists, also called beauty operators, hairstylists, or beauticians, shampoo, cut, and style hair, and ad vise patrons on how to care for their hair. Frequently they straighten or permanent wave a patron’s hair to keep the style in shape. Cosmetolo gists may also lighten or darken the color of the hair. Cosmetologists may give manicures and scalp and facial treatments; provide makeup analysis for women; and clean and style wigs and hairpieces. Related workers in clude makeup artists, who apply makeup to performers; electrologists, who remove hair from skin by elec trolysis; and estheticians, who cleanse and beautify the skin. Most cosmetologists make appoint ments and keep records of hair color and permanent wave formulas used by their regular patrons. They also keep their work area clean and sani tize their hairdressing implements. Those who operate their own salons also have managerial duties which in clude hiring and supervising workers, keeping records, and ordering sup plies. Working Conditions Cosmetologists generally work in clean, pleasant surroundings, with good lighting and comfortable temper atures. Their work can be arduous and physically demanding because they must be on their feet for hours at a time and work with their hands at shoulder level. Many full-time cosme tologists work more than 40 hours a week, including evenings and week ends, when beauty salons are busiest. Employment Cosmetologists held about 524,000 jobs in 1984. The overwhelming ma jority of cosmetologists were hairstyl ists; other specialists included mani curists and shampooers. Most worked in beauty salons, some worked in “ unisex” salons, barber shops, or de partment stores, and a few were em ployed by hospitals and hotels. About one-half of all cosmetologists operate their own businesses. About two-fifths of all cosmetolo gists work part time. The abundance of part-time jobs attracts many per sons who want to combine a job with family, school, or other responsibili ties. All cities and towns have beauty salons, but employment is concentrat ed in the most populous cities and States. Those cosmetologists who set fashion trends with their hairstyles usually work in New York City, Los Angeles, and other centers of fashion and the performing arts. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although all States require cosmetol ogists to be licensed, the qualifica tions necessary to obtain a license vary. Generally, a person must have graduated from a State-licensed cos metology school, pass a physical ex amination, and be at least 16 years old. In addition, education require ments vary from State to State—some require graduation from high school while others have no requirement at all. In a few States, completion of an apprentice training program can sub stitute for graduation from a cosme tology school, but very few cosmetol ogists learn their skills in this way. Cosmetology instruction is offered in both public and private vocational schools, in either daytime or evening classes. A daytime course usually takes 6 months to 1 year to complete; 326/Occupational Outlook Handbook an evening course takes longer. Many iness skills are important for those public school programs include the who plan to operate their own salons. academic subjects needed for a high Many schools help their students school diploma and last 2 to 3 years. find jobs. During their first months on An apprenticeship program usually the job, new cosmetologists are given lasts 1 or 2 years. relatively simple tasks, such as giving Both public and private programs manicures or shampoos, or are as include classroom study, demonstra signed to perform the simpler hairstyl tions, and practical work. Most ing patterns. Once they have demon schools provide students with the nec strated their skills, they are gradually essary hairdressing implements, such permitted to perform the more com as manicure implements, combs, scis plicated tasks such as hair coloring sors, razors, and hair rollers, and in and permanent waving. clude their cost in the tuition fee. Advancement usually is in the form Sometimes students must purchase of higher earnings as cosmetologists their own. A good set of implements gain experience and build a steady costs between $85 and $130. Begin clientele, but many manage large sa ning students work on mannequins or lons or open their own after several on each other. Once they have gained years of experience. Some teach in some experience, students practice on cosmetology schools or use their patrons in school “ clinics.” Most knowledge and skill to demonstrate schools now teach unisex hairstyling cosmetics in department stores. Oth as part of their regular curriculums. ers become sales representatives for (See the Handbook statement on bar cosmetics firms, or open businesses as beauty or fashion consultants. bers.) After graduating from a cosmetolo Some cosmetologists work as examin gy program, students take the State ers for State cosmetology boards. licensing examination. The examina tion consists of a written test and a Job Outlook practical test in which applicants dem Job openings for cosmetologists are onstrate their ability to perform the expected to be plentiful through the required services. In some States, an mid-1990’s. Most openings will result oral examination is included, and the from the need to replace the large applicant is asked to explain the pro number of workers who leave the oc cedures he or she is following while cupation each year—primarily to de taking the practical test. In some vote full time to household responsi States, a separate examination is giv bilities. Employment of cosmetolo en for persons who want only a man gists is expected to grow faster than icurist’s license or a skin care license. the average for all occupations Some States have reciprocity agree through the mid-1990’s in response to ments that allow a cosmetologist li population growth, particularly among censed in one State to work in another middle-aged persons, who are the pri mary users of cosmetology services, without reexamination. For many people, cosmetology and the rising number of working serves as an entry point to the world women. Hairstyling for men also con of work. The field is also character tributes to the demand for cosmetolo ized by a pattern of movement from gists because many men go to unisex family responsibilities into the labor shops or beauty salons for styling force—when employment and earn services. Opportunities for part-time ings opportunities are attractive work will continue to be very good. Most people regard spending on enough—and back to the home again. In fact, most entrants to this occupa grooming care as discretionary. Dur tion come from outside the labor ing hard economic times, they tend to force; relatively few transfer from visit cosmetologists less frequently, which reduces cosmetologists’ earn other occupations. Persons who want to become cos ings. Rarely, however, are cosmetol metologists must have finger dexterity ogists laid off solely because of eco and a sense of form and artistry. They nomic downturns. should enjoy dealing with the public and be willing and able to follow pa Earnings trons’ instructions. Because hairstyles Cosmetologists receive income from are constantly changing, cosmetolo commissions or wages, and from tips. gists must keep abreast of the latest Those who are not salon owners re Digitized for fashions and beauty techniques. Bus ceive a percentage of the money they FRASER take in, about 50 percent; a few are paid straight salaries. Weekly earnings (including tips) of beginning cosmetologists generally ranged between $120 and $160 in 1984, according to limited information available. Experienced cosmetolo gists usually earned between $250 and $400 a week. Earnings also depend on the size and location of the salon, patrons’ tipping habits, competition from other beauty salons, and the individual cos metologist’s ability to attract and hold regular patrons. Large salons and department stores offer group life and health insurance and other benefit plans. Nearly all employers provide annual paid vaca tions of at least 1 week after a year’s service. The principal union which organiz es cosmetologists—both employees and salon owners—is the United Food and Commercial Workers Inter national Union. The principal trade association which represents and or ganizes salon owners, managers, and employees is the National Hairdress ers and Cosmetologists Association, Inc. Other organizations include the Associated Master Barbers and Beau ticians of America; the National As sociation of Cosmetology Schools, Inc., which represents school owners and teachers; and the National Beauty Culturists’ League, representing black cosmetologists, teachers, managers, and salon owners. Related Occupations Other workers whose main activity consists of helping patrons improve their personal appearance include bar bers, makeup artists, and health club managers. Sources of Additional Information A list of licensed training schools and licensing requirements can be ob tained from State boards of cosmetol ogy or from: National Accrediting Commission of Cosmetol ogy Arts and Sciences, 1990 M St. NW., Suite 650, Washington, D.C. 20036. Additional information about ca reers in cosmetology and State licens ing requirements is available from: National Beauty Career Center, 3839 White Plains Rd., Bronx, N.Y. 10467. National Hairdressers and Cosmetologists As sociation, 3510 Olive St., St. Louis, Mo. 63103. For general information about the occupation, contact: Service Occupations/327 Associated Master Barbers and Beauticians of America, 219 Greenwich Rd., P.O. Box 220782, Charlotte, N.C. 28222. National Association of Cosmetology Schools. 1990 M St. NW., Suite 660. Washington, D.C. 20036. Flight Attendants (D.O.T. 352.367-010) recting the work of junior attendants while performing some of the same duties. Working Conditions Since airlines operate around the clock year round, attendants may work at night and on holidays and weekends. They usually fly 75 to 85 hours a month. In addition, they generally spend about 75 to 85 hours a month on the ground preparing planes for flight, debriefing following completed flights, and waiting for planes that arrive late. Because of variations in scheduling and limitations on flying time, many attendants have 11 or 12 days or more off each month. Attendants may be away from their home bases at least one-third of the time. During this pe riod, the airlines provide hotel accom modations and an allowance for meal expenses. Flight attendants have the oppor tunity to meet interesting people and see new places. The combination of free time and discount air fares provides substantial opportunity for travel. However, the work can be strenuous and trying. Short flights require speedy service if meals are served. A rough flight can make serving drinks and meals difficult. At tendants stand during much of the flight and must remain pleasant and efficient regardless of how tired they are or how demanding passengers may be. Employment Flight attendants held 64,000 jobs in 1984. Commercial airlines employed the vast majority of all flight atten dants, most of whom were stationed in major cities at the airlines’ home bases. A small number of flight atten dants worked for large companies that operate their own aircraft for business purposes. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Nature of the Work The airlines like to hire poised, tact Flight attendants are aboard almost all ful, and resourceful people who can passenger planes to look after the pas deal comfortably with strangers. Ap sengers’ flight safety and comfort. plicants usually must be at least 19-21 At least 1 hour before each flight, years old, but some airlines have high attendants are briefed by the captain er minimum age requirements. Flight on expected weather conditions, spe attendants must have excellent health, cial passenger problems, and other good vision, and the ability to speak matters. They see that the passenger clearly. cabin is in order, that supplies of food, Applicants must be high school beverages, blankets, and reading ma graduates. Those having several years terial are adequate, and that first aid of college or experience in dealing kits and other emergency equipment with the public are preferred. Flight are aboard and in working order. As attendants for international airlines passengers come aboard, attendants generally must speak an appropriate greet them, check their tickets, and foreign language fluently. assist them in storing coats and carryMost large airlines require that new on luggage. ly hired flight attendants complete 4 to Before the plane takes off, atten 6 weeks of intensive training in their dants instruct passengers in the use of own schools. The airlines that do not emergency equipment and check to operate schools generally send new see that all passengers have their seat employees to the school of another belts fastened and seat backs forward. airline. Transportation to the training In the air, they answer questions centers and an allowance for board, about the flight, distribute magazines room, and school supplies may be and pillows, and help care for small provided. Trainees learn emergency children and elderly and handicapped persons. They may administer first aid to passengers who become ill. Atten dants also serve cocktails and other refreshments and, on many flights, heat and distribute precooked meals. After the plane has landed, the flight attendant assists passengers as they leave the plane. They then prepare reports on medications given to pas sengers, lost and found articles, and cabin equipment conditions. Some flight attendants straighten up the plane’s cabin. Assisting passengers in the rare event of an emergency is one of the most important functions of atten dants. This may range from reassuring passengers during occasional encoun ters with strong turbulence to opening emergency exits and inflating evacua tion chutes following an emergency landing. Senior flight attendants are work ing supervisors aboard planes—di Attendants assist passengers in storing coats and carry-on luggage. 328/Occupational Outlook Handbook procedures such as evacuating an air plane, operating an oxygen system, and giving first aid. Attendants also are taught flight regulations and du ties, and company operations and pol icies. Trainees receive instruction on personal grooming and weight con trol. Trainees for the international routes get additional courses in pass port and custom s regulations. Towards the end of their training, students go on practice flights. Atten dants must receive 12 hours of train ing in emergency procedures and pas senger relations annually. After completing initial training, flight attendants are assigned to one of their airline’s bases. New attendants are placed in “ reserve status’’ and either are called on to staff extra flights or fill in for attendants who are sick or on vacation. Reserve atten dants on duty must be available on short notice. Attendants usually re main on reserve for at least 1 year; at some cities, it may take as long as 5 years to advance from reserve status. Advancement takes longer today than in the past because experienced atten dants are remaining in this career for more years than they used to. Atten dants who no longer are on reserve bid for regular assignments. Because these assignments are based on se niority, usually only the most experi enced attendants get their choice of base and flights. Some attendants advance to flight service instructor, customer service director, recruiting representative, or various other administrative posi tions. Job Outlook Competition for jobs as flight atten dants is expected to remain very keen through the mid-1990's because the number of applicants is expected to greatly exceed the number of job openings. The glamour of the airline industry and opportunity to travel at tract many applicants. Those with at least 2 years of college and experience in dealing with the public have the best chance of being hired. Employment of flight attendants is expected to grow faster than the aver age for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Growth in population and income is expected to increase the number of airline passengers. Airlines usually enlarge their capacity by in creasing the number and size of planes in operation. Since Federal Aviation Administration safety rules require one attendant for every 50 seats, more flight attendants will be needed. As more career-minded people en ter this occupation, job turnover will decline. Nevertheless, most job open ings are expected from the need to replace attendants who stop working or transfer to other occupations. Employment of flight attendants is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, when the demand for air travel declines, many flight attendants are put on parttime status or are laid off. Until de mand increases, few new attendants are hired. Earnings Beginning flight attendants averaged about $13,000 a year in 1984. Annual earnings of experienced flight atten dants averaged about $23,000 in 1984. Flight attendants receive extra com pensation for overtime and for night and international flights. In addition, flight attendants and their immediate families are entitled to reduced fares on their own and most other airlines. Many flight attendants belong to the Association of Flight Attendants, AFL-CIO. Others are members of the Transport Workers Union of America or several other unions. Flight attendants are required to buy uniforms and wear them while on duty. Uniform replacement items are usually paid for by the company. The uniform is made to measure and is designed to look like a coordinated wardrobe. The airlines generally pro vide a small allowance to cover clean ing and upkeep of the uniforms. Related Occupations Other jobs that involve helping people and require the ability to be pleasant even under trying circumstances in clude tour guide, gate agent, host or hostess, waiter or waitress, and camp counselor. Sources of Additional Information For further information, request Flight Attendants, publication GA300-127 (enclose a self-addressed mail ing label), from: U.S. Government Printing Office, Library and S ta tu to r y D is tr ib u tio n S e r v ic e , 5208 Eisenhower Ave., Alexandria, Va. 22304. Information about job opportunities may be obtained from: Future Aviation Professionals of America, 4291 J. Memorial Dr., Decatur, Ga. 30032. (This organization may be called toll free at 800-JetJobs.) Information about job opportunities in a particular airline and the qualifi cations required may be obtained by writing to the personnel manager of the company. Addresses of compa nies are available from: Air Transport Association of America, 1709 New York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Agricultural, Forestry, and Fishing Occupations Agricultural, forestry, and fishing workers are involved in the gathering, development, production, and dis tribution of basic products for food, clothing, shelter, and industrial use. Agricultural workers raise crops and livestock that provide food as well as material for clothing. Forestry workers harvest trees that provide lumber for housing and other build ings as well as material for a variety of paper products. Fishing workers gather sea and lake life that provides food, fertilizer, and other products. Agricultural, forestry, and fishing workers also provide services associ ated with agricultural production, game farms, fisheries, and wild life conservation. Agricultural workers include farm operators and managers, who are concerned with maximizing farm production and profits through skill ful management of farm land, labor, and capital. They oversee workers such as farm worker supervisors; farm machinery operators; and irri gation, livestock, field crop, nursery, and fish hatchery workers. Nonfarm agricultural workers include grounds keepers and gardeners; animal care takers; and agricultural product grad ers, sorters, and inspectors. (Agri cultural scientists, who develop ways of improving the quantity and quality of farm crops and animals, are discussed elsewhere in the Hand book.) Forestry workers include log ging supervisors, timber cutters, and loggers, hunters, and trappers. (For esters and conservationists—who manage, develop, and help protect trees, minerals, water, and other nat ural resources—are discussed else where in the Handbook.) Fishing workers include skiff operators, fish ing vessel deckhands, weir fishers, and sponge hookers. Requirements for training and per sonal qualifications vary widely among these occupations. For exam ple, farm and logging workers, other than managers, can learn their jobs in a few weeks by observing and helping experienced workers. These jobs re quire manual dexterity, strength, stamina, and good hand-eye coordina tion. On the other hand, because of the scientific and business complexi ties of modern farming, farm and log ging operators and managers increas ingly need business training, a college education, and sometimes graduate training. Managerial skill and exten sive specialized knowledge are neces sary for success. Demand for food, fiber, and wood will increase as the world population grows. The agricultural, forestry, and fishing industries are expected to eas ily accommodate this higher demand. However, increasing production costs and foreign competition will limit em ployment growth in many occupa tions. As farms become more expensive to buy and operate, the number of small- and medium-size farms is ex pected to decline. Fewer and larger farms should result in a decline in employment of farm operators. Em ployment of farm and logging work ers, other than managers, is expected to decline as machinery makes it pos sible to plant, cultivate, and harvest more crops and timber with fewer workers. Fishers, hunters, and trap pers are also projected to decline in number. On the other hand, the demand for farm managers with specialized skills and knowledge is expected to increase as farming becomes more complex. Employment of nonfarm ag ricultural occupations—particularly animal caretakers, gardeners, and groundskeepers—also is projected to increase. The following statement presents more detailed information on farm op erators and managers—the largest ag ricultural, forestry, and fishing occu pation. Farm Operators and Managers (D.O.T. 180.117, .161, .167 except -014, -022, -050, -054; 401.161; 402.161; 403.161; 404.161; 405.161; 405.361; 407.161; 410.161; 411.161; 412.161; 413.161; 421.161; 446.161) Nature of the Work American farm operators and manag ers direct the activities of one of the world’s largest and most productive agricultural sectors. They produce enough food and fiber to meet the needs of our Nation and to export huge quantities to countries around the world. Farm Operators. Farm operators may be farmer owners or tenant farm ers (renters). Their specific tasks are determined by the type of farm they operate. In crop farms—farms grow ing grain, fiber, fruit, and vegeta bles—farm operators are responsible for planning, tilling, planting, fertiliz ing, cultivating, spraying, and har vesting. After the harvest, they make sure that the crops are packaged, loaded, and promptly marketed or stored for resale. On livestock, dairy, and poultry farms, farm operators must plan, feed, and care for the ani mals and keep barns, pens, coops, and other farm buildings clean and in repair. They also oversee breeding, slaughtering, and marketing activities. Farm operators perform tasks rang ing from setting up and operating ma chinery to erecting fences and sheds. The size of the farm often determines which of these tasks operators will handle themselves. Operators of large farms have employees who do much of the physical work that small-farm operators do themselves. Although employment on most farms is limited to the farm operator and one or two family workers or hired employees, some large farms have 100 or more full-time and seasonal workers. Some of these workers are in nonfarm occu- 329 330/Occupationa! Outlook Handbook pations, such as truckdriver, sales representative, and bookkeeper. Farm operators must make many managerial decisions. Farm output is strongly influenced by the weather, disease, and fluctuations in prices of farm products. Farm operators must determine the best time to seed, fer tilize, cultivate, and harvest. They must carefully plan the combination of crops they grow so that, if the price of one crop drops, they will have sufficient income from another to make up for it. Also, prices of crops and livestock change from one month to another, and farm operators who plan ahead may be able to store their crops or keep their livestock to take advantage of better prices later in the year. Farm operators may have to secure loans from credit agencies to finance the purchase of machinery, fertilizer, livestock, and feed. They also keep financial records of the farm operation and train and supervise workers in the use of equipment and the performance of farm work. Farm Managers. The duties and re sponsibilities of farm managers vary widely. For example, the owner of a very large livestock farm may employ a farm manager to oversee a single activity such as feeding livestock. When managing a small crop farm for an absentee owner, on the other hand, the farm manager may assume all functions from planning the output to participating in planting and harvest ing activities. Farm management firms employ highly trained professional farm managers who may manage some or all farm operations or oversee ten ant operators of several farms. In these cases, farm managers may es tablish output goals and monitor pro duction. Working Conditions Farming is attractive to persons who prefer a slower pace and the more wholesome rural life to urban living. Even when farming generates a mod est income, many farmers earn sup plementary income from part-time or seasonal jobs in nearby cities or towns rather than leave farming. The topography of the land and the climate of an area generally determine the type of farming that is done. For example, wheat, corn, and other grains are most efficiently grown on large farms on level land where large and sophisticated machinery can best be used. Thus, these crops are ideal for the plains of Iowa, Illinois, Ne braska, and Kansas. Crops that re quire longer growing seasons, such as cotton, tobacco, and peanuts, are grown chiefly in the South. Most of the country’s fruits and vegetables come from California, Texas, and Florida. Crops requiring a temperate climate—for example, potatoes— come from Northern States such as Idaho, Washington, and Maine. Dairy herds are best suited for the areas of good pastureland, such as Wisconsin, New York, and Minnesota. Livestock production requires large tracts of grazing land and thus is concentrated in Texas, Nebraska, Iowa, and some Western States. Many types of farming are seasonal in nature. Although many farm oper ators and managers on crop farms work from sunup to sundown during With fewer farms, farming as a way of life is decreasing in importance. the planting and harvesting seasons, they often work on the farm only 6 to 7 months a year, and many have sec ond jobs off the farm. On farms that raise animals for meat or dairy products, work goes on constantly throughout the year. Be cause animals must be fed and wa tered every day and cows must be milked twice daily, operators of these farms rarely get the chance to be away. Farm work can be extremely haz ardous; each year, many farmers are injured by planting and harvesting ma chinery. They are subject to illnesses and diseases from handling and breathing dangerous pesticides and chemicals and from handling crops that have been sprayed with insecti cides. They may be injured or catch diseases transmitted by farm animals. On very large farms, farm operators spend substantial time meeting with farm managers or farm supervisors in charge of various activities. Profes sional farm managers overseeing sev eral farms may divide their time be tween traveling to meet with farm operators and planning and schedul ing farm operations while in their offices. Employment In 1984, farm operators and managers held 1,442,000 jobs. Almost 3 out of 5 managed crop production activities and over 2 out of 5 managed livestock production activities. A relatively small number were involved in agri cultural services such as contract har vesting and farm labor contracting. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Growing up on a family farm and participating in farming programs for young people sponsored by the Fu ture Farmers of America or the 4-H clubs are important sources of train ing for prospective farmers. Howev er, modern farming requires increas ingly complex scientific and business decisions. Even young people who have lived on farms must acquire a strong educational background. Their high school training should include courses in mathematics and the sci ences. Completion of a 2-year and preferably a 4-year program in a col lege of agriculture is becoming neces sary. A bachelor’s degree in agricul ture is essential for persons without Agricultural, Forestry, and Fishing Occupations/331 farm experience who aspire to be come farmers or farm managers. Farms are decreasing in number but increasing in size. Students should select the college most appropriate to their specific in Average size (acres) Farms (millions) terests and location. All States have 600 land grant colleges including a college of agriculture; their major programs of study include areas such as dairy sci 525 ence, agricultural economics and bus iness, horticulture, crop and fruit sci ence, soil science, and animal sci 450 ence. Also, colleges usually offer special programs of study concerning 375 products important to the area in which they are located, such as ani mal science programs at colleges in 300 the Western and Plains States. What ever one’s interest, the college curric ulum should include courses in farm 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 management and in business and fi nance. SOURCES: U S. Department of Commerce; U.S. Department of Agriculture Professional status can be acquired through certification as an accredited farm manager (AFM) by the Ameri sector is expected to meet easily do sired standard of living, are expected can Society of Farm Managers and mestic and export requirements. Al to decrease in number. The increase in the average size of Rural Appraisers. Applicants must though requirements for farm land, have several years’ farm experience machinery, and equipment will in farms and in the complexity of farm and the appropriate academic back crease, labor requirements in the ag ing are expected to spur demand for ground—a bachelor’s degree or pref ricultural sector will decrease. Thus, highly trained and experienced farm erably a master’s degree in a field of employment of farm operators and managers. Additional demand will agricultural science—and must pass managers combined is expected to come from the increasing number of courses and examinations relating to continue to decline through the mid- absentee owners who, rather than business, financial, and legal aspects 1990’s, but at a slower rate than in the work their farms, often hire farm man past. The overwhelming majority of agers to run the farm or oversee ten of farm management. It is necessary to keep abreast of job openings will result from the need ant farmers. continuing advances in farming meth to replace farmers who retire or leave ods. Farm operators should be willing the occupation for economic or other Earnings In 1984, average annual earnings of to try new processes and adapt to reasons. The trend toward fewer and larger farm operators and managers were constantly changing technologies to produce their crops or raise their live farms, primarily through mergers, is $16,400. However, farm income var stock more efficiently. Operators also expected to continue to reduce the ies greatly from year to year, since must have enough technical knowl number of jobs for farm operators. prices of farm products fluctuate de edge of crops and growing conditions Although a farm can be acquired by pending upon weather conditions that and plant and animal diseases to be inheritance, purchasing a farm is be influence the amount and quality of able to make decisions that ensure the coming increasingly difficult and pro farm output. A farm that shows a successful operation of their farms. hibitively expensive. The costs of large profit in one year may show a They also must have the managerial farm land, machinery, and equipment loss in the following year. Many farm skills necessary to organize and oper have been rapidly increasing, as have ers—primarily small—have off-farm ate a business. Mechanical aptitude operating costs—livestock, feed, income often several times larger than and the ability to work with tools of all seed, fertilizer, and fuel. In addition, their farm income. Farm income also varies greatly de kinds also are valuable skills for the sufficient funds are required to with operator of a small farm, who often pending upon the type and size of must maintain and repair machinery stand the adverse effects of climate farm. According to the U.S. Depart or farm structures. A basic knowledge and price fluctuations upon farm out ment of Agriculture, in 1983, vegeta of accounting and bookkeeping can be put and income, as obtaining a loan ble, melon, and other crop farms gen helpful in keeping financial records, may be difficult. Also, the complexity erated an average income of over and a knowledge of credit sources is of modern farming and keen competi $45,000. On the other hand, livestock tion among farmers leave little room and tobacco farms generated less than essential. for the marginally successful farmer $10,000 in income, on the average. or the ‘gentleman” farmer who con Generally, large farms generate more Job Outlook The expanding world population is siders farming a hobby rather than a income than small farms. Exceptions increasing the demand for food and necessity. Small- and medium-size include some specialty farms produc fiber. However, increasing productiv farms, many of which do not generate ing low-volume but high-value horti ity in our highly efficient agricultural sufficient income to support the de cultural and fruit products. 332/Occupational Outlook Handbook Related Occupations Farmers and farm managers strive to improve the quality of agricultural products and the efficiency of farms. Workers with similar functions in clude agricultural engineers, agrono mists, animal breeders, animal scien tists, apiculturalists, botanists, coun ty-agricultural agents, dairy scientists, extension service specialists, farm worker supervisors, feed and farm management advisors, horticulturalists, plant breeders, poultry scientists, range managers, and soil conserva tionists. Sources of Additional Information For general information about farm ing and agricultural occupations, con tact: National FFA Organization, Box 15160, 5632 Mt. Vernon Memorial Hwy., Alexandria, Va. 22309. American Farm Bureau Federation, 225 Touhy Ave., Park Ridge, 111. 60068. For information about certification as an accredited farm manager, con tact: American Society of Farm Managers and Rural Appraisers, 950 South Cherry St., Suite G16, Denver, Colo. 80222. For general information about farm occupations and 4-H activities, con tact your local county extension ser vice office. For information about agricultural education, contact: National Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges, Division of Agriculture, One DuPont Circle, Suite 710, Washington, D.C. 20036. National Postsecondary Agricultural Stu dent Organization, Box 34, Cobleskill, N.Y. 12043. Higher Education Program, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250 (tele phone: 202-447-7854). Mechanics and Repairers In our high-technology society, ma chines of one type or another touch almost all aspects of our lives. Ma chines, including robots, produce our goods. Transportation equipment car ries both goods and people anywhere in the world. Telephones and other communications equipment convey information quickly and efficiently. Appliances make our household chores easier. Mechanics and repairers main tain and repair these and the many other types of machines we rely on. One-fourth of all mechanics and re pairers work on motor vehicles in occupations such as automotive and motorcycle mechanic, diesel mechan ic, and automotive body repairer. The remaining three-fourths work on a va riety of machines in occupations such as home appliance and power tool repairer, data processing equipment repairer, communications equipment mechanic, and musical instrument re pairer and tuner. Mechanics and repairers work in all industries. Almost one-fifth work in manufacturing—the majority in plants that produce durable goods such as steel, automobiles, and aircraft. An other one-fifth work in retail trade— mainly in firms that sell and service automobiles, household appliances, farm implements, and other mechani cal equipment. About one-seventh work in shops that service machines of all types. Most of the remaining mechanics and repairers work in the transportation, construction, and pub lic utilities industries and in all levels of government. Training for most mechanic and re pairer occupations requires both class room instruction in machine operation and practice in repair work. Mechan ics get this training through high school and postsecondary programs and on-the-job training. For almost all mechanic and repair er occupations, employers prefer high school graduates. Courses in shop math, blueprint reading, drafting, woodworking, metalworking, and electronics give students basic me chanical knowledge and skills. Training in specific areas—home appliance repair, automotive mainte nance and repair, television and home entertainment equipment repair—is available through high schools, pri vate vocational schools, community colleges, correspondence schools, and the Armed Forces. These vocational programs include instruction in ma chine operation and experience with actual or demonstration equipment. Although completion of such training does not assure a job, employers in creasingly prefer to hire people with some training or experience. New mechanics and repairers usu ally receive on-the-job training from their employer. This training may in volve classroom instruction and prac tice work with demonstration equip ment. However, it frequently consists only of supervision by an experienced worker. To keep up with improved technol ogy, mechanics and repairers must continue their training throughout their careers. They study the repair books and technical manuals that ac company new equipment and attend classes run by equipment manufactur ers. Physical requirements for work in this field vary greatly. For example, telephone and electric power lineworkers must be strong and agile to lift heavy equipment and work in awk ward positions. Electronic home en tertainment equipment repairers need good vision and excellent finger dex terity. For occupations in which the repairer deals with customers, the ability to work with people is impor tant. For most mechanic occupations, advancement is limited to supervisory positions. Some of these occupations, however, offer good opportunities for self-employment. Employment of mechanics and re pairers as a group is expected to in crease about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s to keep up with maintenance and re pair work associated with increased use of household appliances, automo biles, computers, and industrial and other machinery. Although thousands of jobs will be created by growth in demand, most openings will arise in this relatively large occupational cat egory as experienced workers leave the field for a variety of reasons. 333 Vehicle and Mobile Equipment Mechanics and Repairers check, a pilot may discover that the Vehicle and mobile equipment me aircraft’s gas gauge does not work. To chanics and repairers maintain and Aircraft Mechanics solve the problem, mechanics may repair a wide variety of motor vehi check the electrical connections, re cles and mobile equipment. They ser and Engine place the gauge, or use electrical test vice vehicles such as automobiles, Specialists equipment to make sure no wires are trucks, buses, aircraft, boats, and mo broken or shorted. They work as fast torcycles. They also work on heavy (D.O.T. 621.281 except -030, .381-010, -014, .684as safety permits so that the aircraft construction, logging, railroad, and 014; 806.281-038, .684-110; 807.261, .381-014, .684018) can be put back into service quickly. farm machinery, such as earthmovMechanics may work on one or ers, locomotives, tractors, and com many different types of aircraft, such bines, as well as smaller gasoline- Nature of the Work powered equipment such as portable Most travelers hardly think twice as jets, propeller-driven airplanes, about flying thousands of feet above and helicopters, or, for efficiency, generators and lawnmowers. Mechanical aptitude and manual the ground. The confidence they have may specialize in one section of a skills are essential to vehicle and mo in aircraft is a tribute to the mechanics particular type of aircraft, such as the bile equipment mechanics and repair (also referred to as “technicians”) engine or electrical system. In small, ers. They also need reading and writ who maintain them. To keep aircraft independent repair shops, mechanics ing skills in order to consult repair and in top operating condition, mechanics usually inspect and repair many dif technical manuals, read work orders, perform scheduled maintenance, ferent types of aircraft. and write parts lists and descriptions make repairs, and complete inspec of their work. They must be able to tions required by the Federal Aviation Working Conditions Mechanics usually work in hangars or work efficiently and with precision Administration (FAA). Many mechanics specialize in other indoor areas. However, if the since their earnings often depend on how rapidly they can correctly per scheduled maintenance. Following a hangars are full or if repairs must be form maintenance or repairs. They schedule that is based on the number made quickly, they may work out must also be capable of handling heavy of hours flown, calendar days, or a doors, sometimes in unpleasant combination of these factors, mechan weather. This occurs most often to or unwieldy parts or components. Employers usually prefer high ics inspect the engines, landing gear, airline mechanics who work at air school graduates but frequently hire instruments, pressurized sections, ac ports because, to save time, minor those without high school diplomas if cessories—brakes, valves, pumps, repairs and preflight checks often are they can read and write adequately. and air-conditioning systems, for ex made at the terminal. Mechanics often Most mechanics and repairers acquire ample—and other parts of the aircraft work under the pressure of time to their skills on the job following the and do the necessary maintenance. maintain flight schedules or, in gener instructions of experienced workers, They may examine an engine through al aviation, to keep from inconven reading repair manuals, and solving specially designed openings while iencing customers. At the same time, problems on their own. Increasingly, working from ladders or scaffolds, or mechanics must maintain safety stand formal mechanic training acquired in use hoists or lifts to remove the entire ards. engine from the craft. After taking the Frequently, mechanics must lift or high school, vocational or technical engine apart, mechanics may use sen pull as much as 50 pounds. They often school, community or junior college, sitive instruments to measure parts or in the Armed Forces is an asset to for wear, and use X-ray and magnetic stand, lie, or kneel in awkward posi persons entering mechanic and repair inspection equipment to check for in tions and occasionally must work in precarious positions on scaffolds or er careers. visible cracks. Worn or defective ladders. Noise and vibration are com This section describes six groups of parts are replaced. They also may mon when testing engines. Aircraft vehicle and mobile equipment me repair sheet-metal surfaces, measure mechanics generally work 40 hours a chanics and repairers: Aircraft me the tension of control cables, or check week on 8-hour shifts around the chanics and engine specialists; auto for rust, distortion, and cracks in the clock. motive and motorcycle mechanics; fuselage, wings, and tail. Mechanics automotive body repairers; diesel me test the equipment to make sure the Employment chanics; farm equipment mechanics; repairs were made properly. Aircraft mechanics held about 106,000 Mechanics specializing in repair jobs in 1984. About two-fifths worked and mobile heavy equipment mechan ics. Other mechanic and repairer ca work use the pilot’s description of a for airlines, over one-fourth for the reers are described in subsequent sec problem to find and fix faulty equip Federal Government, and over onement. For example, during a preflight tenth for aircraft assembly firms. Most tions. 334 Mechanics and Repairers/335 of the rest were general aviation me chanics, the majority of whom worked for independent repair shops or com panies that operate their own planes to transport executives and cargo. Very few mechanics were self-em ployed. (The accompanying chart in dicates the percent distribution of wage and salary jobs by industry.) Most airline mechanics work near large cities at the airlines’ main stops. Many are civilians employed by the Armed Forces and work at military aviation installations. Others work for the FAA, many in the headquarters at Oklahoma City. Mechanics for inde pendent repair shops work at airports in every part of the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The majority of mechanics who work on civilian aircraft are licensed by the FAA as “ airframe m echanics,” “ powerplant mechanics,” or “ air craft inspectors.” Airframe mechan ics are qualified to work on the fuse lage, wings, landing gear, and other structural parts of the plane; powerplant mechanics are qualified only for work on the engine. Combination airframe-and-powerplant mechanics can work on any part of the plane, and those with an inspector’s license can certify inspection work completed by other mechanics. Unlicensed mechan ics are supervised by those with li censes. The FAA requires at least 18 months of work experience for an airframe or powerplant license. For a combined license, at least 30 months of experi ence working with both engines and airframes are required. To obtain an inspector’s license, a mechanic must have held an airframe-and-powerplant license for at least 3 years. Applicants for all licenses also must pass written and oral tests and demonstrate that they can do the work authorized by the license. Although a few people become me chanics through on-the-job training, most learn their job in the Armed Forces or in trade schools certified by the FAA. Courses in these trade schools generally last from 18 months to 2 years and provide training with the tools and equipment used on the job. For an FAA license, attendance at such schools may substitute for work experience. However, these schools do not guarantee jobs or FAA licenses. Mechanics inspect aircraft on a scheduled basis. Some aircraft mechanics in the Armed Forces acquire enough general experience to satisfy the work experi ence requirements for the FAA li cense. With additional study, they may pass the licensing exam. Gener ally, however, jobs in the military services are too specialized to provide the broad experience required by the FAA. Most have to complete the en tire training program at a trade school, although a few receive some credit for the material they learned in the serv ice. Military experience is a great ad vantage when seeking employment; employers consider trade school grad uates who have this experience to be the most desirable applicants. A high school diploma or its equiv alent is necessary for all prospective aircraft mechanics. Courses in math ematics, physics, chemistry, electron ics, computer science, and mechani cal drawing are helpful because knowl edge of the principles involved in the operation of an aircraft often is neces sary to make repairs. As new and more complex aircraft are designed, mechanics must update their skills. Recent technological advances in air craft maintenance necessitate a strong background in electronics—both for Although aircraft mechanics are concentrated in the transportation industry, a substantial proportion work for the Federal Government. Distribution of employment, 1984 Federal Government Aircraft and parts manufacturing SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics 336/Occupational Outlook Handbook acquiring and retaining jobs in this sions force airlines to curtail the num field. ber of flights, which results in less Aircraft mechanics must do careful aircraft maintenance and consequent and thorough work which requires ly layoffs for aircraft mechanics. high mechanical aptitude and the strength to lift heavy parts and tools. Earnings Agility is important for the reaching In 1984, the median annual salary of and climbing necessary for the job. Aircraft mechanics must not be afraid aircraft mechanics was $25,000. Me of heights since they may work on the chanics who worked on jets generally top of wings and fuselages on large jet earned more than those working on other aircraft. The top 10 percent of planes. As aircraft mechanics gain experi all aircraft mechanics earned over ence, they advance to more responsi $35,000 a year. Airline mechanics and ble jobs. Opportunities are best for their immediate families receive re those who have an aircraft inspector’s duced fare transportation on their license. A mechanic may advance to own and most other airlines. Mechanics employed by most ma head mechanic (or crew chief), to in spector, to head inspector, and to jor airlines are covered by union shop supervisor. In the airlines, where agreements. Their earnings generally promotion is often determined by ex are higher than mechanics working for amination, a few supervisors advance other employers. The principal unions to executive positions. Those with in this field are the International As broad experience in maintenance and sociation of Machinists and Aero overhaul may become inspectors with space Workers, and the Transport the FAA. With additional business Workers Union of America. Some training, some may open their own mechanics are represented by the repair shops. International Brotherhood of Team sters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Job Outlook Helpers of America. The number of aircraft mechanics is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations Related Occupations through the mid-1990’s. A growing Workers in some other occupations population and rising incomes are ex that involve similar mechanical and pected to stimulate the demand for electrical work are automotive body airline transportation, and the number repairers, automotive mechanics, of private and commercial aircraft is electricians, elevator repairers, and expected to grow. Most job openings telephone maintenance mechanics. are expected to arise from the need to replace mechanics who transfer to Sources of Additional Information other fields of work, or leave the labor For general information about aircraft force. Job opportunities are expected to mechanics, write to: be best in general aviation, particular Aviation Maintenance Foundation, P.O. Box ly for qualified mechanics who are 739, Basin, Wyo. 82410. For further information, request willing to relocate. Since wages in Aviation Maintenance, publication small companies tend to be relatively low, there is less competition for GA-300-133 (enclose a self-addressed these jobs than in the airlines. Also, mailing label), from: some jobs will become available as U.S. Government Printing Office, Library and experienced mechanics leave for bet Statutory Distribution Service, 5208 Eisen ter paying jobs with airlines or large hower Ave., Alexandria, Va. 22304. Information about jobs in a particu private companies. In contrast with lar airline may be obtained by writing general aviation, competition for air line jobs should remain keen because to the personnel manager of the com the high wages and travel benefits pany. For addresses of airline compa attract more qualified applicants than nies, write to: Air Transport Association of America, 1709 the number of available openings. The number of mechanics employed New York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. For information on jobs in a partic by the Federal Government is expect ed to grow. Opportunities will fluctu ular area, contact employers at local ate with changes in defense spending. airports or local offices of the State Declines in air travel during reces employment service. Automotive and Motorcycle Mechanics (D.O.T. 620.261-010, -012, -030, and -034; .281-010, -026, -034, -038, -054, -062, -066, and -070; .381-010 and -022; .684-018 through -026; 625.281-010; 706.381-046; 721.281-010; 806.361-026 and .684-038; 807.664-010 and .684-022; and 825.381-014) Nature of the Work Automotive mechanics, often called service technicians, repair and service automobiles and occasionally small trucks, such as vans and pickups, with gasoline engines. (Mechanics who work on diesel-powered trucks, buses, and equipment are discussed in the Handbook statement on diesel mechanics.) Motorcycle mechanics repair and service m otorcycles, motorscooters, mopeds, and occa sionally small all-terrain vehicles. Anyone whose car or motorcycle has broken down knows the importance of the mechanic’s job. The ability to make a quick and accurate diagnosis, one of the mechanic’s most valuable skills, requires good reasoning ability and a thorough knowledge of automo biles or motorcycles. In fact, many mechanics consider diagnosing “ hard to find” troubles one of their most challenging and satisfying duties. When mechanical or electrical trou bles occur, mechanics first get a de scription of the symptoms from the owner or, if they work in a dealership, the repair service estimator who wrote the repair order. The mechanic may have to test drive the vehicle or use testing equipment, such as engine an alyzers, spark plug testers, or com pression gauges, to locate the prob lem. Once the cause of the problem is found, mechanics make adjustments or repairs. If a part is damaged or worn beyond repair, or cannot be fixed at a reasonable cost, they re place it, usually after consultation with the vehicle owner. To prevent breakdowns, during rou tine service mechanics check parts and adjust, repair, or replace them before they go bad. They usually fol low a checklist to be sure they exam ine all important parts, such as belts, hoses, steering systems, spark plugs, brake and fuel systems, wheel bear ings, and other potentially trouble some items. Mechanics use a variety of tools in their work. They use power tools such Mechanics and Repairers/337 as pneumatic wrenches to remove bolts quickly; machine tools such as lathes and grinding machines to re build brakes and other parts; welding and flame-cutting equipment to re move and repair exhaust systems and other parts; jacks and hoists to lift cars and engines; and a growing variety of electronic service equip ment, such as infrared engine ana lyzers and computerized diagnostic devices. They also use many com mon handtools such as screwdriv ers, pliers, and wrenches to work on small parts and get at hard-to-reach places. Automotive and motorcycle me chanics in larger shops increasingly specialize. For example, automatic transmission mechanics work on gear trains, couplings, hydraulic pumps, and other parts of automatic transmis sions. Because these are complex mechanisms, their repair requires con siderable experience and training, in cluding a knowledge of hydraulics. Tune-up mechanics adjust the ignition timing and valves, and adjust or re place spark plugs and other parts to ensure efficient engine performance. They often use electronic test equip ment to help them adjust and locate malfunctions in fuel, ignition, and emissions control systems. Automotive air-conditioning me chanics install air-conditioners and service components such as compres sors and condensers. Front-end me chanics align and balance wheels and repair steering mechanisms and sus pension systems. They frequently use special alignment equipment and wheel-balancing machines. Brake re pairers adjust brakes, replace brake linings and pads, repair hydraulic cyl inders, turn disks and drums, and make other repairs on brake systems. Some mechanics specialize in both brake and front-end work. Automotive-radiator mechanics clean radiators with caustic solutions, locate and solder leaks, and install new radiator cores or complete re placement radiators. They also may repair heaters and air-conditioners, and solder leaks in gasoline tanks. Working Conditions Generally, automotive and motorcy cle mechanics work indoors. Most repair shops are well ventilated and lighted, but some are drafty and noisy. Mechanics frequently work with dirty and greasy parts, and in awkward positions. They often must lift heavy parts and tools. Minor cuts, bums, and bruises are common, but serious accidents may be avoided when the shop is kept clean and orderly and safety practices are observed. Employment Automotive and motorcycle mechan ics held about 922,000 jobs in 1984. Most were automotive mechanics; they primarily worked for automo tive dealers, automotive repair shops, gasoline service stations, and de partment, automotive, and home sup ply stores that have automotive service facilities. Others were em ployed by Federal, State, and local governments, taxicab and automo bile leasing companies, and other organizations that repair their own fleets of automobiles. Motor vehicle manufacturers employed some me chanics to adjust and repair cars at the end of assembly lines. About 1 out of 5 automotive mechanics was selfemployed. Most motorcycle mechanics work for motorcycle dealers. Others main tain police motorcycles for local gov ernment, or work for independent re pair shops that specialize in modifying or customizing motorcycles. Employment of automotive and mo torcycle mechanics is distributed about the same as the population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many automotive mechanics still learn the trade by assisting and working with experienced mechanics. Howev er, automotive technology is rapidly increasing in sophistication, and most training authorities recommend that persons seeking trainee automotive mechanic jobs complete a formal train ing program. Programs in automotive mechanics are offered in high schools, community colleges, and public and private vocational and technical schools. High school programs, par ticularly, vary greatly in quality. Postsecondary automotive mechanic training programs vary greatly in for mat. Some concentrate the instruction in only 6 months or a year, depending on how many hours the student must attend each week. Some community college programs spread the training out over 2 years, supplement the au tomotive training with instruction in academic subjects, and award an as sociate degree. Knowledge of electronics is in creasingly desirable for automotive and motorcycle mechanics. Electron ics is being used in a growing variety of automotive and motorcycle compo nents. Engine controls and dashboard instruments were among the first com ponents to use electronics, but now electronics are being used in brakes, transmissions, steering systems, and a variety of other components. In the past, problems involving electrical systems or electronics were usually handled by a specialist, but electron ics are becoming so commonplace that most automotive mechanics must be familiar with at least the basic principles in order to recognize when Mechanics frequently work with dirty and greasy parts, and in awkward positions. 338/Occupational Outlook Handbook an electronic malfunction may be re sponsible for a problem. Most persons hired as trainee mo torcycle mechanics are motorcycle enthusiasts who acquired some basic mechanic skills by servicing, repair ing, and customizing their own motor cycles. Few formal training programs in motorcycle mechanics exist. Beginners usually start as helpers, lubrication workers, or gasoline sta tion attendants and gradually acquire skills by working with experienced mechanics. Although a beginner can make simple repairs after a few months’ experience, it usually takes 1 to 2 years of experience to become a service mechanic and make the more difficult types of routine service and repairs. An additional 1 to 2 years are usually required to become thorough ly experienced and familiar with all types of repairs. Difficult specialties, such as transmission repair, require another year or two of training. In contrast, automotive radiator mechan ics and brake specialists, who do not need an all-round knowledge of auto motive repair, may learn their jobs in considerably less time. In the past, many persons have en tered automotive mechanics through 3- or 4-year formal apprenticeship programs. However, as formal auto motive training programs have in creased in popularity, the number of employers willing to make such a long-term apprenticeship commitment has greatly declined. For trainee mechanic jobs, employ ers look for people with mechanical aptitude and a knowledge of automo biles and motorcycles. Experience working on motor vehicles in the Armed Forces or as a hobby is valu able. Completion of high school is also an advantage in obtaining an en try job. Courses in automotive repair, electronics, physics, chemistry, and mathematics can help a person better understand how an automobile or mo torcycle operates. Mechanics usually buy their handtools, and beginners are expected to accumulate tools as they gain experi ence. Many experienced mechanics have thousands of dollars invested in tools. Employers furnish power tools, engine analyzers, and other test equip ment. Employers increasingly send expe rienced automotive and motorcycle mechanics to factory training centers Digitized forto learn to repair new models or to FRASER receive special training in electronic fuel injection or air-conditioning re pair. Motor vehicle dealers may also send promising beginners to factorysponsored mechanic training pro grams. Factory representatives come to many shops to conduct short train ing sessions. Mechanics also must read service and repair manuals to keep abreast of new technology. Voluntary certification by the Na tional Institute for Automotive Ser vice Excellence is widely recognized as a standard of achievement for au tomobile mechanics. Mechanics are certified in 1 or more of 8 different service areas, such as tune-ups, brake and front-end work, or electrical sys tem repair. General automotive me chanics are certified in all eight areas. For certification in each area, me chanics must have at least 2 years of experience and pass a written exami nation; completion of an automotive mechanic program in high school, vo cational or trade school, or communi ty or junior college may be substituted for 1 year of experience. Certified mechanics must retake the examina tion at least every 5 years. Experienced mechanics who have leadership ability may advance to shop supervisor or service manager. Mechanics who work well with cus tomers may become automotive re pair service estimators. Some with sufficient funds open independent re pair shops. Job Outlook Job opportunities in automotive and motorcycle mechanics are expected to be plentiful for persons who com plete training programs in high school or at community colleges and voca tional and technical schools. Persons without formal mechanic training are likely to face competition for entry level automotive mechanic jobs, but lack of formal training should be less of a disadvantage for persons seeking motorcycle mechanic jobs because there are relatively few training pro grams for motorcycle mechanics. Me chanic careers are attractive to many because they afford the opportunity for good pay and the satisfaction of skilled work with one’s hands. Employment of automotive and mo torcycle mechanics is expected to in crease faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. The number of mechanics is expected to increase because expansion of the driving age population and rising con sumer purchasing power will increase the number of motor vehicles on the road. The growing complexity of au tomotive technology, such as the use of electronic and emissions control equipment, increasingly necessitates that cars and motorcycles be serviced by professionals, contributing to growth in demand for mechanics. More job openings are expected for automotive and motorcycle mechan ics than for most other occupations. Despite projected faster-than-average growth in employment, the main source of job openings will be the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or stop working for other rea sons. Replacement needs will be sub stantial, in large part, because of the size of the occupation. Most persons who enter the occu pation may expect steady work be cause changes in economic conditions have little effect on the automotive repair business. During a downturn, however, some employers may be more reluctant to hire inexperienced workers. Earnings Highly skilled automotive mechanics employed by automobile dealers in 24 cities had average hourly earnings of $12.32 in 1984. Less skilled service mechanics who perform routine ser vice and make minor repairs had av erage hourly earnings of $9.31, and lubricators averaged an estimated $8.48 an hour in 1984. Experienced motorcyle mechanics averaged $350 a week in 1984, based on a survey of motorcycle dealerships and other employers. Their weekly pay ranged from about $320 a week to more than $400 a week, depending on the size of the shop and the region of the country. Many experienced mechanics em ployed by automotive and motorcycle dealers and independent repair shops receive a commission related to the labor cost charged to the customer. Under this method, weekly earnings depend on the amount of work com pleted by the mechanic. Employers frequently guarantee commissioned mechanics a minimum weekly salary. Most mechanics work between 40 and 48 hours a week, but many work even longer hours during busy peri ods. In some areas of the country, motorcycle mechanics work fewer Mechanics and Repairers/339 hours during the winter when inclem ent weather makes motorcycle riding difficult. Some mechanics are members of labor unions. The unions include the International Association of Machin ists and Aerospace Workers; the Inter national Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Imple ment Workers of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Associ ation; and the International Brother hood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Ware housemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Automotive Body Repairers (D .O .T. 620.364 and .684-034; 807.267; .281; .361010; .381-010, -018, and -022; .484; .684-010; and 865.684-010) Nature of the Work Thousands of motor vehicles are dam aged in traffic accidents every day. Although some are junked, most can be made to look and drive like new. Automotive body repairers straighten bent bodies, remove dents, and re place crumpled parts that are beyond repair. Usually, they can fix all types Related Occupations of vehicles, but most body repairers Other workers who repair and service work on cars and small trucks. A few motor vehicles include automotive work on large trucks, buses, or trac body repairers, customizers, repair tor-trailers. When a damaged vehicle is brought service estimators, transportation equipment painters, and truck, bus, into the shop, body repairers general ly receive instructions from their su and diesel mechanics. pervisors, who have determined which parts are to be restored or re Sources of Additional Information placed and how much time the job For more details about work opportu should take. nities, contact local automotive and Automotive body repairers use spe motorcycle dealers and repair shops; cial machines to restore damaged locals of the unions previously men frames and body sections to their orig tioned; or the local office of the State inal shape and location. They chain or employment service. The State em clamp the frames and sections to ployment service also may have infor alignment machines that usually use mation about training programs. hydraulic pressure to align the dam A directory of accredited private aged metal. For “ unicoupe” designs, trade and technical schools with train which are built without frames, they ing programs for automotive and mo also use bench systems to return body torcycle mechanics is available from: sections to precise alignment. Body repairers remove badly dam National Association of Trade and Technical aged sections of body panels with a Schools, 2251 Wisconsin Ave. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20007. pneumatic metal-cutting gun or acety Information on automotive and mo lene torch and weld in new sections to torcycle mechanic training is available replace them. Repairers pull out less from: serious dents with a hydraulic jack or Motor and Equipment Manufacturers Associa hand prying bar, or knock them out tion, Technical Training Council, 222 Cedar with handtools or pneumatic ham Lane, Teaneck, N.J. 07666. mers. They smooth out small dents For general information about the and creases by holding a small anvil work of automotive mechanics, write against one side of the damaged area to: while hammering the opposite side. Automotive Service Industry Association, 444 They remove very small pits and dim North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. ples with pick hammers and punches. Automotive Service Councils, Inc., 188 Indus Body repairers also repair or re trial Dr., Suite 112, Elmhurst, 111. 60126. place the plastic body parts used in Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association of creasingly on newer model vehicles. the U.S., Inc., 300 New Center Bldg., Detroit, They remove the damaged panels and Mich. 48202. Information on how to become a determine the type of plastic from certified automotive mechanic is avail which they are made. With most types, they can apply heat from a able from: National Institute for Automotive Service Ex hot-air welding gun or by immersion cellence, Suite 515, 1825 K St. NW., Washing in hot water, and press the softened panel back into its original shape by Digitized forton D.C. 20006. FRASER hand. They replace plastic parts which are more difficult to repair. Body repairers use plastic or solder to fill small dents which cannot be worked out of the plastic or metal panel. On metal panels, they then file or grind the hardened filler to the original shape and sand it before painting. In many shops, automotive painters do the painting. (These work ers are discussed in the Handbook statement on transportation equip ment painters.) In smaller shops, workers often do both body repairing and painting. A few body repairers specialize in repairing fiberglass car bodies. Some body repairers specialize in installing glass in automobiles and other vehicles. Glass installers re move broken, cracked, or pitted wind shields and window glass. Curved windshields are purchased precut from the manufacturer, but flat win dows sometimes must be cut from a sheet of safety glass. Glass installers apply a moisture proofing compound along the edges of the glass, place it in the vehicle, and install rubber strips around the sides of the windshield or window to make it secure and weather proof. Body repair work has variety and challenge—each damaged vehicle presents a different problem. Repair ers must develop appropriate methods for each job, using their broad knowl edge of automotive construction and repair techniques. Body repairers usually work alone with only general directions from su pervisors. In some shops, they may be assisted by helpers or apprentices. In large shops, body repairers may specialize in one type of repair, such as frame straightening or door and fender repairing. Working Conditions Automotive body repairers work in doors in body shops which are noisy because of the banging of hammers against metal and the whir of power tools. Most shops are well ventilated, but often they are dusty and smell of paint. Body repairers often work in awkward or cramped positions, and much of their work is strenuous and dirty. Hazards include cuts from sharp metal edges, burns from torches and heated metal, injuries from power tools, and fumes from paint. 340/Occupational Outlook Handbook buy their own tools, but employers usually furnish power tools. Trainees generally accumulate tools as they gain experience, and many workers have thousands of dollars invested in tools. An experienced automotive body repairer with supervisory ability may advance to shop supervisor. Some workers open their own body repair shops. Others become automobile damage appraisers for insurance com panies. Automotive body repairers sand body panels before painting. Employment Automotive body repairers held more than 183,000 jobs in 1984. Most worked for shops that specialized in body repairs and painting, and for automobile and truck dealers. Others worked for organizations that main tain their own motor vehicles, such as trucking companies and buslines. A few worked for motor vehicle manu facturers. About 1 automotive body repairer out of 4 was self-employed. Automotive body repairers work in every section of the country. Jobs are distributed in about the same way as the population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many automotive body repairers en ter the occupation by transfer from related helper positions. Persons in good physical condition who know how to use handtools learn the trade as helpers, picking up skills on the job from experienced body repairers. Helpers begin by assisting body re pairers in tasks such as removing damaged parts and installing repaired parts. They learn to remove small dents and to make other minor re pairs. They then progress to more difficult tasks such as body straighten ing. Generally, skill in all aspects of body repair requires 3 to 4 years of on-the-job training. Although there is no educational requirement, most employers prefer to hire high school graduates. Com pletion of a formal training program in automotive body repair is highly de sirable because advances in technolo gy in recent years have greatly changed the structure, the compo nents, and even the materials used in automobiles, requiring many new skills and creating many new repair problems. Automotive body repair training programs are offered by many high schools, vocational schools, pri vate trade schools, and community colleges. Formal training in automo tive body repair can enhance chances for employment and speed promotion to a journeyman position. Certification by the National Insti tute for Automotive Service Excel lence, which is voluntary, is recog nized as a standard of achievement for automotive body repairers. To be cer tified, a body repairer must pass a written examination and must have at least 2 years of experience in the trade. Completion of a high school, vocational school, trade school, or community college program in auto motive body repair may be substitut ed for 1 year of work experience. Automotive body repairers must re take the examination at least every 5 years to retain certification. Automotive body repairers must Job Outlook Employment of automotive body re pairers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupa tions through the mid-1990’s. As the number of motor vehicles in operation grows with the Nation’s population, the number damaged in accidents will increase as well. In addition, require ments for body repairers will increase because new, lighter weight automo tive designs are prone to greater col lision damage than older, heavier de signs. The need to replace experi enced repairers who retire, transfer to other occupations, or stop working for other reasons will account for the majority of job openings. The automotive repair business is not very sensitive to changes in eco nomic conditions, and experienced body repairers are rarely laid off. Al though major body damage must be repaired if a vehicle is to be restored to safe operating condition, repair of minor dents and crumpled fenders can often be deferred. As a result, most employers hire fewer new workers during an economic slowdown. Thus, persons seeking to enter this occupa tion may face increased competition for jobs during recessions. Earnings Body repairers employed by automo bile dealers in 24 large metropolitan areas had average hourly earnings of about $14.10 in 1984. Average earn ings generally were highest in the West and lowest in the Northeast. Helpers and trainees usually earn from 30 to 60 percent of the earnings of skilled workers. Many body repairers employed by automotive dealers and repair shops are paid a commission, usually about half of the labor cost charged to the customer. Under this method, earn ings depend on the amount of work assigned to the repairer and how fast Mechanics and Repairers/341 it is completed. Employers frequently guarantee commissioned workers a minimum weekly salary. Helpers and trainees usually receive an hourly rate until they are skilled enough to work on commission. Body repairers who work for trucking companies, bus lines, and other organizations that maintain their own vehicles usually receive an hourly wage. Most body repairers work 40 to 48 hours a week. Many automotive body repairers are members of unions, including the International Association of Machin ists and Aerospace Workers; the Inter national Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Most body repairers who are union mem bers work for large automobile deal ers, trucking companies, and buslines. Related Occupations Repairing damaged motor vehicles of ten involves working on their mechan ical components as well as their bod ies. Automotive body repairers often work closely with the following relat ed occupations: Automotive repair service estimators, automotive me chanics, automotive painters and body customizers, and diesel mechanics. Sources of Additional Information More details about work opportuni ties may be obtained from automotive body repair shops and motor vehicle dealers; locals of the unions previous ly mentioned; or the local office of the State employment service. The State employment service also is a source of information about training programs. For general information about auto motive body repairer careers, write to: Automotive Service Industry Association, 444 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. Automotive Service Councils, Inc., 188 Indus trial Dr., Suite 112, Elmhurst, 111. 60126. For information on how to become a certified automotive body repairer, write to: National Institute for Automotive Service Ex cellence, 1825 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. For a directory of accredited pri vate trade and technical schools that offer training programs in automotive body repair, write to: National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, 2251 Wisconsin Ave. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20007. shops, mechanics specialize in one or two types of work. For example, one mechanic may specialize in major en (D .O.T 620.281-046, -050, and -058; 623.281-018 and gine repair, another in transmission -026; and 625.261, .281-010 and -014, and .361) work, another in electrical systems, and yet another in suspension or Nature of the Work Diesel engines usually are heavier and brake systems. Diesel mechanics use a variety of thus usually last longer than gasoline engines. In addition, they use fuel tools in their work. They use power more efficiently than gasoline engines tools such as pneumatic wrenches to because the higher compression ratios remove bolts quickly; machine tools found in diesel engines convert a high such as lathes and grinding machines er percentage of the fuel into power. to rebuild brakes and other parts; Because of their greater durability and welding and flame-cutting equipment efficiency, diesel engines are used to to remove and repair exhaust systems power most of the Nation’s heavy and other parts; common handtools such as screwdrivers, pliers, and vehicles and equipment. Diesel mechanics repair and main wrenches to work on small parts and tain diesel engines that power trans get at hard-to-reach places; and jacks portation equipment, such as heavy and hoists to lift and move large parts. trucks, buses, and locomotives; and Diesel mechanics also use a variety of construction equipment such as bull testing equipment. For example, when dozers, cranes, and road graders. A working on electrical systems, they small number work on diesel-powered may use ohmmeters, ammeters, and automobiles. Diesel mechanics also voltmeters; to locate engine malfunc service a variety of other diesel-pow tions, they often use tachometers, dy ered equipment, such as electric gen namometers, and engine analyzers. For heavy work, such as removing erators and compressors and pumps used in oil well drilling and in irriga engines and transmissions, two me tion. chanics may work as a team, or a Most diesel mechanics work on mechanic may be assisted by an ap heavy trucks used in industries such prentice or helper. Mechanics gener as mining and construction to carry ally get their assignments from shop ore and building materials, and by supervisors or service managers who commercial trucking lines for general may check the mechanics’ work or freight hauling. Most light trucks are assist in diagnosing problems. gasoline powered, and although some diesel mechanics service gasoline en Working Conditions gines, most work primarily on diesel Diesel mechanics usually work in engines. For information on mechan doors, although they may occasional ics who work primarily on gasoline ly work or make repairs on the road. engines, see the Handbook statement They are subject to the usual shop on automotive and motorcycle me hazards such as cuts and bruises. Me chanics handle greasy and dirty parts chanics. Mechanics who work for organiza and may stand or lie in awkward or tions that maintain their own vehicles cramped positions to repair vehicles may spend much time doing preven and equipment. Work areas usually tive maintenance to assure safe oper are well lighted, heated, and ventilat ation, prevent wear and damage to ed, and many employers provide lock parts, and reduce costly breakdowns. er rooms and shower facilities. During a maintenance check on a truck, for example, they usually fol Employment low a regular check list that includes Diesel mechanics held about 211,000 the inspection of brake systems, steer jobs in 1984. More than one-third ing mechanisms, wheel bearings, and worked for organizations that owned other important parts. They usually fleets of trucks, including construc can repair or adjust a part that is not tion and trucking companies and bus working properly. Parts that cannot inesses that haul their own products, be fixed are replaced. such as dairies and bakeries. Others In many shops, mechanics do all worked for heavy truck dealers, deal kinds of repair work. For example, ers of diesel-powered light trucks and they may work on a vehicle’s electri automobiles, truck repair shops, com cal system one day and do major panies that rent or lease trucks, and engine repair the next. In some large Federal, State, and local govern- Diesel Mechanics 342/Occupational Outlook Handbook Diesel mechanics use handtools to work on small parts and get at hard-to-reach places. ments. About one-fifth worked for companies that sell and service con struction and mining machinery and industrial equipment, such as com pressors, pumps, and generators. A small number of diesel mechanics ser viced buses for local transit compa nies and intercity buslines. Others maintained diesel locomotives for rail roads. Diesel mechanics are employed in every section of the country, but most work in towns and cities where truck ing companies, buslines, and other fleet owners have large repair shops. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most diesel mechanics learn their skills on the job. Beginners usually do tasks such as cleaning parts, fueling, lubricating, and driving vehicles in and out of the shop. As beginners gain experience and as vacancies become available, they usually are promoted to mechanics’ helpers. In some shops, beginners—especially those having automobile service experience—start as mechanics’ helpers. Most helpers can make minor re pairs after a few months’ experience and advance to increasingly difficult jobs as they prove their ability. After they master the repair and service of diesel engines, they learn to work on related components such as brakes, transmissions, or electrical systems. Generally, at least 3 to 4 years of on-the-job experience are necessary to qualify as an all-round diesel truck or bus mechanic. Additional training may be necessary for mechanics who wish to specialize in diesel equipment. For entry jobs, employers generally look for applicants who have mechan ical aptitude and are at least 18 years of age and in good physical condition. Completion of high school also is de sirable. Good reading skills are need ed to study complex service instruc tion manuals. A State chauffeur’s li cense is needed for test driving trucks or buses on public roads. Many employers prefer graduates of formal training programs in diesel mechanics. These 1- to 2-year pro grams, given by vocational and tech nical schools and community and jun ior colleges, lead to a certificate of completion or an associate degree. They provide a foundation in the bas ics of the latest diesel technology, such as the use of electronics, and speed advancement to the journey man mechanic level. A formal 4-year apprenticeship is another good way to learn diesel me chanics. While never plentiful, ap prenticeships are becoming rare be cause employers are reluctant to make such a long-term investment in train ing, especially when graduates of postsecondary diesel mechanic pro grams are increasing in number. Typ ical apprenticeship programs for die sel truck and bus mechanics consist of approximately 8,000 hours of practi cal experience working on transmis sions, engines, and other components and at least 576 hours of formal in struction to learn blueprint reading, mathematics, engine theory, and safe ty. Frequently, these programs in clude training in both diesel and gas oline engine repair. High school auto shop and science and mathematics classes help a me chanic understand how engines and vehicles operate. Practical experience in automobile repair in a gasoline ser vice station or the Armed Forces or from a hobby also is valuable. Most mechanics must buy their own handtools. Experienced mechan ics often have thousands of dollars invested in tools. Employers sometimes send experi enced mechanics to special training classes conducted by truck, bus, die sel engine, parts, and equipment man ufacturers where they learn the latest technology or receive special training in subjects such as diagnosing engine malfunctions. Mechanics also must read service and repair manuals to keep abreast of engineering changes. Voluntary certification by the Na tional Institute for Automotive Ser vice Excellence is recognized as a standard of achievement for diesel mechanics. Mechanics may be certi fied as Master Heavy-Duty Truck Technicians or may be certified in 1 or more of 6 different areas of heavy duty truck repair: Brakes, gasoline engines, diesel engines, drive trains, electrical systems, and suspension and steering. For certification in each area, mechanics must pass a written examination and have at least 2 years of experience. High school, vocation al or trade school, or community or junior college training in gasoline or diesel engine repair may substitute for up to 1 year of experience. To retain certification, mechanics must retake the tests at least every 5 years. Experienced mechanics who have leadership ability may advance to shop supervisors or service managers. Mechanics who have sales ability sometimes become sales representa tives. A few mechanics open their own repair shops. Job Outlook Employment of diesel mechanics is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s as freight transporta Mechanics and Repairers/343 tion by truck increases. More trucks mobile, Aerospace and Agricultural will be needed for both local and Implement Workers of America; the intercity hauling due to the increased Transport Workers Union of Ameri production of goods. Additional diesel ca; the Sheet Metal Workers’ Inter mechanics will be needed to repair national Association; and the Inter and maintain growing numbers of national Brotherhood of Teamsters, buses and heavy construction grad Chauffers, Warehousemen and Help ers, cranes, earthmovers, and other ers of America (Ind.). equipment. Due to the greater dur ability and economy of the diesel Related Occupations relative to the gasoline engine, buses Diesel mechanics repair trucks, bus and trucks of all sizes are expected es, and other diesel-powered equip to be increasingly powered by die ment and keep them in good working sels, also creating new diesel me order. Related mechanic occupations chanic jobs. The majority of job include aircraft mechanics, automo openings, nevertheless, will arise from tive and motorcycle mechanics, farm the need to replace diesel mechanics equipment mechanics, and mobile who transfer to other occupations, heavy equipment mechanics. retire, or stop working for other rea sons. Careers in diesel mechanics are Sources of Additional Information attractive to many because wages are More details about work opportu relatively high and skilled repair work nities for diesel mechanics may be is challenging and varied. Opportu obtained from local employers such nities will be best for persons who as trucking companies, truck dealers, complete formal training in diesel me or bus lines; locals of the unions pre chanics at community and junior col viously mentioned; or the local office leges and vocational and technical of the State employment service. Lo schools. cal State employment service offices also may have information about ap prenticeships and other training pro Earnings Diesel mechanics employed by truck grams. For general information about ca ing companies, buslines, and other firms that maintain their own vehicles reers as truck, bus, and diesel me had average hourly earnings of $11.93 chanics, write to: in 1984. Earnings generally were high American Trucking Associations, Inc., 2200 est in the West and North Central Mill Rd., Alexandria, Va. 22314. regions and lowest in the South. They Automotive Service Industry Association, 444 varied by industry as follows: North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. Transportation.............................. M anufacturing.............................. Retail trad e..................................... Wholesale trad e......................... S erv ices........................................... $12.40 11.84 11.58 11.53 10.32 Beginning apprentices usually earn one-half the rate of skilled workers and receive increases about every 6 months until they complete their ap prenticeship and reach the rate of skilled mechanics. Most mechanics work between 40 and 48 hours per week. Those em ployed by truck and bus firms which provide service around the clock may work evenings, nights, and weekends. They usually receive a higher rate of pay for this work. Many diesel mechanics are mem bers of labor unions, including the International Association of Machin ists and Aerospace Workers; the Amalgamated Transit Union; the International Union, United Auto International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers, Apprenticeship Depart ment, 1300 Connecticut Ave. NW„ Washing ton, D.C. 20036. Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association of the U.S., Inc., 300 New Center Bldg., Detroit, Mich. 48202. Information on diesel mechanic training is available from: Motor and Equipment Manufacturers Associa tion, Technical Training Council, 222 Cedar Lane, Teaneck, N.J. 07666. For a directory of accredited pri vate trade and technical schools with training programs for diesel mechan ics, contact: National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, 2251 Wisconsin Ave. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20007. Information on how to become a certified heavy-duty diesel mechanic is available from: National Institute for Automotive Service Ex cellence, 1825 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Farm Equipment Mechanics (D.O.T. 624.281, .361-014, .381, .684, and 629.281018) Nature of the Work Many years ago, farmers planted, cul tivated, and harvested their crops us ing only handtools and simple, ani mal-drawn equipment. Few repairs were required, and if a stray rock or stump broke a plow blade, the metal pieces could be joined together by the local blacksmith. Even when tractors began to replace animals as the prime source of power, the early models were not very complicated and most farmers did their own repair work. Farm equipment has grown enor mously in size, complexity, and variety. Many farms have tractors equipped with 300-horsepower and larger diesel engines. Harvesting com bines, hay balers, corn pickers, crop dryers, planters, tillage equipment, and elevators also are common. In today’s world of large-scale, mecha nized agriculture, few if any types of farming can be done economically without specialized machines. As farm machinery grew more com plex, it became important for the sell ers of farm equipment to be able to service and repair the machines they sold. Almost every dealer employs farm equipment mechanics, often called service technicians, to do this work and to maintain and repair the smaller lawn and garden tractors many dealers sell to surburban homeown ers. In addition, some mechanics who work for dealers and equipment wholesalers assemble new implements and machinery and sometimes do body work, repairing dented or torn sheet metal on the tractors or other machinery. Mechanics spend much of their time repairing and adjusting malfunc tioning equipment that has been brought to the shop. But during plant ing and harvesting, they may travel to the farm to make emergency repairs on equipment so that critical farming operations are not unduly delayed. Mechanics also perform preventive maintenance. Periodically, they test, adjust, and clean parts and tune en gines. In large shops, mechanics may specialize in certain types of work, such as diesel engine overhaul, hy- 344/Occupational Outlook Handbook draulics, or clutch and transmission repair. Others specialize in repairing the air-conditioning units often includ ed in the cabs of combines and large tractors, or in repairing certain types of equipment such as hay balers. Some mechanics also repair milking, irrigation, and other equipment on farms. Mechanics use many basic handtools including wrenches, pliers, ham mers, and screwdrivers. They also may use precision equipment such as micrometers and torque wrenches and engine testing equipment, such as dy namometers to measure engine per formance, or compression testers to find worn piston rings or leaking cyl inder valves. They may use welding equipment or power tools to repair broken parts. Working Conditions Generally, farm equipment mechanics work indoors. Modern farm equip ment repair shops are well ventilated, lighted, and heated, but older shops may not offer these advantages. Dur ing planting and harvesting seasons, mechanics may make emergency re pairs in the field, perhaps traveling many miles to do so. Farm equipment mechanics come in contact with grease, gasoline, rust, and dirt, and there is danger of injury when they repair heavy parts supported on jacks or by hoists. Care must also be used to avoid burns from hot engine parts, cuts from sharp edges of machinery, and injury from farm chemicals. Employment Farm equipment mechanics held about 18,000 jobs in 1984. Most worked in service departments of farm equipment dealers. Others worked in independent repair shops, in shops on large farms, and in service departments of retail lawn and garden supply stores. Most farm equipment mechanics work in small repair shops. About one-fifth of farm equipment mechanics are self-employed. Because some type of farming is done in nearly every area of the Unit ed States, farm equipment mechanics are employed throughout the country. Employment is concentrated in small cities and towns, making this an at tractive career choice for people who do not wish to live the fast-paced life of an urban environment. However, many mechanics work in the rural fringes of metropolitan areas, so farm equipment mechanics who prefer the conveniences of city life need not live in rural areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer applicants who have an aptitude for mechanical work. A farm background is an advantage since growing up on a farm usually provides Farm equipment mechanics perform preventive maintenance and repair machinery. experience in basic farm equipment repairs. Employers also prefer high school graduates, but some will hire applicants who have less education. In general, employers stress previous experience or training in diesel and gasoline engines, the maintenance and repair of hydraulics, and welding— subjects that may be learned in many high schools and vocational schools. Mechanics also must be able to read circuit diagrams and blueprints in or der to make complex repairs to elec trical and other systems. Most farm equipment mechanics are hired as trainees and learn the trade on the job by assisting qualified mechanics. The length of training var ies with the helper’s aptitude and pri or experience. At least 2 years of on-the-job training usually are neces sary before a mechanic can do the more routine types of repair work, and additional training and experience are required for highly specialized re pair and overhaul jobs. Many farm equipment mechanics enter this occupation from a related occupation. For instance, they may gain experience as farmers and farm laborers, or as heavy equipment me chanics, automotive mechanics, or air-conditioning mechanics. People who enter from related occupations also may start as helpers, but they may not require a long period of onthe-job training. With the development of more com plex farm implements, technical train ing has become more important. A growing number of large employers prefer applicants who have completed 1 or 2 years of training in agricultural mechanics, including electronics, at a vocational or technical school or com munity or junior college. A few farm equipment mechanics learn the trade by completing an ap prenticeship program, which lasts from 3 to 4 years and includes on-thejob as well as classroom training in all phases of farm equipment repair and maintenance. Applicants for these programs usually are chosen from shop helpers. Keeping abreast of changing farm equipment technology requires a great deal of careful study of service manu als and analysis of complex diagrams. Many farm equipment mechanics and trainees receive refresher training in short-term programs conducted by farm equipment manufacturers. These programs usually last several days. A Mechanics and Repairers/345 company service representative ex plains the design and function of equipment and teaches maintenance and repair on new models of farm equipment. In addition, some dealers may send employees to local voca tional schools that teach special weeklong classes in subjects such as air-conditioning repair or hydraulics. Persons considering a career in this field should have the manual dexterity needed to handle tools and equip ment. Occasionally, strength is re quired to lift, move, or hold heavy parts in place. Difficult repair jobs require problemsolving abilities to di agnose the source of the machine’s malfunction. Experienced mechanics should be able to work independently with minimum supervision. Farm equipment mechanics may advance to shop supervisor, service manager, or manager of a farm equip ment dealership. Some mechanics open their own repair shops. A few farm equipment mechanics earn 2year associate degrees in agricultural mechanics and advance to service representatives for farm equipment manufacturers. Job Outlook Employment of farm equipment me chanics is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occu pations through the mid-1990’s. Most job openings will arise each year as experienced mechanics transfer to other occupations, retire, or stop working for other reasons. Opportuni ties will be best for persons with for mal training in farm equipment repair or diesel mechanics and for applicants who have lived or worked on farms and know how to operate farm ma chinery and make minor repairs. Continued consolidation of farm land into fewer and larger farms, re quiring less farm equipment, is ex pected to restrict growth of farm equipment mechanic employment, particularly in farm equipment dealer ships. On the other hand, a growing number of large farms are expected to employ their own mechanics. In gen eral, the increasing technical sophisti cation of farm equipment will make it more difficult for farmers to do their own repairs, forcing them to rely more on skilled mechanics in the fu ture. For instance, many newer trac tors have much larger, electronically controlled engines and air-conditioned cabs, which have improved the com fort of the operator, and feature ad vanced transmissions with many speeds. New planting equipment uses electronics to spread seeds more uni formly, and electronic controls help harvesters reduce waste. Besides the development of larger and more com plex farm machinery, sales of smaller lawn and garden equipment have in creased vastly over the past decade and are expected to continue to do so. Most of the large manufacturers of farm equipment now offer a line of these smaller tractors and sell them through their established dealerships. Although relatively few mechanics service this equipment, more will be needed. As with most agricultural occupa tions, the demand for farm equipment mechanics is highest during planting and harvesting seasons. During these busy periods, mechanics often work 6 or 7 days a week, 10 to 12 hours daily. In winter months, however, mechan ics may work less than 40 hours a week and some may be laid off. The agricultural equipment industry experiences periodic declines—most ly in sales. Layoffs of mechanics, however, are uncommon because farmers often elect to repair old equip ment rather than purchase new equip ment. Related Occupations Other workers who repair large ma chinery include aircraft mechanics, automotive and motorcycle mechan ics, diesel mechanics, and mobile heavy equipment mechanics. Sources of Additional Information Details about work opportunities may be obtained from local farm equip ment dealers and local offices of the State employment service. For gener al information about the occupation, write to: National Farm and Power Equipment Dealers Association, 10877 Watson Rd., St. Louis, Mo. 63127. For general information on training, contact: Motor and Equipment Manufacturers Associa tion, Technical Training Council, 222 Cedar Lane, Teaneck, N.J. 07666. Mobile Heavy Equipment Mechanics__________ (D.O.T. 620.261-022, .281-042, and .381-014)________ Nature of the Work Mobile heavy equipment is indispens able to construction, logging, surface mining, and other industrial activities. Mobile heavy equipment mechanics service and repair the engines, trans Earnings Salaried farm equipment mechanics missions, hydraulics, electrical sys had median annual earnings of $15,100 tems, and other components of equip in 1984, according to a national sur ment such as motor graders, trenchers vey. The middle 50 percent earned and backhoes, crawler-loaders, and between $11,700 and $19,100 a year. stripping and loading shovels. (Me The highest salaries were paid to chanics who specialize in servicing workers with the most experience and only diesel engines are discussed in to those performing the most compli the Handbook statement on diesel cated repairs. In addition, higher sal mechanics.) Mobile heavy equipment mechanics aries were paid in the heavily agricul tural regions where competition is perform routine maintenance on the greatest for the more highly skilled diesel engines that power most heavy mechanics. Most farm equipment me equipment, and, if an operator reports chanics also have the opportunity to a malfunction, they search for its work overtime during the planting and cause. First, they inspect and operate harvesting seasons, for which they the equipment to diagnose the nature generally are paid time and one-half. of the repairs required. They may Very few farm equipment mechan- . partially dismantle the engine, exam ics belong to labor unions, but those ining parts for damage or excessive who do are members of the Inter wear. Then they repair, replace, clean, national Association of Machinists and lubricate the parts as necessary, and Aerospace Workers; the Inter and reassemble and test the engine for national Union, United Automobile, operating efficiency. If repairs to the Aerospace and Agricultural Imple drive train are needed, mechanics ment Workers of America; and the may remove and repair the transmis International Brotherhood of Team sion or differential. sters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Many types of mobile heavy equip Helpers of America (Ind.). ment use hydraulics to raise and lower 346/Occupational Outlook Handbook movable parts such as scoops, shov els, log forks, or scraper blades. Re pairing malfunctioning hydraulic com ponents is an important responsibility of mobile heavy equipment mechan ics. When the hydraulic apparatus los es power, mechanics examine it for hydraulic fluid leaks and replace rup tured hoses or worn gaskets on fluid reservoirs. Occasionally more exten sive repairs are required, such as re placing a defective hydraulic pump. Mobile heavy equipment mechanics perform a variety of other types of repairs. They diagnose and correct electrical problems and replace defec tive electronic components. They also may disassemble and repair crawler undercarriages and track assemblies. Occasionally mechanics may weld broken body and structural parts, us ing electric or gas welders. Many mechanics work in small re pair shops of construction contrac tors, logging and mining companies, and local government road mainte nance departments. They typically perform routine maintenance and mi nor repairs necessary to keep the equipment in operation. Mechanics in larger repair shops—particularly those of mobile heavy equipment dealers and the Federal Government—per form more difficult repairs, such as rebuilding or replacing engines, re pairing hydraulic fluid pumps, or cor recting electrical problems. Mechan ics in some large shops specialize in Repairing hydraulic components is an im portant responsibility of mobile heavy equipment mechanics. one or two types of work, such as hydraulics or electrical systems. Mobile heavy equipment mechanics use a variety of tools in their work. They use common handtools such as pliers, wrenches, and screwdrivers to work on small parts and get at hardto-reach places. They use power tools such as pneumatic wrenches to re move bolts quickly, and jacks, hoists, and cranes to lift and move heavy parts. They use micrometers and gaug es to measure wear on parts, and a variety of testing equipment. For ex ample, they often use tachometers and dynamometers to locate engine malfunctions; when working on elec trical systems, they may use ohmmeters, ammeters, and voltmeters. Working Conditions Most mobile heavy equipment repair shops are well ventilated, lighted, and heated. Mechanics work mostly in doors in shops, but field service me chanics spend much of their time away from the shop working out doors. When mobile heavy equipment breaks down at a construction site, it is often too difficult or expensive to bring it into a repair shop, so a field service mechanic is sent to the job site to make repairs. Generally, the most experienced mobile heavy equipment mechanics specialize in field service, and they often must drive specially equipped trucks many miles to reach disabled machinery. For many me chanics, the independence and chal lenge of field work outweigh the occa sional long hours or bad weather, but other mechanics are more comfort able with the routine of shop work and the opportunity to work as part of a team. Mechanics handle greasy and dirty parts and often work in awkward or cramped positions. They frequently must lift heavy tools and parts. Me chanics are subject to burns, bruises, and cuts from hot engine parts and sharp edges of machinery. However, serious accidents may be avoided when the shop is kept clean and or derly and safety practices are ob served. Employment Mobile heavy equipment mechanics held about 77,000 jobs in 1984. Over half worked for mobile heavy equip ment dealers and Federal, State, and local governments. The Department of Defense is the primary Federal em ployer. Others worked for construc tion contractors, surface mine opera tors, and logging camps and contrac tors. Still others repaired equipment for machinery manufacturers, airlines, steel mills, utilities, and oil and gas field companies. About 1 out of 10 mobile heavy equipment mechanics was self-employed. These mechanics are employed in every section of the country, but most work near cities and towns, where most construction takes place. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For trainee jobs, employers hire per sons with mechanical aptitude who are high school graduates at least 18 years of age. They seek persons knowledgeable about the fundamen tals of diesel engines, transmissions, electrical systems, and hydraulics. Al though some persons are able to ac quire these skills through self study and working as helpers to experienced mechanics, most employers prefer graduates of formal training programs in diesel or heavy equipment mechan ics. Training programs in diesel and heavy equipment mechanics are given by vocational and technical schools and community and junior colleges. Some 1- to 2-year programs lead to a certificate of completion; others lead to an associate degree, if they are supplemented with additional aca demic courses. They provide a foun dation in the basics of diesel and heavy equipment technology, includ ing hydraulics, and speed advance ment to the journeyman level. Train ing in the fundamentals of electronics is also an asset to mechanics because new mobile heavy equipment increas ingly features electronic controls and sensing devices. High school courses in automobile mechanics, physics, chemistry, and mathematics are a useful background. Good reading skills and a basic under standing of scientific principles can help a mechanic learn important job skills and keep abreast of new tech nology through the study of technical manuals. Experience working on en gines in the Armed Forces or as a hobby also is valuable. Persons who learn the basics of mobile heavy equipment mechanics largely on the job start as helpers— cleaning parts, lubricating, fueling equipment, cleaning up the shop. Mechanics and Repairers/347 Through the study of training and technical manuals and by observing and working with experienced me chanics, they may earn promotion to a trainee mechanic position. Through a combination of formal and on-the-job training, trainee me chanics acquire the knowledge and skills to efficiently service and repair the particular types of equipment han dled by the shop. Beginners are as signed relatively simple service and repair tasks. As they gain experience and become more familiar with the equipment, they are assigned increas ingly difficult jobs, and are exposed to a greater variety of equipment. Many employers send trainee me chanics to training sessions conducted by heavy equipment manufacturers. These sessions, which typically last up to a week, provide intensive in struction in the repair of a manufac turer’s equipment. Some sessions fo cus on particular components found in all of the manufacturer’s equipment, such as diesel engines and transmis sions or electrical systems. Other ses sions focus on particular types of equipment, such as crawler-loaders and crawler-dozers. As they progress, trainees may periodically attend addi tional training sessions. Experienced mechanics also occasionally attend training sessions to update their knowledge of new technology or to become familiar with types of equip ment they may never have repaired. Mobile heavy equipment mechanics usually must buy their own handtools, although employers furnish power tools and test equipment. Trainee me chanics are expected to accumulate their own tools as they gain experi ence. Many experienced mechanics have thousands of dollars invested in tools. Experienced mechanics may ad vance to field service jobs, where they have greater opportunity to tackle problems independently and earn overtime pay. Mechanics who have leadership ability may become shop supervisors or service managers. Some mechanics open their own re pair shops. gions. Fewer mechanics may be need ed during periods when equipment is used less intensively, but employers usually try to retain experienced work ers. However, employers may be re luctant to hire inexperienced workers during slack periods. Job Outlook Employment of mobile heavy equip ment mechanics is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Increasing numbers of mechanics will be required in repair shops of con struction contractors and equipment dealers. Growing numbers of mechan ics also will be needed by all levels of government to service construction equipment and, at the Federal level, defense-related equipment. Neverthe less, the majority of job openings will result from the need to replace me chanics who transfer to other occupa tions, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Opportunities should generally be best for persons who have completed formal training programs in diesel or heavy equip ment mechanics. As the economy grows, growth of construction activity should result in more mobile heavy equipment requir ing periodic service and repair. Vari ous kinds of equipment will be needed in growing numbers to grade con struction sites, excavate basements, lay water and sewer lines, and put in streets. In addition, construction of new highways and repair of existing ones will also require more mechan ics. Since construction and mining are sensitive to changes in the level of economic activity, mobile heavy equipment may be idled during down turns. In addition, winter is tradition ally the slack season for construction activity, particularly in colder re Earnings Median annual earnings of mobile heavy equipment mechanics were $21,300 in 1984. The middle 50 per cent earned from $17,100 to $28,200 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12,300, while the top 10 percent earned over $34,300. Some mobile heavy equipment me chanics are members of unions, in cluding the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Work ers; the International Union of Oper ating Engineers; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauf feurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who repair and service diesel-powered ve hicles and equipment include railcar repairers and diesel, farm equipment, and mine machinery mechanics. Sources of Additional Information More details about work opportuni ties for mobile heavy equipment me chanics may be obtained from local mobile heavy equipment dealers, con struction contractors, surface mining companies, and government agencies. Local offices of the State employment service may also have information on work opportunities and training pro grams. For general information about the work and training of mobile heavy equipment mechanics, contact: Motor and Equipment Manufacturers Associa tion, Technical Training Council, 222 Cedar Lane, Teaneck, N.J. 07666. Electrical and Electronic Equipment Repairers Electrical and electronic equipment is one of the hallmarks of our hightechnology society. Electrical and electronic equipment repairers in stall, maintain, and repair this equip ment. Many of them deal with highly complex telecommunications and computer equipment that is routinely used in factories, business offices, hospitals, schools, stores, ticket offices, and private homes. Others repair household appliances and home entertainment systems. A growing number of repairers work on the electronic components of industrial robots and numerical-control machine tools. Mechanical aptitude and a knowl edge of electrical theory are essential in these occupations. For many of them, some knowledge of advanced electronics theory and skill in the use of electronic testing equipment are also necessary. At the entry level, some repair ers may need only a high school di ploma. They acquire specific job skills through on-the-job training, a formal apprenticeship, or an employ er’s training program. For many of these jobs, however, employers re quire formal training in electronics, which may be obtained in Armed Forces schools, vocational-technical institutes, community colleges, or pri vate trade schools. Continuing educa tion is important in this rapidly chang ing field, and many electronic equip ment repairers periodically attend company-sponsored training sessions to learn about new technological ad vances and to sharpen their repair skills. This section of the Handbook de scribes seven repair occupations: Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers, communications equipment mechanics, data process ing equipment repairers, electronic home entertainment equipment re pairers, home appliance and power tool repairers, line installers and cable splicers, and telephone installers and repairers. Digitized for348 FRASER Commercial and Industrial Electronic Equipment Repairers (D.O.T. 726.381-014, 828.251-010, .261-010, -014, and - 022) Nature of the Work Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers, also called elec tronics mechanics, install and repair electronic equipment used in industri al automated equipment controls, mis sile control systems, radar systems, X-ray equipment, transmitters, and antennas. (Workers who repair data processing equipment and home en tertainment equipment are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Commercial and industrial electron ics mechanics install the electronic components of new equipment. Du ties vary by industry setting. On an Air Force base, for example, they may install the electronic control pan el on a new fighter plane. In a hospi tal, the work might involve installing computer-assisted topography (CAT Scan) equipment. Regardless of the type of equipment, repairers must co ordinate their efforts with workers in stalling mechanical or electromechan ical components. Using testing equip ment, the repairer insures that everything is functioning properly be fore the customer takes charge of the equipment. When trouble occurs in the equip ment, the repairer first determines that it is in the electronic component of the equipment and checks for com mon causes of trouble such as loose connections or obviously defective components. If routine checks do not locate the trouble, repairers refer to blueprints and manufacturers’ specifi cations that show connections and provide instruction on how to locate problems. When locating the cause of elec tronic failures, repairers use several kinds of tools including voltmeters, ohmmeters, signal generators, amme ters, and oscilloscopes. They run spe cial diagnostic programs that help pin point certain malfunctions. To make repairs, they may replace defective components or wiring, or adjust and calibrate equipment. Although it may take several hours to locate a prob lem, fixing the equipment may take only a few minutes. Preventive maintenance is another responsibility of electronics repairers. Equipment is checked, cleaned, and repaired periodically to detect and prevent defects. Records are usually kept to show the date and condition of the equipment serviced, and to indi cate when it is due to be reserviced. Repairers also have to maintain rec ords of repairs, calibration, and tests. Working Conditions Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers generally work a 40-hour week. Industries that operate around the clock will often rotate shifts, so repairers may work eve nings, nights, days, weekends, or hol idays. For example, repairers working for hospitals may have to work eve nings and weekends so that someone is always available to make emergen cy repairs to malfunctioning respira tors and other life-support equipment. In less critical situations, electronics repairers employed as part of an emer gency crew may be on call during off-duty hours. Working conditions vary depending upon the job. On the factory floor, repairers may be exposed to heat, grease, and noise, and may have to work in cramped spaces. Sometimes the work is done in the electronic repair shop, which is generally locat ed off the factory floor. Here, as well as in hospitals, military installations, and other job settings, the surround ings usually are quiet, clean, and well lighted. Electronics repairers usually work with little supervision. Employment in manufacturing es tablishments generally entails consid erable walking, kneeling, bending, and reaching to install or repair equip ment. Mechanics and Repairers/349 Employment Electronics repairers held about 56,000 jobs in 1984. About 4 out of 10 repairers are employed by the Federal Government; the overwhelming ma jority of these work for the Depart ment of Defense—mostly at military installations around the country. Repairers are also employed by electronic and transportation equip ment manufacturers, airports, tele phone companies, and hospitals. Met ropolitan areas where large numbers of repairers are located include Los Angeles, Chicago, New York, Phila delphia, Newark, Boston, Baltimore, Indianapolis, and Dallas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers need training in the practical application of electron ics. Required courses include elec tronics theory and technology, pre ventive maintenance, and trouble shooting techniques. Most repairers attend either a public, private, or Armed Forces technical school. Some receive training through a 3- or 4-year apprenticeship program administered by employers. High school graduates who have had courses in mathematics and science are preferred for the ap prenticeship program. Electronics repairers need good color vision, manual dexterity, and good eye-hand coordination. They should have an aptitude for mathe matics and be able to do detailed work. Other qualifications include a good memory, recordkeeping ability, the ability to do repetitive tasks, and physical strength. Repairers who test and repair radio transmitting equipment, other than business and land mobile radio, must hold a General Operators License from the Federal Communications Commission. There is also a voluntary program for the testing and certification of re pairers administered by the Inter national Society of Certified Electron ics Technicians (ISCET). An elec tronics repairer with 4 years’ exper ience may apply for certification as a Certified Electronics Technician (CET). Certification, which is by ex amination, is offered in radio-TV, in dustrial and commercial repair, audio, and radar systems. There is also an Associate Level Test of basic elec Preventive maintenance is part of the work of commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers. tronics available for students or begin ning repairers who do not have the experience required for full certifica tion. Some workers advance to electron ics technicians or engineering assis tants. Opportunities for advancement are improved by taking courses of fered by employers, junior colleges, or technical schools. Job Outlook Employment of commercial and in dustrial electronic equipment repair ers is expected to increase about as fast as average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s as business and industry install more equipment to automate production processes. In addition, electronic equipment used in national defense, medicine, and en ergy conservation will greatly stimu late demand for skilled repairers. Many job openings also will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the occupation for other rea sons. Earnings Beginning commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers started at between $12,500 and $13,500 a year in 1984, according to the limited information available. Experienced repairers earned from $25,000 to $31,000, while highly skilled special ists who can work on more than one type of equipment earned as much as $37,500. Average annual salaries of re pairers who were employed by the Federal Government in 1985 were $26,381. Related Occupations Other occupations in which work ers repair electronic equipment in clude home appliance and power tool repairers, office machine and cash register servicers, computer service technicians, and electronic home entertainment equipment re pairers. Sources of Additional Information For career and certification informa tion, contact: The International Society of Certified Electron ics Technicians, 2708 West Berry St., Fort Worth, Texas 76109. For certification, career, and place ment information, contact: Electronics Technicians Association, 825 East Franklin, Greencastle, Ind. 46135. 350/Occupational Outlook Handbook Communications Equipment Mechanics (D.O.T. 722.281; 726.381-014; 822.261-010, .281-010, -014, -022, -026, -030 and -034, .361-014, .381-010, -018, -022, and .684-010; 823.261-010 and -018, .281010, -014, and -022; 825.261-010; and 829.281-022) Nature of the Work The ability to communicate quickly and easily is a necessity in modern society. Because communication is vital to a healthy economy, it is essen tial that the communications system operate properly. Installing, repair ing, and maintaining the wide array of complex and sophisticated communi cations equipment are the responsibil ities of communications equipment mechanics. Most communications equipment mechanics work either in telephone company central offices or on customers’ premises installing and repairing complex telephone switch ing and transmission systems. Central office equipment installers, or equipment installation technicians, set up, rearrange, and remove the complex switching and dialing equip ment used in central offices. They install equipment in new central of fices, add equipment in expanding of fices, or replace outdated equipment. Installers follow work order infor mation, blueprints, circuit diagrams, electrical schematics, and floor plans to position and wire equipment. They often use hoists to lift heavy items, and handtools, such as screwdrivers or soldering guns, to connect equip ment once it is in place. For example, they construct and erect iron and steel frames and connect these to the cen tral office equipment. The newer elec tronic equipment, however, comes in preassembled components and often requires only simple plug-in connec tions. After the new equipment has been put in place, installers connect the outgoing and incoming telephone trunklines, consulting diagrams to in sure that connections are made cor rectly. Once this is completed, install ers test and troubleshoot the system to see that everything is working cor rectly. They use communication test ing equipment, such as pulsing test sets, oscilloscopes, ohmmeters, and voltmeters, to measure the strength and consistency of the current flow. If the system is not functioning proper ly, they must determine the cause of the difficulty and correct the malfunc tion. Frame wirers, sometimes referred to as frame workers or frame atten dants, connect, disconnect, inspect, and repair wires that run from tele phone lines and cables to the central office. The frame has many terminal lugs mounted on it, each of which is assigned a specific telephone number. It also contains one pair of wires for each telephone that is connected to that central office. To connect a new telephone, the frame wirer attaches the customer’s pair of wires to a set of terminal lugs, using small handtools, such as pliers, screwdrivers, and sol dering irons. To disconnect a tele phone, the frame wirer melts the sol der or otherwise removes the wires from the terminal. Frame wirers occa sionally change a customer’s phone number by reconnecting the custom er’s pair of wires to a different set of terminal lugs. Frame wirers inspect and repair all parts of the frames after checking for breaks or loose wires. They also may help other craft work ers locate and correct malfunctions. To gain experience, frame wirers gen erally work on residential telephone service. Later, they may work on more complex special services, such as circuitry for large business sys tems, civil defense warning sirens, or burglar alarms. Central office repairers, often re ferred to as central office technicians or switching equipment technicians, test, repair, and maintain all types of local and toll switching equipment that automatically connects lines when customers dial numbers. Most of these switching systems are elec tromechanical—that is, they contain moving parts and must be cleaned and oiled periodically. Newer switching systems, which utilize digital elec tronics and have no moving parts, must be checked occasionally for breakages. When customers report trouble with their telephones, trouble locators work at special switchboards—some times called testboards—to find the source of the problem. To do this, they have the telephone repairer con nect a portable phone at various plac es on the customer’s line until a con nection can be made to the central office. For a problem at the central office, the trouble locator repeats this procedure with a central office repair er. Trouble locators who work for cable television companies must in sure that subscribers’ television sets receive the proper signal. They may work with cable installers to track down the cause of the interference and make repairs. Within the last few years, most tele phone companies have started replac ing trouble locators with maintenance administrators. These workers per form many of the functions of trouble locators but generally do not have as much technical training. Their jobs are largely automated; instead of us ing testboards and associated equip ment to perform the complex circuit testing, they do so by entering instruc tions into a computer terminal. Main tenance administrators also update and maintain computerized files of trouble status reports. PBX installers, also called systems technicians, specialize in complex telephone system installations. These workers create switchboard systems for businesses with unique communi cations requirements. PBX and other systems are used to transmit both voice and data. Using equipment that includes handtools, signal generators, ohmmeters, oscilloscopes, and other specialized telephone test equipment, these workers connect wires from ter minals to switchboards and power cabinets and make tests to check their installations. PBX repairers, with the assistance of trouble locators, locate the mal function in customers’ PBX, CEN TREX, KEY, or other telephone sys tems and make the necessary repairs. They also maintain associated equip ment such as batteries, relays, and powerplants. Some PBX repairers maintain and repair equipment for mobile radiophones, microwave trans mission equipment, switching equip ment, and data processing equipment. Other communications equipment mechanics include instrument repair ers, sometimes referred to as shop repairers or shop technicians, who use handtools and power tools to re pair, test, and modify communica tions equipment such as telephones, teletypewriters, and switchboards. In addition, they may paint various types of equipment and cut and weld iron for special work equipment. Office electricians make operating adjust ments in submarine cable repeater and terminal circuits and related equipment. When trouble arises, they Mechanics and Repairers/351 may rearrange cable connections to Training, Other Qualifications, and insure that service is not interrupted. Advancement Submarine cable equipment techni- Requirements vary by employer. Pref cans repair, adjust, and maintain the erence in filling mechanic jobs gener machines and equipment used in sub ally is given to employees already marine cable offices or stations to con with the company, such as operators, trol cable traffic. Some mechanics clerical workers, or line installers. Oc specialize in working on telegraphic casionally, trainees are hired from equipment. Called automatic equip outside the company. Employees not ment technicians, telegraph plant presently in a craft position and those maintainers, or teletype installers, persons seeking employment from these workers install, repair, and outside may be required to take qual maintain a variety of transmitting and ification exams. These exams usually receiving equipment in telegraph com test the applicant’s arithmetic, verbal, pany offices and on customers’ prem and abstract reasoning skills. In addi tion, driving may be necessary. If so, ises. Radio repairers and mechanics in a valid State driver’s license and a stall and repair stationary and mobile good driving record are required. radio transmitting and receiving equip Physical examinations also are gener ment. Some of these workers repair ally required. Because wires are usually color intercommunication equipment such as microwave and fiber optics instal coded, persons who are considering a lations. Avionics technicians inspect job as a communications equipment and repair aircraft communication, mechanic must be able to distinguish navigation, and flight control systems. colors. Physical strength and agility Signal or track switch maintainers are needed for carrying equipment install electric gate crossings, signals, and climbing and working from lad track switches, and intercommunica ders. In addition to manual dexterity (to work with small tools), applicants tion systems in a railroad network. should have the analytical skills and judgment to resolve mechanical diffi Working Conditions Because most communications sys culties. Self-discipline is needed to tems operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a follow detailed instructions without week, many communications equip close supervision. Prospective work ers should be able to work as part of a ment mechanics have work schedules team, since cooperation with others that include shifts, weekends, and holidays. Where shift work is re often is essential in solving complex quired, the assignments are made on the basis of seniority. To cope with any emergency that may arise, these workers are subject to 24-hour call. Mechanics generally work in clean, well-lighted, air-conditioned sur roundings. Depending on the job, they may have to stand for long periods, climb ladders, and do some reaching, stooping, and light lifting. Some wear headsets most of the time and commu nicate constantly over telephone cir cuits with others. Because much of the older communications equipment continually produces sounds, these workers must learn to “ block out” noise. Employment Communications equipment mechan ics held about 73,000 jobs in 1984. Most worked for telephone and tele graph companies. A small number worked for cable television and relat ed companies. problems. Reading comprehension, logic, and arithmetic ability are re quired in understanding company manuals and circuit wiring diagrams. Verbal skills are needed for those jobs that require contact with the public and coordination of activities with other employees. A basic knowledge of electricity and electronics and tele phone training in the Armed Forces are helpful. Experience in data sys tems technology or computer mainte nance is valuable for work with elec tronic switching systems. Trainees generally begin as frame wirers. This is an entry level job, and there are no set educational require ments. Although local hiring practices vary, many companies do not require a high school diploma. The ability to read and understand company manu als and work orders is important, however. New workers receive about 6 months of classroom instruction and on-the-job training. Within the past few years, some telephone companies have started to use modular training programs to supplement the more tra ditional methods of training’ Modular training programs include entry tests, videotapes, movies, computer termi nals, programmed workbooks that al low employees to learn new skills at their own pace, and tests upon com pletion of training. Trainees gain prac tical experience by observing and helping experienced frame wirers. Af- Repairing communications equipment requires good hand-eye coordination and close attention to detail. 352/Occupational Outlook Handbook ter 1 or 2 years of satisfactory per formance, frame wirers may be select ed to train for a more skilled job, such as trouble locator, central office re pairer, or instrument repairer. The more demanding repair jobs sometimes are filled by entry workers who have previous electrical or elec tronic experience. More often, how ever, trainees come from the ranks of the company’s frame wirers, tele phone installer-repairers, or line in staller-repairers. Depending upon the complexity of the equipment to be maintained, companies provide up to 7 months of initial classroom instruc tion, followed by a lengthy period of on-the-job training. Communications equipment mechanics must continue to study throughout their careers. For example, they return to the classroom from time to time to learn about new types of equipment, which may in clude electronic switching systems, data transmission equipment, and picturephones. These workers have a number of opportunities for advancement, which usually involve further technical train ing. They may be promoted to jobs maintaining more sophisticated equip ment, or to jobs as engineering tech nicians. Some advance to sales or personnel work. Job Outlook Employment of communications equipment mechanics is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid1990’s. Nevertheless, many job open ings will arise each year as experi enced workers transfer to other occu pations, retire, or leave the occupa tion for other reasons. Employment will be subject to con flicting trends through the period. On the one hand, technological advances that have made possible new tele communications services will stimu late the demand for workers to in stall switching and transmission equip ment in new central offices and con trol centers. In addition, conversion of older, electromechanical central of fices and toll centers to digital elec tronic switching centers is expected to continue. However, once these sys tems are installed, fewer service tech nicians will be needed for mainte nance and repair. Advances in mobile telephones and other specialized com munications services such as telecon Digitized forferencing, airline telephone service, FRASER electronic banking, digital paging, teletext, videotex, electronic mail, and simultaneous transmission of voice and data over the same channel will generate demand for PBX install ers and repairers. Deregulation of the telephone industry, along with in creasing competition, will continue to allow more firms to build long-dis tance communications networks that utilize central office equipment. The expansion of cable television systems also will stimulate demand for skilled workers. Conversion to electronic switching requires fewer installers because much of this equipment is prefabricat ed and therefore is easier to install. It also permits a greater use of central ized maintenance. As telephone com panies use more computer-based sup port programs to automate central offices, m aintenance and re p a ir personnel can be stationed at various control centers. Mobile crews of re pairers then can provide the neces sary modifications by rotating among several automated central offices. Considerably fewer maintenance and repair workers will be needed with centralized maintenance. Moreover, these new electronically equipped central offices use sophisticated, selfdiagnosing test equipment that re quires fewer repair and maintenance personnel. Labor-management cooperation in minimizing the adverse effects of tech nological change is well established in the telephone industry. The planned use of attrition is a major technique for reducing employment. In addition, unneeded workers are being retrained and transferred to other jobs or local ities. Earnings Wage rates for communications equip ment mechanics vary by employer and locality. In 1984, median hourly earnings for these workers were about $11.60. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.90 and $14.20. The bot tom 10 percent earned less than $6; the top 10 percent earned more than $16.70. Central office telephone craft workers and PBX installers and re pairers usually earn more than most other communications equipment me chanics. Earnings for experienced telephone craft workers represented by the Communications Workers of America ranged from $11.25 to $15.50 an hour. Most communications equipment mechanics are members of the Com munications Workers of America, the International Brotherhood of Electri cal Workers, or the Telecommunica tions International Union. For these workers, union contracts determine wage rates, wage increases, and the time needed to advance from one step to the next. Contracts also require extra pay for work beyond the normal 8 hours a day or 5 days a week, and for all work on Sundays and holidays. Additional pay for nightwork is pro vided for in most contracts. Paid va cations are based on time in service. Generally, contracts provide for a 1week vacation beginning with 6 months of service; 2 weeks for 1 to 6 years; 3 weeks for 7 to 14 years; 4 weeks for 15 to 24 years; and 5 weeks for 25 years and over. Depending on the locality, holidays range from 9 to 12 days a year. Other contract provi sions include the following: Paid sick leave; group life, medical, and dental insurance; vision care; sickness and accident benefits; educational bene fits; retirement and disability pen sions; a savings plan; and an employ ee stock ownership plan. Related Occupations Other workers who have the skills needed to do technical, manual work with tools and electrical or electronic machines include computer service technicians, office machine repairers, biomedical equipment technicians, electronics technicians, electricians, telecommunications technicians, and sound technicians. Sources of Additional Information For more details about employment opportunities, contact your local tele phone or telegraph company or write to: Communications Workers of America, 1925 K St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. International Brotherhood of Electrical Work ers, 1125 15th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. Telecommunications International Union, 2341 Whitney Ave., Hamden, Conn. 06518. For more information on the tele phone industry and career opportuni ties in it, request copies of Phonefacts and Is It For You? A Career in the Telephone Industry from: United States Telephone Association, 1801 K St. NW., Suite 1201, Washington, D.C. 20006. Mechanics and Repairers/353 Computer Service Technicians (D.O.T. 633.261-010, 828.261-014, .281-010, and -014) of malfunctioning components. To correct an electronic problem, for ex ample, the technician would replace the circuit board indicated by the di agnostic program. In some cases, technicians simply give the customer a new piece of equipment and take the malfunctioning one to a central facili ty for service. Computer service technicians also install new equipment. They lay ca bles, hook up electrical connections between machines, thoroughly test the new equipment, and correct any problems before the customer uses the machine. Some technicians specialize in maintaining a particular brand or type of equipment or system, or in doing a certain type of repair. For example, some technicians are experts in cor recting problems caused by errors in the computer’s internal programming. Computer technicians must be fa miliar with technical manuals and di agnostic programs for each piece of equipment. They also must keep up with the technical information and re vised maintenance procedures issued periodically by equipment manufac turers. To repair mechanical parts, repairers use a variety of handtools, including needle-nosed pliers, wirestrippers, and soldering equipment. The employer supplies tools and test equipment, but technicians are re sponsible for keeping them in good working order. Technicians keep a record of pre ventive maintenance and repairs on each machine they service. In addi tion, they fill out time and expense reports, keep parts inventories, and order parts. Technicians spend much of their time working with people. They listen to customers’ complaints, answer questions, and sometimes offer tech nical advice on ways to keep equip ment in good condition. In many ways, technicians act as public rela tions workers for their employer, pro moting customer satisfaction and good will. In addition, experienced techni cians often help train new workers and sometimes have limited supervi sory duties. Nature of the Work Computer systems play a vital role in our lives. They help us make tele phone calls, receive paychecks on time, and reserve hotel rooms and tickets for travel and entertainment. In business and industry, computer systems perform countless tasks— from maintaining business records to controlling manufacturing processes. A computer system consists of a computer and peripheral equipment, Working Conditions such as remote terminals, tape and The normal workweek for technicians disk storage units, and high-speed is 40 hours. Many users of computer printers. Systems vary in size from systems, however, rely on their equip desktop systems consisting of a mi ment around the clock, and working crocomputer, disk drive, and printer time lost because of a breakdown can to large mainframe systems that occu be very expensive. For this reason, py entire floors of office buildings and technicians must be available to make may have terminals in locations miles emergency repairs at any time, day or from the computer. Keeping this intri night. Although overtime is common cate equipment in good working order place, the method of assigning over is the job of the computer service time varies by employer. Some tech technician. nicians are on call 24 hours a day, Most computer service technicians others work rotating shifts—days one are assigned several clients, depend week, nights the next. ing on the technician’s specialty and Although some bending and lifting the type of equipment to be serviced. are necessary, the job is not strenu Workers with several accounts must ous. Work hazards are limited mainly travel from place to place to maintain to minor burns and electric shock, but these systems and to make emergency these can be avoided if safety practic repairs. In some cases, more than one es are followed. technician will share an account and For most technicians, travel is lo service different parts of a system. In cal; they usually are not away from other cases, an experienced techni cian may be assigned to work full time at a client’s installation in order to maintain all phases of that operation. Some technicians work in central fa cilities where equipment or compo nents are brought for service. At regular intervals, computer ser vice technicians (often called field engineers or customer engineers) ser vice the equipment according to man ufacturer’s recommended mainte nance schedules. For example, they routinely adjust, oil, and clean me chanical parts of printers and sorters. When computer equipment breaks down, technicians must quickly find the cause of the failure and make repairs. To locate the cause of fail ures, technicians run special diagnos tic programs that pinpoint malfunc tions. Fixing the equipment may take just a few minutes because most re pairs merely involve the replacement Determining the source of a malfunction is the technician’s most difficult task. 354/Occupational Outlook Handbook home overnight. Employers pay for travel, including reimbursement for job-related use of the technician’s car. In some cases, employers provide a car for the technician’s use. Techni cians who work for a nationwide or ganization must sometimes transfer to another city or State. examination. A security clearance Job Outlook may be required in cases where tech Employment of computer technicians nicians regularly service machines lo is expected to grow much faster than cated in restricted buildings, such as the average for all occupations Federal Government installations en through the mid-1990’s. As the Na gaged in classified activities. tion’s economy expands, more com Newly hired technicians usually re puter equipment will be used, and ceive 3 to 6 months of training from more technicians will be needed to their employer. They may study ele install and maintain it. Business, gov mentary computer theory, computer ernment, and other organizations will Employment Computer service technicians held math, and circuitry theory in addition buy equipment to manage vast about 50,000 jobs in 1984. Most are to expanding their knowledge of basic amounts of information, control man employed by wholesalers and manu electronics. This training includes ufacturing processes, and aid in scien facturers of computer equipment and hands-on experience with computer tific research. The development of by firms that provide maintenance equipment, doing basic maintenance, new uses for computers also will spur services for a fee. A small number are and using diagnostic programs to lo demand. employed directly by organizations cate malfunctions. Employment of service technicians In addition to formal instruction, is expect to grow more slowly than that have a great deal of computer equipment. Computer technicians trainees must complete 6 months to 2 the amount of equipment in use due to generally work in metropolitan areas years of on-the-job training. At first, improvements that make it more reli where computer equipment is concen they work closely with experienced able and easier to repair. For exam trated. technicians, learning to maintain ple, the latest equipment can diagnose machines that are relatively simple. the cause of its own malfunctions. For Training, Other Qualifications, and Some companies have trainees gain some computer equipment, the diag Advancement experience by specializing in a cer nosis of the malfunction will be done Most employers require applicants for tain type of equipment for a time. by another computer via telephone technician jobs to have 1 to 2 years’ When trainees have mastered repair hookup. As computer equipment be post-high school training in basic elec of that device they specialize in anoth comes smaller and more portable, tronics, data processing equipment more of the diagnosis and repair will er. This process continues until the be done in centralized repair facilities, maintenance, or electrical engineer ing. This training may be from a pub technician can work with a variety of lessening the time spent traveling to job sites. These factors will lessen the lic or private vocational school or a equipment. Because manufacturers continually time needed to make repairs and college or university. Basic electron ics training offered by the Armed redesign equipment and develop new should limit somewhat the rise in em Forces and by some vocational high service procedures, experienced tech ployment. Despite the faster than average schools also is acceptable preparation nicians must attend training sessions for some jobs. Many entrants transfer to keep up with these changes and to growth in employment, most job open from other occupations, such as office broaden their technical skills. Many ings for technicians will result from machine repairer, television service technicians take advanced training to the need to replace workers who technician, and engineering techni specialize in a particular computer transfer to other occupations such as cian, where a knowledge of electronic system or type of repair. Instruction service manager, or who leave the equipment provides a good back also may include programming, sys labor force. Computer service technicians have ground for work in this field. tems analysis, and other subjects that A high school student interested in improve the technician’s general been less likely than other workers to be laid off during downturns in eco becoming a computer service techni knowledge of the computer field. cian should take courses in mathemat Experienced technicians with ad nomic activity. However, firms do ics and physics. High school courses vanced training may become special restrict hiring of new technicians dur in electronics and computer program ists or troubleshooters who help tech ing recessions, making it harder to ming also are helpful. nicians throughout their territory di enter the occupation. Technicians ex Besides technical training, appli agnose difficult problems. They also perienced in the service of several cants for trainee jobs must have good may work with engineers in designing models and brands of equipment or vision and normal color perception to equipment and developing mainte with the most complex equipment work with small parts and color-coded generally will be in the greatest de wiring. Because technicians usually nance procedures. Those with leader mand. handle jobs alone, they must have the ship ability may become supervisors initiative to work without close super or service managers. Experience in computer mainte Earnings vision. Also important are a pleasant nance when combined with additional Median weekly earnings of full-time personality and neat appearance, since the work involves frequent con education may also help qualify a computer service technicians were tact with customers. Patience is an technician for a job in equipment about $480 in 1984. The middle 50 asset, because some malfunctions oc sales, programming, or management. percent earned between $375 and cur intermittently, making the cause (See the statements on programmers $625. The lowest 10 percent earned difficult to pinpoint. In some compa and manufacturers’ sales workers less than $270 a week. Many of these probably were trainees. The top 10 nies, applicants must pass a physical elsewhere in the Handbook.) Mechanics and Repairers/355 percent of technicians earned over $740 a week. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who repair and maintain the circuits and mechanical parts of electronic equip ment include appliance repairers, au tomotive electricians, electronic or gan technicians, instrument repairers, office machine repairers, radio repair ers, radar mechanics, and television service technicians. Sources of Additional Information For general information on careers in computer maintenance, contact the personnel department of computer manufacturers and computer mainte nance firms in your area. The State department of education in your State capital can furnish information about approved technical institutes, junior colleges, and other institutions offer ing postsecondary training in basic electronics. The State employment service of fice in your area also may be able to provide information about local job opportunities. Electronic Home Entertainment Equipment Repairers (D.O.T. 720.281, 729.281-010, 726.381-014. 730.281018, 823.361-010, and 828.261-010) Nature of the Work Electronic home entertainment equip ment repairers, also called service technicians, repair a wide range of home electronic products, of which radios and television sets are the most numerous. Stereo components, video and audio tape recorders, video games and disk players, home computers, home security systems, and even elec tronic organs are repaired by these technicians. Some repairers specialize in one kind of equipment—for exam ple, television sets or car radios. Oth ers repair several types—television sets, video cassette recorders, inter coms, and public address systems. Electronic equipment may fail to operate properly for many reasons, such as wornout or defective parts, faulty circuits, or poor connections. Service technicians first conduct a routine check for these common causes of trouble. Talking to custom ers may help technicians identify the problem. When routine checks do not locate the trouble, technicians refer to wiring diagrams and service manuals that show connections and provide in structions on how to locate problems. They check circuits using testing equipment, such as voltmeters, oscil loscopes, signal generators, and fre quency counters. For example, they may measure voltage or wave forms in the circuits of a television set for unusual or irregular measurements that indicate the trouble. To make repairs, technicians replace faulty parts or make adjustments, such as focusing and converging the picture or correcting the color balance of a tele vision set. In their work, technicians use pliers, soldering irons, wire cut ters, and other handtools. Techni cians who make customer service calls carry a variety of solid-state components, modules, and other parts that can be easily replaced in the customer’s home. Self-employed electronic home en tertainment equipment repairers have managerial responsibilities in addition to their regular duties. They have to order equipment and supplies, keep records, and supervise other techni cians. Working Conditions Service technicians work in shops and sometimes customers’ homes, where working conditions generally are good. They usually work atone and receive little supervision. Technicians who service electronic products in homes may do considerable driving. Potential hazards include electrical shock and strains from lifting and car rying. Service technicians generally work 40 to 44 hours per week, usually in 5 or 5 1/2 days. Some of this work may be conducted on weekends or eve nings in order to better serve custom ers. Employment Electronic home entertainment equip ment repairers held about 52,000 jobs in 1984. Nearly one-fourth were selfemployed, a larger proportion than in most skilled trades. Most service tech nicians, whether self-employed or working for others, worked in televi sion repair shops and stores that sell and service television sets, radios, and other home entertainment elec tronic products. Geographically, employment is dis tributed in much the same way as population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training in electronics—acquired for mally or through on-the-job training in another, related occupation—general ly is required to get an entry level job as an electronic home entertainment equipment repairer. The military serv ices also offer training and work expe rience that are very useful in civilian electronics work. Service technicians who work in large repair shops may be promoted to supervisor or service manager. 356/Occupational Outlook Handbook Formal training is offered by high schools, private vocational schools, and junior colleges. Programs in these schools include subjects such as math ematics, physics, schematic reading, electricity, and hands-on work with television sets, radios, and other elec tronic equipment. The training lasts from 1 to 2 years. Additional training in radio and television electronics generally is required by employers. A few repairers complete formal apprenticeship programs that are sponsored jointly by locals of the International Brotherhood of Electri cal Workers and employers. New repairers usually begin by working in the shop or in the field under the supervision of an experi enced worker. Large repair stores may provide in-house training com bined with home study to familiarize new workers with particular brands and models of equipment. Service technicians must keep abreast of changes in technology. Manufacturers, employers, and trade associations conduct training semi nars to teach technicians how to ser vice new models or products. Techni cians also keep up with developments by studying manufacturers’ service manuals and technical magazines. Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers must be able to manipulate small parts and tools, and must have good eye-hand coordina tion, normal hearing, and good eye sight and color perception. Courtesy and tact are essential in dealing with customers. Some States require repairers to be licensed. To obtain a license, appli cants must pass an examination de signed to test their knowledge of elec tronic circuits and components and their skill in the use of testing equip ment. Service technicians who work in large repair shops may be promoted to supervisor or service manager. Those interested in advancing to positions such as electronics “troubleshooters” can improve their opportunities by taking courses in automatic controls, electronic engineering, television en gineering, and mathematics. Technicians who have sufficient funds may open their own service shops. Those planning to go into bus iness for themselves should take some business administration courses, par ticularly accounting and consumer re lations. Job Outlook Employment of electronic home en tertainment equipment repairers is ex pected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s in response to the growing number of television sets, video games, disk players, radios, phonographs, tape recorders, and oth er home entertainment products. Pop ulation growth and rising personal in comes will contribute to the demand. Closed-circuit television, which is be ing used increasingly to monitor pro duction processes in manufacturing plants, to provide security surveil lance in buildings, and to bring educa tional programs into classrooms, will create additional demand for service technicians. Continuous improve ments in solid-state technology have reduced service requirements, how ever, which will keep employment from rising as fast as otherwise would be expected. Despite the rising demand for these workers, the need to replace workers who leave the occupation will account for most job openings. Because expe rience in commercial and industrial electronic repair is good preparation for other jobs such as office machine and cash register servicer, computer service technician, and broadcast technician, an unusually large propor tion of radio and television service technicians transfer to other occupa tions. Earnings In 1984, trainees earned about $260 a week, according to the limited infor mation available. Experienced repair ers earned between $300 and $460 a week, while highly skilled specialists earned up to $520. The wide variation in wage rates reflects differences in skill level, type of employer, and geo graphic location. A few service technicians are mem bers of labor unions. Most of these belong to the International Brother hood of Electrical Workers. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers repair electronic equipment include home appliance and power tool re pairers, office machine and cash reg ister servicers, computer service tech nicians, and commercial and industri al electronic equipment repairers. Sources of Additional Information For more information about jobs in this field, contact local shops and stores that service radio and televi sion sets and other electronic equip ment. Technical and vocational schools that offer courses in radio and television repair or electronics may provide information about training. In addition, locals of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers and the local office of the State em ployment service may have informa tion about programs that provide train ing opportunities. Information about the work of elec tronic home entertainment equipment repairers is available from: National Association of Television and Elec tronic Servicers of America (NATESA), 4621 N. Kedzie Ave., Chicago, 111. 60629. Electronics Industries Association, 2001 Eye St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. National Electronic Sales and Service Dealers Association and the International Society of Certified Electronics Technicians, 2708 West Berry St., Fort Worth, Tex. 76109. Home Appliance and Power Tool Repairers (D.O.T. 637.261-010 and -018; 723.381 and .584; 729.281-022; and 827.261, .464, and .661)____________ Nature of the Work Household chores such as cooking and cleaning or trimming the hedges that once took a great deal of time and physical effort are today much simpler to do—thanks to a variety of laborsav ing appliances. Microwave ovens cook meals in minutes. Washers and dryers clean clothes with little physi cal effort. Hedge trimmers help keep shrubs neat in a fraction of the time required by hand. Indeed, the number of household jobs machines can do is almost limitless. Installing and servic ing these machines is the job of the home appliance and power tool re pairers—often called service techni cians. Technicians usually specialize. They may service small appliances such as toasters and vacuum cleaners; major appliances such as refrigera tors, freezers, washers, and dryers; or power tools such as lawnmowers, electric drills, and power saws. Re pairers in large shops generally are more specialized than those in small shops. Mechanics and Repairers/357 Portable appliances are worked on in shops. Major appliances usually are repaired in customers’ homes by ap pliance repairers who carry their tools and a number of commonly used parts with them in a truck. To determine why an appliance or power tool fails to operate or work properly, repairers look for frequent sources of trouble, such as faulty elec trical connections, and consult ser vice manuals and troubleshooting guides. They may disassemble the ap pliance or tool to examine its parts. To check electrical systems, repairers follow wiring diagrams and use testing devices, such as ammeters, voltme ters, and wattmeters. After identifying the problem, the technician makes the necessary re pairs or replacements. To fix a porta ble appliance such as a toaster oven, the repairer may replace a defective heating element. To fix a major appli ance such as a washer, the repairer may replace worn bearings, transmis sion belts, or gears. To remove old parts and install new ones, repairers use common handtools, including screwdrivers, soldering irons, files, pliers, and special tools designed for particular appliances. When servicing appliances with electronic parts, the repairer may only have to replace a circuit board or other electronic com ponent. After completing a repair, technicians operate the appliance to check their work. Repairers answer customers’ ques tions and complaints about appliances and frequently advise customers about their care and use. For example, they may demonstrate how to load auto matic washing machines, arrange dish es in dishwashers, or how to sharpen a chain saw blade. Technicians may estimate and col lect the cost of repairs. They also keep records of parts used and hours worked on each job. Working Conditions Repair shops generally are quiet, well lighted, and adequately ventilated. Working conditions outside the shop vary. For example, repairers some times work in cramped and uncom fortable positions amidst dirt and dust. Those who repair appliances in homes may spend several hours a day driv ing. The work generally is safe, but technicians must exercise care and Digitized for follow safety precautions when han FRASER dling electrical parts and lifting and moving large appliances. Home appliance and power tool re pairers generally work a 40-hour week, but, in order to meet the needs of the growing number of families where no one is home during working hours, many repair shops are expand ing their service hours to include early mornings, evenings, and Saturdays. Home appliance and power tool re pairers usually work with little or no direct supervision, a feature of the job that appeals to many people. Employment Home appliance and power tool re pairers held about 83,000 jobs in 1984. About 7 out of 10 worked in retail trade establishments such as depart ment stores, household appliance stores, and dealers that sell or service appliances and power tools. Others worked for gas and electric utility companies, wholesalers, and electri cal repair shops. About 1 out of 7 repairers was self-employed. Appliance and power tool techni cians are employed in almost every community, but are concentrated in the more highly populated areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Home appliance and power tool re pairers generally learn their trade on the job. Many entrants acquire their skills in other occupations and trans fer into appliance repair. Some tech nicians complete formal training in appliance repair and related subjects in high schools, private vocational schools, and community colleges. No matter how their basic skills are de veloped, repairers usually get addi tional training from their employer. The type of training provided by employers varies among companies. In shops that fix portable appliances, new employees work on a single type of appliance, such as vacuum clean ers, until they master its repair. Train ees then move on to work on a differ ent type of appliance; this process continues until they can repair a vari ety of appliances. In companies that repair major appliances, beginners may be trained by experienced repair ers during repair visits. In other cases, they are taught in the shop to locate basic controls from a schematic draw ing, to analyze and determine whether to repair or replace specific parts, and to learn precautions to be taken dur- Appliance repairers may estimate and col lect the cost of repairs. ing removal and replacement of con trols. Up to 3 years of on-the-job training may be needed to become skilled in all aspects of repair of the more complex appliances. Some large companies such as ap pliance and power tool manufacturers and department store chains have for mal training programs, which include home study courses and shop classes, where trainees work with demonstra tion appliances and other training equipment. Many repairers receive supplemen tal instruction through seminars that are conducted periodically by appli ance and power tool manufacturers. These seminars usually last 1 or 2 weeks and deal with the repair of one of the manufacturer’s appliances or tools. To become familiar with new appliances and power tools and the proper ways to repair them, experi enced repairers attend training classes or study service manuals. Persons who want to become home appliance and power tool repairers generally must have a high school diploma. Courses in basic electricity and electronics are desirable because most repairs involve work with elec trical equipment, and more and more appliances have electronic compo nents. Mechanical aptitude is also de sirable. Technicians who work in cus tomers’ homes must be courteous and tactful. 358/Occupational Outlook Handbook Repairers in large shops or service centers may be promoted to supervi sor, assistant service manager, or ser vice manager. A few may advance to managerial positions such as regional service manager or parts manager for appliance or tool manufacturers. Pref erence is given to those who show ability to get along with coworkers and customers. Experienced repairers who have sufficient funds and knowl edge of small business management may open their own appliance stores or repair shops. Job Outlook Employment of home appliance and power tool repairers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid1990’s. The number of home applianc es and power tools in use is expected to increase as the number of house holds grows and new and improved appliances and tools are introduced. But increasing use of electronic parts such as solid-state circuitry, micro processors, and sensing devices in appliances should make them more reliable and lessen somewhat the need for repairers. Although a smaller than average proportion of appliance re pairers leave the occupation, virtually all openings for appliance repairers will arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occu pations or leave the labor force. Technicians with a strong back ground in electronics should have the best job prospects. Employment is relatively steady because the demand for appliance repair services contin ues even during economic downturns. Earnings Median weekly earnings of home ap pliance and power tool repairers who were not self-employed were $350 in 1984; the middle 50 percent earned between $230 and $470 weekly. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $180, while the highest 10 percent earned over $560. Variations in wages reflect differences in skill and experi ence, geographic location, and the type of equipment serviced. Some home appliance and power tool repairers belong to the Inter national Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Related Occupations Other workers who service electrical and electronic equipment include heating, air-conditioning, and refriger ation mechanics, pinsetter mechanics, office machine and cash register servicers, electronic home entertain ment equipment repairers, and vend ing machine servicers and repairers. Sources of Additional Information For further information about jobs in the home appliance and power tool repair field, contact local appliance repair shops, appliance dealers, and utility companies, or the local office of the State employment service. Information about training pro grams or work opportunities also is available from: Association of Home Appliance Manufactur ers, 20 N. Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60606. Appliance Service N ews, P.O. Box 789, Lombard, 111. 60148. International Brotherhood of Electrical Work ers, 1125 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. Line Installers and Cable Splicers (D.O.T. 821.261-010, -014, -022, and -026, .281, .361010, -018, -022, -026, -030, and -038, .687; 822.381014; 823.261-014; 829.361-010 and -014; and 959.362- 010) Nature of the Work A vast network of wires and cables links the electric power produced in generating plants to individual cus tomers, connects telephone central offices to customers’ telephones and switchboards, and extends cable TV to residential and commercial custom ers. This network is constructed and maintained by line installers and cable splicers and their helpers. To install new electric power or telephone lines, line installers, often referred to as outside plant techni cians or construction line workers, install poles and terminals and place wires and cables that lead from the central office or generating plant to customers’ premises. They usually use power-driven equipment to dig holes and set in the poles that support cables. Line installers climb the poles or use truck-mounted buckets (aerial work platforms) and then use various handtools to attach the cables. When working with electric power lines, in stallers must bolt or clamp insulators onto the pole before the cable can be attached. They may add other equip ment to the erected poles and towers, such as lightning arrestors, transform ers, circuit breakers, or switches. Telephone line installers usually leave the ends free for cable splicers to connect later. Electric utility line workers are usually required to splice the cables at the time of installation. In cities where power and tele phone lines are below the streets, in stallers place cables in underground conduits. In newly developed residen tial and rural areas, installers use tren chers, plows, and other special pow er-driven equipment to bury cable di rectly underground. Line installers also place cable television lines under ground. These lines transmit the broadcast signal from a microwave tower to the customer’s home. Cable television installers and repairers con nect the customer’s television set to the cable television line by installing a coaxial drop wire with connectors. After line installers place cables on poles, towers, or in underground con duits and trenches, cable splicers, also referred to as cable splicing tech nicians, generally complete the line connections. In some cases, electric powerline workers install and splice the cables simultaneously. Splicers work on poles, aerial ladders and plat forms, in manholes, or in basements of large buildings. When splicing fiber optic cables, which contain tiny, hairthin glass fibers that transmit voice, data, or video information by light, the delicate connections are made in vans positioned close to the splice point. Splicers connect individual wires or fibers within the cable and rearrange wires when lines have to be changed. They must first read and interpret service orders and circuit diagrams in order to determine the proper splicing specification. Splices are then made by twisting, soldering, or joining wires and cables with small handtools, epoxy, and even with me chanical equipment. For example, ca ble splicers use machines that use heat to connect fiber optics strands. At each splice, they place insulation over the conductor, and seal the splice with a lead sleeve or cover the splice with some other type of protective covering. For example, they may fill the cable sheathing on critical trans mission routes with compressed air so that leaks in the sheathing can be •monitored and repaired. Line installers and cable splicers spend much of their time maintaining and repairing installed telephone, Mechanics and Repairers/359 power, and cable television lines. In Training, Other Qualifications, and some areas, this is done by a separate Advancement group of workers called cable repair Line installer usually is an entry level technicians or cable testing techni job in telephone companies. Line in cians. Installers do preventive main stallers in utilities begin as helpers or tenance by periodically checking to grounds workers. Although local hir make sure lines are clear of tree limbs ing policies vary, most employers pre or other obstructions that could cause fer high school graduates. High school problems. Cable splicers routinely courses help develop the reading and check to make sure that insulation on arithmetic skills essential for under cables is in good condition and that standing company manuals and work insulators and other equipment on line orders. Many employers test appli poles are working properly. This pre cants for basic verbal, arithmetic, and ventive maintenance is extremely im abstract reasoning skills. In addition, portant, because a single defect in a there are entry tests of physical ability cable may interrupt service for many such as balance, coordination, and customers. When wires or cables strength. Applicants also may be test break, or when poles are knocked ed for mechanical aptitude. Knowl down or underground ducts collapse, edge of the basic principles of electric these workers must make emergency ity and training in installing telephone repairs as rapidly as possible. These systems obtained in the Armed Forc repairs are most common in parts of es or vocational education programs the country that have hurricanes, may be helpful. Because the work tornadoes, earthquakes, and heavy entails a lot of climbing, applicants should have stamina and must be un snowfalls. afraid of heights. The ability to distin guish colors is necessary because Working Conditions Line installers and cable splicers usu wires and cables usually are coded by ally work outdoors in all kinds of color. Motivation, self-discipline, and weather. They must do a lot of climb the ability to work as part of a team ing and lifting, and often work in are needed to work efficiently and stooped and cramped positions. Elec safely. Training programs for line installers tric powerline workers have the most hazardous jobs. They typically work and cable splicers include classroom at higher elevations since the electric instruction as well as on-the-job train cable is always above telephone and ing. In addition, some employers are cable TV lines. Moreover, all of the beginning to use other teaching aids to voltages electric powerline workers supplement classroom instruction. come in contact with can cause death These may include computer- assisted if safe work practices are not adhered instruction, video cassettes, movies, to. Line installers and cable splicers or “programmed” workbooks. Some also must wear safety equipment when classrooms are equipped with actual entering manholes. In addition, they equipment, such as poles, cable-supare required to test for the presence of porting clamps, and other fixtures, to gas before going underground. These simulate working conditions as close workers are subject to 24-hour call. ly as possible. Trainees learn to work For example, when severe weather on poles while keeping their hands damages transmission and distribu free to work. For example, in one tion lines, they may be called upon to classroom exercise, they play catch work long and irregular hours to re with a basketball while on the poles. store service. At times they may trav Trainees also are taught safe working el to distant locations—and occasion practices to avoid falls and contact ally stay for a lengthy period to help with power wires. Classroom training, restore damaged facilities or build which also includes instruction in electrical codes, blueprint reading, new ones. and beginning electrical theory, is fol lowed by on-the-job training. Trainees Employment Line installers and cable splicers held are assigned to a crew to work with about 204,000 jobs in 1984. Nearly all experienced line installers under a line worked full time for publicly and pri supervisor. In addition to the training by em vately owned power companies, con struction companies specializing in ployers, line and cable workers may power line and cable TV construction, attend a training school provided by manufacturers who sell cable installaand telephone companies. Line installers and cable splicers work at dangerous heights, close to potentially dangerous powerlines. tion equipment to telephone, electric power, or cable TV companies. At other times, manufacturers send in structors to the job site. Some small companies, particularly those in rural areas, do not have ade quate facilities to train their employ ees. Therefore, they may rely on local vocational and technical schools to provide classroom training to craft employees. Line installers and cable splicers continue to receive training through out their careers to qualify for more difficult assignments and to keep up with technological changes. For ex ample, crews of cable splicers are introduced to the techniques of fiber optic cable splicing by having several days of training and several additional days of field supervision. Because there have been fewer changes in electric powerline installation and re pair, less training is needed to update utility line workers. Line workers re ceive whatever continuing education they need from their employer, as well as from short courses in colleges, universities, community colleges, technical schools, and private firms. For installers, advancement may come about through promotion to splicer, or to a higher level occupation such as communications equipment mechanic or transformer inspector. Promotion to a supervisory position is also possible. Cable splicers may transfer to other highly skilled jobs—in the telephone industry, for example, cable splicers can advance to central office equip ment installer or PBX installer—or may move into other kinds of work, such as sales. Promotion also is pos 360/Occupational Outlook Handbook sible to crew supervisor or instructor of new employees. Job Outlook Employment of line installers and ca ble splicers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupa tions through the mid-1990’s. A grow ing and increasingly mobile popula tion will require additional telephone, electric power, and cable television lines. Building these new cable sys tems and modernizing and maintain ing existing systems will provide jobs for line installers and cable splicers. Nevertheless, most job openings will arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or stop working for other rea sons. Despite the strong demand for tele phone services and electricity, tech nological advances that improve pro ductivity should keep employment from rising as fast as demand. For example, fewer line workers will be needed in the future as microwave towers and fiber optics cables sup plant aerial wires for long-distance telephone communications. New communication systems are not as vulnerable to adverse weather condi tions as aerial wires, and fewer work ers are needed to maintain them. New kinds of splices and the telephone splicing van that uses a self-contained engine to heat and ventilate manholes, as well as new power tools and equip ment also will continue to improve the efficiency of cable splicers. Technological improvements and changing business practices have re duced labor requirements in some oc cupations, resulting in some layoffs. Some unneeded workers are given a choice of transferring to other geo graphic areas where they are needed, or of being placed in a different job in the same area. Telephone and electric power companies lay off workers only as a last resort. The policy of prefer ence for company employees may, however, limit the number of job openings available to others. Earnings Pay rates for line installers and cable splicers vary greatly across the coun try; specific information may be ob tained from local telephone, electric power, and cable TV companies. Earnings also depend on length of service. It generally takes about 5 from the bottom to the top years to go of the pay scale. In 1984, line instal lers and cable splicers earned a medi an hourly wage of $12.20. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.40 and $14.50. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $7.80; the top 10 percent earned more than $17 an hour. Be cause of low job turnover in these occupations, many workers earn sal aries near the top of the pay scale, which is about twice the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Most line installers and cable splic ers belong to unions, principally the Communications Workers of Ameri ca, the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, and the Telecom munications International Union. For these workers, union contracts set wage rates, wage increases, and the time needed to advance from one step to the next. These contracts require extra pay for overtime and for all work on Sundays and holidays. Most contracts provide for additional pay for night work. Time in service deter mines the length of paid vacations. Depending on the locality, there are 9 to 12 holidays a year. Other provi sions in contracts include many or all of the following: Paid sick leave; group life, medical, and dental insur ance; sickness and accident benefits; vision care; retirement and disability pensions; a savings plan; educational benefits; and an employee stock own ership plan. Related Occupations Workers in other skilled crafts and trades who do manual work with tools and machines include communica tions equipment mechanics, biomedi cal equipment technicians, telephone installers and repairers, electricians, and sound technicians. Sources of Additional Information For more details about employment opportunities, contact the telephone or electric power company in your community or local offices of the unions that represent these workers. For general information on line in staller and cable splicer jobs, write to: Communications Workers of America, 1925 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. International Brotherhood of Electrical Work ers, 1125 15th St. NW., Suite 1201, Washing ton, D.C. 20005. Telecommunications International Union, 2341 Whitney Ave., Hamden, Conn. 06518. Telephone Installers and Repairers (D .O .T. 822.261-022 and .281-018) Nature of the Work Telephone installers and repairers in stall, service, and repair telephones, switchboard systems, and other com munications equipment on customers’ property. Frequently referred to as service technicians, they generally travel to customers’ homes and offices in vehicles equipped with telephone tools and supplies. Before making any installations or repairs, they read and interpret service orders, technical manuals, and circuit wiring diagrams. They also keep detailed and accurate records of all work activity. When customers move or request new types of service, installers relocate tele phones or make changes on existing equipment. For example, they may install a pay telephone in a store, or change a two-party line to a single party line in a residence. Installers also may add an extension in another room or replace an old telephone with a new model. After installation, they test the equipment to make sure that it is working properly. In some areas, these workers may handle special cas es such as public service commission complaints, illegal or unauthorized use of equipment, and electric or acoustic shocks. Many installers and repairers promote improved customer service by demonstrating various kinds of telephone equipment or serv ices. Telephone installers, sometimes called station installers, install, rear range, and remove telephones in homes and business places. They as semble equipment and install wiring at the customers’ premises using a vari ety of handtools. They connect tele phones to outside service wires and sometimes must climb poles or lad ders to make these connections. Oc casionally, especially in apartment buildings, the service wires or termi nals are in the basement of the build ing. In many large building complex es, these wires or terminals are locat ed in wire closets. Telephone repairers test, clean, fix, or replace faulty equipment or wiring. Working closely with trouble locators in the central office, they locate and analyze trouble on customers’ equip ment and in outdoor public facilities. Mechanics and Repairers/361 A repairer finds the source of the problem by connecting a test set to the customer’s telephone line and then testing in conjunction with the trouble locator in the central office. Working Conditions Telephone installers and repairers work in many kinds of places, both indoors and outdoors, and in all kinds of weather. Their work involves lift ing, climbing, reaching, stooping, crouching, and crawling. They must not be afraid to work in high places such as on rooftops, ladders, and tele phone poles. Because telephone ser vice must be maintained at all times, these workers are subject to 24-hour call, as are all telephone company employees. Often this means working under adverse weather conditions. Workers also may be required to work evening and night shifts. Because breakdowns in lines or equipment can occur at any time, work on holidays and on nonscheduled days may be required. Employment Telephone installers and repairers held about 111,000 jobs in 1984. More than 9 out of 10 worked full time for telephone companies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Trainees usually are chosen from the ranks of telephone company employ ees such as operators, clerical work ers, and line installers. A basic knowl edge of electricity and electronics gained from previous work experi ence or schooling, as well as tele phone training in the Armed Forces, are assets in being accepted for train ing. In addition, applicants must have good eyesight and the ability to distin guish colors. Physical examinations may be required because the work may involve strenuous activities such as climbing poles and lifting and car rying heavy objects. Good balance is necessary in order to work in high places and for crouching or stooping in cramped areas. Practical problem solving ability is essential, as in all repair jobs. Because these workers deal with the public, a pleasant and patient disposition is an advantage. Applicants for telephone installer or repairer jobs must have the ability to learn a craft, and may have to take a mechanical aptitude test as well as tests that measure mathematical skills. Workers in these jobs must be adept at handling small tools, such as pliers and screwdrivers, and be able to read blueprints, interpret work orders and circuit diagrams, and understand com pany manuals and directions for tele phone installation and repair. Most employers require a high school diplo ma or the equivalent for telephone craft jobs. Telephone installer-repairer train ees receive classroom instruction in subjects such as electrical and elec tronic theory. Practical instruction is provided in training facilities equipped with telephone poles, lines and ca bles, terminal boxes, and other equip ment. There, in a simulated work environment, trainees practice install ing telephones and connecting wires just as they would on the job. After several weeks of classroom training, new employees are assigned to assist experienced workers before going out alone to install telephones. Because many small telephone com panies, especially in rural areas, do not have training facilities, they use community colleges and vocational technical schools in these areas to train telephone installers and repair ers. If travel is required during train ing—to a regional training school, for example—the company pays the cost. In recent years, some telephone companies have begun to use modular training programs for their workers. Modular training is used to supple ment other, more traditional forms of training. Training modules may in clude some or all of the following: Entry tests; video modules such as computer terminals, movies, and vid eo cassettes; programmed work books; exit tests; and skill mastery tests where the trainee demonstrates the skills he or she has learned. Work ers using training modules can learn various aspects of their craft at their own convenience and pace. Telephone craft workers receive training throughout their careers to qualify for more responsible assign ments and to keep up with technolog ical changes. Courses are offered by colleges, universities, private firms, and State telephone associations, as well as by the telephone companies themselves. With further training, telephone installer-repairers can ad vance to supervisor, to sales and cus tomer service jobs or, with additional study of electronics, to more ad vanced technical jobs such as PBX Telephone installers test the connections to ensure that telephones are working. installer or switching equipment tech nician. Job Outlook Employment of telephone installers and repairers is expected to decline through the mid-1990’s. Employment of telephone installers and repairers will fall as technological improve ments make this work less labor inten sive. For example, changes such as pre-wired buildings that enable cus tomers to select telephones, take them home, and plug them in have effec tively eliminated the functions of the installer. The modular assembly of telephones, where components plug in and out, also has reduced the time and skills needed for repair. After the breakup of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T), a large number of house holds and firms bought their phones and became responsible for repair work. The high cost of repair has reduced demand for telephone repair ers because it often costs as much to fix a phone as it does to buy a new one. With employment projected to decline, job openings will result exclu sively from the need to replace per sons who transfer to other occupa tions, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Openings for tele phone installers and repairers usually are filled by workers in other tele phone jobs, such as operators, service 362/Occupational Outlook Handbook representatives, line installers, clerks, or drivers. As technology continues to displace telephone workers, competi tion for these openings should inten sify, making it more difficult for “ out siders” to compete for jobs. Earnings Pay scales vary greatly across the country; specific information may be obtained from local telephone compa nies. Earnings also depend on length of service. Generally, it takes about 5 years to progress from the beginning rate to the top of the pay scale. In 1984, median hourly pay for telephone installers and repairers was $13.02. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $10.80 and $14.50 an hour. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $8; the top 10 percent earned more than $16.80. Most telephone installers and re pairers belong to unions, principally the Communications Workers of America, the International Brother hood of Electrical Workers, and the Telecommunications International Union. Union contracts govern wage rates, wage increases, and the time needed to progress from one grade to the next. Contracts stipulate extra pay for work performed beyond the nor mal 8 hours a day or 5 days a week, as well as for that performed on holidays and Sundays. Most contracts provide a pay differential for nightwork. Paid vacations are granted according to length of service. Normally, contracts provide for a 1-week vacation begin ning with 6 months of service; 2 weeks for 1 to 6 years; 3 weeks for 7 to 14 years; 4 weeks for 15 to 24 years; and 5 weeks for 25 years and over. Depending on the locality, holidays range from 9 to 12 days a year. Other benefits include the following: Paid sick leave; group life, medical, and dental insurance; vision care; sick ness and accident benefits; retirement and disability pensions; a savings plan; and an employee stock owner ship plan. clude communications equipment me chanics, biomedical equipment tech nicians, electricians, sound techni cians, line installers, and cable splicers. Sources of Additional Information For more details about employment opportunities, contact the telephone company in your community or local offices of the unions that represent telephone workers. For general infor mation on telephone installer and re pairer jobs, write to: Communications Workers of America, 1925 K St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. International Brotherhood of Electrical Work ers, 1125 15th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. Telecommunications International Union, 2341 Whitney Ave., Hamden, Conn. 06518. For additional information on the telephone industry and career oppor tunities in it, request copies of Phonefacts and Is It for You? A Career in the Independent Telephone Industry Related Occupations Other skilled workers whose jobs re from: quire manual dexterity and technical United States Telephone Association, 1801 K knowledge of tools and machines in St. NW„ Suite 1201, Washington, D.C. 20006. Other Mechanics and Repairers General Maintenance Mechanics__________ (D.O.T. 899.281-014; 899.381-010) Nature of the Work Most craft workers specialize in one kind of work; general maintenance mechanics are jacks-of-all-trades. They repair and maintain machines, mechanical equipment, and buildings, and work on plumbing, electrical, and air-conditioning and heating systems. They build partitions, make plaster or dry wall repairs, and fix or paint roofs, windows, doors, floors, woodwork, and other parts of building structures. They also install, maintain, and repair specialized equipment and machinery found in cafeterias, laundries, hospi tals, stores, offices, and factories. Typical duties include replacing faulty electrical switches, repairing air-con ditioning motors, and installing water lines. Those in small establishments, where they are often the only mainte nance worker, do all repairs except for very large or difficult jobs. In larg er establishments, they may do work in only a few skills. General maintenance mechanics inspect and diagnose problems and plan how work will be done, often checking blueprints, repair manuals, and parts catalogs. They obtain sup plies and repair parts from distribu tors or storerooms. They use common hand and power tools such as screw drivers, saws, drills, wrenches, and hammers as well as specialized equip ment and electronic test devices. They replace or fix worn or broken parts, where necessary, or make adjust ments. They also do routine maintenance to correct defects before equipment breaks down or buildings deteriorate. They may follow a check list, inspect ing belts, checking fluid levels, replac ing filters, and so forth. Maintenance mechanics also keep records of main tenance and repair work. Employment General maintenance mechanics held about 880,000 jobs in 1984. They worked in almost every industry. Al most a third were employed in manu facturing industries. Over one-fourth were in service industries; most worked for elementary and secondary schools, colleges and universities, hospitals and nursing homes, and ho tels. Others worked for real estate firms that operated office and apart ment buildings and for wholesale and retail firms, government agencies, and gas and electric companies. Working Conditions General maintenance mechanics often do a variety of tasks in a single day, generally at a number of different lo cations in a building, or in several buildings. They may have to stand for long periods, lift heavy objects, and work in uncomfortably hot or cold environments. Like other mainte nance craft workers, they may work in awkward and cramped positions or on ladders. They are subject to elec trical shock, burns, falls, and cuts and bruises. Most general maintenance workers work a 40-hour week. Some work evening or night shifts or on weekends, or may be on call for emer gency repairs. Those employed in small establish ments, where they may be the only maintenance worker, often operate with only limited supervision. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most general maintenance mechanics learn their skills informally on the job. They start as helpers, watching and learning from skilled maintenance workers. Helpers begin by doing sim ple jobs such as fixing leaky faucets and replacing light bulbs and progress to more difficult tasks such as over hauling machinery or building walls. Others learn their skills by working as helpers to other repair or construc tion workers such as carpenters, elec tricians, machinery repairers, or auto mobile mechanics. Necessary skills can also be learned in high school shop classes and postsecondary trade or vocational schools. It generally takes from 1 to 4 years of on-the-job training and/or school to become fully qualified, depending on the skill level required. Graduation from high school is pre ferred, but not always required, for entry into this occupation. High General maintenance mechanics perform many different tasks in a day. 363 364/Occupational Outlook Handbook school courses in mechanical draw ing, electricity, woodworking, blue print reading, science, and mathemat ics are useful. Mechanical aptitude, ability to use shop math, and manual dexterity are important. Good physi cal health is necessary since the job involves much walking, standing, reaching, and heavy lifting. Difficult jobs require problem-solving ability, and many positions require the ability to work without direct supervision. Some general maintenance mechan ics in large organizations advance to maintenance supervisor. In small or ganizations, promotion opportunities are limited. Job Outlook Employment of general maintenance mechanics is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupa tions through the mid-1990’s. Em ployment is related to the number of buildings and amount of equipment needing maintenance and repair. Growth will occur as the number of office and apartment buildings, stores, schools, hospitals, churches, hotels, and factories increases. In addition to jobs created by increased demand for maintenance mechanics, many open ings will arise as experienced workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Most general maintenance mechan ics work in relatively stable nonmanu facturing industries and are not usual ly subject to layoff during recessions. Those in manufacturing industries, however, may be laid off. Earnings Earnings for general maintenance me chanics vary widely depending on years of experience, skill level, indus try, and geographic area. According to the limited data available, these workers had average hourly wages ranging from $6 to $12 in 1984. Me chanics may have the opportunity to earn premium pay for working nights or weekends or for overtime pay when handling emergency repairs. Some general maintenance mechan ics are members of unions, including the American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees and the United Automobile Workers. Related Occupations Some of the work of general mainte nance mechanics is similar to that of Digitized for carpenters, plumbers, industrial ma FRASER chinery mechanics, electricians, and air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating mechanics. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the Job Service. Heating, Air-Conditioning, and Refrigeration Mechanics (D.O.T. 637.261-014, -026, and -030, and .381; 827.361-014; 862.281-018, .361-010; and 869.281-010) Nature of the Work People always have sought ways to make their environment more com fortable. Today, heating and air-con ditioning systems control the temper ature, humidity, and even the cleanli ness of the air in homes, offices, factories, and schools. In addition, refrigeration systems make it possible to safely store food, drugs, and other perishable items. Heating, air-condi tioning, and refrigeration mechanics are skilled workers who install, main tain, and repair such systems. Heating, air-conditioning, or refrig eration requires more than a single appliance. In central heating systems, for example, a furnace heats the air that is then distributed throughout the building through a system of metal or fiberglass ducts. Mechanics must be able to work with the complete sys tem—the ducts as well as all the ma chinery. Mechanics may specialize in instal lation or in service—maintenance and repair. Some work only with certain equipment, such as gas furnaces or commercial refrigerators. However, mechanics may do both installation and service and work with heating, cooling, and refrigeration equipment. The following are some specific jobs in this field. Furnace installers, also called heat ing equipment installers, follow blue prints or other specifications to install oil, gas, electric, solid-fuel, and multifuel heating systems. After set ting the equipment in place, they in stall fuel and water supply lines, air ducts and vents, pumps, and other components. They then connect elec trical wiring and controls, and check the unit for proper operation. Some workers install solar-energy systems that collect and circulate solar-heated water or air. Oil burner mechanics keep oil-fired heating systems in good operating condition. During the fall and winter, when the system is needed most, they service and adjust oil burners. If a system is not operating properly, me chanics check the thermostat, burner nozzles, controls, and other parts to locate the problem. The mechanic corrects the problem by adjusting or replacing parts. During the summer, mechanics do maintenance work, such as replacing oil and air filters and vacuum-cleaning vents, ducts, and other parts of the heating system that accumulate soot and ash. Air-conditioning and refrigeration mechanics install and service central air-conditioning systems and a Variety of refrigeration equipment. Mechan ics follow blueprints, design specifica tions, and manufacturers’ installation instructions to install motors, com pressors, condensing units, evapora tors, and other components. They connect this equipment to the duct work, refrigerant lines, and electrical power source. After making the con nections, they charge the system with refrigerant and check it for proper operation. When air-conditioning and refriger ation equipment breaks down, me chanics diagnose the cause and make repairs. To find defects, they test parts such as compressors, relays, and thermostats. During the winter, air-conditioning mechanics inspect the systems and do required maintenance, such as overhauling compressors. Some air-conditioning and refrigera tion mechanics also service heating systems. Heating, air-conditioning, and re frigeration mechanics use a variety of tools, including hammers, wrenches, metal snips, electric drills, pipe cut ters and benders, and acetylene torch es, to work with refrigerant lines and air ducts. They use voltmeters, ther mometers, pressure gauges, manome ters, and other testing devices to check air flow, electrical circuits, burners, and other components. Cooling and heating systems some times are installed or repaired by oth er craft workers. For example, on a large air-conditioning installation job, especially where workers are covered by union contracts, duct work might Mechanics and Repairers/365 be done by sheet-metal workers; elec trical work by electricians; and instal lation of piping, condensers, and oth er components by plumbers and pipefitters. Room air-conditioners and household refrigerators are serviced by home appliance repairers. Addi tional information about these occu pations appears elsewhere in the Handbook. Working Conditions Mechanics work in homes, office buildings, factories—anywhere there is climate control equipment. They carry their tools and some spare parts to the job sites in trucks and are dispatched to jobs by radio or tele phone. For major repairs, mechanics transport broken machinery or parts to the repair shop. Mechanics may work outside in cold or hot weather or in buildings that are uncomfortable because the air-conditioning or heating equipment is broken. Mechanics often work in awkward or cramped positions and sometimes are required to work in high places. Hazards in this trade in clude electrical shock, burns, muscle strains, and other injuries from han dling heavy equipment. Employment Heating, air-conditioning, and refrig eration mechanics held about 173,000 jobs in 1984. Cooling and heating con tractors employ most air-conditioning and refrigeration mechanics and fur nace installers. Fuel oil dealers em ploy most oil burner mechanics. Me chanics also work for foodstore chains, school systems and hospitals, manufacturers, and other organiza tions that operate large air-condition ing, refrigeration, or heating systems. Approximately 1 out of 5 mechanics is self-employed. Jobs for heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics are found throughout the country. The propor tion of mechanics in the South is greater than the proportion of the gen eral population. In addition to a longer cooling season, the South has had large increases in population and hence high levels of construction ac tivity in recent years. Both factors increase opportunities for mechanics. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics start as help ers and acquire their skills by working for several years with experienced mechanics. New workers usually be gin by assisting experienced mechan ics and doing simple jobs. They may carry materials, insulate refrigerant lines, or clean furnaces. In time, they do more difficult jobs, such as cutting and soldering pipes and sheet metal and checking electrical and electronic circuits. In 4 to 5 years, new mechan ics should be able to do all types of repairs and installations. Many high schools, private voca tional schools, and junior colleges of fer programs in heating, air-condition ing, and refrigeration. Students study heating, air-conditioning, and refriger ation theory and the design and con struction of the equipment. They also learn the basics of installation, main tenance, and repair. Although com pletion of such a program does not assure a job, employers may prefer to hire graduates of these programs be cause they require less on-the-job training. These programs also help students determine if they have an interest and aptitude for the trade. Apprenticeship programs are run by joint apprenticeship committees made up of locals of the United Asso ciation of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry and some local chapters of the Air-Conditioning Contractors of America and by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors. In addition to on-the-job training, ap prentices receive 144 hours of class room instruction each year in related subjects, such as the use and care of An air-conditioning mechanic tests the system to determine if it is functioning properly. tools, safety practices, blueprint read ing, and air-conditioning theory. Ap plicants for apprenticeships must meet requirements of local apprenticeship committees; for example, they may have to have a high school diploma or pass a mechanical aptitude test. Ap prenticeships last 4 years. When hiring, employers prefer high school graduates with mechanical ap titude who have had courses in shop math, mechanical drawing, electron ics, and blueprint reading. A basic understanding of microelectronics is becoming more important because of 366/Occupational Outlook Handbook the increasing use of this technology in equipment controls. Good physical condition also is necessary because workers sometimes have to lift and move heavy equipment. To keep up with changes in technol ogy and to expand their skills, experi enced mechanics may take courses offered by heating and air-condition ing equipment manufacturers and by associations such as the Refrigeration Service Engineers Society and the Air Conditioning Contractors of America. Mechanics can advance to positions as supervisors. Those with sufficient money and managerial skill can open their own contracting businesses. Job Outlook Employment of heating, air-condi tioning, and refrigeration mechanics is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Employment will increase as more homes and com mercial and industrial buildings are constructed. Installations of new en ergy-saving heating and air-condition ing systems in existing homes and buildings also will increase employ ment of mechanics. Most job open ings, however, will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Employment of heating, air-condi tioning, and refrigeration mechanics usually is not as sensitive to down turns in the economy as some other construction occupations because maintenance of existing systems and installation of new, more efficient equipment in existing buildings make up a large part of their work. Because people and businesses depend on their heating, air-conditioning, and refriger ation systems, the need for mechanics to do maintenance work is relatively strong even during economic down turns. Because the high earnings and good job prospects of this trade attract many people, beginning mechanics may face competition for jobs as help ers or apprentices. Graduates of train ing programs that emphasize handson experience and those with related work experience will have an advan tage in getting a job. Earnings Median weekly earnings of air-condi tioning, heating, and, refrigeration Digitized formechanics who were not self-em FRASER ployed were $370 in 1984. The middle 50 percent earned between $270 and $480. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $210 a week, and the same proportion earned more than $615 a week. Apprentices receive a percentage of the wage paid experienced workers, about 40 percent at the beginning of their training and about 85 percent during the fourth year. Mechanics who work on both heating equipment and air-conditioning frequently have higher rates of pay than those who work on only one type of equipment. Mechanics usually work a 40-hour week. However, during peak seasons, they often work overtime or irregular hours. Most employers try to provide a full workweek the year round, but they may temporarily reduce hours or lay off some mechanics when the sea son is over. Employment in most shops that service both heating and air-conditioning equipment is fairly stable throughout the year. Some mechanics are members of the United Association of Journey men and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry or the Sheet Metal Workers International Associa tion. Related Occupations Heating, air-conditioning, and refrig eration mechanics work with sheet metal and piping, and repair machin ery, such as electrical motors, com pressors, and burners. Other workers who have similar skills are boilermak ers, electrical appliance servicers, electricians, pipefitters, plumbers, and sheet-metal workers. Sources of Additional Information For more information about employ ment and training opportunities in this trade, contact local heating, air-condi tioning, and refrigeration contractors; a local of the unions previously men tioned; a local joint union-manag ement apprenticeship committee; a lo cal chapter of the Associated Builders and Contractors; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For information on career opportu nities and training, write to: Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute, 1501 Wilson Blvd., Arlington, Va. 22209. Air Conditioning Contractors of America, 1228 17th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. Refrigeration Service Engineers Society, 1666 Rand Rd., Des Plaines, 111. 60016. Industrial Machinery Repairers (List o f D .O .T . codes available on request. See p. 495.) Nature of the Work When a machine breaks down in a plant or factory, not only is the ma chine idle, but raw materials and hu man resources are wasted. It is the industrial machinery repairer’s job to prevent these costly breakdowns and to make repairs as quickly as possible. Industrial machinery repairers—of ten called maintenance mechanics— spend much of their time doing pre ventive maintenance. This includes keeping machines well oiled and greased, and periodically cleaning parts. Repairers regularly inspect ma chinery and check performance. They use tools such as micrometers, cali pers, and depth gauges to measure and align all parts. For example, fore arms on industrial robots in motor vehicle manufacturing plants need fre quent adjustment, and gears, bear ings, and other mechanical parts have to be aligned and lubricated. By keep ing complete and up-to-date records, mechanics try to anticipate trouble and service the machinery before fac tory production is interrupted. When repairs become necessary, the maintenance mechanic must first locate the specific cause of the prob lem. This requires knowledge rein forced by experience. For example, after hearing a vibration from a ma chine, the mechanic must decide whether it is due to worn belts, weak motor bearings, or any number of other possibilities. New industrial ma chinery often is equipped with com puter control panels that indicate the source of mechanical problems. After the problem has been diag nosed, the maintenance mechanic dis assembles the equipment and repairs or replaces the necessary parts. A wide range of tools may be used. For example, repairers may use a screw driver and wrench to adjust an engine, or a hoist to lift a printing press off the ground. Repairers use catalogs to or der replacements for broken or defec tive parts. When parts are not readily available, or when a machine must be quickly returned to production, re Mechanics and Repairers/367 pairers may sketch a part that can be classroom instruction. Apprentices fabricated by the plant’s machine learn how to operate, disassemble, and shop. Repairers often follow blue repair machinery from experienced prints and engineering specifications repairers. Classroom instruction fo in maintaining and fixing equipment. cuses on subjects such as shop math After the equipment has been ser ematics, shop theory, blueprint read viced, the repairer reassembles and ing, welding, and safety. Electronics training is offered as a part of the tests it. Some of the industrial machinery re apprenticeship program but is not re pairer’s duties may be performed by quired. However, a growing number millwrights. (See the statement on mill of employers prefer this background. Graduation from high school is pre wrights elsewhere in the Handbook.) ferred, but not always required, for entry into this occupation. However, Working Conditions Repairers may work in stooped or participants in apprenticeship pro cramped positions, to reach the un grams must have a high school diplo derside of a generator, for example. ma or the equivalent. High school They also may work from the top of a courses in mechanical drawing, math ladder when repairing a large ma ematics, blueprint reading, physics, chine. These workers are subject to and electronics are useful. common shop injuries such as cuts Mechanical aptitude and manual dex and bruises. Because factories and terity are important qualifications for other organizations cannot afford workers in this trade. Good physical breakdowns in industrial machinery, condition and agility are also necessary Machinery breakdowns are costly and industrial machinery repairers may be because repairers sometimes have to equipment must be repaired as soon as called to the plant at night or on lift heavy objects or climb to reach possible. equipment located high above the floor. weekends for emergency repairs. Opportunities for advancement are conditions are particularly severe, limited. Industrial machinery repair they generally are less affected than Employment Industrial machinery repairers held ers advance either by working with other workers because machines have about 430,000 jobs in 1984. Repairers more complicated equipment or by to be maintained regardless of the work in every industry in which a becoming a supervisor. level of production. great deal of machinery is used. Six of Examinations may be administered every ten work in manufacturing in periodically by employers to deter Earnings dustries, primarily in machine shops, mine the repairer’s ability to maintain According to the available data, in printing plants, oil refineries, garment more advanced machinery. Some of dustrial machinery repairers had aver shops, automobile and aircraft com the most highly skilled repairers can age hourly wages of $12.33 in 1984, panies, and food processing plants. be promoted to master mechanics or about 50 percent higher than the aver Others work for government agencies become machinists or tool-and-die age for all nonsupervisory workers in and for service firms that maintain makers. private industry, except farming. Av equipment for a fee. erage hourly earnings of industrial Because industrial machinery re Job Outlook machinery repairers in 22 areas that pairers work in a wide variety of Employment of industrial machinery plants, they are employed in every repairers is expected to grow more represent various regions of the coun section of the country. Employment slowly than the average for all occu try are shown in table 1. is concentrated, however, in heavily pations through the mid-1990’s. Few industrialized areas. er industrial machinery repairers will Table 1. Average hourly earnings of be needed because of the lower main industrial machinery repairers, tenance requirements of new industri selected areas, 1984 Training, Other Qualifications, and al equipment. Although some jobs will Advancement Area Hourly rate Most workers who become industrial be created due to increased demand machinery repairers start as helpers for industrial machinery repairers, D e tr o it.................................. $13.98 and pick up the skills of the trade most openings will result each year H ou sto n ................................ 12.96 informally and by taking courses of from the need to replace repairers C h ic a g o ................................ 12.85 12.77 fered by machine manufacturers. who transfer to other occupations, Baltim ore.............................. Los A n g e le s ........................ 12.65 Some learn the trade through appren retire, or die. 12.20 ticeship programs sponsored by the Industrial machinery repairers are N ew Y o r k ............................ 11.50 United Automobile, Aerospace and not usually affected by seasonal Minneapolis-St. P a u l........ B o s to n .................................. 11.03 Agricultural Implement Workers of changes in production. During slack M iam i..................................... 10.64 America and the International Union periods, when some plant workers are Portland, M a in e ................. 10.62 of Electronic, Electrical, Technical, laid off, repairers often are retained to A tlanta.................................. 10.56 Salaried and Machine Workers. This do major overhaul jobs. Although training usually lasts 4 years and con these workers may face layoff or a SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. sists of on-the-job training and related reduced workweek when economic 368/Occupational Outlook Handbook Labor unions to which most indus trial machinery repairers belong in clude the United Steelworkers of America; the United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Imple ment Workers of America; the Inter national Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; and the International Union of Electronic, Electrical, Technical, Salaried and Machine Workers. Related Occupations Other occupations which involve re pairing machinery include aircraft me chanics and engine specialists, auto motive and motorcycle mechanics, bowling-pin-machine mechanics, die sel mechanics, farm equipment me chanics, machinists, millwrights, tooland-die makers, and vending machine mechanics. Sources of Additional Information Information about employment and apprenticeship opportunities in this field may be available from local of fices of the State employment service or from: International Union of Electronic, Electrical, Technical, Salaried and Machine Workers, 1126 16th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Millwrights (D.Q.T. 638.261-010, -014, -018, .281-018, and -022) Nature of the Work The textile industry in England was one of the first industries to use ma chinery to mass produce goods. The workers who planned and built the textile mills and set up the equipment that was needed were called mill wrights. The occupation gradually ex panded to other factories, and today the millwright installs and dismantles machinery and heavy equipment used in almost every industry, from food processing to oil and gas extraction. The millwright’s responsibilities be gin when machinery arrives at the job site. The new equipment must be un packed and unloaded, inspected for damaged and missing parts, and then moved into position. To lift and move light machinery, millwrights may use rigging and hoisting devices such as pulleys and cables. Moving machin ery sometimes requires the assistance of a hydraulic lift-truck operator. In cases where machinery and parts are Digitized fortoo heavy for handtools and liftFRASER trucks, millwrights must rely on crane operators to position the machinery in its new site. Because millwrights often decide what device to use for moving ma chinery, they must know the loadbearing properties of ropes, cables, hoists, and cranes. For example, when installing a new oven in a food proc essing plant, a millwright sets up steel cables and a small hoist to move the oven from the truck on which it ar rived to the conveyor that will carry it into the plant. The oven is then lifted, with other hoisting devices and per haps the aid of a crowbar for leverage, onto a dolly and taken to the founda tion for proper positioning. New machinery sometimes requires a new foundation. Since they either personally prepare the foundation or supervise its construction, millwrights must know how to read blueprints and work with building materials such as concrete, wood, and steel. In assembling machinery, mill wrights fit bearings, align gears and wheels, attach motors, and connect belts according to the manufacturer’s blueprints and drawings. Precision leveling and alignment are important in the assembly process; millwrights must have good mathematical skills so that they can measure angles, material thickness, and small distances with tools such as squares, calipers, and micrometers. In some cases, particu larly when lining up conveyor machin ery or tracks, a millwright may use laser equipment to “ shoot” a straight line over long distances. Millwrights also use hand and power tools, cutting torches, welding machines, and sol dering guns. Some millwrights use metalworking lathes to grind or turn parts to specifications. A growing number of millwrights install industrial robots in manufac turing plants. In these factories, mill wrights also rearrange machinery, in stall conveyors and tracks, or reroute them in order to make better use of available space. A millwright is often called a “jack of all trades” because of the variety of skills the job entails. In addition to installing and dismantling machinery, many millwrights repair and maintain equipment. This includes preventive maintenance, such as lubrication, and fixing or replacing worn parts. (For further information on machinery maintenance occupations, see the statements on industrial machinery mechanics and general maintenance mechanics elsewhere in the Hand book.) Millwrights employed by contract installation and construction compa nies must know how to do a variety of installation work. Those employed in factories usually need to be familiar with only the particular types of ma chinery used by their employers. Working Conditions Millwrights employed by factories or dinarily work year round. Those em ployed by construction companies may experience periods of unemploy ment; however, they usually are com pensated with a higher hourly wage rate. Millwrights who work for com panies that manufacture and install machinery may travel a lot. Millwrights are subject to the usual shop hazards, such as cuts and bruis es, associated with working around machinery. Injury from falling objects or machinery that is being moved, and from falls from scaffolding and catwalks, can be avoided or reduced by the use of protective devices such as safety belts and hard hats. Employment Millwrights held about 84,000 jobs in 1984. About 3 out of 4 worked in manufacturing, primarily in durable goods industries such as blast furnac es, basic steel, and motor vehicles and equipment; those in nondurable goods manufacturing were concentrated in industries producing paper and chem icals. Most of the rest were employed by construction firms. Although mill wrights work in every State, employ ment is concentrated in heavily indus trialized areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most millwrights start as helpers to skilled workers and learn the trade informally on the job. This process can take from 6 to 8 years. Others learn through 4-year formal appren ticeship programs that combine onthe-job training with classroom in struction. Apprenticeship programs include training in dismantling, mov ing, erecting, and repairing machin ery. Apprentices also may work with concrete and receive instruction in related skills such as carpentry, weld ing, and sheet-metal work. Classroom instruction is given in shop mathemat- Mechanics and Repairers/369 struction activity falls, jobs are scarce and even experienced millwrights may face layoffs or shortened workweeks. They are also subject to seasonal lay off caused by snow, rain, and other bad weather conditions. Millwrights who work in manufacturing plants are not subject to seasonal layoffs and are not as likely to be laid off in down turns in the economy because, even though employers are not installing new equipment, existing machinery still needs to be maintained and re paired. Some layoffs may occur, how ever, and new jobseekers may find few opportunities for employment. A millwright is often called a “jack of all trades” because of the variety of skills the job entails. ics, blueprint reading, hydraulics, electricity, and safety. Applicants for apprentice or helper jobs must be at least 17 years old. Most employers prefer applicants with a high school diploma or its equiva lent. Courses in science, mathemat ics, mechanical drawing, and machine shop practice are useful. Because millwrights often take apart compli cated machinery, mechanical aptitude is important. Strength and agility also are important, because the work can require a considerable amount of lift ing and climbing. Job Outlook Employment of millwrights is expect ed to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. A slowdown in the growth of manufacturing due largely to foreign competition should result in weakening demand for millwrights. This will be offset to some degree by plant automation and modernization. Millwrights will be needed to disman tle machinery and to install and main tain new equipment. In addition, some openings will arise annually as expe rienced millwrights retire or transfer to other occupations. Employment of millwrights is some what sensitive to changes in economic conditions. In the construction indus try, for example, employment fluctu ates with the level of commercial and industrial building activity. When con Earnings Median hourly earnings of most mill wrights were $12 in 1984; the middle 50 percent earned between $9.75 and $13 per hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.50, and the top 10 percent earned more than $17.60. In contrast, the average hourly wage for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming, was $8.33. Earnings for millwrights in 10 areas that represent various regions of the country appear in table 1. Table 1. Average hourly earnings of millwrights, selected areas, 1984 Area Indianapolis............................ Cleveland................................ D etro it.................................... B u ffalo.................................... Kansas City............................ Baltim ore................................ M ilwaukee.............................. C h ica g o .................................. St. L o u is ................................ Louisville................................ Philadelphia............................ D a lla s...................................... SOURCE: Hourly rate $14.66 14.09 13.85 13.69 13.69 13.68 13.63 13.54 13.30 13.09 12.16 11.16 Bureau of Labor Statistics. Many millwrights belong to labor unions. Most belong to the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Join ers of America. Others belong to the United Steelworkers of America; International Union, United Automo bile, Aerospace and Agricultural Im plement Workers of America; United Paperworkers International Union; International Union of Electrical, Ra dio and Machine Workers; and Inter national Brotherhood of Firemen and Oilers. Related Occupations To set up machinery for use in a plant, millwrights must know how to use hoisting devices, and how to assem ble, disassemble, and in some cases repair machinery. Other workers with similar job duties are industrial ma chinery mechanics, mobile heavy equipment mechanics, aircraft me chanics and engine specialists, diesel mechanics, farm equipment mechan ics, ironworkers, and machine assem blers. Sources of Additional Information For further information on appren ticeship programs, write to the Ap prenticeship Council of your State’s labor department, local offices of your State employment service, local firms that employ millwrights, or the Asso ciated General Contractors of Ameri ca, 1957 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Musical Instrument Repairers and Tuners (D.O.T. 730.281-014, -026, -038, -050, -054, .361, .381-010, -026, -034, -038, -042, -058, .681-010, .684022, -026, and -094) Nature of the Work Whether they are used to perform the classics or contemporary rock, musi cal instruments are a source of enter tainment and recreation for millions of people. Maintaining these instruments so they perform properly is the job of musical instrument repairers and tun ers. The five largest of these occupa tions are piano tuner, piano techni cian, pipe-organ tuner and repairer, brass instrument repairer, and wind instrument repairer. Piano tuners adjust piano strings so that they will be in proper pitch. When a piano key is struck, a feltcovered wooden hammer strikes one or more strings, causing them to vi brate. The number of times a string vibrates in a second is called its pitch. For the piano to sound right, all its strings must be set at their proper pitch. Tuners begin by adjusting the pitch of the “A” or “C” string. Striking the key, the tuner compares the string’s pitch with that of a tuning fork. Using a tuning hammer (also called a tuning lever or wrench), the tuner turns a 370/Occupational Outlook Handbook steel pin to tighten or loosen the string until its pitch matches that of the tuning fork. The pitch of all the other strings is set in relation to the “ A” or “ C” string. The standard 88-key pi ano has about 230 strings and can be tuned in about an hour and a half. The sound of the piano also can be affected by problems in any of the thousands of wooden, steel, iron, ivo ry, and felt parts in its works. Piano technicians locate and correct these .problems. Technicians also tune pi anos. To get an idea of what is wrong with the piano, technicians talk with the customer. They also may play the instrument or partially dismantle it to inspect the parts. When technicians discover the problem, they make re pairs or adjustments. They may re align hammers that do not strike the strings properly or may replace worn felt or broken strings or rebuild or replace the wooden sounding board that amplifies the string’s vibrations. Sometimes technicians completely re build pianos. To dismantle and repair pianos, technicians use common handtools as well as special ones, such as regulating, repinning, and restringing tools. Although organs and pianos may look somewhat alike, they work dif ferently, and few tuners and repairers work on both instruments. Moreover, people who service organs specialize in either pipe or electronic organs. Electronic organs are not included in this statement. Pipe-organ repairers tune, repair, several weeks or even months, de and install organs that make music by pending on the size of the organ. Violin repairers adjust and repair forcing air through one of two kinds of pipes—flue pipes or reed pipes. The bowed instruments, such as violins, flue pipe sounds when a current of air violas, and cellos, using a variety of strikes a metal lip in the side of the handtools. They find defects by close pipe. The reed pipe sounds when a inspection and by playing the instru current of air vibrates a brass reed ment. They remove cracked or bro ken sections with heated knives so inside the pipe. To tune an organ, repairers first that the delicate instrument is not match the pitch of the “ A” pipes with damaged. The defective parts are re that of a tuning fork. The pitch of placed, and the instrument is restrung. other pipes is set by comparing it with In order to restore an old or severely that of the “ A” pipes. To tune a flue damaged instrument to its original pipe, the technician moves the metal condition, the repairer must fill in slide that increases or decreases the scratches with putty, sand the rough pipe’s “ speaking length.’’ To tune a spots, and apply paint or varnish. Brass and wind instruments include reed pipe, the technician alters the length of the brass reed inside the trumpets, cornets, tubas, clarinets, pipe. A day or more may be needed to flutes, and saxophones. Brass and finish one of these jobs, because most wind instrument repairers clean, ad just, and repair these instruments. organs have hundreds of pipes. Like piano technicians, pipe-organ They may move mechanical parts or repairers must locate and correct play scales to find any defects in the problems in the organ’s components instrument. They may unscrew and that affect its sound. This may involve remove rod pins, keys, and pistons, replacing worn parts of the pipes, the and may remove soldered parts by console, or other components. Re using gas torches. These repairers re pairers also do maintenance work, move dents in metal instruments by such as cleaning the pipes, on a regu using mallets or burnishing tools. They fill cracks in wood instruments lar schedule. Occasionally, pipe-organ repairers by inserting pinning wire into the assemble organs onsite in churches cracks and covering them with filler. and auditoriums. They follow the de signer’s blueprints and use a variety Working Conditions of hand and power tools to install and The work of musical instrument re connect the air chest, blowers, air pairers and tuners is relatively safe, ducts, pipes, and other components. although they may suffer small cuts and bruises when making repairs. Technicians may work in teams or be Work is performed in shops, music assisted by helpers. A job may take stores, homes, and public buildings, such as churches and schools, where working conditions usually are good. Employment Musical instrument repairers and tun ers held about 9,200 jobs in 1984. Most worked on pianos. Eight of ev ery 10 worked in music stores. Most of the rest worked in repair shops or for musical instrument manufactur ers. More than 4 out of 10 musical in strument repairers and tuners are selfemployed. Most repairers and tuners work in large metropolitan areas. Musical instrument repairers generally learn their trade on the job. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Musical instrument repairers and tun ers generally learn their trade on the job. Some music stores, large repair shops, and self-employed technicians hire inexperienced people as trainees. Mechanics and Repairers/371 Trainees do general cleanup work, for large dealers or repair shops can Earnings help move and install instruments, advance to supervisory positions. According to the limited data avail and do other routine tasks. Trainees Some people in this field, however, go able, apprentices generally earned tune and repair instruments under the into business for themselves. Opening from $8,000 to $10,000 a year in 1984; supervision of experienced workers. a repair business is fairly easy be beginning repairers earned from Usually 2 to 5 years of training and cause only a small investment in tools $12,000 to $18,000. Those with sever practice are needed to become a com is required. Basic music instrument al years’ experience earned between repair tools cost only a few hundred $20,000 and $35,000, and highly suc petent musical instrument repairer. For those people who are interested dollars. Because the musical instru cessful musicial instrument repairers in piano tuning and repair, a small ment repair business is so competi often earn up to $50,000 annually. number of technical schools and col tive, training in small business man Earnings of the self-employed depend leges offer courses in piano technolo agement, customer relations, and ac on the size of the community, their gy that last 6 months to 2 years. Home counting can mean the difference ability to attract and keep customers, study (correspondence school) cours between success and failure. Self- their operating expenses, and the es in piano technology also are avail employed tuners and repairers oper amount of competition from other able. These courses emphasize prac ate out of their own homes and use tuners and repairers. tice tuning and piano repair. Gradu either a car or a small truck for service ates of these courses generally are calls. They also may work at another Related Occupations encouraged to refine their skills by job until their clientele is large enough Mechanical aptitude and manual dex terity are qualities that are needed in working for a time with an experi to support a repair business. musical instrument repair. Other enced tuner or technician. Employers workers who possess these traits are generally prefer to hire workers with Job Outlook Employment of musical instrument electronic home entertainment equip some knowledge of the trade. For those who are interested in oth repairers and tuners is expected to ment repairers, vending machine er types of instrument repair, a few increase more slowly than the average servicers and repairers, pinsetter me music repair schools offer a 1- or for all occupations through the mid- chanics, home appliance and power 2-year course in complete overhauling 1990’s. Most job openings will arise tool repairers, and office machine and and refinishing of brass, woodwind, from the need to replace experienced cash register servicers. and string instruments. Beginners may workers who transfer to other occu also learn these skills as apprentices pations, retire, or leave the occupa Sources of Additional Information under the supervision of experienced tion for other reasons. Since this is a Details about job opportunities may very small occupation, the overall be available from local music instru technicians. Employers prefer high school grad number of job openings will be small. ment dealers and repair shops. For general information about pi Millions of musical instruments al uates for beginning jobs in musical instrument repair. Music courses help ready are in use, and the number will ano technicians and a list of schools develop the student’s ear for tonal increase as the population grows and offering courses in piano technology, quality. Courses in woodworking also as people have more leisure time. The write to: may be useful because many of the large number of instruments in use Piano Technicians Guild, 9140 Ward Parkway, moving parts of some instruments are will assure a demand for repair work. Kansas City, Mo. 64114. For general information on musical However, opportunities for untrained made of wood. People interested in a career in workers in these occupations are few. instrument repair, write to: these fields should have good hearing, Most music store owners and self- Allied Music Corporation, P.O. Box 288, mechanical aptitude, stamina, and employed tuners and repairers are re Elkhom, Wis. 53121. manual dexterity. Because work fre luctant to train persons who do not National Association of Professional Band In quently is done in the customer’s have at least a basic understanding of strument Repair Technicians (NAPBIRT), P.O. home—especially piano repair—a instrument repair. Training such peo Box 51, Normal, 111. 61761. neat appearance and a pleasant, coop ple requires time that could be more erative manner also are important. profitably spent doing tuning or repair Ability to play the instrument is some work. Individuals who have some fa miliarity with the trade may find it Office Machine and times helpful. Musical instrument repairers keep easier to get a trainee job. Cash Register Because musical instrument tuning up with new developments in their fields by studying trade magazines and repair are a luxury for most con Servicers__________ and manufacturers’ service manuals. sumers, these occupations are sensi (D.O.T. 633.261-014, .281 except -026; 706.381-010 The Piano Technicians Guild helps its tive to the downturns in the economy. and -030) members improve their skills through During poor economic conditions, training programs conducted at local tuners and repairers may lose income Nature of the Work chapter meetings and at regional and because their customers put off tuning Office machine and cash register national seminars. Guild members and repairing instruments. People servicers maintain and repair the ma also can take a series of tests to earn wishing to enter the trade usually find chines that are used to process paper the title Registered Piano Tuner-Tech music store owners and self-employed work in business and government. nician. The title is an acknowledg repairers and technicians especially These machines include typewriters, ment of the technician’s skills. reluctant to hire trainees when busi adding and calculating machines, cash Repairers and technicians who work ness is slow. registers, dictating machines, postage 372/Occupational Outlook Handbook meters, and duplicating and copying equipment. (Technicians who work on data processing equipment and word processing systems are dis cussed in the statement on computer service technicians presented else where in the Handbook.) Servicers (often called field engi neers, customer engineers, or service technicians) make regular visits for preventive maintenance to the offices and stores of customers in their as signed area. The frequency of service calls depends upon the type of equip ment being serviced. For example, an electric typewriter may require pre ventive maintenance only three or four times a year, while a complex copier probably would require more frequent attention. During these calls, the servicer inspects the machine for unusual wear and replaces any worn or broken parts. Then the machine is cleaned, oiled, and adjusted to ensure peak operating efficiency and to pre vent future breakdowns. The servicer also may advise machine operators how to use the equipment more effi ciently and how to spot a problem in its early stages. Despite frequent maintenance, bus iness machines occasionally malfunc tion. When notified of a breakdown, a servicer goes to the customer’s place of business, examines the machine, and determines the cause of the mal function. Minor problems generally can be corrected on the spot since many servicers carry a sufficient num- Minor repairs generally can be made on the spot. ber of parts for such repairs; more serious problems, however, may re quire that a component or the entire machine be taken to the repair shop. Servicers generally specialize in one type of machine. Those employed by manufacturing companies or deal ers usually are familiar only with the brand produced or sold by their em ployer. Those who work for small independent repair shops, however, must be able to work on equipment from several different manufacturers. Servicers use common handtools, such as screwdrivers, pliers, and wrenches, as well as other tools espe cially designed to fit certain kinds of business machines. In addition, they use meters, oscilloscopes, and other types of testing equipment to check for malfunctions in electronic circuits. Working Conditions Servicing office machines and cash registers is cleaner and less strenuous than the work in most other mechan ical trades. Servicers generally wear business clothes and do most of their work in the customer’s office. Servicers generally work a 5-day, 40-hour week. They travel a great deal because they usually visit a number of customers each workday. They gener ally use their own cars and are reim bursed on a mileage basis, but major equipment manufacturers usually pro vide vehicles for their workers. Inju ries are uncommon. Employment Office machine and cash register servicers held about 53,000 jobs in 1984. Most servicers work on type writers, calculators, copiers, and du plicators. Others service proof ma chines in banks, accounting-bookkeep ing machines, cash registers, and postage and mailing equipment. A small number repair dictating ma chines. About 8 out of 10 servicers work for wholesale distributors of business ma chines. The remainder work for retail establishments, independent repair shops, equipment manufacturers, and for organizations large enough to em ploy their own staff of full-time servic ers. Servicers work throughout the country. Even relatively small com munities usually have at least one or two repair shops. Most servicers, however, work in large cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The amount of formal education re quired for entry jobs varies. Some employers hire applicants with a high school education, while many others require at least 1 year of technical training in basic electricity or elec tronics. Employers agree that elec tronics training received in the Armed Forces is valuable. A large proportion of job openings for office machine and cash register servicers are filled by experienced workers who transfer from other oc cupations, most probably from a relat ed job where they serviced mechani cal and electronic equipment. Applicants for entry jobs may have to pass tests that measure mechanical aptitude, knowledge of electricity or electronics, manual dexterity, and general intelligence. Good eyesight, including color vision, is needed to inspect and work on small, delicate parts. Persons considering this type of work should have good hearing to detect malfunctions which may be re vealed by sound. Employers seek applicants who have a pleasant, cooperative manner. Because most machine servicing is done in customers’ offices, the ability to work without interrupting the office routine is very important. A neat ap pearance and the ability to communi cate effectively are essential. Office machine and cash register servicers must be trustworthy be cause they sometimes are exposed to money and other valuables in places like banks and securities offices. Some employers require that they be bond ed. They must work without direct supervision and must be able to set up maintenance schedules for their cus tomers’ equipment and arrange their own schedules so that they can meet service deadlines and also handle emergency repairs. Trainees who work in a manufac turer’s branch office or for a fran chised dealer usually attend a school sponsored by the manufacturer. Train ing programs at company schools usu ally last several weeks to several months, depending on the type of ma chine the repairer will service. Train ees then receive from 1 to 3 years of practical experience and on-the-job training before they become fully qualified repairers. These workers generally learn to service only the company’s line of equipment. Mechanics and Repairers/373 Because small repair shops usually do not specialize in the more sophis ticated types of equipment, they usu ally offer less formal training, consist ing of a self-study course plus on-thejob instruction under the supervision of an experienced worker. Office machine and cash register servicers frequently attend training seminars sponsored by equipment manufacturers for special instruction in new business machines. They also are encouraged to broaden their tech nical knowledge during nonworking hours. Many companies pay the tu ition for work-related courses in col leges and technical schools. Because of their familiarity with equipment, servicers are particularly well qualified to advance to sales jobs as manufacturers’ sales workers. Workers who show managerial ability also may become service managers or supervisors. Experienced workers sometimes open their own repair shops; those who work in manufactur ers’ branch offices may become inde pendent dealers or buy sales franchis es from the company. even when business slackens, since records must be kept, correspondence processed, and statistical reports pre pared. Earnings Median weekly earnings of full-time office machine and cash register servicers were about $390 in 1984; the middle 50 percent earned between $300 and $540. Ten percent earned less than $240, and 10 percent earned more than $675. In 1984, trainees started at about $200 to $275 a week, according to the limited information available. Even during training, salaries often are in creased as workers advance to more complicated assignments. People who have previous electronics training in the Armed Forces or civilian technical schools generally receive somewhat higher beginning wages than high school graduates. Experienced workers earned from $300 to $450 a week, while highly skilled specialists earned from $500 to $720. Servicers who can work on more than one type of equipment may earn substantially more than those who are familiar with only one type of machine. In many areas, earnings for office machine and cash register servicers are comparable to those of computer service technicians with similar skills, responsibilities, and experience. (See the statement on computer service technicians, a closely related occupa tion, elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Employment of office machine and cash register servicers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1990’s, as business and government buy more office equipment to handle a growing volume of paperwork. Most job open ings will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations—such as computer service technician or manufacturers’ sales worker—retire, or stop working Related Occupations Other workers who service complicat for other reasons. ed electronic and mechanical equip Employment opportunities for qual ified beginners are expected to be ex ment include home appliance and cellent. In recent years, many techno power tool repairers, electricians, logical changes have occurred in bus computer service technicians, instru iness machines. Electronic calculating ment repairers, radar mechanics, and machines have replaced mechanical electronic home entertainment equip models, for example, and electronic ment repairers. cash registers are linked to comput ers. Because of the greater use of such Sources of Additional Information equipment, opportunities will be par For more details about job opportuni ticularly favorable for servicers who ties, contact local firms that manufac have training in electronics. How ture, sell, or service business ma ever, in the long run, the difference chines and the local office of the State between the jobs performed by office employment service. The State de machine servicers and computer ser partment of education in your State capital can furnish information about vice technicians may narrow. Office machine and cash register approved technical institutes, junior servicers have steadier employment colleges, and other institutions offer than many other skilled workers. Of ing postsecondary training in basic fice machines must be maintained electronics. For general information about the work of office machine and cash register servicers, contact: Computer and Business Equipment Manufac turer’s Association, 311 First St. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20001. Vending Machine Servicers and Repairers (D.O.T. 319.464-014 and 639.281-014) Nature of the Work Coin-operated vending machines have become a familiar sight in places of recreation, work, and education. These machines provide many types of refreshments, from a piece of can dy to a complete meal. Vending ma chine servicers and repairers keep these machines in good working or der. Before new machines are placed in use, servicers make sure they operate correctly. When checking complicat ed electrical and electronic machines, such as beverage dispensers, they make sure that the machines mix drinks properly and that refrigerating and heating units work correctly. On the relatively simple gravity-operated machines, servicers check handles, springs, plungers, and merchandise chutes. They also test coin and change-making mechanisms. When installing machines on location, they make the necessary water and electri cal connections and recheck the ma chines for proper operation. If a machine breaks down, repairers must determine the cause of the trou ble. They first inspect the machine for obvious problems, such as loose elec trical wires, malfunctions of the coin mechanism, and leaks. If the problem cannot be readily located, they may refer to troubleshooting manuals and wiring diagrams and use testing devic es such as electrical circuit testers to find defective parts. Repairers may fix faulty parts at the site, but they often install replacements and take broken parts to the company shop for repair. When servicing electronic machines, repairers may only have to replace a circuit board or other component. Preventive maintenance—avoiding trouble before it starts—is another major job of these workers. For exam ple, they periodically clean electrical contact points, lubricate mechanical 374/Occupational Outlook Handbook parts, and adjust machines to perform properly. In repair and maintenance work, repairers use pipe cutters, soldering irons, wrenches, screwdrivers, ham mers, and other handtools. In the re pair shop, they may use power tools, such as grinding wheels, saws, and drills as well as voltmeters, ohmmeters, oscilloscopes, and other testing equipment. Because many vending machines dispense food, these workers must know State and local public health and sanitation standards as well as local plumbing and electrical codes. Vending machine servicers and re pairers must do some clerical work, such as filing reports, preparing repair cost estimates, and ordering parts. Those employed by small companies may also fill machines on a regular basis. These combination servicersrepairers stock machines, collect mon ey, fill coin and currency changers, and keep daily records of merchan dise distributed. Working Conditions Some servicers and repairers work in company repair shops, others work in the field, but many do both. Since vending machines can be operated around the clock, repairers sometimes work at night and on weekends and holidays. Vending machine repair shops gen erally are quiet, well lighted, and have adequate work space. However, when servicing machines on location, the Mechanics sometimes work at night and on weekends and holidays. work may have to be done where pedestrian traffic is heavy, such as in a busy supermarket. Repair work is rel atively safe, although repairers and servicers are subject to hazards such as electrical shocks and cuts from sharp tools and metal objects. They also must know and follow safety pro cedures, especially when lifting heavy objects and working with electricity and gas. ers and repairers. Many schools offer training in basic electronics, which is becoming increasingly important for these workers. The National Automatic Merchan dising Association has established an apprenticeship program to help em ployers train workers. These workers are recommended by their employers. Apprentices receive training in vari ous skills including 144 hours of in struction each year in subjects such as Employment basic electricity and electronics, blue Vending machine servicers and re print reading, customer relations, and pairers held about 33,000 jobs in 1984. safety. Apprenticeships last 3 years. Most repairers work for vending com The NAM A program includes option panies that sell food and other items al certification upon completion of the through machines. Others work for on-the-job training, and passing per soft drink bottling companies that formance and written tests. To learn about new machines, re have their own coin-operated ma chines. Some work for companies pairers and servicers sometimes at who engage in operating coin-opera tend manufacturer-sponsored training ted services such as pin-ball ma sessions in repair shops, or in manu chines, juke boxes, and similar types facturers’ service facilities. Employ of mechanical amusement equipment. ers usually pay wages and expenses Although vending machine servicers during these sessions, which may last and repairers are employed through from a few days to several weeks. Some employers encourage both out the country, most are located in areas with large populations where trainees and experienced workers to there are many coin and vending ma take evening courses in subjects relat chines. ed to vending machine operation and repair—for example, basic electricity, Training, Other Qualifications, and electronics, and refrigeration. Em ployers often pay for at least part of Advancement Most vending machine repairers enter the tuition and book expenses for the occupation as general shop help these courses. Employers require applicants to ers or route drivers, where they learn informally on the job by observing, demonstrate mechanical ability, ei working with, and receiving instruc ther through their work experience or tion from experienced repairers. by scoring well on mechanical apti Trainees usually start out by doing tude tests. Since vending machine simple jobs such as cleaning, painting, servicers and repairers sometimes or refurbishing machines. They then handle thousands of dollars in mer learn to rebuild machines—removing chandise and cash, employers want defective parts, repairing, adjusting, applicants who have a record of hon and testing the machines. Next, they esty and respect for the law. The accompany an experienced repairer ability to deal tactfully with people on service calls, and then go out on also is important. A commercial driv their own. They call upon the exper er’s license and a good driving record tise of other repairers, when neces are essential for most coin machine sary. This learning process takes from repairer jobs. Skilled servicers and repairers may 6 months to 3 years, depending on the individual’s abilities, previous educa be promoted to supervisory jobs. tion, types of machines, and the qual Some open their own companies. ity of instruction. Many beginners are high school Job Outlook graduates, but employers may not re Employment of coin and vending ma quire a diploma. High school or voca chine servicers and repairers is ex tional school courses in electricity, pected to grow about as fast as the refrigeration, and machine repair help average for all occupations through beginners to qualify for entry jobs. the mid-1990’s as more vending ma Some vocational high schools and jun chines are installed in industrial ior colleges offer 1- to 2-year training plants, hospitals, stores, and other programs for vending machine servic business establishments to meet the Mechanics And Repairers/375 public demand for vending machine items as well as for the convenience of their employees. In addition, vending companies will increase the variety of products dispensed by machines. Job openings also will arise as experienced workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Persons with some background in electronics should have excellent job prospects, because electronic com ponents are used more and more in coin and vending machines. If firms cannot find trained or experienced workers, they are likely to train qual ified route drivers or hire inexper ienced people who have acquired some mechanical or electrical apti tude by taking high school or voca tional courses. Earnings Wage rates for vending machine servicers and repairers ranged from $3.35 to $15 an hour in 1984, depend ing on the size of the firm and the region of the country. Apprentices start at 50 percent of the rate paid experienced workers and receive pe riodic increases. Most vending machine repairers work 8 hours a day, 5 days a week, and receive premium pay for over time. Some union contracts stipulate higher pay for nightwork and for emergency repair jobs on weekends and holidays. Many vending machine repairers and servicers are members of the International Brotherhood of Team sters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America. Related Occupations Other workers who repair equipment with electrical and electronic compo nents include bowling-pin-machine mechanics, home appliance and pow er tool repairers, laundry machine re pairers, maintenance mechanics, of fice machine and cash register servic ers, and sewing machine repairers. Sources of Additional Information Further information on job opportuni ties in this field can be obtained from local vending machine firms and local offices of the State employment or apprenticeship service. For general information and a list of schools offer ing courses in vending machine re pair, write to: National Automatic Merchandising Associa tion, 20 N. Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60606. Construction and Extractive Occupations Construction and extractive workers physical strength, stamina, and me among the occupations. Union-man make up two of the most important chanical aptitude often are as impor agement contracts frequently set the groups of occupations in the Nation’s tant as an applicant’s level of educa rules governing entry and training. labor force. Construction workers tion. New workers learn by doing the Many construction workers, for ex build the houses that shelter the pop job under the supervision of experi ample, learn their trades through ap ulation, the factories in which the enced workers. For some occupa prenticeships administered by unionNation’s goods are produced, and tions, new workers also receive class management committees. The occupational statements in this also office buildings, stores, schools, room instruction. Electricians, for roads and bridges, and water, sewer, example, learn electrical theory, chapter describe in detail the work, electric power, and transportation mathematics, and blueprint reading, training, and job outlook for 15 con systems. Extractive workers mine and coal miners take safety classes. struction occupations and 1 extractive the fuels needed for heat and power The type and length of training vary occupation. and the raw materials needed in man ufacturing, construction, and agricul Earnings in extractive occupations and construction trades are ture. higher than the average for all workers. Construction, mining, and oil and gas drilling are complex operations Median weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers, 1984 that require workers with many kinds $600 $600 of skills. Construction and extractive workers accomplish their tasks using 500 tools, machinery, and materials that frequently are peculiar to their oc 400 cupation. Brickmasons work with mortar, trowels, and brick. Blasters 300 shatter ores and stone with explo sives. Although construction and ex tractive workers use laborsaving ma 200 chinery and tools, the work in most of these occupations is physically de 100 manding. Workers in the construction and 0 extractive occupations usually ac Extractive All Construction workers trades workers occupations quire their skills through on-the-job SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics training. Although many employers prefer to hire high school graduates, 376 Construction Occupations Construction trades workers make up one of the largest groups of skilled workers in the Nation’s labor force. These trades offer good opportunities for young people who are not planning to go to college but who are willing to spend several years learning a skilled occupation. Construction workers can find jobs in all parts of the country and also have greater opportunities to open their own businesses than work ers in most other skilled occupations. workers in other jobs. Indeed, con struction has the highest injury and illness rate of any industry. However, employers increasingly are emphasiz ing safe working conditions and stress ing safe work habits—practices that reduce the risk of injuries. “ Hard hats,’’ steel-toed shoes, safety belts, and nets are some of the devices that help reduce risk. What are the Construction Trades? Workers in the construction trades build, repair, and modernize homes and other kinds of buildings. They also work on a variety of other projects, including airports, mass transportation systems, roads, recre ation facilities, and powerplants. Construction workers may be grouped into three categories: Struc tural, finishing, and mechanical. Structural workers include: Bricklay ers, carpenters, concrete masons, ironworkers, construction machinery operators, stonemasons, and boiler makers. Finishing workers include: Dry wall installers and finishers, car pet installers, glaziers, insulation workers, marble setters, painters, paperhangers, plasterers, roofers, terrazzo workers, and tilesetters. Me chanical workers include: Electri cians, pipefitters, plumbers, sheetmetal workers, and millwrights. Most construction trades are de scribed individually later in this sec tion. Boilermakers and millwrights are described elsewhere in the Hand book. Employment Construction trades workers, exclud ing supervisors, held 4 million jobs in 1984. Most were employed by con tractors in the construction industry. The vast majority of construction con tractors employ fewer than 10 people. A few large contractors, however, employ thousands. Many construc tion workers are employed in other industries to do maintenance and re pair work. For example, plumbers and pipefitters maintain the complex pipe networks in chemical processing plants. Government agencies employ construction workers to maintain highways, buildings, and sanitation systems. About 1 out of 4 skilled construc tion workers is self-employed and contracts with homeowners and busi nesses for small jobs. Self-employ ment is most common in paperhang ing, painting, and floor covering work, but it also is found in other trades. Employment in the construction trades is distributed geographically in much the same way as the Nation’s population. It is concentrated in in dustrialized and highly populated ar eas. Working Conditions Construction work frequently requires prolonged standing, bending, and working in cramped quarters. Expo sure to weather is common since much of the work is done outdoors or in partially enclosed structures. Many people prefer construction work be cause it permits them to be outdoors. Construction workers may work with sharp tools, amidst a clutter of materials or on scaffolding. As a re sult, they have more injuries than Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities recommend formal apprenticeship training as the best way to acquire the all-round skills of the construction trades. Ap prenticeship is a prescribed period of on-the-job training, supplemented by related classroom instruction designed to familiarize apprentices with the ma terials, tools, and principles of their trade. Formal apprenticeship agree ments are registered with a State ap prenticeship agency or the U.S. De partment of Labor’s Bureau of Ap prenticeship and Training. Apprentices generally must be at least 18 years old and in good physical condition. A high school education or its equivalent, including courses in mathematics and mechanical drawing, is desirable. Courses in construction trades, such as carpentry and electric ity, also are recommended. Often, ap plicants are given aptitude tests. The formal apprenticeship agree ment generally calls for 3 to 4 years of on-the-job training and 144 hours or more of related classroom instruction each year. On the job, most instruc tion is given by a skilled worker to whom the apprentice is assigned. Classroom instruction usually in cludes courses such as history of the trade, characteristics of materials, shop mathematics, and basic con struction principles. In most communities, apprentice ship programs are supervised by joint apprenticeship committees composed of local employers and union repre sentatives. Committees determine the need for apprentices and establish minimum standards of education, experience, and training. In areas where these joint commit tees have not been established, the apprenticeship agreement is solely be tween the apprentice and the employ er. Many people have received valu able training under these programs, but they have some disadvantages. No committee is available to super vise the training offered and settle differences over the terms and condi tions of training. And, if the employer lacks continuous work or does only a restricted type of work, the appren tice may find it difficult to develop all-round skills. Although apprenticeship provides the most thorough training, most peo ple acquire construction skills infor mally by working as laborers and helpers and observing experienced workers and/or attending vocational or trade schools or by taking corre spondence courses. In many localities, some construc- 377 378/Occupational Outlook Handbook Earnings of wage and salary construction workers vary widely. Range of weekly earnings for middle 50 percent of full-time employees, 1984 $200 Electricians Plumbers and pipefitters Structural and reinforcing metal workers Drywall workers and lathers Insulation workers Carpet installers Bricklayers and stonemasons Roofers Carpenters Painters and paperhangers Concrete masons and terrazzo workers $300 $400 I L_ [ $500 I 1 _______ _ 1__________ i m | I i F --------- —□ 1 :& i i .._:j | 1 $600 I | ......... .. - m ------1 | 1 1 ____________________ 1 tion workers—most commonly elec architect, for example, a plumber tricians and plumbers—are required might plan the layout of a plumbing to have a license. To qualify for li system for a kitchen or bathroom to censes, they must pass an examina make the best use of existing plumb tion to demonstrate a broad knowl ing and limited space. Precision, an edge of the job and of State and local eye for detail, the ability to picture objects from blueprints, and color dis regulations. Since construction requires a team crimination also are vital. effort, the ability to work well with Construction trades workers may supervisors, peers, and subordinates advance in a number of ways. Many is vital. Manual dexterity is necessary become supervisors. In most locali to work quickly and accurately with ties, small jobs are run by “ working trowels, hammers, chisels, levels, supervisors” who work along with saws, drills, and other tools and ma members of their crews. On larger chinery. The ability to solve mechan jobs, they just supervise. They also ical and structural problems is impor can become estimators for contrac tant for many highly skilled construc tors. Estimators calculate material re tion trades. With guidelines from an quirements and labor costs so con The unemployment rate in construction generally is about twice that in all industries combined. Percent unemployed1 Unemployment rates for wage and salary workers. Statistics SOURCE: Bureau of Labor tractors can bid on projects. Some workers advance to superintendents on large projects. Others become in structors in trade and vocational schools or sales representatives for building supply companies. A large number of construction trades work ers become self-employed contrac tors. Starting a small contract construc tion business is easier than starting a small business in many other indus tries. Only a moderate financial in vestment is needed to conduct a sub stantial business from one’s home. However, the field is very competi tive, and the rate of failure is high. Job Outlook Employment in the construction trades is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Anticipated rapid growth in business investment for new factories, office buildings, stores, hotels, powerplants, and other structures will stimulate demand for construction workers. Maintenance and repair work on all types of struc tures is expected to increase. Some growth also is expected in new home construction. But most job openings will result from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other jobs, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. The increase in employment is not expected to be as great as the expan sion in construction activity. Contin ued technological developments in construction methods, tools and equip ment, materials, and material move ment will raise output per worker. The rates of employment growth will differ among the construction trades. Growth is expected to be rel atively fast for construction machin ery operators and concrete masons, and relatively slow for painters and paperhangers. Since construction is sensitive to changes in the Nation’s economy, employment may fluctuate from year to year. Construction trades workers may be unemployed during downturns in economic activity. Earnings Median weekly earnings for construc tion trades workers, not including su pervisors, were about $367 in 1984. Wage rates for apprentices and other trainees usually start at 50 percent of the rate paid to experienced workers and increase at 6-month to 1-year in Construction and Extractive Occupations/379 tervals until the full rates are achieved upon the completion of training. Wage rates generally were highest in the West and lowest in the South. Unionized workers generally earned more than nonunion workers. Except for a few trades, such as electricians and plumbers and pipefitters, yearly earnings for experienced workers and their apprentices generally are lower than weekly rates would indicate be cause poor weather and downturns in construction activity may limit the amount of work. Winter is the slack period for con struction activity, particularly in cold er regions. Some workers, such as laborers and roofers, may find little work for several weeks in winter. Rain may also slow—even stop— work on a construction project. Be cause construction trades depend on one another—particularly on large projects—work delays or strikes in one trade can delay or stop the work of others. The accompanying chart shows that the unemployment rate in the construction industry is about twice that in the Nation as a whole. A large proportion of construction workers are members of trade unions affiliated with the Building and Con struction Trades Department of the AFL-CIO. Sources of Additional Information Information about opportunities for apprenticeship or other training can be obtained from local construction firms and employer associations, the local office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agen cy, or the local office of the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. For apprentice ship programs supervised by local union-management committees, ap plication should be made directly to the committee. For additional information on jobs in the construction trades, contact: Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Building and Construction Trades Department, AFL-CIO, 815 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Home Builders Institute, Educational Arm of the National Association of Home Builders, 15th and M Sts. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. For the names of labor organiza tions and trade associations concerned with specific trades, see the discus sions of individual building trades that Digitized forfollow. FRASER Bricklayers and Stonemasons (D.O.T. 779.684-058, 861.361-010 and -014, .381-010 through -042, except -034, .684-010 and -014, and 899.364-010) Nature of the Work Bricklayers and stonemasons work in closely related trades, each producing attractive, durable surfaces. Bricklay ers build walls, floors, partitions, fire places, and other structures with brick, cinder or concrete block, and other masonry materials. They also install firebrick linings in industrial furnaces. Stonemasons build stone walls as well as set stone exteriors and floors. They work with two types of stone—natural cut, such as marble, granite, and limestone; and artificial stone made from cement, marble chips, or other masonry materials. Because stone is expensive, stonema sons work mostly on high-cost build ings, such as churches, hotels, and office buildings. In putting up a wall, bricklayers usually use plumblines and a level to build the comers. They then stretch a line from corner to corner to guide each course or layer of brick. Brick layers spread a bed of mortar (cement mixture) with a trowel (a flat, metal tool with a handle), place the brick on the mortar bed, and then tap it into place. As blueprints specify, they cut bricks with a hammer and chisel to fit around windows, doors, and other openings. Mortar joints are finished with jointing tools to leave a neat and uniform appearance. Although brick layers generally use steel supports at window and door openings, they sometimes build brick arches that en hance the beauty of the brickwork. Bricklayers are assisted by hod car riers, or helpers, who supply bricks and other materials, mix mortar, and set up and move scaffolding. (See the statement on construction trades help ers that appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) Stonemasons often work from a set of drawings in which each stone has been numbered for identification. Helpers may locate and bring the prenumbered stones to the masons. A derrick operator using a hoist may be needed to lift large pieces into place. When building a stone wall, masons set the first course of stones into a shallow bed of mortar. They align the stones with plumblines and levels, and adjust them into position with a hard rubber mallet. Masons build the wall by alternating layers of mortar and stone. As the work progresses, they fill the joints between stones and use a pointed metal tool, called a tuck pointer, to smooth the mortar to an attractive finish. To hold large stones in place, stonemasons attach brackets to the stone and weld or bolt them to anchors within the wall. Finally, ma sons wash the stone with a cleansing solution to remove stains and dry mortar. When setting stone floors, which often consist of large and heavy piec es of stone, masons first trowel a layer of damp mortar over the surface to be covered. Using crowbars and hard rubber mallets for aligning and level ing, they then set the stone in the mortar bed. To finish, workers fill the joints and wash the stone slabs. To make various shapes and sizes, masons use a special hammer to cut each stone along the grain. Valuable pieces often are cut with a saw that has a diamond blade. Some masons specialize in setting marble which, in many respects, is similar to setting large pieces of other types of stone. Bricklayers and stone masons also repair imperfections and cracks or replace broken or missing masonry units in walls and floors. Refractory repairers or masons are bricklayers who install firebrick and refractory tile in high-temperature boilers, furnaces, cupolas, ladles, and soaking pits in industrial establish ments. Many work in steel mills, where molten materials flow on re fractory beds from furnaces to rolling machines. Many masons are qualified to work with a variety of materials and, in areas that experience little demand for full-time stone and marble masons, bricklayers also will install these ma terials. Working Conditions Bricklayers and stonemasons usually work outdoors. They stand, kneel, and bend for long periods and may have to lift heavy materials. They also are subject to injuries from tools and falls from scaffolds. However, these workers are less likely to be injured than other construction workers. 380/Occupational Outlook Handbook The work of a bricklayer involves constant bending and lifting. Employment Bricklayers and stonemasons held about 140,000 jobs in 1984. The vast majority were bricklayers. Workers in these crafts are employed primarily by special trade, building, or general contractors. Some work in industrial plants. A relatively small number of bricklayers work for government agencies or businesses that do their own construction and alteration. Workers in these trades are em ployed throughout the country but, like the general population, are con centrated in metropolitan areas. About 1 out of 4 bricklayers and stonemasons is self-employed. Many of the self-employed specialize in con tracting on small jobs such as patios, walks, and fireplaces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most bricklayers and some stonema sons pick up their skills informally by working as helpers or hod carriers and by observing and learning from expe rienced workers. The remainder learn their skills through apprenticeship, which generally provides the most thorough training. Individuals who learn the trade in formally usually start as helpers or laborers. They carry materials, move scaffolds, and mix mortar. When the opportunity occurs, they are taught to spread mortar, lay brick, block, or set stone. As they gain experience, they Digitized for make the transition to full-fledged FRASER http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ craft workers. The learning period Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis generally lasts much longer than an apprenticeship program, however. Apprenticeships for bricklayers and stonemasons usually are sponsored by local contractors or by local unionmanagement committees. The appren ticeship program requires 3 years of on-the-job training in addition to 144 hours of classroom instruction each year in subjects such as blueprint reading, mathematics, layout work, and sketching. Apprentices learn the general applications of brick, marble, and other stone. Apprentices often start by working with laborers, learning the basics of supplying materials, mixing mortar, and building scaffolds. This period generally lasts about a month and fa miliarizes them with job routines and materials. Next, they learn to lay, align, and join brick and block. Ap prentices often learn to work with stone, plaster, and concrete. Subse quently, they may be certified to work with more than one masonry material. Applicants for apprenticeships must be at least 17 years old and in good physical condition. A high school ed ucation is preferable, with courses in mathematics, mechanical drawing, and shop. Experienced workers can advance to supervisory positions or become estimators. They also can open con tracting businesses of their own. Job Outlook Employment of bricklayers and stone masons is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Population and business growth will create a need for new homes, factories, offices, and other structures. Also stimulating de mand will be the increasing use of brick for decorative work on building fronts and in lobbies and foyers. The use of brick and cinder or concrete block as building materials is growing, particularly for interior load-bearing walls and sidewalks, and will add to overall employment needs. Employ ment of bricklayers who specialize in refractory repair may grow more slow ly because the primary metal indus tries, where these workers are con centrated, are not expected to grow as fast as other sectors. Although many jobs will be created by an increase in demand for these workers, most openings will result from the need to replace bricklayers and stonemasons who retire, transfer to other occupations, or leave the trades for other reasons. Employment of bricklayers and stonemasons, like that of many other construction workers, is sensitive to changes in the economy. When the level of construction activity falls, workers in these trades can experi ence periods of unemployment. Earnings Median weekly earnings for bricklay ers and stonemasons were about $380 in 1984. The middle 50 percent earned between $270 and $525 weekly. The highest 10 percent earned more than $650 weekly. Limited information indicates that nonunion rates for experienced work ers were less than union rates. How ever, annual earnings for workers in these trades generally are lower than weekly earnings would indicate be cause poor weather and downturns in construction activity limit the time they can work. In each trade, apprentices or help ers start at about 50 percent of the wage rate paid to experienced work ers. The rate increases as they gain experience. A large number of bricklayers and stonemasons are members of the International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen. Related Occupations Bricklayers and stonemasons com bine a thorough knowledge of brick, stone, and marble with manual skill to erect very attractive yet highly dura ble structures. Workers in other occu pations involving similar skills include concrete masons, plasterers, terrazzo workers, and tilesetters. Sources of Additional Information For details about apprenticeships or other work opportunities in these trades, contact local bricklaying, stonemasonry, or marble setting con tractors; a local of the union listed above; a local joint union-manag ement apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State employ ment service or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about the work of either bricklayers or stonema sons, contact: International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen, International Masonry Institute, Apprenticeship and Training, 815 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. Construction and Extractive Occupations/381 Information about the work of bricklayers also may be obtained from: Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Brick Institute of America, 1750 Old Meadow Rd., McLean, Va. 22102. Carpenters (D.O.T. 860.281-010 through .684-014 except .381010, .664-014, and -018, 863.684-010, and 869.361018,.381-010, and -034) limited, however, only a small propor tion of carpenters learn their trade through these programs. Apprenticeship programs are ad ministered by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors, Inc., and local chapters of the Asso ciated General Contractors, as well as by local joint union-management com mittees of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners and the Asso ciated General Contractors or the Na tional Association of Home Builders. The programs consist of on-the-job training and related classroom in struction. Apprenticeship applicants generally must be 17 years old and meet local requirements. For exam ple, some locals test an applicant’s aptitude for carpentry. The length of the program, usually about 3 to 4 years, varies with the apprentice’s skill. Working Conditions On the job, apprentices learn ele As in other building trades, the work is active and sometimes strenuous. mentary structural design and become Prolonged standing, climbing, and familiar with common carpentry jobs kneeling often are necessary. Carpen such as form building, rough framing, ters risk injury from slips or falls, and outside and inside finishing. They from contact with sharp or rough ma also learn to use the tools, machines, terials, and from the use of sharp tools equipment, and materials of the trade. and power equipment. Many carpen Apprentices receive classroom in struction in safety, first aid, blueprint ters work outdoors. Some carpenters change employers reading and freehand sketching, basic each time they finish a construction mathematics, and different carpentry job. Others alternate between work techniques. Both in the classroom and ing for a contractor and working as on the job, they learn the relationship contractors themselves on small jobs. between carpentry and the other build ing trades. Employment Informal on-the-job training usually Carpenters held about 932,000 jobs in is less thorough than an apprentice 1984. Most carpenters work for con ship. The degree of training and sutractors who construct, remodel, or repair buildings and other structures. Some work for government agencies, utility companies, and manufacturing firms. About 1out of 3 is self-employed. Carpenters are employed through out the country in almost every com munity. delay other steps in the project, and careless mistakes waste time and ma terials. Some carpenters are employed out side the construction industry in in stallation and maintenance work. For example, school districts employ car penters to replace glass, ceiling tiles, and doors, and to repair desks, cabi nets, and other furniture. Some work in industries which manufacture prod ucts made of wood, such as prefabri cated houses, boats, and furniture. Other carpenters may install parti tions, doors, and windows; replace glass; change locks; and assist in mov ing or installing machinery in facto ries. (Millwrights who usually install machinery are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Nature of the Work Almost all construction projects em ploy carpenters, the largest group of building trade workers. Carpenters perform a variety of jobs. In home building, carpenters build the house framework, frame the roof and interi or partitions, and install doors, win dows, flooring, cabinets, wood panel ing, and molding and trim. Other con struction jobs done by carpenters include building forms for placing concrete, erecting scaffolding, and building bridges, piers, trestles, tun nel supports, temporary shelters, and cofferdams. The duties of carpenters vary by type of employer. A carpenter em ployed by a special trade contractor, for example, may specialize in setting forms for concrete construction, while one who is employed by a general building contractor may perform many tasks, such as framing walls and par titions, putting in doors and windows, and installing paneling. Although each carpentry task is somewhat different, most tasks involve the following steps. Working from blueprints, instruc tions from supervisors, or both, car penters first do the layout—measur ing, marking, and arranging materials according to the plan. Local building codes often dictate where certain ma terials can and cannot be used, and Training, Other Qualifications, and carpenters have to know these re Advancement quirements. Carpenters cut and shape Carpenters learn their trade through materials, such as wood, plastic, fi on-the-job training and through formal berglass, and drywall with hand and training programs. Many pick up skills power tools, such as chisels, planes, informally by working under the su saws, and drills. Carpenters then join pervision of experienced workers. the materials with nails, screws, or Some acquire skills through vocation glue. They check the accuracy of their al education. Others participate in em work with levels, rules, and framing ployer training programs or appren squares. Carpenters may work in ticeships. teams or be assisted by a helper. Most training authorities recom In all assignments, carpenters must mend an apprenticeship as the best work quickly, accurately, and eco way to learn carpentry. Because the Digitized for nomically. Taking too much time can FRASER number of apprenticeship programs is Carpenters need general mathematics skills. 382/Occupational Outlook Handbook pervision often depends on the size of the employing firm. A small contrac tor who specializes in homebuilding may only provide training in rough framing. In contrast, a large general contractor may provide training in several carpentry skills. A high school education is desir able, including courses in carpentry, shop, mechanical drawing, and gener al mathematics. Manual dexterity, eye-hand coordination, good physical condition, and a good sense of bal ance are important. The ability to solve arithmetic problems quickly and accurately is helpful. Working well with others is an important asset. Carpenters may advance to carpen try supervisors or general construc tion supervisors. Carpenters usually have greater opportunities than most other construction workers to become general construction supervisors be cause they learn more about the entire construction process in their work. Some carpenters become independent contractors. Job Outlook Employment of carpenters is expect ed to increase as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid1990’s. Construction activity should increase in response to demand for new housing and industrial plants, and the need to renovate and modernize existing structures. In addition to the jobs resulting from increased demand for carpen ters, many openings will occur as car penters transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The total number of job openings for carpenters each year usually is greater than for other craft occupations because the occupation is large and turnover is high. Since there are no strict training requirements for entry, many people with limited skills take jobs as carpen ters but eventually leave the occupa tion because they find they dislike the work or cannot find steady employ ment. Although employment of carpen ters is expected to grow over the long run, people entering the occupation should expect to experience periods of unemployment. This results from the short-term nature of many con struction projects and the cyclical na ture of the construction industry. Building activity depends on many Digitized forfactors—interest rates, availability of FRASER mortgage funds, government spend ing, and business investment—that vary with the state of the economy. During economic downturns, job openings for carpenters are reduced. The introduction of new and improved tools, equipment, techniques, and ma terials has vastly increased carpen ters’ versatility. Therefore, carpen ters with all-round skills will have better opportunities than those who can only do relatively simple, routine tasks. Job opportunities for carpenters also vary by geographic area. Con struction activity parallels the move ment of people and businesses and reflects differences in local economic conditions. Therefore, the number of job opportunities in a given year may fluctuate widely from area to area. Earnings Median weekly earnings of carpenters who were not self-employed were $325 in 1984. The middle 50 percent earned between $245 and $470 per week. Weekly earnings for the top 10 percent of all carpenters were more than $620. Annual earnings, however, may be lower than weekly earnings would in dicate, because carpenters lose work time in bad weather and when jobs are unavailable. Maintenance carpenters, who generally have more steady em ployment, averaged $11.92 an hour in 1984, according to a survey of select ed metropolitan areas. Apprentices usually start at about 50 percent of the rate paid to experi enced carpenters and receive an in crease of about 5 percent every 6 months. A large proportion of carpenters are members of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America. Related Occupations Carpenters are skilled construction workers. Workers in other skilled construction occupations include bricklayers, concrete masons, electri cians, pipefitters, plasterers, plumb ers, stonemasons, and terrazzo work ers. Sources of Additional Information For information about carpentry ap prenticeships or other work opportu nities in this trade, contact local car pentry contractors, a local of the union mentioned above, a local joint union-contractor apprenticeship com mittee, or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about this trade, contact: Associated Builders and Contractors, Inc., 729 15th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. Home Builders Institute, Educational Arm of the National Association of Home Builders, 15th and M St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Constitution Ave. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20001. Carpet Installers (D.O.T. 864.381-01) Nature of the Work Carpet installers lay carpets or rugs in homes, offices, and commercial estab lishments such as restaurant and stores. Installers first inspect the floor to determine its condition. Then they plan the layout after allowing for ex pected traffic patterns and, if neces sary, for seams so that best appear ance and long wear will be obtained. For wall-to-wall carpet, installers lay and tack an underlay—a foam rub ber pad 1/4 to 1/2 inch thick that is cut slightly smaller than the entire floor. Next, they roll out, measure, mark, and cut the carpet, allowing for 3 to 4 inches of extra carpet on each side. This provides some leeway for the final fitting. Workers then lay the car pet and stretch it to fit evenly against the floor and snugly against each wall and door threshold. With the carpet stretched, the excess around the pe rimeter is cut to fit the room precisely. To hold the carpet in place, workers either tack or tape each edge of the carpet to the floor. Because most carpet comes in stan dard 12-foot widths, wall-to-wall in stallations in large rooms require that the sections be joined. To do this, installers either hand-sew seams with a large needle and special thread or heat-tape seams with a hot, flat iron to melt the plastic surface of a foilbacked tape placed beneath the joined sections of carpet. Sections of carpet placed edge to edge are pressed to the surface of the melted plastic to force it into the carpet’s backing. When cooled, the hardened plastic joins the sections. For precut, edge-bound carpet, in stallers simply lay a foam rubber pad Construction and Extractive Occupations/383 on the floor and roll the carpet over the slightly smaller pad. To hold the pad and carpet in place, installers may apply tape that has adhesive on both sides to the bottom edges of the car pet. Carpet installers use common handtools, such as hammers, drills, staple guns, and rubber mallets. They also use other tools that are designed spe cifically for laying carpet, such as car pet knives, knee kickers, and power stretchers. Working Conditions Installers work under better condi tions than most other construction workers. Because carpets are finished products designed almost exclusively for interior use and display, work ar eas usually are clean, safe, and com fortable. Installers generally work regular daytime hours. Particular circum stances, however, such as installing carpeting in a store or office, may require work during evenings and weekends. On the job, installers kneel, reach, bend, stretch, and frequently lift heavy rolls of carpet, activities that require strength and stamina. They also must drill, cut, hammer, and use hot irons. Despite continual move ment and frequent use of hand and power tools, installers experience few er injuries than most other construc tion workers. Employment Carpet installers held about 71,000 jobs in 1984. Most worked for flooring contractors. Many others worked for retailers of floor covering. Over onehalf of carpet installers are self-em ployed, a much higher proportion than the average for all construction occupations. Installers are employed throughout the Nation, but are concentrated in urban areas that have high levels of construction activity. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The vast majority of carpet installers learn their trade informally on the job by working as helpers to experienced installers. Others learn through formal apprenticeship programs, which in clude on-the-job training as well as related classroom instruction. Informal training programs usually Digitized for are sponsored by individual contrac FRASER tors and generally last about 1 1/2 to 2 years. Helpers begin with simple as signments, such as installing tackless stripping and padding, and helping stretch newly installed carpet. With experience, helpers take on more dif ficult assignments, such as measuring, cutting, and fitting the materials to be installed. Apprenticeship programs and some contractor-sponsored programs pro vide comprehensive training in all phases of carpet laying. Applicants for helper or apprentice jobs should be at least 16 years old, have manual dexterity, and be me chanically inclined. Since trainees of ten are required to drive company vehicles, employers prefer individuals who are licensed to drive and who have good driving records. Employers also want individuals who will be Over one-half of carpet installers are courteous, tactful, and an asset in self-employed. their dealings with customers. A high school education also is preferred, Earnings though not necessary. Courses in gen Median weekly earnings for full-time eral mathematics and shop may pro carpet installers were about $300 in vide a helpful background. 1984. One-half earned between $240 Carpet installers may advance to and $550 a week; the top 10 percent supervisors or installation managers earned over $700. Starting wage rates for large floor laying firms. Some in for apprentices and other trainees stallers become salespersons or esti usually are about half of the experi mators. Installers also may go into enced worker’s rate. business for themselves. Most installers are paid by the hour. In some shops, part of the pay may be in bonuses. In others, installers receive Job Outlook Employment of carpet installers is ex a monthly salary or are paid according pected to grow about as fast as the to the amount of work they do. Some installers belong to the Unit average for all occupations through ed Brotherhood of Carpenters and the mid-1990’s. Employment is ex pected to keep pace with the expected Joiners of America, or the Inter expansion in construction and the national Brotherhood of Painters and widespread use of carpeting. Because Allied Trades. many new buildings and houses have plywood rather than hardwood floors, Related Occupations wall-to-wall carpet will be a necessity. Carpet installers skillfully combine Carpet also will continue to be used strength and stamina with an eye for extensively in renovation work. More accuracy and an appreciation for de over, new fabrics and colors will con tail to produce attractively laid carpet. tribute to the growing demand for this Workers in other occupations involv type of floor covering. In addition to ing different products but which re job openings resulting from growth in quire similar skills include resilient demand for carpet installers, addition floor layers, appliance repairers, lath al openings will arise as experienced ers, painters, riveters, and roofers. installers transfer to other occupa tions or leave the labor force. Sources of Additional Information This occupation is less sensitive to For details about apprenticeships or changes in economic conditions than work opportunities, contact local most other construction crafts. Be flooring contractors or retailers; locals cause much of their work is done in of the unions previously mentioned; existing buildings, employment gener or the nearest office of the State ap ally remains stable even when con prenticeship agency or the State em struction activity declines. ployment service. 384/Occupational Outlook Handbook For general information about the work of carpet installers, contact: crete, masons make sure the forms for holding the concrete are set for the desired pitch and depth and are prop Carpet and Rug Institute, P.O. Box 2048, Dalton, Ga. 30720. erly aligned. Masons direct the plac ing of the concrete and supervise la borers who use shovels or special tools to spread the concrete. Masons then guide a straightedge back and Concrete Masons forth across the top of the forms to and Terrazzo level the freshly poured concrete. Immediately after leveling the con Workers crete, masons carefully sweep the (D.O.T. 844.364-010, -014, .461-010, .684-010; and concrete surface with a a long-han 861.381-046, and -050) dled tool about 8 by 48 inches to cover coarser materials and bring a rich mix Nature of the Work Concrete masons place and finish con ture of concrete to the surface. After the concrete becomes firm crete—a mixture of portland cement, sand, gravel, and water—for many and workable, finishers press an edger types of construction projects. The between the forms and the concrete projects range from small jobs such as and guide it along the edge and the patios and floors, requiring a mason surface. This produces slightly round assisted by one or two laborers, to ed edges and helps prevent chipping huge dams or miles of concrete high or cracking. Finishers use a special way requiring a crew of several ma tool to make joints or grooves that sons and many laborers. Among other help control surface cracking. Next, finishers trowel the surface tasks, concrete masons may color concrete surfaces, expose aggregate with a powered trowel or by hand (small stones) in walls and sidewalks, with a small, smooth, rectangular or fabricate concrete beams, columns, metal tool. This troweling embeds the heavier material deeper into the con and panels. Terrazzo workers create attractive crete, removes most imperfections, walkways, floors, patios, and panels and brings the finer material—sand by exposing marble chips and other and cement—to the surface. As the final step, masons may sweep fine aggregates on the surface of fin ished concrete. However, much of the the concrete surface back and forth preliminary work of terrazzo workers with powered and hand trowels to is similar to that of concrete masons. create a smooth finish. For a coarse, In preparing a site for placing con- nonskid finish, masons brush the sur face with a broom or stiff bristled brush. For a pebble finish, they em bed small gravel chips into the sur face. They then wash any excess ce ment from the exposed chips with a mild acid solution. For color, they sprinkle on a dye which they work into the surface with float and trowel. On concrete surfaces that will re main exposed after forms are stripped, such as columns, ceilings, and wall panels, concrete masons chisel away high spots and loose concrete, fill any large indentations with a mortar mix ture, and smooth the surface with a rubbing brick. Finally, they coat the exposed area with a rich cement mix ture using either a special tool or a coarse cloth to rub the concrete to a uniform finish. Attractive, marble-chipped terraz zo requires three layers of materials. First, concrete masons or terrazzo workers build a solid, level concrete A troweling machine greatly increases the foundation that is 3 to 4 inches deep. After the forms are removed from productivity of concrete masons. the foundation, workers place a l-inch deep mixture of sandy concrete. Be fore this layer sets, terrazzo workers partially embed metal ferrule strips into the concrete wherever there is to be a joint or change of color in the terrazzo. These strips separate the different designs and colors of the terrazzo panels and help prevent cracks. For the final layer, terrazzo work ers blend and pour a fine marble chip mixture that may be color-dyed into each of the panels, then hand trowel each panel until it is level with the tops of the ferrule strips. While the mixture is soft, workers toss addition al marble chips of various colors into each panel and roll a lightweight roller over the entire surface. When the terrazzo is thoroughly dry, helpers grind it with a terrazzo grinder (somewhat like a floor polish er, only much heavier). Slight depres sions left by the grinding are filled with a matching grout material and hand troweled for a smooth, uniform surface. Terrazzo workers then clean, polish, and seal the dry surface for a rich, lustrous finish. Working Conditions Concrete or terrazzo work is fast paced and strenuous. Since most fin ishing is done at floor level, workers must bend and kneel. Some jobs are outdoors; however, work generally is halted during rain or freezing weather. To avoid chemical burns from uncured concrete and sore knees from fre quent kneeling, many workers wear kneepads. Workers usually wear wa ter-repellent boots to protect their shoes while working in wet concrete. Employment Concrete masons and terrazzo work ers held about 105,000 jobs in 1984; terrazzo workers accounted for a very small proportion of this group. Most concrete masons work for contractors who do only concrete work or for general contractors who construct projects such as highways or large buildings. A small number are em ployed by municipal public works de partments and firms that manufacture concrete products. Most terrazzo workers work for special trade con tractors who install decorative floors and wall panels. About 1 out of 10 concrete masons and terrazzo workers is self-employed, a smaller proportion than in other build Construction and Extractive Occupations/385 ing trades. Most self-employed masons specialize in small jobs, such as drive ways, sidewalks, and patios. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Concrete masons and terrazzo work ers learn their trades either through on-the-job training as helpers or through 2- or 3-year apprenticeship programs. Many masons first gain experience as construction laborers. On-the-job training programs con sist of informal instruction from expe rienced workers in which helpers learn to use the tools, equipment, ma chines, and materials of the trade. They begin with tasks such as edging and jointing and using a straightedge on freshly placed concrete. As they advance, assignments become more complex, and trainees usually can do finishing work within a short time. Two- and 3-year apprenticeship pro grams, usually jointly sponsored by local unions and contractors, provide on-the-job training in addition to 144 hours of classroom instruction each year. A written test and a physical exam may be required. In the class room, apprentices learn applied math ematics and safety. Apprentices gen erally receive special instruction in layout work and estimating costs. When hiring helpers and appren tices, employers prefer high school graduates who are at least 18 years old, in good physical condition, and licensed to drive. The ability to get along with others also is important because concrete masons work in groups. High school courses in shop mathematics and blueprint reading or mechanical drawing provide a helpful background. Experienced concrete masons or terrazzo workers may advance to su pervisors or contract estimators. Some open concrete contracting bus inesses. Job Outlook Employment of concrete masons and terrazzo workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. As the population and the economy grow, more masons will be needed to help build apartments, highways, of fices, industrial buildings, and other structures. The greater use of con crete as a building material—particu larly in nonresidential construction— Digitized for also will add to the demand for these FRASER workers. Prestressed concrete col umns and beams, for example, are increasingly replacing structural steel in large buildings. Although many job openings will be created by increased demand for these workers, most open ings will arise as experienced workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment of concrete masons and terrazzo workers, like that of many other workers, is sensitive to ups and downs in the economy. Work ers in these trades can experience periods of unemployment when the level of nonresidential building falls. On the other hand, temporary short ages of these workers may occur in some areas during peak periods of building activity. Earnings Median weekly earnings for concrete masons were about $365 in 1984. The middle 50 percent earned between $245 and $550 weekly. Nonunion workers generally have lower wage rates than union workers. Apprentic es usually start at 50 to 60 percent of the rate paid to experienced workers. Annual earnings for concrete ma sons and terrazzo workers generally are lower than weekly rates would indicate because work time is lost when jobs are unavailable or weather is bad. Concrete masons often work over time, with premium pay, because once concrete has been poured, the job must be completed without delay. Many concrete masons and terraz zo workers belong to the Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ Inter national Association of the United States and Canada, or to the Inter national Union of Bricklayers and Al lied Craftsmen. Related Occupations Concrete masons and terrazzo work ers combine skill with knowledge of building materials to construct build ings, highways, and other structures. Other occupations involving similar skills and knowledge include bricklay er, form builder, marble setter, iron worker, plasterer, stonemason, and tilesetter. Sources of Additional Information For information about apprentice ships and work opportunities, contact local concrete or terrazzo contrac tors; locals of unions previously men tioned; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; or the near est office of the State employment ser vice or apprenticeship agency. For general information about con crete masons and terrazzo workers, contact: Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen, International Masonry Institute, Apprenticeship and Training, 815 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ International Association of the United States and Canada, 1125 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Portland Cement Association, 5420 Old Or chard Rd., Skokie, 111. 60077. National Terrazzo and Mosaic Association, 3166 Des Plaines Ave., Des Plaines, 111. 60018. Dry wall Workers and Lathers_______ (D.O.T. 842.361-010 and -014, .381-010, .664-010, and .681-010; and 869.684-050) Nature of the Work Developed as a substitute for wet plaster, drywall consists of a thin lay er of plaster sandwiched between two pieces of heavy paper. It is used today for walls and ceilings of most build ings because it saves both time and money compared to traditional con struction using plaster. Two occupations have emerged from the widespread use of this con struction material: Drywall installers and drywall finishers. Installers, also called applicators, fasten drywall pan els to the framework inside houses and other buildings. Finishers, or tapers, do touchup work to prepare panels for painting. Because drywall panels are manu factured in standard sizes—usually 4 feet by 8 or 12 feet—installers must measure and cut some pieces to fit around doors and windows. They also saw or cut holes in panels for electric outlets, air-conditioning units, and plumbing. After making these alter ations, installers may glue, nail, or screw the wallboard panels to the wood or metal framework. Because drywall is heavy and cumbersome, a helper assists the installer in position ing and securing the panel. When placing ceiling panels, a lift often is used to assist the crew. After installing the drywall, finish ers fill joints between panels with a 386/Occupational Outlook Handbook joint compound. Using the wide, flat tip of a special trowel, and brushlike strokes, they spread the joint com pound into and along each side of the joint. Immediately, finishers use trow els to press a perforated paper tape into the wet compound and to scrape away excess material. Nail and screw depressions also are covered with this compound. On large commercial projects, finishers may use automatic taping tools to apply the joint com pound and tape in one step. Finishers apply second and third coats to fill any depressions and to make a smooth surface. Sanding makes patched areas as smooth as the rest of the wall surface. Some finishers apply tex tured surfaces to walls and ceilings with trowels, brushes, or spray guns. Finishers also repair imperfections caused by the installation of air-con ditioning vents and other fixtures. Some finishers specialize in sanding, taping, or repair work. Lathers, an occupation involving similar work, apply metal or gypsum lath to walls, ceilings, or ornamen tal frameworks to form the support base for plaster coatings. Gypsum lath is similar to dry wall panels, but small er. Metal lath is used where the plas ter application will be exposed to weather or water, or for curved or irregular surfaces in which drywall is not a practical material. Lathers usu ally nail, screw, staple, or wire-tie the lath directly to the structural frame work. Working Conditions they learn to measure, cut, and install As in other construction trades, materials. Eventually, they become drywall and lathing work sometimes fully experienced workers. Finisher helpers begin by taping is strenuous. Applicators, tapers, and lathers spend most of the day joints and touching up nail holes on their feet, either standing, bend and scrapes. They soon learn to ing, or squatting. Installers have to install corner guards and to conceal lift and maneuver heavy panels. openings around pipes. Near the end Hazards include the possibility of of their training, both applicator help falls from ladders and scaffolds, and ers and taper helpers learn to estimate injuries from power tools. Because costs of installing and finishing sanding joint compound to a smooth drywall. Some installers and lathers learn finish may create a great deal of dust, some finishers wear masks for protec their trade in an apprenticeship pro tion. gram. The United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, AFL-CIO, in cooperation with local Employment Drywall workers and lathers held contractors, administers an appren about 105,000 jobs in 1984. Most ticeship program in carpentry that in worked for contractors who specialize cludes instruction in drywall and lath in drywall or lathing installation; oth installation. In addition, local affiliates ers worked for contractors who do all of the Associated Builders and Con tractors conduct a similar training kinds of construction. Most installers, finishers, and lath program for nonunion workers. The ers are employed in urban areas. In International Brotherhood of Painters other areas, where there may not be and Allied Trades conducts a 2-year enough work to keep a drywall work apprenticeship program for drywall er or lather employed full time, the finishers. Employers prefer high school grad work is usually done by carpenters uates who are in good physical condi and painters. tion, but they frequently hire appli cants with less education. High school Training, Other Qualifications, and or vocational school courses in car Advancement pentry provide a helpful background Most drywall and lathing workers for drywall work. Installers must be start as helpers and learn most of their good at simple arithmetic. Drywall workers and lathers with a skills on the job. Installer and lather helpers start by carrying materials, few years’ experience and leadership lifting and holding panels, and clean ability may become supervisors. Some ing up debris. Within a few weeks, workers start their own contracting businesses. Drywall finishers apply compound to cover taped joints. Job Outlook Employment of drywall workers and lathers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s as the level of construction activity increases. Em ployment should grow faster in com mercial construction than in residen tial construction. Besides workers hired to fill openings arising from in creased demand, many will be needed to replace those who take jobs in other occupations or leave the labor force. Drywall installation, finishing, and lathing are usually completed indoors. Unlike some other construction trades, these workers seldom lose time because of bad weather. How ever, they may be unemployed be tween construction projects and dur Construction and Extractive Occupations/387 ing downturns in construction acti vity. Earnings Median weekly earnings for drywall workers and lathers were about $400 in 1984. The middle 50 percent earned between $250 and $570 weekly. Train ees start at about half the rate paid to experienced workers. Some contractors pay these work ers according to the number of panels they install or finish per day; others pay an hourly rate. A 40-hour week is standard, but sometimes the work week may be longer. Those who are paid hourly rates receive premium pay for overtime. Some installers and lathers are members of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, and some finishers are members of the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades. Related Occupations Drywall workers and lathers combine strength and dexterity with precision and accuracy to make materials fit according to a plan. Other occupa tions that require similar abilities in clude insulation workers, floor cover ing installers, plasterers, and form builders. Sources of Additional Information For information about work opportu nities in drywall application and fin ishing, contact local drywall installa tion contractors; a local of the unions previously mentioned; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; a State or local chapter of the Associated Builders and Contrac tors; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State appren ticeship agency. For details about job qualifications and training programs in drywall ap plication and finishing, write to: Associated Builders and Contractors, Inc., 729 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. International Brotherhood of Painters and Al lied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20006. National Joint Painting, Decorating, and Drywall Apprenticeship and Training Commit tee, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. For information on training pro grams in lathing, write to: United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Constitution Ave. NW., Wash Digitized for ington, D.C. 20001. FRASER Electricians (D.O.T. 729.381-018; 822.361-018, -022; 824.261, .281-010, -018, .381, .681; 825.381 -030, -034, 829.281-014 and 952.364 and .381) bots. Those in office buildings and small plants can repair all kinds of electrical equipment. Electricians spend much of their time doing pre ventive maintenance—periodic in spection of equipment to locate and correct defects before breakdowns occur. When trouble occurs, they must find the cause and make repairs. Electricians may replace items such as circuit breakers, fuses, switches, or wire. When working with complex electronic devices, they may work with engineering technicians or engi neers. They also may advise manage ment whether continued operation of equipment would be hazardous, and they may install new electrical equip ment. Electricians use handtools such^as screwdrivers, pliers, knives, and hacksaws. They also use power tools, testing equipment, and oscilloscopes. Nature of the Work Heating, lighting, power, air-condi tioning, and refrigeration components all operate through electrical systems that are assembled, installed, and maintained by electricians. Electri cians generally specialize in either construction or maintenance, al though some workers do both. To install the electrical systems in factories, homes, and other struc tures, electricians follow blueprints as well as instructions from supervisors. To install wiring in factories and of fices, they first place conduit (pipe or tubing) inside partitions, walls, or oth er concealed areas as designated by building plans. Workers also fasten to the wall small metal and plastic boxes Working Conditions that will house electrical switches and Electricians’ work is active and some outlets. To complete circuits between time strenuous. They often work from these boxes, they then pull insulated ladders and scaffolds. They frequently wires or cables through the conduit. work in awkward or cramped posi They work carefully to avoid damag tions. Electricians risk injury from ing any wires or cables. In lighter electrical shock, falls, and cuts from construction, such as housing, plastic- sharp objects. To avoid injuries, they covered wire usually is used rather use protective equipment and clothing than conduit. and follow safety procedures. Regardless of the type of wire being used, electricians connect it to circuit Employment breakers, transformers, or other com Electricians held about 545,000 jobs in ponents. Wires are joined by twisting 1984. About half were in the construcends together with pliers and covering the ends with special plastic connec tors. When additional strength is de sired, they may use an electric “ sol dering gun” to melt metal onto the twisted wires, then cover them with durable, electrical tape. When the wiring is finished, they test the cir cuits for proper connections. In addition to wiring a building’s electrical system, electricians may in stall coaxial or fiber optic cable for computers and telecommunications equipment. As part of the deregula tion of the telephone industry, indi viduals and businesses can now install and maintain the phone lines in their own buildings. As a result, some elec tricians install telephone wiring and equipment. Maintenance work varies greatly, depending on where the electrician is employed. Electricians who work in large factories may repair particular items, such as motors or electronic Electricians need good color vision be controllers for machine tools and ro cause wires are usually identified by color. 388/Occupational Outlook Handbook tion industry. Maintenance jobs for code requirements, and safety and electricians are concentrated in man first aid practices. On the job, under ufacturing industries such as automo the supervision of experienced electri bile, ship, machinery, chemical, and cians, apprentices must demonstrate iron and steel production. Public util mastery of the electrician’s work. At ities, mines, railroads, and govern first, apprentices drill holes, set an ments also employ some electricians. chors, and set up conduit. Later, they About 1 out of 8 electricians is self- measure, bend, and install conduit, as employed. Like the general popula well as install, connect, and test wir tion, electricians are concentrated in ing, outlets, and switches. They also industrialized and urban areas. learn to set up and draw diagrams for entire electrical systems. Beginners who are not apprentices Training, Other Qualifications, and can pick up the trade informally by Advancement Most training authorities recommend working as helpers for experienced the completion of a 4-year apprentice electricians. While learning to install ship program as the best way to learn conduit, connect wires, and test cir the electrical trade because appren cuits, helpers are also taught safety ticeship gives trainees a thorough practices. Many helpers gain addition knowledge of the trade and improves al knowledge through trade school or their ability to find jobs during their correspondence courses, or through worklife. A larger proportion of elec special training in the Armed Forces. All applicants should be in good tricians are trained through appren ticeship than workers in other con health and have at least average phys struction trades. Nevertheless, many ical strength. Agility and dexterity electricians learn their trade informal also are important. Good color vision is needed because workers frequently ly on the job. Apprenticeship programs are spon must identify electrical wires by col sored and supervised by local union- or. Applicants for apprentice posi management committees or by com tions usually must be at least 18 years pany management committees. Be old and have a high school or voca cause the training is comprehensive, tional school diploma. Courses in people who complete apprenticeship electricity, electronics, mechanical programs qualify to do both mainte drawing, science, algebra, and shop nance and construction work. These provide a good background. A back programs provide 144 hours of class ground in electronics is increasingly room instruction each year in addition important for people wishing to be to 2,000 hours of on-the-job training. come maintenance electricians be In the classroom, apprentices learn cause of the increasing use of complex blueprint reading, electrical theory, electronic controls on manufacturing electronics, mathematics, electrical equipment. The unemployment rate for electricians generally is lower than the rates for other construction workers. Percent unemployed, 1984 0 2 Electricians Plumbers and pipefitters All construction trades Carpenters Painters Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 To obtain a license, necessary for employment in most localities, electri cians must pass an examination that tests their knowledge of electrical the ory, the National Electric Code, and local electric and building codes. Experienced electricians can be come supervisors. Electricians with sufficient capital and management skill can start their own contracting busi nesses. In many areas, a contractor must have an electrical contractor’s license. Job Outlook Employment of electricians is expect ed to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. As the population and the economy grow, more electricians will be needed to maintain the electri cal systems used by industry and to install electrical devices and wiring in new homes, factories, offices, and other structures. In addition to tradi tional wiring, electricians will install wiring and fiber optic cable for com puters and telecommunications equip ment. Increasingly, buildings are be ing prewired for such equipment dur ing their construction. Because the use of such equipment is expected to increase sharply, this type of installa tion may create many jobs for electri cians. In addition to jobs created by in creased demand for electricians, many openings will occur as electricians transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The total number of job openings for electricians each year is among the highest for all craft oc cupations, mainly because the occu pation is large. A smaller proportion of electricians than of other craft workers leave their occupation each year. Electricians have a strong at tachment to their occupation because they must spend about 4 years acquir ing their training and enjoy relatively high earnings. Although the employment outlook for electricians is expected to be good over the long run, people wishing to become construction electricians should expect to experience periods of unemployment. These result from the limited duration of construction projects and the cyclical nature of the construction industry. During eco nomic downturns, job openings for electricians are reduced as the level of construction declines. Although em ployment of maintenance electricians Construction and Extractive Occupations/389 is steadier than that for construction electricians, electricians working in the automobile, steel, and other in dustries that are sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy may be laid off during recessions. Job opportunities for electricians also vary by geographic area. Em ployment opportunities follow the movement of people and businesses among States and local areas and re flect differences in local economic conditions. The number of job oppor tunities in a given year may fluctuate widely from area to area. stallers and repairers, electronics me chanics, and elevator constructors. Sources of Additional Information For details about apprenticeships or other work opportunities in this trade, contact local electrical contractors; local chapters of the Independent Electrical Contractors, Inc., the Na tional Electrical Contractors Associa tion, or the Associated Builders and Contractors; a local union of the International Brotherhood of Electri cal Workers; a local union-manag ement apprenticeship committee; lo cal firms that employ maintenance electricians; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. Some local employment service offices screen ap plicants and give aptitude tests. For general information about the work of electricians, contact: Earnings Median weekly earnings for full-time electricians who were not self-em ployed were $440 in 1984. The middle 50 percent earned between $325 and $595 weekly. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $240, while the highest Independent Electrical Contractors, Inc., 1101 10 percent earned more than $725. Electricians in metropolitan areas Connecticut Ave. NW., Suite 700, Washington, D.C. 20036. earned about $13.00 an hour in 1984 International Brotherhood of Electrical Work compared with $8.33 an hour for all ers, 1125 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. production and nonsupervisory work 20005. ers in private industry, except farm National Electrical Contractors Association, ing. They generally earn more in the 7315 Wisconsin Ave., Bethesda, Md. 20814. Midwest and West than in the North National Joint Apprenticeship and Training east and South. Because the seasonal Committee for the Electrical Industry, 9700-E nature of construction affects electri George Palmer Hwy., Lanham, Md. 20706. cians less than workers in most build Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th ing trades, annual earnings also tend St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. to be higher. Apprentice wage rates start at from 40 to 50 percent of the rate paid to experienced electricians and increase Glaziers (D.O.T. 865.361 and .381) periodically. Many construction electricians are members of the International Brother Nature of the Work Glass serves many uses in modern hood of Electrical Workers. buildings. Insulated glass keeps in Among unions organizing mainte nance electricians are the Inter warmed or cooled air; tempered and national Brotherhood of Electrical wire glass makes doors and windows Workers; the International Union of more secure; and large glass panels Electrical, Radio and Machine Work give skyscrapers a distinctive look ers; the International Association of while reducing the need for artificial Machinists and Aerospace Workers; lighting. Glaziers select, cut, install, the International Union, United Auto and remove all types of glass as well mobile, Aerospace and Agricultural as plastics and similar materials used Implement Workers of America; in place of glass. Some glaziers re and the United Steelworkers of Amer place broken glass in automobiles and may also install mirrors, tempered ica. glass doors, the metal hardware used in setting glass, and automatic doors. Related Occupations For most jobs, the glass is precut To install and maintain electrical sys and mounted in metal frames at a tems, electricians combine manual factory. It arrives at the job site ready skill and a knowledge of electrical to be positioned and secured in place materials and concepts. Other occu by glaziers. Glaziers may use a crane pations involving similar skills include or hoist with suction cups attached to Digitized for air-conditioning mechanics, cable in lift a large, heavy piece of glass. In all FRASER cases, however, to prevent shattering, glaziers use their hands to guide and position the glass. For some jobs, glass is cut at a contractor’s shop by automated scor ing and breaking machines. At the site, glaziers secure glass in place with materials such as mastic—a pastelike cement—bolts, rubber gaskets, putty, metal clips, and metal or wood mold ing. When using a rubber gasket—a thick, molded rubber half-tube with a split running its length—to secure window glass, they first position the gasket around the window opening, then set the glass into the split side of the gasket, causing it to clamp to the edges and hold the glass firmly in place. When metal clips and molding are used to secure window glass, glaziers secure the molding to the window opening, place the glass in the mold ing, and force springlike metal clips between the glass and the molding. The clips exert pressure and keep the glass firmly in place. When using putty, workers first spread it neatly against and around the edges of the molding on the inside of the window opening. Next, they install the glass. Pressing it against the putty on the inside molding, workers screw or nail outside molding that loosely holds the glass in place. To hold it firmly, they pack the space between the molding and the glass with putty and then trim any excess putty with a putty knife. For some jobs, the glazier must cut the glass manually. To prepare the glass for cutting, glaziers rest it either on edge on a rack or A-frame or flat against a cutting table. They then mea sure and mark the glass for the cut. Glass is cut with a special tool that has a very hard metal wheel about 1/6 inch in diameter. Using a straightedge as a guide, the glazier presses the cutter’s wheel firmly on the glass, guiding and rolling it carefully to make a score just below the surface. To help the cutting tool move smoothly across the glass, workers brush a thin layer of oil along the line of the intended cut or dip the cutting tool in oil. Immedi ately after cutting, the glazier presses on the shorter end of the glass to break it cleanly along the cut. In addition to handtools such as glasscutters and putty knives, glaziers use power tools such as hoists, saws, drills, cutters, and grinders. 390/Occupational Outlook Handbook Working Conditions the trade informally on the job by Glaziers often work outdoors—some assisting experienced workers. times in uncomfortable weather. Oc Learning the trade through informal casionally they must work on scaf on-the-job training usually starts by folds at great heights, but not when carrying glass and cleaning up debris weather conditions pose a safety prob in glass shops. Eventually, helpers lem. In addition, the job requires a assist experienced glaziers on a sim considerable amount of bending, ple installation job. This learning proc stooping, lifting, and standing. Gla ess may not provide training as com ziers may be injured by broken glass plete as an apprenticeship program, or cutting tools, falls from scaffolds, however, and may take longer. or from lifting glass. Apprenticeship programs, which Glaziers may have to travel to job are administered by local union-man sites in areas where few people, if agement committees or local contrac any, are equipped and qualified to tors’ associations, consist of on-theinstall glass in commercial buildings job training as well as 144 hours of classroom instruction and/or home such as stores. study each year. On the job, apprentices learn to use Employment About 37,000 glaziers held jobs in the tools and equipment of the trade; 1984. Most worked for glazing con handle, measure, cut, and install glass tractors engaged in new construction, and metal framing; cut and fit mold alteration, and repair or for wholesale ings; and install and balance glass distributors and glass and hardware doors. In the classroom, they are stores that install or replace glass. taught basic mathematics, blueprint Others worked for government agen reading and sketching, general con cies or businesses that do their own struction techniques, safety practices, construction. Glaziers work through and first aid. Local apprenticeship administra out the country, but jobs are concen trated in metropolitan areas. Many tors determine how apprentices are glaziers work in western regions of recruited and selected. Applicants for the country, where warm weather fos apprenticeships generally must be in good physical condition and at least ters the use of glass in construction. 17 years old. In some areas, appli Training, Other Qualifications, and cants must take mechanical aptitude tests. Persons applying for helper po Advancement Training authorities recommend that sitions will find that employers prefer glaziers learn the trade through an high school or vocational school grad apprenticeship program that lasts 3 to uates. Courses in general mathemat Digitized for4 years. However, many glaziers learn FRASER ics, blueprint reading or mechanical drawing, general construction, and shop provide a helpful background. For most glaziers, advancement consists of increases in pay; some may advance to supervisory jobs. Some glaziers become contractors; however, the contracting business is very competitive and managerial skill is needed to operate successfully. Job Outlook Employment of glaziers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Besides jobs created by increased de mand for glaziers, openings will arise as experienced glaziers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. However, because this occupa tion is fairly small, only a limited number of openings will become available. Employment opportunities should be greatest in metropolitan ar eas, where most glazing contractors and retailers are located. Over the long run, population and business growth will create a rising demand for new residential and com mercial buildings, such as apartments, offices, and stores. Since glass will continue to be popular in building design, the demand for glaziers to install and replace glass window units also will grow. Even though employ ment prospects will generally be good, glaziers may experience periods of unemployment between construction projects and during downturns in con struction activity. People wishing to enter glazing ap prenticeships may face competition for positions because high wages and all-round training attract many people to these programs. Earnings In 1984, glaziers earned about $330 a week. The middle 50 percent earned between $265 and $465. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $220; the top 10 percent earned more than $650 a week. Glaziers in construction, who are heavily unionized, generally earn considerably more than glaziers in re tail and wholesale trade. Apprentice wage rates usually start at 50 percent of the rate paid to experienced gla ziers and increase every 6 months. During the final year of their training, apprentices receive 90 percent of the rate for experienced workers. Yearly earnings of glaziers and apprentices, however, generally are slightly lower than hourly rates would indicate be- Construction and Extractive Occupations/391 cause the annual number of hours they work can be adversely affected by poor weather and fluctuations in construction activity. Glaziers also may receive health insurance, pen sions, paid vacation, and holidays. Many glaziers employed in con struction are members of the Inter national Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades. Related Occupations Glaziers use their knowledge of con struction materials and techniques to install glass. Other construction work ers whose jobs also involve skilled, custom work are bricklayers, drywall applicators, floor layers, painters, paperhangers, stucco masons, terrazzo workers, and tilesetters. Sources of Additional Information For more information about glazier apprenticeships or work opportunities, contact local glazing or general con tractors; a local of the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades; a local joint union-management apprenticeship agency; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about the work of glaziers, contact: International Brotherhood of Painters and Al lied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20006. For information concerning training for retail and wholesale glaziers, con tact: tion workers measure and cut a tube This technique is used in new con of insulation to the necessary length, struction or major renovations. Insulation workers use common stretch it open along a cut that runs the length of the tube, and slip it over handtools—trowels, brushes, knives, the pipe. To secure the insulation, scissors, sewing equipment, and sta they wrap and fasten wire bands pling guns. They use powersaws to around it, tape it, or wrap a cover of cut insulating materials, welding ma tar paper, cloth, or canvas over it and chines to join sheet metal or secure sew or staple the cover in place. clamps, and compressors for blowing Sometimes insulation workers weld or for spraying insulation. sheet metal around insulated pipes to waterproof the insulation. Working Conditions When covering a wall or other flat Insulation workers generally work in surface, workers may use a hose to doors. They spend most of the work spray foam insulation onto a wire day on their feet, either standing, mesh. The wire mesh provides a rough bending, or squatting. Sometimes they surface to which the foam can cling work from ladders or in tight spaces. and adds strength to the finished sur However, the work is not strenuous; face. Workers may apply a final coat it requires more coordination than for a finished appearance. strength. Insulation work is often In attics or exterior walls, which do dusty and dirty. The minute particles not require either wire mesh for adhe from insulation material can irritate sion or a final coat for appearance, the eyes, skin, and respiratory sys workers often use a compressor to tem. Removing cancer-causing asbes blow in loose-fill insulation. This is tos insulation—at one time the most the fastest and most popular insula common form of insulation but rarely tion method, especially in uninsulated used today—is a hazardous task. To older homes. A tender feeds the ma protect themselves from the dangers chine with shredded fiberglass insula of asbestos and irritants, workers tion or rock wool, and the compressor wear protective masks and clothing forces this insulation through a hose. and keep work areas ventilated. Another worker sprays the insulation from the compressor hose into the Employment attic or between the interior and exte Insulation workers held about 52,000 rior walls. jobs in 1984; most worked for insula In another method, insulation work tion or other construction contrac ers staple fiberglass batts in exterior tors. Others worked in shipbuilding walls and ceilings before drywall, pan and in other manufacturing industries, eling, or plaster walls are put in place. such as chemicals and petroleum re Membership Services, National Glass Associa tion, 8200 Greensboro Dr., McLean, Va. 22102. Insulation Workers (D .O .T. 863.364-010 and -014, .381-010 and -014, and .664-010) Nature of the Work Properly insulated homes and build ings reduce energy consumption by preventing loss of cool air on warm days and hot air on cold days. Meat storage rooms, steam pipes, and boil ers are other examples where the wasteful transfer of heat to or from the space inside can be minimized by insulation. Installing insulating mate rial is the responsibility of insulation workers. Insulation workers may paste, sta ple, wire, tape, or spray insulation to an appropriate surface. When cover ing a steam pipe, for example, insula Insulation increases energy efficiency and often reduces unwelcome noise. 392/Occupational Outlook Handbook fining, that have extensive installa tions for power, heating, and cooling. Most worked in urban areas. In other areas, work may be done by carpen ters, heating and air-conditioning in stallers, or drywall installers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most insulation workers learn their trade through on-the-job training pro grams. Trainees are assigned to expe rienced insulation workers for instruc tion and supervision. They begin with simple tasks, such as supplying insu lation to experienced workers, or holding material while it is fastened in place. On-the-job training can take up to 2 years, depending on the work. Learning to install insulation in homes generally requires less training than insulation application in commercial and industrial settings. When they gain experience, trainees receive less supervision, more responsibility, and higher pay. In contrast, trainees in apprentice ship programs receive in-depth in struction in all phases of insulation. Apprenticeship programs are provid ed by a joint committee of local insu lation contractors and the local union of the International Association of Heat and Frost Insulators and Asbes tos Workers. Programs consist of 4 years of on-the-job training coupled with classroom instruction, and train ees must pass practical and written tests to demonstrate a knowledge of the trade. For entry jobs, insulation contrac tors prefer high school graduates who are in good physical condition and licensed to drive. High school courses in blueprint reading, shop math, sheetmetal layout, and general construc tion provide a helpful background. Applicants seeking apprenticeship po sitions must have a high school diplo ma or its equivalent, and be at least 18 years old. Skilled insulation workers may ad vance to supervisor, shop superinten dent, or insulation contract estimator. Many insulation workers are mem bers of the International Association of Heat and Frost Insulators and As bestos Workers. Job Outlook Employment of insulation workers is expected to grow as fast as the aver age for all occupations through the Digitized formid-1990’s. As the construction in FRASER dustry grows, the need to insulate boilers and pipes in new factories and powerplants will stimulate employ ment growth. Moreover, existing buildings that need extra insulation to save fuel and the need to remove and replace asbestos insulation will add to employment requirements. In addi tion to jobs created by increased de mand for insulation work, openings will arise as workers transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Insulation workers in the construc tion industry may experience periods of unemployment between jobs and during downturns in construction ac tivity. Workers employed in industrial plants generally have more stable em ployment because maintenance and repair must be done on a continuing basis. Unlike other construction occupa tions, insulation workers usually do not lose worktime when weather con ditions are poor. Most insulation is applied after buildings are enclosed. Earnings Median weekly earnings for insulation workers working full time were about $350 in 1984. The middle 50 percent earned between $250 and $550 a week. Insulation workers doing commercial and industrial work earn substantially more than those working in residential construction, which does not require as much skill. Apprentice wage rates start at about half the rate paid to experienced work ers and increase periodically. Related Occupations Insulation workers combine a knowl edge of insulation materials with their skills of cutting, fitting, and installing materials. Workers in occupations in volving similar skills include carpen ters, carpet layers, drywall applica tors, floor layers, roofers, and sheetmetal workers. Sources of Additional Information For information about training pro grams or other work opportunities in this trade, contact a local insulation contractor; a local of the International Association of Heat and Frost Insula tors and Asbestos Workers; the near est office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agen cy, or: National Insulation Contractors Association, 1025 Vermont Ave. NW., Suite 410, Washing ton, D.C. 20005. Painters and Paperhangers (D .O .T. 840.381, .681, and .684; 841.381; and 845.681) Nature of the Work Paint and wall coverings make rooms more attractive and comfortable. In addition, paints and similar materials protect outside walls from wear caused by the weather. Although some people do both types of work, paint ing and paperhanging require different skills. Painters apply paint, varnish, and other finishes to buildings and other structures. They choose the right paint or finish for the surface to be covered, taking into account durabili ty, ease of handling, method of appli cation, and customers’ wishes. They prepare the surface to be covered so that the new paint will adhere proper ly. Sometimes it is necessary to re move the old coating before the new paint or coating is applied. Painters use several methods to remove old coatings, including stripping with sol vents, sanding, wire brushing, and water and sand blasting. Painters also wash walls and trim to remove dirt and grease, fill nail holes and cracks, sandpaper rough spots, and brush off dust. When painting new surfaces, they cover them with a primer or sealer to make a suitable surface for the finish coat. Painters mix paints and match colors, relying on knowl edge of paint composition and color harmony. Painters use brushes, rollers, and spray guns to apply paint thoroughly, uniformly, and rapidly to surfaces such as wood, concrete, metal, ma sonry, plastic, or drywall. Brushes of many sizes and shapes are used on a wide variety of surfaces. Rollers and spray guns are used on surfaces such as walls and ceilings, where they per mit faster painting than brushes. Spray guns also are used on surfaces that are difficult to paint with a brush, such as cinder block and metal fencing. When working on tall buildings and similar structures, painters erect scaf folding, including “ swing stages’’ (scaffolds suspended by ropes or ca bles attached to roof hooks). When painting steeples and similar conical structures, they use a “bosun chair’’ (a device somewhat like a swing). Paperhangers cover walls and ceil- Construction and Extractive Occupations/393 ings of rooms with decorative wall coverings made of fabric, vinyl, pa per, or other materials. The first step in hanging wall coverings, as in paint ing, is to prepare the surface to be covered. To do this, paperhangers ap ply “ sizing,” a material that seals the surface and enables the covering to stick better. In redecorating, they may have to remove the old covering by wetting it with wafer-soaked spong es or by applying mild solvents. If there are many layers, they may use steam to remove them. Frequently, it is necessary for paperhangers to patch holes before hanging the new wall covering. When the surface is prepared, pa perhangers measure the area to be covered and cut the covering into strips of the proper size. While cutting the strips, paperhangers check the covering for flaws and closely exam ine the pattern so it can be matched when the strips are hung. Paperhangers prepare paste or oth er adhesives according to manufactur ers’ directions, and brush or roll the adhesive on the covering. When they place the cut strips on the wall or ceiling, paperhangers must make sure they are hung straight with the edges carefully butted together to make tight, closed seams. Using broad knives and brushes, paperhangers smooth the strips to make them stick and to remove air bubbles and wrin kles. They trim the excess covering from the top and bottom of each strip with a razor knife. Working Conditions Painters and paperhangers must stand for long periods. Their jobs also re quire a considerable amount of climb ing and bending. These workers must have strong arms because much of the work is done with arms raised over head. Painters and paperhangers risk injury from slips or falls off ladders and scaffolds. Painters often work outdoors. Many painters form their own businesses and become success ful painting contractors; however, in doing so, they may have to spend many additional hours seeking new customers, recruiting and training em ployees, and dealing with paperwork. Employment Painters and paperhangers held about 378,000 jobs in 1984; most were held by painters. Many painters and paperhangers work for contractors engaged in new construction, repair, restora tion, or remodeling work. In addition, organizations that own or manage large buildings, such as hotels, offices, and apartment complexes, employ maintenance painters, as do some schools, hospitals, and factories. A significant number of workers in these trades are in business for them selves. About 2 of every 5 painters and paperhangers are self-employed, compared to one-fourth of all building trades workers. In addition, many painters hold part-time jobs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Painting and paperhanging are learned through apprenticeship or informal, on-the-job instruction. Most training authorities recommend completion of an apprenticeship as the best way to become a painter or paperhanger, al though some new workers begin as helpers to experienced painters. Few opportunities for informal training ex ist for paperhanger trainees because there are relatively few paperhangers, and most work alone. The apprenticeship for painters and paperhangers consists of 3 years of on-the-job training, in addition to 144 hours of related classroom instruction each year. Apprentices receive in struction in subjects such as color harmony, use of tools, surface prepa ration, application of coating, paint mixing and matching, care of tools and equipment, staining, glazing, gold leafing, blueprint reading, use of lad ders and scaffolding, wood finishing, Many painters hold part-time jobs. and safety. They also learn the differ ent skills required for painting and paperhanging as well as the general nature of the work in the other build ing trades. On-the-job instruction covers simi lar skills for apprentices and helpers. Under the direction of experienced workers, trainees carry supplies, erect scaffolds, and do other simple tasks while they learn about the different kinds of paint and painting equipment. Within 2 or 3 years, trainees learn to prepare surfaces for painting and pa perhanging, to mix paints, and to ap ply paint and wall coverings effi- Painters and paperhangers have the highest proportions of self-employed of all construction craft occupations. Percent self-employed, 1984 0 10 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 20 30 40 50 394/Occupational Outlook Handbook ciently. Near the end of their training, they may learn decorating concepts, color coordination, and cost-estima ting techniques. Applicants for apprentice or helper jobs generally must be at least 16 years old and in good physical condi tion. A high school or vocational school education that includes cours es in mathematics is generally re quired by employers and local appren ticeship committees. Applicants should have manual dexterity and a good color sense. Painters and paperhangers may ad vance to supervisory jobs with paint ing and decorating contractors. A siz able number establish their own paint ing and decorating businesses. Job Outlook Employment of painters and paperhangers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occu pations through the mid-1990’s. Al though business growth will create a demand for new buildings and indus trial structures, requiring more paint ers and paperhangers, employment growth may slow as more homeown ers paint or paper their own houses and as more building exteriors are made of nonpaintable surfaces. Replacement needs will account for most of the job openings for painters and paperhangers. Each year thou sands of jobs will become available as painters transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Since there are no strict training requirements for entry, many people with limited skills work as painters for a short time and then move on to other types of work, thus creating many job openings. Be cause there are fewer paperhangers, the number of openings in that trade is relatively small. Painters and paperhangers may experience periods of unemployment because of the short duration of many construction projects and the cyclical nature of construction activity. How ever, remodeling, restoration, and maintenance projects provide many jobs for painters and paperhangers even when overall construction activ ity declines. Painters and paperhang ers can improve their chances of avoiding layoffs by learning to use as many tools, paints, and wall coverings as possible because employers try to keep their most skilled workers even during business slumps. wishing to enter painting People and paperhanging apprenticeships may face competition for positions. High wages and good training offered by these programs attract many peo ple. Most painters and paperhangers work for contractors, painting the sur faces of residential and commercial construction projects for hourly wages. Earnings Median weekly earnings for painters who were not self-employed were about $310 in 1984. Most earned be tween $221 and $429 weekly. The top 10 percent earned over $538, and the bottom 10 percent earned less than $172 a week. In general, paperhangers earn more than painters. The hourly rate for painters who do primarily maintenance tasks was about $11.65 in 1984. In comparison, the average rate for all nonsupervisory or production workers in private in dustry, except farming, was $8.33 an hour. Annual income for painters and paperhangers may not be as high as hourly rates would indicate because some worktime is lost due to bad weather and occasional unemploy ment. Hourly wage rates for apprentices usually start at 40 to 50 percent of the rate paid to experienced workers and increase every 6 months until the full rate of pay is reached at the comple tion of apprenticeship. A large proportion of painters and paperhangers are members of the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades. A few are mem bers of other unions. Related Occupations Painters use paints, varnishes, and lacquers to decorate and protect wood, metal, and other surfaces. Oth er occupations in which workers ap ply paints and similar finishes include spray painters, shipyard painters, met al sprayers, undercoaters, and trans portation equipment painters. Sources of Additional Information For details about painting and paper hanging apprenticeships or other work opportunities in these trades, contact local painting and decorating contrac tors; a local of the International Broth erhood of Painters and Allied Trades; a local joint union-management ap prenticeship committee; or the near est office of the State apprenticeship agency or State employment service. To find out who administers the ap prenticeship program in your area, contact: International Brotherhood of Painters and Al lied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20006. Painting and Decorating Contractors of Ameri ca, 7223 Lee Hwy., Falls Church, Va. 22046. For general information about the work of painters and paperhangers, contact: Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. Plasterers (D .O .T . 842.361-018, -022, and -026, and .381-014) Nature of the Work Plasterers finish interior walls and ceilings with plaster materials that form fire-resistant and relatively soundproof surfaces, and they apply durable cement plasters, epoxy fin ishes, and stucco to exterior surfaces. They also cast ornamental designs in plaster. To interior surfaces such as cinder block and gypsum lath, plasterers ap ply two coats of plaster. The first or brown coat is a brown mixture that provides a base; the second or finish coat (also called white coat) is a limebased plaster. When on metal lath (supportive wire mesh) foundations, plasterers first apply a preparatory or scratch coat, using either spray or a trowel (a flat, 4-inch by 10-inch metal plate with a handle), in wavelike mo tions to spread a rich plaster mixture into and over the metal lath. Before the plaster sets, workers scratch its surface with a tool similar to a rake, producing ridges so the brown coat will cling tightly. For the brown coat—whether ap plied to a scratch coat, cinder block, or gypsum lath—laborers prepare a thick but smooth plaster. Plasterers spray or trowel this mixture onto the surface, and smooth the plaster to an even, level surface for finishing. For the finish coat, plasterers pre pare a mixture of lime, plaster of Paris, and water. They quickly apply it onto the brown coat using a hawk (a light, metal plate with handle), trowel, brush, and water. This mixture, which sets very quickly, produces a very smooth, durable finish. Plasterers also work with a plaster material that can be finished in a sin gle coat. Thin-coat or veneer plaster, made of lime and plaster of paris and Construction and Extractive Occupations/395 mixed with water on the job site, can work. Some repair and renovate older be applied on interior masonry surfac buildings. Many plasterers are em es, specially manufactured wallboard, ployed in Florida, California, and the or drywall prepared with a bonding Southwest, where stucco work is very agent. Thin-coat plaster, applied like popular. Most plasterers work for indepen white coat, also provides a smooth, dent contractors. About 1 out of every durable finish. Plasterers create decorative surfac 3 plasterers is self-employed. es as well. For example, while the final coat is still soft, they press a Training, Other Qualifications, and brush or trowel firmly against the sur Advancement face and use a circular hand motion to Most training authorities recommend an apprenticeship as the best way to create decorative swirls. For exterior work, plasterers usual learn plastering. However, most peo ly apply a mixture of white cement ple learn the trade by working as and sand—stucco—over cement, con helpers, observing and learning from crete, and masonry. Sometimes stuc experienced plasterers. Apprenticeship programs, spon co is applied directly to a wire lath scratch coat. As an alternative, they sored by local joint committees of embed marble or gravel chips into the contractors and unions, generally con finish coat to achieve a uniform, sist of at least 2 years of on-the-job training, in addition to at least 144 pebblelike, decorative finish. Some plasterers apply insulation hours annually of classroom instruc systems to the exteriors of new and tion in drafting, blueprint reading, and old buildings. They cover the outer mathematics for layout work. wall with insulation board and fiber In class, apprentices start with a glass cloth and then trowel on a history of the trade and the industry. scratch coat. They then apply an ad They also learn about the uses of ditional coat of plaster material, often plaster, costs, and many other sub jects. On the job, they learn about lath with a decorative finish. Plasterers sometimes do complex bases, plaster mixes, methods of plas decorative and ornamental work that tering, blueprint reading, and safety requires much more skill than other from experienced plasterers. Some plastering and provides an opportuni apprenticeship programs allow indi ty for an individual to be creative. For viduals to obtain training in related example, they may mold intricate de occupations such as cement masonry signs for the walls and ceilings of and bricklaying. Those who learn the trade informal public buildings. To make these de signs from an architect’s blueprint, ly as helpers usually start by carrying plasterers pour a special plaster into a materials, setting up scaffolds, and mold and allow it to set. Workers then mixing plaster. Then they learn to remove the molded plaster and ce apply the scratch and brown coats and ment it to the desired surface. the finish coat. Applicants for apprentice or helper jobs generally must be at least 17 Working Conditions Plasterers work outside when apply years old, be in good physical condi ing stucco but most jobs are indoors. tion, and have manual dexterity. Ap Sometimes plasterers work on scaf plicants who have a high school edu folds high above the ground to finish cation are preferred. Courses in gen walls and ceilings. eral mathematics, mechanical drawing, Plastering is physically demand and shop provide a useful background. ing—requiring considerable standing, Plasterers may advance to supervi bending, lifting, and reaching over sors, superintendents, or estimators head. The work can be dusty and for plastering contractors, or may be dirty; plaster materials also soil shoes come self-employed, contracting plas and clothing and can irritate skin and tering jobs. eyes. Job Outlook Employment Little or no change in the employment Plasterers held about 21,000 jobs in of plasterers is expected through the 1984. Most plasterers work on new mid-1990’s. Most job openings will construction and alteration jobs, par result from the need to replace work ticularly where special architectural ers who transfer to other occupations and lighting effects are part of the or leave the labor force. Throughout Plasterer applies plaster over scratch coat. much of the 1960’s and early 1970’s, employment of plasterers declined as more builders switched to drywall construction. This decline has halted in recent years, however, and em ployment of plasterers may rebound somewhat as a result of increased emphasis on the durability and hard ness that troweled finishes provide. Thin-coat plastering, in particular, may gain greater acceptance as more builders and developers recognize its ease of application, durability, and quality of finish. In addition, plaster ers will be needed to renovate plaster work in older structures and create special architectural effects such as curved surfaces, which are not prac tical with drywall materials. Because most plasterers work in construction, employment prospects may fluctuate from year to year due to changing economic conditions. Bad weather affects plastering less than other construction trades because much of this work is indoors. On exterior surfacing jobs, however, plasterers may lose time because some materials cannot be applied under wet or freezing conditions. Earnings Median weekly earnings for plasterers who worked full time were about $350 in 1984. Apprentice wage rates start at about half the rate paid to experienced plasterers and increase 10 percent ev ery 6 months. However, annual earn ings for plasterers and apprentices are 396/Occupational Outlook Handbook generally lower than weekly earnings would indicate because poor weather and periodic declines in construction activity limit their work time. A large proportion of plasterers are members of unions. They are repre sented by either the Operative Plas terers’ and Cement Masons’ Interna tional Association of the United States and Canada, or the International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen. Related Occupations Other construction workers who use a trowel as the primary tool include concrete masons, bricklayers, stone masons, and tile setters. Sources of Additional Information For information about apprentice ships or other work opportunities, contact local plastering contractors; locals of the unions previously men tioned; a local joint union-manage ment apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State appren ticeship agency or the State employ ment service. For general information about the work of plasterers, contact: International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen, 815 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ International Association of the United States and Canada, 1125 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Plumbers and Pipefitters (D.O.T. 862.261, .281-010 and -014, .361-014, -018, and -022, and .381 except -010 and -038, .681, .682010, and .684-034) Nature of the Work By simply turning on a faucet, a per son activates a long, complex system of pipes. Small copper or plastic pipes connect the faucet to the building’s main water pipes. These pipes in turn are connected to the cast iron or con crete pipes of the municipal water system that run underground for miles to a water treatment plant. Larger pipes connect the plant to a river, reservoir, or other water source. Other pipe systems dispose of waste, provide water to fight fires, and transport water and steam for cooling and heating. Pipe systems in powerDigitized forplants play an essential role in produc FRASER ing electricity by carrying the steam that powers huge turbines. Pipes also are used in manufacturing plants to move material through the production process. Plumbers and pipefitters install and maintain all these vitally important pipe systems. Although plumbing and pipefitting are sometimes considered a single trade, workers may specialize in either craft. Plumbers build and repair the water, waste disposal, drainage, and gas systems in homes and commercial and industrial build ings. They also install plumbing fix tures—bathtubs, sinks, and toilets— and appliances such as dishwashers and water heaters. Pipefitters build and repair both high- and low-pres sure pipe used in heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning of buildings, man ufacturing, generation of electricity, and transportation. They may special ize further, according to the type of pipe system with which they work. Steamfitters, for example, install pipe systems that move liquids or gases under high pressure. Sprinklerfitters install automatic fire control sprinkler systems in buildings. Because the purpose, size, and op eration of pipe systems differ, the ma terials and construction techniques used by plumbers and pipefitters vary by construction project. Water sys tems in homes, for example, use cop per, plastic, and galvanized steel pipe that can be handled and installed by one or two workers. Municipal sew age systems, on the other hand, are made of large clay pipe. Installation normally requires crews of pipefitters. Despite these differences, all plumb ers and pipefitters must be able to follow building plans and instructions from supervisors, lay out the job, and work efficiently with the materials and tools of the trade. The following illus trates how plumbers use these skills to install piping in a house. Working from blueprints or shop drawings that show the planned loca tion of pipes, plumbing fixtures, and appliances, plumbers lay out the job to fit the piping into the structure of the house with the least waste of ma terial and without damaging the struc ture. They measure and mark areas where pipe will be installed and con nected. They also check for obstruc tions, such as electrical wiring, and plan how to install pipe around the problem. To install the piping, plumbers may saw holes in walls, ceilings, and floors. They may hang steel supports from ceilings that will hold the pipe in place. To assemble the system, plumb ers cut and bend lengths of pipe using saws, pipe cutters, and pipe-bending machines. They connect lengths of pipe with fittings; the method depends on the type of pipe used. For copper pipe, plumbers slide fittings over the end of the pipe and solder the fitting in place with a torch. For plastic pipe, plumbers simply connect the sections with adhesives. When the piping is in place, plumbers install the fixtures and appliances and connect the system to the outside wa ter and sewer lines. Using pressure gauges, they check the system to insure that the plumbing works properly. Working Conditions Plumbing and pipefitting work is de manding. Workers do a lot of heavy lifting and must stand for long peri ods. Plumbers and pipefitters work both indoors and outside in all types of weather. They often work in cramped and dirty places. They can be injured by falls from ladders, cuts from sharp tools, and burns from hot pipes or from soldering equipment. Employment Plumbers and pipefitters held about 395,000 jobs in 1984. Most work for mechanical and plumbing contractors engaged in new construction or re pair, alteration, or modernization work. About 1 out of 6 plumbers and pipefitters is self-employed. Some plumbers install and maintain pipe systems for government agencies and public utilities, and some work on the construction of ships and aircraft. Others do maintenance work in indus trial and commercial buildings. Pipefitters, in particular, are employed as maintenance personnel in the pe troleum, chemical, and food-proces sing industries where manufacturing operations require the moving of liq uids and gases through pipes. Jobs for plumbers and pipefitters are distributed across the country in about the same proportion as the gen eral population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Apprenticeship is the best way for plumbers or pipefitters to learn all aspects of these trades. Most people, however, learn plumbing and pipefitt Construction and Extractive Occupations/397 ing by working for several years as helpers to experienced plumbers and pipefitters. Apprenticeship programs for plumb ers and pipefitters are administered by local union-management committees comprised of members of the United Association of Journeymen and Ap prentices of the Plumbing and Pipefitt ing Industry and the Mechanical Con tractors Association of America, Inc., or the National Association of Plumb ing-Heating-Cooling Contractors. Ap prenticeship programs also are admin istered by local chapters of the Asso ciated Builders and Contractors and the National Association of PlumbingHeating-Cooling Contractors. Ap prenticeships consist of 4 or 5 years of on-the-job training, in addition to at least 216 hours annually of related classroom instruction. Classroom sub jects include drafting and blueprint reading, mathematics, applied physics and chemistry, safety, and local plumbing codes and regulations. On the job, apprentices first learn basic skills such as identifying grades and types of pipe, the use of the tools of the trade, and the safe unloading of materials. As apprentices gain experi ence, they learn how to work with various types of pipe and to install different piping systems and plumbing fixtures. People learning the trade as helpers acquire their skills by observing and assisting experienced plumbers and pipefitters. These workers may not learn to work with as wide a variety of materials and piping systems as ap prentices. Applicants for apprentice or helper jobs generally must be at least 18 years old and in good physical condi tion. Employers prefer high school graduates. Courses in shop, plumb ing, general mathematics, drafting, blueprint reading, and physics are helpful. Applicants may be given tests to determine whether they have the mechanical aptitude required in these trades. Most communities require plumb ers to be licensed. To obtain a license, workers must pass an examination to demonstrate knowledge of the trade and of local plumbing codes. Some plumbers and pipefitters may become supervisors for mechanical and plumbing contractors. Others go into business for themselves. As they expand their activities, they may em ploy other workers and become con tractors. Job Outlook Employment of plumbers and pipe fitters is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Over the long run, construction and renovation of powerplants, pipelines, office build ings, factories, and other projects that have large, complex pipe systems are expected to spur the demand for pipefitters. Residential construction also is expected to increase the de mand for plumbers. In addition to jobs created by in creased demand for plumbers and pipefitters, many openings will occur each year from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or stop working for other reasons. Relatively few plumbers and pipefit ters transfer to other occupations, re flecting their lengthy investment in training. Nevertheless, most job open ings will stem from replacement needs. Because of the temporary nature of construction projects, plumbers and pipefitters may become unemployed for short periods when the project on which they are working ends. Some plumbers and pipefitters may face longer periods of unemployment when overall construction activity declines and fewer jobs are available. Employ ment of these workers, however, gen erally is less sensitive to changes in economic conditions than many other construction trades. Maintenance of existing piping systems provides jobs for many plumbers and pipefitters even when construction activity de clines. People wishing to enter plumbing and pipefitting apprenticeships are likely to face competition. High wages and opportunities for all-round train ing attract many people to these pro grams. Earnings Median weekly earnings for plumbers and pipefitters who are not self-em ployed were $405 in 1984. Most earned between $295 and $585 weekly. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $225; the highest 10 percent earned over $741. In 1984, hourly wage rates for plumbers and pipefitters in metropol itan areas were about $13.50. In com parison, the average wage for all Pipefitters often have to work in confined spaces. nonsupervisory and production work ers in private industry, except farm ing, was $8.33. Apprentice wage rates start at 40 to 50 percent of the rate paid to experienced plumbers or pipe fitters and increase every 6 months. Many plumbers and pipefitters are members of the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada. Some plumbers and pipefitters who have become contractors are members of the Associated Builders and Contrac tors, the Mechanical Contractors Association of America, and the Na tional Association of Plumbing-Hea ting-Cooling Contractors. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers install and repair mechanical systems in buildings are boilermakers, electri cians, elevator constructors, environ mental control system installers and servicers, hot air furnace installers and repairers, millwrights, oil burner servicers and installers, and sheetmetal workers. Sources of Additional Information For information about apprentice ships or work opportunities in plumb ing and pipefitting, contact local plumbing, heating, and air-condition ing contractors; a local chapter of the Mechanical Contractors Association; a local of the union mentioned above; a local joint union-management ap prenticeship committee; or the near- 398/Occupational Outlook Handbook est office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about the work of plumbers, pipefitters, and sprinklerfitters, contact: National Association of Plumbing-HeatingCooling Contractors, 180 S. Washington St., Falls Church, Va. 22046. Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. National Fire Sprinkler Association, P.O. Box 1000, Patterson, N.Y. 12563. Mechanical Contractors Association of Ameri ca, 5410 Grosvenor Lane, Suite 120, Bethesda, Md. 20814. Roofers (D.O.T. 866.381-010, -014, and .684-010) Nature of the Work A leaky roof can damage ceilings, walls, and furnishings. To keep out water, roofers install and repair vari ous kinds of materials such as tar and gravel, rubber, and shingles made of slate, asphalt, fiberglass, wood, or tile. Reroofing—installing new roofs on existing buildings—accounts for about 70 percent of all roofing work. Roofers also may waterproof founda tion walls and floors. There are two types of roofs, flat and pitched (slanted). Most commer cial and industrial buildings have flat roofs. Most houses have pitched roofs. Roofers may work with both types, although many roofing contrac tors specialize in residential installa tion and repair. A roofer’s work var (strips of metal or shingle) over the ies with the type of roof and roofing joints to make them watertight. Final ly, roofers cover exposed nailheads involved. Most flat roofs are covered with with cement to prevent water leakage. Some roofers also waterproof and several layers of materials. Roofers first put a layer of insulation on the dampproof masonry and concrete roof deck. They then spread a coat of walls and floors. To prepare surfaces hot bitumen (a tar-like substance) for waterproofing, they hammer and over the roofs insulation. Next, they chisel away rough spots or remove lay roofing felt (fabric saturated in them with a rubbing brick before bitumen) over the entire surface. brushing on a coat of liquid water Roofers then use a mop to spread hot proofing compound. They also may bitumen over and under the felt. This paint or spray surfaces with a water seals the seams and makes the surface proofing material or attach water watertight. Roofers repeat these steps proofing fabric to surfaces. When to build up the desired number of dampproofing, they usually spray a layers (called plies). The top layer is coating of tar on interior or exterior sometimes glazed to make a smooth surfaces. finish, or gravel is embedded while it Working Conditions is still hot. Some flat roofs are covered with a Roofers’ work is strenuous. It in single ply often made of waterproof volves heavy lifting, as well as climb rubber. Roofers roll the rubber sheets ing, bending, and kneeling. Roofers over the roofs insulation, and seal the risk injuries from slips or falls from seams. An adhesive and block or scaffolds, ladders, or roofs, and burns stone ballast hold the sheets in place. from hot bitumen. In fact, of all con Most house roofs are covered with struction industries, the roofing indus shingles. When applying shingles, try generally has the highest accident roofers first lay, cut, and tack 3-foot rate. Roofers work outdoors in all strips of roofing felt lengthwise over types of weather, particularly when the entire roof. Then, starting from making repairs. Roofs are extremely the bottom edge, they nail overlap hot during the summer. ping rows of shingles to the roof. Workers measure and cut the felt and Employment shingles to fit intersecting roofs, and Roofers held about 122,000 jobs in 1984. Most roofers work for roofing to fit around vent pipes and chimneys. contractors. Some work for busi Wherever two roof surfaces intersect nesses and government agencies that or shingles reach a vent pipe or chim do their own construction and repair ney, roofers cement or nail flashing work. About 1 out of every 3 roofers is self-employed. ‘ Applying a built-up roofing system requires a team effort. ""A Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The majority of roofers acquire their skills informally by working as help ers for experienced roofers. They start by carrying equipment and ma terial and erecting scaffolds and hoists. Within 2 or 3 months they are taught to measure, cut, and fit roofing mate rials. Soon, they are able to lay as phalt or fiberglass shingles. It can take 5 years or more to get experience installing all types of roofing materi als, because some materials are not used frequently. Some roofers train through 3-year apprenticeship programs administered by local union-management commit tees. The apprenticeship program gen erally consists of a minimum of 1,400 hours of on-the-job training annually, in addition to 144 hours of classroom Construction and Extractive Occupations/399 instruction in subjects such as tools and their use, arithmetic, and safety. On-the-job training for apprentices is similar to that for helpers, except that the apprenticeship program is more structured. Apprentices also learn to dampproof and waterproof walls. Good physical condition and a good sense of balance are essential. A high school education or its equivalent is helpful, as are courses in mechanical drawing and basic mathematics. Ap plicants for apprenticeship programs must be at least 18 years old. Roofers may advance to supervisor or estimator for a roofing contractor or become contractors themselves. Job Outlook Employment of roofers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid1990’s. Because turnover is high, the need to replace experienced roofers who leave the occupation will account for most job openings. Jobs should be easiest to find during spring and sum mer when most roofing is done. Most buildings need new roofs about every 10 to 20 years depending upon the type of roofing material and the area of the country. Some roof ing materials, such as slate, tile, or cedar, will last for 50 years or more with proper care. As the number of buildings grows, more roofers will be needed to do the additional reroofing work. Roofing is less sensitive to general economic conditions than other con struction occupations. Because re roofing accounts for most of the roof er’s work, employment opportunities are not tied to the level of new con struction, which tends to fall during economic downturns. Earnings Median weekly earnings for roofers working full time were about $285 a week in 1984. One-half earned be tween $220 and $485 a week. The top 10 percent earned more than $620 weekly. Apprentices usually start at 55 per cent of the skilled roofer’s pay rate and receive increases every 6 months. Annual earnings for roofers, however, generally are lower than weekly earn ings would indicate because poor weather limits the amount of time they can work. Some roofers are members of the United Union of Roofers, Waterproofers and Allied Workers. Related Occupations Roofers use different types of shin gles, bitumen and gravel, or other materials to waterproof building sur faces. Workers in other occupations who cover surfaces with special ma terials for protection and decoration include carpenters, concrete masons, drywall applicators, floor covering in stallers, glaziers, plasterers, terrazzo workers, and tilesetters. Sources of Additional Information For information about roofing appren ticeships or work opportunities in this trade, contact local roofing contrac tors; a local of the union previously mentioned; a local joint union-manag ement apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State employ ment service or State apprenticeship agency. For information about the work of roofers, contact: National Roofing Contractors Association, 8600 Bryn Mawr Ave., Chicago, 111. 60631. Sheet-Metal Workers (D.O.T. 804.281-010 and -014) Nature of the Work Sheet-metal workers make, install, and maintain a variety of sheet-metal products for homes and commercial and industrial buildings. These prod ucts include ducts for air-condition ing, heating, and ventilating and pol lution control systems, kitchen equip ment, roofs, siding, rain gutters, skylights, and outdoor signs. Some workers specialize in fabrication, in stallation, or maintenance, but most do all three jobs. (This statement cov ers only sheet-metal workers em ployed in the construction industry. It does not include those employed in the mass production of sheet-metal products.) Sheet-metal workers usually fabri cate their products at a shop away from the construction site. Working from blueprints or instructions from supervisors, they measure, cut, bend, shape, and fasten pieces of sheet metal to make duct work, counter tops, and other custom products. In many shops, workers use computer ized metalworking equipment. This enables them to determine the lay out that would result in the least waste of material. Sheet-metal work ers then cut or form the parts with computer-controlled saws, shears, and presses. In some shops, workers cut parts with computer-controlled la sers. In shops without computerized equipment and for products that can not be made on such equipment, sheet-metal workers lay out the work using tapes, rulers, and hand calcula tors to do the required mathematics. They cut or stamp the parts with ma chine tools. Sheet-metal workers use tapes, rul ers, and other measuring devices to check parts and may do finishing work with handtools such as handshears and hacksaws. After the parts have been cut and shaped, sheet-metal workers fasten the seams and joints together with bolts, cement, drive slips, rivets, solder, or by welding. At the construction site, sheetmetal workers assemble and install pieces fabricated at the shop. They also use hammers, shears, and drills to make parts by hand at the worksite and to alter parts made in the shop. Workers install ducts, pipes, and tubes by joining them end to end and hanging them with metal hangers se cured to a ceiling or a wall. To hold the pieces together, workers may bolt, weld, rivet, glue, or solder, or use specially formed sheet-metal drive slips. Molded and pressed sheet metal, such as roofing and siding, usually is measured and cut on the job. After securing the first panel in place, work ers interlock and fasten the grooved edge of the next panel into the grooved edge of the first. They nail or weld the free edge of the panel to the structure. This two-step process is repeated for each additional panel. Finally, at joints, along corners, and around win dows and doors, workers fasten ma chine-made molding for a neat, fin ished effect. Some sheet-metal workers special ize in testing, balancing, adjusting, and servicing existing air-conditioning and ventilation systems to make sure they are functioning properly and to improve their energy efficiency. Working Conditions Sheet-metal workers do considerable bending, lifting, standing, and squat ting in close quarters or in awkward positions. They often work high above ground. They may get cuts and burns 400/Occupational Outlook Handbook cut metal. In time, helpers go out on the job site to learn installation. Applicants for jobs as apprentices or helpers should be in good physical condition and have mechanical apti tude. Local apprenticeship commit tees and employers may require a high school or vocational school educa tion. Courses in trigonometry, geom etry, mechanical drawing, and shop provide a helpful background for learning the trade. Sheet-metal workers may advance to supervisory jobs or may go into the contracting business. Because a sheetmetal contractor must have a shop with equipment to fabricate products, this type of contracting business is more expensive to start than other types of construction contracting. Sheet-metal workers generally work indoors and lose less worktime than other construc tion workers due to weather. tors. The apprenticeship agreement usually provides a worker on-the-job experience in most aspects of the trade. Apprenticeship also is the best way to learn the mathematics needed for layout work. On the job, apprentices use the Employment Sheet-metal workers held about tools, machines, equipment, and ma 100,000 wage and salary jobs in the terials of the trade. They learn to construction industry in 1984. Con measure, cut, bend, fabricate, and in struction employers include roofing, stall sheet metal. They begin with sheet-metal, and air-conditioning and duct work and gradually advance to heating contractors and general con more difficult jobs, such as making tractors engaged in residential, indus complex ducts, fittings, and decora trial, and commercial building. Very tive pieces. Toward the end of their few sheet-metal workers are self- training, they use materials such as employed. Jobs for sheet-metal work pressed fiberglass, plastics, and acous ers are distributed throughout the tical tile, which may be substituted for country in about the same proportion metal on some jobs. In the classroom, apprentices learn as the total population. drafting, blueprint reading, trigonom etry and geometry applicable to lay Training, Other Qualifications, and out work, the use of computerized Advancement Sheet-metal contractors consider ap equipment, welding, and the princi prenticeship the best way to learn this ples of heating, air-conditioning, and trade, although many workers learn ventilating systems. Safety is stressed informally on the job. The apprentice throughout the program. In addition, ship program usually consists of 4 apprentices learn the relationship be years of on-the-job training and relat tween sheet-metal work and other ed classroom instruction. The pro construction work. Workers who pick up the trade in grams are administered by joint com mittees of locals of the Sheet Metal formally usually begin by carrying Workers’ International Association metal and cleaning up debris in a and local chapters of the Sheet Metal metal shop while they learn about and Air-Conditioning Contractors’ materials and tools and their uses. Association, or by local chapters of Then, as employers permit, helpers Digitized theFRASER for Associated Builders and Contrac learn to operate machines that bend or from materials and tools. Because most work is done indoors, sheetmetal workers generally lose less work time than other construction workers due to bad weather. Job Outlook Employment of sheet-metal workers in construction is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Most openings will arise as experi enced workers leave the occupation, retire, or die. Relatively few sheetmetal workers transfer to another occupation, reflecting the lengthy ap prenticeship most workers have com pleted. More sheet-metal workers will be needed to install air-conditioning and heating duct work and other sheetmetal products in new houses, stores, offices, and other buildings. A grow ing demand for new, more energyefficient air-conditioning and heating systems in existing buildings also will boost employment opportunities for sheet-metal workers. Installation of solar heating equipment and decora tive sheet metal will provide addition al demand. While computerized equip ment will increase the efficiency of the contractor’s shop, the use of this equipment is not expected to signifi cantly dampen the demand for sheetmetal workers since workers will be needed to run the equipment in the shop and to install the products at the job site. Although employment of sheet-me tal workers is expected to increase over the long run, workers may ex perience periods of unemployment when construction projects end and when economic conditions reduce the amount of construction. Howev er, employment of sheet-metal work ers is less sensitive to declines in new construction than employment of Construction and Extractive Occupations/401 some other construction workers, such as carpenters. Maintenance of existing sheet-metal equipment— which is less affected by economic fluctuations than new construction— makes up a large part of the work done by sheet-metal workers. Instal lations of new air-conditioning and heating systems in existing buildings also continue during construction slumps as individuals and businesses seek more energy-efficient equipment to cut utility bills. People wishing to enter sheet-metal apprenticeships will face keen com petition for positions because high wages and good training attract many people. Earnings Median weekly earnings of full-time sheet-metal workers were about $405 in 1984. Most earned from $315 to $535 weekly. The top 10 percent earned more than $680 a week, while the bottom 10 percent earned less than $240 a week. A large proportion of sheet-metal workers are members of the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Associ ation. In some areas, these union workers receive financial aid from their union when they are unem ployed. Apprentices generally start at 40 percent of the rate paid to experi enced sheet-metal workers and usual ly earn pay raises every 6 months during their apprenticeship. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers lay out and fabricate metal products include layout workers, machinists, metal fabricators, metal patternmakers, shipfitters, and tool-and-die makers. Sources of Additional Information For more information about appren ticeships or other work opportunities, contact local sheet-metal contractors or heating, refrigeration, and air-con ditioning contractors; a local of the union mentioned above; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State employment service or appren ticeship agency. For general information about sheet-metal workers, contact: Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. Structural and Reinforcing Metal Workers (D.O.T. 801.361-014, -018, -022, .381-010, and .684026) Nature of the Work Structural and reinforcing metal work ers, also known as ironworkers, erect the steel framework of buildings, bridges, and other structures. In addi tion, they install steel stairs, window guards, and railings on buildings, and do repair work, such as replacing met al bridge parts. They also position steel bars and wire mesh to reinforce concrete floors, columns, and other structural spans. High-rise buildings, bridges, and power transmission towers have frames made of steel columns, beams, and girders. Structural metal workers erect these steel frames and assemble the cranes and derricks that move structural steel, reinforcing bars, buckets of concrete, and other mate rials around the construction site. The hoisting equipment arrives at the con struction site in sections, where it is lifted into position by a mobile crane. Ironworkers then connect the sec tions and set up the cables that do the hoisting. Working from blueprints or instruc tions from supervisors, these workers erect frameworks by connecting steel columns, beams, and girders. The steel is delivered to the construction site ready for assembly—cut to the proper size with holes drilled in the ends for bolts, and numbered to indi cate how pieces fit together. Iron workers unload and stack the steel so it can be hoisted easily when needed. To hoist the steel, the ironworkers attach cables from the crane or der rick. One worker directs the hoisting equipment operator with hand signals. Another worker holds a rope attached to the steel to prevent it from swing ing. The steel is hoisted into place in the framework, where several work ers are waiting. As the steel on the hoisting cable is lowered, the workers position it with connecting bars, jacks, and handtools. Workers use driftpins or the handle of a spud wrench—a long wrench with a pointed handle— to align the holes in the piece of steel with the holes in the framework. Then they bolt the piece in place temporari ly. The workers check vertical and horizontal alignment with plumb bobs and levels and bolt or weld it perma nently in place. Reinforced concrete—concrete con taining steel bars or wire mesh—is an important material in buildings, bridg es, and other structures. The steel gives the concrete additional strength. Reinforcing metal workers set the bars in the forms that hold concrete, following blueprints that show the lo cation, size, and number of reinforc ing bars to be used. They fasten the bars together by wrapping wire around them with pliers. When reinforcing floors, workers place blocks or metal chairs under the reinforcing bars to hold them off the deck. These workers sometimes cut the bars with acetylene torches, bend them, or weld bars to gether with arc-welding equipment. When concrete is reinforced with a mesh made of welded wire, workers cut and fit the mesh before positioning it. While a concrete crew pours the slab, ironworkers use hooked rods to correctly position the wire mesh in the concrete mixture. At construction sites, heavy struc tural steel and other materials or equipment may have to be moved. Ironworkers assemble the rigging— cables, pulleys, and hooks—to move materials and hook or bolt cables to both the hoisting equipment and the item to be moved. Workers then di rect the load into position by giving hand signals and other directions to the hoisting machine operator. Ironworkers also install metal stair ways, catwalks, floor gratings, lad ders, metal cabinets, and window frames, as well as lampposts, railings, fences, and decorative ironwork. In addition, they bolt or weld prefabri cated aluminum, brass, and bronze frames and panels to buildings. These workers also erect metal tanks used to store petroleum, water, or other fluids, and assemble prefab ricated metal buildings according to plans or specifications. Most ornamental metal is fabrica ted away from the construction site; ironworkers align and assemble it. They make sure ornamental pieces fit correctly and hold firmly. They cut oversized pieces to size and some times drill holes. For secure connec tions, they bolt, braze, or weld the metals. 402/Occupational Outlook Handbook in order to work at great heights on narrow beams and girders. Experienced workers can become supervisors. Ironwork offers relative ly few opportunities for self-employ ment because the work requires large expenditures for materials and equip ment. Reinforcing iron workers coordinate efforts to wire-tie reinforcing bars. Working Conditions Structural and reinforcing metal work ers usually work outside in all kinds of weather. However, those who work at great heights do not work when it is wet, slippery, because of snow or ice, or extremely windy. Ironworkers may be injured in falls. However, they use safety devices such as safety belts, scaffolding, and nets to reduce the risk of injuries. Ironworkers may have to travel long distances to their worksite be cause work available locally may be insufficient to keep crews employed. Employment Structural and reinforcing metal work ers held about 90,000 jobs in 1984. Most of these workers are employed in the construction industry by gener al contractors and steel erection con tractors. Some are employed by large steel companies engaged in the con struction of bridges, dams, and large buildings. Some work for government agencies. Very few are self-employed. Ironworkers are employed in all parts of the country, but most work in metropolitan areas where most com mercial and industrial construction takes place. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities recommend an apprenticeship as the best way to learn this trade. However, a large number of ironworkers learn infor mally on the job. Apprenticeship programs are ad Digitized for ministered by joint union-management FRASER committees made up of representa tives of local unions of the Inter national Association of Bridge, Struc tural and Ornamental Ironworkers and local chapters of contractors’ as sociations. The apprenticeship con sists of 3 years of on-the-job training and a minimum of 144 hours a year of classroom instruction. In the classroom, apprentices study the basics of structural erecting, rig ging, reinforcing, and ornamental as sembling, as well as blueprint reading, the care and safe use of tools and materials, and mathematics for layout work. On the job, apprentices get experience in all aspects of the trade, such as unloading and storing materi als at the job site, rigging materials for movement by crane or derrick, con necting structural steel, and welding. Ironworkers who learn the trade informally generally do not receive classroom training, although some large contractors have extensive train ing programs. Nonapprentice trainees receive on-the-job training similar to the training of apprentices, but they are not guaranteed experience in all aspects of the trade. Applicants for ironworker jobs gen erally must be at least 18 years old. A high school diploma may be preferred by employers and is required by most local apprenticeship committees. Courses in general mathematics, me chanical drawing, and shop provide a helpful background. Because materials used in ironwork ing are heavy and bulky, ironworkers must be in good physical condition. Agility and balance also are required Job Outlook Employment of structural and rein forcing metal workers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid1990’s to meet rising demand for nonresidential buildings, power transmis sion towers, and highway and bridge construction and maintenance—types of construction that require extensive use of structural steel and reinforced concrete. However, most openings will result from the need to replace experienced ironworkers who transfer to other fields of work or leave the labor force. The number of job openings will fluctuate from year to year as eco nomic conditions change. Construc tion activity is sensitive to changes in the level of interest rates, the amount of business investment, and the level of government spending. When these conditions are unfavorable, the level of construction generally falls, reduc ing job openings for ironworkers. Job opportunities for ironworkers also vary by geographic area. The level of construction activity reflects differences in local economic condi tions. Therefore, the number of job opportunities in a given year may vary widely from area to area. Job openings for ironworkers usual ly are more abundant during the spring and summer months, when the level of construction activity increases. Many people are attracted to iron worker apprenticeship programs by the high wages, causing stiff competi tion for available positions. Earnings Median weekly earnings for ironwork ers were about $430 in 1984. The middle 50 percent earned between $320 and $570 weekly. Apprentices start at 60 to 70 percent of the hourly rate paid to experienced workers, with increases every 6 months. Annu al earnings for ironworkers, however, are generally lower than weekly earn ings would indicate because the amount of time they work in a year Construction and Extractive Occupations/403 can be limited by bad weather and the short duration of most jobs. Many workers in this trade are members of the International Associ ation of Bridge, Structural and Orna mental Iron Workers. Related Occupations Ironworkers play an essential role in erecting buildings, bridges, power lines, and other structures. Other workers important in these types of construction are operating engineers, carpenters, and welders. Sources of Additional Information For more information on apprentice ships or other work opportunities, contact local general contractors; a local of the International Association of Bridge, Structural and Ornamental Iron Workers; a local joint unionmanagement apprenticeship commit tee; a local or State chapter of the Associated Builders and Contractors, or the nearest office of the State em ployment service or apprenticeship agency. For general information about iron workers, contact: Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. Tilesetters (D.O.T. 861.381-054, -058, and .684-018) Nature of the Work In ancient Egypt and Rome, tile was used for the design of mosaics—an art form using small, decorative ceramic squares. Tile also has been a popular building material over the years be cause it is durable, impervious to wa ter, and easy to clean. It is used today, for instance, in food prepara tion areas, hospitals, and tunnels. Tilesetters, in a fashion similar to that of the ancient artists, apply tile to floors, walls, and ceilings. To set tile, which generally ranges in size from 1/2 inch to 6 inches square, workers use cement or mastic (a very sticky paste). When using ce ment, tilesetters first tack a support of metal mesh to the wall or ceiling to be tiled. They use a trowel to apply a cement plaster, called a scratch coat, onto the metal screen and a tool, similar to a rake, to scratch the sur face of the soft plaster. After the scratch coat has dried, tilesetters ap ply a rich coat of cement to the back of the tile and place it onto the sur face. To set tile in mastic or a cement adhesive (called “ thin set” ), tileset ters need a flat, solid surface such as dry wall, concrete, plaster, or wood. They use a tooth-edged trowel to spread mastic on the surface or apply cement adhesive to the back of the tile and properly position it. Since tile varies in color, shape, and size, workers sometimes prearrange tiles on a dry floor according to a specified design. This allows workers to examine the pattern and make any necessary changes. Some tiles are cut with a machine saw or a special cutting tool to fit into corners and around pipes, tubs, and wash basins. Once the tile is placed, tilesetters gently tap the surface with their trowel handle or a small block of wood so the tiles seat evenly. When the cement or mastic has set, tilesetters fill the joints with grout—a very fine cement. They then scrape the surface with a rubber-edged de vice called a squeegee to further dress the joints and to remove excess grout. Before the grout sets, tilesetters finish the joints with a damp sponge for a uniform appearance. Working Conditions Tilesetters generally work indoors. Since most of the structure has been completed, the work area is relatively clean and uncluttered. Much of the workday is spent bending, kneeling, and reaching, activities that require endurance but not exceptional strength. To protect their knees, some workers wear kneepads. Although workers are subject to cuts from tools or materials, falls from ladders, and strained muscles, the occupation is not as hazardous as some other construction occupa tions. Employment Tilesetters held about 25,000 jobs in 1984. Most were employed by tileset ting contractors who work mainly on nonresidential construction projects, such as schools, hospitals, and office buildings. About 1 out of 3 tilesetters is self-employed. Tilesetters are employed through out the country but are found largely in urban areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities recommend completion of a 3-year apprenticeship program, which consists of on-the-job training and related classroom instruc tion in subjects such as blueprint read ing, layout, and basic mathematics. Apprentices begin by familiarizing themselves with the tools of the trade. They are taught to mix and apply cement and to apply mastic. Then, they learn to cut and install tile, apply grout, and do finishing work. A substantial proportion of tileset ters, however, acquire skills informal ly by working as helpers to experi enced workers. They start by carrying supplies, cleaning work areas, and grouting and cleaning tile. Helpers learn to apply plaster scratch coat or spread adhesive. Eventually, they are taught to cut and set tile. When hiring apprentices or helpers, employers usually prefer high school graduates who have had courses in general mathematics, mechanical drawing, and shop. Good physical condition, manual dexterity, and a good sense of color harmony also are important assets. Apprenticeship pro grams, while often recommended, may be more difficult to enter than other forms of training. In some local ities, a written test and a physical examination are required. Skilled tilesetters may become su pervisors or start their own contract ing businesses. About 1 out of 3 tilesetters is self-em ployed. 404/Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Outlook Employment of tilesetters is expected to increase about as fast as the aver age for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Although growth in de mand for these workers will provide some new job opportunities, most will result from the need to replace tileset ters who retire or leave the occupa tion for other reasons. Because tileset ting is a small occupation, however, there will be relatively few job open ings annually. Population and business growth are expected to cause an increase in building construction and thus in crease the demand for tilesetters. Tile is more likely to be used in more expensive homes, and the number of these homes is expected to increase. Tile floors are increasingly being used in entranceways and common areas of many office buildings, stores, and res taurants. Employment of tilesetters, like that of many construction occupations, is sensitive to changes in the economy. Workers in this trade can experience periods of unemployment when con struction activity is down. On the other hand, temporary shortages of tilesetters may occur in some areas during peak periods of building activity. tools and materials along with skill and dexterity to produce attractive, durable surfaces. Other workers with similar abilities include bricklayers, concrete masons, marblesetters, plas terers, stonemasons, and terrazzo workers. Earnings Median weekly earnings for tilesetters were about $450 in 1984. Hourly wage rates for apprentices start at about 50 to 60 percent of the rate paid to expe rienced workers and increase period ically. The principal union organizing workers in this trade is the Inter national Union of Bricklayers and Al lied Craftsmen. In addition, the Tile, Marble, Terrazzo Finishers, Shopworkers, and Granite Cutters Inter national Union organizes the helpers associated with tilesetters. Sources of Additional Information For details about apprenticeship or other work opportunities in this trade, contact local tilesetting contractors; locals of the unions previously men tioned; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about the work of tilesetters, contact: Related Occupations Tilesetters use their knowledge of International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen, International Masonry Institute, Apprenticeship and Training, 815 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. Tile, Marble, Terrazzo Finishers, Shopworkers, and Granite Cutters International Union, 801 N. Pitt St., Suite 116, Alexandria, Va. 22314. Extractive Occupations The mining and petroleum drilling in dustries provide most of our Nation’s fuels and raw materials. Oil and gas drilling supplies fuel for transporta tion, manufacturing, and home heat ing. Metallic mining produces iron, copper, and silver for manufacturing. Quarrying furnishes limestone and gravel for building. And coal mining provides fuel for generating electrici ty. The workers who drill for oil and gas and mine coal and metallic and nonmetallic ores make up the extrac tive occupations. Extractive workers usually learn their skills on the job, working under the supervision of experienced work ers. Physical strength, stamina, and mechanical aptitude often are the most important traits sought by em ployers. A high school diploma gener ally is not required but is preferred by some employers. After receiving safety training, new workers are assigned to laborer jobs. Opportunities for training and pro motion usually are based on seniority and ability to do higher level work. In many cases, union-management agreements set the rules governing training and promotion. Extractive workers may advance to more highly skilled jobs. Some work ers become supervisors; however, ad ditional education is often needed to advance to higher supervisory or man agement jobs. Overall, little or no change in em ployment in extractive occupations is expected through the mid-1990’s. Coal mining and oil drilling account for most jobs. Demand for coal is expect ed to increase only moderately be cause electrical power generation, the major use of coal, is expected to grow little. The glut of oil is expected to limit demand for extractive workers in the oil drilling industry. Improve ments in mining techniques and com petition from foreign suppliers are also expected to limit employment growth over the long run. The demand for oil, coal, and other natural resources is sensitive to changes in the level of economic ac tivity. During economic downturns, extractive workers are subject to lay offs. Extractive workers include rotary drillers, rotary derrick operators, blasters, miners, continuous-miningmachine operators, shale planer oper ators, shaft mechanics, quarry work ers, jack setters, and rock-dust spray ers, among others. Detailed infor mation on roustabouts—the largest Employment in the extractive industries is expected to show little change through the mid-1990’s. Employment (thousands) 0 Metal mining Coal mining Crude petroleum and natural gas Nonmetallic mining and quarrying SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics 50 100 150 200 250 300 extractive occupation—is presented in the following statement. Roustabouts (D.O.T. 869.684-046 and 939.687-018) Nature of the Work Much of the routine physical labor and maintenance in and around oilfields and pipelines is performed by workers called roustabouts. They dig ditches or trenches for foundations or for drainage, load and unload trucks and boats, mix concrete, cut down trees and brush, and connect pipes and hydraulic hoses using handtools. They also may assemble and perform minor repairs on oilfield machinery and equipment—such as pumps, boil ers, valves, and steam engines. With increasing mechanization in recent years, roustabouts now operate mo torized lifts, power tools, and elec tronic testers, and have time to assume more maintenance responsibilities. Most roustabouts work with crews around existing oil wells. Others work for companies engaged in drilling wells, almost all of which is done by specialized companies known as drill ing contractors. Roustabouts occasionally assist skilled workers such as welders, elec tricians, mechanics, painters, and car penters. They generally work under the supervision of the supervisory or head maintenance operator. Working Conditions Working outdoors in all kinds of weather, roustabouts on offshore barges and platforms experience strong ocean currents, tides, and storms. Because roustabouts work around heavy materials and equip ment such as drill rigs and cranes, their work is fairly strenuous and re quires frequent bending, stooping, climbing, and heavy lifting. They also are subject to falls from rigs or der ricks and other platforms, injuries from falling objects, cuts and abra sions from various tools and equip ment, sore or strained muscles from 405 406/Occupational Outlook Handbook heavy lifting, and health problems re sulting from exposure to various chemicals. Those who work offshore generally work 7 days a week, 12 hours a day, and then have 7 days off. Most live on the barge or platform for a week at a time and return to shore by helicopter or crewboat. In comparison, those who work onshore in oil production operations generally work regular 5-day, 40-hour weeks. Many drilling operations continue 24 hours a day until oil is discovered or the location is abandoned as a dry hole. This re quires three 8-hour shifts or ‘tours,’ 7 days a week. Roustabouts working with drilling crews may expect to move from place to place since their work in a particu lar field may be completed in a few months. Those who work on produc tion wells usually remain in the same location for long periods. Employment Roustabouts held about 81,000 jobs in 1984. Over three-fourths of all jobs were in the oil and gas field services industry. The remaining jobs were in the crude petroleum and natural gas industry. Although drilling for oil and gas is done in a large number of States, about 85 percent of all workers are employed in eight States. Texas leads in the number of oilfield jobs, followed by Louisiana, Oklahoma, California, Colorado, Wyoming, Kan sas, and New Mexico. Most jobs are full-time, permanent positions. However, some rousta bouts are hired on a temporary basis, such as students during the summer. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement People generally obtain jobs as roust abouts with little or no formal training or work experience. However, with more competition for jobs in recent years, an increasing proportion of en trants to this occupation have previ ous work experience as a roustabout. There are no age requirements, and high school graduates are preferred. Applicants must be physically fit and able to pass a physical examination since the job requires moderate strength. Employers also seek candi dates who have mechanical ability, agility, coordination, and good eye sight. Some companies also adminis ter aptitude tests to prospective em ployees. Roustabouts usually are hired in the field by the crew or division chief or by local company representatives. Companies generally hire workers who live near the work site. Employers are often reluctant to invest in training because of the rela tively high turnover rate among roust abouts. However, some employees are offered an opportunity to take basic self-study courses offered by the American Petroleum Institute. In some companies, roustabouts partici pate in educational assistance pro grams that pay for job-related courses taken on the employee’s own time. Most workers learn through onthe-job training under the supervision of a more skilled worker. Roustabouts start by performing basic laborer tasks such as unloading trucks and digging trenches. As they gain experi ence, they progress to more complex tasks such as fixing a motor or re pairing a pump. During their training, they learn about the safety and maintenance of equipment and ma chinery and general oilfield opera tions. Those on maintenance and op eration crews can advance to jobs as switcher, gager, lease operator, oil pumper, or, for those who demon strate leadership qualities, to head maintenance operator. Roustabouts on drilling crews may advance to roughneck, floor hand, or rotary help er in 3 to 6 months. (Roughnecks guide pipe sections to and from oil well openings and help operate drill ing machinery.) Roughnecks and oth er crew members may advance to derrick operator and, after several years, to rotary driller. A driller can advance to tool pusher in charge of one or more drilling rigs. Roustabouts who are graduates of 1 1/2- to 2-year petroleum technology programs can advance to engineering technician or related jobs. Some at tend company schools where they re ceive specialized training in electrici ty, welding, or other subjects, and later advance to various craft jobs— electrician, carpenter, or pipefitter, for example. During periods of rapid growth in the oil industry, advancement oppor tunities are plentiful for capable work ers. Because new jobs have been scarce in recent years, however, ad vancement opportunities have been limited. Job Outlook Little or no change in the employment of roustabouts is expected through the mid-1990’s as a result of continued stagnation in the oil industry and in creased mechanization. Replacement needs will account for virtually all job openings in this occu pation. Characteristic of entry level Construction and Extractive Occupations/407 occupations, turnover among roust abouts is relatively high, particularly for those workers involved in offshore drilling. Some roustabouts find the work too strenuous or dirty and leave the occupation. Many people take roustabout jobs to earn money for a specific purpose—for example, a col lege education—and quit after a short time. Still others stay only long enough to acquire the minimum skills to ad vance into more highly skilled jobs. During the middle to late 1970’s, a worldwide shortage of oil gave U.S. firms the incentive to increase the supply of oil and resulted in massive hirings of new workers. However, more recent years have been charac terized by a glut of oil. Major oil finds around the world increased the supply of oil while conservation of oil by industry and the public, in addition to a worldwide recession, reduced the demand for oil. This glut resulted in falling oil prices and a reduced incen tive for the oil industry to expand rapidly. Despite some slow improvement, few new roustabout jobs are expected in the foreseeable future. As a result, employers can continue to be selec tive in hiring. Thus, job opportunities will be best for persons with previous experience as a roustabout. Better job opportunities are expected on off shore rigs than in onshore activities. Employment of roustabouts is sen sitive to cyclical swings in the econo my, particularly to the level of activity in the oil industry. During a slowdown in activity, roustabouts are subject to layoffs. Earnings In 1984, estimated earnings for roust abouts averaged $9.31 an hour. Roust abouts in the oil and gas field industry averaged $10.40 an hour. Those work ing offshore earned $11.22 an hour while onshore workers earned $9.77 an hour. Roustabouts working in the contract drilling industry earned $7.69 an hour. Those working onshore earned $8.25 an hour while offshore workers earned $7.57 an hour. Most roustabouts are not members of unions. Only about one-fourth of all firms employing field operation workers and less than 5 percent of firms employing contract drilling workers were covered by union con tracts. Workers in establishments with collective bargaining agreements were represented either by indepen dent unions such as the Associated Petroleum Employees Union or by the Oil, Chemical, and Atomic Work ers International Union, an AFL-CIO affiliate. Related Occupations Roustabouts assist skilled oilfield workers. Other laborers who assist skilled workers include blacksmith helper, construction laborer, dockhand, and material handler. Sources of Additional Information Information on job opportunities as a roustabout is available from local of fices of the State employment service or oil companies. The names and addresses of oil companies are listed in either the U.S.A. Oil Industry Di rectory or the Time Oil and Gas Di rectory. Production Occupations Cars, gasoline, newspapers, eyeglass es, diamond rings, guided missiles, and most other products have at least one thing in common—they are made by production workers. Most produc tion workers are found in manufac turing plants, but others work in set tings as different as shoe repair shops, photofinishing laboratories, jewelry stores, and meat markets. There are thousands of production occupations. In many, workers spe cialize in just one task in a process that mass produces a single product. A lens inserter, for example, fits lens es into eyeglass frames. In other pro duction jobs, workers do a variety of tasks to produce many different goods. Machinists, for example, make preci sion metal parts for industrial machin ery, completing all of the steps that are required to finish the product. Some workers perform simple, repet itive operations on large machine tools, while others—jewelers, for ex ample—use handtools to do delicate work. Not all production workers turn out products, however. Some operate complex systems of boilers, genera tors, pumps, and valves that produce clean water or energy. Training requirements for produc tion workers vary widely. Some work ers who do repetitive tasks can learn their job in a few days. Other jobs require years of experience. Many production workers learn their skills through apprenticeship programs that combine classroom instruction with on-the-job training. Others receive training in public and private vocational schools and in the Armed Forces. Blue-collar worker supervisors work closely with the people they supervise. 408 The occupational statements in this chapter describe in detail the work, training, and job outlook for 21 pro duction occupations. Blue-Collar Worker Supervisors (List o f D .O .T . codes available on request. See p. 495.)______________________________________ Nature of the Work In any organization, someone has to be boss. For the millions of workers who assemble manufactured goods, service motor vehicles, lay bricks, unload ships, or perform any of thou sands of other activities, a blue-collar worker supervisor is the boss. These supervisors direct the activities of other employees and frequently en sure that millions of dollars worth of equipment and materials are used properly and efficiently. While bluecollar worker supervisors are most commonly known as foremen or fore women, they also have many other titles. In the textile industry, they are referred to as second hands; on ships, they are known as boatswains; and in the construction industry, they are often called overseers, strawbosses, or gang leaders. Although titles may differ, the jobs of all blue-collar worker supervisors are similar. They tell other employees what work has to be done and make sure the work is done correctly. For example, manufacturing supervisors may inspect products during and after the production process to make sure that they conform to customer speci fications and company standards. Loading supervisors at truck termi nals assign workers to load trucks, and then check that the material is loaded correctly and that each truck is fully used. They may mark freight bills and record the load and weight of each truck. Mine car dispatchers con trol the transport of coal through un derground mines. Because they are responsible for the output of other workers, supervi Production Occupations /409 sors make work schedules and keep problems are offset by the satisfaction aerospace, oil, and electronics indus production and employee records. that they may find in having more tries. Employers generally prefer They plan employees’ activities and challenging and prestigious jobs than backgrounds in engineering, business administration, industrial relations, must allow for unforeseen problems most blue-collar workers. mathematics, or science. New em such as absent workers and machine ployees undergo on-the-job training breakdowns. Supervisors teach em Employment ployees safe work practices and en Blue-collar worker supervisors held until they are able to accept supervi force safety rules and regulations. about 1.5 million jobs in 1984. Al sory responsibilities. Outstanding supervisors, parti They also may demonstrate timesav though they are found in almost all ing or laborsaving techniques to work businesses and government agencies, cularly those with college educa ers and insure that new employees are over half worked in manufacturing, tion, may move up to higher man properly trained. They often assign supervising the production of cars, agement positions. In manufacturing, trainees to work with experienced washing machines, and thousands of for example, they may advance to workers to learn different aspects of other products. Most of the rest jobs such as department head and worked in the construction industry, plant manager. Some supervisors, the job. In addition to their other duties, wholesale and retail trade, public util particularly in the construction indus blue-collar worker supervisors tell ities, transportation, and government try, use the experience and skills they their subordinates about company agencies. Employment is distributed gain to go into business for them plans and policies; recommend good in much the same way as the popula selves. perform ers for wage increases, tion, and jobs are located in all cities Job Outlook awards, or promotions; and deal and towns. Employment of blue-collar worker su with poor performers by retraining pervisors is expected to increase more them in proper methods, issuing Training, Other Qualifications, and slowly than the average for all occu warnings, or recommending that Advancement they be disciplined or fired. In com When choosing supervisors, employ pations through the mid-1990’s. Al panies where employees belong to ers generally look for experience, job though rising incomes will stimulate labor unions, supervisors meet with knowledge, organizational skills, and demand for goods such as air-cond union representatives to discuss leadership qualities. Employers em itioners, home entertainment equip work problems and grievances. They phasize the ability to motivate em ment, personal computers, and auto must know the provisions of labor- ployees, maintain high morale, com mobiles, employment in manufac management contracts and run their mand respect, and get along with peo turing industries will grow slowly due operations according to these agree ple. The ability to communicate to increasing foreign competition. This effectively, both orally and in writing, will dampen demand for supervisors. ments. also is essential. Completion of high Although most of these supervisors school often is the minimum educa will continue to work in manufac Working Conditions Although working conditions vary tional requirement, and 1 or 2 years of turing, a large part of the increase in from industry to industry, most blue- college or technical school can be jobs will be in nonmanufacturing in collar worker supervisors work in a very helpful to workers who want to dustries, especially in the trade and service sectors. normal shop environment. They may become supervisors. In addition to the jobs resulting in Most supervisors rise through the be on their feet much of the time overseeing the work of subordinates ranks—that is, they are promoted increased demand for supervisors, and may be subjected to the noise and from jobs where they operated a many openings will arise from the grime of machinery. Construction su machine, worked on an assembly line, need to replace workers who leave or at a construction craft. This work their occupation. Supervisors have a pervisors may work outdoors. Since these supervisors are respon experience gives them the advan relatively strong attachment to the sible for the work of other blue-collar tage of knowing how jobs should occupation, but because the occupa workers, they may work longer hours be done and what problems may arise. tion is so large, turnover results in a in order to be on the job before other It also provides them with insight large number of openings. Because blue-collar worker super workers arrive and after they leave. into employee attitudes towards man Although many supervisors work a agement policies. Supervisors are visors are so important to the success 5-day, 40-hour week, others work in sometimes former union representa ful operation of a firm, they are often plants that operate around the clock tives who are familiar with grievance protected from layoffs during a reces and may have to work any one of procedures and union contracts. To sion. Supervisors in the construction three shifts—often on a rotating ba supplement this work experience, industry, however, may experience sis—as well as on weekends and hol many companies have training pro periodic layoffs when construction ac grams to help develop supervisory tivity declines. idays. Foremen and forewomen some skills. Although few blue-collar worker Earnings times are caught in the middle be tween the work force and manage supervisors are college graduates, Median weekly earnings for bluement. New supervisors who are hired some employers hire trainees with a collar worker supervisors were from outside the firm also may face college or technical school back about $460 in 1984. The middle 50 initial hostility from workers who feel ground. This practice is most preva percent earned between $350 and they should have been promoted to lent in industries with highly technical $630. The lowest 10 percent earned the job. For many supervisors, these production processes, such as the less than $265 and the highest 10 410/Occupational Outlook Handbook percent earned over $790. Super visors receive a salary determined by the wage rates of the highest paid workers they supervise. For ex ample, most companies keep wages of supervisors about 10 to 30 percent higher than those of their subordi nates. Some supervisors receive over time pay. Related Occupations Other workers with similar superviso ry duties include those who supervise professional and technical, sales, cler ical, and service workers. Some of these are retail store or retail depart ment managers; bank officers and head tellers; hotel managers, house keepers, and assistants; postmasters and line supervisors; head cooks; head nurses; and surveyors. Sources of Additional Information A bibliography of literature on man agement occupations is available from: American Management Association, 135 West 50th St., New York, N.Y. 10020. Precision Production Occupations The workers discussed in this section of the Handbook produce goods that must meet rigid quality standards. In addition, many of these workers must interpret very detailed instructions and specifications. Tool makers, for example, produce tools such as guides for drill presses that must be made to precise specifications because they are used to make hundreds or even thousands of identical parts. To do the job correctly, the tool maker must be able to read and follow exactly the blueprints provided by the tool de signer. There are no universal training re quirements for these workers. Most precision production jobs can be learned informally—starting as a help er and observing experienced work ers. Some companies offer in-house training programs on specific areas of the work. The preferred training for many of the more highly skilled occu pations—machinists, tool-and-die makers, and lithographers, for exam ple—is completion of a formal appren ticeship program after completing high school. These programs, which usual ly last from 3 to 5 years, combine classroom instruction with on-the-job training. Job prospects for precision produc tion workers vary widely. While new technologies and foreign competition will limit job growth in some occupa tions, other precision production oc cupations will enjoy strong growth. See the Handbook statements that follow for information on the job out look in specific occupations. ucts. Boilermakers assemble, erect, ever, once the pieces for a larger and repair these vessels and related boiler or tank have been cut out and checked for proper fit, they are trans equipment. Boilermakers follow blueprints and ported to the shop or construction site templates in marking offlines, curves, for installation. There, boilermakers holes, and dimensions on metal plates assemble and erect the vessels using and tubes used to make the various rigging equipment such as hoists and parts of a boiler, vat, or tank. Mark jacks to lift heavy metal parts into ings must be planned and measured place, and then weld or rivet the parts carefully, allowing for the curvature together. Because installation work and thickness of the metal. Because must meet statutory safety standards, errors in size or shape may be difficult boilers are carefully tested for leaks or impossible to correct after the met and other defects. Boilermakers also install auxiliary al is cut, these workers use instru ments, such as compasses, protrac equipment on boilers and other ves tors, gauges, and scales, to make pre sels. For example, they install vapor barriers on open-top oil, gas, and cise measurements. After they cut and shape the metal chemical storage tanks to prevent to specifications, boilermakers use fumes from polluting the air, and air bolts or temporary welds, called pollution control equipment, such as tackwelds, to hold the parts in place precipitators and smoke scrubbers, in while they check to see that parts line electric plants that burn high-sulfur up according to the blueprints. They coal. Some highly skilled boilermakers use grinders or cutting torches to re move excess metal, and welding ma (called mechanics) also maintain and chines to fill in small gaps. A new make repairs so that boilers remain piece may have to be cut for large safe and in good working condition. For example, when boilers occasion gaps. Small boilers may be assembled at ally develop leaks, boilermaker me the plant where they are made; how chanics may dismantle the boiler, Boilermakers (D.O.T. 805.261 .361, and .381) Nature of the Work Boilers, vats, and other large vessels that hold liquids and gases are essen tial to many industries. Boilers, for example, supply the steam that drives the huge turbines in electric utility plants and ships. Tanks and vats are used to process and store chemicals, oil, beer, and hundreds of other prod Boilermakers may spend hours working in stooped and cramped positions. 411 412/Occupational Outlook Handbook patch weak spots with metal stock, re place defective sections, or strength en joints. Working Conditions When laying out, fitting, assembling, or repairing boilers, workers often use potentially dangerous equipment, such as acetylene torches and power grinders, and handle heavy materials. Work may be done in cramped quar ters inside boilers, vats, or tanks, which are often damp and poorly ven tilated. Because workers occasionally work at great heights on top of large vessels, this occupation is more haz ardous than many other metalworking occupations. To reduce the chance of injuries, many workers wear protec tive equipment, such as safety har nesses, safety glasses, and helmets. Boilermakers occasionally work nights or weekends to meet construction or production deadlines. Employment Boilermakers held about 38,000 jobs in 1984, reflecting the slow recovery in boiler manufacturing activity from the 1981-82 recession as well as the recent slowdown in electric powerplant construction. About 4 of every 10 boilermakers work in the construc tion industry, mainly assembling and erecting boilers and other pressure vessels. In addition, many work in the maintenance and repair departments of iron and steel plants, petroleum refineries, railroads, shipyards, and electric powerplants. Large numbers also work for boiler repair firms and in Federal Government installations, principally in Navy shipyards and Federal powerplants. Boilermakers who lay out and fit structural parts together work mainly in plants that make fire-tube and water-tube boilers, heat exchangers, heavy tanks, and similar products. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities agree that a formal apprenticeship is the best way to learn this trade. Nevertheless, many people become boilermakers by working for several years as helpers to experienced boilermakers. Appren ticeship programs are administered by joint union-management committees and usually consist of 4 years of onthe-job training, supplemented by about 150 hours of classroom instruc Digitized for tion each year in subjects such as FRASER blueprint reading, shop mathematics, and welding. Helpers who learn the craft by working with experienced boilermak ers generally reach the journeyman level after at least 4 years on the job. They generally lack the wide range of skills acquired through the appren ticeship process, however. When hiring apprentices or helpers, employers prefer high school or voca tional school graduates. A high school diploma usually is required to partici pate in a formal apprenticeship pro gram. Courses in shop, mathematics, blueprint reading, welding, and ma chine metalworking provide a useful background for all boilermaking jobs. Most firms require applicants to pass a physical examination because good health and the capacity to do heavy work are necessary in these jobs. Me chanical aptitude and the manual dex terity needed to handle tools also are important qualifications. Boilermakers who become skilled in the practical and technical aspects of the trade may advance to supervi sory positions. Earnings Median hourly earnings of full-time boilermakers were about $11.25 in 1984; the middle 50 percent earned between $8.75 and $15. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.25, and the top 10 percent earned more than $15.25. In general, boilermakers in construction earn the highest hourly wages. Hourly wage rates for many union boilermakers employed in fab ricated plate work and in the petro leum and shipbuilding industries ranged from about $10 to $14 in 1984. In contrast, the average hourly wage for all nonsupervisory workers in pri vate industry, except farming, was $8.33. Most boilermakers belong to labor unions. The principal union is the International Brotherhood of Boiler makers, Iron Shipbuilders, Black smiths, Forgers and Helpers. Other workers are members of the Inter national Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; United Auto mobile, Aerospace, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; and the United Steelworkers of America. Job Outlook Employment of boilermakers is ex pected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Most open ings will arise each year from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other fields of work or retire. The expected construction of many new electric powerplants will create a need for additional boilers and will cause employment of boilermakers to increase. However, an anticipated slowdown in other industries that use boiler products, such as chemical and petroleum refining, would offset much of this increase. Most of the industries that purchase boilers are sensitive to economic con ditions. Therefore, during economic downturns some boilermakers may be laid off, and some may have to move from one area of the country to anoth er to find employment. Because exist ing boilers must be maintained and repaired even during economic down turns, boilermaker mechanics gener ally have more stable employment. When economic activity declines, some experienced construction boil ermakers move into mechanic posi tions. Related Occupations Workers in a number of other occupa tions assemble, install, or repair metal equipment or machines. These in clude assemblers, blacksmiths, instru ment makers, ironworkers, machin ists, millwrights, patternmakers, plumbers, sheet-metal workers, tooland-die makers, and welders and oth ers. Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding boilermaking apprenticeships or other training opportunities, contact local offices of the unions previously men tioned, local construction companies and boiler manufacturers, or the local office of the State employment office. Bookbinding Workers (D .O .T. 653.360-010, -014 and -018, .380-010, .382010, .562-010, .585-010, .662-010, .680-010, .682-010, -014, -018 and -022, .685-010, -014, -022, -026 and -030; 692.685-146; 977.381-010 and -014) Nature of the Work Bookbinding—the assembly of books in quantity from large, flat, printed sheets of paper—is one of the most complicated occupations of the print- Production Occupations/413 ing industries. Skilled bookbinders (D.O.T. 977.381-010) operate ma chines that first fold the printed sheets into units, known as “ signatures,” so that the pages will be in the right order. They then insert any illustra tions that have been printed separate ly, gather and assemble signatures in proper order, and sew them together. They shape the book bodies with presses and trimming machines and reinforce them with glued fabric strips. Covers are glued or pasted onto the book bodies, and then the books un dergo a variety of finishing opera tions, often including wrapping in pa per jackets. Machines are used exten sively throughout the process. Many skilled bookbinders also bind maga zines. Bookbinding workers seldom per form all the different binding tasks, although some have training in all of them. Some workers specialize in ad justing and preparing equipment to perform a particular job. Others oper ate specific equipment such as folding or gathering machines. In large shops, bookbinding workers may be assigned to one or a few operations, most often to the operation of complicated ma chines, such as a large papercutter or a folding machine. When necessary, they repair and adjust bindery equip ment. In many shops, much of the work is done by bindery workers who are trained to perform a few relatively simple tasks. For example, semi skilled bindery workers perform such tasks as fastening sheets or signatures together using a machine stapler and feeding signatures into various ma chines for stitching, folding, or gluing operations. A small number of bookbinders work in hand binderies. These highly skilled workers design original or spe cial bindings for limited editions or restore and rebind rare books. The work requires creative ability, knowl edge of materials, and a thorough background in the history of binding. Hand bookbinding is perhaps the only kind of binding that gives the individ ual an opportunity to work at a variety of jobs. Working Conditions The job is physically demanding, as bookbinders do considerable lifting, standing, and carrying. Binderies are often noisy and smell of glue and paper. Employment Bookbinding workers held about 81,000 jobs in 1984, and were distrib uted as follows: Bindery machine operators and bindery machine setters and setup op erators....................... Precision bookbinders............... 70,000 11,000 Although some bookbinding jobs are in large libraries or in shops that specialize in bookbinding, most are in commercial printing plants. Few pub lishers maintain their own manufac turing facilities, so the printing of a book generally is contracted out to commercial printing plants. Most bookbinders are employed full time. Although bookbinding workers are found in all parts of the country, em ployment is concentrated in large printing centers such as New York, Chicago, Washington, D.C., Los Angeles, Philadelphia, and Dallas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Bookbinding workers learn the craft through on-the-job training or formal apprenticeship. Different levels of specialization and skill demand differ ent amounts of training. Thus, a 5year apprenticeship usually is neces sary to teach workers how to restore rare books. A 4-year apprenticeship prepares workers to operate machin ery such as signature folders, while a 2-year program imparts the skills needed to operate the stitching ma chine which sews the signatures to gether. Apprenticeship applicants usually must have a high school education, mechanical aptitude, and be at least 18 years of age. In most plants, book binders are taught to operate and maintain at least three different pieces of bindery equipment. For many, if not most bookbinding jobs, a formal apprenticeship is not necessary. On-the-job training is usu ally provided by the firm. Individuals with some knowledge of bookbinding are likely to have an advantage in being accepted for employer-provided training. High school students inter ested in bookbinding careers can gain some exposure to the industry by tak ing shop courses or attending a voca tional technical high school. Occupa tional skill centers also provide an introduction to the industry. Post secondary programs in the graphic arts are offered by vocational-techn ical institutes; journeyman up-date or retraining programs; and community and junior colleges. Four-year college programs help prepare people who may eventually move into manage ment positions in the graphic arts in dustry. Accuracy, patience, neatness, and good eyesight are among qualities needed by bookbinders. Good finger dexterity is essential for those who Most bookbinding jobs are in commercial printing plants. 414/Occupational Outlook Handbook count, insert, paste, and fold. Artistic ability and imagination are required for hand bookbinding. Advancement opportunities are lim ited. In large binderies, experienced bookbinders may advance to supervi sory positions. Job Outlook Employment of bookbinding workers is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s in response to antici pated growth in commercial printing. A moderate increase in book publish ing is expected as leisure time activi ties become more attractive. As in other occupations, however, most job openings will result from the need to replace experienced bookbinders who change jobs or leave the labor force. While emphasis on productivity im provement is expected to continue in bindery operations, no radical techno logical changes are on the horizon. The bookbinding process is becoming increasingly mechanized through the use of technologies that perform a number of operations in sequence. As a result, labor requirements have been reduced, and jobs of many bindery workers who assisted skilled book binders in the past have already been eliminated. Opportunities for hand bookbinders are limited by the small number of establishments that do this highly spe cialized work. Earnings The basic wage rate for skilled book binders varies across the country. Ac cording to the Graphic Communi cations International Union, hourly wage rates for bookbinders in union ized firms in 1984 were $11.46 for jour neyman level I and $7.97 for level II. Related Occupations Other workers who set up and operate production machinery include paper making machine operators, press op erators, and precision machine opera tors. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeships and other training opportunities may be obtained from local bookbinding shops, local of fices of the Graphic Communications International Union, or local offices of the State employment service. For general information on book Digitized forbinding occupations, write to: FRASER Education Council of the Graphic Arts Indus try, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. Graphic Communications International Union, 1900 L St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Binding Industries of America, 200 E. Ontario St., Chicago, 111. 60611. Butchers and Meatcutters (D.O.T. 316.681-010, .684-018, .684-022; 525.361-010, .381, .664-010) Nature of the Work Butchers and meatcutters prepare meat in supermarkets, wholesale food outlets, and meatpacking plants. They cut animal carcasses into wholesale cuts such as rounds, loins, ribs, and chucks to facilitate handling and mar keting. They use knives and saws to separate wholesale cuts into retail cuts or individual size servings, such as steaks, chops, roasts, filets, and poultry parts. Boneless cuts are fabri cated using knives, slicers, or power cutters while bandsaws are required on bone-in pieces. Meat trimmings are used to prepare hamburgers, sausag es, and luncheon meats. Meatcutters in retail foodstores arrange and dis play meat items in refrigerated cases and assist customers. This statement does not include processing operatives in meatpacking plants who may do only one cut of meat, such as round steaks. Employment Butchers and meatcutters held 222,000 jobs in 1984. About half of the butch ers and meatcutters were employed in retail foodstores. Some were em ployed in meat packinghouses and wholesale establishments. A few were employed by restaurants, hotels, hos pitals, and other institutions. Jobs are located in almost every city and town in the Nation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most butchers and meatcutters ac quire their skills informally on the job or through apprenticeship programs. A few learn their basic skills by at tending trade and vocational schools. However, graduates of these schools may need additional on-the-job train ing and experience to work as butch ers and meatcutters. Packinghouse meatcutters usually start out as proc essing operatives and are trained in formally on the job. Generally, on-the-job trainees begin by doing odd jobs, such as removing bones. Under the guidance of skilled butchers and meatcutters, they learn the proper use of tools and equipment and how to prepare various cuts. Af ter demonstrating skill with tools, they learn to divide quarters into wholesale cuts and wholesale cuts into retail and individual portions. Trainees may learn to roll and tie roasts, prepare sausage, and cure meat. Those in retail food establish ments may learn marketing operations such as inventory control, meat buy ing, and recordkeeping. Butchers and meatcutters who learn the trade through apprenticeship pro- Working Conditions Working conditions vary by type and size of establishment. In large meat packing plants and retail food estab lishments, butchers and meatcutters work in large modern meatcutting rooms equipped with power machines and conveyors. In small retail food establishments, the meatcutter may work in a space behind the meat counter. Butchers and meatcutters work in cold rooms to prevent meat from spoiling. The low temperature, com bined with the need to stand for long periods of time, makes the work tir ing. Butchers and meatcutters have a greater incidence of injury than most other workers. To avoid injury, butch ers and meatcutters must be careful when working with sharp tools—espe cially power tools. Health and safety standards require that work areas be Meatcutters use saws to divide beef quar clean and sanitary. ters into retail cuts. Production Occupations/415 grams generally complete 2 years of supervised on-the-job training supple mented by classroom work. At the end of the training period, apprentices must pass a meatcutting test. In some areas, apprentices may become meatcutters without completing the entire training program if they can pass the test. Skills important in meatcutting are manual dexterity, good depth percep tion, color discrimination, and good eye-hand coordination. Also, strength is needed to lift and move heavy piec es of meat. A pleasant personality, a neat appearance, and the ability to communicate clearly are important qualifications for butchers and meatcutters who wait on customers. A health certificate may be required for employment. Butchers and meatcutters may progress to supervisory jobs, such as meat department managers in super markets. A few become meat buyers for wholesalers and supermarket chains. Some become grocery store managers or open their own meat markets. In meatpacking plants, meatcutters move up to supervisory positions. Job Outlook Employment of butchers and meatcut ters is expected to decline slightly through the mid-1990’s. Nevertheless, thousands of jobs will be available each year because of the need to re place experienced workers who trans fer to other occupations or leave the labor force. As the Nation’s popula tion grows, the demand for meat should increase. However, this in crease in demand will be more than offset by the increasing prevalence of “ boxing” —cutting and packaging meat at the meatpacking plant. In the future, even more cutting is expected to be shifted to meatpacking plants. Most meat in these plants is processed by operatives, rather than by meatcut ters, so that fewer meatcutters will be needed. Prototypes of automated cut ting equipment are being tested. How ever, each animal carcass is different, and these machines cannot yet adapt to the differences. They therefore are not likely to be widely used in the near future. Earnings Journeyman meatcutters earned be tween $11 and $16 an hour in 1985, according to a survey of union wage rates for grocery store employees in cities of 100,000 inhabitants or more. Earnings for meatcutters in meatpack ing plants vary widely, depending on the size of plant, geographic location, and union contract. Many butchers and meatcutters are members of the United Food and Commercial Workers International Union. Related Occupations Butchers and meatcutters must be skilled at both hand and machine work and must have some knowledge of processes and techniques involved in preparing food. Other occupations in food preparation which require sim ilar skills and knowledge are bakers, cooks, and kitchen supervisors. Sources of Additional Information Information about work opportunities can be obtained from local employers or local offices of the State employ ment service. For information on training and other aspects of the trade, contact: United Food and Commercial Workers Inter national Union, 1775 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Compositors and Typesetters (D.O.T. 203.362-018, .382-018 and -026, .582-042, -046, -062 and -074; 208.382-010; 650.582-010, -014, -018 and -022; 652.585-010, .685-106; 973.381-010, -014, -018, -022 and -030; 979.381-018 and -022) Nature of the Work In small shops, one person may do all the work needed to complete a print ing job. In large shops, however, the work is divided among specialists. Among these are compositors, who prepare preliminary printing plates for pressroom workers who do the actual printing. Compositors specialize in typesetting either by “ hot type,” “ cold type,” or photocomposition. There are several ways of setting and producing printed material. Hand compositors make up the oldest com posing room occupation but exist only in “ hot type” operations. Today, hand typesetting is rarely used except for small, specialty jobs where the setting of type by machine is imprac tical. Hand typesetters read from the copy and set each line of type, letter by letter, on a “ composing stick,” a device that holds type in place. They select the place where words will be divided and a hyphen placed if the word does not fit on a line, as well as adjust the spacing of the type with pieces of metal so that the line of type will be equal to the width of the col umn. As each “ stick” is filled, they slide the completed lines into a shal low metal tray called “galley.” Once the article is completed, the type is transferred from the galley to type frames used to hold the text together while in the printing press. Linotype and monotype machine operators are craft workers who oper ate semiautomatic machines that set type much more rapidly than can be done by hand. Linotype machine operators read from copy clipped to the machine and operate a keyboard to select letters and other characters. As they press the keys, metal molds of the letters are assembled into lines of words. After completing a line, operators touch a lever and the machine auto matically fills the molds with molten lead, forming a line of type into a solid metal strip called a “ slug.” The slugs are assembled into the type frames from which printing plates are made. Monotype keyboard operators also operate a keyboard machine. Howev er, instead of selecting metal molds, the monotype machine produces a perforated paper tape. The operators feed the tape into a machine that reads the tape and automatically selects metal molds for each letter. The ma chine then forces molten metal into each mold to form the type. While machines make their tasks easier, monotype and linotype ma chine operators must hyphenate and adjust type spacing to fit the width of columns. In small plants, operators also may maintain and repair typeset ting machines. The craft of composing and typeset ting has been revolutionized by ad vances in technology, and very little typesetting will continue to be done by hand or with monotype and linotype machines. Together, photog raphy and computers have changed the way written material and graphics are converted into print. Computer generated typesetting is firmly estab lished at most large daily newspapers, and some papers are using electronic pagination, or page makeup, systems. With phototypesetting equipment, a photographic process replaces the casting of type, and the final product 416/Occupational Outlook Handbook is a photographic positive film or pa per of the type rather than a metal slug. In a common form of phototype setting, a phototypesetter keyboards the text without regard to column width or hyphenation and produces a perforated paper or magnetic tape. The operator then feeds the tape con taining the text into a computer that is programmed to hyphenate and create columns of text. The computer cre ates a second tape containing the text as it will appear when printed which phototypesetters insert into a photo composition machine. This machine displays the individual characters on the tape and photographs them. The phototypesetter then develops films of the material to be printed. After the copy is set, typesetters pass it to other compositors who ar range the columns of type, pictures, and illustrations according to the lay out for each page submitted by the editor. If letterpress printing equip ment is being used, arrangers assem ble the metal type and photoengrav ings in a large metal frame that clamps all the pieces together. If lithographic film equipment is being used, they cut the film of type and pictures and tape the pieces in place. The most advanced method of type setting, called electronic pagination, is in limited commercial use at pre sent. Using phototypesetting equip A compositor checking his work. ment, an operator uses a keyboard to select the size and style of type, the column width, and appropriate spac ing, as well as to store each character in a computer. The computer then displays and arranges columns of type on a screen that is similar to a TV screen. An entire newspaper page— complete with artwork and graphics— can be made up on the screen exactly as it will appear in print. Operators visually check the text and make any required corrections. The information is then transmitted to a machine that produces a film of the material. After arranging all the pages of a particular job in proper sequence, compositors make page proofs to re view the entire job. Page proofs are checked with the original copy for errors and returned to the editor for final changes. After final changes have been put into the type, the plate is sent to the pressroom where produc tion printing plates are made. Working Conditions Hand compositors are on their feet most of the time and do some fairly heavy lifting. Typesetting machine operators sit for long periods of time. Monotype and linotype machines are very noisy. The work environment may be hot and dirty. However, pho totypesetters usually work in clean, air-conditioned offices with little noise. Eyestrain from working in front of a video display terminal, as well as stress and musculoskeletal problems, such as backaches, can be a problem. All compositors may be required to work overtime to meet publication deadlines; some regularly work evening or night shifts. Compositors employed by newspapers may work holidays and weekends. Employment Composing room workers held nearly 94,000 jobs in 1984. Employment was distributed as follows: Compositors, typesetters, and arrangers..................................... Typesetting and composing machine operators and ten d ers......................................... Data keyers, com p osin g............. 37,000 36,000 21,000 About 37 percent of all jobs were in newspaper plants and 23 percent were in commercial printing plants. The remainder were in other kinds of printing and publishing firms; in busi ness firms, including mailing, repro duction, commercial art, and steno graphic service establishments; and in a wide range of firms that do their own printing. Composing room workers are locat ed in alm ost every community throughout the country, but they are concentrated in large printing centers such as New York, Los Angeles, Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, Chi cago, and Dallas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In the past, almost all compositors were trained through some type of apprenticeship program. This has changed with the introduction of new technologies, which have lowered skill requirements. Today, most composi tors bypass the traditional apprentice ship and learn the craft on the job. Employers generally prefer to hire and train individuals who are already familiar with the industry. Some em ployers promote from within, select ing employees whose past perform ance indicates they could master the necessary skills. Formal graphic arts programs also provide an introduction to the industry. Courses are offered in vocational-technical institutes; indus try-sponsored update and retraining programs; private trade and technical schools; and community and junior colleges. Four-year colleges offer graphic arts programs for those who Production Occupations/417 may eventually move into manage ment positions. In an apprenticeship program, em phasis is placed on the operation of phototypesetting machines and in pho tocomposition work. Generally, ap prenticeship covers a 4-year period of training, supplemented by classroom instruction or correspondence cours es. However, this period may be shortened by as much as 2 to 2 1/2 years for apprentices who have had previous experience or schooling or who show the ability to learn the trade more rapidly. Job applicants should be high school graduates, in good physical condition, and know how to type. Individuals interested in working for firms that utilize advanced printing technology need sufficient knowledge of electron ics and computers to indicate an apti tude for mastering computerized pho tocomposition equipment. Manual dexterity and the ability to pay atten tion to detail and to work indepen dently are important qualities for com positors who do layout work. Persons with good typing skills can learn to be phototypesetting machine operators in a relatively short period of time. These workers need not be trained as skilled compositors, but they must be familiar with printing terms and measures. In recent years, many monotype and linotype opera tors have been retrained as photo typesetting operators. Job Outlook Employment of compositors and type setters is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s, largely mir roring growth trends in the printing industries. Technological develop ments will cause some composing room occupations to grow more rap idly than others, however. The num ber of photocomposition and photo typesetting jobs is expected to in crease substantially as electronic composition replaces traditional com posing and typesetting methods. Jobs that involve older methods and equip ment will be phased out in many firms. Up to this point, implementation of technologies such as typesetting com puters, video display terminals (VDT’s), and phototypesetting ma chines has had the greatest impact on newspapers. Computerized equip ment has shifted much of the work away from traditional craft occupa percent earned less than $9,900 and 10 tions to photocomposition occupa percent more than $24,700. The average wage rate for journey tions that require little more than man workers in the composing rooms competent keyboarding skills. Newspaper employment is expect of newspapers organized by the Inter ed to grow as the industry expands, national Typographical Union was and newspapers will provide more $11.42 an hour in 1985, according to a new jobs for compositors and typeset survey by the American Newspaper ters than any other sector of the print Publishers Association. Computer ing industry. Individuals proficient in typists earn considerably less than the newer photocomposition tech journeyman composing room work ers—45 to 50 percent of the journey niques will fill most of these jobs. As the cost declines, applications of man rate, according to a limited num typesetting computers are taking hold ber of union contracts. in the commercial printing industry as well. Development of microproces Related Occupations sors, which reduce the size and cost Other occupations in which workers of equipment, makes electronic com operate machines equipped with key position accessible to the small firms boards include clerk-typists, comput that dominate the industry. As is the er terminal system operators, key case in newspapers, expansion of the punch operators, and telegraphic-type commercial printing industry is ex writer operators. pected to offset the laborsaving effect of the new technologies, but compos Sources of Additional Information ing and typesetting jobs with lower Details about apprenticeship and oth skill requirements will grow at the er training opportunities may be ob tained from local employers such as expense of traditional craft jobs. The printing trade services industry newspapers and printing shops, the will also benefit from the lower costs local office of the International Typo associated with electronic composi graphical Union, or the local office of tion. This small industry sector will the State employment service. For general information on compos contribute to overall job growth be cause it employs a relatively large ing room occupations, write to: number of compositors and typeset Education Council of the Graphic Arts Indus ters. Although most openings will be try, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. in the printing industry, some jobs for Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N. compositors and typesetters will be in Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22209. other industries such as businesses International Typographical Union, P.O. Box that provide printing for direct mail 157, Colorado Springs, Col. 80901. Graphic Communications International Union, advertisers. Opportunities should be best for 1900 L St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. persons who have industry experi ence or have completed postsecond ary programs in printing technology, such as those offered by community Dental Laboratory colleges and vocational-technical in Technicians stitutes. Many employers prefer to (D.O.T. 712.281-010 and .381-014, -018, -022, -026 hire applicants who have completed and -030) ______ _____________________ these programs because the compre hensive training they receive helps Nature of the Work them learn composing room trades Dental laboratory technicians are and adapt to new processes and tech skilled craft workers who make and repair a wide variety of dental appli niques more rapidly. ances, such as dentures, partial den tures, inlays, crowns, and orthodontic Earnings appliances. All work is done accord Earnings of compositors and typeset ing to written prescriptions submitted ters vary widely, reflecting differences by the dentist. Technicians make ap in industry, skill level, and region of pliances from acrylics, ceramics, and the country. Median annual earnings metals. They use models of dental of full-time compositors and typeset stone or plaster pourings made from ters were about $15,700 in 1984; the impressions of a patient’s teeth or middle 50 percent earned between mouth taken by the dentist. Some $12,400 and $20,000 annually. Ten times these models are made by the 418/Occupational Outlook Handbook dentist or an assistant, but most often by the technician. Most technicians specialize. For example, a dental ceramist (D.O.T. 712.281-010) bonds dental porcelain over a metal framework to form por celain crowns, bridges, and tooth fac ings; an orthodontic technician (D.O.T. 712.381-030) makes applianc es for straightening teeth and treating speech impediments; and some tech nicians fabricate and repair full and partial dentures. Trainees in beginning jobs usually mix and pour plaster into impression molds and perform other simple tasks. As they gain experience, they do more precise laboratory work such as arranging artificial teeth on dental ap pliances, working with dental ceram ics (porcelain), or making castings of gold or chrome metal alloys. Techni cians use small hand instruments such as wax spatulas and wax carvers, as well as special electric lathes and drills, high-heat furnaces, metal-melt ing torches, and other specialized lab oratory equipment. Working Conditions Whether they are employed in inde pendent commercial laboratories, dental offices, or in home laborato ries, dental technicians work in typi cal laboratory surroundings. Work ar eas are generally clean, well lighted, and well ventilated. Technicians usu Precise work requires concentration. ally have their own workbenches which are equipped with Bunsen burn ers, grinding and polishing machines, and various handtools. Where many power tools are operating, noise lev els may be considerable. The work is not strenuous, and although there may be pressure to meet schedules, dentists’ deadlines usually are flexible enough to allow for any problems or special requirements that may be in volved in completing a difficult job. Salaried technicians usually work 40 hours a week but self-employed technicians frequently work longer hours. Employment Dental laboratory technicians held about 51,000 jobs in 1984. Most jobs were in commercial dental laborato ries, which usually are small, private ly owned businesses with fewer than 10 employees. However, a few labo ratories are much larger, and employ over 200 technicians. Dental laborato ries are located throughout the coun try, but mainly in large cities and populous States. Many laboratories receive work through the mail from dentists who work a considerable dis tance away. About 9,000 dental laboratory tech nicians worked in dentists’ offices. Others worked for hospitals that pro vide dental services and for the Fed eral Government, chiefly in Veterans Administration hospitals and clinics. Approximately 1 technician in 5 is self-employed, a higher proportion than in most other occupations. Some of these jobs are held by technicians who “ moonlight,” doing work in home dental laboratories in addition to their regular job. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most dental laboratory technicians learn their craft on the job, usually in 3 to 4 years. High school graduates are preferred, and courses in art, met al shop, and science are helpful. Many of those hired as trainees already have some knowledge of dental laboratory work, usually because they have tak en courses or completed formal train ing programs. Training in dental laboratory tech nology is available through communi ty and junior colleges, vocationaltechnical institutes, and trade schools; high school vocational education pro grams; apprenticeships; and the Armed Forces. Formal training pro grams vary greatly both in length and the level of skill they impart. Accred ited programs generally take 2 years to complete and lead to an associate degree, although some lead to a cer tificate or diploma. In 1984, 58 programs in dental lab oratory technology were approved (accredited) by the Commission on Dental Accreditation in conjunction with the American Dental Association (ADA). These programs provide class room instruction in dental law and ethics, chemistry, ceramics, metallur gy, and related subjects. In addition, each student is given supervised prac tical experience in the school or an associated dental laboratory. Students who have taken enough courses to learn the basics of the craft generally are considered by employ ers to be good candidates for training, regardless of whether they have com pleted the formal program. (Many stu dents—vocational education students and apprentices in particular—drop out before completing the entire se quence of courses.) However, even graduates of 2-year training programs need about 3 additional years of prac tical experience to become fully qual ified in the craft. Military personnel who receive dental laboratory training in the Armed Forces usually qualify Production Occupations/419 for civilian jobs as dental laboratory technicians. Certification, which is voluntary, is offered by the National Board for Cer tification in five specialty areas: Crown and bridge, ceramics, partial dentures, complete dentures, and orthodontics. Certification is increas ingly important as evidence of a tech nician’s competence. Depending upon their skill, experi ence, and education, dental techni cians may advance to supervisory or managerial positions. For some tech nicians, career advancement means moving into a related job within the dental field; well-qualified technicians may become instructors in dental lab training programs, or sales represen tatives for dental products companies. Still, for most technicians, advance ment in this field means running one’s own laboratory and enjoying the high er earnings that can accompany own ership. Among the personal traits impor tant in this occupation are a high de gree of finger dexterity, good vision, and the ability to recognize very fine color shadings. These attributes must be combined with the ability to follow instructions and an inclination for de tailed and absolutely accurate work. High school students interested in ca reers in this occupation are advised to take courses in art, crafts, metal shop, metallurgy, and sciences. Job Outlook Employment of dental laboratory technicians is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupa tions through the mid-1990’s in re sponse to rising incomes, population changes, and the growth of dental insurance plans. The population will include a larger proportion of elderly people, a group with a high level of need for the crowns, bridges, and den tures produced by dental laboratory technicians. The growing popularity of orthodontal work well beyond ado lescent years may further heighten demand for dental laboratory serv ices. Emphasis on orthodontic and cosmetic work may be spurred by dentists’ marketing efforts, as compe tition among practitioners intensifies, not only for clientele, but for incomemaximizing services. Because dental laboratory techni cians exhibit relatively strong attach ment to the field, replacement needs are less important as a source of jobs than is the case for most other work ers. However, some experienced workers leave dental laboratory tech nology each year to transfer to other occupations, and some retire. Despite the trend toward corporate ownership of medical and dental lab oratories, opportunities should be good for experienced technicians who wish to establish laboratories of their own. A technician whose work has become known to several dentists in a community will have the best pros pects of building a successful busi ness. Sources of Additional Information For information about training and a list of approved schools, contact: American Dental Association, Council on Den tal Education, Division of Educational Mea surement, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. Information on scholarships is avail able from dental technology schools or from the American Fund for Dental Health, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chica go, 111. 60611. For information on career opportu nities in commercial laboratories and requirements for certification, con tact: National Association of Dental Laboratories, Earnings 3801 Mt. Vernon Ave., Alexandria, Va. 22305. Dental laboratory technicians who worked full time in commercial labo ratories earned about $333 a week in 1984, according to the limited data Jewelers available. Generally, education and (D.O.T. 700.281-010, -014, -022, and .381-030, -042, experience, along with a specialized and -046) skill, bring higher earnings. For exam ple, technicians who specialize in ce Nature of the Work ramics receive much higher salaries For thousands of years, people have than those who specialize in contour worn and admired jewelry made from wire framing. Large dental laborato precious metals and stones, such as ries employ supervisors or managers, gold and diamonds. Jewelers use such who usually earn more than techni materials to make and repair rings, cians. In general, earnings of self- necklaces, bracelets, earrings, and employed technicians exceed those of other jewelry. Jewelers who work in jewelry stores salaried workers. and repair shops generally provide a In the Federal Government, gradu variety of services to their customers. ates of ADA-approved programs with Much of their time is spent repairing no experience were paid starting sal jewelry. Typical repair jobs are en aries of about $12,900 in 1985. Expe larging or reducing rings, resetting rienced dental laboratory technicians stones, and replacing broken clasps employed in the Federal Government and mountings. Some jewelers also had average earnings of about $21,300 may design jewelry by hand, repair in 1984. watches, and do hand engraving. A Many technicians in commercial small number are qualified gemololaboratories receive paid holidays and gists, who appraise the quality and vacations and some also receive paid value of diamonds and other gem sick leave, bonuses, and other fringe stones. Those who own stores or shops hire benefits. Technicians employed by the Federal Government have the and train employees, order and sell same benefits as other Federal em merchandise, and handle other mana gerial duties. ployees. Jewelers who work in manufac turing generally only do one special Related Occupations ized job. For example, some make Dental laboratory technicians make molds to cast jewelry or dies to stamp artificial teeth, crowns and inlays, and it. Others do finishing work, such as orthodontic appliances following the setting stones or engraving. However, specifications and instructions provid a small number of the most highly ed by the dentist. Other workers who skilled jewelers make entire jewelry make medical devices include arch pieces. Following their own designs support technicians, orthotics techni or those created by designers, they cians (braces and surgical supports), shape the metal with pliers or other prosthetics technicians (artificial limbs handtools or cast it in molds. They and appliances), opticians, and then solder individual parts to form the finished piece. They may carve ophthalmic laboratory technicians. 420/Occupational Outlook Handbook designs in metal, and mount diamonds Employment or other stones. A growing number of Jewelers held about 32,000 jobs in jewelers use lasers to engrave letters 1984. About forty percent of all jew and designs into gold, silver, or other elers are self-employed, operating jewelry stores or repair shops. metals. Many jewelers employed in pre Jewelers use pliers, files, saws, hammers, torches, soldering irons, cious jewelry manufacturing work in and a variety of other small handtools. New York City. Although jewelry They use chemicals and polishing stores and repair shops are located compounds, such as jeweler’s rouge, throughout the country, most jobs in for soldering or finishing. Because the these establishments are in metropol work is very detailed, jewelers often itan areas. wear magnifying glasses. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Working Conditions Jewelers’ skills usually are learned Jewelers usually work in comfortable surroundings, and the trade involves through training on the job or in tech few physical hazards. However, do nical schools. Technical school programs are the ing delicate work while trying to sat major source of training for people isfy demands for speed and quality who want jobs in jewelry stores or from customers and employers can repair shops. In these programs, cause some stress. which vary in length from 6 months to In stores and repair shops, jewelers 3 years, students learn the use and generally work alone with little super care of jewelers’ tools and machines vision. However, in retail stores they and basic jewelers’ skills, such as may talk with customers about repairs casting, stone setting, polishing, and and even do some sales work. design. Some of these courses are In some precious jewelry manufac very technical and cover topics like turing plants, the workweek is 35 blueprint reading, math, and shop the hours. Most jewelers in stores and ory. Store and shop owners prefer repair shops work 40 to 48 hours a graduates of these programs over peo week including evenings and Satur ple with no experience in the trade. day. During peak sales seasons, such However, most employers feel that as Christmas, they often work longer graduates need an additional 3 years hours, but are compensated for over or more of supervised on-the-job train time. However, during slack periods, ing to refine their repair skills and to they may face layoff or a shortened learn more about the operation of the store or shop. In addition, short-term workweek. courses such as sample making, wax carving, and gemology are available at some technical schools to help work ers develop their skills. In jewelry manufacturing plants, workers traditionally have developed their skills through informal on-thejob training programs provided by their employer. This training could last for 3 to 4 years, depending on the difficulty of the skill. Training usually focuses on a particular specialty— casting, stone setting, or engraving. A growing number of technical schools now offer training designed for jewel ers working in manufacturing. Em ployers generally prefer graduates of programs because they already know the basics of the trade and the inhouse training programs can be short ened significantly. A high school education has be come very important for people enter Jewelers use loupes to appraise dia ing the trade. A growing number of Digitized for monds. FRASER technical schools require a high school diploma or its equivalent for admis sion. Courses in art, math, mechani cal drawing, and chemistry are useful, depending on which aspect of the trade one chooses to follow. The precise and delicate nature of jewelry work requires finger and hand dexterity, good eye-hand coordina tion, patience, and concentration. Ar tistic ability is a major asset, because jewelry must be stylish and attractive. Jewelers in retail stores should be neat, personable, and dependable in order to keep satisfied customers. In manufacturing, jewelers some times advance to supervisory jobs; however, advancement opportunities generally are limited. Jewelers who work in jewelry stores or repair shops may become salaried managers of jewelry stores; some open their own businesses. A substantial financial investment is required to operate a jewelry store, because an inventory of expensive merchandise must be obtained. The jewelry business also is highly com petitive. Therefore, jewelers who plan to open their own stores should have experience in selling and business management. Technical school cours es in jewelry retailing and jewelry store management also are helpful. Job Outlook Employment of jewelers is expected to increase more slowly than the av erage for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Demand for jewelry re pair will increase as the stock of jew elry continues to rise. Maintaining and repairing this jewelry will create job opportunities for jewelry repair ers. Additional job openings will re sult from the need to replace experi enced jewelers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Overall, the job outlook will be best in jewelry stores and repair shops. Job opportunities for jewelers in manufacturing depend on jewelry sales. Increasing foreign competition and factory automation have caused employment growth to slow. In addi tion, inflation and recession force peo ple to spend less on luxuries such as jewelry, so that job opportunities in jewelry factories may fluctuate with economic conditions. Busy store and shop owners often are reluctant to hire untrained and inexperienced workers. People enter ing the trade may have trouble finding Production Occupations/421 a job unless they can demonstrate their ability. Such persons can im prove their chances for employment by attending a technical school with a good reputation among local store or shop owners. Earnings Median weekly earnings of full-time jewelers were about $290 in 1984. The middle 50 percent earned between $225 and $390. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $130, and the top 10 percent earned more than $550. Earnings of experienced, unionized jewelry work ers in manufacturing ranged from about $8.50 to $10.50 an hour, according to the limited information available. New workers in jewelry factories received about $5 an hour to start. New workers receive periodic raises up to the mini mum union wage for their job. Related Occupations Jewelers are important craft workers in the jewelry industry. Other skilled workers in this industry include gem cutters, gemologists, hand engravers, model makers, and watch repairers. Sources of Additional Information For information on job opportunities in jewelry stores as well as informa tion on training programs, contact: Jewelers of America, Time-Life Building, Suite 650, 1271 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10020. Lithographic and Photoengraving Workers (D .O .T. 652.665-014, .685-022 and -086; 970.361-014, .381-030; 971.261, .381 except -042, -046 and -058, .382, .685; 972.281; .282-010 and -014, .381 except -018; .382; 979.381-018 and -022, .382-022, .682-014) Nature of the Work Lithography, also called offset print ing, is the dominant method of print ing. In this process, lithographers photograph or scan the material to be printed and make a printing plate from the film which, when inked, is pressed against a rubber-covered roller to transfer the ink onto the paper. In photoengraving, a similar process, photoengravers produce metal plates or gravure cylinders for reproduction of copy. Although lithography is re placing photoengraving in many of its applications, photoengraving is still being used. Lithographic and photoengraving workers are responsible for a variety of printing activities ranging from photographing copy and pictures to making the final printing plates. In small shops, a single worker may han dle every step in the printing process. Otherwise, lithographic workers in particular tend to specialize, and have job titles such as camera operator, artist, stripper, or platemaker. Camera operators start the process of making a lithographic plate by pho tographing and developing negatives of the material. Much of the camera work can be done electronically. These workers generally are classified as line camera operators, halftone op erators, or color separation photogra phers. Scanner operators create film neg atives of photographs or art with the aid of computerized equipment. A photograph, for instance, is scanned, sometimes by laser beam, to repro duce an image on film in the form of a series of dots. The computer controls the scanning process, which can be programmed to correct for mistakes or deficiencies in the original. Negatives may need retouching. Lithographic artists take care of this by sharpening or reshaping images on the negatives. They do the work by hand, using chemicals, dyes, and spe cial tools. Lithographic artists must know the characteristics of all types of paper and must produce fine shades of color. Like camera operators, they are usually assigned to only one phase of the work, and may have job titles such as dot etchers, retouchers, or letterers. Strippers cut the film to required size and arrange and paste the nega tives onto layout sheets, which are used by platemakers to make press plates. In large printing establish ments like newspapers, arrangement is done automatically. Platemakers cover the surface of flat pieces of metal with a coating of photosensitive chemicals, or may use plates with the coating already applied. They then put the layout sheet on top of the plate and expose both to bright lights. As the final step, platemakers treat the plate with chemicals to bring out the images of the material to be printed. In a growing number of printing plants, lithographic platemakers use ma chines which automatically process the plates. Such equipment requires technical skills, primarily. The platemaker operates and maintains the machine and insures that plates meet quality standards. When a large number of plates or multiple images are needed, operators use a step-andrepeat machine. Working Conditions Although lithographic and photoen graving workers stand most of the time, the work is not physically de manding. Lithographic artists and strippers may find working with fine detail tiring and fatiguing to the eyes. Platemakers in both processes work ing with toxic chemicals may be ex posed to skin irritations. Work areas usually are well lighted and air-condi tioned. Lithographic and photoengraving workers generally work a regular 8hour day but sometimes have to work overtime to meet publication dead lines. Some workers—particularly those employed by newspapers—work night shifts, weekends, and holidays. Employment Lithographic and photoengraving workers held 75,000 jobs in 1984. Em ployment was distributed as follows: Lithographic and photoengrav ing workers, p recisio n ............. Lithographic and photoengrav ing photographers...................... Lithographic and photoengrav ing machine operators and t e n d e r s ......................................... 45,300 20,200 9,100 Most jobs are in small commercial printing plants, newspapers, and print ing trade service firms. Although these workers are located in all parts of the country, most are employed in large printing centers such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, Washington, D.C., and Dallas. Training, Other Qualifications and Advancement Most lithographic and photoengraving workers learn the trade through onthe-job training. They work as helpers and are taught by experienced craft workers. Years of on-the-job training are required in order to become a skilled worker. Apprenticeship provides another way of becoming a skilled worker, although few apprenticeships have been offered in recent years. Apprenticeship pro grams may emphasize a specific craft, such as camera operator or lithographic 422/Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment opportunities should artist, etcher, finisher, or proofer, but the average for all occupations the apprentice is introduced to all phas through the mid-1990’s, but employ be best for people who have complet ment of photoengraving workers is ed postsecondary programs in print es of the operation. Usually, applicants for training expected to decline. These divergent ing technology. Many employers pre must be high school graduates, at trends reflect the fact that offset print fer to hire applicants who have com least 18 years of age, and in good ing methods—which involve lithogra pleted these programs because the physical condition. A knowledge of phy—are replacing letterpress print comprehensive training they receive color composition is an asset, as is ing, which requires photoengraving helps them learn lithography and adapt evidence of an aptitude for mastering skills. Also contributing to the contin more rapidly to new processes and the computer-assisted equipment used ued employment growth projected for techniques. in graphic preparatory processes. lithographic workers is the trend Camera operators should have an un toward greatly increased use of color Earnings derstanding of chemistry, optics, and in print materials, such as newspaper The basic wage rate for a lithographic the entire offset and photographic advertising inserts and mail-order cat or photoengraving worker depends on process. Precision, patience, good alogs. Most openings, however, will the job and location. Average hourly eyesight, and artistic skills are impor result from the need to replace expe wage rates for photoengravers were tant qualifications for lithographic art rienced workers who leave the occu $15.30 in 1984, according to the Graph ic Communications International pation. ists and strippers. New labor-saving technologies are Union. Lithographers operating a Vocational-technical institutes, com munity and junior colleges, and 4-year on the horizon. A reduction in the scanner earned $17.39 an hour in colleges offer 2-year programs in print number of steps required to make a 1984. ing technology which provide a valu plate is already affecting platemakers’ able background for persons interested jobs, and electronic scanners that au Related Occupations in learning lithographic crafts. High tomatically separate colors are likely Lithographic and photoengraving school and vocational school training in to reduce demand for camera opera workers use artistic skills in their printing, photography, mathematics, tors as the cost of the equipment falls. work. Artistic skills are also essential chemistry, physics, mechanical draw Electronic pagination will eventually for sign painters, jewelers, decora ing, and art also is helpful. displace strippers. These technologies tors, and engravers. are expensive, however, and widescale use in an industry dominated by Sources of Additional Information Job Outlook Employment of lithographic workers small firms may not occur until the Details on apprenticeship and other training opportunities in lithography is expected to grow about as fast as late 1990’s or after. and photoengraving are available from local employers such as newspapers and printing shops, local offices of the Graphic Communications In ter national Union, or the local office of the State employment service. For information on schools that offer courses in printing technology, write to: Education Council of the Graphic Arts Indus try, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. For general information on litho graphic occupations, write to: Graphic Communications International Union, 1900 L St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Machinists_________ (D .O .T. 600.260-018, .280-022, -026, -030, -034, -038, -042, .281-010, .380-010; 693.281-026; and 714.281018) __________ Nature of the Work Machinists are skilled workers who make precision metal parts for indus trial machinery, instruments, aircraft, and other goods. Their skills are very important in the production of goods that are made in numbers too small to produce with automated machinery. They can set up and operate most Production Occupations/423 types of machine tools. They also ploys machinists in Navy yards and know the working properties of met other installations. als such as steel, cast iron, alumi Although machinists work in all num, and brass used to make these parts of the country, jobs are most goods. Using this knowledge of met plentiful in metropolitan areas where als plus their skill with machine tools, most factories are located. machinists plan and carry out the op erations needed to make machined Training, Other Qualifications, and products that meet precise specifica Advancement tions. A 4-year formal apprenticeship is the Machinists first review blueprints best way to learn the machinist trade. or written specifications for a job. Some machinists learn the trade infor Next, they select tools and materials mally on the job, however. Typical for the job and plan the sequence of machinist apprentice programs con cutting and finishing operations. They sist of shop training and related class also must calculate where to cut or room instruction. In shop training, bore into the workpiece, how fast to apprentices learn chipping, filing, feed the metal into the machine, handtapping, dowel fitting, riveting, and how much metal to remove. and the operation of various machine They then mark the metal stock to tools. In the classroom, they study show where these cuts should be blueprint reading, mechanical draw made. ing, shop mathematics, and shop prac After this layout work is completed, tices. Nonapprentice training consists they perform the necessary machining of similar but less structured on-theoperation. Machinists position the job training without any classroom metal stock on the machine tool, set instruction. the controls, and make the cuts. They Persons interested in becoming ma use precision instruments, such as chinists should be mechanically in micrometers, to make sure their clined in order to use the tools and work meets specifications. After com machines required to build complex pleting the machining operations, ma parts. They also should be tempera chinists finish and assemble the piec es. Some machinists do maintenance work, repairing or making new parts for machinery. They also adjust and test these parts. mentally suited to do highly accurate work that requires concentration as well as physical effort. Prospective machinists should be able to work independently. A high school or vocational school education, including mathematics, blueprint reading, metalworking, physics, and drafting is desirable. A basic knowledge of computers and electronics is helpful because of the increased use of computer-controlled machine tools. Experience with ma chine tools also is helpful. In fact, many of the people who enter the occupation have previously worked as machine-tool operators or setters. Some companies have experienced machinists take additional courses in mathematics and electronics at com pany expense in order to learn to use newer metalworking technologies, such as numerically controlled ma chine tools. In addition, equipment manufacturers generally provide train ing in the operation of new machine tools. Machinists may become supervi sors. Others take additional training and become tool-and-die or instru ment makers. Skilled machinists may Working Conditions Most machine shops are well lighted and well ventilated. Working around high-speed machine tools, however, presents certain dangers, and workers must follow safety practices. Machin ists must wear protective equipment such as safety glasses to shield against bits of flying metal and earplugs to protect against the noise from machin ery. They cannot wear jewelry or loose-fitting clothes that might get caught in the machine. The job re quires stamina because machinists stand most of the day and may lift moderately heavy workpieces. In some shops, machinists may have to work evening or night shifts. Employment Machinists held about 354,000 jobs in 1984. Most work in industries that manufacture industrial machinery, fabricated metal products, motor ve hicles, aircraft, and primary metals. The Federal Government also em Working in machine shops can be dangerous, and machinists must wear protective equipment. 424/Occupational Outlook Handbook open their own shops or advance into other technical jobs such as tool pro grammer. Job Outlook Employment of machinists is expect ed to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Many openings will arise from the need to replace experi enced machinists who transfer to oth er fields of work, retire, or die. Al though the proportion of machinists who leave the occupation each year is somewhat lower than that for all craft workers, replacement needs will ac count for most job openings. As the economy expands, so will the demand for goods that have ma chined metal parts. While this growth in demand will increase the need for machinists, employment growth will be limited by the growing substitution of nonmetal parts in many products, increasing foreign competition, and improvements to metalworking tech nology. Chief among these improve ments is the use of computer-con trolled machine tools that significantly reduce the time for machining opera tions. As industries continue to use a greater volume of complex machinery and equipment, however, proper maintenance will become increasingly important, and more skilled mainte nance machinists will be needed to prevent costly breakdowns in highly mechanized plants. Often the break down of just one machine can stop an entire production line for hours. Employment of machinists fluctu ates with economic conditions. When demand for machined goods falls, ma chinists involved in production may be laid off or be forced to work fewer hours. In areas where demand for machined goods rises sharply, tempo rary shortages of skilled machinists may develop. Employment of machin ists involved in plant maintenance is more stable because proper mainte nance and repair of costly equipment remain vital concerns even when pro duction levels fall. Earnings In 1984, median weekly earnings for machinists were about $395. Most earned between $304 and $495. Ten percent of all machinists had median weekly earnings of less than $230, while the 10 percent with the highest earnings made more than $595 a week. The earnings of machinists compare favorably with those of other skilled workers. Machinists employed in met ropolitan areas had estimated average hourly earnings of $12.45 in 1984. In comparison, the average hourly rate for all production workers in private industry, except farming, was $8.33. Average hourly rates in 10 areas, selected to show how rates differ in various parts of the country, appear in the accompanying table. Machinists also have numerous opportunities for overtime work when demand for ma chined parts is high. Many machinists are members of unions, including the International Association of Machinists and Aero- More new jobs are expected for machinists than for other machining occupations. Projected change in employment, 1984-95 (thousands) 0 Machinists Numerical-control machinetool operators Tool-and-die makers Tool programmers, numerical control Metalworking and plastic working machine-tool operators SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics 10 20 30 40 --------- 1 50 Table 1. Average hourly earnings of machinists, selected areas, 1984 Area Hourly rate San Francisco-Oakland.................. $14.84 M ilw aukee......................................... 14.70 Corpus Christi................................... 14.35 Portland, O r eg o n ............................ 13.84 A tla n ta ................................................ 13.79 Gary-Hammond-East C h ica g o ... 12.91 T r e n to n .............................................. 10.25 J a c k s o n .............................................. 10.18 10.05 Norfolk-Virginia B each ................. Northeast P en n sy lv a n ia............... 9.87 Providence-W arwick-Pawtucket. 9.43 Greenville-Spartanburg................. 8.83 SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. space Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aero space and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Ma chine Workers; the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; and the United Steelworkers of Amer ica. Related Occupations Occupations most closely related to machinists are, of course, the other machining occupations. These include tool-and-die makers, metalworking machine operators, tool programmers, and instrument makers. Other occu pations that require precision and skill in working with metal include arc cut ters, blacksmiths, gunsmiths, lock smiths, metal patternmakers, and welders. Sources of Additional Information For information about machinist ap prenticeships or other work opportu nities in this trade, contact local ma chine shops, a local of one of the unions mentioned above, or the near est office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agen cy. For general information about this occupation, contact: The National Machine Tool Builders, 7901 Westpark Dr., McLean, Va. 22102. The National Tooling and Machining Associa tion, 9300 Livingston Rd., Ft. Washington, Md. 20744. The National Screw Machine Products Associ ation, 6700 W. Snowville Rd., Breckville, Ohio 44141. The Tool and Die Institute, 777 Busse High way, Park Ridge, 111. 60068. Production Occupations/425 Photographic Process Workers (D.O.T. 962.361-010; 970.281-010 and -018; .381-010 and -034; 976.361, .380, .381-010 through .385-010, .665-010, .681, .682, .684-014, .685-014, -018, -022, -026, and -030) Nature of the Work If the developing of film and printing of pictures were left to the average photographer, few photographs would be taken. Instead, professionals and amateurs alike generally rely on pho tographic process workers in photo finishing or custom photo labs to de velop film, make prints and slides, and do related tasks such as enlarging and retouching photographs. Some photo graphic process workers operate ma chinery that automatically develops and prints film; others do detailed tasks that cannot be automated. All-round darkroom technicians can do everything necessary to develop and print film. They vary the develop ing process according to the type of film—black-and-white negative, color negative, or color positive. For exam ple, a developing process for blackand-white negative film covers five steps: Developer, stop bath, fixing bath, washing, and drying. The first three steps use chemical solutions and are performed in darkness. In a hand operation, the technician first immers es unwound film in the developer to bring out the image on exposed film. After a specified period, the techni cian transfers the film to a stop bath to prevent overdevelopment. Next, the film is placed in a fixing bath that makes it insensitive to light to prevent further exposure. Finally, the techni cian washes the film with water to remove the fixing solution and places the film in a drying cabinet. Although processing still is done by hand in some small photographic studios, technicians in most photographic labs operate machines that automatically perform the steps described above. The darkroom technician makes a photograph by transferring the image from a negative to photographic pa per. Printing frequently is performed on a projection printer, which consists of a fixture for holding negatives and photographic paper, an electric lamp, and a magnifying lens. The technician places the negative between the lamp and lens, and the paper below the lens. When the technician turns on the lamp, light passes through the nega tive and lens and records a magnified image of the negative on the paper. During printing, the technician may vary the contrast of the image or re move unwanted background by either using paper patterns to shade part of the photographic paper from the pro jected image or by adjusting the height of the lens above the paper. After removing the exposed photographic paper from the printer, the technician develops it in much the same way as the negative. If the customer desires, the technician mounts the finished print in a frame or on a paper or cardboard back. Some darkroom technicians spe cialize in one aspect of photographic processing work. For example, airbrush artists restore damaged and faded photographs. They also color drawings to simulate photographs. Photographic retouchers alter photo graphic negatives and prints to accen tuate the desired features of a subject or remove undesirable ones. Colorists apply oil colors to portrait photo graphs to create a natural, lifelike ap pearance. Photographic spotters cov er or spot out imperfections on photo graphic prints using a gloved finger, brush, or pencil. Color laboratory technicians produce color prints, neg atives, and slides by hand. In addition to working in the labo ratory, darkroom technicians may set up lights and cameras or otherwise assist experienced photographers. Many technicians, particularly those in portrait studios who aspire to be come professional photographers, di vide their time between taking and processing pictures. In some labs, helpers assist technicians. Techni cians also may be assisted by photo graphic process machine operators who specialize in a particular activity. In most large photo labs where film developing is largely automated, dark room technicians supervise operators whose assignments require only a lim ited knowledge of developing and printing. Included are film developers, who operate equipment that develops still or motion picture film automati cally; color-printer operators, who control the equipment used to pro duce color prints from negatives; au tomatic print developers, who operate machines that develop rolls of ex posed photographic paper; takedown sorters, who sort processed film; and automatic mounters, who tend the automatic mounting presses that cut film into individual transparencies and seal them in mounting frames. Working Conditions Photo lab jobs are not physically strenuous, and the work is done in clean, appropriately lighted, and airconditioned photofinishing laborato ries. However, many workers, espe cially in large laboratories, do repeti tious work at a rapid pace. Some photographic process workers are ex posed to fumes from the chemicals used to develop film. Workers such as airbrush artists and photographic spot ters, who perform detailed tasks, may be subject to eye fatigue. Most photo lab employees work a 40-hour week. In labs that specialize in processing film for amateur photog raphers, employees may work a con siderable amount of overtime, at pre mium pay, during peak seasons such as summer and after Christmas. Employment Photo process workers held about 52,000jobs in 1984. About half worked in large photofinishing labs that proc ess film for amateur and professional photographers and in minilabs that process film at the customer’s conve nience. Many others worked in photo labs operated by portrait and commer cial studios and with motion picture producers, photo equipment manu facturers, and other organizations. Darkroom technicians also work in commercial labs that specialize in processing the work of professional photographers. Precise instruments are used to capture a perfect image on paper. 426/Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Outlook Employment of photo process work ers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Growth in the number of small photofinishing labo ratories will create many new jobs. Most openings, nevertheless, will re Training, Other Qualifications, and sult from replacement needs. Job Advancement prospects for photo process workers Most photo process workers learn are associated to some extent with their skills through informal on-the- fluctuations in the business cycle; job training. Beginners start as help these workers are subject to layoff ers and gradually learn to develop and during economic downturns and dur print film by assisting experienced ing certain seasons of the year when technicians. It generally takes 2 to 3 the volume of film processing de years to become a fully qualified dark clines. The demand for film processing is room technician. Some helpers spe cialize in a particular activity, such as expected to rise as a result of the printing or developing. Generally, less expanding interest in amateur photog training time is required to become a raphy—spurred by rising population specialist than to become an all-round and personal income as well as im provements in still and movie cameras darkroom technician. When hiring darkroom technician that make them easier to load and helpers, employers prefer applicants operate. Businesses and government who are high school graduates. Cours also are expected to contribute to the es in chemistry and mathematics are demand for film processing through expanded use of photography in re helpful to people interested in this search and development activities and field. Some high schools and trade increased use of photographs to illus schools offer courses in photography trate printed materials. Employment that include training in film process of photographic process workers is ing. The Armed Forces also offer not expected to keep pace with the training in photographic processing. demand for film processing, however, Experience gained through processing because of the continuing automation film as a hobby is helpful. of photo lab operations. Several community colleges offer The most recent technical advance 2-year programs leading to an associ is Dx processing, which allows ate degree in photographic technolo photofinishing equipment to process gy. Formal training also is available film without sorting it by film speed. from vocational schools and technical The increased use of video discs, institutes. Completion of postsecond which do not need to be processed, ary courses in this field is helpful to also will slow employment growth for people who are interested in supervi photographic process workers. sory and managerial jobs in photo Earnings labs. Some darkroom technicians even Earnings of photo process workers tually become professional photogra vary greatly depending on skill level, phers. (See the statement on photog experience, and geographic location. raphers and camera operators else Median earnings for full-time photo where in the Handbook.) Others process workers in 1984 were about $250 a week. The middle 50 percent advance to supervisory positions in earned between about $190 and $360 a laboratories. week. The lowest 10 percent earned On-the-job training for workers in less than $150 a week; the highest 10 specialized photo process occupa percent, more than $500. tions ranges from a few weeks for print developers and automatic Related Occupations mounters, for example, to several The more highly skilled photo process months for photo retouchers and spot workers—all-round darkroom techni ters. For many jobs, manual dexterity, cians and color laboratory techni good vision, including normal color per cians, for example—need a special ception, and good hand-eye coordina ized knowledge of the photodevelop ing process. Other laboratory workers tion are important qualifications. http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ Photo process workers are em ployed in all parts of the country but are concentrated in large population centers. About 3 out of 10 entrants to this occupation work part time. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis who apply specialized technical knowledge include chemical laborato ry technicians, crime lab analysts, food testers, medical laboratory assis tants, metallurgical technicians, and quality control technicians. Sources of Additional Information For information about employment opportunities in photographic labora tories and schools that offer degrees in photographic technology, write to: Photo Marketing Association International, 3000 Picture Place, Jackson, Mich. 49201. Shoe and Leather Workers and Repairers (D .O .T . 365.361; 780.381-030; 781.381-018; 783.361010; 783.381-018 through 026; 788.261-010; 788.381) Nature of the Work At one time, leather and leather prod ucts were reserved for royalty. To day, people from all walks of life appreciate and value leather products. Among the many products produced from leather are shoes, jackets, boots, saddles, and luggage. Creating stylish and durable leather products is the job of precision shoe and leather workers; keeping them in good condition is the work of repairers. Among the workers involved in making custom orthopedic shoes, sad dles, harnesses, and luggage are shoe makers, saddlemakers, and harnessmakers, to name a few. Job duties of these workers are similar, even though the finished products differ. Depending on the size of the factory or shop, a leather worker may per form one or many of the steps that it takes to complete the product. First, the worker checks the leather for tex ture, color, and strength. Then the worker places a pattern of the good being produced on the leather, traces the pattern onto the leather, cuts the pattern along the traced lines, and sews the pieces together. In very small factories, one worker may per form all of these tasks. More com monly, however, workers specialize in different steps. At times, they may move from one task to another in order to learn and master different skills in the production of the leather good. In the production of custom-made shoes, workers must first make the Production Occupations/427 pattern. Then they cut the leather and lighted and ventilated, but, because sew the pieces together either by hand machines are used both in preparing or with a sewing machine. The worker and repairing leather, the work envi then attaches the insole, heel, and ronment is generally noisy. Odors outsole, using nails and cement. The from leather dyes and stains are often heel is shaped with a knife and sanded present. The work is not strenuous for smoothness on a buffing wheel. and hazards are few if safety precau Finally, the worker dyes the shoe, and tions are followed. However, stamina polishes it by holding it against a ro is needed because leather workers and repairers must stand much of the tating brush. Producing a saddle entails applying time. Custom shoe manufacturing work paints and liquids to produce gloss, and decorating the saddle surface ei ers and shoe repairers may work more ther by hand stitching or stamping the than 40 hours a week. Workers in leather with decorative patterns and other areas of the leather industry, however, average about 38 hours a design. Shoe and leather repairers use their week. knowledge of leatherworking and shoe construction to give worn shoes and Employment other leather goods a new lease on Shoe and leather workers and repair life. The most common type of shoe ers held approximately 43,000 jobs in repair is replacing soles and heels. 1984. Self-employed individuals, who Repairers place the shoe on a last (a own small shoe repair or specialty block shaped like a foot) and remove leather manufacturing firms, held the old sole and heel with a knife. about 12,000 of these jobs. The rest New soles and heels are attached to were employed in the manufacture of the shoe either by stitching them in leather goods, especially shoes. Other place or using cement or nails. Repair areas of employment include large ers then sand the heel to smooth it, shops doing shoe and leather repair and repair shops operated by shoe using a sanding or buffing wheel. Leather workers and repairers use stores, departm ent stores, and handtools and machines. The most dry cleaning establishments. commonly used handtools are knives, hammers, awls (used to poke holes in Training, Other Qualifications, and leather to make sewing possible), and Advancement skivers (for splitting leather). Power- Precision shoe and leather workers operated equipment includes sewing and repairers generally learn their machines, heel nailing machines, hole craft on the job, either in in-house punching machines, and sole stitch training programs or working as help ers to experienced workers. Helpers ers. Self-employed shoe repairers and generally begin by performing the owners of custom-made shoe and simplest tasks, either in the creation leather shops have managerial respon or repair of a leather good. As the sibilities in addition to their regular helper gains experience, the experi duties. They must maintain good rela enced worker allows the trainee to tions with their customers, make bus perform more difficult steps such as iness decisions, and keep accurate sewing, cutting, or stitching the leath er. Trainees generally become fully records. skilled in 6 months to 2 years; the length of training varies greatly ac Working Conditions Working conditions of leather work cording to the aptitude and dedication ers vary according to the type of work of the individual and the nature of the performed, the size of the factory or work (manufacture or repair). In 1984, only about 18 schools na business, and the particular place of tionwide offered programs in shoe re employment. Workers employed in relatively pair and leather work, including large custom leather goods manufac saddlemaking. Vocational training turing establishments (20 employees lasts from 6 months to 2 years and is or more) work in large rooms. Repair offered at high schools, trade schools, ers generally work in smaller rooms. community colleges, and at least one Depending on the establishment, the university. In vocational classes, stu room may be crowded and noisy and dents learn a number of different skills have poor lighting and ventilation. including leather cutting, stitching, Some establishments may be well and dying. Students learn shoe con- Many shoe repairers own their own shops. struction and practice different types of shoe repair. They also study funda mental business practices. Graduates are encouraged to gain additional training by working with an experi enced leather worker or repairer. Manual dexterity and the mechani cal aptitude to work with handtools and machines are important in the shoe repair and leatherworking occu pations. Shoe and leather workers who produce custom-made goods should have artistic ability as well. These workers must have self-disc ipline to work alone under little super vision. In addition to being skilled craft workers, leather workers and repairers who own shops must have a pleasant manner when dealing with customers and a working knowledge of business practices and manage ment. Many individuals who begin as workers or repairers advance to man agerial and supervisory positions, eventually even becoming the owner of a shop or business. Job Outlook Employment of shoe and leather workers is expected to decline through the mid-1990’s in line with anticipated trends in the leather footwear indus try, which has been hit hard by im ports of inexpensive leather shoes. The popularity of nonleather athletic and casual shoes has also lowered demand for manufactured leather goods. Prospects for workers employed in 428/Occupational Outlook Handbook the manufacture of custom-made molded or orthopedic shoes are better than those for most other leather workers. Substantial growth is ex pected for the population age 65 and above, the age group most likely to suffer from podiatric problems that require molded or orthopedic shoes. Production jobs in this small specialty sector, therefore, are likely to remain stable. Employment of shoe repairers is likely to decline. This occupation is subject to a number of conflicting forces, but the overall employment trend is down. Stimulating demand for shoe repair services is the introduc tion of “while-you-wait” repair shops which cater to consumer desire for convenience. On the other hand, the widespread availability of low-cost shoes and the increase in cushionsoled footwear that is not practical to repair will dampen demand. The latter forces are likely to dominate, so that employment of shoe repairers will fall. A limited number of job openings can be expected, however, due to the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. In custom shoe manufacturing and shoe repair, prospects are expected to be good for people with some knowl edge of the trade or a demonstrated aptitude for mastering the requisite skills. Once trained, workers are like ly to find employment with relatively little difficulty since there is little com petition for these relatively low-pay ing jobs. Workers employed in areas other than custom shoe manufacture or repair may find job opportunities scarce. Earnings The median weekly salary of shoe and leather workers and repairers was $250 in 1984, according to the limited information available. Workers in cus tom shoe manufacturing may earn up to $400 a week in some establish ments. The top 10 percent of all shoe and leather workers and repairers earned over $349 a week. Owners of shoe repair and custom shoe manufac turing shops earned substantially more. Related Occupations Other workers who make or repair Digitized items using handtools and machinery for FRASER include dressmakers, designers and patternmakers, rug repairers, and fur riers. Sources of Additional Information For information about employment in leatherworking, contact: Leather Industries of America, 2501 M St. NW., Suite 350, Washington, D.C. 20037. For information about the shoe re pair business and training opportuni ties in leather work and shoe repair, contact: Shoe Service Institute of America, 154 West Hubbard St., Suite 303, Chicago, 111. 60610. Information about employment and training opportunities is available from State employment service offices. Shoe repair shops and shoe service wholesalers in the community are an other source of information about job openings. Tool-and-Die Makers (D.O.T. 601.280 except -054; .281-010, -014, and -026; .380-010; .381 except -018 and -038; and 739.381-018 and -022) Nature of the Work Tool-and-die makers are highly skilled workers who produce tools, dies, and special guiding and holding devices that are used in metalworking and plastic-working machines. Toolmak ers produce jigs and fixtures (devices that hold metal while it is bored, stamped, or drilled). They also make gauges and other measuring devices used in manufacturing precision metal parts. Diemakers construct metal forms (dies) to shape metal in stamp ing and forging operations. They also make metal molds for diecasting and for molding plastics. Tool-and-die makers also repair worn or damaged tools, dies, gauges, jigs, and fixtures, and help design tools and dies. Compared with most other machin ing workers, tool-and-die makers have a much broader knowledge of machin ing operations, mathematics, and blueprint reading. Tool-and-die mak ers use almost every type of machine tool and precision measuring instru ment. Because they work with all the metals and alloys commonly used in manufacturing, these workers must be familiar with the machining proper ties, such as hardness and heat toler ance, of a wide variety of metals and alloys. Working from blueprints or instruc tions from supervisors, tool-and-die makers plan the sequence of opera tions necessary to manufacture the tool or die. They measure and mark the pieces of metal that will be cut to form parts of the final product. They then do the cutting, boring, or drilling that is required. They check the accu racy of what they have done to insure that the final product will meet speci fications. They then assemble the parts and perform finishing jobs such as filing, grinding, and smoothing sur faces. In all assignments, tool-and-die makers must work quickly and eco nomically. Taking too much time or wasting materials can reduce their employer’s profit. Working Conditions Tool-and-die makers usually work in “ toolrooms,” which are quieter than the production floor because there are not as many machines in use at one time. Machines have guards and shields that minimize the exposure of workers to moving parts. Tool-anddie makers, however, must follow safety rules and wear protective equip ment. For examples, safety glasses must be worn to shield against bits of flying metal and earplugs to protect against the noise of the machinery. Tool-and-die makers cannot wear jew elry or loose-fitting clothing that might get caught in the machines. These workers are on their feet most of the day and may do moderately heavy lifting. Employment Tool-and-die makers held about 165,000 jobs in 1984. Most work in industries that manufacture tools and dies, metalworking machinery, motor vehicles, aircraft, electrical machin ery, and fabricated metal products. Although they are employed through out the country, jobs are most plenti ful in the midwestern and northeast ern sections of the country, where many of the metalworking industries are located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A formal apprenticeship program is considered the best way to learn tooland-die making. Many tool-and-die makers, however, learn the trade in formally on the job. In selecting apprentices, most em ployers prefer persons with a high school or vocational school educa- Production Occupations/429 tion. Courses in shop math, blueprint reading, metalworking, physics, and drafting may help applicants land an apprentice position. Experience oper ating machine tools also can be help ful. Some employers test apprentice applicants to determine their mechan ical aptitude and their mathematical ability. Most of the 4 or 5 years of a tooland-die apprenticeship are spent in practical shop training. Apprentices learn to operate milling machines, lathes, grinders, and other machine tools. They also learn to use handtools in fitting and assembling tools, gaug es, and other mechanical equipment, and they study heat treating and other metalworking processes. Classroom training consists of shop mathematics, mechanical drawing, tool designing, and blueprint reading. Several years of experience after apprenticeship are often necessary to qualify for the most difficult tool-and-die work. Some com panies have separate apprenticeship programs for toolmaking and diemak ing. Workers who become tool-and-die makers without completing formal ap prenticeships generally acquire their skills through years of experience as skilled machine-tool operators or ma chinists. They also may take some classroom training in shop math, blue print reading, and related subjects. Skilled tool-and-die makers have numerous paths for advancement. Some advance to supervisory and ad ministrative positions in their firms. Some become tool designers, and oth ers may open their own tool-and-die shops. Job Outlook Employment of tool-and-die makers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. As the econ omy grows, the demand for motor vehicles, aircraft, machinery, and oth er products that use machined metal parts will increase. Rising demand for these goods will increase the need for tools and dies and the workers who make them. Employment growth, however, will be limited by the sub stitution of nonmetal for metal parts, foreign competition, and changes in metalworking technology. The use of computer-controlled machine tools and improvements in tool design, for example, will lessen the time needed to machine parts for tools and dies, Tool-and-die workers must meet high standards of accuracy. thus increasing the output of tool-anddie makers. Most openings for tool-and-die mak ers will occur as workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Nevertheless, the number of openings will be smaller than in other machining occupations because a smaller proportion of tool-and-die makers than of other machining work ers leave their occupation each year. Tool-and-die makers have a strong attachment to their occupation be cause of their lengthy investment in training. Because of the long training period, there may be periodic shortages of tool-and-die makers in areas with a great deal of manufacturing activity. Firms often use overtime to meet deadlines when shortages occur. Employment of tool-and-die mak ers is less sensitive to fluctuations in the business cycle than many other production occupations. Employers usually are reluctant to lay off these highly skilled workers even when pro duction is cut back because they fear the workers will not be available when economic conditions improve. Earnings Median weekly earnings for tool-anddie makers who worked full time were $435 in 1984. Most earned between $335 and $560 a week. Ten percent earned less than $260 a week, while the 10 percent with the highest weekly earnings made more than $710. In 1984, tool-and-die makers em ployed in metropolitan areas had av erage earnings of $13.25 an hour. In comparison, the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private in 430/Occupational Outlook Handbook dustry, except farming, was $8.33. Table 1 presents average hourly rates in 13 areas selected to show how wage rates for tool-and-die makers differ in various parts of the country. Table 1. Average hourly earnings of tool-and-die makers, selected areas, 1984 Area Hourly rate San Francisco-Oakland................. $16.09 San J o s e ............................................. 15.94 Davenport-Rock Island-Moline .. 14.65 D a y to n ............................................... 14.59 14.01 Colum bus........................................... Portland, M a in e .............................. 11.54 Providence-W arwick-Pawtucket. 11.30 Northeast P en n sylvan ia............... 10.75 Greenville-Spartanburg................. 10.33 W o rc este r......................................... 10.19 SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. Many tool-and-die makers are mem bers of unions, including the Inter national Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Imple ment Workers of America; and the United Steelworkers of America. Related Occupations The occupations most closely related to tool-and-die makers are, of course, the other machining occupations. These include machinists, instrument makers, metalworking machine oper ators, and tool programmers. Other occupations that require pre cision and skill in working with metal include arc cutters, blacksmiths, gun smiths, locksmiths, metal patternmak ers, and welders. Upholsterers (D.O.T. 780.381 except -030 and -034; 681-010; 684122) Nature of the Work Upholsterers are skilled craft workers who make new furniture and recondi tion old furniture. Whether making a new piece of furniture, restoring a treasured antique, or simply giving an ordinary living room couch a facelift, upholsterers combine knowledge of fabrics and other materials with artis tic flair and manual skill. Upholsterers who make new furni ture start with the bare wooden frame. Upholsterers who recondition old fur niture must first remove the old cover, padding, and springs. Using hammers and tack pullers, they remove tacks or staples that hold the old fabric to the wooden frame. After stripping the old fabric, they remove the burlap and padding that cover the arms, back, sides, and seat. Upholsterers examine the springs and remove broken or bent ones. The springs sit on a cloth mat called webbing that is attached to the frame. If webbing is worn, uphol sterers remove all the springs and all the webbing. Upholsterers may reglue loose sections of the frame and refin ish exposed wood. The first step in upholstering new furniture or reupholstering old pieces is to install webbing. Upholsterers tack webbing to one side of the frame, stretch it tight, and tack it to the opposite side. Other webbing is wo ven across the first row of webbing and attached to the frame to form a new mat. After putting springs on the mat so they compress evenly, uphol sterers sew or staple each spring to the webbing or frame and tie each spring to the ones next to it. Burlap then is stretched over the springs, cut and smoothed, and tacked to the frame. To form a smooth rounded surface over the springs and other parts of the frame, upholsterers cover each section of the furniture—seat, back, arms—with filling material. Af ter sewing the filling to the burlap, they cover it with a layer of felt and heavy cloth and tack the cloth to the frame. Finally, upholsterers put on the fabric cover, which has been cut to size for a section such as an arm or the back and temporarily stitched to gether for fitting. After assuring tight and smooth fit of the cover—or noting where adjustments are necessary— they remove the cover, sew it togeth er, and tack, staple, or glue it to the frame. To complete the job, uphol sterers sew, tack, or glue on fringe, buttons, or other ornaments. Upholsterers use a variety of com mon handtools, including hammers, staple guns, tack and staple removers, Sources of Additional Information For information about tool-and-die apprenticeships or other work oppor tunities in this trade, contact local tool-and-die shops or the nearest of fice of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about this occupation, contact: The National Machine Tool Builders, 7901 Westpark Dr., McLean, Va. 22102. The National Tooling and Machining Associa tion, 9300 Livingston Rd., Ft. Washington, Md. 20744. The Tool and Die Institute, 777 Busse High Digitized forway, Park Ridge, Illinois 60068. FRASER Cutting is a skill needed by furniture upholsterers. Production Occupations/431 pliers, and shears, and special tools such as webbing stretchers and uphol stery needles. They also use sewing machines. Sometimes upholsterers pick up and deliver furniture or help custom ers select new furniture coverings. Those who manage an upholstery shop order supplies and equipment and keep business records. Working Conditions Most upholsterers work inside a shop or factory. Working conditions in these facilities vary—many are spa cious, adequately lighted, well venti lated, and well heated; others are small and dusty. Upholsterers stand while they work and do a considerable amount of stooping, bending, and heavy lifting. Employment Furniture upholsterers held about 63,000 jobs in 1984. Most work in upholstery shops, either their own or someone else’s. These shops general ly have fewer than three workers. Some upholsterers work for furniture manufacturers, others are employed by furniture stores, and a few work for businesses, such as hotels, that maintain their own furniture. Most upholsterers work in metro politan areas, where the large popula tion provides the greatest demand for upholsterers’ services. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The best way to enter this trade is through on-the-job training as a helper in an upholstery shop. Helpers learn by upholstering furniture under the direction of experienced workers. Much time and practice are needed to learn complex tasks such as measur ing and cutting the new fabric and sewing and attaching it to the frame with a minimum of waste. Usually about 3 to 5 years of on-the-job train ing are required to become a fully skilled upholsterer. When hiring helpers, employers generally prefer people with some knowledge of the trade. Inex perienced persons may get basic training in upholstery in high school, vocational and technical schools, and Two out of five furniture upholsterers are self-employed. Distribution of employment, 1984 Wage and salary workers SOURCE Bureau of Labor Statistics some community colleges. However, additional training and experience usually are required before these workers can perform as quickly and efficiently as experienced upholster ers. Upholsterers should have manual dexterity, good coordination, and be able to do occasional heavy lifting. An eye for detail and flair for creative use of fabrics are helpful. The major form of advancement for upholsterers is opening their own shop. It is easy to open a shop because a small investm ent in handtools and a sewing machine are all that is needed. However, the up holstery business is extremely com petitive, so operating a shop success fully is difficult. Experienced, highly skilled upholsterers in large shops and factories may advance to supervisory positions. Job Outlook Employment of upholsterers is ex pected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Most job openings will arise because of the need to re place experienced workers who trans fer to other occupations, retire, or die. More upholstered furniture will be used as population, personal income, and business expenditures grow. However, demand for upholsterers will not keep pace with this growth because, increasingly, consumers re place worn furniture rather than reupholster it. Each upholstery job is unique and does not lend itself to automation; consequently, technolo gy is not expected to have any impact on upholsterer employment. Earnings In 1984, minimum hourly pay rates ranged from $8 to $12 for experienced furniture upholsterers, according to limited data from union contracts. Employers generally pay inexperi enced trainees the minimum wage. Upholsterers usually buy their own handtools. Some upholsterers are members of the Upholsterers’ International Union of North America. Related Occupations Other workers who combine manual skills and knowledge of materials such as fabrics and wood are fur cutters, furniture finishers, rug repairers, and shoe repairers. Sources of Additional Information For details about work opportunities for upholsterers in your area, contact local upholstery shops, the local office of the State employment service, or a local of the Upholsterers’ Inter national Union. Plant and System Operators The workers described in this section of the Handbook operate, maintain, and repair machinery in industrial plants and systems. They monitor and control equipment that ranges in com plexity from the simple boiler in the basement of an apartment building to the technologically advanced equip ment used to purify the water supply for an entire city. Stationary engineers and other powerplant operators control machin ery in hydroelectric, fossil fuel, and nuclear powerplants that provide elec tric energy for factories, office build ings, schools, and homes. Gas plant operators handle machinery that pro cesses and distributes gas to business and residential customers. Water and wastewater treatment plant operators run equipment that purifies and dis tributes water for human and industri al use, as well as disposes of liquid wastes, such as sewage, chemicals, and radioactive materials. Other plant and systems operators include chem ical plant operators and petroleum plant operators. Plants and systems vary in size, complexity, and degree of automa tion; some are run by only one oper ator at a time, others by many. Nev ertheless, operators have certain tasks in common. They start up equipment and shut it down; monitor meters, gauges, or control panels; and make adjustments. They monitor or operate switches that control the flow of var ious materials and substances, take samples and run tests, record instru ment readings and switching opera tions, and make calculations. Opera tors also perform preventive mainte nance tasks and conduct periodic inspections. Industrial accidents in places such as nuclear powerplants can have very serious consequences, and heightened public concern about safety has led to the use of more technologically ad vanced monitoring equipment that re quires a better trained work force. Therefore, it is not surprising that training requirements for operators have risen in recent years. Training is provided by employers, vocational 432 technical institutes, community and 2-year colleges, apprenticeship pro grams, the Armed Forces, and gov ernment agencies. Certain plant and systems operators must hold a license or certificate. Detailed information on the training needed for some plant and systems operator occupations appears in the statements that follow. Stationary Engineers (D.O.T. 950.362-014, .382 except -014) These workers detect, identify, and correct any trouble that develops. They watch and listen to their machin ery and routinely check safety devic es. Often stationary engineers use hand or power tools to make repairs, ranging from a complete overhaul to replacing defective valves, gaskets, or bearings. In a large plant, the stationary engi neer may be in charge of the powerplant or engine room and direct the work of assistant stationary engi neers, turbine operators, boiler tend ers, and air-conditioning and refriger ation operators and mechanics. In a small plant, the stationary engineer may be the only person operating and maintaining equipment. Nature of the Work Stationary engineers operate, main tain, and repair the machinery that provides mechanical and electrical power for industry. They are also re sponsible for the equipment that heats, Working Conditions air-conditions, refrigerates, and venti Stationary engineers generally have lates factories and other buildings. steady year-round employment. They The equipment they tend and control usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week. includes boilers, diesel engines, tur In plants that operate around the bines, generators, pumps, condens clock, they may be assigned to any ers, and compressors. Much of it is one of three shifts—often on a rotat similar to the nonstationary equip ing basis—and to Sunday and holiday ment operated by locomotive and ma work. Engine rooms, powerplants, or boil rine engineers. Stationary engineers start up and er rooms usually are clean and well shut down equipment in order to meet lighted. Even under the most favor demands for power and to insure the able conditions, however, some sta equipment is operating within estab tionary engineers are exposed to high lished limits. They monitor meters, temperatures, dust, dirt, and high gauges, and other instruments at noise levels from the equipment. Gen tached to equipment and make adjust eral maintenance duties may cause ments whenever necessary. They also contact with oil and grease, and fumes keep a log of all relevant facts about or smoke. Workers are on their feet a the operation and maintenance of the lot; they also may have to crawl inside equipment. On a steam boiler, for boilers and work in crouching or example, they observe, control, and kneeling positions to inspect, clean, keep records of steam pressure, tem or repair equipment. Because stationary engineers work perature, water level, power output, and the amount of fuel consumed. around boilers and electrical and me Stationary engineers control the flow chanical equipment, they must be of fuel to the boiler and the steam alert to avoid burns, electric shock, pressure by adjusting throttles, and injury from moving machinery. valves, or automatic controls. Stationary engineers must periodi Employment cally remove from equipment the soot Stationary engineers held about 54,000 and corrosion that can reduce operat jobs in 1984. They work in a wide ing efficiency. They test boiler water variety of places, including factories, and add necessary chemicals to pre hospitals, schools, office and apart vent corrosion and buildup of deposits ment buildings, shopping malls, ho tels, and power stations. Usually, in the boiler. Production Occupations/433 plants that operate on three shifts em ploy four to eight stationary engi neers, but some have more. In many plants, only one engineer works on each shift. Because stationary engineers work in so many different kinds of indus tries, they are employed in all parts of the country. Although some are em ployed in small towns and in rural areas, most work in the more heavily populated areas where large industrial and commercial businesses are usual ly located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many stationary engineers start as helpers or oilers and acquire their skills through informal on-the-job experience. They usually become boil er tenders before advancing to sta tionary engineers. A good background also can be obtained in the Navy or Merchant Marine. However, most training authorities recommend for mal apprenticeship programs because of the increasing complexity of power generating machines and systems— for example, the increasing use of computers and remote controls. Ap prenticeship programs are sponsored by the International Union of Operat ing Engineers and the International Brotherhood of Firemen and Oilers, the principal unions to which station ary engineers belong. In selecting apprentices, most local labor-management apprenticeship committees prefer high school or trade school graduates who have received instruction in mathematics, mechani cal drawing, machine-shop practice, physics, and chemistry. Mechanical aptitude, manual dexterity, and good physical condition also are important qualifications. The apprenticeship usually lasts 4 years. In addition to on-the-job train ing, apprentices receive classroom in struction in practical chemistry, ele mentary physics, blueprint reading, applied electricity, instrumentation, electronics, and other technical sub jects. Becoming a stationary engineer without going through a formal ap prenticeship program usually takes many years of experience as an assist ant to a licensed stationary engineer or as a boiler tender. This practical experience can be supplemented by technical or other school training or home study. Many States and cities have licens ing requirements for stationary engi neers. Although requirements differ from place to place, applicants usually must be at least 18 years of age, reside for a specified period in the State or locality in which the examination is given, meet the experience require ments for the class of license request ed, and pass a written examination. Because of regional differences in li censing requirements, a stationary en gineer who moves from one State or city to another may have to pass an examination for a new license. Generally, there are several classes of stationary engineer licenses. Each class specifies the steam pressure or horsepower of the equipment the en gineer can operate without supervi sion. The first-class license permits the stationary engineer to operate equipment of all types and capacities. An applicant for this license may be required to have a high school educa tion and an approved apprenticeship or on-the-job training. The lower class licenses limit the capacity of the equip ment the engineer may operate with out the supervision of a higher rated engineer. Stationary engineers advance to more responsible jobs by being placed in charge of larger, more powerful, or more varied equipment. Generally, engineers advance to these jobs as they obtain higher class licenses. Ad vancement, however, is not automat ic. For example, an engineer who has a first-class license may work for some time as a boiler tender or an assistant to another first-class engi neer before a vacancy occurs. Some stationary engineers eventually ad vance to jobs as boiler inspectors, plant engineers, and as building and plant superintendents. A few obtain jobs as examining engineers and tech nical instructors. Job Outlook Employment of stationary engineers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Although ex panding industrial needs for mechani cal and electrical power and the trend toward more plants generating their own power are expected to spur em ployment growth, increased automa tion should limit the number of new stationary engineer jobs. Most job openings will result from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Due to the increasing complexity of power generating systems, the most highly skilled stationary engineers should have the best job prospects. Earnings Stationary engineers had average hourly earnings of $12.58 in 1984, ac cording to a survey of metropolitan areas. This was about 50 percent high er than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Average earnings for engineers in metropolitan areas ranged from $8.36 in Greenville-Spartanburg, South Carolina to $15.04 in San Francisco-Oakland, California. The principal unions to which these workers belong are the International Union of Operating Engineers and the International Brotherhood of Firemen and Oilers. Related Occupations Other workers who monitor and oper ate stationary machinery include nu clear reactor operators, power station operators, water and sewage treat ment plant operators, waterworks pump-station operators, chemical op erators, and refinery operators. Sources of Additional Information Information about training or work opportunities is available from local offices of State employment services, Stationary engineers monitor equipment to make sure it is operating within established limits. 434/Occupational Outlook Handbook locals of the International Union of Operating Engineers, and from State and local licensing agencies. Specific questions about the occu pation should be addressed to: International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. National Association of Power Engineers, Inc., 2035 East Devon St., Suite 115, Des Plaines, 111. 60018. For licensing requirements, con tact: National Institute for Uniform Licensing of Power Engineers, 1436 Fritz Rd., Verona, Wis. 53593. Water and Sewage Treatment Plant Operators (D .O .T. 954.382-010, -014; and 955.362, .382, and .585) Nature of the Work Clean water is essential for many things: Health and recreation; the ex istence of fish and wildlife; and the functioning of industries. Water treat ment plant operators treat water so that it is pure and safe to drink. Sew age or wastewater treatment plant op erators remove harmful domestic and industrial pollution from sewage. Water is pumped from rivers and streams to water treatment plants. Waste materials are carried by water through sewer pipes to sewage treat ment plants. Operators in both types of plants control processes and equip ment to remove solid materials, chem icals, and organisms from the water or render them harmless. By operating and maintaining the pumps, pipes, valves, and processing equipment of the treatment facility, operators move the water or sewage through the var ious treatment processes. Operators read and interpret meters and gauges to make sure plant equip ment and processes are working prop erly and adjust controls as needed. They operate chemical-feeding devic es; take samples of the water or sew age and perform chemical and biolog ical laboratory analyses; and test and adjust the level of chlorine in the sewage. Operators also make minor repairs to valves, pumps, and other equipment. They use gauges, wrench es, pliers, and other common handtools, as well as special tools. Occa sionally operators must work under emergency conditions. A heavy rain storm, for example, may cause an amount of sewage to flow into sewerpipes that exceeds a plant’s treatment capacity. Emergencies also can be caused by conditions inside a plant, such as chlorine gas leaks or oxygen deficiencies. The duties of operators vary de pending on the type and size of plant. In smaller plants, one operator may control all machinery, perform tests, keep records, handle complaints, and Operators read and interpret meters and gauges to make sure equipment and processes are working properly. do repairs and maintenance. The op erators even may handle both a water treatment and a sewage treatment plant. In larger plants, with many em ployees, operators may be assigned to one process or one station, and the staff may include chemists, engineers, laboratory technicians, mechanics, helpers, supervisors, and a superin tendent. Water pollution standards have be come increasingly stringent since adoption of the Federal Water Pollu tion Control Act of 1972. To imple ment the law, a national system of uniform controls on the discharge of pollutants was set in motion. Under the 1972 law, as amended by the Clean Water Act of 1977, it is illegal to discharge any pollutant without a per mit. Industrial facilities that send their wastes to municipal treatment plants must meet certain minimum standards and insure that these wastes have been adequately pretreated so that they do not damage municipal treat ment facilities. Municipal treatment plants must also meet discharge stan dards. In order to meet these require ments, operators will have to be able to operate more sophisticated sys tems. Working Conditions Water and sewage treatment plant op erators work both indoors and out doors and may be exposed to noise from machinery and unpleasant odors, although chlorine and other chemicals are used to minimize these. Persons with allergies might suffer due to dust and other substances in the air. Oper ators have to stoop, reach, and climb and often get their clothes dirty. Some times they are confronted with haz ardous conditions, such as slippery walkways, dangerous gases, and mal functioning equipment. Because plants operate around the clock, oper ators are required to work shifts and on weekends and holidays. During emergencies, overtime is common. Employment Water and sewage treatment plant op erators held about 82,000 jobs in 1984. The vast majority worked for local governments; some worked for pri vate water supply companies and chemical manufacturing companies. About 1,800 were employed by the Federal Government, mostly by the Armed Forces. Water and sewage treatment plant Production Occupations/435 operators are employed throughout and their control, safety, chlorination, the country. Geographically, employ sedimentation, biological oxidation, ment is distributed much like the Na sludge treatment and disposal, and tion’s population, with most jobs in flow measurements. Some operators larger towns and cities. Many opera take correspondence courses on sub tors in small towns are employed part jects related to sewage treatment, and some employers pay part of the tu time or handle additional duties. ition for related college courses in science or engineering. Training, Other Qualifications, and Operators may be promoted to plant Advancement Trainees usually start as attendants or supervisor or superintendent. A high operators-in-training and learn their school diploma and increasingly re skills on the job under the direction of sponsible experience as an operator an experienced operator. They learn may be sufficient to qualify for super by observing the processes and equip intendent of a small plant, since at ment in operation and do routine tasks many small plants the superintendent such as recording meter readings; tak also serves as an operator. However, ing samples of sewage and sludge ; and educational requirements are rising as doing simple maintenance and repair larger, more complex treatment plants work on pumps, electric motors, and are built to meet new water pollution valves. They also clean and maintain control standards. Superintendents of plant equipment and property. Larger large plants generally need an engi treatment plants generally have more neering or science degree. A few op formal “ in-house” training programs. erators get jobs with State water pol Operators need mechanical apti lution control agencies as technicians, tude and should be competent in basic who monitor and provide technical mathematics. Employers generally assistance to plants throughout the prefer trainees who have a high school State. Vocational-technical school or diploma or its equivalent. In some community college training generally States this is a minimum educational is preferred for technician jobs. Expe requirement. Some positions, particu rienced operators may transfer to re larly in larger cities and towns, are lated jobs with industrial sewage treat covered by civil service regulations, ment plants, companies selling sew and applicants may be required to age tre a tm e n t equipm ent and pass written examinations testing ele chemicals, engineering consulting mentary mathematics skills, mechan firms, or vocational-technical schools. In 44 States, supervisors and cer ical aptitude, and general intelligence. Operators must be agile, since they tain operators must pass an examina have to climb ladders and move easily tion to certify that they are capable of overseeing treatment plant opera around heavy machinery. Some 2-year programs leading to an tions. Voluntary certification pro associate degree in wastewater tech grams are in effect in the remaining nology and 1-year programs leading to States. Typically, there are different a certificate are available; these pro classes of certification for different vide a good general knowledge of wa sizes of treatment plants. ter pollution control as well as basic preparation for becoming an operator. Job Outlook Because plants are becoming more Employment of water and sewage complex, completion of such courses treatment plant operators is expected increases an applicant’s chances for to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 1995. Most employment and promotion. Most State water pollution control employment growth will occur by the agencies offer training courses to im early 1990’s in order to staff new and prove operators’ skills and knowl existing plants. Thereafter, growth edge. These courses cover principles should moderate due to an anticipated of treatment processes and process slowdown in the rate of construction control, laboratory procedures, odors of new treatment plants. In addition, automation of existing plants may de crease the need for some lesser skilled operators. However, many job open ings will occur as experienced opera tors transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Persons with formal postsecondary training in wastewater technology will have the competitive edge in being hired or advancing to supervisory positions. People who enter this field general ly have steady employment because treatment of water is essential even during economic downturns. Earnings According to a survey conducted by the Water Pollution Control Federa tion, annual salaries of wastewater treatment plant operators averaged $18,700 in 1984; salaries of supervi sors averaged $21,700. Salaries de pend, among other things, on the size of the plant, the complexity of the operator’s job, and the operator’s lev el of certification. Related Occupations Other workers whose main activity consists of operating a system of machinery to process or produce ma terials include boiler operators, gascompressor operators, powerplant op erators, power reactor operators, sta tionary engineers, turbine operators, and waterworks pump-station opera tors. Sources of Additional Information For further information on training, contact: National Environmental Training Association, 158 S. Napoleon St., P.O. Box 346, Valparaiso, Ind. 46383. For information on certification, contact: Association of Boards of Certification, 520 Grant Ave., Ames, Iowa 50010. Additional information is available from: Water Pollution Control Federation, 2626 Penn sylvania Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20037. For information on jobs, contact State or local water pollution control agencies or local offices of the State employment service. Machine Operators, Tenders, and Setup Workers Workers in this occupational group set up, adjust, operate, and tend nu merous kinds of machinery and equip ment. These workers generally have job titles related to the type of ma chine they handle such as rolling ma chine setup operator, printing press operator, sewing machine operator, and motion picture projectionist. Skilled machine setup operators ad just the speed, feed, and other con trols on machines according to the specifications of a particular product or job. They then test the machines to make certain they are functioning properly and producing parts that conform to job specifications. After this determination has been made, semiskilled machine operators begin production. It is their job to control and monitor machines and equipment and make necessary adjustments dur ing production. In small establishments, workers may perform a wider range of tasks than in large establishments, where workers’ duties may be more special ized. Some skilled workers may set up, operate, and tend equipment throughout the production process. Most machine operators, tenders, and setup workers are employed in factories in the mass production of goods. Working conditions in facto ries have improved substantially in recent years. The use of modern equipment and safety procedures has reduced the rate of accidents. Facto ries, for the most part, are clean and well lighted; some modern ones are air-conditioned. Nevertheless, many workers are exposed to unpleasant conditions. For example, electroplat ers and boiler tenders are subjected to fumes. Forge shops can be very hot and noisy. And working around even the most modern high-speed machines can still be dangerous. Because of the repetitive nature of some tasks, ma chine operators, tenders, and setup workers may find their jobs tedious and boring. Persons interested in these jobs should have manual dexterity and be Digitized for436 FRASER mechanically inclined to use the tools and machinery required in their work. Physical stamina is important because many machine operators, tenders, and setup workers, such as transpor tation equipment painters, must stand for long periods of time and do a considerable amount of reaching and bending. Physical strength is essential for jobs such as printing press opera tor and electroplater, which require some heavy lifting and carrying. Pre cision, accuracy, and the ability to visualize three-dimensional objects from drawings also are important char acteristics for many of these workers. Many jobs as machine operators, tenders, and setup workers do not require a high school diploma. Howev er, employers often prefer high school or vocational school graduates who have taken courses in mathematics, machine shop, and blueprint reading. Most workers learn these jobs through on-the-job training provided by their employers. Skilled workers, such as machine tool setup workers, often complete formal apprenticeship programs. Some experienced workers may be required to take courses to keep abreast of new technologies. This section of the Handbook in cludes statements on selected ma chine operators, tenders, and setup workers. In addition to more detailed information on the nature of the work, employment, working conditions, and training requirements, these statements discuss job outlook and earnings. Metalworking and Plastic-Working Machine Operators (List o f D.O .T. codes available on request. See p. 495.) Nature of the Work Durable goods such as aircraft, motor vehicles, and industrial equipment contain thousands of metal and plastic parts. These parts are made on a va riety of machines that cut, shape, stamp, or otherwise form metal and plastic. Metalworking and plastic working machine operators run these machines. Operators usually are identified by the kind of machine they run, such as lathe operator, milling machine oper ator, drill press operator, and punch press operator. Although some oper ators can work with a variety of ma chine tools, most specialize in one or two types. Most operators only tend machines, performing simple, repetitive opera tions that can be learned relatively quickly. Typically, these operators place metal or plastic stock in a ma chine on which the speeds and opera tion sequence already have been set. Operators may watch one or more machines and make minor adjust ments according to their instructions. However, they depend on skilled set up workers for major adjustments when their machines are not working properly. Some operators perform more var ied and complex machining opera tions. Skilled machine operators plan and set up the correct sequence of operations according to blueprints, layouts, or other instructions. They adjust speed, feed, and other controls, and select the proper instruments or tools for each operation. Using mi crometers, gauges, and other preci sion measuring instruments, they compare the completed work with the tolerance limits given in the specifica tions. They also may select coolants to keep the workpiece from getting too hot, and lubricants to keep the machine tools running smoothly. Working Conditions Most machine shops are well lighted and well ventilated. However, power ful, high-speed machines can be dan gerous if strict safety rules are not observed. Operators must wear pro tective equipment such as safety glass es and earplugs to shield against flying metal particles and noise from ma- Production Occupations/437 chines. They cannot wear loose-fitting clothes or jewelry that might get caught in the machine, injuring the operator. The work requires stamina because operators are on their feet much of the day and may do moder ately heavy lifting. Employment Metalworking and plastic-working machine operators held about 953,000 jobs in 1984. The distribution of em ployment among specific operator oc cupations is presented in the following tabulation: Percent T o ta l.................................... Machine forming operators, metal and p la s t ic ..................... Machine tool cutting operators, metal and p la s t ic ..................... Combination machine tool setters, operators, and ten d ers......................................... Lathe machine tool setters, metal and p la s t ic ..................... Grinding machine setters, metal and p lastic.................................. Drilling machine tool operators, metal and p la s t ic ..................... Punch machine setters, metal and p la stic.................................. Press machine setters, metal and p lastic.................................. Other machine tool operators .. 100 18 18 11 10 10 7 7 5 14 Most operators specialize in working on one or two types of machines. come an operator. Most operators learn the basic machine operations and func tions in a few months, but becoming a skilled operator often requires 1 to 2 years. Some companies have formal training programs for new employees. Although no special education is required, persons interested in this occupation can improve their oppor tunities by completing high school courses in mathematics and blueprint Training, Other Qualifications, and reading. In hiring beginners, employ Advancement Most operators learn their skills on ers often look for persons with me the job. Beginners usually start by chanical aptitude and some experi observing experienced operators at ence in working with machinery. work. When trainees first operate a Physical stamina is important since machine, they are supervised closely much time is spent standing. Applicants by more experienced workers. After should be able to work independently. gaining some experience, beginners They also should not mind working in often take over more of the duties of a relatively small workspace. operating the machines. For example, ; Advancement opportunities in these they may learn to adjust feed speeds occupations are limited. Some work and cutting edges, instead of calling ers advance to supervisory jobs or upon other workers to perform these transfer to trainee jobs for skilled oc tasks. Some also may learn to read cupations such as machinist and toolblueprints, plan the sequence of work, and-die maker. and learn to use measuring instru Job Outlook ments to check work. Individual ability and effort largely Little change is expected in the over determine the time required to be all employment of metalworking and Most operators work in factories that produce fabricated metal prod ucts, transportation equipment, and machinery in large quantities. They are concentrated in the midwestern and northeastern sections of the coun try where such manufacturing activity is centered. plastic-working machine operators through the mid-1990’s. Although em ployment in the two most highly skilled occupations will increase sig nificantly, employment in the remain ing occupations in this group is ex pected to decline. However, because of the large size of this group of occu pations, many thousands of openings are expected to occur each year as operators transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. The demand for metal and plastic parts is expected to increase as the economy expands. However, foreign competition and improvements in manufacturing technology will pre vent employment from rising as rap idly as the demand for parts. Many of the industries that employ metalwork ing and plastic-working machine oper ators face increasing competition from foreign firms. In industries such as motor vehicles and steel, foreign firms have captured significant proportions of the market and U.S. firms have had to cut production and lay off workers. In addition, many U.S. firms have moved production operations to other countries to lower costs. Such moves 438/Occupational Outlook Handbook have lowered employment opportuni ties in these occupations. In order to remain competitive, many U.S. firms are adopting technol ogies that increase productivity. Com puter-controlled machine tools, ro bots, and automated material handling equipment, for example, are used to gether in flexible machining systems. In these systems, the automated ma terial handling equipment moves workpieces through a series of work stations. At each work station, a robot loads the piece onto a computercontrolled machine and removes it when the processing is complete. The workpiece is then moved to the next work station for further processing. In such systems, operators can tend sev eral machines. Other improvements that will offset employment include the use of tools that cut metal faster and improved computer controls. Workers with thorough backgrounds in machine operations, mathematics, blueprint reading, and a good working knowledge of the properties of metals and plastics will be better able to adjust to the changing job require ments that will result from technolog ical advances. The number of openings may fluc tuate greatly from year to year due to changes in economic conditions. When demand slackens for motor ve hicles, aircraft, and other durable goods, production runs may be stopped or restricted, and workers may be laid off or face a shortened workweek. Earnings Median weekly earnings of metal working and plastic-working machine operators were $325 in 1984. Most earned between $250 and $445 a week. Ten percent of all operators had me dian weekly earnings of less than $200, while the 10 percent with the highest earnings made more than $555 a week. Operators are paid according to hourly or incentive rates, or by a combination of both methods. In 1984, hourly earnings of machine operators ranged from about $7.60 to $10.80, according to a survey by the National Tooling and Machining Association. Rates vary, depending on the type of machine operated. In comparison, the average hourly rate for all production workers in private industry, except farming, was $8.33. metalworking and plastic Many working machine operators belong to unions, including the International Association of Machinists and Aero space Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aero space and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Ma chine Workers; the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; and the United Steelworkers of Amer ica. Related Occupations Occupations most closely related to metalworking and plastic-working ma chine operators are the other metal working occupations. These include machinists, tool-and-die makers, in strument makers, blacksmiths, gun smiths, locksmiths, metal patternmak ers, and welders. Sources of Additional Information For information about work opportu nities in these occupations, contact the nearest office of the State employ ment service. For general information about this occupation, contact: The National Machine Tool Builders, 7901 Westpark Dr., McLean, Va. 22102. The National Tooling and Machining Associa tion, 9300 Livingston Rd., Ft. Washington, Md. 20744. The National Screw Machine Products Associ ation, 6700 W. Snowville Rd., Breckville, Ohio 44141. The Tool and Die Institute, 777 Busse High way, Park Ridge, 111. 60068. Numerical-Control Machine-Tool Operators (D.O.T. 604.362; 605.360, .380; 606.362, .382-014; 609.662; and 617.280) Nature of the Work People generally associate manufac turing with mass production. Howev er, the manufacture of industrial equipment, aircraft, and many other products involves machining—cutting or forming metal or plastic workpieces into parts for final products—that is done in small batches. For decades, batch production was done by skilled workers using machine tools such as milling machines and lathes. During the late 1940’s, the increasing com plexity and cost of parts for aircraft led the Air Force to sponsor research at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech nology to develop machine tools that could be programmed to make parts of different dimensions automatically. The result was the development in 1952 of the first numerically con trolled machine tool. These machines bring the benefits of automation to batch production. Numerical control machine tools have two major components: An elec tronic controller (a type of computer) and a machine tool. The controller directs the mechanisms of the ma chine tool through the positioning and machining described in the computer program for the job. A program, for example, could contain commands that cause the controller to move a drill bit to certain spots on a workpiece and drill a hole at each spot. Many types of machine tools—milling ma chines, lathes, punch presses, and others—can be numerically con trolled. Each can do certain types of machining. A workpiece might have to be worked on by several machines before it is finished. Although the ma chining is done automatically, numer ically controlled machine tools must be set up and used properly in order to obtain the maximum benefit from their use. These tasks are the job of numerical-control machine-tool oper ators. The duties of these operators vary. In some shops, operators merely tend one machine. In others, they might program and tend machines, operate more than one machine at a time, or operate more than one type of ma chine. Although there are many vari ations in operators’ duties, they gen erally involve the tasks described be low. Working from written instructions or directions from supervisors, oper ators must position the workpiece, attach the necessary tools, and load the program into the controller. The machine tool cannot “ see” the workpiece, but moves and operates in relation to a fixed starting point on the piece. It is, therefore, critical that operators position the workpiece cor rectly or all subsequent machining will be wrong. Operators also must secure the workpiece to the worktable correctly, so the piece does not move while it is machined. During the set up and running of a job, operators must install the proper tools in the machine. Many numerically con Production Occupations/439 trolled machines are equipped with tors may have to work evening or machine-tool manufacturers. These courses usually last 1 to 2 weeks. automatic tool changers, so operators night shifts. Numerical-control machine-tool op have to load several tools in the prop erators may advance to supervisory er sequence. The time an operator Employment needs to position and secure the Numerical-control machine-tool oper jobs. Operators who get sufficient workpiece and load the tools may be ators held about 57,000 jobs in 1984. training in numerical-control program only a few minutes or several hours, Most work in industries that manufac ming can move to the higher paying depending on the size of the workpiece ture durable goods, such as metal job of tool programmer. working machinery, aircraft, and con and complexity of the job. The way a program is loaded into a struction equipment. Jobs are concen Job Outlook controller depends on how it is stored. trated in metropolitan areas in the Employment of numerical-control ma If the program is stored on a paper or northeastern and midwestem parts of chine-tool operators is expected to magnetic tape, the tape must be run the country where durable goods man increase faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. through a tape reader that transmits ufacturing is centered. In addition to openings arising from the program to the controller. Increas growth in demand for these workers, ingly, machine-tool controllers are Training, Other Qualifications, and many openings are expected to occur connected to minicomputers. Opera Advancement This generally is not an entry level as operators transfer to other fields of tors load programs that are stored on discs or tapes directly into the con job. Employers prefer to fill operator work, or leave the labor force. Although numerically controlled jobs in-house. They select machinetroller via the computer. The first time a program is run, it tool operators or shop helpers who machine tools have been available must be ‘debugged,’ or corrected. If have some experience in machine-tool since the 1950’s, few companies used the tool moves to the wrong position operation and have demonstrated them until the late 1970’s. Most firms or makes a cut that is too deep, for good work habits and mechanical ap were unwilling to invest in an unfa example, the program must be titude. Courses in shop math and miliar technology. Increasing compe changed so the job is done properly. blueprint reading may improve an em tition from foreign companies has Some employers have numerical-con ployee’s chances of getting selected forced American manufacturers of metalworking, industrial, and trans trol machine-tool operators debug the for an operator job. Working under a supervisor or an portation equipment to adopt numeri program. Others have tool program experienced operator, trainees learn cally controlled machine tools and mers handle the first run. When a job is properly set up and to set up and run one or more kinds of other equipment that enables them to the program has been checked, the numerically controlled machine tools. control costs and improve quality. In operator merely has to monitor the Trainees usually learn the basics of addition to being used alone, numeri machine as it operates. Some jobs their job within a few weeks. Howev cally controlled machines are increas require frequent loading and unload er, the length of the training period ingly being used as part of flexible ing, changing of tools, or constant varies with the number and complex machining systems. In these systems, attention to insure that the machining ity of the machine tools the operator automated material handling equip is proceeding properly. For other will run and the individual’s ability. If ment moves workpieces through a se jobs, the machine can run unattended the employer expects operators to ries of work stations. At each work for hours. In these cases, the opera write programs, trainees may attend station, a robot loads the piece onto a tors may set up other machines, finish programming courses offered by numerically controlled machine and or inspect completed parts, or do oth er tasks. Operators check the finished part using micrometers, gauges, or other precision inspection equipment to insure it meets specifications. Working Conditions Working conditions generally are good in machine shops. Because there are hazards connected with operating ma chine tools, machines have guards and shields that minimize the opera tors’ exposure to moving parts. Oper ators must follow safety rules and may have to wear protective equip ment, such as safety glasses and ear plugs. They cannot wear loose-fitting clothes or jewelry that might get caught in the machines. The job re quires stamina because operators stand most of the day and may lift moderately heavy workpieces onto the worktable. In some shops, opera Numerical-control machine-tool operator checks to insure that the program is correct. 440/Occupational Outlook Handbook removes it when the machining is complete. The workpiece is then moved to the next work station for further processing. The increased use of numerically controlled machines is expected to increase the demand for operators. Improvements to these ma chines may keep employment from growing as rapidly as the number of machines, however. The use of adap tive controls—sensors that automati cally monitor and adjust machine op erations—can be expected to lower the time an operator must spend mon itoring the machine. Improvements in the controllers and in the software used for programming them also are likely to increase operator productiv ity and limit the rate of employment growth somewhat. Employment of numerical-control machine-tool operators may fluctuate from year to year because this occu pation is concentrated in industries that are sensitve to changes in the level of economic activity. A drop in the demand for aircraft, machinery, or other equipment lessens the need for operators and may result in layoff’ or s shortened workweeks. Earnings In 1984, numerical-control machinetool operators earned about $9.25 an hour, according to a survey by the National Tooling and Machining As sociation. This rate is about 10 per cent higher than the average hourly earnings for all production workers in manufacturing but slightly lower than the hourly rates of skilled machining workers such as machinists and tooland-die makers. Numerical-control machine-tool operators generally work 40 hours a week; however, over time is common during periods of high manufacturing activity. Related Occupations Numerical-control machine-tool oper ators use their skill and knowledge of machines and processes to set up and operate one or more types of automat ically controlled machine tools. Other occupations in which workers use ma chines to cut or form metal and plastic include bending machine operators, brake operators, drill press operators, grinder operators, milling machine op erators, punch press operators, and shear operators. Sources of Additional Information For information about job opportuni ties in this occupation, contact the nearest office of the State employment service. For general information about this occupation, contact: The National Machine Tool Builders, 7901 Westpark Dr., McLean, Va. 22102. The National Tooling and Machining Associa tion, 9300 Livingston Rd., Ft. Washington, Md. 20744. The Tool and Die Institute, 777 Busse High way, Park Ridge, 111. 60068. Printing Press Operators (List o f D .O .T . codes available on request. See p. 495.) equipment, the press operator moni tors a control panel that detects prob lems. To adjust the press, the opera tor pushes the proper button on the control panel. Press operators are generally designated according to the type of press they operate: Letterpress, gravure, offset, or flexography. Working Conditions Operating a press can be physically demanding. Press operators are on their feet most of the time. Web offset is capable of high printing speeds, and adjustments must be made quickly to avoid waste. Pressrooms are noisy, and workers in certain areas frequent ly wear ear protectors. Press opera tors are subject to hazards when working near machinery. Often, they work under pressure to meet dead lines. Many press operators work evening and night shifts. Nature of the Work Printing press operators prepare and operate the printing presses in a press room. Before starting the press, press Employment operators set it up and adjust it to Press operators held about 222,000 insure that the printing impressions jobs in 1984, distributed as follows: will be distinct and uniform. Press Printing press machine operators first insert and lock type operators and ten d ers............. 113,000 setups or plates into the press bed and Offset lithographic press setters and setup operators..................... 69,000 tighten the locking attachment with a wrench. The operators then level the Letterpress setters and setup o p erators........................................ 21,000 pressplates by placing pieces of paper All o t h e r ............................................. 19,000 that are exactly the right thickness underneath low areas of the plates. About half of these jobs were in Press operators also adjust control margins and the flow of ink to the commercial printing shops and book inking roller, feed paper through the and magazine publishing firms. Others press’ rollers, and adjust feed con were in newspaper plants. Some jobs trols. In some shops, they oil and were in banks, insurance companies, clean the presses and make minor paper manufacturers, and other orga repairs. Press operators who work nizations that do their own printing, with large presses have assistants and such as Federal, State, and local gov ernments. helpers. Printing and publishing is one of the Press operators’ jobs differ from most geographically dispersed indus one shop to another because of differ ences in the kinds and sizes of press tries in the United States, and press es. Small commercial shops generally operators can find jobs throughout the have relatively simple manual press country. However, jobs are concen es, whereas large newspaper, maga trated in large printing centers such as zine, and book printers use giant New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, presses that require a crew of several Philadelphia, Washington, D.C., and press operators and press assistants. Dallas. These presses are fed paper in big rolls called “webs” up to 50 inches or Training, Other Qualifications, and more in width. Workers print the pa Advancement per on both sides; cut, assemble, and Press operators learn their trade fold the pages; and count the finished through apprenticeship or while on the job. The length and content of sections as they come off the press. Many modern plants have installed training depend largely on the kind of printing presses that use computers press used in the plant. Most press and sophisticated instrumentation to operators are trained to operate more control press operations. With this than one press, but specialize in a Production Occupations/441 particular area of printing such as li thography, letterpress, or gravure. Apprenticeship, once the dominant method of preparing for this occupa tion, is becoming less prevalent as formal programs of retraining and skills updating for experienced opera tors take on greater importance. Nonetheless, 2 out of 5 persons train ing to be printing press operators are in apprenticeship programs, accord ing to a recent estimate. The appren ticeship period in commercial shops is 4 years for press operators. In addi tion to on-the-job instruction, the ap prenticeship includes related class room or correspondence school cours es. Courses in printing provide a good background. Because of technical de velopments in the printing industry, courses in chemistry, electronics, col or theory, and physics are helpful. Postsecondary education is increas ingly important because of the theo retical knowledge needed to operate advanced equipment. Mechanical aptitude is important in making press adjustments and repairs. An ability to visualize color is essen tial for work on color presses. Technological changes have had a tremendous effect on the skills needed by press operators. For example, printing plants which change from sheet-fed offset presses to web-offset presses have to retrain their entire press crew because the skill require ments for the two types of presses are very different. Web-offset presses, with their faster operating speeds, re quire faster decisions, monitoring of more variables, and greater physical effort. Press operators may advance in pay and responsibility by taking a job working on a more complex printing press. For example, a two-color sheetfed press operator may become a four-color sheet-fed press operator. Others may advance to press operator-in-charge and be responsible for the work of the entire press crew. mid-1990’s. Increased use of color producing presses will contribute to job growth because this technology is more labor intensive than other print ing technologies. In general, however, productivity improvements centering around faster and more efficient weboffset presses will permit the rapidly growing demand for printed materials to be met with a very moderate rise in the number of offset press operators, while jobs for letterpress operators will continue to disappear. Techno logical breakthroughs—the applica tion of microprocessors to printing and binding equipment, for example— could further reduce labor require ments in the years ahead. Most oppor tunities for printing press operators will reflect the need to replace experi enced workers who leave the occupa tion. Apprenticeship training is more likely to be required of individuals entering this occupation than other printing occupations. They will face stiff competition for jobs from experi enced workers and workers who have completed retraining programs. Job Outlook Employment of press operators is ex pected to grow about as fast as aver age for all occupations through the Earnings The basic wage rate for a press oper ator depends on the type of press being run and the area of the country Printing press operators must be ready to make quick adjustments to avoid waste. in which the work is located. The basic wage rate for letterpress opera tors in unionized firms was $13.38 an hour in late 1984, according to the Graphic Communications In ter national Union. Lithographic press operators on a single-color 19x25-inch press earned $14.81 an hour in 1984, on average. Operators working on larger, multicolor presses earned more. Related Occupations Other workers who set up and operate production machinery are papermak ing machine operators, shoemaking machine operators, bindery machine operators, and precision machine op erators. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeships and oth er training opportunities may be ob tained from local newspapers and printing shops, local offices of the Graphic Communications In te r national Union, or local offices of the State employment service. For general information about press operators, write to: Graphic Communications International Union, 1900 L St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Education Council of the Graphic Arts Indus try, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. Fabricators, Assemblers, and Handworking Occupations These workers produce manufactured business conditions. More informa semblers put together and install parts goods using handtools and hand-held tion about job opportunities and job of airplanes such as wings or landing power tools. They perform tasks rang security appears in the statements gear. Precision structural metal fitters ing from the repetitive to the highly that follow. align and fit structural metal parts intricate. according to blueprints prior to weld Most entry level jobs require rela ing or riveting. Precision electrome tively little formal education, and few chanical equipment assemblers pre employers insist on a high school di Precision Assemblers pare and test equipment or devices ploma. What counts is the ability to (List o f D .O .T. codes available on request. See p. such as dynamometers, ejection seat perform. Workers acquire their skills 495.) mechanisms, magnetic drums, and on the job, usually in a matter of days tape drives. or weeks. Two notable exceptions are Nature of the Work The manufacturing process is precision electrical and electronic When Henry Ford began producing changing. Mass production has been equipment assemblers, who generally automobiles on an assembly line, the predominant approach in manu need technical school training or the modern mass production was born. facturing since Henry Ford revolu equivalent, and welders, who often Workers who had previously built a tionized the automobile industry, but complete automobile alone now found another revolution is taking place. learn their trade in formal programs. Many of these occupations involve themselves specializing in just one Flexible m anufacturing systems highly repetitive work and require part of the job. Production became a (FMS), which include the manufac minimum skills. This is the kind of team effort, with each worker per turing applications of robotics, com work where commercial robots are forming a single task on every car puters, and various sensing technolo most productive. In the years ahead, rolling by on the line. gies, are changing the way goods are Workers who put together the parts made and affecting the jobs of those as manufacturers strive to raise pro ductivity, an increasing number of of manufactured articles are called who make them. As manufacturing jobs will be lost to these mechanical assemblers. Sometimes hundreds of firms strive for greater productivity, workers and other automated proce assemblers work on a single finished jobs that can be performed more eco dures. The use of robots for assem product. Assembly work varies from nomically or more accurately by auto bling, painting, and welding already is simple repetitive jobs that are rela mated equipment will be restructured; well established in the automobile in tively easy to learn to those requiring many of them will disappear. Often, dustry, and, by the mid-1990’s, other precision and many months of experi these are low-skilled and repetitive industries will have adopted robotics, ence and training. It is this latter jobs. As in the case of automobile computer-assisted design and manu group that this statement describes. spray painting, they may be unpleas The work of precision assemblers ant or even hazardous. facture, and other laborsaving tech Until now, very few precision as nologies. Electrical and electronic requires a high degree of accuracy. product assembly probably will be Workers must be able to interpret sembly jobs have been eliminated by among the next to experience job loss detailed specifications and instruc automation. The need for precision, tions and apply independent judg independent judgment, and knowl es due to automation. Other assembly jobs will be lost to ment, as well as have the knowledge edge has placed such jobs beyond the “ outsourcing”—the practice of mov gained through experience and train capabilities of robots. However, with ing some production work to coun ing. Some experienced assemblers advances in robotics and in vision and work with engineers and technicians, touch sensing systems, precision as tries where labor costs are lower. assembling prototypes or test prod Many fabricating, assembling, and ucts. Precision assemblers involved in sembly jobs have become candidates handworking occupations are sensi product development must know how for automation. Prototype lines that tive to fluctuations in business condi to read blueprints and engineering are competely automated already ex tions. As factory orders decline dur specifications and how to use a varie ist. Because much precision assembly ing economic downturns, workers ty of tools and precision measuring work is done in difficult-to-reach loca may experience shortened work instruments. tions unsuited for robots, such as in weeks, layoffs, and plant closings. Precision assemblers may work on side airplane fusilages or inside dish Workers employed in motor vehicle subassemblies or the complete final washer chassis, replacement of these and other durable goods manufac assembly of finished products or com workers by automated processes will turing or in industries that produce ponents of products such as machin be slower and less complete than re construction and building materials ery, aircraft, or electronic equipment. placement of welders and painters. are especially affected by changes in For example, precision aircraft as Also, some of the technology needed 442 Production Occupations/443 to automate precision assembly work is not expected to be widely available until after 1990. Nonetheless, a revo lution in manufacturing technology is underway, and, by the turn of the century, many analysts expect assem bly jobs to be very scarce. Working Conditions The conditions under which precision assemblers work depend on the indus try in which they are employed. Elec tronics and watch assemblers sit at tables in rooms that are clean, well lighted, and free from dust. Assem blers of aircraft and industrial machin ery, however, usually come in contact with oil and grease, and their working areas may be quite noisy. They may have to lift and fit heavy objects. Workers on assembly lines are under pressure to keep up with the speed of the lines. Since most assemblers only perform a few steps in the assembly process, assembly jobs tend to be monotonous. Work schedules of assemblers may vary at plants with more than one shift. Workers can accept or reject a certain job on a given shift, usually in order of seniority. Employment Virtually all of the 353,000 precision assembler jobs in 1984 were in plants that manufacture durable goods. One out of three jobs involved assem bly of electronic and electrical ma chinery, equipment, and supplies in cluding electrical switches, welding equipment, electric motors, lighting equipment, household appliances, and radios and television sets. Nearly 1 job in 5 involved assembly of non electrical machinery (diesel engines, steam turbine generators, farm trac tors, mining and construction machin ery, computers, and window air-cond itioners). The following tabulation lists the industries that provided most wage and salary jobs for precision assem blers in 1984: Percent T o ta l.................................. Electrical and electronic machinery and equipm ent... Machinery, except electrical .. Transportation equipment......... Professional and scientific in stru m ents.............................. Fabricated metal products . . . . 100 41 28 14 10 5 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Precision assemblers often are pro moted from the ranks of workers in less skilled jobs in the same firm. Sometimes, outside applicants may be hired if they possess suitable experi ence. The ability to do accurate work at a fast pace is a key job requirement. A high school diploma is helpful but usually is not required. For some precision assembly jobs, applicants may need special training. For example, employers may require that applicants for electrical or elec tronic assembler jobs be technical school graduates or have equivalent military training. Good eyesight, with or without glasses, may be required for assem blers who work with small parts. In plants that make electrical and electron ic products, which may contain many different colored wires, applicants of ten are tested for color blindness. As precision assemblers become more experienced, they may progress to jobs that require more skill and be given more responsibility. Experi enced assemblers who have learned many assembly operations and under stand the construction of a product may become product repairers. These workers fix assembled articles that in spectors have identified as defective. Assemblers also may advance to in spector or be promoted to supervisor. In some firms, assemblers can become trainees for one of the skilled trades. Job Outlook Employment of precision assemblers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. In the unlike ly event that flexible manufacturing systems come into widespread use before then, there would be fewer new jobs. Nonetheless, replacement needs, not employment growth, will be the principal factor influencing job prospects for precision assemblers. This is such a large occupation that the need to replace workers who re tire or leave the occupation for other reasons generates a substantial num ber of job openings. As in the past, job opportunities will vary with the fortunes of the industries employing precision assem blers, and prospects will be best in industries that are at a competitive advantage. Currently, precision as sembly jobs are being lost to “ out- Being able to do accurate work at a fast pace is important for precision assemblers. sourcing”—the practice of moving as sembly operations to countries where labor is cheaper. This trend is expected to continue. Over the next 10 years, outsourcing of assembly work may well cost more jobs than robots or automat ed manufacturing systems, the full im pact of which will not be felt so soon. The effect of automation on preci sion assembler employment will de pend on how rapidly and extensively new manufacturing technologies are adopted. Certainly, not all precision assemblers can be replaced efficiently by automated processes. Robots are expensive and a large volume of work is required to justify their purchase. They may not be economical in small operations with perhaps only one shift per day. Also, where the assembly parts involved are small or irregular in size, robot technology is only now beginning to make inroads. Robot as sembly works best where products are designed specifically to be assem bled by robots. Often, manufacturers are unwilling to invest in product and equipment redesign as long as existing operations are profitable. The diffusion of flexible manufac turing systems will affect some indus tries sooner than others. Electrical and electronic assembly jobs are expected to be among the first jobs adversely affected. These jobs are found in the motor vehicle, electronics, communica tions, and computer manufacturing in- 444/Occupational Outlook Handbook dustries. Machine builders and other precision machine assemblers are likely to be among the last to be affected. Assemblers’ employment opportu nities will vary geographically. Areas of industrial expansion such as the sunbelt States are likely to provide the best prospects. Earnings The median earnings for all assem blers working full time were about $291 a week in 1984. Precision assem blers typically earn 5 to 10 percent more than entry level assemblers. Wage rates for precision assemblers working under union contracts ranged from about $8.50 to $15 an hour in 1984, according to limited informa tion. Starting workers earned wages around the lower rate and, after 2 years, typically earned about $10 to $13 an hour. Some highly skilled as semblers, such as certain aircraft as semblers, earned $15 an hour or more. Some assemblers are paid incentive or piecework rates, and, therefore, can earn more by working faster. Many assemblers are members of labor unions. These unions include the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Inter national Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; the United Automo bile, Aerospace and Agricultural Imple ment Workers of America; the Inter national Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; and the United Steelworkers. Related Occupations Other occupations which involve op erating machines and tools and assem bling things are welders, ophthalmic laboratory technicians, and operators of drill presses, laminating machines, and riveting machines. Sources of Additional Information Information about employment op portunities for assemblers is available from local offices of the State employ ment service. Transportation Equipment Painters (D.O.T. 845.381) Nature of the Work Automobiles, trucks, buses, and air craft are painted to prevent corrosion, Digitized forenhance their appearance, and—in FRASER the case of those used commercially— advertise the business of their own ers. The vivid color schemes decorat ing aircraft and the multicolored logos on the sides of tractor-trailers are the product of transportation equipment painters, but their work is most famil iar to us as the deep finish of a new or restored automobile. Manufacturers employ many trans portation equipment painters to apply the finish to new motor vehicles, air craft, and other transportation equip ment, but the majority work as auto motive painters for body repair and paint shops across the Nation. Auto motive painters make old and dam aged motor vehicles “look like new.” These skilled workers repaint older automobiles, trucks, and buses that have lost the luster of their original paint and make fender and body re pairs almost invisible. When painting only the repaired portions of a vehicle, automotive painters often have to mix paint to match the original color, which can be very difficult if the color has faded. To prepare a vehicle for painting, paint ers or their helpers use power sanders and sandpaper to remove the original paint or rust, and fill small nicks and scratches with body putty. They also remove or mask parts they do not want painted, such as chrome trim, headlights, windows, and mirrors. Automotive painters use a spray gun to apply several primer coats. They apply lacquer or, in most cases, enamel primers to vehicles with metal bodies and flexible primers to newer vehicles with plastic body parts. They select the spray-gun nozzle best suit ed to the kind of paint being used and, if necessary, they adjust the air-pre ssure regulator to obtain the correct pressure. If the incorrect nozzle is used or if it is not adjusted properly, paint may run or go on too thinly. To speed drying, they may place the freshly painted vehicle under heat lamps or in a special infrared oven. After each coat of primer dries, they sand the surface to remove any irreg ularities and to help the next coat adhere better. Final sanding of the primers may be done by hand with a fine grade of sandpaper. A sealer is then applied and allowed to dry, fol lowed by the final topcoat. When lac quer is used, painters or their helpers usually polish the finished surface af ter the final coat has dried; enamel dries to a high gloss and usually is not polished. Transportation equipment produc tion painters, who work for manufac turers of automobiles, trucks, and other transportation equipment, gen erally work on assembly lines. Most production painters use spray guns, but their skills are different from au tomotive painters, who repair dam aged cars in body and paint repair shops. Production painters usually do not have to prepare the surface for painting because the equipment is new and unpainted. On assembly lines, mixing the paint and monitoring its consistency are usually the respon sibilities of technicians, but produc tion painters may have this responsi bility when the equipment is custom made, as aircraft usually are. If the equipment is to be multicolored, paint ers apply masking to keep colors from overlapping. Motor vehicle assembly lines are increasingly using painting robots and other types of automatic painting ma chinery that require fewer production painters. Production painters are still needed to check for imperfections in the work of the machines and to touch up sections missed or not reached by the machines. Painters also may be responsible for setting up the machin ery at the beginning of the shift, keep ing it running, and cleaning it at the end of the shift. Working Conditions Transportation equipment painters work indoors and may be exposed to dangerous fumes from paint and paint mixing ingredients. However, most painters wear masks or respirators which cover the nose and mouth, and painting is usually done in special ven tilated booths that protect the painters from these hazards. Painters have to stand for long periods of time. To reach all parts of the equipment, they may have to bend, stoop, or crouch in uncomfortable positions. Employment Transportation equipment painters held about 60,000 jobs in 1984. The majority were automotive painters. Of these, two-thirds worked in shops that specialize in automotive repairs. Most others worked in the repair shops of automobile and truck dealers. Some automotive painters worked for orga nizations that maintain and repair their own fleets of motor vehicles, Production Occupations/445 such as trucking companies and buslines. Transportation equipment produc tion painter jobs were concentrated in the motor vehicle manufacturing in dustry. Others worked for manufac turers of aircraft, ships, bicycles, and other equipment. Automotive painters are employed throughout the country, but produc tion painters are concentrated in industralized areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most automotive painters start as helpers and gain their skills informally by working with experienced paint ers. Beginning helpers usually remove trim, clean and sand surfaces to be painted, mask surfaces that they do not want painted, and polish finished work. As helpers gain experience, they progress to more complicated tasks, such as mixing paint to achieve a good match and using spray guns to apply primer coats or final coats to small areas. Becoming skilled in all aspects of automotive painting usually requires 3 to 4 years of on-the-job training. Instructional programs in automo tive painting are offered at a growing number of community and junior col leges and vocational and technical schools. Completion of such a pro gram enhances one’s employment op portunities and can speed promotion to the journeyman level. The quality of formal automotive painting pro grams varies greatly, however. Better programs provide a thorough back ground in the latest automotive paint ing technology, such as the use of acrylic paints, and include substantial practical experience essential to be coming proficient as an automotive painter. Production painters acquire their skills on the job, usually by watching and helping experienced painters. Training lasts from a few days to several months. Painters should have good health, keen eyesight, and a good color sense. Courses in automobile-body repair of fered by high schools, vocational schools, and community colleges are helpful. Completion of high school generally is not required but usually is an advantage. Voluntary certification by the Na tional Institute for Automotive Ser vice Excellence is recognized as the Transportation equipment painters remove or mask parts that are not to be painted, and then use a spray gun to apply paint. standard of achievement for automo tive painters. For certification, paint ers must pass a written examination and have at least 2 years of experience in the field. High school, trade or vocational school, or community or junior college training in automotive painting and refinishing may substi tute for up to 1 year of experience. To retain certification, painters must re take the examination at least every 5 years. Experienced transportation equip ment painters with leadership ability may advance to supervisor jobs. Some automotive painters open their own shops. Job Outlook Employment of transportation equip ment painters is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. The number of new jobs for automo tive painters should grow as the num ber of cars, trucks, and buses dam aged in traffic accidents increases with the motor vehicle population. Con tinuing emphasis on building lighter weight cars that achieve high gasoline mileage, but which are prone to great er damage in collisions, is also expect ed to contribute to growth of automo tive painters. In addition, they also will be needed to repaint older vehi cles which have rust or faded paint. Jobs for production painters, on the other hand, will decline as motor ve hicle manufacturers increasingly auto mate their painting. Most job openings for transporta tion equipment painters are expected to arise as experienced painters trans fer to other occupations, retire, or stop working for other reasons. Job opportunities will be best in heavily populated areas. Experienced automotive painters can expect relatively steady work be cause the automotive painting busi ness is not significantly affected by changes in economic conditions. Regardless of the state of the econo my, automobiles damaged in acci dents require repair and refinishing. However, there may be fewer open ings for persons seeking to enter this occupation during recessions. Most production painters work in plants that produce automobiles and trucks. During recessions, purchases of new motor vehicles are often put off, causing employment in these plants to be very sensitive to econom ic conditions. Production painters may be laid off when unsold vehicles accu mulate. Earnings Experienced automotive painters em ployed by automobile dealers in 24 large metropolitan areas had estimat ed average hourly earnings of $13.57 in 1984. Their average hourly earnings were highest in the Eastern and Mid western States and lowest in the Southern and Northeastern States. 446/Occupational Outlook Handbook Experienced production painters employed in motor vehicle manufac turing averaged $12.69 an hour in 1984. Beginning automotive painter ap prentices usually start at about half the hourly rate of fully qualified paint ers. As they progress, their wages gradually approach those of experi enced automotive painters. Helpers start at lower wage rates. Many automotive painters em ployed by automobile dealers and in dependent repair shops receive a com mission based on the labor cost charged to the customer. Under this method, earnings depend largely on the amount of work a painter does and how fast it is completed. Employers frequently guarantee commissioned painters a minimum weekly salary. Helpers and apprentices usually re ceive an hourly rate until they become sufficiently skilled to work on a com mission basis. Trucking companies, buslines, and other organizations that repair their own vehicles usually pay by the hour. Most painters work 40 hours a week. Many transportation equipment painters belong to unions, including the International Association of Ma chinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automo bile, Aerospace and Agricultural Im plement Workers of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauf feurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Most union painters work for transportation equipment manufacturers, the larger automobile dealers, trucking companies, and buslines. Related Occupations Restoring damaged motor vehicles of ten involves repair of their bodies and mechanical components as well as painting. Transportation equipment painters often work closely with the following related automotive service occupations: Automotive repair ser vice estimators, automotive body re pairers and customizers, automotive mechanics, and diesel mechanics. Sources of Additional Information For more details about work opportu nities, contact transportation equip ment manufacturers and local auto motive-body repair shops and auto Digitized for motive dealers; locals of the unions FRASER previously mentioned; or the local of fice of the State employment service. The State employment service also may be a source of information about job opportunities and training pro grams. For general information about a ca reer as an automotive painter, write to: Automotive Service Industry Association, 444 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. Automotive Service Councils, Inc., 188 Indus trial Dr., Suite 112, Elmhurst, 111. 60126. Information on how to become a certified automotive painter is avail able from: National Institute for Automotive Service Ex cellence, 1825 K St. NW„ Suite 515, Washing ton, D.C. 20006. Welders and Cutters (D.O.T. 553.684-010; 613.667-010; 709.684-086; 727.684- 022, 810.384-010, -014, .664-010, 684-010; 811.684- 010, -014; 813.684-010; 816-364-010, .464-010, .684-010; 819.281-010, -014, -022, .361-010, -014, .381-010; .384-008, -010; and .684-010) Nature of the Work Welding is the most common way of permanently joining metal parts. Typ ically, heat is applied to the metal pieces to be joined, melting the parts and fusing them to form a permanent bond. Because of its strength, welding is used to construct and repair parts of ships, automobiles, spacecraft, and thousands of other products. Welding is also used to join beams and steel reinforcing rods in buildings, bridges, and highways. There are three common ways to create the heat that is applied to the parts being joined. In electric arc welding, the most frequently used process, heat is created as electric current flows through an arc between the tip of the welding electrode and the metal. In resistance welding, heat is created in the weld metal as current flows through the metal. In gas weld ing, the flame from the combustion of burning gases melts the metal. In arc and gas welding, filler materials, called welding electrodes or welding rods, are melted and added to the weld puddle to fill the joint, giving it greater strength. The welder controls the amount of heat and the size of the melted area and adds the proper amount of filler material to form a strong joint. Welding processes differ, and the equipment and skill levels of welders vary. Some welding operations re quire highly skilled manual welders who can use gas and electric arc weld ing equipment in a variety of positions and who are able to plan their work from drawings or specifications. Skilled welders know the characteris tics and properties of steel, aluminum, and other commonly used metals. Ex amples of skilled welders are mainte nance welders; pressure vessel weld ers, such as those working on subma rines or nuclear reactors; pipe weld ers; and welders who construct ships and bridges. In ship construction, welders join the steel plates, beams, and pipes. Some joints to be welded are on the floor (deck), some are on the walls, and some are overhead. Each must be carefully welded to insure that the ship will not break apart in rough seas. Ship welders generally use manual arc welding equipment, although semi automatic equipment is becoming more widely used. After welders read instructions regarding which materials and welding method to use, they ob tain supplies from the storage area. To form a joint by arc welding, they use an electrode attached to an electrical cable coming from a welding power supply. Another cable is attached to the metal being welded. Thus, elec tricity will flow through the welding electrode, through the arc to the metal being welded, and back to the power supply. The power supply can be adjusted to provide the correct amount of current. When the power is turned on, welders “ strike an arc” by briefly touching the electrode to the metal to start the electricity flowing and then pulling the rod back to form a small arc gap through which the current must flow. If the distance between the electrode and the metal is correct, a stable electric arc will bridge the space; the heat from the arc melts the electrode and the metal. Welders move the arc along the length of the joint. As the electrode melts and be comes shorter, they move the holder closer to the metal to keep the right distance from the arc. They replace very short electrodes with new ones. Maintenance welders repair tools, machines, and equipment. Often they bring portable gas torches, hoses, and tanks to the job because electricity may not be available. When working on a broken pipe, for example, maintenance welders exam Production Occupations/447 ine the pipe and prepare the break for repair. They then select a welding filler rod appropriate for the job. Next, they light the torch and adjust regulators on the cylinders of fuel gas, such as acetylene, and oxygen to ob tain the right gas mixtures and flame. Then they heat the edges of the break with the torch. As the metal begins to soften, welders melt the end of the filler rod in the hot liquid metal as they carefully move the torch and rod along the break. Welders must keep the torch the correct distance from the metal, apply heat correctly, and use appropriate filler material to repair the break. In factories where many identical parts need to be welded, automatic arc, electron beam, or resistance weld ing machines are used. Workers who operate such machines to weld auto mobile mufflers and washing ma chines, for example, need little knowl edge of welding. These workers, fre quently called welding machine operators, do not need the skills re quired of welders and cutters. Their work is not covered in this statement. The work of arc and flame cutters is closely related to that of welders. Us ing heat from burning gases or an electric arc, cutters cut and trim rath er than join metal. Some electrically and mechanically operated machines follow guidelines automatically. Working Conditions Welders frequently are exposed to potential hazards. They use protec tive clothing, safety shoes, goggles, helmets with protective lenses, and other devices to prevent burns and eye injuries. Although lighting and ventilation usually are adequate, some metals give off toxic gases and fumes as they melt. Workers often are in contact with rust, grease, and dirt on metal surfaces. A face shield or gog gles generally are adequate protec tion. Skilled welders may be isolated for short intervals while they work in booths constructed to contain sparks and glare. Employment Welders and cutters held about 308,000 jobs in 1984. Two out of three jobs involved the manufacture of du rable goods including boilers, bulldoz ers, trucks, and ships, and consumer appliances such as refrigerators. Most of the remaining jobs were in metal Digitized for products repair or in construction of FRASER bridges, large buildings, and pipe lines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although it takes several years of onthe-job training to become a skilled welder, less skilled work can be learned in a few months or less. High schools, vocational-technical institutes, and community colleges throughout the country teach entry level welding skills. Private vocation al schools also teach welding, in cours es that take from 6 months to 1 year to complete. The Armed Forces operate welding schools as well. Many weld ers learn their craft through informal, on-the-job instruction while they work as welders’ helpers. Some transporta tion equipment manufacturers pro vide after-hours classes to enable company employees to qualify for welding jobs when openings occur. Other company-run welding schools teach advanced techniques to qualify welders for work on critical applica tions such as nuclear reactors or highpressure boilers. Persons considering work as weld ers or cutters need manual dexterity, good eyesight, and good eye-hand co ordination. They should have the abil ity to concentrate on detailed work for long periods and be physically able, in order to bend, stoop, and work in awkward positions. Most employers prefer applicants who have high school or vocational school training in welding. Courses in shop mathemat ics, mechanical drawing, blueprint reading, physics, and chemistry also are helpful. Before working on aircraft, build ings, bridges, pipelines, and other jobs where the strength of the weld is highly critical, welders may have to pass an examination given by an em ployer or government agency to be come “certified welders.” Skilled welders may be promoted to welding inspectors, technicians, or supervisors. Experienced workers who have obtained college training are in great demand as welding engi neers to develop new applications for welding. A small number of experi enced welders open their own repair shops. Job Outlook Employment of welders is expected to increase as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Greater use of composite materials and plastics will mean fewer jobs for welders. A larger, more affluent population is expected to stimulate demand for the thousands of products that welders help make. The rate of expansion in durable goods industries will largely determine the number of new jobs for welders. Most openings, however, will arise because of the need to re place experienced welders who trans fer to other occupations or retire. Welders and cutters are vulnerable to periodic layoffs for factory retool ing, and to economic downturns. Thus, although many openings for welders are expected through the mid1990’s, those seeking a first job in a community affected by a downturn may encounter competition from ex perienced welders who are not work ing. Job openings are expected to vary geographically; the best prospects will be in the Sunbelt and the western States. Those who have recently com pleted vocational training programs in welding will fill some openings, al though graduates of these programs don’t always become welders. Weld ing skills are applicable in many occu pations. Technological change will affect de mand for welders through the mid1990’s and beyond. Advances in ro botics, visual and other machine sensing capabilities, and computeraided manufacturing are transforming the production process and may even tually lead to a very sharp decline in the number of production welding jobs. The jobs of highly skilled weld 448/Occupational Outlook Handbook ers should not be adversely affected by automation much before the midto late 1990’s however, reflecting the time it will take to implement new manufacturing technologies on a wide scale. Robot welding systems are already eliminating the jobs of spot welders in the auto industry. New auto assembly plants are highly automated and re quire few welders. As more and more assembly plants are modernized, jobs for spot welders in the auto industry will all but disappear. Widespread ap plication of robotic arc welding in other durable goods industries is not expected until the late 1990’s, but, when that occurs, demand for arc welders may decline precipitously. Another technological change on the horizon is the use of high-strength composite materials and improved plastics in place of metal in a wide range of products—from automobiles and trucks to home appliances. As the use of substitutes for metal becomes widespread, fewer welds will be need ed, and demand for production weld ers will fall accordingly. do their work. Others with similar Earnings The limited wage data available indi duties are blacksmiths, forge shop cate that production welders earned workers, all-round machinists, ma from $10 to $14 an hour in 1984. chine tool operators, tool-and-die Welders in the construction industry makers, millwrights, sheet-metal earned $12 to $14 an hour, depending workers, boilermakers, and metal on location. sculptors. Welders belong to many different unions. Among these are the Inter Sources of Additional Information national Association of Machinists A list of postsecondary programs in and Aerospace Workers; the Inter welding and cutting, arranged by city national Brotherhood of Boilermak and State, may be found in Post ers, Iron Shipbuilders, Blacksmiths, secondary Schools with Occupational Forgers and Helpers; the International Programs, 1982, a publication of the Union, United Automobile, Aero U.S. Department of Education’s Na space and Agricultural Implement tional Center for Education Statistics. Workers of America; the United As sociation of Journeymen and Appren This publication may be available in tices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting counseling centers and large public Industry of the United States and libraries. For information on training oppor Canada; and the United Electrical, tunities and jobs for welders in your Radio and Machine Workers of Amer community, contact local employers ica. or the local office of the State employ ment service. Related Occupations A one-page brochure on welding is Welders are highly skilled workers who must be very familiar with the available free from: properties of metal and who use The American Welding Society, 550 NW., hand-held equipment or machines to LeJeune Rd., Miami, Fla. 33126. Transportation and Material Moving Occupations The majority of people in transporta tion and material moving occupations operate transportation equipment such as trucks, buses, taxicabs, trains, ships, and aircraft. Others operate in dustrial material moving equipment such as cranes, power shovels, grad ers, and industrial trucks. Although these occupations are found in all in dustries, they are concentrated in the transportation industry. Most employers prefer high school graduates for these jobs, but persons who have not completed high school are often hired if they meet all other qualifications. For some occupations, vocational or technical training or some college education is an advan tage. The ability to understand and follow complex operating rules, pro cedures, and instructions is an impor tant requirement for most of these jobs. Busdrivers, for example, must adhere to detailed schedules, routes, and operating procedures, and aircraft pilots must painstakingly follow com plex checkout instructions before takeoff to insure that their craft is in proper operating condition. During operation, they follow procedures to insure the safety of lives and property. Although work in these occupations generally is not strenuous, it often is tedious or stressful. Coordination and manual dexterity are vital. Some me chanical aptitude is needed to recog nize what parts of a vehicle, bulldoz er, or industrial truck are not operat ing properly. For many workers in these occupations, such as taxicab drivers, the efficiency with which they perform their work directly affects their earnings. Good vision, usually with or with out glasses, and ability to judge dis tances are basic requirements for transportation and material moving occupations. Good color perception is also required for many of these jobs. Regular physical examinations are re quired for most jobs to insure that individuals have not developed chron ic medical conditions that could ad versely affect their performance. Good health is vital in order to handle stress for prolonged periods of time, whether driving a taxicab through city traffic all day or operating a crane at a high-rise construction site where a misjudgment of distance could injure fellow workers or passersby. Many transportation and material moving occupations are closely regu lated. Most motor vehicle operators need a chauffeur’s license and fre quently must adhere to extensive reg ulations. Special operating certificates are also needed to be employed as an aircraft pilot or a merchant marine officer. More detailed information on se lected transportation and material moving occupations appears in the statements that follow. Aircraft Pilots (D.O.T. 196 except .163; and 621.261-018) Nature of the Work Pilots are skilled, highly trained pro fessionals who fly airplanes and heli copters to carry out a wide variety of tasks. Most pilots transport passen gers, cargo, and mail, while others dust crops, spread seed for reforesta tion, test aircraft, and take photo graphs. Helicopter pilots are involved in firefighting, police work, offshore exploration for natural resources, evacuation and rescue efforts, logging operations, construction work, and weather station operations. Except on small aircraft, two pilots usually make up the cockpit crew. Generally, the most experienced pilot (called captain) is in command and supervises all other crew members. The copilot or first officer assists in communicating with air traffic con trollers, monitoring the instruments, and flying the aircraft. Most large air craft have a third pilot in the cock pit—the flight engineer or second of ficer—who assists the other pilots by monitoring and operating many of the instruments and systems, making mi nor inflight repairs, and watching for other aircraft. New technology can perform many flight tasks, however, and many aircraft are now designed to fly with only two pilots. Before departure, pilots plan their flights carefully. They confer with dis patchers and weather forecasters to find out about weather conditions enroute and at their destination. Based on this information, they choose a route, altitude, and speed that should provide the fastest, safest, and smoothest flight. When flying under instrument flight rules, the pilot in command must file an instrument flight plan with air traffic control so that the flight can be coordinated with other air traffic. Before taking off, pilots thoroughly check their planes to make sure that the engines, controls, instruments, and other systems are functioning properly. They also make sure that baggage or cargo has been loaded cor rectly. Takeoff and landing are the most difficult and dangerous parts of the flight and require close coordination between the pilot and copilot. For example, as the plane accelerates for takeoff, the pilot concentrates on the runway while the copilot scans the instrument panel. To calculate the speed they must attain to become air borne, pilots consider the altitude of the airport, outside temperature, weight of the plane, and the speed and direction of the wind. The moment the plane reaches takeoff speed, the co pilot informs the pilot, who then pulls back on the controls to raise the nose of the plane. Unless the weather is bad, the ac tual flight is relatively easy. Pilots steer the plane along their planned route and are monitored by the air traffic control stations they pass along 449 450/Occupational Outlook Handbook the way. They continuously scan the instrument panel to check their fuel supply and the condition of their en gines. Pilots may request a change in altitude or route if circumstances dic tate. For example, if the ride is rough er than expected, they may ask air traffic control if pilots flying at other altitudes have reported better condi tions. If so, they may request a change. This procedure also may be used to find a stronger tailwind or a weaker headwind to save fuel and increase speed. If visibility is poor, pilots must rely completely on their instruments. Us ing the altimeter readings, they know how high above ground they are and can fly safely over mountains and oth er obstacles. Special navigation radios give pilots precise information which, with the help of special maps, tells them their exact position. Other very sophisticated equipment provides di rections to a point just above the end of a runway and enables pilots to land completely “blind.” Once on the ground, pilots must complete records on their flight for their company and the Federal Avia tion Administration (FAA). Airline pilots have the services of large support staffs and consequently perform few nonflying duties. Pilots employed by businesses that use their own aircraft, however, usually are the businesses’ only experts on flying and, consequently, have many other duties. They may load the plane, han dle all passenger luggage to insure a balanced load, and supervise refu eling. Other nonflying responsibilities include keeping records, scheduling flights, arranging for major mainte nance, and performing minor mainte nance and repair work on their planes. Some pilots are instructors. They teach their students the principles of flight in ground-school classes and demonstrate how to operate aircraft in dual-controlled planes. A few specially trained pilots em ployed by the airlines are “ examin ers” or “check pilots.” They period ically fly with each airline pilot and copilot to make sure that they are proficient. tors, for example, often give lessons at night or on weekends. Airline pilots, especially those on international routes, often suffer jet lag—disorientation and fatigue caused by many hours of flying through dif ferent time zones. The work of test pilots, who check the flight perform ance of new and experimental planes, may be dangerous. Pilots who are crop dusters may be exposed to toxic chemicals and often do not have the benefit of a regular landing strip. He licopter pilots involved in firefighting or police work are particularly subject to personal injury. Although flying does not involve Working Conditions much physical effort, the mental stress By law, airline pilots cannot fly more of being responsible for a safe flight, than 100 hours a month or more than no matter what the weather, can be 1,000 hours a year. Most airline pilots tiring. Particularly during takeoff and fly an average of 80 hours a month and landing, pilots must be alert and quick work an additional 80 hours a month to react if something goes wrong. performing nonflying duties. The ma jority of flights involve layovers away Employment from home. When pilots are away Civilian pilots held about 79,000 jobs from home, the airlines provide hotel in 1984. Three-fifths worked for the accommodations and an allowance for airlines. Many others worked as flight expenses. Airlines operate flights at instructors at local airports or for all hours of the day and night, so work large businesses that use their own schedules often are irregular. airplanes or helicopters to fly compa Pilots employed outside the airlines ny cargo and executives. Some pilots often have irregular schedules; they flew small planes for air taxi compa may fly 30 hours one month and 90 nies, usually to or from lightly trav hours the next. Since these pilots fre eled airports not serviced by the air quently have many nonflying respon lines. Others worked for a variety of sibilities, they have much less free businesses performing tasks such as time than airline pilots. Except for crop dusting, inspecting pipelines, or business pilots, most pilots employed conducting sightseeing trips. Federal, outside the airlines do not remain State, and local governments also em away from home overnight. They may ployed pilots. Several thousand pilots work odd hours, however. Instruc were self-employed. Earnings of aircraft pilots are among the highest in the Nation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All pilots who are paid to transport passengers or cargo must have a com mercial pilot’s license issued by FAA. Helicopter pilots must hold a com mercial pilot’s certificate with a heli copter rating. To qualify for these licenses, applicants must be at least 18 years old and have at least 250 hours or more of flight experience. They also must pass a strict physical exam ination to make sure that they are in good health and have 20/20 vision with or without glasses, good hearing, and no physical handicaps that could impair their performance. Applicants must pass a written test that includes questions on the principles of safe flight, navigation techniques, and FAA regulations. They also must Transportation and Material Moving Occupations/451 demonstrate their flying ability to FAA examiners. In addition to a commercial license, pilots who have to fly in bad weather must be licensed by the FAA to fly by instruments. Pilots may qualify for this license by having 40 hours of experience flying by instruments, passing a written examination on pro cedures and FAA regulations cover ing instrument flying, and demonstrat ing their ability to fly by instruments. Airline pilots must fulfill additional requirements. They must pass FAA written and flight examinations to earn a flight engineer’s license. Cap tains must have an airline transport pilot’s license. Applicants for this li cense must be at least 23 years old and have a minimum of 1,500 hours of flying experience including night and instrument flying. All licenses are valid as long as a pilot can pass the periodic physical examinations and tests of flying skills required by Government and compa ny regulations. Flying can be learned in military or civilian flying schools. Either kind of training satisfies the flight experience requirements for licensing. The FAA has certified about 1,225 civilian flying schools, including some colleges and universities that offer degree credit for pilot training. Military pilots gain sub stantial experience on jet aircraft and helicopters, which airlines and many businesses prefer. Having lost many pilots to the airlines in recent years, the Armed Forces are offering finan cial incentives to curb the high rate of attrition. More pilots are expected to stay in military flying, forcing the air lines to hire a higher percent of gen eral aviation pilots. Pilots hired by airlines must be high school graduates; however, most air lines require 2 years of college and prefer to hire college graduates. In fact, most entrants to this occupation have a college degree. Because pilots must be able to make quick decisions and accurate judgments under pres sure, airline companies reject appli cants who do not pass required psy chological tests. New airline pilots usually start as flight engineers. Although airlines fa vor applicants who already have a flight engineer’s license, they may train those who have only the com mercial license. All new pilots receive several weeks of intensive training in simulators and classrooms before be ing assigned to a flight. Companies other than airlines gen erally do not require as much flying experience. However, a commercial pilot’s license is required, and compa nies prefer applicants who have expe rience in the type of plane they will be flying. New employees generally start as copilots. Test pilots often are re quired to have an engineering degree. Most helicopter pilots are trained in the military. Military pilots only have to pass the FAA ‘military competen cy’ examination in order to be li censed as a commercial helicopter pi lot. Because of insurance require ments, most commercial companies require that helicopter pilots have 1,500 hours of flying time. If a pilot does not accumulate that time flying in the military, it is difficult to get a job in the commercial sector. Advancement for all pilots general ly is limited to other flying jobs. Many pilots start as flight instructors, build ing up their flying hours while they earn money teaching. As they become more experienced, these pilots occa sionally fly charter planes and perhaps get jobs with small air transportation firms, such as air taxi companies. Some advance to business flying jobs. A small number get flight engineer jobs with the airlines. In the airlines, advancement usual ly depends on seniority provisions of union contracts. After 5 to 10 years, flight engineers advance according to seniority to copilot and, after 10 to 20 years, to captain. Seniority also deter mines which pilots get the more desir able routes. In a nonairline job, a copilot may advance to pilot and, in large companies, to chief pilot in charge of aircraft scheduling, mainte nance, and flight procedures. Job Outlook Employment of pilots is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. While computerized flight engineering systems may reduce the demand for flight engineers, the expected growth in airline passenger and cargo traffic will create a need for more aircraft, more pilots, and more flight instruc tors. Businesses are expected to oper ate more planes and employ more pilots to fly passengers and cargo to the increased number of locations that the scheduled airlines do not service. In the past, competition for job openings has been keen because the number of qualified pilots seeking jobs has exceeded the number of openings. Currently, the job outlook is favorable because of the recent surge in the number of new aircraft and in the rate of retirement among pilots. It is un certain how long these trends will continue. However, since flying is an attractive, high-paying occupation, more applicants than openings are ex pected in the long run. Because wages generally are lower outside the airlines, there usually is not as much competition for these jobs. College graduates who have experience flying jet aircraft and who have a commercial pilot’s license and a flight engineer’s license can expect first consideration for jobs with the major airlines. Aircraft pilots understandably have a strong attachment to their occupa tion since it requires a substantial in vestment in specialized training and offers very high earnings. A relatively small proportion of pilots leave the occupation each year. Nevertheless, most job openings are expected to result from the need to replace pilots who retire or stop working for other reasons. Employment of pilots is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. Dur ing slow periods, when a decline in the demand for air travel forces air lines to curtail the number of flights, airlines may furlough some pilots. Commercial and corporate flying, flight instruction, and testing of new aircraft also decline during reces sions, adversely affecting pilots em ployed in those areas. Earnings Earnings of airline pilots are among the highest in the Nation. In 1984, the average salary for airline pilots was about $80,000 a year, while some sen ior captains on the largest aircraft earned as much as $130,000. Starting salaries for flight engineers averaged about $16,000 a year. Earnings de pend on factors such as the type, size, and maximum speed of the plane, and the number of hours and miles flown. Extra pay is given for night and inter national flights. Generally, pilots working outside the airlines earn lower salaries. Ac cording to a survey conducted by the National Business Aircraft Associa tion, average salaries for chief pilots ranged from about $39,000 to $56,000 452/Occupational Outlook Handbook a year in 1984; for captains/pilots, $36,000 to $46,000 a year; and for copilots, $29,000 to $39,000 a year. Usually, pilots who fly jet aircraft earn higher salaries than nonjet pilots. Airline pilots generally are eligible for life and health insurance plans financed by the airlines. They also receive retirement benefits and, if they fail the FAA physical examina tion, disability payments. Some air lines provide allowances to pilots for purchasing and cleaning their uni forms. As an additional benefit, pilots and their immediate families usually are entitled to reduced fare transpor tation on their own and other airlines. Most airline pilots are members of the International Airline Pilots Asso ciation. lines, consult the classified section of aviation trade magazines and apply to companies that operate aircraft at lo cal airports. Busdrivers (D.Q.T. 909.663; 913.363, .463-010, and .663-014) Nature of the Work Busdrivers provide transportation for millions of Americans every day. Intercity busdrivers operate buses that enable the public to travel be tween communities and metropolitan areas. Local transit busdrivers pro vide public transportation within a metropolitan area. School busdrivers transport pupils to and from schools. They follow definite time schedules and routes over highways and city and Related Occupations Although they are not in the cockpit, suburban streets to provide passen air traffic controllers and dispatchers gers with an alternative to the auto also play an important role in making mobile and other forms of transporta sure flights are safe and on schedule, tion. The workday for busdrivers begins and participate in many of the deci when they report to their assigned sions pilots must make. terminal or garage. At the garage, intercity and local transit busdrivers Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities in are given tickets, transfers, and re a particular airline, and the qualifica fund and trip report forms. Drivers tions required, may be obtained by may check their vehicle’s tires, writing to the personnel manager of brakes, windshield wipers, lights, oil, the airline. Addresses of airline com fuel, and water, and make certain that their buses are carrying safety equip panies are available from: ment, such as fire extinguishers, first Air Transport Association of America, 1709 aid kits, and emergency reflectors. New York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. For information on airline pilots, They then drive or ride as a passenger to the start of their runs. contact: On most runs, drivers pick up and International Airline Pilots Association, 1625 discharge passengers at bus stops or Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. stations. As passengers board the bus, For information about the duties as intercity and local transit busdrivers well as the physical and educational collect the correct cash fare, token, or requirements for airline pilots and ticket or make sure that a valid pass is flight engineers, request Pilots and presented. They also collect and issue Flight Engineers, publication GA-300- transfers. Drivers often answer ques 122 (include a self-addressed mailing tions about schedules, routes, and label), from: transfer points and sometimes an U.S. Government Printing Office, Library and nounce stops and other information S ta tu to r y D istr ib u tio n S e r v ic e , 5208 concerning trips. Eisenhower Ave., Alexandria, Va. 22304. Busdrivers’ days are run by the For a copy of List o f Certificated clock, as they must pay special atten Pilot Schools, write to: tion to their complicated schedules. Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Govern Although drivers may run late when ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. For information about job opportu traffic is heavier than average, they do not let light traffic put them ahead of nities, contact: schedule so that they miss passen Future Aviation Professionals of America, 4291 gers. J. Memorial Dr., Decatur, Ga. 30032. (This Busdrivers must always be alert to organization may be called toll free at 800-JETprevent accidents, especially when JOBS.) For information about job opportu driving in traffic or under adverse road nities in companies other than air and weather conditions. School busdrivers must exercise particular caution when children are boarding or leaving the bus. Busdrivers must op erate the bus at safe speeds while trying to keep schedules. Since sud den stops or swerves jar standing pas sengers, drivers try to anticipate traf fic developments, not react to them. Drivers’ routes vary. Local transit busdrivers may make several trips each day over the same city and sub urban streets, stopping as frequently as every few blocks to pick up and discharge passengers. School busdriv ers also drive the same routes each day, stopping frequently to pick up pupils in the morning and reversing direction in the afternoon to return them to their homes. School busdriv ers occasionally transport students and teachers on field trips during the day, or athletes and students to games in the evening. Intercity busdrivers may make only a single one-way trip to a distant city or a round trip each day, stopping at stations at many small towns only a few miles apart or at large cities hundreds of miles apart. Drivers who operate chartered buses pick up a group of people, take them to the group’s destination, and gener ally remain with them until they re turn. These trips frequently require drivers to remain away from home one night or more. At the end of each day, busdrivers turn in trip reports with a record of tickets and fares received, trips made, and significant delays in schedule. As required by the U.S. Department of Transportation, intercity drivers keep a current record on each trip of the distances traveled and the periods of time they spend driving, performing other duties, and off duty. Busdrivers also turn in a report on the mechanical condition of their bus. In case of an accident, drivers must prepare a re port describing exactly what hap pened and obtain the names, address es, and phone numbers of persons on the bus and others involved in the accident. Working Conditions Driving a bus through heavy traffic while dealing with passengers is not physically strenuous, but it may cause nervous strain and fatigue. The busdriver is given a great deal of in dependence on the job and is solely responsible for the safety of the pas sengers and the bus. Many drivers like working without direct supervi- Transportation and Material Moving Occupations/453 sion and take pride in assuming these responsibilities. Some also enjoy the opportunity to meet the public. Since intercity and transit buses op erate at all hours every day of the year, drivers may work nights and weekends. New drivers work only when called and must be ready to report for work at any hour on very short notice. Driving schedules of intercity busdrivers may range from 6 to 10 hours a day and from 3 1/2 to 6 days a week. However, U.S. Depart ment of Transportation regulations specify that intercity drivers shall not drive more than 10 hours without hav ing at least 8 consecutive hours off and shall not drive after being on duty for 15 hours without at least 8 hours off duty. School busdrivers work only when school is in session, having off week ends, holidays, and summers. The majority work 20 hours a week or less, driving one or two morning and afternoon routes and having the mid dle of the day free. Drivers taking field or athletic trips may work additional hours. Drivers who also have midday kindergarten routes may work as many as 30 hours a week. Regular local transit busdrivers usu ally have a 5-day workweek; Satur days and Sundays are counted as reg ular workdays. Some drivers work evenings and after midnight. To ac commodate the demands of commuter travel, many local transit busdrivers work “ split shifts.” For example, a driver may work from 6 a.m. to 10 a.m., and then return to work from 3 p.m. to 7 p.m. Drivers may receive extra pay for working split shifts. Employment Busdrivers held about 459,000 jobs in 1984. About two-fifths of all busdriv ers worked part time. Nearly 3 out of 4 busdrivers work for school systems or companies that provide school bus services under contract, as shown in the accompanying chart. Most of the remainder work for private and local government transit systems; intercity and charter buslines also employ many busdrivers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement About 3 out of 4 persons entering busdriving take part-time jobs. Most have no more than a high school edu cation. School busdriving provides Digitized for few opportunities for full-time em FRASER Local transit busdrivers collect the correct cash fare or token from passengers. ployment. In addition, many local transit and intercity busdrivers start on a part-time basis and are only able to increase their number of work hours as they acquire seniority. Half of all persons entering busdriving are students or homemakers and others reentering the labor force. Students and homemakers seeking to supple ment family income are attracted to the large number of part-time busdriv ing jobs that allow them adequate time for other activities while employed. Busdrivers’ qualifications are estab lished by State and Federal regula tions. Most States require that drivers 454/Occupational Outlook Handbook have a chauffeur’s license, which is a commercial driver’s permit, or a spe cial school bus license. In addition, intercity busdrivers must meet quali fications established by the U.S. De partment of Transportation or a State agency, if the driver works only with in one State.* Applicants for local transit and intercity busdriver positions should be at least 21 years old. School busdrivers must be at least 18 years old in most States, although a few States allow students as young as 16 to drive school buses. Busdrivers must be able to read, write, and speak English well enough to communicate with passengers and to complete re ports. They should be in good health and have a good driving record. Busdrivers also must have at least 20/ 40 vision with or without glasses, good hearing, and normal use of their arms and legs. Many employers prefer applicants who have a high school education or its equivalent. Most em ployers require applicants to pass a physical examination and a written test of ability to follow complex bus schedules. In addition, intercity busdrivers must complete compre hensive written examinations which test their knowledge of Department of Transportation and State motor vehi cle regulations, as well as a driving test in the type of bus they will oper ate. Many intercity bus companies have considerably higher requirements. Most prefer applicants who are at least 24 years of age; some prefer applicants who have bus or truck driv ing experience. Since local transit and intercity busdrivers represent their companies in dealing with passengers, busdrivers must be courteous and tactful. All busdrivers need an even temperament and emotional stability because driv ing buses in heavy, fast-moving, or stop-and-go traffic and dealing with passengers can be a strain. Most intercity bus companies and local transit systems give driver train ees 2 to 8 weeks of classroom and “ behind-the-wheel” instruction. In the classroom, trainees learn U.S. De partment of Transportation and com pany work rules, safety regulations, State and municipal driving regula tions, and safe driving practices. They also learn to read schedules, deter Digitized for mine fares, keep records, and deal FRASER tactfully and courteously with passen gers. Many persons who enter school busdriving have never driven any ve hicle larger than an automobile. De pending on their driving experience, school busdrivers receive up to 1 week of driving instruction. They also receive classroom training on State and local laws, regulations, and poli cies governing the operation of school buses; safe driving practices; driverpupil relations; first aid; and fire emer gency procedures. Before they are allowed to transport students, school busdrivers must pass driving and writ ten tests and—in some States—abackground investigation to determine if the trainee has a criminal record or a history of mental problems. Many busdriver trainees learn and practice driving skills on set courses. They make turns and zig-zag maneu vers, back up, and drive in narrow lanes. As they gain experience, they drive on lightly traveled roads, even tually advancing to heavily congested highways and city streets. They also make trial runs, without passengers, to improve their driving skills and learn the routes. Because a busdriver is seated higher than other drivers, defensive driving—seeing and avoid ing possible traffic dangers ahead of time—has much potential and is stressed. Local transit trainees often must memorize and drive each of the runs operating out of their assigned garage. After completing final driving and written examinations, new driv ers begin a “break in” period. During this period, they make regularly scheduled trips with passengers, often accompanied by an experienced driv er who gives helpful tips, answers questions, and determines whether the new driver is performing satisfac torily. Most experienced intercity and lo cal transit drivers have regularly scheduled runs. New drivers, howev er, usually are placed on an “ extra” list to substitute for regular drivers who are ill or on vacation. Charter runs also are driven by extra list driv ers. Extra list transit busdrivers also are assigned extra and special runs— for example, those during morning and evening rush hours and to the stadium the day of a sports event. And in cities that use transit buses to transport children to school, extra list drivers operate these buses. New drivers remain on the extra list until they have enough seniority to get a regular run. This may take several years. Busdrivers select assignments in or der of length of service, or seniority. Therefore, as drivers acquire seniori ty, they can choose runs they prefer, such as those that lead to a greater number of work hours, lighter traffic, weekends off, or in the case of interc ity busdrivers, higher earnings or few er workdays per week. Opportunities for promotions gen erally are limited. However, experi enced drivers may advance to jobs as supervisors or dispatchers. These workers assign buses to drivers, check whether drivers are on schedule, re route buses to avoid a blocked street or other problems, and dispatch extra vehicles and service crews to scenes of accidents and breakdowns. A few drivers advance to management posi tions. Promotion in publicly owned bus systems is often by competitive civil service examination. Job Outlook Job openings for busdrivers are ex pected to be plentiful through the mid1990’s. Thousands of openings will be created by growth in demand for driv ers, but many more openings will arise as experienced busdrivers trans fer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Most new jobs will be found in areas with a growing popula tion, such as many communities in the Sunbelt States. Employment of busdrivers is ex pected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Employment of school busdrivers is expected to grow as en rollments in elementary and second ary schools increase, and as popula tion continues to shift from the cities to the suburbs, where few students can walk to school. Employment of local transit busdrivers is expected to increase as pub lic transportation systems in growing communities expand. In addition, transit systems will hire greater num bers of part-time drivers who only work during either the morning or afternoon rush hours to replace full time drivers on split shifts, in an effort to control costs in the face of peak rush hour demand. Demand will be offset somewhat, however, by the use of larger buses, shifting of riders to new subway and light rail systems, Transportation and Material Moving Occupations/455 and falling ridership in areas with de clining urban populations. Like local transit busdrivers, growth of intercity busdriver jobs will be largely due to growing part-time employment. Intercity passenger trav el will grow as population and income increase-, but bus travel is not expect ed to grow. Buses are a relatively inexpensive mode of intercity travel, but higher incomes and cheaper air fares will enable more people to travel by plane, which provides faster—al though more expensive—service over long distances. Persons seeking intercity and local transit busdriving jobs can expect to face competition, since the relatively high wages, even for part-time work, attract many applicants. Full-time local transit busdrivers are rarely laid off during recessions because scheduled service still must be provided. However, part-time driv ers may be laid off if bus ridership decreases, because fewer extra buses may be needed during rush hours. Seasonal layoffs are common. Many intercity busdrivers with little senior ity, for example, are furloughed dur ing the winter when regular schedule and charter business falls off, and school busdrivers do not work during the summer or school holidays. Earnings Median weekly earnings of busdrivers who worked full time were about $300 in 1984. The middle 50 percent earned between about $190 and $390 a week. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $150 a week, while the highest tenth earned more than $485 a week. According to data compiled by the American Public Transit Association, local transit busdrivers in 25 cities with more than 1 million population had an average starting wage rate of $8.46 an hour in 1984, and an average top rate of $11.43 an hour; in cities with less than 100,000 population, drivers had an average starting rate of $6.82 an hour and an average top rate of $8.01 an hour. In most cities, driv ers could reach the top rate in 2 or 3 years. Based on data from the American Bus Association, intercity busdrivers had estimated average annual earn ings of about $24,200 in 1984. Earn ings of intercity busdrivers depend primarily on the number of miles they drive. Beginning drivers worked about 6 months out of the year and earned between $12,000 and $18,000, while many senior drivers who worked year round earned more than $30,000. According to a survey by Educa tional Research Service, Inc., the me dian rate for school busdrivers em ployed by public school systems was $7.33 an hour during the 1984-85 school year. The middle 50 percent had starting hourly rates between $5.43 and $7.26 and top hourly rates between $6.98 and $8.99. Most intercity and many local tran sit busdrivers are members of the Amalgamated Transit Union. Local transit busdrivers in New York and several other large cities belong to the Transport Workers Union of Ameri ca. Some drivers belong to the United Transportation Union and the Inter national Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Help ers of America. Related Occupations Other workers who drive vehicles on highways and city streets are taxidrivers, truckdrivers, and chauffeurs. Sources of Additional Information For further information on employ ment opportunities, contact local tran sit systems, intercity buslines, school systems, or the local offices of the State employment service. General information on local transit busdriving is available from: American Public Transit Association, 1225 Connecticut Ave. NW., Suite 200, Washington, D.C. 20036. General information on intercity busdriving is available from: American Bus Association, 1025 Connecticut Ave. NW., Suite 308, Washington, D.C. 20036. Construction Machinery Operators (D.O.T. 850.663 except -018 and -022; .683 except -034; 851.663-010; 853.683-014; 859.683-010 and -014; 869.683-014; and 921.663 except -018, -026, -034, -050, and -066) Nature of the Work Lifting and positioning a quarter-ton pane of glass by crane into an 8-foot by 10-foot window opening 10 stories above the ground require consider able skill. At the crane’s controls is a construction machinery operator, also known as an operating engineer. These operators also work the con trols of bulldozers, trench excavators, and many other specialized machines used at construction sites. (Many workers operate similar machines in mining, logging, manufacturing, trans portation, and utilities industries and in government. However, only those in construction are covered in this statement.) Some workers operate many kinds of machines; others only a few. Operators may also make adjust ments and minor repairs. Because the skills and training required vary, con struction machinery operators usually are classified by the type of machines they operate. The following para graphs discuss the duties of operators of three commonly used types of equipment: Tower cranes, bulldozers, and air compressors. Tower cranes are used to lift and move building materials around a con struction site. The crane operator climbs a ladder inside the crane’s mast—a tall steel tower—to the con trol booth located beneath the crane’s boom—a long steel arm perpendicular to the mast. The operator must accu rately judge distances and heights to pick up and deliver materials by push ing or pulling buttons, levers, and pedals in proper sequence. These con trols rotate the boom around the mast, and raise and lower a cable with a hook that lifts materials and equip ment at the worksite. At times, the operator may not see either the pick up or the delivery point and must follow the hand signals or radio com mands of another worker. Bulldozers gouge out, level, and distribute earth, and remove trees, rocks, and debris before building starts. Bulldozer operators generally handle fewer controls than crane op erators, and since the “ dozer” oper ator works at ground level, estimating distances is less of a problem. The operator raises or lowers the “blade” attached to the front of the “ dozer” by pushing a button or by pushing or pulling a lever. To clear land, a bull dozer operator lowers the blade to the ground, shifts to forward gear, and presses a pedal for power, causing the blade to scrape and level the ground. The operator repeats the process until the land is cleared and graded. Air-compressor operators tend ma chines that feed compressed air through a heavy-duty hose to run spe cial “ air” tools, such as jackham mers. Before starting an air compres 456/Occupational Outlook Handbook sor, the operator checks fuel and wa they climb to or from the crane’s ter levels and hose connections and control booth. As with most machin may manually pump air through the ery, safety practices must be con compressor to check for leaks. The stantly observed to protect all work operator starts the air compressor and ers on the jobsite. allows it to build sufficient pressure to operate efficiently. While the com Employment pressor is running, the operator peri Approximately 210,000 construction odically checks fuel, water, and pres machinery operators held jobs in the sure levels. At the end of the work construction industry in 1984. Many day, the operator turns the com worked for general building contrac pressor off and “bleeds off” pressure tors in highway, dam, airport, and in the tank and hose by opening a other large-scale construction pro release valve. This allows an easy jects. Others worked for special trade start the next time the compressor is contractors who performed concrete to be used. work, structural steel erection, and Construction machinery operator excavating and foundation work. Very helpers, sometimes called “ oilers,” few were self-employed. Construction machinery operators make sure the machines have fuel and oil and are properly lubricated. Help work in every section of the country. ers also make minor repairs and ad Some work in remote locations on justments. Major repairs, however, large construction projects, such as usually are made by heavy-equipment highways and dams. mechanics. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Working Conditions Construction machinery operators Most individuals learn the trade by work outdoors, in hot and cold weath beginning as truckdrivers or machin er, but do not usually work in rain or ery operator helpers. Helpers may do snow. Operating some machines, par simple tasks such as cleaning, greas ticularly bulldozers and scrapers, is ing, and starting machines. Then, un physically tiring because the constant der an experienced operator, they movement of the machine shakes or learn to operate light equipment. jolts the operator. Also, most ma Later, they may learn to operate chines are noisy. In addition, opera heavier equipment such as bulldozers tors can be injured in accidents in and cranes. Most training authorities volving the equipment. Tower crane recommend a 3-year apprenticeship operators, for example, may fall as as the best way to become a construc tion machinery operator. Since ap prentices learn to operate a wider variety of machines than other begin ners, they have better job opportuni ties. The apprenticeship program con sists of at least 3 years of on-the-job training and 144 hours a year of relat ed classroom instruction. The pro grams are administered by unionmanagement committees of the Inter national Union of Operating Engineers and the Associated General Contrac tors of America. On the job, trainees are taught to operate, maintain, and repair various types of construction equipment and machinery. In the classroom, appren tices receive instruction in engine op eration and repair, cable splicing, hy draulics, welding, and safety and first aid. Employers prefer to hire high school graduates who are at least 18 years The constant movement of some ma old. Courses in automobile mechanics Digitized for chines is physically tiring. FRASER and experience in operating tractors and other farm machinery are helpful. Armed Forces training in heavy equip ment can also be useful. Private vocational schools offer in struction in the operation of certain types of construction equipment. Completion of such a program may help a person get a job as a trainee or apprentice. However, persons consid ering such training should check the reputation of the school among con struction employers in the area. Construction machinery operators need to be alert and have a good sense of balance as well as good eye-handfoot coordination and physical strength. Advancement is limited. Some operators may become supervi sors. Some start their own business, but this path generally requires large capital outlays and managerial skill. Job Outlook Employment of construction machin ery operators is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Population and business growth will lead to the construction of more fac tories, office buildings, and other structures. Besides the job openings created by increased demand for operating engi neers, many openings will arise as experienced workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Jobs should be easiest to find during spring and summer since construction activity generally increases as the weather becomes warmer. Because construction activity is very sensitive to changes in economic conditions, the number of job openings may fluc tuate widely from year to year. When construction activity declines, howev er, operating engineers who are laid off may find jobs in other industries. Earnings Earnings for construction machinery operators vary considerably, depend ing upon the type of equipment, but median earnings were about $375 a week in 1984. Persons operating light equipment such as pumps and air compressors generally earn less than those operating bulldozers and other types of heavy equipment. Pay scales generally are higher in metropolitan areas. Wage rates for apprentices start at about 70 percent of the full rate paid to experienced workers and increase periodically. Annual earn ings of operators and apprentices may Construction and Extractive Occupations/457 be lower than weekly rates would indicate because the amount of time they work can be limited by bad weather. Many construction machinery oper ators are members of the International Union of Operating Engineers. Related Occupations Workers in agriculture, mining, man ufacturing, public utilities, and trans portation industries also use special ized machinery to move earth and materials, including bridge-or-gantrycrane operators, coke loaders, con veyor operators, mining machine op erators, stevedores, and yarding engi neers. Sources of Additional Information For further information about appren ticeships or work opportunities in this occupation, contact a local of the International Union of Operating En gineers; a local apprenticeship com mittee; or the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency. In addi tion, the local office of the State em ployment service may provide infor mation about apprenticeship and oth er programs that provide training opportunities. For general information about the work of operating engineers, contact: Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Industrial Truck and Tractor Operators (D.O.T. 519.663-014 and .683-014; 921.583 and .683042, -050, -070, and -078; 929.583 and .683-014) Nature of the Work In the past, when a company needed products or raw materials moved from one place to another, workers were required to move the items manually. In most cases, this method was phys ically demanding and inefficient. To day, the task has been greatly facili tated by the use of industrial trucks and tractors. A typical industrial truck, often called a forklift, has a hydraulic lifting mechanism and forks to carry a load on a wooden skid or pallet, or other attachments for greater versatility. For example, a truck may have a clamp lift to move cartons, bales, or paper rolls, or multiforks to handle concrete blocks. Industrial tractors are used in factories, warehouses, and outdoors to pull trailers loaded with materials, goods, or equipment. Because the trucks are steered by the rear wheels and start and stop very quickly, operators must use care and skill in driving. Although industri al trucks are relatively easy to oper ate, operators usually must follow special procedures at a plant, ware house, or construction site. For exam ple, forks must be kept down if the truck is driven without a load. If the load is too high or too wide to see around, the operator must drive the truck in reverse. When loading or removing materials that are stacked on the floor or on a platform, drivers must judge distance accurately and operate the truck smoothly so that no damage occurs to the stock. Opera tors also must know the lifting capac ity of the truck and the kinds of jobs it can do. Operators may have to keep rec ords of materials moved and do some manual loading and unloading. They also may be responsible for keeping their trucks in good working condition by cleaning and oiling them, checking the water in the batteries, making sim ple adjustments, and reporting any mechanical problems. Working Conditions Industrial truck and tractor operators are subject to hazards such as colli sions and falling objects. Safety laws to minimize these hazards have led to safer, quieter, and better handling trucks. For example, most rider-type industrial trucks now have overhead guards, and many trucks and tractors used outdoors have all-weather cabs. Also, many firms are using batterypowered trucks and tractors which are relatively noiseless and pollution free. Employment Industrial truck and tractor operators held about 389,000 jobs in 1984. Over two-thirds of them worked in manu facturing industries. Large numbers were employed in plants that made automobiles, machinery, fabricated metal products, paper, building mate rials, and iron and steel. Many indus trial truck and tractor operators also were employed in warehouses, de pots, freight and marine terminals, and lumber yards. Industrial truck and tractor opera tors are employed in all parts of the country, but most work in large indus trial and transportation centers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Few employers have educational or training prerequisites for industrial truck and tractor operator jobs. Most persons who enter this occupation have no more than a high school edu cation. Most entrants transfer from another occupation or have previous ly been unemployed. Industrial truck and tractor opera tors train on the job. Most workers can learn to operate an industrial truck or tractor in a few days. It takes several weeks, however, to learn the layout of the plant, the operation of a truck in the plant, and the handling of materials in the most efficient way. Many companies have training pro grams that include formal instruction, demonstrations, and practice with the industrial truck or tractor. Trainees learn how the truck and its lift oper ate, proper methods of transporting materials, simple maintenance proce dures, and safe driving rules. These 1to 5-day programs stress practice with industrial trucks or tractors, which trainees may be required to operate on an obstacle course. Because trucks and tractors are becoming more ver- Industrial truck and tractor operators must judge distances accurately and drive care fully so that stock is not damaged. 458/Occupational Outlook Handbook satile and expensive, firms are expect ed to emphasize training programs which will increase the skills of oper ators to avoid damage to equipment and materials and minimize the risk of injury from accidents. Employers seek applicants who have average manual dexterity, strength, and stamina because opera tors must get on and off the truck or tractor frequently and occasionally load and unload material. Good eye sight, especially good depth percep tion, is required to pick up, move, and deposit loads with the industrial truck. Large companies generally require applicants to pass a physical examina tion. Some mechanical ability is help ful because operators often perform minor maintenance on industrial truck and tractors. Opportunities for advancement are limited. A few operators may become supervisors. lift operators averaged $9.77 an hour in 1984, while power-truck operators earned slightly more. Earnings of op erators varied slightly by region and industry. Related Occupations Other occupations using poweroperated equipment to lift and move materials include conveyor console operators, crane operators, derrick operators, hoist engineers, jammer operators, and operating engineers. Sources of Additional Information Information on work opportunities for industrial truck and tractor operators may be available from the local office of the State employment service. Truckdrivers (D.O.T. 292.353, .363, .463, .483, and .667; 900.683 through 905.683; 906; 909.663; 919.663-018, -022, -026; and 953.583) Job Outlook Employment of industrial truck and tractor operators is expected to de Nature of the Work cline through the mid-1990’s. Virtual Nearly all goods are transported by ly all job openings will arise because truck during some, or all, of their of the need to replace industrial truck journey from producers to consum and tractor operators who transfer to ers. Goods may also be shipped be other occupations or leave the labor tween terminals or warehouses in dif force. Replacement needs for this oc ferent cities by trains, ships, or planes. cupation are greater than for most But trucks usually make the initial occupations because operators are pickup from factories, consolidate more likely to transfer to other types cargo at terminals for intercity ship ment, and deliver goods from termi of jobs. Despite the growing volume of nals to stores and homes. goods produced and shipped, in Before leaving the terminal or ware creased use of automated material house, truckdrivers check their trucks handling systems in large factories for fuel and oil. They also inspect the and warehouses should result in fewer trucks they will drive to make sure the operator jobs. These computerized brakes, windshield wipers, and lights systems enable industrial truck and are working and see that a fire extin tractor operators to move greater guisher, emergency warning devices, quantities of goods more efficiently. and other safety equipment are In some plants, industrial trucks and aboard. Drivers adjust mirrors so that tractors may even be replaced by a both sides of the truck are visible from series of conveyor belts and comput the driver’s seat, and make sure the cargo has been loaded properly so it er-controlled lift mechanisms. Industrial truck and tractor opera will not shift during the trip. Drivers tor jobs, over two-thirds of which are report any equipment that does not in manufacturing firms, are quickly work, or is missing, or cargo that is affected by swings in the level of eco not loaded properly to the dispatcher. Once underway, drivers must be nomic activity. During recessions, in dustrial truck and tractor operators alert to prevent accidents and to drive their trucks efficiently. Because driv are subject to layoffs. ers of large tractor-trailers sit higher than cars, pickups, and vans, they can Earnings Industrial truck and tractor operators see far down the road. They seek had median earnings of $330 a week in traffic lanes that allow them to move 1984. The middle 50 percent earned at a steady speed, and, when going Digitized forbetween $250 and $440 a week. Fork downhill, they may increase speed FRASER slightly to gain momentum for a hill ahead. Long-distance runs vary widely. On short “ turnarounds,” truckdrivers de liver a load to a nearby city, pick up another loaded trailer, and drive it back to their home base the same day. Other runs take an entire day, and drivers remain away from home over night. On longer runs, drivers may haul loads from city to city for a week before returning home. Some compa nies use two drivers on very long runs. One drives while the other sleeps in a berth behind the cab. “ Sleeper” runs may last for days, or even weeks. Long-distance drivers who have regular runs transport freight to the same city on a regular basis. Because shippers request varying amounts of service to different cities every day, most drivers have unscheduled runs. Dispatchers tell these drivers when to report for work and where to haul the freight. After long-distance truckdrivers reach their destination, they complete reports about the trip and the condi tion of the truck, as required by the U.S. Department of Transportation. They must give a detailed report of any accident. Long-distance truckdrivers spend most of their working time behind the wheel. Drivers hauling some specialty cargo, though, often load or unload their trucks, since they may be the only one at the destination familiar with this procedure. Auto transport drivers, for example, drive and posi tion the cars on the racks and remove them at the final destination. When picking up or delivering furniture, drivers of long-distance moving vans hire local workers to help them load or unload. When local truckdrivers receive as signments from the dispatcher to make deliveries, pickups, or both, they also get delivery forms. Before the drivers arrive for work, material handlers generally have loaded the trucks and arranged the items in order of delivery to minimize handling of the merchan dise. At the customer’s place of busi ness, local truckdrivers generally load or unload the merchandise. If there are heavy loads or many deliveries to make during the day, drivers may have helpers. Customers must sign receipts for goods and drivers may collect money for material delivered. At the end of the day, they turn in Transportation and Material Moving Occupations/459 receipts, money, and records of deliv chines, replace stock, and remove eries made and report mechanical money deposited in the cash boxes. They also examine each vending ma problems with their trucks. The work of local truckdrivers var chine to see that merchandise and ies, depending on the product they change are dispensed properly, make transport. Produce truckers usually minor repairs, and clean machines. After completing their route, driv pick up a loaded truck in the early morning and spend the rest of the day er-sales workers order items for the delivering produce to many different next day which they think customers grocery stores. Lumber truckdrivers, are likely to buy, based primarily on on the other hand, make several trips what products have been selling well, from the lumber yard to one or more the weather, time of year, and any construction sites. Gasoline tank discussion they may have had with truckdrivers attach the hoses to trans customers. fer the gasoline to gas stations’ stor Working Conditions age tanks. Some local truckdrivers have sales Truckdriving has become less physi and customer relations responsibili cally demanding because most trucks ties. These drivers—called driver- now have more comfortable seats, sales workers or route drivers—are better ventilation, and improved cab primarily responsible for delivering designs. However, making many de their firm’s products, but they also liveries during a day and driving in represent the company. Their reac heavy traffic can be nerve racking. tion to customer complaints and re Local truckdrivers, unlike long-di quests for special service can make stance drivers, usually can return the difference between a larger order home in the evening. Local truckdrivers frequently work and losing a customer. Route drivers also may use their selling ability to 48 hours or more a week. Many who increase sales and to gain additional handle food for chain grocery stores, produce markets, or bakeries drive at customers. The duties of driver-sales workers night or early in the morning. Al vary according to the industry in though most drivers have a regular which they are employed, the policies route, some have different routes each of their particular company, and how day. Many local truckdrivers—partic strongly their sales responsibilities are ularly driver-sales workers—load and emphasized. Most have wholesale unload their own trucks, requiring routes—that is, they deliver to busi considerable lifting, carrying, and nesses and stores rather than homes. walking. A few deliver various foods to homes, The U.S. Department of Transpor or pick up and deliver dry cleaning, tation governs work hours and other but retail routes are now rare. matters of trucking companies en Wholesale bakery driver-sales gaged in interstate commerce. For ex workers, for example, deliver and ar ample, a driver cannot be on duty for range bread, cakes, rolls, and other more than 60 hours in any 7-day peri baked goods on display racks of gro od and cannot drive more than 10 cery stores. Paying close attention to hours without being off duty at least 8 the items that are selling well or sitting hours. Many drivers, particularly on on the shelves, they estimate the long runs, work close to the maximum amount and variety of baked goods hours permitted. Drivers on long runs that will be sold. They may recom must remain alert for extended peri mend changes in a store’s order or ods of time. Although many drivers may encourage the manager to stock work during the day, night travel is new bakery products. From time to common and frequently preferred be time, they try to get the business of cause roads are less crowded and trips new stores along their route. take less time. Driver-sales workers employed by laundries that rent linens, towels, Employment work clothes, and other items visit Truckdrivers held nearly 2.5 million businesses regularly to replace soiled jobs in 1984. Jobs are concentrated in laundry. and around large cities. Some drivers Vending machine driver-sales work are employed in almost all communi ers, who service machines in facto ties, however. ries, schools, and other buildings, Trucking companies employed over Digitized forcheck items remaining in the ma one-fourth of all truckdrivers. Over FRASER Local truckdrivers generally load or unload the merchandise. one-third worked for companies en gaged in wholesale or retail trade, such as auto parts stores, oil compa nies, lumber yards, or distributors of food and grocery products. The rest were scattered throughout the econo my, including government agencies. Less than one-tenth of all truckdrivers are self-employed; of these, a signifi cant number are owner-operators, who either operate independently, serving a variety of businesses, or lease their services and their trucks to a trucking company. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Qualifications for truckdrivers vary considerably, depending upon the type of truck and the nature of the employer’s business. In most States, applicants must have a chauffeur’s license, which is a commercial driving permit. Information on how to get this license can be obtained from State motor vehicle departments. Appli cants may have to pass a general physical examination, a written exam ination on driving regulations, and a driving test. They should have good hearing and at least 20/40 vision with or without glasses, be able to lift heavy objects, and be in good health. The U.S. Department of Transpor tation establishes minimum qualifica tions for truckdrivers who are en gaged in interstate commerce. A driv er must be at least 21 years old and pass a physical examination, which the employer usually pays for. Good hearing, 20/40 vision with or without 460/Occupational Outlook Handbook glasses, normal use of arms and legs (unless a waiver is obtained), and nor mal blood pressure are the main phys ical requirements. In addition, drivers must take a written examination on the Motor Carrier Safety Regulations of the U.S. Department of Transpor tation. Many trucking operations have higher standards than those described. Many firms require that new drivers be at least 25 years old. Others specify height and weight limitations. Some companies employ only applicants who have driven trucks for several years. Driver-training courses are a desir able m ethod of p rep arin g for truckdriving jobs. Most training au thorities and employers recommend high school driver-training courses. In addition, a high school course in au tomotive mechanics helps drivers make minor roadside repairs. A small number of private and pub lic technical-vocational schools offer truckdriving courses. Students learn to inspect the trucks and freight, to drive large vehicles in crowded areas and in highway traffic, and to comply with Federal, State, and local regula tions. Completion of a course, howev er, does not assure a job. Graduates of these schools who do get truckdriving jobs often start as local drivers. Per sons interested in attending one of these schools should check with local trucking companies to make sure the school’s training is acceptable to them. Employers prefer applicants with a good driving record and some previ ous experience driving a truck. Very few people enter truckdriving directly from school. Consideration is given to driving experience in the Armed Forc es. A person also may drive part of the day as a truckdriver’s helper. When driving vacancies occur, senior helpers usually are promoted. A more common method of enter ing truckdriving is to start out as a dockworker, loading and unloading freight. Dockworkers get a general idea of the trucking operation, and they may have an opportunity to move trucks around the yard. When a need for a truckdriver develops, a capable dockworker may be promot ed. New drivers often start on panel or other small “ straight” trucks. As they gain experience and show good dnving skills, they may advance to larger and heavier trucks, and finally to tractor-trailers. Local drivers with tractor-trailer experience are good candidates for long-distance jobs. Graduates of truckdriving schools who cannot get driving jobs some times become dockworkers. Their school experience gives them an ad vantage over other dockworkers when driving vacancies occur. Since drivers often deal directly with the company’s customers, they must get along well with people. For jobs as driver-sales workers, an abili ty to speak well and a neat appearance are particularly important, as are selfconfidence, initiative, and tact. For all truckdriver jobs, employers also look for responsible, self-motivated indi viduals, since drivers work with little supervision. Training given to new drivers usu ally is informal and may consist only of a few hours of instruction from an experienced driver, sometimes on the new employee’s own time. New driv ers also may ride with and observe experienced drivers before being as signed their own runs. Additional training may be given if they are to drive a special type of truck. Some companies give 1 to 2 days of class room instruction which covers gener al duties, the operation and loading of a truck, company policies, and the preparation of delivery forms and company records. Driver-sales work ers also receive training on the vari ous types of products they carry so they will be more effective sales work ers and better able to handle customer requests. Although some new truekdrivers are assigned immediately to regular driving jobs, many start as extra driv ers, who substitute for regular drivers who are ill or on vacation. They re ceive a regular assignment when an opening occurs. Some long-distance truckers pur chase a truck and go into business for themselves. Although many of these owner-operators are successful, oth ers fail to cover expenses and eventu ally lose their trucks. Owner-oper ators should have good business sense as well as truckdriving experience. Courses in accounting, business, and business arithmetic are helpful. Local truckdrivers may advance to dispatcher, to manager, or to traffic work—for example, planning delivery schedules. However, relatively few of these jobs are available. For the most part, a local truckdriver may advance to driving heavy or special types of trucks or transfer to long-distance truckdriving. Working for companies that also employ long-distance drivers is the best way to advance to these positions. Most drivers can only ad vance to driving runs that provide increased earnings or preferred sched ules and working conditions. Job Outlook Employment of truckdrivers is ex pected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. The demand for driv ers should increase as the amount of freight carried by trucks increases. The number of truckdrivers with sales responsibilities is expected to decline as companies shift sales, ordering, and customer service to sales and office staffs, and replace driver-sales workers with delivery drivers. This occupation has among the larg est number of job openings each year. Although thousands of openings will be created by growth in demand for drivers, the majority will occur as experienced drivers transfer to other fields of work, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Since driver earnings are high and no formal training is required, applicants can expect to face strong competition for available jobs. Job opportunities may vary from year to year because the amount of freight moved by trucks fluctuates with the econom y. Many new truckdrivers are hired when the econ omy and the volume of freight are expanding, but few when these de cline. During economic slowdowns, some truckdrivers are laid off and others have decreased earnings be cause of reduced hours. Those in in dustries such as wholesale food distri bution, which is usually not affected much by recessions, are less likely to be laid off. Earnings As a rule, local truckdrivers are paid by the hour and receive extra pay for working overtime, usually after 40 hours. The earnings of long-distance drivers vary, depending on mileage driven, number of hours worked, and type of truck. Most driver-sales work ers receive a commission based on their sales, in addition to an hourly Transportation and Material Moving Occupations/461 wage. However, straight-time pay rates are fairly uniform because truckdriving is highly unionized, and union contracts generally cover all drivers within a multistate region. In 1984, truckdrivers had average straight-time hourly earnings of $10.31. Depending on the size truck, average earnings were as follows: T ractor-trailer................................ Medium truck................................ Heavy straight tru ck .................... Light truck or v a n ...................... $11.28 10.23 9.80 7.21 Most long-distance truckdrivers op erate tractor-trailers. Drivers em ployed by trucking companies had the highest earnings, averaging nearly $12 an hour in 1984. Truckdrivers in the North Central States had the highest earnings while those in the South had the lowest. Many truckdrivers are members of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Ware housemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Some truckdrivers employed by companies outside the trucking industry are members of unions that represent the plant workers of the companies for which they work. Related Occupations Other driving occupations include am bulance driver, busdriver, chauffeur, hostler, and taxi driver. Sources of Additional Information Information on truckdriver training schools and on career opportunities in the trucking industry may be obtained from: American Trucking Associations, 2200 Mill Rd., Alexandria, Va. 22314. For details on truckdriver employ ment opportunities, contact local trucking companies or the local office of the State employment service. Helpers, Handlers, Equipment Cleaners, and Laborers Helpers, handlers, equipment clean ers, and laborers assist skilled work ers and perform the routine tasks re quired to complete a project. Millions of persons work in these jobs in nearly every industry and geographic area of the Nation. Helpers assist machine operators and tenders who work with metal, wood, plastic, textiles, and other ma terials. Some helpers aid workers who fabricate, assemble, and hand finish manufactured goods. Others help workers who inspect, test, examine, and sample raw materials and finished products. Mechanic and repairer help ers aid in adjusting, maintaining, and repairing tools, equipment, and ma chines. In the construction trades, helpers and laborers work with brick layers, carpenters, electricians, paint ers, surveyors, and others to build and maintain buildings, roads, bridg es, and other projects. Still other help ers assist in drilling oil wells, blasting, and cutting materials to be mined. Most handlers, equipment cleaners, and laborers lift and carry materials. Garbage collectors gather refuse for disposal. Stevedores load and unload ships’ cargoes. Stock handlers sort and place tools, equipment, and other materials. Baggers package groceries. Machine feeders deposit or remove materials from machines or equip ment. Other workers pack materials for shipment and storage. Many other workers perform rou tine tasks. Fuel pump attendants and lubricators fill gas tanks, check engine oil, and do other routine services on cars and trucks in garages and gaso line service stations. Parking lot atten dants park cars at lots and garages. Cleaners work in many industries to help maintain the appearance and function of vehicles and equipment. Jobs as helpers, handlers, equip ment cleaners, and laborers generally have minimal education requirements. Duties usually are learned on the job or in short training sessions given by Digitized for462 FRASER the employer. It should be noted, braces to support the sides of excava however, that these jobs are often tions, clean up rubble and debris, and used as entry level positions to more unload and deliver materials, machin skilled craft and semiskilled operative ery, and equipment to carpenters, ma occupations. sons, and other construction workers Workers in these occupations must during all phases of a construction be physically fit because most jobs project. require physical exertion, such as fre Some construction laborers have quent bending and heavy lifting. Jobs job titles that indicate the work they may require outdoor work, sometimes do. Bricklayers’ tenders and plaster in uncomfortable weather conditions. ers’ tenders, both commonly known Occupational hazards include cuts, as hod carriers, help bricklayers and plasterers by mixing and supplying burns, and sore or strained muscles. Jobs as helpers, handlers, equip materials, setting up and moving scaf ment cleaners, and laborers are ex folding, and providing many other pected to be plentiful due to the very services. Hod carriers must be famil high turnover rate in these occupa iar with the work of bricklayers and tions. However, some workers may plasterers and know the materials and be laid off during recessions. This is tools they use. Construction laborers particularly common in the construc also pour and place concrete for ce tion and manufacturing industries, ment masons, who do the finishing both sensitive to cyclical swings in the work. economy. Laborers may operate motorized Many helpers, handlers, equipment equipment such as cement mixers and cleaners, and laborers earn relatively lifts and ditchdiggers of the “ walklow wages. Supervisors and workers behind” variety, small mechanical who belong to unions, however, can hoists, and laser beam equipment to expect to earn higher wages. align and grade ditches and tunnels. Detailed information on the nature of the work, employment, training re Working Conditions quirements, job outlook, earnings, Construction work is physically stren and working conditions for construc uous, since it requires frequent bend tion trades helpers—the largest of the ing, climbing, and heavy lifting. Much helper, handler, equipment cleaner, of the work is performed outdoors. and laborer occupations—is present Construction helpers, like almost all other workers in construction occupa ed in the following statement. tions, are subject to falls from scaf folds; cuts, burns, and abrasions from various tools and equipment; and sore Construction Trades or strained muscles from heavy lift ing. Helpers (List o f D .O .T. codes available on request. See p. 495.) Employment Construction trades helpers held about 436,000 jobs in 1984. Construc tion contractors were their major em ployers. Nature of the Work Construction trades helpers, also known as construction laborers, pro vide much of the routine physical la Training, Other Qualifications, and bor on all types of construction Advancement projects. They perform a wide variety Although construction helpers’ jobs of tasks, often working without close require only a few basic skills, some supervision. They dig trenches, set jobs require training and experience, Helpers, Handlers, Equipment Cleaners, and Laborers/463 as well as familiarity with construc tion methods, materials, and opera tions. Generally, applicants must be at least 18 years old, in good physical condition, and be willing to work hard. Many new employees transfer from lower paying occupations such as farm laborer or janitor. Many other persons take jobs as construction la borers because little previous experi ence is required. Beginners’ jobs are usually of the simplest type, such as unloading trucks or keeping the work area free of debris. As workers gain experi ence, job assignments become more complex. In order to prepare laborers for more difficult tasks, contractors and unions have established 4- to 8week entry level training programs in many States to teach basic construc tion concepts, safety practices, and machinery operation. In addition, some programs offer training to help experienced laborers keep abreast of technological advances. Job Outlook Employment of construction trades helpers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occu pations through the mid-1990’s. De spite the projected slower than aver age growth, job openings should be plentiful because the occupation is large and turnover is high. Many peo ple take laborer jobs in order to earn money for a specific purpose—for ex ample, a college education—and quit after a short time. Others decide they don’t like the work and leave the occupation. Still others stay only long enough to acquire the minimum skills that enable them to move into con struction craft jobs such as carpenter, bricklayer, or cement mason. Growth in population and economic activity will spur construction work in the years ahead. Laborer employment will not keep pace with the level of construction, however, as continued mechanization and technological ad vances reduce the need for human labor. This mechanization has af fected helpers more than other con struction occupations and will likely continue to do so. Employment of construction labor ers is highly sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy, particularly to the level of construction activity. Consequently, layoffs are common in economic downturns. Earnings Median weekly earnings for construc tion trades helpers working full time were about $225 in 1984. One-half earned between $185 and $300 week ly; the highest 10 percent earned more than $400 a week. Annual earnings for construction trades helpers generally are lower than weekly earnings would indicate because poor weather and downturns in construction activity limit the amount of time they can work. Many construction laborers are members of the Laborers’ Inter national Union of North America. Related Occupations In assisting skilled craft workers, con struction trades helpers combine strength, stamina, willingness to learn, and the ability to follow directions. Workers in other occupations that re quire similar characteristic are ma chine feeders, machine operator help ers, mechanic and repairer helpers, A bricklayer helper provides mortar for laying brick. stevedores, and vehicle washers and equipment cleaners. Sources of Additional Information For information about work opportu nities, contact local building or con struction contractors, local construc tion associations, a local of the Labor ers’ International Union of North America, or the local office of the State employment service. For general information about the work of construction laborers, con tact: Laborers’ International Union of North Amer ica, 905 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Laborers’—Associated General Contractors’ Education and Training Fund, P.O. Box 37, Pomfret Center, Conn. 06259. Military Occupations category work as accounting clerks, Nature of the Work The mission of the Armed Forces— payroll clerks, personnel clerks, com the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Air puter programmers, computer opera Force, and Coast Guard—is national tors, electric accounting machine op defense. The Army prepares for land- erators, chaplain assistants, counsel based defense, while the Air Force ing aides, typists, stenographers, provides for air and space defense. storekeepers, and other clerks. Professional, technical, and allied The Navy organizes and trains forces primarily for sea defense. The Marine specialists in the military include a Corps, a branch of the Navy, prepares wide range of jobs with a civilian for land and sea actions in support of parallel. Officers work as physicists, naval operations or amphibious land nuclear power engineers, chemists, ings. The Coast Guard, under the De geologists, meteorologists, biologists, partment of Transportation (except in mathematicians, statisticians, opera wartime, when it serves the Navy), tions research analysts, historians, has responsibility for enforcing Feder economists, sociologists, and psy al maritime laws, conducting rescues chologists. Enlisted personnel work of distressed vessels and aircraft at as drafters, topographic surveyors, sea, operating aids to navigation, and photographers, broadcasters, musi cians, safety specialists, and scientific preventing smuggling. Together, the military services con or engineering assistants. Some work stitute the largest employer in the as divers and in ordnance disposal. Military medical and dental spe country. They offer a wide range of employment and training opportuni cialists and technicians all have civil ties in managerial and administrative ian counterparts. Medical officers in jobs, professional occupations, cleri clude physicians, dentists, optome cal work, skilled construction trades, trists, professional nurses, therapists, electrical and electronic occupations, veterinarians, pharmacists, and oth motor vehicle repair, and hundreds of ers associated with patient care and other specialties requiring varied treatment. Education and training re amounts of education and training. ceived in the military are recognized While military life differs from civilian in the civilian sector. Enlisted person life in important ways, each year the nel include medical, dental, and labo Armed Forces give hundreds of thou ratory technicians, pharmaceutical as sands of men and women basic and sistants, sanitation specialists, and advanced training that is often trans veterinary assistants. After leaving ferable from military to civilian ca the military, service-trained medical reers. A brief discussion of the rela and dental technicians may be quali tion of some major military occupa fied to take the certification examina tions to civilian occupations follows. tions for entry into civilian jobs. (Com Administrative, functional support, pletion of an accredited program is a and clerical jobs in military service prerequisite for certification or regis require the same basic skills that are tration in many health occupations.) needed for similar jobs in private bus Civilian occupations for which ser inesses and government agencies. Of vice-trained individuals may qualify ficers in this category work as direc for certification include medical labo tors, executives, adjutants, adminis ratory technician, medical laboratory trative officers, personnel managers, technologist, radiologic technologist, training administrators, budget offic emergency medical technician, and ers, finance officers, accountants, pub dental assistant. Although few intelligence and com lic affairs officers, hospital administra tors, inspectors, computer systems munication specialists have civilian managers, lawyers, chaplains, educa counterparts, some may transfer their tors, instructors, social workers, and skills to civilian jobs. Officers work as counselors. Enlisted personnel in this translators, cryptologists, information 464 analysts, and in related occupations. Enlisted personnel operate radio, ra dar, sonar, and other equipment and help analyze the information gath ered. Engineers, maintenance personnel, and repairers—electrical and mechan ical equipment are responsible for the aircraft, motor vehicles, missiles, ships, ordnance, and other equipment of the Armed Forces. Officers work as engineers—electrical, mechanical, de sign, aeronautical, marine, missile, and ordnance—and are responsible for the design, development, produc tion, and testing of equipment and oversee its maintenance. Enlisted per sonnel work as mechanics and repair ers and are directly responsible for repair and maintenance. Many of these occupational skills can be trans ferred to civilian jobs. Engineers, maintenance personnel, and repairers—electronic and related equipment are responsible for radio, radar, missile guidance, navigation, nuclear weapons, computer, crypto graphic, and related equipment. Offic ers work as engineers—electrical, electronic, communication, and radar design—and are responsible for the design, development, production, and testing of equipment and oversee its maintenance. Enlisted personnel work as mechanics and repairers and are directly responsible for repair and maintenance. Again, many of these occupational skills can be transferred to civilian jobs. Engineers, maintenance personnel, and craft workers—installations, util ities, and other functions are respon sible for the erection and maintenance of buildings and oversee the opera tions of utilities. Officers include civil engineers and architects. Enlisted per sonnel include carpenters, construc tion equipment operators, metal work ers, machinists, plumbers, electri cians, heating specialists, lithogra phers, leather workers, and others. Generally, veterans in this category who enter the civilian work force are given credit for skills and training ac quired in the service. Military Occupations/465 Service and supply handlers are re sponsible for procurement, supply, transportation, exchange, food ser vice, security, housing, and other op erations. Officers oversee these oper ations. Enlisted personnel include motor vehicle operators, military po lice, corrections specialists, dry clean ing operators, material handlers, warehouse workers, postal workers, and food preparation and other ser vice workers. Many of these skills can be transferred to civilian occupations. Infantry, gun crews, and seaman ship specialists include the combat occupations—the backbone of the Armed Forces. Officers plan and di rect military operations, oversee se curity activities, and serve as combat troop leaders, ship captains and crew, and airplane pilots and crew mem bers. Enlisted personnel serve as weapons specialists, armored vehicle operators, demolition experts, artil lery crew, rocket specialists, airplane and ship crew members, boatswains, navigators, and installation security specialists. Although these functions are unique to the Armed Forces, they involve skills that can be applied to a. number of civilian occupations such as ammunition inspector, cartogra pher, and heavy equipment operator. In addition, personnel in this category may develop leadership and supervi sory skills for future civilian employ ment. Nonoccupational categories in clude officer candidates, trainees, stu dents, patients, prisoners, and others for whom an occupation is not appli cable or has not been designated. Working Conditions Military life is more disciplined and regimented than civilian life. There are dress and grooming requirements. Certain military formalities, such as saluting superior officers, and special military laws must be followed. Hours and working conditions vary substantially in the wide range of jobs found in military service. Most mili tary personnel usually work 8 hours a day, 5 or 5-1/2 days a week. Some assignments, however, require night and weekend work, or require per sons to be on call at all hours. All may require substantial travel. Many re quire long periods at sea, sometimes in cramped quarters, or lengthy over seas assignments in countries offering few amenities. Some jobs are in iso lated areas subject to extreme cold or heat. Others—even in noncombat sit uations—are quite hazardous. Per sons with such assignments normally receive additional compensation. Distribution of Military Personnel In 1984, nearly 2.2 million persons were on active duty in the Armed Forces—about 780,000 in the Army; 597,000 in the Air Force; 565,000 in the Navy; 196,000 in the Marine Corps; and 50,000 in the Coast Guard. In addition, over 2.3 million persons were in military reserve units, of whom 1.4 million were in active re serve units. Military personnel are stationed throughout the United States and in many countries around the world. In the United States, the largest numbers are stationed in California, followed by Texas, North Carolina, Virginia, Georgia, and Florida. About 514,000 are stationed outside the United States. Over 350,000 of these are sta tioned in Europe (mainly in Germa ny); large numbers also are in the Western Pacific area. Table 1 shows the occupational composition of the military establish ment in 1984. Nearly 3 out of every 10 enlisted persons were involved with electrical, mechanical, electronic, and related equipment—reflecting the highly technical and mechanical na ture of the fighting forces. Officers— who accounted for over 14 percent of all military personnel—are concen Submarines are operated under demand ing conditions by highly trained personnel. trated in administration, medical and dental specialties, and combat activi ties—largely as ships’ officers, aircraft pilots and crew members, and infan try or artillery officers. Enlistment and Officer Qualifications, Training, and Advancement General enlistment qualifications. As it has since 1973, the military expects to continue to meet its personnel re quirements through volunteer enlist ees. Enlistees must enter a legal agree- Table 1. Military personnel by broad occupational category, 1984 (Percent distribution) Occupational category Total Enlisted personnel Officers All personnel (thousands)........................................... Percent ............................................................................ 2,188 100 1,876 100 312 100 16 2 6 9 16 3 5 10 21 2 12 5 19 20 11 9 9 4 4 9 16 10 4 10 15 8 1 7 25 12 Administrative, functional support, and clerical j o b s ............................................................................... Professional, technical, and allied sp ecia lists___ Medical and dental specialists and techn icians... Intelligence and communications specialists......... Engineers, maintenance officers, and repairers— electrical and mechanical eq u ip m en t................. Engineers, maintenance officers, and repairers— electronics and related equipment....................... Engineers, maintenance officers, and craft work ers—transportation, utilities, and other functions...................................................................... Service and supply handlers...................................... Infantry, gun crew, and seamanship specialists .. N onoccupational........................................................... SOURCE: U.S. Department of Defense. 466/Occupational Outlook Handbook Team work is essential. ment called an enlistment contract. delay entry into active duty for up to 1 This obligates the service to provide year. High school students can enlist the agreed upon options—job, rating, during their senior year and enter a pay, cash bonuses for enlistment in service after graduation. Other enlist certain occupations, medical and oth ees choose this program because the er benefits, occupational training, and job training they desire is not current continuing education—and the enlist ly available but will be within the ee to serve for the specified period of coming year. Although specific enlistment re time. All services offer a ‘delayed entry quirements for each service or enlist program’ by which an enlistee can ment option within a particular ser The infantry is the main land combat force of the military services. vice may vary, all branches have cer tain general qualifications. Enlistees must be between the ages of 17 and 35 and must possess a birth certificate. Applicants between 17 and 18 years old must have the consent of a parent or guardian before entering the ser vice. Both a written examination (Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery) and a physical examination are required. All branches prefer high school graduation or its equivalent and require it for certain enlistment options. In 1984, 94 percent of all enlisted personnel were high school graduates. Enlistment options. A variety of enlistment options, each involving dif ferent combinations of active and re serve duty, is available. Most active duty programs range from 3 to 6 years; 3- and 4-year enlistments are the most common. Selection depends on the individual’s general and tech nical aptitudes and personal prefer ence as well as the needs of the ser vice. Women are now eligible to enter 95 percent of all military specialties. Only fields involving combat duty are excluded. People planning to apply the skills gained through military training to a civilian career should obtain certain information before choosing a military occupation. First, they should deter mine how good the prospects are for civilian employment in jobs related to the military specialty which interests them. Second, they should know the prerequisites for the related civilian job. Many occupations require a li cense, certification, or a minimum level of education. Those who are interested should find out whether military training is sufficient to enter the field or, if not, what additional training will be required. Other Handbook statements give much information about the job out look for civilian occupations for which military training is helpful. Additional information often can be obtained from schools, unions, trade associa tions, and other organizations in the field of interest, or from a school counselor. By finding this information before choosing a specific military oc cupation, young people entering the Armed Forces will help ensure that the type of training they obtain will fit their career plans. Training programs for enlisted per sonnel. After a 6- to 11-week basic training period, depending on the ser vice branch, most recruits enter for mal classroom training to prepare for a specialized field of work. The re mainder receive on-the-job training at their first duty assignment. For those not assigned directly to schools, for mal classroom training follows on-thejob training. After initial or advanced training, recruits are sent to their ser vice assignment. In addition to on-duty training, mil itary personnel may choose from a variety of educational programs. Most military installations have a tuition assistance program for personnel who wish to take courses during off-duty hours. Also, each service branch of fers programs for full-time education, and provides full pay, allowances, tu ition, and related fees. Courses also are available to help service personnel earn their high school equivalency di plomas. In addition, programs are available to allow credit for military training courses towards associate or baccalaureate college degrees. Other programs enable enlisted personnel to take college courses and additional military training to become commis sioned officers. Officer training. Officer training in the Armed Forces is provided through the Federal Service Academies (Na val, Air Force, Military, and Coast Guard); the Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC); Officer Candidate School (OCS); the National Guard (State Officer Candidate School pro grams); and other programs. Federal Service Academies provide a 4-year college program leading to a bachelor of science degree. The mid shipman or cadet is provided free room and board, tuition, medical care, and a monthly allowance. Graduates receive regular commissions and have a 5-year active duty obligation, or longer if entering flight training. To become a candidate for appoint ment as a midshipman or cadet in the Naval, Air Force, or Military Acade my, most applicants obtain a nomina tion from an authorized source (usu ally a member of Congress). Candi dates do not need to know a member of Congress personally to request a nomination. Nominees must have an academic record of the requisite qual ity, college aptitude test scores above an established minimum, and recom mendations from teachers or school officials; they also must pass a medi Digitized for cal examination. Appointments are FRASER Military Occupations/467 Women now serve in almost all military noncombat functions. made from the list of eligible nomi nees. Appointments to the Coast Guard Academy are made on a competitive basis. A nomination is not required. ROTC programs train students in about 500 Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force units at participating colleges and universities. Trainees take 2 to 5 hours of military instruc tion a week in addition to regular college courses. Students in the last 2 years of an ROTC program and all those on ROTC scholarships receive a monthly allowance while attending school and additional pay for summer training. After graduation, they serve as officers on active duty for a stipu lated period of time. College graduates can earn a com mission in the Armed Forces through OCS Programs in the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, Coast Guard, and National Guard. Persons trained in health profes sions may qualify for direct appoint ment as officers. Financial assistance is available for students training in some fields. Direct appointments also are available for those qualified to serve in other special duties, such as the judge advocate general (legal) or chaplain corps. Flight training is available to com missioned officers in each branch of the Armed Forces. Advancement opportunities. Each service has different criteria for pro moting personnel. Generally, howev er, new enlistees are promoted from the first to the third level within the first year. Subsequent promotions are based on a more competitive system. Criteria for promotion may include time in service and grade, proficiency in assigned duties, the evaluation and recommendation of the commanding officer, and written examinations. Job Outlook The number of jobs in the Armed Forces is expected to increase more slowly than the average for civilian occupations through the mid-1990’s. Substantial numbers of new jobs will be created in the Navy and the Air Force to expand their strength. The Army, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard are expected to at least main tain their present levels. Job opportu nities should be excellent in all branch es of the service, as many thousands of persons must be recruited and trained each year to replace those who complete their enlistment or re tire. Better educated and trained ap 468/Occupational Outlook Handbook plicants will be in particular demand as military jobs become more techni cal and complex. Military personnel enjoy more job security than their civilian counter parts. Satisfactory job performance generally assures one of steady em ployment and earnings. Earnings, Allowances, and Benefits Starting salaries. Starting annual sal aries of military personnel are shown in table 2. Most enlisted personnel started at Grade E-l in 1985; howev er, those with special skills or above average education started as high as Grade E-3. Most warrant officers start ed at Grade E-5 or E-6, depending upon their occupational and academic qualifications and the branch of ser vice. Most commissioned officers started at Grade 0-1; highly trained officers—for example, physicians, en gineers, and scientists—started as high as Grade 0-6. Table 2. Military basic pay by grade for active personnel with less than 2 years of service, 1985 Pay grade Yearly compensation Enlisted personnel: E - l 1.................................. E - l .................................. E - 2 ................................... E-3 ................................... $6,832 7,445 8,345 8,676 Warrant officers: E-5 ................................... E - 6 ................................... $9,871 11,246 Commissioned officers: 0 -1 0 -2 0 -3 0 -4 0 -5 0 -6 ................................... ................................... ................................... .................................. ................................... .................................. ‘Less than 4 months of service. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Defense. $14,263 16,430 18,842 20,275 24,055 30,074 Allowances. In addition to basic pay, military personnel receive free room and board (or a housing and subsistence allowance), medical and dental care, a military clothing allow ance, military supermarket and de partment store shopping privileges, 30 days of paid vacation a year, and travel opportunities. Athletic and other recreational fa cilities—such as libraries, gymnasi ums, tennis courts, golf courses, and movies—are available on many mili tary installations. Help with personal or financial problems is available from personal affairs officers, legal assist ance officers, counselors, and chap lains, as well as supporting agencies. Special pay generally is awarded for unusually demanding or hazardous duties, assignment to duties in certain shortage skills, assignments to certain areas outside the continental United States, and outstanding proficiency in the performance of duty. Military personnel are eligible for retirement benefits after 20 years of service. Annual earnings. In 1984, the aver age compensation of all military per sonnel was $18,152 (of which 26 per cent was cash allowances). Enlisted personnel averaged $15,704 (of which 29 percent was cash allowances); war rant officers averaged $27,221 (of which 21 percent was cash allowanc es); and commissioned officers aver aged $33,389 (of which 18 percent was cash allowances). Veterans’ benefits. The Veterans Administration (VA) provides numer ous benefits to those who have served in the Armed Forces for at least 2 years. Veterans are given care in VA hospitals for all service-connected disabilities regardless of time served; those with other medical problems can be given care if they are unable to pay the cost of hospitalization else where. Veterans are eligible for cer tain loans, including home loans. Vet erans, regardless of health, can con vert a military life insurance policy to an individual policy with any partici pating company in the veteran’s State of residence. In addition, job counsel ing, testing, and placement services are available. Veterans who participate in the New GI Bill Program may receive educational benefits. Under this pro gram, Armed Forces personnel may elect to save $100 a month for 12 months towards their future educa tion. The Government will contribute up to $9,600, until the combined con tributions reach a maximum of $10,800. This sum becomes the ser vice member’s educational fund. Upon separation from active duty, the fund can be used to finance an educa tion at any VA-approved institution. VA-approved schools include voca tional, correspondence, business, technical, and flight training schools; community and junior colleges; and colleges and universities. Information on educational and oth er veterans’ benefits is available from VA offices located in each State, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. Sources of Additional Information Each of the military services publish es handbooks and pamphlets that de scribe entrance requirements, training and advancement opportunities, and other aspects of military careers. These publications are available at all recruiting stations, most State em ployment service offices, and in high schools, colleges, and public libraries. For additional information, write to: U. S. Army R ecruiting C om m and, Fort Sheridan, 111. 60037. USAF Recruiting Service, Directorate of Ad vertising and Publicity, Randolph Air Force Base, Tex. 78150. Director, Personnel Procurement Division, Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps, Washing ton, D.C. 20380. Navy Opportunity Information Center, P.O. Box 5000, Clifton, N.J. 07015. Commandant, (G-PMR), U.S. Coast Guard, Washington, D.C. 20593. Appendix A. Summary Data for Occupations Not Covered in the Handbook Employment in the approximately 200 occupations that are discussed in the main body of the H a n d b o o k accounts for about 60 percent of all jobs in the econom y. Although occupations cov ering the full spectrum of work are includ ed, generally those that require lengthy education or training or which are project ed to grow rapidly are given the most attention. This appendix presents summary data Title on an additional 200 occupations for which employment projections are prepared but for which detailed occupational informa tion is not developed. These occupations account for about 20 percent of all jobs. For each occupation, a brief description of the nature of work, the number of jobs in 1984, and a phrase describing the project ed employment change from 1984 to 1995 are presented. For guidelines underlying this descriptive phraseology, refer to the Definition box on page 4 of the How To Get the Most From the Handbook section. The approximately 20 percent of all jobs not covered either in the detailed occupa tional descriptions in the main body o f the H a n d b o o k or in the summary data pre sented in this appendix are mainly residual categories, such as managers and admin istrators, not specified, for which little if any meaningful information could be de veloped. Employment 1984 Projected growth 1984-95 EXECUTIVE, ADMINISTRATIVE, AND MANAGERIAL OCCUPATIONS Assessors Appraise real and personal property to determine its fair value. May assess taxes in accordance with prescribed schedules. 20,000 About as fast as average Claims examiners, property and casualty insurance Review settled insurance claims to determine that payments and settlements have been made in accordance with company practices and procedures and insure that adjusters have followed proper methods. Report overpayments, underpayments, and other irregularities. Confer with legal counsel on claims requiring litigation. 23,000 Faster than average Claims takers, unemployment benefits Interview unemployed workers and compile data to determine eligibility for unemployment benefits. 23,000 Little change Cost estimators Prepare cost estimates for manufacturing of products, construction projects, or services to aid management in bidding on or determining price of products or services. May specialize according to particular service performed or product produced. 114,000 About as fast as average Employment interviewers, private or public employment service Interview job applicants in employment office and refer them to prospective employers for consideration. Record and evaluate various pertinent data. Search application files, notify selected applicants of job openings, and refer qualified applicants to prospective employers. Contact employers to verify referral results and record data. 72,000 Much faster than average Public administration— chief executives, legislators, and general administrators Formulate and establish government policy and develop Federal, State, or local laws, rules, and regulations. 141,000 About as fast as average 469 470/Occupational Outlook Handbook Title Definition Special agents, insurance Recruit independent insurance agents in field and maintain contact between agents and home office. Advise agents on matters pertaining to conduct of business, such as cancellations, overdue accounts, technical problems, claims procedures, new business contacts, and new products. May gather information for underwriter. May inspect buildings to determine fire insurance rates. 26,000 About as fast as average Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents Determine tax liability or collect taxes from individuals or business firms according to prescribed laws and regulations. 52,000 Little change Employment 1984 Projected growth 1984-95 PROFESSIONAL SPECIALTY OCCUPATIONS Audiovisual specialists Plan and prepare audiovisual teaching aids and methods for use in school system. 7,800 Slower than average Directors, religious education and activities Direct and coordinate activities of a denominational group to meet religious needs of students and plan, organize, and direct church school programs designed to promote religious education among church membership. Provide counseling and guidance relative to marital, health, financial, and religious problems. 34,000 Slower than average Farm and home management advisors A dvise, instruct, and assist individuals and families engaged in agriculture and related processes or home economics activities. Apply research findings and procedures to solve problems and provide instruction and training in the development of products, sales, and the utilization of machinery and equipment. 27,000 Expected to decline Graduate assistants, teaching A ssist department head, faculty members, or other professional staff in colleges or universities by performing related duties such as teaching lower level courses, developing teaching materials, preparing and giving examinations, and grading examinations or papers. 145,000 Expected to decline Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers J u d g es: Arbitrate, advise, and administer justice in courts of law. Sentence defendants in criminal cases according to statutes of State or Federal government. May determine liability of defendants in civil cases. M a g i s t r a t e s : Adjudicate criminal cases not involving penitentiary sentences, and civil cases concerning damages below sum specified by State law. May issue marriage licenses and perform wedding ceremonies. A d j u d i c a t o r s , h e a r i n g s o f f ic e r s , a n d j u d i c i a l r e v ie w e r s : Conduct hearings to review and decide claims filed by the government against individuals or organizations or individual eligibility issues concerning social programs or disability or unemployment benefits. Determine the existence and the amount of liability, recommend the acceptance or rejection of claims or compromise settlements according to laws, regulations, policies, and precedent decisions. Confer with persons or organizations involved and prepare written decisions. 33,000 Faster than average Merchandise displayers and window trimmers Plan and erect commercial displays, such as those in windows and interiors of retail stores and at trade exhibitions. 20,000 About as fast as average Teachers, preschool Teach preschool pupils in public or private schools basic physical, mental, and developmental skills. 278,000 About as fast as average Appendix A/471 Title Definition Employment 1984 Projected growth 1984-95 TECHNOLOGISTS AND TECHNICIANS, EXCEPT HEALTH Radio operators Receive and transmit communications, using radiotelegraph or radiotelephone equipment in accordance with government regulations. May repair equipment. Title examiners, searchers, and clerks T itle e x a m in e r s : Search public records and examine titles to determine legal status of property titles. Copy or summarize (abstract) recorded documents, such as mortgages, trust deeds, and contracts, affecting title to property. May prepare and issue policy that guarantees legality of title. A b s t r a c t o r s : Summarize pertinent legal or insurance details or sections of statutes or case law from reference books for purpose of examination, proof, or ready reference. Search out titles to determine if title deed is correct. S e a r c h e r s : Compile lists o f mortgages, deeds, contracts, judgments, and other instruments pertaining to title by searching public and private records for real estate or title insurance company. 7,100 About as fast as average 21,000 Faster than average MARKETING AND SALES OCCUPATIONS Appraisers, real estate Appraise improved or unimproved real property to determine its value for purchase, sale, investment, mortgage, or loan purposes. 38,000 About as fast as average Counter and rental clerks Receive articles and/or orders for services, such as rentals, repairs, dry cleaning, and storage. May compute cost and accept payment. 96,000 Little change Stock clerks, sales floor R eceive, store, and issue merchandise on sales floor. Stock shelves, racks, cases, bins, and tables with merchandise and arrange display of items to attract customers. May periodically take physical count o f stock or check and mark merchandise. 574,000 About as fast as average ADMINISTRATIVE SUPPORT OCCUPATIONS, INCLUDING CLERICAL Adjustment clerks Investigate and resolve customer complaints concerning merchandise, service, billing, or credit rating. Examine pertinent information to determine accuracy of customer complaint and responsibility for errors. Notify customer and appropriate personnel of findings, adjustments, and recommendations, such as exchange of merchandise, refund of money, credit to customer’s account, or adjustment of customer’s bill. 65,000 Faster than average Advertising clerks R eceive orders for classified advertising from customers in person or by telephone for newspapers or magazines. Examine and mark classified advertisements of newspapers according to copy sheet specifications to guide composing room in assembling type. Verify conformance of published advertisements to specifications for billing purposes. 11,000 Faster than average Bill and account collectors Locate and notify customers of delinquent accounts by mail, telephone, or personal visit to solicit payment. Duties include receiving payment and posting amount to customer’s account; preparing statements to credit department if customer fails to respond; initiating repossession proceedings or service disconnection; keeping records of collection and status of accounts. 115,000 Faster than average 472/Occupational Outlook Handbook Title Definition Billing, cost, and rate clerks Compile data, compute fees and charges, and prepare invoices for billing purposes. Duties also include computing costs and calculating rates for goods, services, and shipment o f goods; posting data; and keeping other relevant records. May involve use o f typing, adding, calculating, and bookkeeping machines. 216,000 About as fast as average Billing, posting, and calculating machine operators Operate machines that automatically perform mathematical processes, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and extraction of roots, to calculate and record billing, accounting, statistical, and other numerical data. Duties also include operating special billing machines, generally combination typing and adding machines, to prepare statements, bills, and invoices, and the operation o f bookkeeping machines to copy and post data, make computations, and compile records of transactions. 234,000 About as fast as average Brokerage clerks Perform clerical duties involved with the purchase or sale of securities, determining value or changes to value of securities, and associated recordkeeping. Duties include writing orders for stock purchases and sales, computing transfer taxes, verifying stock transactions, accepting and delivering securities, informing customers o f stock price fluctuations, computing equity , distributing dividends, and keeping records of daily transactions and holdings. 29,000 Faster than average Court clerks Perform clerical duties in court of law; prepare docket of cases to be called; secure information forjudges and contact witnesses, attorneys, and litigants to obtain information for court. 33,000 Faster than average Credit checkers Investigate history and credit standing of individuals or business establishments applying for credit. Telephone or write given references to obtain information from credit departments of business and service establishments. 34,000 Faster than average Customer service representatives, utilities Interview applicants for water, gas, electric, or telephone service. Talk with customer by phone or in person and receive orders for installation, turn-on, discontinuance, or change in service. 92,000 About as fast as average Dispatchers, except police, fire, and ambulance Schedule and dispatch workers, work crews, equipment, or service vehicles for conveyance of materials, freight, or passengers or for normal installation, service, or emergency repairs rendered outside the place of business. Duties may include use of radio/telephone to transmit assignments and compiling statistics and reports on the progress of work. 144,000 About as fast as average Dispatchers, police, fire, and ambulance Receive complaints from public concerning crimes and police emergencies and broadcast orders to police radio patrol units in vicinity to investigate. Operate radio and telephone equipment to receive reports of fires and medical emergencies and relay information or orders to proper officials. 59,000 About as fast as average Duplicating, mail, and other office machine operators D u p l i c a t i n g m a c h in e o p e r a t o r s : Operate one or a variety of duplicating machines to make copies of data. Machines frequently used are Dualith, Multilith, Masterlith, Mimeograph, Dupligraph, Multigraph, Compotype, and Xerox. T r a n s it c le r k s : Sort, record, prove, and prepare transit items for mailing to or from out-of-city banks to insure correct routing and prompt collection. 153,000 About as fast as average File clerks File correspondence, cards, invoices, receipts, and other records in alphabetic or numerical order, or according to the filing system used. Locate and remove material from file when requested. May be required to classify and file new material. 289,000 Little change General office clerks Duties are varied and diverse and may include a combination of bookkeeping, typing, stenography, office machine operations, and filing. 2,398,000 Employment 1984 Projected growth 1984-95 Slower than average Appendix A/473 Title Definition Employment 1984 Hotel desk clerks Register and assign hotel rooms to guests, issue room keys, transmit and receive m essages, keep records of rooms occupied and guests’ accounts, make and confirm reservations, and present statements to and collect payments from departing guests. 99,000 Insurance adjusters, examiners, and investigators Investigate, analyze, and determine the validity of the amount of insurance com pany’s liability concerning personal, casualty, or property loss or damages, and effect settlement with claimants. Correspond with or interview medical specialists, agents, w itnesses, or claimants to compile information. Calculate benefit payments and approve payment of claims within a certain monetary limit. 134,000 Insurance appraisers, auto damage Appraise automobile or other vehicle damage to determine cost of repair for insurance claim settlement and seek agreement with automotive repair shop on cost of repair. Prepare insurance forms to indicate repair cost or cost estimates and recommendations. Insurance claims and policy processing clerks Projected growth 1984-95 About as fast as average Faster than average 7,000 About as fast as average C l a im s c le r k s : Obtain claims information from insured or designated persons to settle claims with insurance carrier. P o li c y p r o c e s s i n g c le r k s : Process applications for, changes to, reinstatements of, and cancellation o f insurance policies. Duties include reviewing insurance applications to insure that all questions have been answered, compiling data on changes of insurance policies and changing policy records to conform to insured party’s specifications, compiling data on lapsed insurance policies to determine automatic reinstatement according to company policies, canceling insurance policies as requested by agents, and verifying the accuracy o f insurance company records. 125,000 About as fast as average Library assistants and bookmobile drivers Compile records; sort and shelve books; issue and receive library materials, such as pictures, cards, slides, phonograph records, and microfilm; and handle tape decks. Locate library materials for loan and replace material in shelving area (stacks) or files according to identification number and title. Register patrons to permit them to borrow books, periodicals, and other library materials. Bookmobile drivers operate a bookmobile or light truck that pulls a book trailer to specific locations on a predetermined schedule and assist with providing services in mobile library. 122,000 Slower than average License clerks Issue licenses or permits to qualified applicants. Obtain necessary information, record data, advise applicants on requirements, collect fees, and issue licenses. May perform oral, visual, written, or performance testing. 13,000 About as fast as average Loan and credit clerks Assemble documents, prepare papers, process applications, and complete transactions of individuals applying for loans and credit. L o a n c le r k s : Review loan papers to insure completeness; operate typewriters to prepare correspondence, reports, and loan documents from draft; and complete transactions between loan establishments, borrowers, and sellers upon approval o f loan. C r e d i t c le r k s : Interview applicants to obtain personal and financial data, determine creditworthiness, process applications, and notify customers of acceptance or rejection o f credit. 123,000 About as fast as average Mail clerks, except mailing machine operators and postal service Prepare incoming and outgoing mail for distribution. Duties include time stamping, opening, reading, sorting, and routing incoming mail; sealing, stamping, and affixing postage to outgoing mail or packages; and keeping necessary records and completed forms. 136,000 Little change Messengers Run errands and sort and deliver m essages, documents, packages, and other items to offices or departments within an establishment or to other business concerns, traveling on foot or by bicycle, motorcycle, automobile, or public conveyance. May use telephone to complete assigned tasks. 67,000 About as fast as average 474/Occupational Outlook Handbook Title Definition Meter readers, utilities Read electric, gas, water, or steam consumption meters and record volume used by residential and commercial customers. 50,000 Slower than average Municipal clerks Duties include drafting agendas for town or city council, recording minutes of council meetings, answering official correspondence, keeping fiscal records and accounts, and preparing reports on civic needs. 19,000 Slower than average New accounts clerks, banking Interview persons desiring to open bank accounts. Explain banking services available to prospective customers, and assist them in preparing application form. 72,000 About as fast as average Order clerks, materials, merchandise, and services Receive and process incoming orders for materials, merchandise, or services such as repairs, installations, or rental of facilities. Additional duties include informing customers of receipt of order, prices, shipping dates, and delays; preparing contracts; and handling complaints. 297,000 About as fast as average Order fillers, wholesale and retail sales Fill custom ers’ mail and telephone orders from stored merchandise in accordance with specifications on sales slips or order forms. Duties include computing prices of items, completing order receipts, keeping records of outgoing orders, requisitioning additional material, supplies, and equipment, and other related tasks. 226,000 Little change Payroll and timekeeping clerks Compute wages and post wage data to payroll records and/or keep a daily record showing em ployees’ time of arrival and departure. Compute earnings from time sheets and work tickets, using calculator. Operate posting machine to compute and subtract deductions. Enter net wages on earnings record card, check stub, and payroll sheet. 207,000 Expected to decline Personnel clerks, except payroll and timekeeping Compile and keep personnel records. Record data for each em ployee such as address, weekly earnings, absences, amount of sales or production, supervisory reports on ability and on date of and reason for termination. Compile and type reports from employment records. File employment records. Search em ployee files and furnish information to authorized persons. 108,000 About as fast as average Procurement clerks Compile information and records to draw up purchase orders for procurement o f material. 53,000 Slower than average Production, planning, and expediting clerks Duties involve coordinating and expediting the flow o f work and materials within or between departments o f an establishment according to production schedule. This includes reviewing and distributing production schedules and work orders, conferring with department supervisors to determine progress o f work and completion dates, and compiling reports on progress o f work and production problems. Duties may also include scheduling workers and estimating costs, routing and delivering parts to insure production quotas are met, and scheduling shipment of parts. May keep inventory of material in departments and insure that merchandise is shipped by vendor on promised date. May write special orders for services and merchandise. 214,000 Slower than average Proofreaders and copy markers Read transcript or proof of type to detect and mark for correction any grammatical, typographical, or compositional errors. 22,000 About as fast as average Real estate clerks Perform duties concerned with rental, sale, and management of real estate, such as typing copies o f listings, computing interest owed or penalty payments, holding collateral in escrow, and checking due notices on taxes and renewal dates of insurance and mortgage loans. 17,000 About as fast as average Statement clerks Prepare and distribute bank statements to customers, answer inquiries, and reconcile discrepancies in records and accounts. 37,000 About as fast as average Employment 1984 Projected growth 1984-95 Appendix A/475 Employment 1984 Projected growth 1984-95 Title Definition Stock clerks, stockroom, warehouse, or yard Receive, store, and issue materials, equipment, and other items from stockroom, warehouse, or storage yard. Keep records and compile stock reports. Telegraph and teletype operators Operate telegraphic typewriter, telegraph key, teletype machine facsimile, and related equipment to transmit and receive signals or messages. Prepare messages according to prescribed formats, and verify and correct errors in messages. May adjust equipment for proper operation. 7,500 Expected to decline Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks Verify and keep records on incoming and outgoing shipments and prepare items for shipment. Duties include assembling, addressing, stamping, and shipping merchandise or material; receiving, unpacking, verifying, and recording incoming merchandise or material; and arranging for the transportation o f products. 651,000 Slower than average Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping Duties involve weighing, measuring, and checking materials, supplies, and equipment for the purpose o f keeping relevant records. A lso may collect and keep record o f samples o f products or materials. 37,000 Slower than average Welfare eligibility workers and interviewers Interview and investigate applicants and recipients to determine eligibility for social programs. Duties include recording and evaluating personal and financial data obtained from individuals; initiating procedures to grant, modify, deny, or terminate eligibility for various aid programs; authorizing amount o f grants; and preparing reports. These workers generally receive specialized training and assist social service caseworkers. 59,000 About as fast as average 788,000 Little change SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Ambulance drivers and attendants Drive ambulance or assist ambulance driver in transporting sick, injured, or convalescent persons. A ssist in lifting patients and rendering first aid. May be required to have Red Cross first-aid training certificate. 23,000 Slower than average Amusement and recreation attendants Perform one or more of the following duties at amusement or recreation facilities: Schedule use o f recreation facilities, allocate equipment to participants in sporting events or recreational pursuits, collect fees, set pins, prepare billiard tables, provide caddying and other services for golfers, or operate carnival rides and amusement concessions. 149,000 Faster than average Baggage porters and bellhops Carry baggage for travelers at transportation terminals or for guests at hotels or similar establishments. Perform additional duties, such as assisting handicapped persons, running errands, delivering ice, and directing people to their desired destinations. 31,000 Slower than average Bakers, bread and pastry Mix and bake ingredients according to recipes to produce breads, pastries, and other baked goods in establishments where goods are produced in small quantities for consumption on premises or for sale as specialty baked goods. 68,000 About as fast as average 476/Occupational Outlook Handbook Title Definition Cooks, short order and specialty fast food S h o r t - o r d e r c o o k s : Prepare and cook to order a variety of foods that require only a short preparation time. May take orders from customers and serve patrons at counters or tables. S p e c i a l t y f a s t - f o o d c o o k s : Prepare and cook food in a fast-food restaurant with a limited menu. The menu and duties o f the cooks are limited to one or two basic items, such as hamburgers, chicken, pizza, tacos, or fish and chips. The duties o f the cook normally involve operating large-volume single-purpose cooking equipment. Typically, these cooks work in national or regional fast-food chain restaurants. Crossing guards Guide or control vehicular or pedestrian traffic at such places as street and railroad crossings and construction sites. Dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers Perform any combination of the following duties to facilitate food service: Carry dirty dishes from dining room to kitchen; replace soiled table linens and set tables with silverware and glassware; replenish supply o f linens, silverware, glassware, and dishes; supply service bar with food, such as soups, salads, and desserts; and serve ice water and butter to patrons. May also serve coffee. May wash tables. Food preparation and service workers, fast food Duties include both food preparation and food service. Food preparation workers Perform a variety of food preparation duties, in a restaurant kitchen or delicatessen, such as preparing cold foods and maintaining and cleaning kitchen work areas, equipment, and utensils. Perform simple tasks such as preparing shellfish or slicing meat. May brew coffee, tea, or chocolate or prepare sandwiches. 987,000 Faster than average Hosts and hostesses, restaurant, lounge, and coffee shop W elcome patrons, seat them at tables or in lounge, and insure quality of service. 132,000 Faster than average Occupational therapy assistants and aides A ssist occupational therapists in administering medically oriented occupational program to assist in rehabilitating patients in hospitals and similar institutions. Pest controllers and assistants Spray or release chemical solutions or toxic gases and set mechanical traps to kill pests and vermin, such as mice, termites, and roaches, that infest buildings and surrounding areas. 41,000 Little change Pharmacy assistants Mix pharmaceutical preparations under direction of pharmacist. Duties include issuing medicine, labeling and storing supplies, and cleaning equipment and work areas. 37,000 About as fast as average Physical and corrective therapy assistants and aides Prepare patients and/or administer physical therapy treatment, such as massages, heat, light and sound treatment, and traction. Instruct, motivate, and assist patients with learning and improving functional activities. Normally work under the direction of a physical or corrective therapist. 33,000 Faster than average Private household workers Perform household tasks such as cleaning, cooking, and caring for children. 993,000 Expected to decline Social welfare service aides Perform a variety of tasks at places of residence. Duties include keeping house; advising families having problems with such things as nutrition, health, cleanliness, and household utilities. 98,000 Faster than average Ushers, lobby attendants, and ticket takers A ssist patrons at entertainment events, such as sporting events and motion picture performances. May assist in finding seats, searching for lost articles, and locating rest rooms and telephones. Collect admission tickets and passes from patrons. 42,000 Slower than average Employment 1984 425,000 Projected growth 1984-95 About as fast as average 75,000 Slower than average 307,000 Faster than average 1,201,000 8,000 About as fast as average About as fast as average Appendix A/477 Title Definition Employment 1984 Projected growth 1984-95 AGRICULTURAL, FORESTRY, AND FISHING OCCUPATIONS Animal caretakers, except farm Feed, water, groom, exercise, or otherwise care for small or large animals, fish or birds in zoos, circuses, pounds, laboratories, animal hospitals, aquariums, kennels, or stables. Clean and repair cages, pens, or fish tanks. May administer tests to experimental animals or give treatments to sick or injured animals. May keep records of feedings, tests, and treatments, and of animals received and discharged. 69,000 Farm workers Perform a variety of the following duties: Plant, cultivate, harvest, and store crops; tend livestock and poultry; operate and maintain farm machinery; and maintain structures. May haul livestock and produce to market or terminal shipping point. 1,079,000 Expected to decline Fishers, hunters, and trappers C a p t a i n s a n d o f f ic e r s , f i s h i n g v e s s e l s : Supervise and navigate fishing vessels. F is h e r s : Catch or gather marine life with nets, seines, or lines. Clean equipment and make repairs. H u n te r s a n d t r a p p e r s : Breed, raise, and protect game animals. Search and catch wild birds and animals. Hunt predatory animals. 46,000 Expected to decline Forestry and logging occupations C h o k e s e t te r s : Fasten chokers around logs preparatory to yarding them from falling-bucking area to storage or loading landing, F a l te r s a n d b u c k e r s : Fell and/or saw trees into specified log lengths. F o r e s t c o n s e r v a t i o n w o r k e r s : Develop, maintain, and protect forested areas and woodlands through such activities as raising and transplanting tree seedlings; combating insects, pests, and diseases harmful to trees; and controlling erosion and leaching o f forest soil. L o g g in g t r a c t o r o p e r a t o r s : Drive tractor equipped with one or more accessories, such as bulldozer blade, frontal hydraulic shear, grapple, logging arch, cable winches, hoisting rack, or crane boom to fell trees, to skid, load and unload, or stack logs, or to pull stumps and/or clear brush. L o g g r a d e r s a n d s c a l e r s : Grade logs, or estimate the marketable content or value of logs or pulp wood in sorting yards, millponds, log decks, or similar locations. Inspect logs for defects or measure logs to determine volume. L o g h a n d lin g e q u i p m e n t o p e r a t o r s : Operate track or wheel type log handling equipment to unload log trucks and/or gondolas and deck logs by species, size, and sort. May move logs by species, size, and sort. May move logs from storage area to deck sawyer or barker area. Usually work in “ dry pond” areas, but may unload logs and drop in pond. 135,000 Expected to decline Gardeners and groundskeepers, except farm Maintain grounds of public or private property using hand and power tools or equipment. May perform any combination of tasks, such as mowing, trimming, planting, watering, fertilizing, digging, raking, and sweeping. Additional duties may include minimal care and upkeep of buildings and equipment. May plan and execute small-scale landscaping operations. May dig and prepare graves. 650,000 About as fast as average Graders and sorters, agricultural products Grade, sort, or classify unprocessed food and other agricultural products by size, weight, color, or condition. 21,000 Slower than average Nursery workers Work in nursery facilities planting, cultivating, harvesting, and transplanting trees, shrubs, or plants. 20,000 Little change Supervisors, agricultural, forestry, fishing, and related occupations Directly supervise and coordinate the activities of agricultural, forestry, fishing, and related workers. May supervise helpers assigned to these workers. 82,000 Expected to decline About as fast as average 478/Occupational Outlook Handbook Title Definition Employment 1984 Projected growth 1984-95 CONSTRUCTION AND EXTRACTIVE OCCUPATIONS Air hammer operators Break asphalt, concrete, stone, or other pavement; loosen earth, dig clay, or break rock to trim bottom or sides of trenches or other excavations; drill holes in concrete; reduce size o f large stones; or tamp earth in backfill using air hammer. 9,800 Slower than average Blasters and explosives workers Place explosives in holes or other spots and detonate the explosives to loosen, remove, or displace earth, rock, or other materials, or to demolish structures. 9,600 Little change Ceiling tile installers and acoustical carpenters Apply or mount acoustical tiles, blocks, strips, or sheets o f shock absorbing materials to ceilings and walls o f buildings to reduce or reflect sound. 25,000 Continuous mining machine operators Operate self-propelled mining machines that rip coal from the face and load it onto conveyors or into shuttle cars in a continuous operation. 6,500 Slower than average Derrick operators, oil and gas extraction Rig derrick equipment and operate pumps to circulate mud through drill hole. 15,000 Slower than average Highway maintenance workers Maintain highways, municipal and rural roads, airport runways, and rights-of-way in safe condition by patching broken or eroded pavement or erecting and repairing guard rails, highway markers, and snow fences. May also clear brush or plant trees along rights-of-way. 143,000 Slower than average Mine cutting and channeling machine operators Cut or channel along the face or seams o f coal, quarry stone, or other mining surfaces to facilitate blasting, separating, or removing minerals or materials from mines or from the earth’s surface. 11,000 Expected to decline Pipelayers and pipelaying fitters P ip e l a y e r s : Lay glazed or unglazed clay, concrete, plastic, or cast-iron pipe for storm or sanitation sewers, drains, water mains, and oil or gas lines, performing any combination of the following tasks: Grade trenches or culverts, position pipe, or seal joints. P i p e l a y i n g f i t t e r s : Align pipeline section preparatory to welding. Signal tractor driver in placing pipeline sections in proper alignment and insert steel spacers. 48,000 About as fast as average Rotary drill operators, oil and gas extraction Set up or operate a variety of drills to remove petroleum products from the earth and to remove core samples for testing during oil and gas exploration. 24,000 Slower than average About as fast as average MECHANICS AND REPAIRERS Electrical installers and repairers, transportation equipment Install, adjust, and maintain electrical system s, wiring switches, and fixtures on motor vehicles, trains, or aircraft. 5,600 About as fast as average Electric meter installers and repairers Install electric meters on pole or customer’s premises, test meters, make necessary repairs, and turn current on/off by connecting or disconnecting service drop. 9,100 About as fast as average Electric motor, transformer, and related repairers Install, repair, and maintain electric motors, batteries, transformers, wiring, and switchers. 25,000 Faster than average Appendix A/479 Title Definition Electromedical and biomedical equipment repairers Test, adjust, and repair electromedical equipment. Machinery maintenance workers Perform work involving maintenance of production machinery, such as changing parts and lubricating machinery. 61,000 Slower than average Mobile home repairers Install, repair, and maintain units and systems in mobile homes, prefabricated buildings, or travel trailers. 10,000 Slower than average Rail car repairers Repair and rebuild railway freight cars, tank cars, or locom otives, following Federal and company regulations and specifications. 27,000 Expected to decline Precision instrument repairers Install, test, repair, maintain, and adjust indicating, recording, telemetering, and controlling instruments used to measure and control variables such as pressure, flow, temperature, motion, force, and chemical composition. 57,000 About as fast as average Riggers Set up or repair rigging for ships and shipyards, manufacturing plants, construction projects, and for the entertainment industry. Select cables, ropes, pulleys, winches, blocks, and sheaves according to weight and size of load to be moved. Coordinate and direct other workers and the movement of equipment to accomplish the task. 22,000 About as fast as average Small engine specialists Repair and maintain the operation and equipment of nonautomobile gasoline-powered internal combustion engines including outboard motors, snowmobiles, lawnmowers, and chainsaws. 33,000 About as fast as average Tire repairers and changers Repair and replace tires, tubes, treads, and related products on automobiles, buses, trucks, and other vehicles. Duties include mounting tires on wheels, balancing tires and wheels, and testing and repairing damaged inner tubes. 85,000 About as fast as average Watchmakers Repair, clean, and adjust mechanisms of instruments such as watches, time clocks, and timing switches. 14,000 Slower than average Employment 1984 6,900 Projected growth 1984-95 About as fast as average PRODUCTION OCCUPATIONS Bakers, manufacturing Mix and bake ingredients according to recipes to produce breads, pastries, and other baked goods. Goods are produced in large quantities for sale through establishments such as grocery stores. Generally high-volume production equipment is used. 48,000 Little change Boiler operators and tenders, low pressure Operate or tend low-pressure stationary steam boilers and auxiliary steam equipment, such as pumps, compressors, and air-conditioning equipment, to supply steam heat for office buildings, apartment houses, or industrial establishments; to maintain steam at specified pressure aboard marine vessels; or to generate and supply compressed air for operation of pneumatic tools, hoists, and air lances. 44,000 Slower than average Cabinetmakers and bench carpenters Cut, shape, and assemble wooden articles, such as store fixtures, office equipment, cabinets, and high-grade furniture. Set up and operate a variety o f machines, such as power saws, jointers, mortisers, tenoners, molders, and shapers to cut and shape parts from wood stock. 99,000 About as fast as average 480/Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment 1984 Projected growth 1984-95 Title Definition Cannery workers Perform any o f a variety of routine tasks in canning, freezing, preserving, or packing food products. Duties may include sorting, grading, washing, peeling, trimming, or slicing agricultural produce. 77,000 Expected to decline Cementing and gluing machine operators and tenders Operate or tend cementing and gluing machines to join together items, such as veneer sheets into plywood; paper to glass-wool, cardboard, or paper; rubber and rubberized fabric parts; plastic; and simulated leather or other materials, to form completed product or to form product for further processing. 45,000 Little change Chemical equipment controllers, operators, and tenders C o n t r o ll e r s a n d o p e r a t o r s : Control or operate equipment to control chemical changes or reactions in the processing o f industrial or consumer products. Typical types of equipment are reaction kettles, catalytic converters, continuous or batch treating equipment, saturator tanks, electrolytic cells, reactor vessels, recovery units, and fermentation chambers. T e n d e r s : Tend equipment in which a chemical change or reaction takes place. Typical types of equipment are devulcanizers, batch stills, fermenting tanks, steam-jacketed kettles, and reactor vessels, to process chemical substances into industrial or consumer products. 57,000 Little change Chemical plant and system operators Control and operate an entire chemical process or system of machines, such as reduction pots and heated air towers, through the use of panelboards, controlboards, or semiautomatic equipment. 35,000 Slower than average Combination machine-tool setters, setup operators, and tenders S e t t e r s a n d s e t u p o p e r a t o r s : Set up or set up and operate more than one type of cutting or forming machine tool, such as gear hobbers, lathes, press brakes, shearing, and boring machines. O p e r a t o r s a n d t e n d e r s : Operate or tend more than one type of cutting or forming machine tool which has been previously set up, such as band saws, press brakes, slitting machines, drills, lathes, and boring machines. 108,000 Faster than average Cooking machine operators and tenders, food Operate or tend cooking equipment, such as steam cooking vats, deep fry cookers, pressure cookers, kettles, and boilers, to prepare food products, such as meats, sugar, cheese, and grain. 14,000 Expected to decline Crushing and mixing machine operators and tenders C r u s h in g , g r in d in g , a n d p o l is h i n g m a c h in e o p e r a t o r s a n d te n d e r s : 122,000 Little change 127,000 Slower than average Operate or tend machines to crush or grind a wide variety of materials, such as coal, glass, plastic, dried fruit, grain, stone, chem icals, food, or rubber, or operate or tend machines that buff and polish materials or products, such as stone, glass, slate, plastic or metal trim, bowling balls, or eyeglasses. M ix in g a n d b le n d in g m a c h in e o p e r a t o r s a n d t e n d e r s : Operate or tend machines to mix or blend any of a wide variety of materials, such as spices, dough batter, tobacco, fruit juices, chemicals, livestock feed, food products, color pigments, or explosive ingredients. Custom tailors and sewers Design, make, alter, repair, and fit made-to-measure or ready-to-wear garments applying knowledge of garment construction, fabrics, and sewing. Cutters and trimmers, hand Cut and trim any of a wide variety of manufactured items, such as stone, glass, rubber, or fabrics, using handtools or hand-held power tools. 49,000 Expected to decline Cutting and slicing machine operators and tenders Operate or tend machines to cut or slice any of a wide variety of products or materials, such as tobacco, food, paper, roofing slate, glass, stone, rubber, cork, and insulating material. 61,000 Little change Dairy processing equipment operators and tenders Set up, operate, or tend continuous flow or vat-type equipment to process milk, cream, or other dairy products following specified methods and formulas. 16,000 Expected to decline Appendix A/481 Title Definition Electrical and electronics assemblers Perform work at a level less than that required of the precision level. Includes such occupations as electronics wirers, armature connectors, electric motor winders, skein winders, carbon brush assemblers, battery parts assemblers, electric sign assemblers, and electronics assemblers. Electrolytic plating machine operators, tenders, setters, and setup operators Employment 1984 Projected growth 1984-95 259,000 About as fast as average O p e r a t o r s a n d t e n d e r s : Operate or tend electrolytic plating or coating machines, such as zincplating machines and anodizing machines, to coat metal or plastic products electrolytically with chromium, zinc, copper, cadmium, or other metal to provide protective or decorative surfaces or to build up worn surfaces according to specifications. S e t t e r s a n d s e t u p o p e r a t o r s : Set up and operate electrolytic plating or coating machines, such as continuous multistrand electrogalvanizing machines, to coat metal or plastic products electrolytically with chromium, copper, cadmium, or other metal to provide protective or decorative surfaces or to build up worn surfaces according to specifications. 28,000 About as fast as average Electronic semiconductor processors Process materials used in the manufacture o f electronic semiconductors; load semiconductor material into furnace; saw formed ingots into segments; load individual segment into crystal growing chamber and monitor controls; locate crystal axis in ingot using X-ray equipment and saw ingots into wafers; clean, polish, and load wafers into series of special-purpose furnaces, chemical baths, and equipment used to form circuiting and change conductive properties. May scribe or separate wafer into dice. 30,000 Faster than average Etchers and engravers Engrave and etch metal, wood, rubber, glass, or other materials by hand or machine for printing, identification, or decorative purposes. 8,900 Extruding and forming machine operators and tenders Operate or tend machines to shape and form any of a wide variety of manufactured products, such as glass bulbs, molded food and candy, rubber goods, clay products, wax products, tobacco plugs, cosm etics, or paper products, by means o f extruding, compressing, or compacting. 71,000 Slower than average Extruding and forming machine operators and tenders, synthetic fibers Operate or tend machines that extrude and form continuous filaments from synthetic materials, such as liquid polymer, rayon, and fiberglass, preparatory to further processing. 19,000 Expected to decline Food batchmakers Set up and operate equipment that mixes, blends, or cooks ingredients used in manufacturing of food products according to formulas or recipes. May modify or reformulate recipes to produce products o f specific flavor, texture, and color. 21,000 Expected to decline Foundry mold and core makers Make and form sand cores and molds used in the production of metal castings in foundries using hand and power tools and applying knowledge o f variables, such as metal characteristics, molding sand, contour of patterns, reinforcing, and pouring procedures. 22,000 Little change Foundry mold assemblers and shakeout workers Prepare molds for pouring, such as cleaning and assembling foundry molds, assembling cores in fixture o f automatic core-sorting machine, and bonding cope and drags together to form completed shell mold. 6,000 About as fast as average Expected to decline 482/Occupational Outlook Handbook Title Definition Furnace, kiln, or kettle operators O v e n o p e r a t o r s o r t e n d e r s : Operate or tend heating equipment other than basic metal or plastic processing equipment. Perform such operations as baking fiberglass or painted products, fusing glass or enamel to metal products, carbonizing coal, or curing rubber or other products. F u r n a c e o p e r a t o r s o r t e n d e r s : Perform such operations as annealing glass, roasting sulfur, converting chem icals, or processing petroleum. K e t t l e o p e r a t o r s a n d t e n d e r s : Perform such operations as boiling soap or melting antimony or asphalt materials. D r i e r o p e r a t o r s a n d t e n d e r s : Perform such operations as removing moisture from paper, chemicals, ore, clay products, or slurry. K iln o p e r a t o r s a n d t e n d e r s : Perform such operations as heating minerals, drying lumber, firing greenware, annealing glassware, or baking clay products. 63,000 Expected to decline Furnace operators and tenders Operate or control gas, oil, coal, electric-arc or electric induction, open hearth, or oxygen furnaces to melt and refine metal prior to casting or to produce specified types of steel. 22,000 Little change Furniture finishers Perform precision tasks in shaping, finishing, or refinishing damaged, worn, or used furniture or new high-grade furniture to specified color or finish where specialized knowledge of wood properties, finishes, and furniture style is required. 34,000 Slower than average Gaugers Gauge and test oil in storage tanks and regulate flow o f oil into pipelines at wells, tank farms, refineries, and marine and rail terminals following prescribed standards and regulations. 5,700 Expected to decline Hand workers, jewelry and related products Perform such operations as precision casting and modeling o f molds, casting metal in molds, and setting precious and semiprecious stones for jewelry, silverware, plate ware, ornamental figurines, trophies, and plaques. May make gold or silver chains and cut designs or lines in jewelry. 8,800 Expected to decline Head sawyers Operate head saws and feed carriages to saw logs into rough cants or boards from heading bolts. 10,000 Heaters, metal and plastic Operate or control soaking pits, reheating furnaces, and heating and vacuum equipment to heat metal sheets, blooms, billets, bars, plate, and rods to specified temperature for rolling or processing or to treat and cure preformed plastic parts. 5,500 Slower than average Heating equipment setters and setup operators Set up and operate heat-treating furnaces, flame-hardening machines and induction machines, that anneal or heat-treat metal objects according to specifications. 7,600 Slower than average Heat-treating machine operators and tenders Operate and tend furnaces, baths, flame-hardening machines, and electronic induction machines to harden, anneal, and heat-treat metal products or metal parts. 21,000 Slower than average Inspectors, testers, and graders Perform precision inspecting, testing, and grading of parts, products, and equipment for defects, wear, and deviations from specifications. May make minor repairs. 254,000 About as fast as average Laundry and drycleaning machine operators and tenders, except pressers Operate and tend washing or dry cleaning machines to clean, or dryclean commercial, industrial, or household articles, such as suede, leather, and cloth garments, furs, blankets, draperies, fine linens, rugs, and carpets. 125,000 About as fast as average Layout workers, metal Lay out reference points or dimensions on structural steel shapes or plates and metal stock or workpieces, such as casting, plates, tubes, or machine parts, to indicate processing to be done, such as machining, fabricating, welding, and assembling. 21,000 About as fast as average Employment 1984 Projected growth 1984-95 Little change Appendix A/483 Definition Machine assemblers Perform work at a level less than that required of the precision level. Includes such occupations as air-conditioning coil assemblers, ball bearing ring assemblers, fuel injection assemblers, and subassemblers. 51,000 About as fast as average Meat, poultry, and fish cutters Perform a wide variety of food cutting and trimming tasks, using handtools, that require skills less than that of the precision level. Includes such occupations as meat boners, carcass slitters, poultry eviscerators, fish cleaners and butchers, skinners, and stickers. 98,000 Expected to decline Metal fabricators, structural metal products Fabricate and assemble structural metal products such as frameworks or shells for machinery, ovens, tanks, stacks, and metal parts for buildings and bridges according to job orders or blueprints. 44,000 Faster than average Metal molding machine operators, tenders, setters, and setup operators O p e r a t o r s a n d s e t t e r s : Operate or tend metal molding, casting, or coremaking machines, such as centrifugal casting machines, vacuum casting machines, turnover draw-type coremaking machines, conveyor-screw coremaking machines, and diecasting machines, to mold or cast metal products, such as pipes, brakedrums, and rods, and metal parts, such as automobile trim, carburetor housings, and motor parts. S e t t e r s a n d s e t u p o p e r a t o r s : Set up and operate diecasting and casting machines, molding and coremaking machines, such as roll-over, squeeze, and shell molding machines to mold or cast metal products, such as tubes and rods, and metal parts, such as automobile trim, carburetor housings, and motor parts. 20,000 Slower than average Metal pourers and casters, basic shapes Pour and regulate the flow of molten metal into molds to produce castings or ingots of specified quality and size by operating hand controlled mechanisms adjunctive to specialized machinery and equipment. 12,000 Little change Molders and casters, hand Mold and cast using handtools or hand-held power tools any of a wide variety of items, such as food products, lamps, figurines, ashtrays, tile, pipes, mannequins, and candles. 17,000 Little change Molders and shapers, except jewelry and foundry Mold, shape, cast, or carve products consisting o f clay, glass, plaster, concrete, and stone, or combinations of materials, into semifinished or finished products. 10,000 Slower than average Motion picture projectionists Set up and operate motion picture projection and sound-reproducing equipment to produce coordinated effects on screen. 16,000 Expected to decline Nonelectrolytic plating machine operators, tenders, setters, and setup operators O p e r a t o r s a n d t e n d e r s : Operate or tend nonelectrolytic plating or coating machines, such as metal spraying machines and vacuum metalizing machines, to coat metal or plastic products or parts with metal. S e t t e r s a n d s e t u p o p e r a t o r s : Set up or set up and operate nonelectrolytic plating or coating machines, such as hot-dip lines and metal spraying machines, to coat metal or plastic products or parts with metal. 6,300 Faster than average Packaging and filling machine operators Operate or tend machines, such as filling machines, casing running machines, ham rolling machines, preservative filling machines, baling machines, wrapping machines, and stuffing machines to prepare industrial or consumer products, such as gas cylinders, meat and other food products, tobacco, insulation, ammunition, stuffed toys and athletic equipment, and upholstered pads, as end products or for storage and shipment. 369,000 Slower than average Painting, coating, and decorating workers Paint, coat, and decorate using handtools or hand-held power tools a wide variety of manufactured items, such as furniture, glass and plateware, lamps, jewelry, books, or leather products. 41,000 Employment 1984 Projected growth 1984-95 Title About as fast as average 484/Occupational Outlook Handbook Title Definition Painting machine operators and tenders C o a t in g m a c h in e o p e r a t o r s o r t e n d e r s : Operate or tend machines to coat any of a wide variety of items, such as coating food products with sugar, chocolate, and butter, coating paper and paper products with chemical solutions, wax, and glazes, or coating fabric with rubber or plastic. P a in ti n g a n d s p r a y i n g m a c h in e o p e r a t o r s a n d t e n d e r s : Operate or tend machines to spray or paint decorative, protective, or other finish or coating, such as adhesive, lacquer, paint, stain, latex, preservative, or oil, to any of a wide variety of items or materials, such as wood and w ood products, ceramics, and glass. This occupation includes workers who apply coating or finish to products with solutions or materials preparatory to consumer use or further processing. 69,000 Slower than average Paper goods machine setting and setup operators Set up or set up and operate paper goods machines that perform a variety of functions, such as converting, sawing, corrugating, banding, wrapping, boxing, stitching, forming, or sealing paper or paperboard sheets into products, such as toilet tissue, towels, napkins, bags, envelopes, tubing, cartons, wax rolls, and containers. 60,000 Little change Pattern and model makers, metal and plastic P a tte r n m a k e r s : Lay out, machine, fit, and assemble castings and parts to metal foundry patterns, core boxes, and match plates, and analyze specifications according to knowledge of patternmaking methods. M o d e l m a k e r s : Set up and operate machines such as model maker’s lathe, milling, and engraving machines and jig borers to make working models o f metal or plastic objects. 13,000 Little change Pattern and model makers, wood P a tte r n m a k e r s : Plan, lay out, and construct wooden unit or sectional patterns used in forming sand molds for casting according to blueprint specifications. M o d e l m a k e r s : Construct full-sized and scale wooden precision models o f products, such as boats, automobiles, household appliances, aircraft, and machinery. 12,000 About as fast as average Patternmakers and layout workers, fabric and apparel Draw and construct sets of precision master patterns or layouts and mark and cut fabrics and apparel according to blueprints or specifications. 14,000 Expected to decline Patternmakers, model makers, layout workers, and cutters Construct patterns and models for use in forming products com posed of single materials (except metal, plastic, wood, or textiles) or a combination o f materials. 6,700 Slower than average Petroleum refinery and control panel operators Analyze specifications or follow process schedules to operate and control continuous petroleum refining and processing units. 15,000 Expected to decline Plastic molding machine operators, tenders, setters, and setup operators O p e r a t o r s a n d t e n d e r s : Operate or tend plastic molding machines, such as compression or injection molding machines to mold, form, or cast plastic products to specified shape from thermoplastic materials. S e t t e r s a n d s e t u p o p e r a t o r s : Set up or set up and operate plastic molding machines, such as compression or injection molding machines, to mold or cast products to specified shapes from thermoplastic materials. 35,000 Faster than average Portable machine cutters Cut multiple layers o f fabric into parts for articles, such as awnings, fitted sheets, garments, hats, stuffed toys, and upholstered furniture, using portable electric cutter. 18,000 Expected to decline Power distributors and dispatchers Coordinate, regulate, or distribute electricity or steam in generating stations and substations and over electric power lines. May work for utility company or in large industrial establishments. In addition to distributing power, some time may be spent generating power. 26,000 About as fast as average ] Employment 1984 Projected growth 1984-95 Appendix A/485 Employment 1984 Projected growth 1984-95 Title Definition Pressers, hand Press drapes, knit goods, millinery parts, parachutes, garments, and slipcovers, or delicate textiles, such as lace, rayons, and silks, to remove wrinkles, flatten seams, and give shape to articles. May block (shape) knitted garments after cleaning. May press leather goods. 22,000 Expected to decline Pressing machine operators and tenders, textiles Operate or tend pressing machines, such as hot-head pressing, steam pressing, automatic pressing, ironing, plunger pressing, and hydraulic pressing machines, to press and shape articles, such as leather, fur, and cloth garments, or drapes, slipcovers, handkerchiefs, and millinery. 116,000 Expected to decline Roasting machine operators and tenders, food Operate or tend roasting, baking, or drying equipment, such as hearth ovens, kiln driers, roasters, char kilns, steam ovens, and vacuum drying equipment to reduce moisture content o f tobacco or food products, such as cocoa, coffee beans, macaroni, and grain: to roast grain, nuts, or coffee beans; to bake bread or other bakery products; or to process food preparatory to canning. 12,000 Expected to decline Sawing machine operators, tenders, setters, and setup operators O p e r a t o r s a n d t e n d e r s : Operate or tend wood sawing machines, such as circular saws, band saws, multiple blade sawing machines, scroll saws, ripsaws, equalizer saws, power saws, and crozer machines, to saw logs to specifications, cut lumber to specified dimensions, saw curved or irregular designs, trim edges and remove defects from lumber, and to cut grooves, bevel, and miter according to specifications and work orders. S e t t e r s a n d s e t u p o p e r a t o r s : Set up or set up and operate machines to saw wood. Examine blueprints, drawings, work orders, and patterns to determine size and shape of items to be sawed, sawing machines to set up, and sequence of sawing operations. 54,000 Slower than average Screen printing setters and setup operators Set up or set up and operate screen printing machines to print designs onto articles and materials, such as glass or plastic containers or ware, cloth, and paper. 15,000 Slower than average Separating and still machine operators and tenders Operate or tend machines, such as filter presses, shaker screens, centrifuges, condensor tubes, precipitator tanks, fermenting tanks, evaporating tanks, scrubbing towers, and batch stills, to extract, sort, or separate liquids, gases, or solid materials from other materials in order to recover a refined product or material. 24,000 Little change Sewers, hand Sew , join, reinforce, or finish, usually with needle and thread, any of a wide variety of manufactured items, such as hats, umbrellas, rugs, baseballs, and hosiery. 16,000 Expected to decline Sewing machine operators, garment Operate or tend sewing machines to perform joining and sewing operations, such as reinforcing, decorating garments or garment parts, and making or tacking buttonholes. 676,000 Expected to decline Sewing machine operators, nongarment Operate or tend sewing machines to join together, reinforce, decorate, or perform related sewing operations in the manufacture of nongarment products, such as upholstery, draperies, linens, carpets, and mattresses. 136,000 Little change Shoe sewing machine operators and tenders Operate or tend single, double, or multiple-needle stitching machines to join or decorate shoe parts, reinforce shoe parts, or attach buckles. 33,000 Expected to decline Shipfitters Lay out and fabricate metal structural parts, such as plates, bulkheads, and frames, and brace them in position within hull or ship for riveting or welding. May prepare molds and templates for fabrication o f nonstandard parts. 14,000 Slower than average 486/Occupational Outlook Handbook Title Definition Soldering and brazing machine operators, tenders, setters, and setup operators O p e r a t o r s a n d t e n d e r s : Operate or tend soldering and brazing machines that braze, solder, or spot-weld fabricated metal products or components as specified by work orders, blueprints, and layout specifications. S e t t e r s a n d s e t u p o p e r a t o r s : Set up and operate soldering or brazing machines to bronze, solder, heat-treat, or spot-weld fabricated metal products or components as specified by work orders, blueprints, and layout specifications. Textile bleaching and dyeing machine operators and tenders Operate or tend machines, such as padding machines, treating tanks, dye jigs, and vats, to bleach, shrink, wash, dye, and finish textiles, such as knitted garments, cloth, yam , greige cloth, and fiberglass sliver, preparatory to further processing. 23,000 Expected to decline Textile draw-out machine operators and tenders Operate and tend machines, such as slubber machines and drawing frames, that draw out and combine sliver, such as wool, hemp, synthetic, and blended sliver, preparatory to further processing. 16,000 Expected to decline 220,000 Expected to decline Textile machine operators, tenders, and setup operators Employment 1984 Operate or tend machines that perform and manufacturing operations, such as winding, weaving, and cutting. S e t t e r s a n d s e t u p or set up and operate machines that perform and manufacturing operations, such as winding, weaving, bonding, and stretching. O p e r a to r s a n d te n d e r s: textile processing twisting, knitting, o p e r a t o r s : Set up textile processing twisting, knitting, 9,200 Projected growth 1984-95 About as fast as average Tire building machine operators Operate machines, such as collapsible drum devices, to build pneumatic tires from rubber components, such as beads, ply stock, tread, and sidewalls. 13,000 Expected to decline Welding machine operators, tenders, setters, and setup operators O p e r a t o r s a n d t e n d e r s : Operate or tend welding machines that join or bond together parts of fabricated metal products and metal components, such as panels, frames, yokes, tubes, and containers according to specifications and blueprints. S e t t e r s a n d s e t u p o p e r a t o r s : Set up and operate welding machines that join or bond together parts o f fabricated metal products and metal components, such as panels, frames, yokes, tubes, and containers according to specifications and blueprint. 63,000 About as fast as average Wood machinists Set up and operate a variety of woodworking machines to surface, cut, and shape lumber, and to fabricate parts for wood products, such as door and window frames, furniture, and sashes, according to specifications. 45,000 About as fast as average Woodworking machine operators, tenders, setters, and setup operators O p e r a t o r s a n d t e n d e r s : Operate or tend woodworking machines, such as drill presses, lathes, shapers, routers, sanders, planers, and wood nailing machines, to perform woodworking operations. S e t t e r s a n d s e t u p o p e r a t o r s : Set up or set up and operate woodworking machines, such as lathes, drill presses, sanders, shapers, and planing machines, to perform woodworking operations. 49,000 Slower than average TRANSPORTATION AND MATERIAL MOVING OCCUPATIONS Captains, water vessel Command vessels, such as tugboats, ferryboats, or dredges, that travel into and out of harbors, estuaries, straits, sounds, rivers, lakes, bays, and oceans. Must hold license issued by U .S . Coast Guard. 18,000 About as fast as average Conveyor operators and tenders Control and tend conveyor system s that move materials or products to and from stockpiles, processing stations, departments, vehicles, and underground workings. May control speed and routing o f materials or products. 38,000 Little change Appendix A/487 Definition Locomotive engineers Drive electric, diesel-electric, steam, or gas-turbine-electric locom otives, interpreting train orders, block or semaphore signals, and railroad rules and regulations to transport passengers or freight. 14,000 Expected to decline Locomotive firers Monitor locomotive instruments and watch for dragging equipment, obstacles on right-of-way, and train signals during run. Watch for and relay traffic signals from yard workers to yard engineers in railroad yard. 6,400 Expected to decline Loading machine operators, under ground mining Operate underground loading machines to load coal, ore, or rock into shuttle or mine car or onto conveyors. Load power shovels, hoist engines equipped with cable drawn scrapers or scoops, or machine equipped with gathering arms and conveyors. 6,100 Little change Mates and able seamen M a t e s , s h ip , b o a t , a n d b a r g e : Supervise and coordinate activities of crew aboard ships, boats, barges, or dredges. A b l e s e a m e n : Stand watch at bow to look for obstructions in path o f vessel, measure water depth, turn wheel on bridge, break out, rig, and overhaul and store cargo-handling gear, and chip rust from and paint deck or ship’s structure. 11,000 Slower than average Oil pumpers, except wellhead Operate steam, gas, gasoline, electric, or diesel pumps and auxiliary equipment to restore and control flow o f oil from wells. 16,000 Expected to decline Ordinary seamen and marine oilers Stand deck department watch and perform a variety o f tasks to preserve the painted surface of the ship and to maintain lines and ship equipment. May oil and grease moving parts o f engines and auxiliary equipment. 18,000 About as fast as average Parking lot attendants Park autos for customers in parking lot or storage garage. 40,000 Little change Railroad brake, signal, and switch operators Operate railroad track switches or couple/uncouple rolling stock to make up or break up trains. Signal engineers and set warning signals. May inspect couplings, air hoses, journal boxes, and hand brakes. 48,000 Expected to decline Railroad conductors and yardmasters C o n d u c t o r s : Coordinate activities o f train crew engaged in transporting or providing services to passengers on passenger train, in transporting freight on freight train, or coordinate activities of switch-engine crew engaged in switching railroad cars within yard o f railroad, industrial plant, or similar location. Y a r d m a s t e r s : Coordinate railroad traffic activities of workers engaged in makeup or breakup of trains, switching inbound or outbound traffic of railroad yard or railroad traffic on a specified section o f line. 24,000 Expected to decline Rail yard engineers, dinkey operators, and hostlers Drive switching or other locomotive or dinkey engines within yard of railroad, industrial plant, quarry, construction project, or similar location. 15,000 Expected to decline Service station attendants Service automobiles, buses, trucks, boats, and other automotive or marine vehicles with fuel, lubricants, and accessories. May lubricate vehicle and change motor oil, replace lights, windshield wiper blades, or fan belts, or install antifreeze. May repair or replace tires and collect payment for services and supplies. 303,000 Ship engineers Supervise and coordinate activities o f crew engaged in operating and maintaining engines, boilers, deck machinery, and electrical, refrigeration, and sanitary equipment aboard ship. 10,000 Slower than average Shuttle car operators Operate diesel or electrically powered shuttle car in underground mine to transport materials from working face to mine cars or to conveyor. 9,300 Expected to decline Employment 1984 Projected growth 1984-95 Title Little change 488/Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment 1984 Projected growth 1984— 95 Title Definition Subway and streetcar operators Operate elevated suburban or subway train or electric powered streetcar to transport passengers. 5,800 About as fast as average Taxi drivers and chauffeurs Drive automobiles, limousines, custom-built sedans, or hearses. May drive automobiles for delivery. 118,000 About as fast as average Wellhead pumpers Operate power pumps and auxiliary equipment to produce artificial flow of oil or gas from wells in oil field. 9,100 Little change HANDLERS, EQUIPMENT CLEANERS, HELPERS, AND LABORERS Hand packers and packagers Pack or package by hand a wide variety o f products and materials. Helpers, extractive workers Help extractive craft workers such as earth drillers, blaster and explosives workers, derrick operators, and mining machine operators, by performing duties o f lesser skill, supplying equipment, and cleaning work area. Machine feeders and offbearers Feed materials into machine or remove materials from machines or equipment that is automatic or tended by other workers. Refuse collectors Collect and dump refuse from containers into trucks on a designated route in a municipality. May drive trucks. Vehicle washers and equipment cleaners Wash and clean vehicles, machinery, and other equipment using water, cleaning agents, brushes, cloths, and hoses. 325,000 Slower than average 29,000 Slower than average 278,000 Slower than average 99,000 144,000 About as fast as average Slower than average Appendix B. Assumptions and Methods Used in Preparing Employment Projections The discussions of future employment presented in the Handbook are couched in qualitative terms but are based on quantitative data derived through the Bureau’s employment projections model system. Like other models used in projecting economic and employment growth, the Bureau’s system encompasses the major facets of the economy and represents a com prehensive view of its projected struc ture. It comprises a series of closely related projections of the labor force, gross national product (GNP), indus trial output and productivity, average weekly hours of work, and employ ment for detailed industries and occu pations. A detailed description of the model system appears in Employment Projections for 1995: Data and Meth ods, Bulletin 2253. The analyses developed through use of the models were prepared by Bureau staff. In addition, experts from other government agencies, in dustry, unions, professional societies, and trade associations furnished data and supplied information. Many of these individuals also reviewed pre liminary drafts of the statements. Each occupational statement thus re flects the knowledge and judgment not only of the staff of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, but also of authori ties in the fields discussed. The Bu reau, of course, takes full responsibil ity for the published material. Assumptions. To allow for the uncer tainty of the future, the Bureau pre pared three scenarios of future eco nomic growth. The scenario underly ing the information presented in the Handbook is the moderate-growth projection, characterized by strong growth in productivity and invest ment, a declining unemployment rate, and an annual rate of growth in real GNP of 2.9 percent between 1984 and 1995. Two alternatives to the moder ate-growth projection were also de veloped: (a) higher productivity and lower unemployment (high growth), and (b) lower productivity and higher unemployment (low growth). In all three scenarios, annual rates of growth in GNP and employment slow in the latter half of the projection period— reflecting a slowdown in population and labor force growth after 1990. The differences among the scenari os reflect different sets of specific as sumptions about fiscal and monetary policy. These result in higher or lower levels of GNP and its components, such as investment and personal con sumption expenditures. While these alternative projections give some idea of how employment could vary under different assumptions, actual growth could be outside the range of the al ternatives. Furthermore, unforeseen changes in spending patterns—for ex ample, in defense budgets or in con sumer preferences—could greatly al ter the growth of individual occupa tions. Unanticipated changes in technology which affect the way goods and services are produced could also alter growth. Detailed information about the assumptions used in these projections is presented in the No vember 1985 Monthly Labor Review and Bulletin 2253, cited above. To make statements about the fu ture course of U.S. economic activity, one must make judgments regarding the probable behavior of many factors that will affect the economy. While the preparation of projections may sound very precise and scientific when described, developing economic and employment projections is filled with uncertainty. The assumptions made by BLS cover a broad range, from those about which we may be reason ably certain to those which are not at all predictable. The role of BLS is to exercise its best judgment as to what would be a reasonable set of assump tions. But even if a particular assump tion is highly uncertain, it may have little effect on the outcome of the projections because the most signifi cant variables in the model may not depend closely upon—or be sensitive to—that assumption. Methods. Beginning with population projections by age, sex, and race de veloped by the Bureau of the Census, a projection of the total labor force is derived using expected labor force participation rates for each population group. In developing participation rates, the Bureau takes into account a variety of factors that affect decisions to enter the labor force, such as school attendance, retirement practic es, and family responsibilities. The projection of the GNP level and the distribution of GNP by its major components (consumer expenditures, investment, government, and net ex ports) is carried out using a detailed macroeconomic model of the U.S. economy. Based on the projected la bor force and on the various fiscal and monetary policy assumptions, a con sistent distribution of real GNP by its major components and associated es timates of employment, output per workhour, and hours paid by major producing sectors are derived. The use of a macroeconomic model at this stage of the projections ensures a bal anced and internally consistent repre sentation of U.S. economic condi tions over the projection horizon. Each of the major GNP components is in turn broken down by producing industry. Consumer expenditures, for example, are divided among indus tries producing goods and services such as housing, food, automobiles, medical care, and education. Once estimates are developed for 489 490/Occupational Outlook Handbook these products and services, they are translated into detailed projections of industry output, not only for the in dustries producing the final product— such as an automobile—but also for the industries that provide electric power, transportation, component parts, and other inputs required in the production process. Input-output ta bles developed by the Department of Commerce and modified by BLS are used to estimate output. By using estimates of future output per workhour based on studies of pro ductivity and technological trends for each industry, industry employment projections are derived from the out put estimates. In addition, many de tailed industries are studied using re gression analysis. In these studies, equations are developed that relate employment by industry to combina tions of economic variables, such as population and income, that are con sidered determinants of long-run changes in employment. The industry employment projections developed through these studies are evaluated with data generated by the basic mod el to develop the final industry em ployment projections. They also are used to develop projections for indus tries that are not included in the basic model. Occupational employment projections. The complex factors that affect em ployment growth for an occupation can be classified into two categories— those relating to growth of specific industries and those which affect the occupational structure of an industry. An occupation may grow as a result of expansion of the industries which em ploy these workers, or it may grow as a result of changes in the ways indus tries produce their goods or services. Because these factors interact, it is usually not possible to attribute an occupational employment change solely to one factor. Computer pro grammers, for example, are generally increasing as a proportion of employ ment in most industries—a change in the occupational structure—but an additional factor in their growth is the overall growth of the industries that are large employers of computerrelated occupations. The main causes of change in the occupational structure of industries are: (a) technological change, (b) changes in business practices and of operation, and (c) changes methods in product demand. Technological in novations may increase labor require ments for an occupation. For exam ple, the growing use of computer tech nology is expected to increase the requirements for systems analysts and computer programmers; in nearly all industries, these workers are expect ed to account for an increasing share of total employment during the 1984-95 period. Technological change may also reduce requirements for an occupation. Requirements for typists, for example, are expected to be re duced because of the spreading use of word processing equipment, and the number of these workers is projected to decline as a proportion of employ ment in virtually all industries. Nev ertheless, in many industries, employ ment of typists is expected to rise as the increase in total industry employ ment overrides the impact of technol ogy. In addition to technological innova tions, changes in business practices and methods of operation affect the occupational structure of an industry. For example, the growing tendency of businesses to contract out building cleaning services will reduce the pro portion of employment accounted for by janitors and cleaners in most indus tries. However, the negative effect of this trend on employment of janitors will be offset by significant employ ment gains in the building cleaning services industry. Changes in the demand for the goods or services provided by an in dustry will also affect its occupational structure. For example, the educa tional services industry will have an increase in demand for elementary school teachers as the number of ele mentary school age children rises, but a decline in demand for college teach ers as the number of college age stu dents declines. Therefore, the occu pational structure of the educational services industry in 1995 is projected to reflect a larger proportion of ele mentary school teachers than in 1984 and a smaller proportion of college teachers. Projections of industry employment are translated into occupational em ployment projections using an indus try-occupation matrix. The major source of occupational staffing pat terns is the Bureau’s Occupational Employment Statistics (OES) survey. The OES survey collects data from employers on the occupational distri bution of workers in all nonagricultural industries, except private house holds. Each industry is surveyed ev ery 3 years. The occupational distribution of wage and salary workers in agricul ture and private households, not cov ered by the OES survey, is derived from the Current Population Survey (CPS). Data on self-employed and un paid family workers in each occupa tion also come from the CPS. Data from the matrix are available for 378 industries and over 500 occupations. The occupational structure for each industry was projected to 1995 through analyses of the factors that are ex pected to change the structure. The projected structure was applied to the projected total industry employment derived from the Bureau’s economic model, which captures expected changes in the structure of demand among industries, changes in labor requirements per unit of output, and other factors. In some cases, employment is pro jected on the basis of its relationship to certain independent variables rath er than on its representation in each industry. This approach is particularly useful when projecting employment for an occupation that is affected by a unique set of factors. For example, employment of elementary school teachers is projected based on trends in pupil-teacher ratios applied to pro jected school attendance. Projections that are developed independently are compared with those in the matrix and revised, if necessary, to assure con sistency. The Bureau has developed three sets of occupational projections—one for each of the scenarios of economic growth. The projected staffing pat terns of industries used to translate industry employment into occupation al employment are identical for all three, but growth rates for occupa tions differ among the three alterna tives. Despite these differences, the basic changes in the occupational structure of the economy from 1984 to 1995 among the three alternatives are similar. Thus, although the Handbook focuses on the moderate scenario, the discussion would be very similar if either of the other scenarios were highlighted. However, differences in the occupational projections among the three alternatives should not be considered as the potential range with in which projected 1995 employment Appendix B/491 will fall. The potential range is wider because most occupations are sensi tive to a much wider variety of as sumptions than those that were con sidered in the alternative models. Replacement needs. Most discussions about future job opportunities focus on the employment growth in indus tries and occupations. Because faster growing industries and occupations generally offer better opportunities for employment and advancement, ily. And some leave the labor force employment growth is an important permanently—retirees, for example. gauge of job outlook. However, In most occupations, replacement another element in the employment needs provide more job openings than outlook for an occupation is replace openings due to growth in an occupa ment needs. Replacement openings tion. occur as people leave occupations. A discussion of replacements, Some individuals transfer to other including separation rates for selected occupations as a step up the career occupations, is presented in Occu ladder or to change careers. Some pational Projections and Training stop working temporarily, perhaps Data, 1986 Edition, BLS Bulletin to return to school or care for a fam 2251. Appendix C. Sources of State and Local Job Outlook Information State and local job market and career information is available from State employment security agencies and State Occupational Information Coor dinating Committees (SOICC’s). In general, State employment security agencies develop occupational em ployment projections and other local labor market information. SOICC’s help people locate labor market and career information available within their State. Many SOICC’s also pro vide a variety of occupational re source and career information. For each State, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico, the following list provides the title, address, and tele phone number of the State employ ment security agency’s director of re search and the SOICC director. Alabama Chief, Research and Statistics Division, De partment of Industrial Relations, Industrial Re lations Building, Room 427, 649 Monroe Street, Montgomery, Ala. 36130. Phone: (205)261-5461. Director, Alabama Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Bell Building, Suite 400, 207 Montgomery Street, Montgomery, Ala. 36130. Phone: (205)261-2990. Alaska Chief, Research and Analysis Section, Alaska Department of Labor, P.O. Box 1149, Juneau, Alaska 99802. Phone: (907)465-4500. Coordinator, Alaska Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Alaska Department of Labor, P.O. Box 1149, Juneau, Alaska 99802. Phone: (907)465-4518. Arizona Research Administrator, Labor Market Infor mation, Research and Analysis Section, De partment of Economic Security, 733-A, P.O. Box 6123, Phoenix, Ariz. 85005. Phone: (602) 255-3616. Executive Director, Arizona State Occupation al Information Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 6123, Site Code 897J, Phoenix, Ariz. 85005. Phone: (602)255-3680. Arkansas Chief, Research and Analysis Section, Employ ment Security Division, Arkansas Department of Labor, P.O. Box 2981, Little Rock, Ark. 77203. Phone: (501)371-1541. 492 Executive Director, Arkansas Occupational In formation Coordinating Committee, Research and Analysis Section, Arkansas Employment Security Division, P.O. Box 2981, Little Rock, Ark. 72203. Phone: (501)371-3551. Florida Chief, Bureau of Research and Information, Florida Department of Labor and Employment Security, 2574 Seagate Drive, Suite 201, Talla hassee, Fla. 32301. Phone: (904)488-4398. California Chief, Employment Data and Research Divi sion, Employment Development Department, P.O. Box 1679, Sacramento, Calif. 95808. Phone: (916)427-4675. Executive Director, California Occupational In formation Coordinating Committee, 800 Capitol Mall, MIC-67, Sacramento, Calif. 95814. Phone: (916)323-6544. Colorado Chief, Research and Development, Colorado Division of Employment and Training, 1330 Fox Street, Denver, Colo. 80204. Phone: (303) 866-6316. Director, Colorado Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 218 Centennial Build ing, 1313 Sherman Street, Denver, Colo. 80203. Phone: (303)866-4488. Connecticut Director, Research and Information, Employ ment Security Division, Connecticut Labor De partm ent, 200 F olly Brook B ou levard , W ethersfield, Conn. 06109. Phone: (203) 566-2120. Executive Director, Connecticut Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, c/o Vo cational Rehabilitation District Office, 56 Arbor Street, 2nd Floor, Hartford, Conn. 06106. Phone: (203)566-2502. Delaware Chief, Office of Occupational and Labor Market Information, Delaware Department of Labor, P.O. Box 9029, Newark, Del. 19714. Phone: (302)368-6962. Chief, Office of Occupational and Labor Market Information, Delaware Department of Labor, University Office Plaza, P.O. Box 9029, New ark, Del. 19711. Phone: (302)368-6962. Director, Florida Occupational Information System, 214 Atkins Building, 1320 Executive Center Drive, Tallahassee, Fla. 32301. Phone: (904)487-2730. Georgia Director, Labor Information Systems, Georgia Department of Labor, 254 Washington Street, SW., Atlanta, Ga. 30334. Phone: (404)656-3177. Executive Director, Georgia Occupational In formation Coordinating Committee, 501 Pulliam Street, SW., Suite 211, Atlanta, Ga. 30312. Phone: (404)656-3117. Hawaii Chief, Research and Statistics Office, Depart ment of Labor and Industrial Relations, 830 Punchbowl Street, Room 304, Honolulu, Ha waii 96813. Phone: (808)548-7639. Executive Director, Hawaii State Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 830 Punchbowl Street, Room 315, Honolulu, Ha waii 96813. Phone: (808)548-3496. Idaho Chief, Research and Analysis, Idaho Depart ment of Employment, 317 Main Street, P.O. Box 35, Boise, Idaho 83735. Phone: (208) 544-2755. Director, Idaho Occupational Information Co ordinating Committee, Len B. Jordan Building, Room 301, 650 W. State Street, Boise, Idaho 83720. Phone: (208)334-3705. Illinois Director, Research and Analysis Division, Illi nois Bureau of Employment Security, 910 S. Michigan Avenue, 12th Floor, Chicago, 111. 60605. Phone: (312)793-2316. District of Columbia Chief, Division of Labor Market Information, Research and Analysis, District of Columbia Department of Employment Services, 500 C Street, NW., Room 411, Washington, D.C. 20001. Phone: (202)639-1642. Executive Director, District of Columbia Occu pational Information Coordinating Committee, Department of Employment Services, 500 C Street, NW., Room 207, Washington, D.C. 20001. Phone: (202)639-1083. Executive Director, Illinois Occupational Infor mation Coordinating C om m ittee, 217 E. Monroe, Suite 203, Springfield, 111. 62706. Phone: (217)785-0789. Indiana Chief, Labor Market Information and Statisti cal Services, Indiana Employment Security Di vision, 10 N. Senate Avenue, Indianapolis, Ind. 46204. Phone: (317)232-7701. Appendix C/493 Executive Director, Indiana Occupational In formation Coordinating Committee, Indiana Employment Security Building, 10 N. Senate Avenue, Room 313, Indianapolis, Ind. 46204. Phone: (317)232-0173. Iowa Manager, Research and Statistics, Iowa De partment of Job Service, 1000 E. Grand Ave nue, Des Moines, Iowa 50319. Phone: (515) 281-8181. Executive Director, Iowa Occupational Infor mation Coordinating Committee, 523 E. 12th Street, Des Moines, Iowa 50319. Phone: (515) 281-8076. Kansas Chief, Research and Analysis, Kansas Depart ment of Human Resources, 401 Topeka Ave nue, Topeka, Kans. 66603. Phone: (913) 296-5061. Massachusetts Nevada Director, Job Market Research and Policy, Massachusetts Division of Employment Secur ity, Charles F. Hurley Building, Government Center, Boston, Mass. 02114. Phone: (617) 727-6556. Chief, Employment Security Research, Nevada Employment Security Department, 500 E. Third Street, Carson City, Nev. 89713. Phone: (702) 885-4550. Director, Massachusetts Occupational Informa tion Coordinating Committee, Massachusetts Division of Employment Security, Charles F. Hurley Building, 2nd Floor, Government Cen ter, Boston, Mass. 02114. Phone: (617)727-6718. Michigan Director, Research and Statistics Division, Michigan Employment Security Commission, 7310 Woodward Avenue, Detroit, Mich. 48202. Phone: (313)876-5445. Executive Coordinator, Michigan Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 309 N. Washington, P.O. Box 30015, Lansing, Mich. 48909. Phone: (517)373-0363. Minnesota Director, Kansas Occupational Information Co ordinating Committee, 401 Topeka Avenue, To peka, Kans. 66603. Phone: (913)296-3428. Kentucky Manager, Labor Market Research and Analysis Branch, Department for Employment Services, Cabinet for Human Resources, 275 E. Main Street, Frankfort, Ky. 40621. Phone: (502) 564-7976. Director, Research and Statistical Services Of fice, Minnesota Department of Jobs and Train ing, 390 N. Robert Street, St. Paul, Minn. 55101. Phone: (612)296-6545. Director, Minnesota Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Minnesota Depart ment of Economic Security, 690 American Cen ter Building, 150 E. Kellogg Boulevard, St. Paul, Minn. 55101. Phone: (612)296-2072. Mississippi Coordinator, Kentucky Occupational Informa tion Coordinating Committee, 275 E. Main Street, 2 East, Frankfort, Ky. 40621. Phone: (502)564-4258. Louisiana Director, Research and Statistics Section, Lou isiana State Department of Labor, P.O. Box 44094, Capitol Station, 1001 N. 23rd Street, Baton Rouge, La. 70804. Phone: (504)342-3140. Coordinator, Louisiana Occupational Informa tion Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 94094, Baton Rouge, La. 70804. Phone: (504)342-5151. Maine Director, Division of Research and Analysis, Bureau of Employment Security, Maine De partment of Labor, 20 Union Street, Augusta, Maine 04330. Phone: (207)289-2271. Executive Director, Maine Occupational Infor mation Coordinating Committee, State House Station 71, Augusta, Maine 04333. Phone: (207) 289-2331. Maryland Director, Research and Analysis Division, Maryland Department of Human Resources, Employment Security Administration, 1100 N. Eutaw Street, Baltimore, Md. 21201. Phone: (301)383-5000. Executive Director, Maryland Occupational In formation Coordinating Committee, Gover nor’s Employment and Training Council, 1123 N. Eutaw Street, Suite 720, Baltimore, Md. 21201. Phone: (301)383-6730. Chief, Labor Market Information Department, Mississippi Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 1699, Jackson, Miss. 39215-1699. Phone: (601)961-7424. Executive Director, Mississippi Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 1101 Sil lers Building, P.O. Box 771, Jackson, Miss. 39205. Phone: (601)359-3412. Missouri Chief, Research and Analysis, Missouri Divi sion of Employment Security, P.O. Box 59, Jefferson City, Mo. 65104. Phone: (314) 751-3591. Director, Nevada Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Capitol Complex, 601 Kinkead Building, 505 E. King Street, Carson City, Nev. 89710. Phone: (702)885-4577. New Hampshire Director, Economic Analysis and Reports, New Hampshire Department of Employment Security, 32 S. Main Street, Concord, N.H. 03301. Phone: (603)224-3311. Director, New Hampshire State Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 155 Manchester Street, Concord, N .H . 03301. Phone: (603)228-9500. New Jersey Director, Division of Planning and Research, New Jersey Department of Labor, P.O. Box 2765, Trenton, N .J. 08625. Phone: (609) 272-2643. Staff Director, New Jersey Occupational Infor mation Coordinating Committee, Labor and Industry Building, P.O. Box CN 056, Trenton, N.J. 08625. Phone: (609)292-2682. New Mexico Chief, Economic Research and Analysis, Em ployment Security Department, P.O. Box 1928, Albuquerque, N .M . 87103. Phone: (505) 841-8647. Executive Director, New Mexico Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Tiwa Building, 401 Broadway, NE., P.O. Box 1928, Albuquerque, N .M . 87103. Phone: (505) 841-8388. New York Director, Division of Research and Statistics, New York State Department of Labor, State Campus, Building 12, Albany, N.Y. 12240. Phone: (518)457-6181. Director, Missouri Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 421 E. Dunklin Street, Jefferson City, Mo. 65101. Phone: (314) 751-3800. Executive Director, New York Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, New York Department of LahtQF, State Office Build ing Campus, Building 12, Albany, N.Y. 12240. Phone: (518)457-2930. Montana North Carolina Chief, Research and Analysis, Department of Labor and Industry, P.O. Box 1728, Helena, Mont. 59624. Phone: (406)444-2661. Director, Labor Market Information Division, Employment Security Commission of North Carolina, P.O. Box 25903, Raleigh, N.C. 27611. Phone: (919)733-2936. Program Manager, Montana Occupational In formation Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 1728, Helena, Mont. 59624. Phone: (406) 444-2741. Director, North Carolina Occupational Infor mation Coordinating Committee, 1311 St. Mary’s Street, Suite 250, P.O. Box 27625, Ra leigh, N.C. 27611. Phone: (919)733-6700. Nebraska Chief, Research and Statistics, Division of Em ployment, Nebraska Department of Labor, P.O. Box 94600, Lincoln, Nebr. 68509. Phone: (402)475-8451. Administrator, Nebraska Occupational Infor mation Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 94600, State House Station, Lincoln, Nebr. 68509. Phone: (402)475-8451. North Dakota Chief, Research and Statistics, Job Service North Dakota, P.O. Box 1537, Bismarck, N.D. 58502. Phone: (701)224-2868. Director, North Dakota Occupational Informa tion Coordinating Committee, 1000 East Di vide, P.O. Box 1537, Bismarck, N.D. 58502. Phone: (701)224-2733. 494/Occupational Outlook Handbook Ohio Director, Labor Market Information Division, Ohio Bureau of Employment Services, P.O. Box 1618, Columbus, Ohio 43216. Phone: (614) 466-8806. Director, Ohio Occupational Information Coor dinating Committee, Division of Labor Market Information, Ohio Bureau of Employment Serv ices, 1160 Dublin Road, Building A, Columbus, Ohio 43215. Phone: (614)466-8806. Oklahoma Chief, Research and Planning Division, Okla homa Employment Security Commission, 310 Will Rogers Memorial Office Building, Oklaho ma City, Okla. 73105. Phone: (405)521-3735. Executive Director, Oklahoma Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Oklaho ma Employment Security Commission, 309 Will Rogers Memorial Office Building, Oklaho ma City, Okla. 73105. Phone: (405)521-3763. Oregon Administrator, Employment Division, Depart ment of Human Resources, 875 Union Street, N E., Salem, Oreg. 97311. Phone: (503)378-3220. Executive Director, Oregon Occupational In formation Coordinating Committee, 875 Union Street, NE., Salem, Oreg. 97311. Phone: (503) 378-8146. Pennsylvania Chief, Research and Statistics Division, Penn sylvania Department of Labor and Industry, 7th and Forster Streets, Harrisburg, Pa. 17121. Phone: (717)787-3265. Director, Pennsylvania Occupational Informa tion Coordinating Committee, Governor’s Of fice of Policy Development, 506 Finance Build ing, P.O. Box 1323, Harrisburg, Pa. 17105. Phone: (717)783-8384. Puerto Rico Chief, Department of Labor and Human Re sources, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 505 Munoz Rivera Avenue, 17th Floor, Hato Rey, P.R. 00918. Phone: (809)754-5339. Executive Director, Puerto Rico Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Prudencio Rivera Martinez Building, 19th Floor, 505 Munoz Rivera Avenue, Hato Rey, P.R. 00918. Phone: (809)753-7110. Rhode Island Supervisor, Employment Security Research, Rhode Island Department of Employment Se curity, 24 Mason Street, Providence, R.I. 02903. Phone: (401)277-3704. Director, Rhode Island Occupational Informa tion Coordinating Committee, 22 Hayes Street, Room 133, Providence, R.I. 02908. Phone: (401)272-0830. South Carolina Director, Labor Market Information Division, South Carolina Employment Security Commis sion, P.O. Box 995, Columbia, S.C. 29202. Phone: (803)758-8983. Director, South Carolina Occupational Infor mation Coordinating Committee, 1550 Gadsden Street, P.O. Box 995, Columbia, S.C. 29202. Phone: (803)758-3165. South Dakota Chief, Labor Market Information Center, De partment of Labor, P.O. Box 1730, Aberdeen, S.D. 57401. Phone: (605)622-2314. Executive Director, South Dakota Occupation al Information Coordinating Committee, South Dakota Department of Labor, 607 N. 4th Street, Box 1730, Aberdeen, S.D. 57401. Phone: (605)622-2314. Tennessee Chief, Research and Statistics, Tennessee De partment of Employment Security, 519 Cordell Hull Building, 436 Sixth Avenue N ., Nashville, Tenn. 37219. Phone: (615)741-2284. Director, Tennessee Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 519 Cordell Hull Building, 436 Sixth Avenue N ., Nashville, Tenn. 37219. Phone: (615)741-6451. Texas Chief, Economic Research and Analysis, Texas Employment Commission, 15th and Congress Avenue, Austin, Tex. 78778. Phone: (512) 397-4540. Director, Texas Occupational Information Co ordinating Committee, TEC Building, 15th and Congress Avenue, Room 526T, Austin, Tex. 78778. Phone: (512)463-2399. Utah Chief, Research and Analysis, Utah Depart ment of Employment Security, P.O. Box 11249, Salt Lake City, Utah 84147. Phone: (801) 533-2014. Director, Utah Occupational Information Coor dinating Committee, 140 Social Hall Avenue, Salt Lake City, Utah 84111. Phone: (801) 533-2028. Vermont Chief, Research and Statistics Section, Ver mont Department of Employment and Training, P.O. Box 488, Montpelier, Vt. 05602. Phone: (802)229-0311. Chief, Vermont Occupational Information Co ordinating Committee, Green Mountain Drive, P.O. Box 488, Montpelier, Vt. 05602. Phone: (802)229-0311. Virginia Director, Office of Research and Analysis, Vir ginia Employment Commission, P.O. Box 1358, Richmond, Va. 23211. Phone (804)786-7496. Executive Director, Virginia Occupational In formation Coordinating Committee, Virginia Employment Commission, P.O. Box 1358, 703 E. Main Street, Richmond, Va. 23211. Phone: (804)786-3177. Washington Director, Labor Market and Economic Analy sis Branch, Washington Employment Security Department, 212 Maple Park, Olympia, Wash. 98504. Phone: (206)753-5224. Director, Washington Occupational Informa tion Coordinating Committee, 212 Maple Park, MS KG-11, Olympia, Wash. 98504. Phone: (206)754-1552. West Virginia Chief, Division of Labor and Economic Secur ity, Department of Employment Security, 112 California Avenue, Charleston, W.Va. 25305. Phone: (304)348-2660. Executive Director, West Virginia Occupation al Information Coordinating Committee, 1600 1/2 Washington Street, East Charleston, W.Va. 25311. Phone: (304)348-0061. Wisconsin Chief, Labor Market Information Section, De partment of Industry, Labor and Human Rela tions, P.O. Box 7944, Madison, Wis. 53707. Phone: (608)266-5843. Executive Director, Wisconsin Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Gover nor’s Employment and Training Office, P.O. Box 7972, Madison, Wis. 53707. Phone: (608) 266-2439. Wyoming Chief, Research and Analysis Section, Employ ment Security Commission, P.O. Box 2760, Casper, Wyo. 82602. Phone (307)235-3642. Director, Wyoming Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Occupational Infor mation Program, Herschler Building, 2nd Floor E ., Cheyenne, Wyo. 82002. Phone: (307) 777-7574. Dictionary of Occupational Titles _______ (D.O.T.) Index_______ The D i c t i o n a r y o f O c c u p a t i o n a l T i t l e s ( D . O . T . ) was designed to provide detailed standardized occupational information to facilitate public employment service activ ities involving classification and placement of jobseekers. Its coding structure also is used to help bridge or relate to other occupational classification system s used in collection o f employment data. Columns 1 and 3 below list the numbers and titles, respectively, from the Fourth Edition of the D . O . T . , 1977, and its 1982 S u p p l e m e n t . Nearly all occupational statements in the H a n d b o o k list the D . O . T . codes that relate to or match the definitions used in the Bureau’s Occupational Employment Statistics Survey— the major source o f occupational staffing patterns used in the Occupational Outlook Program. However, the D . O . T . numbers associated with a few occupations— blue-collar worker supervisors, construction trades helpers, industrial machinery mechanics, manufacturers’ sales workers, metalworking and plastic-working ma chine operators, precision assemblers, printing press operators, science technicians, and wholesale trade sales workers— are too numerous to list. These, nevertheless, are available on request from the Chief, Division o f Occupational Outlook, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U .S . Department o f Labor, Washington, D.C. 20212. Numbers in column 2 refer to the coding structure of the 1980 S t a n d a r d O c c u p a t i o n a l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n M a n u a l ( S . O . C . ) . The S . O . C . is the basis for the occupational arrangement used in the N a t i o n a l I n d u s t r y - O c c u p a t i o n E m p l o y m e n t M a t r i x —the H a n d b o o k ’s source of data on current and projected employment. D .O .T . N um ber SOC Code D . O . T . T itle 1061010 1061018 1167010 1261010 1261014 2061010 2061014 2061018 2061022 2061026 1500 1610 1610 3720 3720 1622 1622 1622 1622 1622 A rch itect......................................... Landscape a r c h ite c t................... School-plant co n su lta n t............ Drafter, architectural................... Drafter, la n d sc a p e ...................... A erodyn am ist............................... Aeronautical e n g in e e r ................ Aeronautical test engineer. . . . Aeronautical-design en gin eer. . Aeronautical-research engineer. 55 55 55 234 234 63 63 63 63 63 2061030 2151010 1622 4210 Stress a n a ly s t............................... Sales engineer, aeronautical p rod u cts...................................... Cost-analysis en gin eer................ Field-service en g in e e r ................ Aeronautical project engineer . Drafter, aeronautical................... Research m echanic...................... Flight-test-data transcriber . . . Electrical e n g in e e r ...................... Electrical test engineer................ 2167010 2167014 2167018 2261010 2280010 2281010 3061010 3061014 1622 1622 1622 3720 3719 3719 1633 1633 3061018 3061022 3061026 3061030 3061034 3061038 3061042 3061046 3061050 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 3161010 3711 Electrical-design en gin eer. . . . Electrical-prospecting engineer. Electrical-research engineer. . . Electronics e n g in e e r ................... Electronics-design engineer. . . Electronics-research engineer . Electronics-test engineer . . . . Illuminating engineer................... Planning engineer, central office f a c ilit ie s ......................... Electrical tec h n icia n ................... D .O .T . N um ber SOC Code 3161014 3161018 3711 3711 3167010 3167014 3167018 1633 1633 1633 3167022 1633 3167026 1633 63 3167030 1633 257 63 63 63 234 237 237 65 65 3167034 3167038 1633 1633 Page 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 235 3167042 3167046 3167050 3167054 3167058 3167062 1633 1633 1633 1633 1633 1636 3167066 1633 3187010 1633 3187014 3187018 3261010 3281010 3281014 3281018 D . O . T . T itle Electronics tech n icia n ................ Semiconductor-development tech n icia n .................................. Cable engineer, outside plant. . Distribution-field engineer. . . . Electrical engineeer, power s y s t e m ......................................... Electrolysis-and-corrosion-control engineer............................... Engineer o f system developm e n t ............................................ Engineer-in-charge, studio ope r a t io n s ...................................... Engineer-in-charge, transmitter. Induction-coordination power e n g in e e r ...................................... Page 235 235 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 1633 1633 Outside-plant en gin eer................ Power-distribution engineer. . . Power-transmission engineer . . Protection engineer...................... Supervisor, m ic r o w a v e ............. Systems engineer, electronic data processing......................... Transmission-and-protection en g in e e r ...................................... Central-office equipment engineer............................................... Commercial engineer................... Customer-equipment engineer . 3711 3720 3720 3720 Instrumentation technician . . . Drafter, electrical......................... Drafter, e le c tr o n ic ...................... Drafter, electro-m echanical. . . 235 234 234 234 65 65 65 65 65 495 496/Occupational Outlook Handbook SOC Code D . O . T . T itle 5061010 5061014 5061018 5061022 5061026 5061030 1628 1628 1628 1628 1628 1628 Airport engineer............................ Civil e n g in e e r ............................... Hydraulic en gin eer...................... Irrigation e n g in e e r ...................... Railroad en gin eer......................... Sanitary en gin eer......................... 5061034 5061038 5061042 1628 1628 1628 Structural en gin eer...................... Transportation en g in eer............. Waste-management engineer, radioactive materials................ Chief engineer, w aterw orks. . . Drainage-design coordinator . . Forest en g in ee r............................ Engineering technician................ Drafter, c iv il.................................. Drafter, str u c tu r a l...................... Ceramic design engineer............. Page 64 64 64 64 64 64 D .O .T . N um ber SOC Code 8167010 1626 8261010 3719 10061010 1625 10061010 D .O .T . Num ber 1625 64 64 6061014 6061018 6061022 6261010 7061010 7061014 7061018 7061022 1628 1628 1628 3719 3720 3720 1623 1623 1623 1623 3719 1635 1635 1635 1635 7061026 7061030 1635 1635 7061034 7161010 7161014 7161018 1635 3720 3720 3720 7161022 7161026 1635 3713 7161030 7161034 3713 1635 7161038 7167010 1635 1635 7167014 7167018 1635 3974 7167022 7181010 7261010 7261014 7261018 7261022 7267010 7281010 1635 3713 3720 3720 3720 3720 1635 3720 8061010 1626 8061014 1626 8061018 8061022 8061026 8061030 1626 1626 1626 1626 1624 1625 1624 10061022 1624 10061026 10061030 1624 1624 10061030 5167010 5167014 5167018 5261010 5281010 5281014 6061010 10061014 10061018 10061022 1624 10161010 10161014 10167010 1625 1625 1625 10167014 1625 66 10167018 1625 66 66 66 10261010 10261026 10281010 10281014 10281018 11061010 11061014 11061018 3719 3719 3720 3720 3720 1623 1623 1623 11061022 11061026 11161010 1623 1623 1623 11261010 11261014 11261018 11281010 3719 3719 3990 3719 11281014 11361010 12061018 3719 3719 1634 12067010 12167010 1634 1634 12167014 12167018 12167030 12167038 12167042 12167046 12167050 12167054 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 12167062 12167066 1634 1712 12167070 12167074 1634 1634 64 64 64 64 237 234 234 67 Ceramic en gin eer......................... Ceramic research engineer . . . Ceramics test engineer................ Scientific glass b lo w e r ................ Automotive engineer................... Mechanical en g in ee r................... Mechanical-design engineer, fa c ilitie s ...................................... Mechanical-design engineer, p rod u cts...................................... Tool d e s ig n e r ............................... Tool-designer apprentice . . . . 67 67 67 237 66 66 Utilization engineer...................... Die d esig n er.................................. Die-designer ap p ren tice............. Engineering assistant, mechanical equipm ent............................ Mechanical research engineer . Mechanical-engineering technic ia n ............................................... Optomechanical technician . . . Test engineer, mechanical equipm ent.................................. Solar-energy-systems designer . Die-drawing c h e c k e r ................... 66 234 234 Plant en gin eer............................... Tool programer, numerical cont r o l ............................................... Tool-drawing, ch eck er................ Heat-transfer technician............. Chief drafter.................................. Drafter, c a s t in g s ......................... Drafter, patent............................... Drafter, tool design...................... Drawings checker, engineering. Drafter, m e c h a n ic a l................... Absorption-and-adsorption engineer............................................ Chemical design engineer, processes ......................................... Chemical e n g in e e r ...................... Chemical research engineer. . . Chemical-test engineer................ Nuclear-decontamination research s p e c ia lis t...................... 234 66 237 237 66 66 237 66 250 237 237 234 234 234 234 66 234 63 63 63 63 63 68 D . O . T . T it l e Technical director, chemical plant ............................................. Chemical-engineering technic ia n ................................................ Design engineer, mining-andoilfield e q u ip m e n t................... Design engineer, mining-andoilfield e q u ip m e n t................... Mining en gin eer............................. Petroleum en gin eer...................... Research engineer, mining-andoil-well eq u ip m en t................... Research engineer, mining-andoil-well eq u ip m en t................... Safety engineer, m in es................ Test engineer, mining-andoilfield e q u ip m e n t................... Test engineer, mining-andoilfield e q u ip m e n t................... Chief engineer, research............. Chief petroleum engineer . . . . Chief en gin eer................................ District supervisor, mud-analysis w ell lo g g in g ......................... Superintendent, oil-well servi c e s ................................................ Field engineer, specialist . . . . Test-engine e v a lu a t o r ................ Drafter, directional survey . . . Drafter, g e o lo g ic a l...................... Drafter, g e o p h y sic a l................... Foundry m etallurgist................... M etallograp h er............................. Metallurgist, e x t r a c t iv e ............. Metallurgist, p h y s ic a l................ Welding en g in ee r......................... Supervisor, metallurgical-andquality-control-test................... Metallurgical tech n icia n ............. Welding tech n icia n ...................... Nondestructive t e s t e r ................ Laboratory assistant, metallurg i c a l ............................................ S pectroscopist................................ T e ster................................................ Standards en g in ee r...................... M etrologist...................................... Configuration management anal y s t ................................................ Director, quality control............. Factory lay-out engineer............. Industrial e n g in e e r ...................... Liaison worker, tool fabrication . Manufacturing e n g in e e r ............. Production e n g in e e r ................... Production p la n n er...................... Quality-control en gin eer............. Supervisor, vendor quality . . . System s analyst, electronic data p rocessin g......................... Time-study e n g in e e r ................... Tool planner................................... Page 63 237 68 69 68 69 68 69 68 68 69 69 69 69 69 69 237 237 234 234 234 67 67 67 67 67 67 237 237 67 237 237 237 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 74 65 65 Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) lndex/497 D .O .T . N um ber SOC Code 12187010 12187014 12261014 12267010 1634 1634 3890 3712 8 13161010 3719 P 14281010 3720 15061010 1627 15061014 15061018 1627 1627 15061022 1627 15061026 1627 15061030 1627 15067010 1627 15137010 15167010 1627 1627 15167014 1627 17161010 17261010 17261014 3720 3720 3720 17261018 17261022 17261026 17261030 17261034 3720 3720 3720 3720 3720 17261038 17261042 3720 3720 17281010 17281014 17281018 17281022 17281026 3720 3720 3720 3720 3720 17281030 17281034 18167010 18167014 18167018 3720 3720 3733 3739 1643 18167026 18167034 18167038 18167042 1649 3733 1649 1649 D . O . T . T itle Material sc h e d u le r ...................... Shoe-lay-out-planner................... Quality-control technician. . . . Industrial engineering technicia n ............................................... Agricultural-engineering technicia n ............................................... Drafter, m a rin e............................ Design engineer, nuclear equipm e n t ............................................ Nuclear e n g in e e r ......................... Research engineer, nuclear equipm ent.................................. Test engineer, nuclear equipm e n t ............................................ Nuclear-fuels reclamation engineer............................................... Nuclear-fuels research engineer............................................... Nuclear-criticality safety engineer............................................... Radiation-protection engineer . Nuclear-plant technical advis o r ............................................... Nuclear-test-reactor program coord in ator............................... 65 65 237 237 237 234 68 68 68 68 68 68 68 68 68 68 Drafter, chief, design................... Auto-design c h e c k e r ................... Design drafter, electrom echanism s............................... D etailer............................................ Detailer, furniture......................... Drafter, co m m er cia l................... Drafter, d e ta il............................... Drafter, heating and ventilati n g ............................................... Drafter, plumbing......................... Drafter, computer-assisted . . . 234 237 Auto-design d e ta ile r ................... Drafter a p p r e n tic e ...................... Drafter, a ssista n t......................... Drafter, automotive design . . . Drafter, automotive design layo u t ............................................... Drafter, oil and g a s ...................... Technical illu stra to r................... Chief of p a r ty ............................... Geodetic com p u ter...................... Land surveyor............................... 234 234 234 234 57 57 57 57 57 57 57 57 57 57 67 18167046 18167050 18261018 18261022 18261026 18262010 1649 1649 3734 3734 3739 1644 Photogrammetric engineer. . . . Surveyor assistant, instruments . Surveyor, g e o d e tic ...................... Surveyor, geophysical prospeering......................................... Surveyor, m arin e......................... Surveyor, m in e ............................ Editor, m a p .................................. M osaicist......................................... Photogrammetrist......................... Field-map e d i t o r ......................... 19061014 1623 Materials e n g in e e r ...................... Page 234 234 234 234 234 234 234 234 234 234 234 57 57 57 D .O .T . N um ber SOC Code 19161010 1639 19161014 19167018 19261014 19261022 19267010 19281010 3719 1628 3720 3890 3719 3711 19381010 20062010 3890 1636 Supervisor, estimator and d ra fte r......................................... Test te c h n ic ia n ............................ Resource-recovery engineer . . Estimator and d r a f te r ................ Test te c h n ic ia n ............................ Specification w riter...................... Calibration laboratory technicia n ............................................... Laboratory tech n icia n ................ Computer-applications engineer . 20067010 20067014 20067022 20162014 20167010 20167014 20167018 20167026 20187010 20187018 1636 1739 1733 3971 1732 1733 3971 1733 3971 1739 Engineering analyst...................... Mathematician............................... Statistician, m athem atical. . . . Programer, b u s in e s s ................... A ctuary............................................ Financial a n a ly s t ......................... Programer, chief, business . . . Statistician, applied...................... Programer, information system . Weight analyst............................... 74 75 77 244 72 72 244 77 244 75 20224010 20262010 21067010 22061010 22061014 22137010 22161010 23061010 23061014 23067010 1719 3971 1842 1845 1845 1845 1845 1843 1843 1843 Customer-support specialist. . . Software t e c h n ic ia n ................... A stro n o m e r.................................. Chemist............................................ Chemist, f o o d ............................... Laboratory supervisor................ Chemical-laboratory c h ie f. . . . Electro-optical en g in eer............. P h y s ic is t......................................... Physicist, theoretical................... 74 244 84 80 80 80 80 84 84 84 24061010 24061014 24061018 24061022 24061026 24061030 24061034 24061038 24061042 24061046 1847 1649 1847 1847 1847 1847 1847 1847 1847 1847 C rystallographer......................... G eodesist......................................... G eo lo g ist......................................... Geologist, petroleum ................... Geophysical p ro sp ec to r............. G eophysicist.................................. H y d r o lo g ist.................................. M ineralogist.................................. P aleon tologist............................... P etro lo g ist...................................... 82 57 24061050 24061054 24161010 24167010 25062010 40061010 40061014 40061018 40061030 40061034 1847 1847 1847 1847 1846 1853 1853 1853 1852 1852 S eism o lo g ist.................................. Stratigrapher.................................. Engineer, soils............................... Geophysical-laboratory chief . . M eteo ro lo g ist............................... A g r o n o m ist................................... Animal scien tist............................ Dairy scien tist............................... Forest ec o lo g ist............................ F o r e s t e r ......................................... 40061038 40061042 40061046 40061050 40061054 40061058 40061062 40261010 41061014 41061018 1853 1853 1852 1852 1852 1853 1852 1852 1853 1853 H o rticu ltu rist............................... Poultry scien tist............................ Range m a n a g e r............................ Silviculturist................................... Soil conservationist...................... Soil scien tist................................... Wood tec h n o lo g ist...................... Soil-conservation technician . . Animal b r e e d e r ............................ A p icu ltu rist.................................. D . O . T . T itle Page 234 237 64 234 237 237 235 237 74 82 82 82 82 82 82 82 82 82 82 82 82 83 87 87 87 91 91 87 87 91 91 91 87 91 91 87 87 498/Occupational Outlook Handbook D .O .T . Num ber SOC Code D . O . T . T itle 41061022 41061026 41061030 41061034 41061038 41061042 41061046 41061050 41061058 41061062 1854 1854 1854 1854 1854 1854 1853 1854 1854 1854 Aquatic b io lo g is t ......................... B ioch em ist...................................... B io lo g is t......................................... B io p h y sic ist.................................. Botanist............................................ C y to lo g is t...................................... E n to m o lo g ist............................... G e n e tic is t ...................................... M icrobiologist............................... M ycologist...................................... Page 88 88 88 88 88 88 87 88 88 88 41061066 41061078 41061082 41061086 41061090 41061094 45061010 45061014 45061018 45067010 1854 1854 1853 1854 1854 1854 1915 1915 1915 1915 N e m a to lo g is t............................... P h y sio lo g ist.................................. Plant b r e e d e r ............................... Plant p a th o lo g ist......................... Z o o lo g ist......................................... Staff to x ic o lo g is t......................... Psychologist, developmental . . Psychologist, engineering . . . . Psychologist, experimental . . . Psychologist, educational . . . . 88 88 87 88 88 88 104 104 104 104 45067014 45067018 45107010 45107014 45107018 45107022 45107026 45107030 1915 1915 2400 2400 2400 1915 1915 1915 104 104 134 134 134 104 104 45107034 45107038 1915 2400 Psychologist, social...................... P sych om etrist............................... C o u n s e lo r ...................................... Counselor, nurses’ association . Director of co u n selin g ................ Psychologist, clinical................... Psychologist, counseling............ Psychologist, industrial-organiz a t io n a l...................................... Psychologist, s c h o o l................... Residence c o u n selo r................... 45107042 2400 45107042 45117010 1915 2400 49127010 50067010 50067014 54067010 1852 1912 1912 1916 54067014 54107010 70061010 1916 1916 2610 Vocational-rehabilitation couns e l o r ............................................ Psychologist, c h ie f ...................... Director of guidance in public sc h o o ls......................................... Park naturalist............................... E c o n o m ist...................................... Market-research analyst 1. . . . Research worker, social welf a r e ............................................... S o cio lo g ist...................................... Clinical so c io lo g ist...................... Pathologist...................................... 70101010 70101014 70101018 70101022 70101026 70101030 70101034 70101038 70101042 70101046 2610 2610 2610 2610 2610 2610 2610 2610 2610 2610 A nesthesiologist............................ C ard iologist................................... D erm atologist............................... General p ra ctitio n er................... Family practitioner...................... Flight su rgeon ............................... G ynecologist................................... Intern ............................................... Internist ......................................... Medical officer............................... 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 70101050 70101054 70101058 70101062 70101066 70101070 70101074 Digitized for70101078 FRASER 2610 2610 2610 2610 2610 2610 2610 2610 N e u r o lo g is t.................................. O b stetrician .................................. Ophthalmologist............................ Otolaryngologist............................ P ed ia tric ia n .................................. P sy c h ia tr ist.................................. Physician, h e a d ............................ Physician, occu p a tio n a l............. 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 104 104 134 134 104 134 91 101 101 107 107 107 149 D .O .T . N um ber SOC Code D . O . T . T it l e 70101082 70101086 2610 2610 Police surgeon................................ P r o c to lo g ist................................... 149 149 70101090 70101094 70101098 70107010 70107014 70107018 2610 2610 2610 2610 2610 2610 149 149 149 149 149 70117010 70117014 71101010 72061010 2610 2610 2610 2620 R adiologist...................................... Surgeon 1 ...................................... U ro lo g ist......................................... A llergist-im m unologist................ P s y c h ia tr is t................................... Director, diagnostic-and-evaluation c l i n i c ................................ Chief of nuclear medicine . . . . Director o f radiology................... Osteopathic p h y sic ia n ................ Oral path ologist............................. 72101010 72101014 72101018 72101022 72101026 72010130 72101034 72101038 72117010 73061010 2620 2620 2620 2620 2620 2620 2620 2620 2620 2700 Page 149 149 149 149 145 D e n t is t ............................................ E n d o d o n tist................................... Oral surgeon................................... O rthodontist................................... P e d o d o n tis t................................... P er io d o n tist................................... Prosthodontist................................ Public-health d e n tis t ................... Director, dental services............. Veterinarian, laboratory animal ca re................................................ 145 145 145 145 145 145 145 145 145 154 73061014 73061018 73061022 73061026 73061030 73061034 73061038 73061042 73101010 73101014 2700 2700 2700 2700 2700 2700 2700 2700 2700 2700 Veterinary anatom ist................... Veterinary bacteriologist . . . . Veterinary epidem iologist. . . . Veterinary parasitologist............. Veterinary p a th o lo g ist................ Veterinary pharmacologist . . . Veterinary p h y s io lo g is t............. Veterinary v ir o lo g ist................... V eterinarian................................... Veterinarian, p oultry................... 154 154 154 154 154 154 154 154 154 154 73101018 73161010 73261010 2700 2700 2700 154 154 73264010 74131010 74161010 74161014 75117014 2700 3010 3010 3010 1310 75117022 75117026 1310 1310 Zoo v e te r in a r ia n ......................... Veterinary livestock inspector . Veterinary virus-serum inspect o r ................................................ Veterinary m eat-inspector. . . . Director, pharmacy services . . Pharm acist...................................... R ad iop h arm acist......................... Director, community-health nursing......................................... Director, nursing service . . . . Director, occupational health nursing......................................... 75117030 75124010 75124014 75127010 75127014 75127018 75127022 75127026 1310 2900 2900 2390 2900 2900 2900 2900 75127030 2900 75137010 2900 75264010 2900 Director, school o f nursing . . . Nurse, s c h o o l................................ Nurse, staff, community health. Instructor, psychiatric aide . . . Nurse, consultant......................... Nurse, h e a d ................................... Nurse, supervisor......................... Nurse, supervisor, communityhealth nursing............................. Nurse supervisor, evening-orn ig h t ............................................. Nurse, supervisor, occupational health nursing................ Nurse p r a c titio n e r ...................... 154 154 28 162 162 28 28 28 28 174 174 130 174 174 174 174 174 174 174 Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) lndex/499 D .O .T . N um ber s o c Code 75264014 75371010 75374010 75374014 75374018 75374022 2900 2900 2900 2900 2900 2900 D . O . T . T itle 76101010 76107010 76121010 3034 3034 3032 Nurse-m idwife............................... Nurse an esth etist......................... Nurse, general d u t y ................... Nurse, office.................................. Nurse, private duty...................... Nurse, staff, occupational health nursing............................ A udiologist...................................... Speech p a th ologist...................... Occupational therapist................ 76121014 76124014 76167010 77061010 77117010 77127010 77127014 77127018 77127022 77167010 3033 3039 3032 3020 3020 3020 3020 3020 3020 3020 Physical therapist......................... Recreational th e r a p ist................ Industrial th erap ist...................... Dietitian, r e s e a r c h ...................... Dietitian, chief............................... Community d ietitia n ................... Dietitian, c lin ic a l......................... Dietitian, co n su lta n t................... Dietitian, te a c h in g ...................... Dietetic in tern ............................... 78121010 3620 78161010 78161018 3620 3650 78162010 78221010 78261010 78261014 78281010 78361010 78361014 3650 3690 3620 3620 3620 3630 3620 Medical technologist, teaching supervisor.................................. Medical technologist, chief . . . Chief technologist, nuclear m edicine...................................... Radiologic technologist, chief . Immunohem atologist................... Chemistry technologist................ Microbiology technologist. . . . C ytotech n o lo g ist......................... Dental hygienist............................ Medical tech n ologist................... 78361018 78361030 78361034 78362018 78362022 3650 3620 3650 3690 3690 78362026 78364010 78381010 78381014 78687010 3650 3620 3690 3690 5233 Nuclear medical technologist. . Tissue techn ologist...................... Radiation-therapy technologist . Electrocardiograph technician . Electroencephalographic techn o lo g is t ...................................... Radiologic te c h n o lo g ist............. Ultrasound tech n ologist............. Medical-laboratory assistant . . Medical-laboratory technician . Laboratory assistant, blood and p la sm a ......................................... Page 174 174 174 174 174 166 171 160 158 158 158 158 158 158 158 174 179 179 160 183 183 200 200 183 183 183 183 186 183 200 183 200 189 191 200 200 183 183 183 1310 1310 2890 1310 Chiropractor.................................. O p to m etr ist.................................. Podiatrist......................................... Emergency medical services coord in ator............................... S a n ita ria n ...................................... Inservice coordinator, auxiliary p e r s o n n e l.................................. Director, speech-and-hearing . . Utilization-review coordinator . H yp notherap ist............................ Medical-record administrator. . 45 28 28 144 28 2890 2890 3031 5233 3690 3040 A cupuncturist............................... A cu p ressu rist............................... Respiratory therapist................... Chiropractor a ssista n t................ Optometric a ssista n t................... Physician a ssista n t...................... 144 144 177 314 314 168 79101010 79101018 79101022 79117010 2890 2810 2830 1310 79117018 79127010 3690 1430 79131010 79137010 79157010 79167014 79271010 79271014 79361010 79364010 79364014 79364018 144 147 153 28 42 D .O .T . N um ber SOC Code D . O . T . T itle 79364022 79367010 79367014 79371010 5233 5233 3640 5232 Phlebotom ist.................................. Medical a ssista n t......................... Medical record technician. . . . Dental a ssista n t............................ 314 314 198 312 79374010 79374014 79374018 79374022 79374026 90107010 90222010 90227010 3690 3660 5233 3690 3660 2400 2233 2200 193 196 314 204 196 134 130 91107010 91221010 1282 2330 Emergency medical technician . Nurse, licensed practical . . . . Podiatric a s s is t a n t ...................... Surgical tech n icia n ...................... Psychiatric te c h n ic ia n ................ Foreign-student a d v is e r ............. Instructor, business education . Faculty member, college or u n iv e r sity .................................. Dean o f students 2 ...................... Teacher, industrial a r t s ............. 91227010 92227010 92227014 94224010 94227010 94227014 94227018 94227022 97227010 97227014 2330 2320 2310 2350 2350 2350 2350 2350 2390 2390 Teacher, secondary school . . . Teacher, elementary school. . . Teacher, kindergarten................ Teacher, d e a f ............................... Educational therapist................... Teacher, blind............................... Teacher, handicapped students. Teacher, mentally retarded . . . Instructor, flying 2 ...................... Instructor, vocational training . 128 126 126 128 128 128 128 128 130 130 99117018 99167010 1282 1430 99223010 99224010 99227014 2390 2320 2390 99227018 99227026 99227030 99227038 99327010 2390 2390 2390 2216 3990 P rin c ip a l......................................... 34 Certification and selection specialist............................................ 45 Instructor, d r iv in g ...................... 130 Instructor, physical education . 126, 128 Instructor, correspondence s c h o o l ......................................... 130 Instructor, ground services . . . 130 Instructor, m o d e lin g ................... 130 Teacher, adult education . . . . 130 T eacher............................................ 130 Teacher aide 1............................... 287 100117010 100117014 100127010 1283 2510 2510 100127014 100167010 100167014 100167018 100167022 100167026 100167034 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 2510 100267010 100267014 100367010 100367014 100367018 100367022 100367026 2510 2510 2510 2510 3990 2510 2510 100387010 101167010 102017010 102117010 102117014 Page 132 171 128 126, 126, 126, 126, 126, Library director............................ Library co n su lta n t...................... Chief librarian, branch or departm ent...................................... Librarian......................................... Audiovisual librarian................... Bookmobile librarian................... Children’s librarian...................... Institution librarian...................... Librarian, special library . . . . Young-adult librarian................... 137 137 137 137 137 137 249 137 2510 2520 2520 Acquisitions lib r a r ia n ................ Librarian, special collections . B ibliograp her............................... C lassifier......................................... Library technical assistant . . Music lib ra r ia n ............................ Music librarian, international broadcast ................................... Catalog lib r a r ia n ......................... A rc h iv ist......................................... C urator............................................ 2520 2520 Supervisor, historic sites . . . . Director, museum-or-zoo . . . . 140 140 137 137 137 137 137 137 137 137 137 137 140 140 500/Occupational Outlook Handbook D .O .T . N um ber s o c Code 102167010 102167014 102167018 102261010 102261014 102361010 102361014 102381010 2520 2520 2520 2520 3250 2520 2520 2520 Art con servator......................... Historic-site administrator. . . Registrar, m u se u m ................... Conservation technician . . . . Paintings restorer...................... Restorer, lace and textiles. . . Restorer, ceram ic...................... Museum technician................... 140 140 140 140 221 140 140 140 109067010 109067014 109267010 109281010 109361010 109364010 109367010 110107010 110107014 110117010 1719 2520 2520 2520 2520 2520 2520 2110 2110 2110 Information sc ie n tist................ Research a sso c ia te ................... Research a s s is ta n t ................... Armorer technician................... Restorer, paper-and-prints . . Craft dem onstrator................... Museum a tte n d a n t................... L a w y e r......................................... Lawyer, crim in al...................... District attorney......................... 74 140 140 140 140 140 140 94 94 94 110117014 110117018 110117022 110117026 110117030 110117034 110117038 110117042 110167010 119267022 2110 2110 2110 2110 2110 2110 2110 2110 2110 3960 Insurance a tto r n e y ................... Lawyer, a d m ira lty ................... Lawyer, corporation................ Lawyer, p a t e n t ......................... Lawyer, p r o b a te ...................... Lawyer, real esta te................... Tax attorney............................... Title a tto r n e y ............................ Bar e x a m in e r ............................ Legal investigator...................... 94 94 94 94 94 94 94 94 94 247 119267026 120007010 3960 2042 Paralegal a s s is ta n t ................... Clergy m e m b e r ......................... 131067010 131067014 131067018 131067022 131067026 131067030 131067034 131067038 3313 3313 3313 3313 3290 3290 3210 3210 Columnist/commentator . . . . Copy w r it e r ............................... C r it ic ............................................ Editorial w r ite r ......................... H um orist...................................... L ib rettist...................................... L yricist......................................... P layw right................................... 247 119, 121, 122 210, 215 215 210, 215 215 215 215 215 215 131067042 131067046 3210 3210 131087010 131087014 131087018 131267010 131267014 131267018 131267022 131267026 3210 3210 3210 3313 3313 3313 3312 3980 P o e t ............................................... Writer, prose, fiction and nonf i c t i o n ...................................... Continuity w r ite r ...................... Reader ......................................... Screen w r it e r ............................ N e w s c a s t e r ............................... N ew s w r it e r ............................... R e p o r te r ...................................... Script reader............................... Writer, technical publications 132017010 132017014 132017018 3312 3312 3312 132037010 132037014 132037018 132037022 132037026 132067010 Digitized for132067014 FRASER 3312 3312 3312 3312 3312 3312 3312 D . O . T . T itle Editor, managing, newspaper. Editor, n e w sp a p e r ................... Editor, technical and scientific publications............................ Continuity d irector................... Editor, city ................................... Editor, departm ent................... Editor, p u b lic a tio n s................ Story e d it o r ............................... Bureau c h ie f............................... Editor, b o o k ............................... Page 215 215 215 215 215 210 215 212 215 215 215 215 215 215 215 215 215 215 215 215 D .O .T . N um ber SOC Code 132067018 132067022 132067026 132137010 132267010 132267014 132367010 137137010 141031010 141051010 3312 3312 3312 3312 3312 3312 3312 3290 3220 3250 Editor, dictionary......................... Editor, greeting c a r d ................... Editor, n e w s ................................... Assignment e d i t o r ...................... Editor, te le g r a p h ......................... Editorial assistant......................... Editor, i n d e x ................................ Director, tra n sla tio n ................... Art d ir e c t o r ................................... Color e x p e r t................................... 215 215 215 215 215 215 215 226 218 218 141061010 141061014 141061018 141061022 141061026 3250 3250 3220 3250 3250 221 221 218 221 141061030 141067010 141081010 141081014 142031010 3250 3220 3250 3220 3220 C a r to o n ist...................................... Fashion a r t is t ................................ Graphic d e s ig n e r ......................... Illustrator......................................... Illustrator, medical and scient if i c ................................................ Illustrator, s e t ................................ Creative d ir e c to r ......................... Cartoonist, motion pictures . . . Commercial design er................... Art d ir e c t o r ................................... 142031014 142051010 142061010 142061014 142061018 142061022 142061026 142061030 142061034 142061038 3220 3220 3220 3220 3220 3220 3220 3250 3220 3220 D . O . T . T it l e Page 221 221 218 221 218 218 Manager, d is p la y ......................... Display d e s ig n e r ......................... Bank-note d esign er...................... Cloth d esign er................................ Clothes d e s ig n e r ......................... Furniture d e s ig n e r ...................... Industrial d e s ig n e r ...................... Memorial d e s ig n e r ...................... Ornamental-metalwork designer. Safety-clothing-and-equipment d e v e lo p e r ................................... 218 218 218 218 218 218 218 218 221 218 142061042 142061046 142061054 142061058 142081010 142081014 142081018 142281010 143062010 143062014 3220 3220 3220 3220 3220 3220 3220 3220 3260 3260 Set d e c o r a to r ................................ Set d e sig n e r ................................... Stained glass a r t is t ...................... Exhibit designer............................. Floral d e s ig n e r ............................ Fur d esig n er................................... Package d e sig n e r ......................... C o p y ist............................................ Director of photography............. Photographer, a e r ia l................... 218 218 218 218 218 218 218 218 223 223 143062018 143062022 143062026 143062030 143062034 143260010 3260 3260 3260 3260 3260 3260 223 223 223 223 223 143362010 143382010 143382014 143457010 3260 3260 3260 3260 Photographer, apprentice . . . . Photographer, motion picture. . Photographer, s c ie n tific ............. Photographer, s t i l l ...................... P h o to jo u rn a list............................. Optical-efifects-camera operat o r ................................................ Biological photographer............. Camera operator, animation . . Photographer, f in i s h ................... P h o to g ra p h er................................ 223 223 223 223 223 144061010 144061014 144061018 149021010 149041010 149261010 150027010 150027014 150047010 3250 3250 3250 2390 3250 3250 3240 2390 3240 P a in te r ............................................ Printm aker...................................... S c u lp t o r ......................................... Teacher, a r t ................................... Quick sketch a r tis t...................... Exhibit artist................................... Dramatic c o a c h ............................ Teacher, d ra m a............................ A c t o r ............................................... 221 221 221 130 221 221 226 130 226 Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) lndex/501 D .O .T . N um ber SOC Code 150067010 3240 Director, stage............................ 226 150147010 151027010 151027014 151047010 152021010 152041010 152047010 152047014 152047018 152047022 3240 3270 2390 3270 2390 3230 3230 3230 3230 3230 N a r r a to r ...................................... Choreographer............................ Instructor, d an cin g................... D a n c e r ......................................... Teacher, m u s ic ......................... Musician, instrumental............. Choral d ir e c to r ......................... Conductor, orchestra................ Director, m u s ic ......................... Singer............................................ 226 228 130 228 130 230 230 230 230 230 152067010 152067014 152067018 152067022 152267010 152367010 159067010 159067014 159117010 159124010 3230 3230 3230 3230 3230 3230 3240 3240 3240 2033 A rran ger...................................... C o m p o s e r ................................... Cue s e le c to r ............................... Orchestrator............................... C o p y ist......................................... Prom pter...................................... Director, motion picture. . . . Director, telev isio n ................... Producer ...................................... Counselor, c a m p ...................... 230 230 230 230 230 230 226 226 226 116 159147010 159147014 159167014 159167018 159227010 159267010 159647014 160162010 160162014 160167010 3330 3330 3240 3240 2390 3240 3240 1412 1412 1412 A nnouncer.................................. Disk j o c k e y ............................... Director, radio............................ Manager, s t a g e ......................... Instructor, brid ge...................... Director, c a s t in g ...................... E x t r a ............................................ Accountant, t a x ......................... A ud itor......................................... Accountant.................................. 210 210 226 226 130 226 226 37 37 37 D . O . T . T it l e Page 160167014 160167018 160167022 160167026 160167030 160167034 160167038 160167042 160167046 160167046 1412 1412 1412 1412 1412 1412 1412 1412 1473 1412 Accountant, budget................... Accountant, c o s t ...................... Accountant, p r o p e r ty ............. Accountant, sy stem s................ Auditor, county or city . . . . Auditor, in te r n a l...................... Auditor, t a x ............................... Bursar............................................ Chief bank exam in er................ Director, utility accounts . . . 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 42 37 161117018 162117014 162117018 162117022 162117026 162157014 162157018 162157022 162157026 162157030 1220 1370 1449 1449 1449 4124 1442 1442 4246 1449 Treasurer...................................... Contract administrator............. Contract s p e c ia lis t................... Field contractor......................... Field-contact technician . . . . Broker’s floor representative . B u y e r ............................................ Buyer, assistan t......................... Commission agent, livestock . Outside property agent............. 26, 28 28 49 49 49 263 52 52 257, 267 49 162157034 162157038 162157042 162167022 162167030 163117010 164117010 165117010 165067010 Digitized for 165117010 FRASER 1449 1449 4124 1240 1449 1449 1250 3320 3320 1270 Procurement e n g in e e r ............. Purchasing a g e n t ...................... Securities trader 1 ................... Manager, procurement services Purchase-price an alyst............. Manager, con tracts................... Manager, advertising................ L o b b y ist...................................... Public-relations representative Director, fundraising................ 49 49 263 28 49 49 28 208 208 28 D .O .T . N um ber SOC Code 165167010 166067010 166117010 166117014 166117018 166167010 166167014 166167018 166167022 166167026 3320 1430 1230 1430 1230 1430 1430 1230 1430 1230 166167030 166167034 166167038 166167042 166167050 1230 1430 1430 1430 1230 166227010 166267014 2390 1430 166267018 166267022 1430 1430 166267026 1430 166267034 166267038 168161010 168161014 1430 1430 1473 1473 168167010 168167014 5132 1473 168167018 168167022 168167026 168167030 1473 1473 1473 1472 168167034 168167038 168167042 168167046 1472 1472 1473 1472 168167050 168167062 1472 1473 168167066 168167074 1473 1473 168167078 168167082 1473 1473 168167086 168261010 168264010 168264014 168267010 168267018 168267022 168267026 1473 1473 1473 1473 1472 1473 1473 1473 168267030 168267034 168267042 D . O . T . T itle Sales-service promoter................ Occupational an alyst................... Director, industrial relations . . Manager, em ployee welfare. . . Manager, p e r s o n n e l................... Contestant coordinator................ Director of p la c e m e n t................ Manager, benefits......................... Manager, com p en sation ............ Manager, education and traini n g ............................................... Page 208 45 28 45 28 45 45 28 45 28 28 Manager, em p loym ent................ Manager, labor relations............. 45 45 Port purser...................................... 45 Senior enlisted advisor................ Program specialist, employee28 health m a in te n a n c e ................ Training re p r esen ta tiv e............. 45, 130 Hospital-insurance 45 representative............................ 45 Job an alyst...................................... Prisoner-classification interv ie w e r ......................................... 45 R ecruiter......................................... 45 Job development specialist . . . Personnel recruiter...................... Coroner............................................ Industrial-safety-and-health tech n icia n .................................. Customs patrol o ffic e r................ Equal-opportunity representative............................ Health officer, field ...................... Immigration in sp e c to r ................ Inspector, b o i l e r ......................... Inspector, b u ild in g ...................... Inspector, e le c tr ic a l................... Inspector, e le v a t o r s ................... Inspector, health care facilities. Inspector, heating and refrigera t i o n ............................................ Inspector, p lu m b in g ................... Occupational-safety-and-health inspector...................................... Quality-control coordinator . . . Reviewing officer, driver’s license ............................................ Safety inspector............................ Transportation inspector............. 45 45 42 42 303 42 42 42 42 40 40 40 42 40 40 42 42 42 42 42 1473 1473 Safety m a n a g er............................ Radiation-protection specialist . Inspector, air-carrier................... Safety inspector............................ Building in s p e c t o r ...................... Customs import sp ecialist. . . . Customs in s p e c to r ...................... Dealer-compliance representative............................ Dining-service inspector............. Driver’s license examiner . . . . 42 42 42 1473 Food and drug inspector............. 42 42 42 42 42 40 42 42 502/Occupational Outlook Handbook D .O .T . N um ber SOC Code 168267046 1473 168267050 168267054 168267058 168267062 168267066 168267070 168267074 168267078 1473 1473 1473 1473 1473 1473 1473 1473 168267082 1473 168267086 1473 168267090 1473 168267094 168267098 168267102 168267106 1473 1473 1472 1473 168267110 168287010 1473 1473 168287014 1473 168287018 168367010 168367014 168367018 168387010 1473 1473 1473 1473 1473 169107010 169167022 169167030 1430 1131 1260 169167034 169167054 169167058 169207010 169267014 169267026 169267030 169284010 180117010 180161010 180161014 180167010 1370 1449 1414 1430 1473 2400 1473 1473 5525 5523 5525 5524 D . O . T . T itle Inspector, furniture and bedding............................................... Inspector, government property. Inspector, industrial waste . . . Inspector, motor vehicles . . . . In v estig a to r................................... License inspector......................... Logging-operations in spector. . Mine in s p e c t o r ............................ Mortician in vestigator................ Agricultural-chemicals inspect o r ............................................... Hazardous-waste management specialist...................................... Inspector, water-pollution cont r o l ............................................... Marine-cargo surveyor................ Pesticide-control inspector . . . Plan ch ecker................................... Registration specialist, agricultural ch em ic a ls......................... Sanitation in s p e c t o r ................... Inspector, agricultural comm o d itie s...................................... Inspector, quality assurance . . 3240 184167030 184167034 184167074 186117014 186177038 186117054 186117066 3240 3240 3240 1220 1220 1210 1419 1220 1220 186167022 1220 186167026 186167054 187117010 187117018 187117038 187117058 187117062 1220 1220 1210 1210 1351 1310 1370 187161010 187167026 187167034 187167038 187167046 187167062 1351 1351 1359 1270 1351 1473 187167078 187167090 187167106 187167110 1351 1359 1351 1351 187167122 1351 187167126 187167174 187167178 187167182 187167194 188167038 1351 3240 3240 3240 1359 1473 188167074 188167090 188167110 1473 1473 1920 189117014 1260 189117038 1390 189167022 189167030 189167050 1370 1370 1359 189267010 193162010 193162014 2032 3920 3920 193162018 3920 193167010 193167014 193262018 193262038 42 42 42 42 42 40 42 42 42 42 Inspector, ra ilro a d ...................... Attendance o f f ic e r ...................... Rater, travel accommodations . Code in s p e c t o r ............................ Opener-verifier-packer, cust o m s ............................................ A rb itra to r...................................... Fire a s s is t a n t ............................... Manager, electronic data processing............................................ Manager, officer............................ Tooling coordinator, production e n g in e e r in g ...................... 42 42 42 42 U nd erw riter................................... C onciliator...................................... Exam iner......................................... Supervisor, special services. . . Passport-application examiner . A d m easu rer................................... Manager, Christmas-tree farm . Manager, production, seed corn............................................... Superintendent, horticulture . . Artificial-breeding distributor. . 51 45 42 134 42 42 329 42 45 91 28 28 49 329 329 329 180167018 180167026 180167030 180167034 180167038 180167042 180167046 180167058 182267010 184117010 5522 5524 5524 5524 5524 5525 5524 5523 1472 3240 General manager, farm................ Manager, dairy fa r m ................... Manager, fish hatchery................ Manager, game breeding farm . Manager, game preserve............. Manager, nursery......................... Manager, poultry hatchery . . . Superintendent, production . . . Construction inspector................ Director, public s e r v ic e ............. 329 329 329 329 329 329 329 329 40 226 184163010 184167014 1473 3240 Traffic inspector............................ Director, new s............................... 42 226 SOC Code 186117070 186117078 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 D .O .T . N um ber 184167022 Page D . O . T . T it l e Page Director, operations, broadc a s t ................................................ Director, program......................... Director, sp o r ts............................. Manager, production................... C o n tr o lle r ...................................... Manager, financial institution. . President, financial institution . Risk and insurance manager . . 226 226 226 226 26, 28 26 26 26, 28 Treasurer, financial institution . Vice president, financial institut io n ................................................ Manager, credit card operat i o n s ............................................ Manager, credit u n io n ................ Reserve o f f ic e r ............................. Administrator, h o s p it a l............. Director, in s titu tio n ................... Manager, hotel or m o te l............. Director, outpatient services . . Radiology adm inistrator............. Executive c h e f ............................. Director, food services................ Director, nurses’ registry . . . . Director, volunteer services . . Executive h o u s e k e e p e r ............. Manager, branch operation ev a lu a tio n ................................... Manager, con ven tion................... Manager, dental laboratory . . . Manager, food s e r v ic e ................ Manager, front o ffice................... Manager, hotel recreational f a c ilitie s ...................................... Manager, liquor establishment . Producer ......................................... Producer ......................................... Producer, a ssista n t...................... Superintendent, laundry............. Director, securities and real esta te............................................. Revenue o ffic e r ............................. Special agent, custom s................ Planner, program services. . . . 26 26 26 26 26 28 28 32 28 28 32 32 28 28 28, 32 42 32 28 28, 32 32 32 32 226 226 226 28 42 42 42 109 3920 Director, research and developm e n t ............................................. U ser representative, international accounting. . . . Manager, d e p a r tm e n t................ Program m anager......................... Superintendent, plant protec tion ................................................ FiSld r e p r e se n ta tiv e ................... Air-traffic co o rd in a to r................ Air-traffic-control specialist, s t a tio n ......................................... Air-traffic-control specialist, to w e r............................................. Chief co n tro ller............................. 241 241 3930 3930 3930 Field supervisor, b road cast. . . Field en g in eer................................ Transmitter op erator................... 243 243 243 28 26 28 28 28 112 241 241 Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) lndex/503 D .O .T . Num ber SOC Code D . O . T . T itle 194262010 194262014 194262018 194282010 194362010 194362014 194362018 3930 3719 3719 3930 3719 3719 3930 Audio o p e r a to r ............................ Sound c o n tr o lle r ......................... Sound m ixer................................... Video o p e r a to r ............................ Recording engineer...................... Rerecording m ix e r ...................... Telecine operator......................... 243 237 237 243 243 237 243 194381010 194382010 194382014 195107010 195107014 195107018 195107022 195107026 3711 3719 3719 2032 2032 2032 2032 2032 Technical testing engineer. . . . Section-plotter op erator............. Tape transferrer............................ C a sew o r k e r.................................. Caseworker, child welfare. . . . Caseworker, fam ily...................... Social group w o r k e r ................... Social worker, delinquency prevention.................................. Social worker, m edical................ Social worker, psychiatric. . . . 235 237 237 112 112 112 112 Social worker, s c h o o l ................ Correctional-treatment speciali s t .................................................. Probation-and-parole officer. . . Casework supervisor................... Group w o rk er............................... Community organization w o rk er......................................... Community-relations-and-services advisor, p u b lic ................ Parole o f f ic e r ............................... Probation o f f ic e r ......................... Rehabilitation center manager . D .O .T . N um ber SOC Code D . O . T . T itle 201362030 4622 Secretary......................................... 281 202362010 202362014 202362018 202362022 203362010 203362014 203362018 203362022 4623 4623 4623 4623 4624 4649 4793 4624 284 284 284 284 292 278 415 203382010 203382018 4624 4793 Shorthand reporter...................... Stenographer ............................... Stenographer, print shop . . . . Stenotype operator...................... C ler k -ty p ist.................................. In-file o p e r a to r ............................ Terminal-system operator. . . . Word-processing-machine opera to r............................................... Bordereau clerk ............................ Magnetic-tape-composer operat o r ............................................... Varitype operator......................... Data ty p is t...................................... Data-coder o p e r a to r ................... Keypunch operator...................... Magnetic-tape-typewriter opera to r ............................................... Photocomposing-perforatormachine operator...................... Photocomposition-keyboard operator ...................................... Terminal operator......................... Transcribing-machine operator. Typesetter-perforator operator . 415 274 274 274 112 195107030 195107034 2032 2032 195107038 195107042 2032 2032 195107046 195137010 195164010 195167010 2032 2032 2032 2032 195167014 2032 195167030 195167034 195167038 2032 2032 1270 195227010 195227014 195267018 2032 2033 2032 195367018 195367026 196163010 196163014 196167010 196167014 196223010 2032 5133 1473 1473 8250 8250 8250 196223014 196263010 196263014 196263018 196263022 196263026 8250 8250 8240 8250 8250 8250 196263030 196263034 196263038 196263042 199167014 199261014 199267014 201162010 201362010 201362014 201362018 201362022 201362026 Program aide, group work. . . . Recreation lead er......................... Patient-resources-and-reimbursement a g e n t ............................... Community w orker...................... Preparole-counseling aide . . . . Flight-operations inspector . . . Supervising airplane pilot . . . . Chief p i l o t ...................................... Navigator......................................... Instructor, flying 1 ...................... Page 112 112 112 112 112 112 112 112 28 116 116 112 112 112 42 42 449 449 449 449 449 449 449 449 8250 8250 8250 8250 Instructor, p ilo t............................ Airplane p i l o t ............................... Airplane pilot, commercial . . . Airplane pilot, photogrammetry . Check pilot...................................... Controller, remotely-piloted vehicle (R PV )............................ Executive p i l o t ............................ Facilities-flight-check pilot . . . Helicopter p ilo t ............................ Test p ilo t......................................... 1920 3990 1739 4622 4622 4622 4622 4622 4622 Urban planner............................... Parking a n a ly s t ............................ Cryptanalyst.................................. Social secretary............................ Legal se c r e ta r y ............................ Medical secretary......................... Membership secretary................ School s e c r e ta r y ......................... Script su p erv iso r......................... 109 237 75 281 281 281 281 281 281 449 449 449 449 449 203382026 203582022 203582026 203582030 203582034 4793 4793 4793 4793 4793 203582042 112 112 112 4793 203582046 4793 203582054 203582058 203582062 4793 4623 4793 203582066 203582070 203582074 4624 4793 4793 203582078 205367038 208382010 208685030 209367042 209382010 209387014 4624 4645 4793 4613 4753 4624 4794 209567014 4364 209687010 209687014 210362010 210367010 210367014 4712 4742 4712 4712 4712 210382010 210382014 210382018 210382030 4712 4712 4712 4712 210382034 210382038 210382042 210382046 210382050 4712 4712 4712 4712 4712 210382054 210382058 210382062 211362010 211362014 211362018 T y p ist............................................... Verifier o p e r a to r ......................... Electronic-typesetting-machine operator ...................................... N otereader...................................... R egistrar......................................... Terminal-makeup operator . . . Sorting-machine operator . . . . Reconsignment cler k ................... Continuity clerk ............................ C om p iler......................................... Order clerk, food and bevera g e ............................................... Checker 2 ...................................... Mail handler.................................. Distribution-accounting cler k . . Account-information clerk . . . Foreign-exchange-position c l e r k ............................................ Audit clerk ...................................... Bookkeeper 1 ............................... Bookkeeper 2 ................... ... Classification-control clerk . . . Page 292 292 415 292 415 415 274 284 415 292 274 415 292 278 415 273 290 292 285 253 271 275 271 271 271 271 271 271 271 4712 4712 4712 4364 4364 Commodity-loan c le r k ................ Credit-card c l e r k ......................... Fixed-capital c l e r k ...................... General-ledger bookkeeper . . . Mortgage-loan-computation c l e r k ............................................ Night a u d it o r ............................... Reconcilement c le r k ................... Securities c le r k ............................ Cashier 1 ......................................... Foreign banknote teller-trader . 271 271 271 271 253 269 4791 T e lle r ............................................... 269 271 271 271 271 504/Occupational Outlook Handbook D .O .T . N um ber SOC Code 211362022 4791 D . O . T . T itle 211362026 211367010 211462010 211462014 211462018 211462022 211462026 211462030 4791 4364 4364 4364 4364 4364 4364 4364 Teller, collection and exchange ......................................... Teller, n o t e .................................. Paymaster o f p u r s e s ................... Cashier 2 ......................................... C ashier-checker............................ Cashier-wrapper............................ Cashiers, gam bling...................... Check ca sh ie r............................... Drivers’-cash c le r k ...................... 211462034 211462038 211467010 211467014 211467018 211467022 211467026 211467030 211482010 213362010 4364 4364 4364 4364 4364 4364 4364 4364 4364 4612 T e lle r ............................................... Toll c o lle c t o r ............................... Cashier, courtesy b o o th ............. M oney c o u n te r ............................ Parimutuel-ticket cashier . . . . Parimutuel-ticket s e l l e r ............. Sheet w r ite r ................................... Ticket s e lle r ................................... Cashier, tube ro o m ...................... Computer op erator...................... 213382010 4613 213582010 213682010 213685010 4613 4613 4613 214362018 214362030 214487010 216362010 216362014 216362018 4718 4716 4794 4712 4712 4791 Computer-peripheral-equipment o p era to r...................................... Digitizer operator......................... Tabulating-machine operator . . Auxiliary-equipment operator, data p rocessing......................... Fee c le r k ......................................... Rate clerk, p a s s e n g e r ................ Chart calculator............................ Bond c le r k ...................................... Collection c le r k ............................ Exchange c le r k ............................ 216362022 216362026 216362034 216367010 216382010 4718 4712 4712 4712 4712 216382014 216382018 216382022 216382026 216382030 4712 4712 4794 4712 4712 Food-and-beverage controller . Mortgage-accounting clerk . . . Reserves clerk............................... Check-processing clerk 2 . . . . Accounting clerk, data processi n g ............................................... Advice cler k ................................... Balance c l e r k ............................... Budget cler k ................................... Clearing-house c le r k ................... Collateral-and-safekeeping c l e r k ............................................ Page 269 269 253 253 253 253 253 253 253 253 253 253 253 253 253 253 253 253 273 273 273 273 273 271 279 285 271 271 269 271 271 271 271 271 271 271 271 271 271 271 271 285 285 271 271 271 271 216382038 216382058 216382062 216382066 216382070 216382074 216387010 216482010 216482026 4712 4712 4794 4794 4712 4699 4712 4712 4712 Interest c l e r k ............................... Returned-item c l e r k ................... Statistical c l e r k ............................ Statistical clerk, advertising. . . Stock-transfer c l e r k ................... Trust-savings-account clerk . . . Check-processing clerk 1 . . . . Accounting c l e r k ......................... Dividend-deposit-voucher 216587010 4712 Booking c le r k ............................... 271 271 4712 4699 4712 4753 4753 4712 4794 Posting clerk.................................. Trust-securities clerk................... Voucher c le r k ............................... Paper-control c le r k ...................... Shipping-order c le r k ................... Letter-of-credit clerk ................... Planimeter o p e r a t o r ................... 271 271 271 290 290 271 285 216587014 219362062 219362066 219367022 219367030 219387018 Digitized 219387022 for FRASER D .O .T . N um ber SOC Code D . O . T . T it l e 219462010 219467010 219487010 4791 4795 4799 Coupon c l e r k ................................ Grading c l e r k ................................ Tax clerk 1 ...................................... 269 287 271 219587010 221367022 221382010 221584010 221687014 222367066 222387014 222387022 222387050 222387054 4712 4757 4794 4794 7820 4754 4753 4753 4753 '4753 Parimutuel-ticket checker . . . . Industrial-order clerk................... Chart clerk ...................................... Chart ch a n g er................................ Ticket p u ller................................... Truckload c h e c k e r ...................... Car c h e c k e r ................................... Gun-repair clerk............................. Shipping and receiving clerk . . Sorter-pricer................................... 271 290 285 285 290 290 290 290 290 290 222485010 222567010 222567014 222587010 4753 4753 4753 4753 290 290 290 222587018 222587034 222587058 222687022 222687030 230363010 4753 4753 4753 4753 4756 4743 Milk-receiver, tank truck . . . . Grain elevator c l e r k ................... Ship r u n n e r ................................... Aircraft-equipment-and-accessories assem bler............................. Distributing c le r k ......................... Route-delivery c l e r k ................... Vault w o r k e r ................................ Routing c l e r k ................................ Shipping c h e c k e r ......................... Rural-mail carrier......................... 230367010 235222010 4743 2390 235462010 235562014 4732 4732 235662014 235662018 235662022 235662026 4732 4732 4732 4739 237267010 4649 237367010 4645 237367018 237367022 237367026 237367038 237367042 237367046 237367050 238167010 238167014 4649 4645 4649 4645 4649 4649 4649 4644 4644 238362014 4644 238367010 238367014 238367018 238367022 238367026 238367030 238367034 239227010 4644 4644 4644 4649 4644 4644 4649 2390 239267010 239367018 4122 4742 Mail c a r r ie r ................................... Private-branch-exchange service a d v ise r ................................ Central-office op erator................ Switchboard operator, police d istr ic t......................................... Communication-center operator. Directory-assistance operator. . Telephone operator...................... Telephone-answering-service operator ...................................... Information clerk, automobile clu b ................................................ Appointment c l e r k ...................... Page 290 290 290 290 290 290 275 275 288 288 288 288 288 288 288 278 278 Information c le r k ......................... Information c le r k ......................... Land-leasing exam iner................ R ecep tio n ist................................... Referral-and-information aide. . Telephone-quotation clerk. . . . Tourist-information assistant . . Travel c l e r k ................................... Travel counselor, automobile clu b ................................................ Reservation c le r k ......................... 278 278 278 278 278 278 278 279 Gate a g e n t ...................................... Reservation c le r k ......................... Reservations a g e n t...................... Space scheduler............................. Ticket a g e n t................................... Travel c l e r k ................................... Scheduler......................................... Customer-servicerepresentative instructor . . . Placer ................................................ Mail-distribution-scheme examin e r ................................................ 279 279 279 278 279 279 278 279 279 130 255 275 Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) lndex/505 D .O .T . N um ber SOC Code 243367014 245362012 248362010 248367014 248367022 248382010 249262010 249367038 4742 4794 4753 4753 4753 4644 4649 4712 249367074 249367082 D . O . T . T itle Page 275 285 290 290 290 279 278 4795 4645 Post-office clerk ............................ Medical-record c le r k ................... Incoming-freight c le r k ................ Booking c le r k ............................... Container coord in ator................ Ticketing c l e r k ............................ Policyholder-information clerk . Foreclosure clerk, motion-picture l o a n s .................................. Teacher aide 2 ............................... Park a id e ......................................... 249367086 249467010 250157010 250257010 250357010 250357014 250357018 251157010 251257010 252157010 4795 4364 4123 4122 4123 4123 4123 4124 4124 4369 Satellite-instruction facilitator . Information clerk-cashier . . . . Superintendent, s a l e s ................ Sales agent, in surance................ Building consultant...................... Leasing agent, residence . . . . Sales agent, real estate................ Sales agent, se cu ritie s................ Sales agent, financial services . Travel a g e n t.................................. 287 253 259 255 259 259 259 263 263 265 261354010 261357046 4346 4346 261 261357058 261357062 261357066 4346 4351 4346 261357070 261357074 4359 4346 270357038 277357046 4234 4343 279357054 4359 Salesperson, c o r s e t s ................... Salesperson, infants’ and children’s w e a r ......................... Salesperson, m illin ery................ Salesperson, s h o e s ...................... Salesperson, wom en’s apparel and accessories......................... Salesperson, yard g o o d s............. Salesperson, leather-and-suede apparel-and-accessories. . . . Salesperson, stereo equipment . Salesperson, phonograph records and taperecording . . . . Salesperson, general merchand i s e ................................................. 271 287 278 261 261 261 261 261 261 261 261 SOC Code D . O . T . T itle 313361034 313381022 313381030 313381034 5214 5214 5214 5214 Garde m an ger............................... Cook, b arb ecu e............................ Cook, school cafeteria................ Ice-cream chef............................... 308 308 308 308 315361010 315361018 315361022 315371010 315381010 315381014 315381018 315381022 315381026 316681010 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 5214 6871 C o o k ............................................... Cook, psychiatric hospital. . . . Cook, s t a t io n ............................... Cook, m e s s .................................. C o o k ............................................... Cook, larder.................................. Cook, railroad............................... Cook, third...................................... Second cook and b a k e r ............. Butcher, m e a t............................... 308 308 308 308 308 308 308 308 308 414 316684018 316684022 319464014 320137010 320137014 323687010 323687014 323687018 330371010 330371014 5217 5217 5219 1351 1351 5242 5242 5242 5252 5252 Meat c u t t e r .................................. Meat-cutter apprentice................ Vending-machine attendant. . . Manager, boarding house . . . . Manager, lodging facilities . . . Cleaner, h o s p ita l......................... Cleaner, housekeeping................ H o u se c le a n e r ............................... B a r b e r ............................................ Barber apprentice......................... 414 414 373 32 331674010 331674014 332271010 332271014 332271018 332361010 333071010 333271010 339361010 339371010 5253 5253 5253 5253 5253 5253 5253 5253 5253 5253 M an icurist...................................... Fingernail fo rm er......................... C osm etologist............................... Cosmetologist apprentice . . . . Hair sty list...................................... Wig d r e s s e r .................................. Make-up artist............................... Body-make-up a r tis t................... Mortuary b ea u tic ia n ................... E lectrologist.................................. 325 325 325 325 325 325 325 325 325 325 339371014 3506771010 350677026 350677030 352167010 352367010 352677018 354374010 354377010 354677010 5253 5213 5213 5213 5269 5257 5213 3660 5236 5236 Scalp-treatment operator . . . . Mess a tte n d a n t............................ Steward/stewardess, wi n e . . . . W aiter/w aitress............................ Director, s o c ia l ............................ Airplane-flight attendant............. Waiter/waitress, clu b ................... Nurse, practical............................ Birth a tte n d a n t............................ First-aid a tte n d a n t...................... 325 310 310 310 116 327 310 316 316 316 355377014 355377018 355674010 355674014 355674018 358687010 359677010 359677018 359677026 365361010 5236 5233 5264 5236 5236 5244 5264 5264 5264 6854 Psychiatric a id e ............................ Mental-retardation a i d e ............. Child-care attendant, school . . Nurse a id e ...................................... O rderly............................................ Change-house attendant............. Attendant, children’s institution. Nursery school attendant . . . . Playroom attendant...................... Luggage r e p a ire r......................... 316 316 323 316 316 319 323 323 323 426 365361014 372137010 372167018 372363010 372367010 6854 5112 5112 5132 5132 426 303 303 303 372367014 5133 Shoe r e p a ir e r ............................... Correction officer, h e a d ............. Jailer, c h i e f ................................... Protective o ffic e r ......................... Community service officer, pat r o l ............................................... J a ile r ............................................... Page 32 319 319 319 321 321 261 290477010 290477014 290477018 292353010 292363010 292463010 292483010 292667010 294567010 299377010 4362 4362 4362 8218 8218 8218 8218 8218 4364 4359 Coupon-redemption clerk . . . . Sales c le r k ...................................... Sales clerk, f o o d ......................... Driver, sales r o u t e ...................... Newspaper-delivery driver . . . Lunch-truck d river...................... Coin c o lle c to r ............................... Driver helper, sales route . . . . Auction c l e r k ............................... Platform a tte n d a n t...................... 261 261 261 458 458 458 458 458 253 261 299467010 299474010 299677010 310357010 311477018 311477022 311477026 311477030 311674018 312474010 4362 4490 4362 5213 5213 5213 5213 5213 5213 5212 Layaway clerk............................... Optician, dispensing 2 ................ Sales a tte n d a n t............................ Wine steward/stewardess . . . . Waiter/waitress, b a r ................... Waiter/waitress, dining car . . . Waiter/waitress, fo r m a l............. Waiter/waitress, informal . . . . Waiter/waitress, buffet................ Bartender......................................... 261 187 261 310 310 310 310 310 310 306 312477010 312677010 313281010 313361014 313361018 313361030 5212 5212 5214 5214 5214 5214 Bar a tte n d a n t............................... Taproom attendant...................... Chef de f r o i d ............................... C o o k ............................................... Cook apprentice............................ Cook, specialty, foreign fo o d . . 306 306 308 308 308 308 D .O .T . N um ber 303 297 506/Occupational Outlook Handbook D .O .T . N um ber s o c Code D . O . T . T itle 372563010 372567010 372567014 372667010 5144 5144 5133 5144 Armored-car guard and driver . Armored-car gu ard ...................... Guard, immigration...................... Airline security representative . 301 301 297 301 372667014 372667018 372667030 372667034 372667038 372677010 373134010 373167010 373167014 5144 5133 5144 5144 5144 5133 5111 5111 5111 301 297 301 301 301 297 299 299 373167018 5111 B odyguard...................................... Correction officer......................... Gate t e n d e r .................................. Guard, se c u r ity ............................ Merchant p a tro ller...................... Patrol c o n d u c to r ......................... Fire c a p ta in ................................... Battalion ch ief............................... Captain, fire-prevention bureau............................................... Fire m arshal................................... 373267010 373267014 373267018 373363010 373364010 373367010 373663010 5122 5122 5122 5123 5123 5122 5123 299 299 299 299 299 299 375133010 375137010 5112 5112 375137014 5112 Fire in sp e cto r............................... Fire m arshal................................... Fire-investigation lieutenant . . Fire c h ie fs a id e............................ Fire fighter...................................... Fire in sp e cto r............................... Fire fighter, crash, fire, and rescue ......................................... Police sergeant, precinct 1 . . . Commander, identification and records......................................... Desk o f fic e r .................................. 375137018 5112 375137026 375163010 5112 5112 375163014 375167010 5132 5112 375167014 5112 375167022 375167030 5112 5112 375167034 375167038 5112 5112 375167042 375167046 375263010 5132 5112 5132 375263014 375263018 375267010 375267014 375267018 375267022 375267030 5132 5132 5132 5132 5132 5132 5132 375363010 375367010 375384010 5132 5133 5132 376667010 377134010 5144 5112 377137010 5134 Police lieutenant, community re la tio n s...................................... Traffic se r g e a n t............................ Commanding officer, motorized squad............................................ Pilot, highway p atrol................... Commanding officer, homicide squad............................................ Commanding officer, investigation division ............................... D etective c h i e f ............................ Launch commander, harbor p olice............................................ Police captain, p r e c in c t............. Police lieutenant, p a tr o l............. Page 299 299 299 303 303 303 303 303 303 303 303 303 303 303 303 303 Traffic l i e u t e n a n t .............................. 303 303 Accident-prevention-squad police officer................................... Police officer 1............................... State-highway police officer. . . D etec tiv e......................................... D etective, narcotics and v ic e. . Investigator, n arcotics................ Investigation, v i c e ...................... Police inspector 2 ......................... 303 303 303 303 303 303 303 303 Special a g e n t ............................... Border g u a r d ............................... Police officer 2............................... Police officer, identification and records......................................... B o u n c e r ......................................... Supervisor, identification and co m m u n ication s...................... Deputy sheriff, commander, civil d iv is io n ............................ 303 297 303 301 303 303 D .O .T . N um ber SOC Code 377137014 5134 377137018 377167010 377264010 5134 5134 5132 379263014 379667010 379687010 5149 5144 5122 381687014 5244 381687018 381687022 381687026 381687030 381687034 382664010 5244 5244 5244 5244 5244 5244 389667010 389683010 389687014 401161010 402161010 403161010 5244 5244 5244 5513 5513 5513 403161014 404161010 405161010 405161014 5513 5513 5515 5515 D . O . T . T it l e Deputy sheriff, commander, criminal and patrol................... Deputy, c o u r t ................................ Deputy sheriff, c h i e f ................... Identification o f f ic e r ................... Public-safety o f f i c e r ................... Golf-course r a n g e r ...................... Fire-extinguisher-sprinkler insp ecto r......................................... Cleaner, commercial or institutio n a l............................................. Cleaner, in d u str ia l...................... Cleaner, laboratory equipment . Cleaner, w a l l ................................ Patch w o r k e r ................................ Waxer. flo o r ................................... J a n it o r ............................................ Page 303 303 303 303 303 301 299 319 319 319 319 319 319 319 S e x t o n ............................................ Sweeper-cleaner, industrial . . . Cleaner, w in d o w ......................... Farmer, cash g r a in ...................... Farmer, v e g e t a b le ...................... Farmer, tree-fruit-and-nut crops ............................................ Farmer, vine-fruit c r o p s............. Farmer, field c r o p ...................... Bonsai cu ltu r ist............................. Horticultural-specialty grower, field ................................................ 319 319 319 329 329 329 329 329 329 329 329 329 329 329 329 329 329 329 329 329 405161018 5515 405361010 407161010 410161010 410161014 410161018 411161010 411161014 411161018 412161010 5515 5512 5514 5514 5514 5514 5514 5514 5514 Horticultural-specialty grower, in sid e............................................ Plant p r o p a g a to r......................... Farmer, diversified crops . . . . Animal b r e e d e r ............................ Fur fa rm er...................................... Livestock rancher : ................ Canary b r e e d e r ............................. Poultry b r e e d e r ............................. Poultry farm er................................ Game-bird farm er......................... 413161010 413161014 413161018 421161010 446161010 446161014 452134010 452167010 452364014 452367010 5514 5514 5514 5512 5514 5514 5111 5122 5123 5122 Beekeeper ...................................... Reptile farm er................................ Worm g r o w e r ................................ Farmer, g en era l............................ Fish f a r m e r ................................... Shellfish grow er............................. Smoke jumper supervisor . . . . Fire w a r d e n ................................... Smoke jum per................................ Fire lo o k o u t................................... 329 329 329 329 329 329 299 299 299 452367014 452687014 600260018 600280022 600280026 600280030 5122 5123 7329 6813 6813 6813 299 299 422 600280034 600280038 600280042 600281010 6813 6813 6813 6130 Fire ranger...................................... Forest-fire fig h ter......................... Model maker, firearms................ M achinist......................................... Machinist apprentice................... Machinist apprentice, automot i v e ................................................ Machinist, a u to m o tiv e................ Machinist, experim ental............. Maintenance m achinist................ Fluid-power m ec h a n ic................ 299 422 422 422 422 422 422 422 Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) lndex/507 SOC Code 600380010 601280014 601280018 601280022 601280030 7329 6811 6811 6811 6811 601280034 601280038 601280042 601280046 601280050 6811 6817 6811 6811 6811 601280058 601281010 601281014 601281026 601380010 601381010 601381014 601381022 601381026 601381030 6811 6811 6811 6811 6829 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 D . O . T . T itle Fixture m aker............................... Die maker, trim ............................ Die maker, wire drawing . . . . Die s in k e r ...................................... Mold maker, die-casting and plastic m old in g ......................... Tap-and-die-maker technician . Template maker, extrusion die . Tool maker...................................... Tool-and-die maker...................... Tool-and-die-maker apprentice . Tool-maker apprentice................ Die maker, bench, stamping . . Die-try-out worker, stamping. . Tool maker, b e n c h ...................... Carbide o p e r a to r ......................... Die finisher...................................... Die m a k e r ...................................... Die-maker a p p r e n tic e ................ Plastic tool maker......................... Plastic-fixture b u ild e r ................ Page 422 428 428 428 428 428 428 428 428 428 428 428 428 428 428 428 428 428 428 428 428 428 6111 6111 Saw m aker...................................... Die maker, e le c tr o n ic ................ Router set-up operator, numerical control.................................. Automobile m e c h a n ic ................ Automobile-mechanic apprent i c e ............................................... Construction-equipment mec h a n ic ......................................... Automobile-service-station mec h a n ic ......................................... Automotive-cooling-system diagnostic technician................... Air-conditioning mechanic . . . Brake repairer............................... 620281034 620281038 620281042 620281046 620281050 620281054 620281058 620281062 620281066 620281070 6111 6111 6117 6111 6112 6114 6112 6111 6111 6111 Carburetor m echanic................... Front-end m e c h a n ic ................... Logging-equipment m echanic. . Maintenance m echanic................ Mechanic, industrial truck . . . M otorcycle r e p a ir e r ................... Tractor m echan ic......................... Transmission m e c h a n ic ............. Tune-up m e c h a n ic ...................... Vehicle-fuel-systems converter. 336 336 345 341 341 336 341 336 336 336 620364010 6115 Squeak, rattle, and leak repairer............................................ Automobile-radiator mechanic . Mechanic, endless track vehi cle ............................................... Repairer, h e a v y ............................ Brake adjuster............................... Clutch rebuilder............................ M otorcycle subassembly repairer............................................ Used-car renovator...................... Field-service representative. . . Flight e n g in e e r ............................ 336 339 130 449 Air-conditioning check-out mec h a n ic ......................................... 334 601381034 601381042 605360010 6811 6811 7326 620261010 620261012 6111 6111 620261022 6117 620261030 6700 620261034 6111 620281010 620281026 620381010 620381014 6111 6117 620381022 620684018 620684022 620684026 6111 6111 6111 6114 620684034 621221010 621261018 6111 2390 8250 621281010 6116 438 336 336 345 336 336 336 336 339 336 345 336 336 336 D .O .T . N um ber SOC Code 621281014 6116 621281018 6116 621281022 621281026 621381010 621381014 621684014 623281018 6116 6113 6116 6116 6179 6112 623281026 D .O .T . N um ber 6112 624281010 624281014 6118 6118 624361014 6118 624381010 624381014 624381018 6118 6118 6812 624684010 625261010 625281010 625281014 6118 6881 6112 6112 625281022 625361010 629281018 633261010 633261014 6111 6112 6118 6154 6174 633281010 633281014 6174 6174 633281018 633281022 6174 6174 633281030 6174 637261010 6156 637261014 6160 637261018 637261026 637261030 637381014 638261010 6179 6160 6160 6160 6178 638261014 638261018 6178 6178 638281014 6178 638281018 638281022 639281014 650582010 650582014 650582018 6178 6178 6179 7642 7642 7642 650582022 650682010 7642 7642 650685010 7642 D . O . T . T itle Airframe-and-power-plant mec h a n ic ......................................... Airframe-and-power-plant-mechanic a p p r e n tic e ................... Experimental mechanic 2 . . . . Mechanic, field and service . . . Flight-test shop mechanic . . . . Mechanic, aircraft accessories . Reclamation w o r k e r ................... Machinist apprentice, marine e n g in e ......................................... Machinist, marine engine . . . . Farm-equipment mechanic 1 . . Farm-equipment-mechanic app r e n t ic e ...................................... Sprinkler-irrigation-equipment m e c h a n ic .................................. Assembly r e p a ir e r ...................... Farm-equipment mechanic 2 . . Farm-machinery set-up mec h a n ic ......................................... G reaser............................................ Diesel-engine tester...................... Diesel m echanic............................ Diesel-mechanic apprentice . . . Page 334 334 334 334 334 334 334 341 341 343 343 343 343 343 343 343 341 341 341 Fuel-injection serv icer................ 336, 341 341 Diesel-engine erector................... Dairy-equipment repairer . . . . 343 Assembly tech n ician ................... 353 Mail-processing-equipment me371 c h a n ic ......................................... 371 Cash-register s e r v ic e r ................ Dictating-transcribing-machine 371 servicer ...................................... 371 Office-machine s e r v ic e r ............. Office-machine-servicer appren371 t i c e ............................................... 371 Statistical-machine servicer. . . Air-conditioning installerservicer, window u n it ............. Environmental-control-system installer-servicer...................... Gas-appliance servicer................ Refrigeration m e c h a n ic ............. Solar-energy-system in staller. . Refrigeration unit repairer. . . . Automated equipment en gin eer-tech n ician ................ Machinery e r e c t o r ...................... Manufacturer’s service represen tative...................................... Maintenance m echanic................ M illw rig h t...................................... Millwright a p p r e n tic e ................ Coin-machine-service repairer . Linotype o p e r a t o r ...................... Monotype-keyboard operator. . Photocomposing-machine opera to r............................................... Phototypesetter operator . . . . Equipment monitor, phototypes e t t in g ......................................... Typesetting-machine tender. . . 356 364 356 364 364 364 368 368 368 366 368 368 373 415 415 415 415 415 415 508/Occupational Outlook Handbook D .O .T . N um ber SOC Code 652585010 7642 652665014 652685022 7644 7644 652685086 652685106 653360010 653360014 653360018 653380010 653382010 653562010 7644 7642 7449 7449 7449 7449 7649 7449 653585010 653662010 7649 7449 653680010 653682010 7449 6844 653682014 653682018 653682022 7649 7449 7449 653685010 653685014 7649 7649 653685022 7649 653685026 7649 653685030 683222010 689222010 692685146 693281026 700281010 700281014 700281022 700381030 7649 2390 2390 7679 6113 6822 6822 6822 6822 700381042 700381046 706381010 706381030 706381046 709684086 712281010 712381014 6822 6822 6174 6174 6111 7114 6865 6865 712381018 712381022 6865 6865 712381026 712381030 712681022 715221010 720281010 720281014 720281018 721281010 6865 6865 6812 2390 6155 6155 6155 6152 6151 722281010 Digitized723381010 for FRASER 6156 D . O . T . T itle Photolettering-machine operat o r ............................................... Strickler a tte n d a n t...................... Cutting-and-printing-machine operator ...................................... Stencil-machine operator . . . . Type-proof reproducer................ Casing-in-line s e t t e r ................... Folding-machine setter................ Gathering-machine setter . . . . Perfect-binder s e t t e r ................... Folding-machine operator. . . . Side-stitching-machine operator . Page 415 SOC Code 723381014 723584010 726261010 6156 6156 3990 726281010 726381014 3990 6151 Vacuum cleaner repairer . . . . Appliance r e p a ir e r...................... Electronics assembler, developm e n ta l.......................................... Electrician, re se a rch ................... Production repairer...................... 727684022 729281010 729281022 729381018 730281014 7714 6151 6156 6159 6172 Lead b u r n e r ................................... Audio-video repairer................... Electric-tool repairer................... Street-light repairer...................... Accordion rep airer...................... 235 235 348, 350, 355 446 355 356 387 369 730281018 6881 730281026 730281038 730281050 730281054 730361010 730361014 730381010 730381026 730381034 6172 6172 6172 6172 6172 6172 6172 6172 6172 Electric-organ inspector and r e p a ir e r ...................................... Fretted-instrument repairer . . . Piano technician............................. Violin repairer................................ Wind-instrument repairer . . . . Piano tuner...................................... Pipe-organ tuner and repairer. . Accordion tuner............................. Harp regulator................................ Metal-reed t u n e r ......................... 355 369 369 369 369 369 369 369 369 369 730381038 730381042 730381058 730681010 730684022 730684026 730684094 739381018 739381022 739687198 6172 6172 6172 6172 6172 6172 6172 6811 6811 5244 421 421 421 415 412 412 412 412 412 412 Collating-machine operator . . . Saddle-stitching-machine operat o r ............................................... Stitching-machine se tte r ............. Book-sewing-machine operator 2 ................................... Covering-machine operator . . . Head-bander-and-liner operator . Tinning-machine set-up operat o r ............................................... Bindery w o rk er............................ Book-sewing-machine operator 1 ................................... Magazine repairer......................... 412 412 Rounding-and-backing-machine o p era to r...................................... Spiral binder................................... Instructor, w eaving...................... Instructor......................................... Saddle-and-side wire stitcher . . Rocket-engine m echanic............. J e w e le r ............................................ Jeweler a p p ren tice...................... Silversm ith...................................... Locket m a k e r ............................... 412 412 130 130 412 422 419 419 419 419 412 412 412 412 412 412 412 412 Ring maker...................................... Sample maker 1 ............................ Aliner, typewriter......................... Repairer, ty p e w r iter................... W heelw right................................... Torch-straightener-and heater . Dental cera m ist............................ Contour wire specialist, dentu r e ............................................... Dental-laboratory technician . . Dental-laboratory-technician apprentice................................... 419 419 371 371 336 446 417 Orthodontic gold-band maker. . Orthodontic technician................ Medical-instrument-cable fabric a t o r ............................................ Instructor, watch assembly . . . Radio repairer............................... Tape-recorder repairer................ Television-and-radio repairer. . Automotive-generator-andstarter rep airer......................... Instrument repairer...................... Electrical-appliance repairer . . 417 417 D .O .T . N um ber 417 417 417 442 130 355 355 355 336 350 356 740221010 761281014 779684058 780381010 780381014 2390 3220 6413 6853 6853 780381018 780381022 6853 6853 780381026 780381030 780681010 6853 6854 6853 780684122 781381018 783361010 783381018 783381022 783381026 788261010 6179 6854 6854 6854 6854 6854 6854 788381010 788381014 789222010 6854 6854 2390 801361014 801361018 6473 6473 801361022 801381010 6473 6473 D . O . T . T it l e Page 356 356 Organ-pipe v o icer......................... Percussion-instrument repairer. Tuner, percussion......................... Piano regulator-inspector . . . . Bow rehairer................................... Chip t u n e r ...................................... Tone regulator................................ Die maker . ................................... Die-maker a p p r e n tic e ................ Venetian-blind cleaner and repairer............................................. 369 369 369 369 369 369 369 428 428 Instructor, d e c o r a tin g ................ Experimental-box te ste r ............. Stone repairer................................ Automobile u p h o lsterer............. Automobile-upholsterer apprent i c e ................................................ Furniture u p h o ls te r e r ................ Furniture-upholsterer apprent i c e ................................................ Hearse u ph olsterer...................... Pad h a n d ......................................... Upholsterer, in sid e ...................... 130 237 379 430 Upholstery repairer...................... Leather stamper............................. Custom-leather-products maker . Harness m a k e r ............................. Luggage m a k e r ............................. Saddle m a k e r ................................ Orthopedic-boot-and-shoe designer and m aker...................... C obbler............................................. Shoemaker, c u s t o m ................... Instructor, apparel manufacture . Structural-steel worker................ Structural steel-worker apprent i c e ................................................ Tank setter...................................... Assembler, metal building. . . . 319 430 430 430 430 426 430 430 426 426 426 426 426 426 426 426 130 401 401 401 401 Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) lndex/509 D .O .T . N um ber SOC Code D . O . T . T itle 801684026 804281010 804281014 805261010 805261014 805361010 6473 6824 6824 6814 6814 6814 Reinforcing-metal worker . . . . Sheet-metal worker...................... Sheet-metal-worker apprentice . Boilermaker a p p r en tic e............. Boilermaker 1 ............................... Boilerhouse m e c h a n ic ................ 401 399 399 411 411 411 Boilermaker fitter......................... Boilermaker 2 ............................... Instructor, rocket-motor case assem bly...................................... Mechanic, aircraft rigging and c o n t r o ls ...................................... New-car get-ready mechanic . . Automobile-accessories in s t a lle r ...................................... Pressure sealer-and-tester. . . . Aircraft body rep airer................ Shop e s tim a to r ............................ Truck-body builder...................... 411 411 339 339 339 334 339 339 339 336 6116 Truck-body-builder apprentice . Automobile-body cu stom izer. . Automobile-body repairer. . . . Bonded structures repairer . . . Frame r e p a ir e r ............................ Service m echan ic......................... Frame straightener...................... Muffler in staller............................ Automobile-bumper straightener............................................... Burnisher and bum per................ 6111 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 Floor service worker, spring . . Welder apprentice, arc................ Welder, a r c .................................. Welder, g u n .................................. Welder, ta ck .................................. Welder apprentice, gas................ Welder, g a s .................................. Brazer, assembler......................... Arc c u t t e r ...................................... Thermal cutter, hand 1................ 336 446 446 446 446 446 446 446 446 446 805361014 805381010 806227010 6814 6814 2390 806281038 6116 806361026 806684038 6111 6111 806684110 807261010 807267010 807281010 6116 6116 6115 6115 807281014 807361010 807381010 807381014 807381018 807381022 807484010 807664010 807684010 6115 6115 6115 6179 6115 6115 6115 6111 6115 807684018 807684022 810384010 810384014 810664010 810684010 811684010 811684014 813684010 816364010 816464010 D .O .T . N um ber SOC Code 821361038 821687010 822261010 822261022 822281010 6433 6433 6151 6158 6151 822281014 822281018 6151 6158 822281022 Page 6151 822281026 822281030 6151 6151 130 334 336 Tower er ec to r............................... Steel-post in sta lle r ...................... Electrician, o ffic e......................... Station installer-and-repairer . . Automatic-equipment technicia n ............................................... Central-office rep a irer................ Maintenance mechanic, telephone............................................ Private-branch-exchange repairer............................................ Signal m aintainer......................... Technician, plant and mainten ance............................................ Page 358 358 350 360 350 350 360 350 350 350 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 819384010 819684010 7714 7714 821261010 6151 821261014 821261022 821261026 821281010 821361010 821361018 821361022 821361026 821361030 6433 6159 6433 6151 6433 6433 6433 6433 6433 Thermal cutter, hand 2................ Lead b u rn er................................... Lead-burner a p p r en tic e............. Welder, ex p er im en ta l................ W elder-fitter................................... Welder-fitter ap p ren tice............. W elder-assembler......................... Welder apprentice, combinat io n ............................................... Welder, com bination................... Welder, production l i n e ............ Community-antenna-television line te c h n ic ia n ......................... Line m aintainer............................ Service restorer, emergency . . Trouble shooter 2 ......................... Television-cable installer . . . . Cable installer-repairer................ Line e r e c to r ................................... Line installer, street railway . . Line repairer................................... Line-erector a p p r en tic e............. 339 334 446 446 446 446 446 446 446 446 446 446 358 358 358 358 358 358 358 358 358 358 822281034 6151 822361014 822361018 822361022 822381010 822381014 822381018 6151 6432 6432 6151 6157 6151 822381022 822684010 823261010 6151 7720 6151 Technician, submarine cable equipm ent.................................. Central-office in sta ller................ Protective-signal installer . . . . Protective-signal repairer . . . . Equipment installer...................... Line installer-repairer................ Private-branch-exchange installer............................................ Telegraph-plant maintainer . . . Frame w ir e r .................................. Public-address s e r v ic e r ............. 823261014 823261018 823281010 823281014 823281022 823361010 824261010 824261014 824281010 824281018 6153 6151 6151 6151 6151 6155 6432 6432 6432 6432 Radio interference investigator. Radio m echan ic............................ Avionics technician...................... Electrician, r a d io ......................... Rigger............................................... Television in sta ller...................... E lectrician ...................................... Electrician a p p ren tice................ Airport e le c tr ic ia n ...................... Neon-sign s e r v ic e r ...................... 358 350 350 350 350 355 387 387 387 387 824381010 824681010 825261010 6432 6432 6151 6159 825381030 825381034 827261010 827261014 6432 6432 6156 6156 827361014 827464010 6160 6156 Street-light servicer...................... E lectrician ...................................... Electric-track-switch m aintainer.................................. Automatic-window-seat-andtop-lift repairer......................... E lectricia n ...................................... Electrician a p p r en tic e................ Electrical-appliance servicer . Electrical-appliance-servicer apprentice............................... Refrigeration mechanic . . . . Air-conditioning installer, dome S t i c ...................................... 387 387 825381014 816684010 819281010 819281014 819281022 819361010 819361014 819381010 819384008 336 334 334 339 339 D . O . T . T itle 827661010 828251010 6156 6153 828261010 828261014 828261018 828281010 828281014 6155 6153 6159 6153 6153 828281022 6153 829281014 829281022 6153 6153 350 350 387 387 350 358 350 350 350 350 350 336 387 387 356 356 364 356 Household-appliance installer 356 Electronic-sales-and-service tech n icia n ............................... 348 Electronic-organ technician. . 355 Field en g in eer............................ 348, 353 Senior technician, controls . . 235 Electronics m e c h a n ic ............. 348, 353 Electronics-mechanic apprent i c e ............................................ 348, 353 Radioactivity-instrument maintenance techn ician ................... 348 Electrical repairer......................... 387 Sound tech n icia n ...................... 350 510/Occupational Outlook Handbook D .O .T . N um ber SOC Code D . O . T . T itle 829361010 829361014 840381010 840381014 840381018 840681010 840684010 841381010 842361010 842361014 6157 6157 6442 6442 6442 6442 6442 6443 6424 6424 Cable splicer................................... Cable-splicer apprentice............. P a in te r ............................................ Painter apprentice, shipyard . . Painter, sh ip y a rd ......................... Painter, stage s e tt in g s ................ Glass tinter...................................... Paperhanger ................................... Lather............................................... Lather apprentice......................... 358 358 392 392 392 392 392 392 385 385 842361018 842361022 842361026 842381010 842381014 842664010 842681010 844364010 844364014 844461010 6444 6444 6444 6424 6444 6424 6424 6463 6463 6463 Plasterer ......................................... Plasterer a p p r e n tic e ................... Plasterer, m o ld in g ...................... Dry-wall applicator...................... Stucco m a s o n ............................... T a p e r ............................................... Dry-wall applicator...................... Cement m ason............................... Cement-mason apprentice. . . . Concrete-stone f in is h e r ............. 394 394 394 385 394 385 385 384 384 384 844684010 845381010 845381014 6463 7669 7669 384 444 850663010 850683018 850683022 850683026 850683030 850683038 850683042 8316 8316 8317 8317 8317 8317 8317 Concrete rubber............................ Painter apprentice, autom otive. Painter, transportation equipm e n t ............................................ Dredge operator............................ Dragline op erator......................... Form-grader o p e r a to r ................ Mucking-machine operator . . . Power-shovel operator................ Scraper o p e r a to r ......................... Tower-excavator operator. . . . 444 455 455 455 455 455 455 455 850683046 851663010 853683014 859683010 859683014 860281010 860281014 860381014 860381018 860381022 8317 8317 8317 8312 8312 6422 6422 6422 6422 6422 Utility-tractor operator................ Septic-tank in s t a lle r ................... Heater-planer operator................ Operating en g in ee r...................... Operating-engineer apprentice . Carpenter, m aintenance............. Carpenter, s h i p ............................ Boatbuilder apprentice, wood . Boatbuilder, w o o d ...................... Carpenter......................................... 455 455 455 455 455 381 381 381 381 381 860381026 860381030 860381034 860381038 860381042 860381046 860381050 860381054 860381058 860381062 6422 6422 6422 6422 .6422 6422 6422 6422 6422 6422 Carpenter apprentice................... Carpenter, b rid ge......................... Carpenter, m old............................ Carpenter, railcar......................... Carpenter, r o u g h ......................... Form builder................................... J o in er......................................'. . . Joiner ap p ren tice......................... Shipw right...................................... Shipwright a p p r en tic e................ 381 381 381 381 381 381 381 381 381 381 860381066 860381070 860664010 860681010 860684010 860684014 861361010 861361014 861381010 Digitized for861381014 FRASER 6422 6422 6422 6422 6422 6422 6413 6413 6412 6412 Tank builder and erector . . . . Tank erector................................... Carpenter 1 ................................... Carpenter 2 ................................... Builder, b e a m ............................... Sider ............................................... Composition-stone applicator. . Monument s e t t e r ......................... Acid-tank l i n e r ............................ B r ic k la y e r...................................... 381 381 381 381 381 381 379 379 379 379 Page D .O .T . N um ber SOC Code 861381018 861381022 861381026 6412 6412 6412 831681030 861381038 861381042 861381046 861381050 861381054 861381058 D . O . T . T it l e Page 6413 6413 6413 6463 6463 6414 6414 B r ic k la y e r ...................................... Bricklayer a p p r e n tic e ................ Bricklayer, firebrick and refractory t i l e ...................................... Marble s e t t e r ................................ S to n e m a so n ................................... Stonemason a p p r e n tic e ............. Terrazzo w o r k e r ......................... Terrazzo-worker apprentice. . . Tile s e t t e r ...................................... Tile setter apprentice................... 379 379 379 384 384 384 403 403 861684010 861684014 861684018 862261010 862281010 845681010 850387010 850467010 850663014 850663022 6412 6412 6414 6450 6450 6442 1472 1472 8317 8317 Cupola p a tc h e r ............................. P a tch er............................................. Tile s e t t e r ...................................... Pipe fitter......................................... C oppersm ith................................... Railroad-car le tt e r e r ................... Inspector o f d r e d g in g ................ Grade ch ecker................................ Elevating-grader operator . . . . Motor-grader o p erator................ 379 379 403 396 396 392 40 40 455 455 850683010 850683014 862281014 862281018 862361010 862361014 862361018 862361022 862381014 862381018 8317 8317 6450 6450 6450 6450 6450 6450 6450 6450 Bulldozer o p e r a to r...................... Ditcher o p e r a t o r ......................... Coppersmith a p p ren tice............. Oil-bumer-servicer-and-installer. Furnace in s t a lle r ......................... Gas-main fitter................................ Pipe fitter, diesel engine 1. . . . Steam service in sp e cto r............. Industrial-gas fitte r ...................... Pipe fitter......................................... 455 455 396 364 364 396 396 396 396 396 862381022 862381026 862381030 862381034 862681010 862682010 862684034 6450 6450 6450 6450 6450 6450 396 396 396 396 396 396 863364010 863364014 863381010 6465 6465 6465 Pipe fitter, diesel engine 2 . . . . Pipe-fitter apprentice................... Plumber............................................. Plumber apprentice...................... Plumber............................................. Pipe c u tte r ...................................... W ater-softener servicer-andin s t a lle r ...................................... Insulation-worker apprentice . . Insulation w ork er......................... Cork insulator, refrigeration plant ............................................. 863381014 863664010 863684010 6465 6465 6465 864381010 865361010 865381010 865381014 865684010 866381010 866381014 6462 6464 6464 6464 6115 6468 6468 866684010 869281010 6468 6160 869361018 869381010 869381034 869664014 869683014 6422 6422 6422 6479 6479 Pipe coverer and insulator . . . Blower in s u la to r ......................... Composition-weatherboard a p p lie r ......................................... Carpet la y e r ................................... Mirror in s ta lle r ............................. G la z ie r ............................................. Glazier a p p r e n tic e ...................... Glass in sta ller................................ R o o f e r ............................................. Roofer apprentice......................... Roofer ap plicator......................... Furnace installer-and-repairer, hot a i r ......................................... Sign erector-and-repairer . . . . H ouse r e p a ir e r ............................. Timber fram er................................ Construction worker 1 ................ R igger................................................ 379 379 396 391 391 391 391 391 381 382 389 389 389 339 398 398 398 364 381 381 381 392 455 Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) lndex/511 D .O .T . N um ber so c Code D . O . T . T itle 869684046 869684050 891687010 6560 6424 5244 Roustabout...................................... Sheetrock applicator................... Chimney s w e e p ............................ 405 385 319 891687018 899281014 5244 6130 Project-crew w o r k e r ................... Maintenance repairer, factory or m i l l ......................................... Chimney repairer......................... Maintenance repairer, building. Concrete-mixing-truck driver. . Dump-truck d r iv e r ...................... Explosives-truck d r iv e r ............. Powder-truck d r iv e r ................... Tank-truck driver......................... Tractor-trailer-truck driver . . . 319 Page 363 379 363 458 458 458 458 458 458 899364010 899381010 900683010 902683010 903683010 903683014 903683018 904383010 6412 6179 8213 8213 8213 8213 8213 8212 904683010 905483010 905663010 905663014 905663018 905683010 906683010 906683014 906683018 8212 8213 8213 8213 8212 8213 8214 8214 8214 906683022 8214 909663010 913463010 8212 8215 913463014 913663014 919223010 8215 8215 2390 919663018 919663022 919663026 919687010 921583010 8213 8214 8213 4753 8318 H o stle r ............................................ 452, 458 Bus driver, day-haul or farm ch arter......................................... 452 Bus d r iv e r ...................................... 452 452 Mobile-lounge driver................... Instructor, bus, trolley, and t a x i............................................... 130 458 Driver-utility w ork er................... 458 Escort-vehicle driver................... Tow-truck operator...................... 458 Checker............................................ 290 Transfer-car operator, driver . . 457 921663010 921663014 921663022 921663030 921663038 921663042 921663046 921663054 921663058 921663062 8315 8315 8315 8314 8315 8315 8319 8315 8315 8315 Bridge-or-gantry-crane operator . Cherry-picker operator................ Derrick o p e r a to r ......................... Hoisting en gin eer......................... Locomotive-crane operator . . . Monorail crane operator............. Pneumatic-hoist operator . . . . Tower-crane o p e r a to r ................ Tractor-crane operator................ Truck-crane operator................... 455 455 455 455 455 455 455 455 455 455 921663070 921683042 921683050 921683070 921683078 929583010 929683014 939687018 950362014 950382010 8315 8318 8318 8318 8319 8318 8318 8769 6931 6931 Truck loader, overhead crane . Front-end loader operator. . . . Industrial-truck operator............ Straddle-truck o p e r a to r ............ Transfer-car o p e r a t o r ................ Yard w ork er.................................. Tractor o p e r a t o r ......................... Laborer............................................ Refrigerating e n g in e e r ................ Boiler o p e r a to r ............................ 455 457 457 457 457 457 457 405 432 432 950382018 950382022 950382026 950382030 6931 6932 6931 6931 Gas-engine o p e r a to r ................... Rotary-rig engine operator . . . Stationary engineer...................... Stationary-engineer apprentice . 432 432 432 432 Log-truck d r iv e r ......................... Milk driver...................................... Garbage collector driver............. Truck driver, h e a v y ................... Van d riv e r..................................... Water-truck driver 2 ................... Food-service driver...................... Liquid-fertilizer servicer............. Telephone-directory-distributor driver............................................ Truck driver, l i g h t ...................... 458 458 458 458 458 458 458 458 458 458 D .O .T . N um ber SOC Code 952364010 952381010 952687010 953583010 954382010 6153 6881 5244 8213 6910 954382014 6910 955362010 6910 955382010 955382014 955585010 6910 6910 6910 959367010 959367018 6153 1473 961364010 961667014 962167010 962167014 3240 3280 3719 3240 W aste water-treatment-plant o p era to r..................................... Clarifying-plant operator............ Waste-treatment operator . . . . W aste water-treatment-plant attendant...................................... Electric powerline examiner .- . Energy-conservation represen tative...................................... D o u b le ............................................ Stand-in............................................ Manager, sound e f f e c t s ............ Program assistan t......................... 962361010 962382010 962382014 970281010 970281018 970361014 970381010 970381030 970381034 971261010 6868 3990 3719 6863 6868 6863 6868 6842 6868 6823 Optical-effects layout person . . R ecordist......................................... Sound cu tter.................................. Airbrush artist............................... Photograph r e to u c h e r ................ Repeat c h ie f .................................. Colorist, p hotograp hy................ Retoucher, photoengraving . . . Spotter, p h o to g ra p h ic................ Etcher, hand.................................. 971381010 6842 971381014 971381018 971381022 971381026 971381030 971381034 971381038 971381040 6842 7644 6842 6842 6842 6842 6842 6842 971381050 6842 Etcher apprentice, photoe n g r a v in g .................................. Etcher, photoen gravin g............. Offset-plate m a k e r ...................... Photoengraver............................... Photoengraver apprentice . . . . Photoengraving fin ish e r ............ Photoengraving printer................ Photoengraving p r o o fe r ............. Photoengraving-proofer apprent i c e ............................................... Stripper............................................ 971381054 971382014 971382018 6842 7444 7644 971382022 7444 971685010 972281010 972281014 972281018 972282010 972282014 7644 6842 6842 6842 7444 7444 972381010 972381014 6842 6842 972381022 972381026 972382010 6868 6842 7444 D . O . T . T itle Trouble shooter 1 ......................... Switch in s p e c to r ......................... Hydroelectric-plant maintainer. Drip pum per.................................. Pump-station operator, water w orks............................................ Water-treatment-plant operator. Stripper apprentice...................... Photographer, photoengraving . Repeat-photocomposing-machine o p e r a to r ......................... Step-and-repeat reduction camera operator............................... Roller-print t e n d e r ...................... Process a r t i s t ............................... Process stripper............................ Process-artist apprentice............ Scanner o p era to r......................... Laser-beam-color-scanner opera to r............................................... Lithographic plate maker . . . . Lithographic-plate-maker app r e n t ic e ...................................... Stripper, photolithographic . . . Transferrer...................................... Photographer apprentice, lithographic......................................... Page 387 387 319 458 434 434 434 434 434 434 358 42 226 226 237 226 425 237 237 425 425 421 425 421 425 421 421 421 421 421 421 421 421 421 421 421 421 421 421 421 421 421 421 421 421 421 421 421 421 421 421 512/Occupational Outlook Handbook D .O .T . N um ber s o c Code D . O . T . T itle 972382014 973381010 973381014 973381018 973381026 7444 6841 6841 6841 6841 Photographer, lithographic . . . C o m p o sito r ................................... Compositor apprentice................ Job p rin ter...................................... Job-printer a p p ren tice................ 421 415 415 415 415 973381026 973381030 976361010 976380010 6841 6841 6868 7671 415 415 425 976381010 976381014 976381018 976382010 976382014 976382018 6868 6849 6868 7671 7671 7671 Make-up arranger......................... Proofsheet corrector................... Reproduction technician............. Computer-controlled-color-photograph-printer operator . . . Film laboratory technician 1 . . Microfiche d u p lic a to r ................ Projection printer......................... Camera operator, t i t l e ................ Color-printer op era to r................ Film d e v e lo p e r ............................ 976382022 976382026 6868 7671 976385010 976665010 976681010 7671 7671 6863 Photostat o p e r a to r...................... Computer-output-microfiche o p era to r...................................... Microfilm p r o c e s s o r ................... Take-down sorter......................... D e v e lo p e r ...................................... Page 425 425 425 425 425 425 425 425 425 425 425 425 D .O .T . N um ber SOC Code 976682010 976682014 7671 7671 976682018 976682022 976684014 7671 7671 7671 976685014 976685018 976685022 976685026 976685030 976687018 7671 7671 7671 7671 7671 4753 977381010 977381014 979361010 979381018 6844 6844 6849 6868 979381022 6868 979382022 979682014 7644 7644 D . O . T . T it l e Film p r in te r ................................... Printer operator, black-andw h ite ............................................ Rectification p r in t e r ................... Microfilm-camera operator . . . Film laboratory technician . . . Page 425 425 425 425 425 D eveloper, a u to m a tic ................ Film laboratory technician 2 . . Mounter, a u to m a tic ................... Print developer, automatic . . . Utility worker, film processing . Photofinishing laboratory w o rk er......................................... B o o k b in d e r ................................... Bookbinder, a p p r en tic e............. Document r e sto r e r...................... Paste-up copy-camera operator. 290 412 412 140 421 Paste-up copy-camera operator apprentice................................... P a n to g ra p h er................................ Blueprinting-machine operator . 421 421 421 425 425 425 425 425 Index to Occupations Page A Account executives, s e e : Securities and financial services sales workers.................................................................263 Accountants and auditors ...........................................................37 Accounting clerks ....................................................................... 271 Actors, directors, and producers ........................................... 226 Actuaries ..........................................................................................72 Administrative and managerial occupations ........................... 23 Administrative support occupations, including clerica l............................................................................................. 269 Administrators, health services, s e e : Health serv ices m a n a g e r s.................................................................................28 Administrators, school, s e e : School principals and assistant p r in c ip a ls....................................................................... 34 Adult and vocational education teachers ...............................130 Aerospace engineers .................................................................... 63 Affirmative action coordinators, s e e : Personnel, training, and labor relations s p e c ia lis ts ..................................45 Agents and brokers, insurance ................................................. 255 Agents and brokers, real estate .............................................. 259 Agricultural commodity inspectors, s e e : Inspec tors and compliance officers, expect construc tion ...................................................................................................... 42 Agricultural equipment mechanics, s e e : Farm equipment m ec h a n ics.................................................................343 Agricultural, forestry, and fishing occupations ..................329 Agricultural quarantine inspectors, s e e : Inspec tors and compliance officers, except construc tion .......................................................................................................42 Agricultural scientists .................................................................... 87 Agronomists, s e e : Agricultural scientists .............................. 87 Air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration me chanics ............................................................................................. 364 Air-conditioning mechanics, automotive .............................. 336 Air safety inspectors, s e e : Inspectors and compli ance officers, except co n str u c tio n ........................................... 42 Air traffic controllers ................................................................. 241 ........................... 334 Aircraft mechanics and engine specialists Aircraft pilots .................................................................................449 Airline reservation and ticket agents .....................................279 Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors, s e e : Inspectors and compliance officers, except con struction............................................................................................. 42 Animal breeders, s e e : Agricultural scientists ........................ 87 Animal scientists, s e e : Agricultural scientists ..................... 87 Animators, s e e : Graphic and fine artists ...............................221 Announcers ....................................................................................210 Anthropologists, s e e : Social scientists and urban planners............................................................................................. 99 Apiculturists, s e e : Agricultural scientists ...............................87 Appliance repairers, home ........................................................356 Applications programmers, s e e : Computer pro grammers ....................................................................................... 244 Arbitrators, s e e : Personnel, training, and labor relations sp e c ia lists....................................................................... 45 Arc welders, s e e : Welders and cutters ..................................446 Architects .......................................................................................... 55 Archivists and curators .............................................................. 140 Armed Forces occupations ........................................................464 Page Art directors, s e e : Designers .................................................... 218 Artists, s e e : Graphic and fine artists .....................................221 Assemblers, precision .................................................................442 Assistant principals ....................................................................... 34 Assistant professors, s e e : College and university fa c u lty ..............................................................................................132 Associate professors, s e e : College and university fa c u lty ..............................................................................................132 Astronomers ....................................................................................84 Astrophysicists, s e e : Physicists and astronomers ...............84 Attorneys, s e e : Lawyers ..............................................................94 Audio control engineers, s e e : Broadcast techni cians ................................................................................................ 243 Audiologists .................................................................................... 179 Auditors ............................................................................................. 37 Automatic equipment technicians, s e e : Communi cations equipment m e c h a n ic s ................................................. 350 .............................. 336 Automotive and motorcycle mechanics Automotive body repairers ........................................................339 Automotive painters, s e e : Transportation equip ment p ain ters.................................................................................444 Auxiliary equipment operators, data processing, s e e : Computer and peripheral equipment opera tors ................................................................................................... 273 Aviation safety inspectors, s e e : Inspectors and compliance officers, except c o n stru ctio n .............................. 42 B Bank officers and managers ........................................................26 Bank tellers ....................................................................................269 Barbers ............................................................................................. 321 Bartenders ....................................................................................... 306 Beauticians, s e e : Cosmetologists and related w o r k e r s .......................................................................................... 325 Beauty operators, s e e : Cosmetologists and related w o r k e r s .......................................................................................... 325 Bibliographers, s e e : Librarians .............................................. 137 Biochemists, s e e : Biological scientists .....................................88 Biological scientists ....................................................................... 88 Biologists, s e e : Biological scientists ........................................88 Blue-collar worker supervisors .............................................. 408 Body repairers, automotive .................................................... 339 Boilermakers .................................................................................411 Bookbinding workers ................................................................. 412 Bookkeepers and accounting clerks ........................................ 271 Bordereau clerks, s e e : Typists ................................................. 292 Botanists, s e e : Biological scientists ........................................88 Braille operators, s e e : Data entry keyers ........................... 274 Brake mechanics, s e e : Automotive and motorcy cle m echanics.................................................................................336 Bricklayers and stonemasons ................................................. 379 Broadcast technicians ................................................................. 243 Brokers, insurance, s e e : Insurance sales workers . . . . 255 Brokers, real estate, s e e : Real estate agents and brokers............................................................................................. 259 Brokers, securities and financial services, s e e : Securities and financial services sales w o rk ers..................263 Building custodians, s e e : Janitors and cleaners ..................319 Building inspectors ....................................................................... 40 513 Index to Occupations/514 Page Page Bulldozer operators, s e e : Construction machinery operators.......................................................................................... 455 Bus mechanics, s e e : D iesel mechanics ..................................341 Busdrivers ....................................................................................... 452 Business machine repairers, s e e : Office machine and cash register se r v ic e r s........................................................371 Butchers and meatcutters ...........................................................414 Buyers, wholesale and retail trade ........................................... 52 .................................................. 132 College and university faculty College career planning and placement counse lors, s e e : C o u n s e lo r s .................................................................. 134 College student development specialists, s e e : C o u n s e lo r s ..................................................................................... 134 Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers........................................................................................... 348 Commercial artists, s e e : Graphic and fine artists ............... 221 Communications-center operators, s e e : Telephone operators........................................................................................... 288 Communications equipment m echanics ............................... 350 Communications occupations .................................................. 208 Community health m edics, s e e : Physician assis tants ..................................................................................................168 Community health nurses, s e e : Registered nurses . . . . 174 Community planners, s e e : Urban and regional p la n n er s............................................................................................109 Compensation managers, s e e : Personnel, training, and labor relations sp ec ia lists..................................................... 45 Compliance officers ........................................................................ 42 Composers, s e e : Musicians ................................................... . 230 Compositors and typesetters ..................................................... 415 Computer and mathematical occupations ...............................72 .................. 273 Computer and peripheral equipment operators Computer programmers ...............................................................244 Computer service technicians .................................................. 353 Computer system s analysts ........................................................ 74 Conciliators, labor relations, s e e : Personnel, training, and labor relations s p e c ia lis t s .................................. 45 ............................... 384 Concrete masons and terrazzo workers Conductors, orchestra, s e e : Musicians .................................. 230 Conservationists, range, s e e : Foresters and con servation s c ie n t is t s ........................................................................ 91 Conservationists, soil, s e e : Foresters and conser vation s c ie n tis ts .............................................................................. 91 Construction and building inspectors ..................................... 40 Construction and extractive occupations ............................... 376 Construction equipment m echanics, s e e : Mobile heavy equipment m ec h a n ics..................................................... 345 ........................................ 455 Construction machinery operators Construction occupations ........................................................... 377 Construction trades helpers ..................................................... 462 Consumer safety inspectors, s e e : Inspectors and compliance officers, except c o n str u c tio n ...............................42 Controllers, air traffic ..................................................................241 Cooks .............................................................................................. 308 Copilots, s e e : Aircraft pilots ..................................................... 449 Copy writers, s e e : Writers and editors .................................. 215 Correction officers ........................................................................ 297 Correspondents .............................................................................. 212 Cosmetologists and related workers ............................. . 3 2 5 Counselors ..................................................................................... 134 Court reporters, s e e : Stenographers ..................................... 284 Crane operators, s e e : Construction machinery o p era to r s.........................................................................................455 Cryptographic-machine operators, s e e : Data entry keyers ............................................................................................ 274 Curators ........................................................................................... 140 Customers’ engineers, s e e : Computer service technicians ........................................ 353 Office machine and cash register servicers .................. 371 Customs inspectors, s e e : Inspectors and compli ance officers, except c o n str u c tio n ........................................... 42 C Cable equipment technicians, submarine, s e e : Communications equipment m e c h a n ic s ...............................350 Cable splicers ............................ 358 Cable TV line installers and repairers, s e e : Line installers and cable splicers .....................................................358 Camera operators, printing, s e e : Lithographic and photoengraving workers......................... 421 Camera operators, television and motion pictures, s e e : Photographers and camera operators........................... 223 Career planning counselors, s e e : Counselors ......................134 Carpenters ....................................................................................... 381 Carpet installers ...........................................................................382 Cartoonists, s e e : Graphic and fine artists ........................... 221 Caseworkers, s e e : Social workers ............................................112 Cash register servicers .............................................................. 371 Cashiers .......................................................................................... 253 Catalogers, s e e : Librarians ........................................................ 137 Catholic priests, s e e : Roman Catholic priests ......................122 Cement masons and terrazzo workers ..................................384 Central office equipment installers, s e e : Commu nications equipment m e c h a n ic s.............................................. 350 Central office operators, s e e : Telephone operators . . . . 288 Ceramic engineers ...........................................................................67 Certified public accountants, s e e : Accountants and a u d it o r s .................................................................................... 37 Chaplains, s e e : Religious workers ........................................... 119 Checkers, s e e : Cashiers .................................................................................253 Drafters ....................................................................................234 Chefs and cooks, except short order .....................................308 Chemical engineers ....................................................................... 63 Chemists ........................................................ 80 Childcare workers ....................................................................... 323 Child welfare workers, s e e : Social workers .........................112 Chiropractors ........................................ 144 Choral directors, s e e : Musicians ........................................... 230 Choreographers, s e e : Dancers and choreogra phers .................................................................................................228 City planners, s e e : Urban and regional planners ............... 109 Civil engineers .................................................................................64 Classifiers, s e e : Librarians ........................................................ 137 Cleaners, s e e : Janitors and cleaners .....................................319 Cleaning service occupations ................................................. 319 Clerical occupations, s e e : Administrative support occupations, including clerical................................................. 269 Clerk-typists, s e e : Typists ........................................................292 Clerks, s e e : Bookkeepers and accounting clerks ...............................271 Mail carriers and postal clerks ........................................ 275 Receptionists and information clerks ........................... 278 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel c l e r k s ................................................................. 279 Statistical clerks ................................................................. 285 Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks ........................ 290 Climatologists, s e e : M eteorologists ........................................... 83 Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians ............... 183 Coin machine servicers and repairers, s e e : Vend ing machine servicers and repairers........................................ 373 D Dairy scientists, s e e : Agricultural scientists ........................ 87 Dancers and choreographers ..................................................... 228 515/Occupational Outlook Handbook Page Darkroom technicians, s e e : Photographic process w o r k e r s .......................................................................................... 425 Data entry keyers ....................................................................... 274 Data processing equipment repairers, s e e : Com puter service tec h n icia n s...........................................................353 Data typists, s e e : Data entry keyers .....................................274 Dental assistants .......................................................................... 312 Dental ceramists, s e e : Dental laboratory techni cians ................................................................................................ 417 Dental hygienists ...........................................................................186 Dental laboratory technicians ................................................. 417 Dentists .......................................................................................... 145 Denture specialists, s e e : Dental laboratory techni cians ................................................................................................ 417 Designers ......................... 218 Detailers, s e e : Drafters ..............................................................234 Detectives .......................................................................................303 Developers, film, s e e : Photographic process w o r k e r s .......................................................................................... 425 Diemakers .......................................................................................428 Diesel mechanics .......................................................................... 341 Dietitians and nutritionists .................................. 158 Dispensing opticians .................................................................... 187 s e e a l s o : Optometrists ........................................................147 Doctors, medical ...........................................................................149 Doctors, osteopathic .................................................................... 149 Drafters .......................................................................................... 234 Driver-sales workers, s e e : Truckdrivers .............................. 458 Drivers, s e e : Busdrivers ............................................................................. 452 Truckdrivers .......................................................................... 458 Druggists, s e e : Pharmacists .....................................................162 Drywall workers and lathers .................................................... 385 E Ecologists, s e e : Biological scientists ........................................88 Economists .................................................................................... 101 Editorial assistants, s e e : Writers and editors ..................... 215 Editors ............................................................................................. 215 EEG technologists and technicians ........................................ 191 EKG technicians ...........................................................................189 Electrical and electronic equipment repairers ..................... 348 Electrical and electronics engineers ........................................65 Electrical and electronics technicians ..................................235 Electrical inspectors, s e e : Construction and build ing in s p e c t o r s .................................................................................40 Electrical powerline installers and repairers, s e e : Line installers and cable s p lic e r s ........................................... 358 Electricians ....................................................................................387 Electrocardiograph technicians ...............................................189 Electroencephalographic technologists and techni cians .................................................................................................191 Electronic equipment repairers .............................................. 348 Electronic home entertainment equipment repair ers ....................................................................................................355 Electronics engineers .................................................................... 65 Electronics repairers, commercial and industrial equipm ent....................................................................................... 348 Electronics technicians ..............................................................235 Elementary school teachers ..................................................... 126 Emergency medical technicians ...............................................193 Employee-benefits managers, s e e : Personnel, training, and labor relations s p e c ia lis ts ..................................45 Em ployee relations specialists, s e e : Personnel, training, and labor relations s p e c ia lis ts ..................................45 Employment counselors, s e e : Counselors ............................134 Engineering technicians ..............................................................237 Page Engineers ..........................................................................................60 S e e also: .................................................... 63 Aerospace engineers Chemical engineers ....................................................... 63 Civil engineers ..............................................................64 Electrical and electronics engineers ........................ 65 Industrial engineers .................................................... 65 ................................................. 66 Mechanical engineers Metallurgical, ceramic, and materials en gineers ............................................................................. 67 Mining engineers ...........................................................68 Nuclear engineers ........................................................68 Petroleum engineers .................................................... 69 Engineers, stationary .................................................................432 Entomologists, s e e : Agricultural scientists ........................... 87 Environmental health inspectors, s e e : Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction........................ 42 Equal employment opportunity counselors and representatives, s e e : Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction....................................................... 42 Executive, administrative, and managerial occu pations........................................................................ 23 Extractive occupations ..............................................................405 F Fabricators, assemblers, and handworking occu pations ............................................................................................. 442 Family service workers, s e e : Social workers ..................... 112 .................................................... 343 Farm equipment mechanics Farm operators and managers ................................................. 329 Fashion artists, s e e : Graphic and fine artists ..................... 221 Fashion designers, s e e : Designers ...........................................218 FBI special agents, s e e : Police and detectives .................. 303 Field engineers, s e e : ........................................................243 Broadcast technicians Computer service technicians ........................................ 353 Office machine and cash register servicers .................. 371 Film developers, s e e : Photographic process work ers ................................................................................................... 425 Financial services sales workers .............................................. 263 Fine artists ....................................................................................221 Firefighting occupations ..............................................................299 Flight attendants .......................................................................... 327 Flight engineers, s e e : Aircraft pilots .....................................449 Floor covering installers, s e e : Carpet installers .................. 382 Food and beverage preparation and service occu pations ............................................................................................. 306 Food and drug inspectors, s e e : Inspectors and compliance officers, except c o n stru ctio n .............................. 42 Foremen and forewomen, s e e : Blue-collar worker su p e r v iso r s....................................................................................408 Foresters and conservation scientists .....................................91 Forklift operators, s e e : Industrial truck and trac tor o p e r a to r s.................................................................................457 Frame wirers, s e e : Communications equipment m ech an ics....................................................................................... 350 Freelance writers, s e e : Writers and editors ........................ 215 Furnace installers, s e e : Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration m e c h a n ic s .................................................... 364 Furniture upholsterers .................................................................430 G Gas burner m echanics, s e e : Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration m echan ics...................364 Gas fitters, s e e : Plumbers and pipefitters ......................... 396 Gas welders, s e e : Welders and cutters ............................... 446 Geodesists, s e e : Surveyors ..................................................... 57 Index to Occupations/516 Page Page Geographers, s e e : Social scientists and urban planners..............................................................................................99 Geologists .......................................................................................... 82 Geophysicists .................................................................................82 Glaziers .......................................................................................... 389 Graphic and fine artists .............................................................. 221 Guards ..............................................................................................301 Guidance counselors, s e e : Counselors ....................................134 Inspectors, health and regulatory, s e e : Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction........................ 42 Instructors, s e e : Adult and vocational education teachers ......................130 College and university faculty .........................................132 Kindergarten and elementary school teachers . . . . 126 Secondary school teachers ............................................... 128 Instrument repairers, s e e : Communications equip ment m e c h a n ic s ........................................................................... 350 Insulation workers ........................................................................ 391 Insurance sales workers ...............................................................255 Ironworkers, s e e : Structural and reinforcing metal w o r k e r s ........................................................................................... 401 H Hairstylists, s e e : Barbers ..................................................................................321 Cosmetologists and related workers ............................ 325 Hazardous waste management specialists, s e e : Inspectors and compliance officers, except con struction............................................................................................. 42 Health and regulatory inspectors, s e e : Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction........................ 42 Health diagnosing and treating practitioners ......................143 Health record technicians ........................................................... 198 Health services managers ............................... 28 Health technologists and technicians ..................................... 182 Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration me ch an ics..............................................................................................364 Heating and refrigeration inspectors, s e e : Con struction and building in sp e cto rs.............................................. 40 Heavy mobile equipment mechanics .....................................345 Helicopter pilots, s e e : Aircraft pilots .....................................449 Helpers, construction trades .................................................... 462 Helpers, handlers, equipment cleaners, and labor ers ....................................................................................................462 High school teachers, s e e : Secondary school t e a c h e r s ...........................................................................................128 Highway patrol officers, s e e : Police and detec tives .................................................................................................303 Historians, s e e : Social scientists and urban plan ners ....................................................................................................99 Home appliance and power tool repairers ........................... 356 Home entertainment electronic equipment repair ers ....................................................................................................355 Horticulturists, s e e : Agricultural scientists ........................... 87 Hotel managers and assistants ................................................. 32 Hydrologists, s e e : Geologists and geophysicists .................. 82 Hygienists, dental ........................................................................186 I Illustrators, s e e : Graphic and fine artists ...............................221 Immigration inspectors, s e e : Inspectors and com pliance officers, except construction........................................42 Industrial buyers, s e e : Purchasing agents ...............................49 Industrial electronic equipment repairers . . ..................... 348 Industrial engineers ....................................................................... 65 Industrial machinery repairers ................................................. 366 Industrial nurses, s e e : Registered nurses ............................174 Industrial safety and health inspectors, s e e : In spectors and compliance officers, except con struction............................................................................................. 42 Industrial truck and tractor operators ..................................457 Industrial waste inspectors, s e e : Inspectors and compliance officers, except c o n stru ctio n ...............................42 Information clerks ........................................................................278 Information scientists, s e e : Computer system s a n a ly sts..............................................................................................74 Inhalation therapists, s e e : Respiratory therapists ............... 177 Inspectors and compliance officers, except con struction............................................................................................. 42 Inspectors, construction and building .....................................40 J Janitors and cleaners ..................................................................319 Jewelers ........................................................................................... 419 Job analysts, s e e : Personnel, training, and labor relations sp e c ia lists........................................................................ 45 Job development specialists, s e e : Personnel, training, and labor relations s p e c ia lis t s ..................................45 Journalists, s e e : Reporters and correspondents .................. 212 K Keypunch operators, s e e : Data entry keyers Kindergarten and elementary school teachers ..................... 274 ...................126 L Laboratory technicians, dental ...............................................417 Laboratory technicians, film, s e e : Photographic process w o r k e r s ........................................................................... 425 Laboratory workers, medical, s e e : Clinical labo ratory technologists and te c h n ic ia n s......................................183 Labor relations specialists ........................................................... 45 Laborers, s e e : Construction trades helpers .........................462 Land surveyors .............................................................................. 57 Lathers .............................................................................................. 385 Lawyers .............................................................................................. 94 Leather workers and repairers ..................................................426 Legal assistants .............................................................................. 247 Legal secretaries, s e e : Secretaries ........................................ 281 Librarians ........................................................................................ 137 Library technicians .....................................................................249 Licensed practical nurses ............................................................196 Life insurance agents, s e e : Insurance sales work ers .................................................................................................... 255 Life scientists ................................................................................. 87 Line installers and cable splicers ............................................358 Lithographic and photoengraving workers ............................421 Loan officers, s e e : Bank officers and managers .................. 26 Logging equipment m echanics, s e e : Mobile heavy equipment m e c h a n ic s..................................................................345 M Machine operators, tenders, and setup workers ...............436 Machine-tool operators, s e e : Metalworking and plastic-working machine o p e r a to r s........................................ 436 Machine-tool operators, numerical control ........................ 438 Machinery repairers, industrial ...............................................366 Machinists ............................................................ 422 Magnetic-tape-typewriter operators, s e e : Typists . . . . 292 Mail carriers and postal clerks ..................................................275 Mailhandlers, s e e : Mail carriers and postal clerks . . . . 275 Maintenance m echanics, general ............................................363 Management support occupations ............................................36 Managers and administrators ..................................................... 24 517/Occupational Outlook Handbook Page Page Manicurists, s e e : Cosmetologists and related w o r k e r s .......................................................................................... 325 Manufacturers’ sales workers ................................................. 257 Map editors, s e e : Surveyors ....................................................... 57 Marble setters, s e e : Bricklayers and stonemasons . . . . 379 Marine geologists, s e e : Geologists and geophysi cists ................................................................................................... 82 Marine surveyors .......................................................................... 57 Marketing and sales occupations ........................................... 253 Market research analysts, s e e : Economists .........................101 Material moving occupations .................................................... 449 Materials engineers ....................................................................... 67 Mathematicians ............................................................................. 75 Meatcutters ....................................................................................414 Mechanical engineers .................................................................... 66 Mechanical inspectors, s e e : Construction and building in s p e c t o r s ....................................................................... 40 Mechanics and repairers ...........................................................333 ...............82 Mineralogists, s e e : Geologists and geophysicists Mining engineers ............................................................................. 68 Mining equipment repairers, s e e : Mobile heavy equipment m ec h a n ics.................................................................345 Ministers, Protestant ................................................................. 119 Mobile heavy equipment mechanics .....................................345 M osaicists, s e e : Surveyors ...........................................................57 Motion picture camera operators ........................................... 223 Motor vehicle body repairers, s e e : Automotive body r e p a ir e r s..............................................................................339 Motor vehicle inspectors, s e e : Inspectors and compliance officers, except c o n stru ctio n .............................. 42 Motor vehicle repairers, s e e : Automotive and mo torcycle m echanics....................................................................... 336 Motorcycle mechanics ..............................................................336 Musical instrument repairers and tuners ...............................369 Musicians .......................................................................................230 s e e also: Aircraft mechanics and engine specialists . . . . 334 Automotive and motorcycle mechanics ...............336 Automotive body repairers .....................................339 Boilermakers .................................................................411 Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers.................................................... 348 Communications equipment mechanics ...............350 Computer service technicians ..................................353 Diesel mechanics ........................................................341 Electronic home entertainment equip ment repairers..............................................................355 Farm equipment mechanics .....................................343 General maintenance mechanics ........................... 363 Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigera tion m echanics..............................................................364 Home appliance and power tool repairers . . . 356 Industrial machinery repairers ...............................366 Jewelers .......................................................................... 419 Line installers and cable splicers ........................... 358 Millwrights .................................................................... 368 Mobile heavy equipment mechanics ..................... 345 Musical instrument repairers and tuners . . . . 369 Office machine and cash register servic ers ....................................................................................371 Shoe and leather workers and repairers ...............426 Telephone installers and repairers ........................ 360 Upholsterers .................................................................430 Vending machine servicers and repairers . . . . 373 M EDEX, s e e : Physician assistants ........................................ 168 Media specialists, s e e : Librarians ........................................... 137 Medical assistants ....................................................................... 314 Medical laboratory technologists and technicians, s e e : Clinical laboratory technologists and tech nicians ..............................................................................................183 Medical office assistants, s e e : Medical assistants ...............314 Medical record technicians ........................................................198 Medical secretaries, s e e : Secretaries .....................................281 Medical social workers, s e e : Social workers ......................112 Mental health counselors, s e e : Counselors .........................134 Merchandise managers, s e e : Buyers, wholesale and retail trade.................................................................................52 Metallurgical engineers .................................................................67 Metalworking and plastic-working machine opera tors ................................................................................................... 436 Meteorologists .................................................................................83 Microbiologists, s e e : Biological scientists ...............................88 Military occupations .................................................................... 464 Millwrights ....................................................................................368 Mine inspectors, s e e : Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction....................................................... 42 N Natural scientists and mathematicians ............. Newscasters ............................................................... Newspaper reporters, s e e : Reporters and corre spondents .................................................................. Newswriters, s e e : Writers and editors ............. Nuclear engineers .................................................. Nuclear medicine technologists, s e e : Radiologic te c h n o lo g ists............................................................ Numerical-control machine-tool operators . . . Numerical-control tool programmers ................ Nurse practitioners, s e e : Registered nurses . . Nurses, s e e : Licensed practical nurses ............................ Registered nurses ............................................ Nursing aides and psychiatric aides ................... Nutritionists ............................................................... . 71 210 212 215 . 68 200 438 250 174 196 174 316 158 O Occupational analysts, s e e : Personnel, training, and labor relations sp ecia lists.................................................... 45 Occupational health nurses, s e e : Registered n u r s e s .................................................................................................. 174 Occupational safety and health inspectors, s e e : Inspectors and compliance officers, except con struction............................................................................................. 42 Occupational therapists .............................................................. 160 Oceanographers, s e e : Geologists and geophysi cists ....................................................................................................82 Office machine and cash register servicers ........................ 371 Office nurses, s e e : Registered nurses ..................................... 174 Oil burner mechanics, s e e : Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration m ech an ics..................... 364 Operating engineers, s e e : Construction machinery operators.......................................................................................... 455 Operating room technicians, s e e : Surgical techni cians ................................................................................................ 204 Operators, telephone ................................................................. 288 . . . . 187 Ophthalmic dispensers, s e e : Dispensing opticians Opticians, dispensing ............................................ . . . . ^ 187 Optometrists ................................................................................. 147 Orchestra conductors, s e e : Musicians ..................................230 Orthodontic technicians, s e e : Dental laboratory technicians................................................................417 Osteopathic physicians, s e e : Physicians ...............................149 Index to Occupations/518 Painters and paperhangers ........................................................392 Painters, graphic and fine artists .............................................. 221 Painters, transportation equipment ........................................444 . . . . 82 Paleontologists, s e e : Geologists and geophysicists Paperhangers ................................................................................. 392 Paralegals, s e e : Legal assistants .............................................. 247 Parole officers, s e e : Social workers ........................................ 112 Pathologists, speech .....................................................................179 PBX installers and repairers .....................................................360 PBX operators, s e e : Telephone operators ........................... 288 Perforator typists, s e e : Data entry keyers ........................... 274 Performing arts occupations .................................................. 226 Peripheral equipment operators, electronic data processing, s e e : Computer and peripheral equipment operators.................................................................... 273 Personal service occupations .....................................................321 Personnel recruiters, s e e : Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists..............................................................45 Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists . . . . 45 Petroleum engineers ....................................................................... 69 Pharmacists .................................................................................... 162 Photoengraving workers ...........................................................421 Photofinishing laboratory workers, s e e : Photo graphic process w o r k e r s ...........................................................425 Photogrammetrists, s e e : Surveyors ........................................... 57 Photographers and camera operators .....................................223 Photographic process workers ................................................. 425 Photojournalists, s e e : Photographers .....................................223 Physical scientists ...........................................................................80 Physical therapists ........................................................................166 Physician assistants .....................................................................168 Physicians ........................................................................................149 Physicists and astronomers ........................................................84 Physiologists, s e e : Biological scientists ..................................88 Piano technicians and tuners, s e e : Musical instru ment repairers and tuners...........................................................369 Pilots, aircraft .................................................................................449 Pipefitters ....................................................................................... 396 Pipe-organ tuners and repairers, s e e : Musical in strument repairers and t u n e r s ................................................. 369 Placement directors, s e e : Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists..............................................................45 Plant and system operators ........................................................432 Plant breeders, s e e : Agricultural scientists ........................... 87 Plasterers ....................................................................................... 394 Plastic-working machine operators ........................................436 Plumbers and pipefitters ........................................................... 396 Plumbing inspectors, s e e : Construction and build ing in s p e c t o r s .................................................................................40 Podiatrists ........................................................................................153 Police and detectives ................................................................. 303 Political scientists, s e e : Social scientists and ur ban p la n n e r s.................................................................................... 99 Postal clerks .................................................................................275 Postal inspectors, s e e : Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction........................................................42 Poultry scientists, s e e : Agricultural scientists ..................... 87 Power tool repairers, home appliances ..................................356 Powerline installers and repairers, s e e : Line in stallers and cable splicers...........................................................358 Practical nurses, licensed ........................................................... 196 Precision assemblers .................................................................... 442 Press operators, printing ...........................................................440 Priests, Roman Catholic ........................................................... 122 Principals, school ...........................................................................34 Print developers, photographic, s e e : Photographic Digitized for process w o r k e r s ...........................................................................425 FRASER Page Print shop stenographers, s e e : Stenographers ..................... 284 Printing press operators ...............................................................440 Private duty nurses, s e e : Registered nurses .........................174 Probation officers, s e e : Social workers .................................. 112 Production occupations ...............................................................408 Professors, s e e : College and university faculty ...................132 Programmers, computer ...............................................................244 Programmers, tool, s e e : Tool programmers, nu merical c o n tr o l...............................................................................250 Protective service occupations .................................................. 297 Protestant ministers ......................................................................119 Psychiatric aides ........................................................................... 316 Psychiatric social workers, s e e : Social workers ............... 112 Psychologists .................................................................................. 104 Public relations specialists ........................................................ 208 Public works inspectors, s e e : Construction and building in s p e c t o r s ........................................................................ 40 Purchasing agents ........................................................................... 49 R Rabbis .............................................................................................. 121 Radiation protection specialists, s e e : Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction........................ 42 Radiation therapy technologists, s e e : Radiologic te c h n o lo g ists..................................................................................200 Radiator m echanics, s e e : Autom otive and motor cycle m e c h a n ic s ........................................................................... 336 Radio and television announcers and newscasters . . . . 210 Radio and television service technicians, s e e : Electronic home entertainment equipment re pairers .............................................................................................. 355 Radiographers, s e e : Radiologic technologists ..................... 200 Radiologic technologists ........................................................... 200 Railroad car repairers, s e e : Mobile heavy equip ment m e c h a n ic s ........................................................................... 345 Railroad inspectors, s e e : Inspectors and compli ance officers, except c o n str u c tio n ........................................... 42 Range conservationists, s e e : Foresters and con servation s c ie n t is t s ........................................................................ 91 Range ecologists, s e e : Foresters and conservation s c ie n t is t s ...........................................................................................91 Range managers, s e e : Foresters and conservation s c ie n t is t s ...........................................................................................91 Real estate agents and brokers ...............................................259 Realtors, s e e : Real estate agents and brokers ..................... 259 Receptionists and information clerks ..................................... 278 Recording engineers, s e e : Broadcast technicians ...............243 Recreation workers ..................................................................... 116 Recreational therapists ...............................................................171 Recruiters, personnel, s e e : Personnel, training, and labor relations sp ecia lists..................................................... 45 Refrigeration mechanics ...............................................................364 Regional planners ........................................................................ 109 Registered nurses ........................................................................ 174 Registered representatives, securities, s e e : Securi ties and financial services sales w o rk ers...............................263 Regulatory inspectors, s e e : Inspectors and com pliance officers, except con stru ction ........................................ 42 Rehabilitation counselors, s e e : Counselors .........................134 Reinforcing metal workers ........................................................ 401 Religious workers ........................................................................ 119 Repairers ........................................................................................333 Reporters and correspondents ..................................................212 Research analysts, market, s e e : Econom ists ......................101 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerk s.....................................................................................279 Residence counselors, s e e : Counselors ............................... 134 Respiratory therapists .................................................................. 177 519/Occupational Outlook Handbook Page Page Retail buyers ....................................................................................52 Retail sales workers .................................................................... 261 Revenue officers, s e e : Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction........................................................42 Roman Catholic priests .............................................................. 122 Roofers ............................................................................................. 398 Roustabouts ....................................................................................405 Route drivers, s e e : Truckdrivers ...........................................458 Station installers, s e e : Telephone installers and repairers................................................................................ 360 Stationary engineers .................................................................... 432 Statistical clerks .......................................................................... 285 Statisticians ..................................... 77 Steamfitters, s e e : Plumbers and pipefitters ........................ 396 Stenographers .................................................................................284 Stenotype operators, s e e : Stenographers ........................... 284 Stewardesses and stewards, s e e : Flight attendants . . . . 327 Stonemasons ............................................... 379 Stratigraphers, s e e : Geologists and geophysicists .........82 Structural and reinforcing metal workers ........................... 401 Stucco masons, s e e : Plasterers .................. 394 Student development specialists, s e e : Counselors . . . . 134 Supervisors, s e e : Blue-collar worker supervisors . . . . 408 Surgical technicians .................................................................... 204 Surveyors .............................................. 57 Switchboard operators, s e e : Telephone operators . . . . 288 Systems analysts, computer ....................................................... 74 Systems programmers, s e e : Computer program mers ................................................................................................ 244 S Safety inspectors, s e e : Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction........................................................42 Sales occupations ....................................................................... 253 Sales workers, s e e : Cashiers .................................................................................253 Insurance sales workers .................................................... 255 Manufacturers’ sales workers ........................................257 Real estate agents and brokers ........................................259 Retail sales workers ...........................................................261 Securities and financial services sales work ers ............................................................................................. 263 Travel agents ....................................................................... 265 ........................................267 W holesale trade sales workers Sanitarians, s e e : Inspectors and compliance of ficers, except construction...........................................................42 Sanitation inspectors, s e e : Inspectors and compli ance officers, except c o n str u c tio n ........................................... 42 School counselors, s e e : Counselors ........................................ 134 School librarians, s e e : Librarians ........................................... 137 School nurses, s e e : Registered nurses ..................................174 School principals and assistant principals ...............................34 School secretaries, s e e : Secretaries ........................................281 School social workers, s e e : Social workers .........................112 School teachers, s e e : Adult and vocational education teachers ..................... 130 College and university faculty ........................................ 132 Kindergarten and elementary teachers .........................126 Secondary school teachers ...............................................128 Science technicians .................................................................... 239 Scientists, life .................................................................................87 Scientists, physical ....................................................................... 80 Sculptors, s e e : Graphic and fine artists .............................. 221 Secondary school teachers ........................................................ 128 Secretaries ....................................................................................... 281 Securities and financial services sales workers .................. 263 Securities traders, s e e : Securities and financial services sales workers................................................................. 263 Security guards, s e e : Guards .................................................... 301 Seism ologists, s e e : Geologists and geophysicists ...............82 Service occupations .................................................................... 295 Sewage treatment plant operators ........................................... 434 Sheet-metal workers .................................................................... 399 Shipping and receiving clerks ................................................. 290 Shoe and leather workers and repairers .............................. 426 Shorthand reporters, s e e : Stenographers ...............................284 Silversmiths, s e e : Jewelers ........................................................419 Singers, s e e : Musicians ..............................................................230 Social scientists ..............................................................................99 Social workers .............................................................................. 112 Sociologists .................................................................................... 107 Soil conservationists, s e e : Foresters and conser vation s c ie n tis ts ..............................................................................91 Soil scientists, s e e : Agricultural scientists ........................... 87 Speech pathologists and audiologists ..................................... 179 Solar-energy-system installers, s e e : Heating, airconditioning, and refrigeration m ech an ics........................... 364 Sprinklerfitters, s e e : Plumbers and pipefitters ..................... 396 State police officers, s e e : Police and detectives ...............303 T Teacher aides .................................................................................287 Teachers, s e e : Adult and vocational education teachers ..................... 130 College and university faculty ............................... 132 Kindergarten and elementary school teachers . . . . 126 Secondary school teachers ...............................................128 Technical writers, s e e : Writers and editors ........................ 215 Technicians, s e e : Air traffic controllers ...........................................................241 Broadcast technicians ....................................................... 243 Clinical laboratory technologists and techni cians ....................................................................................... 183 Computer programmers .......................................... ................................................................. 186 Dental hygienists Dispensing opticians ........................................................... 187 Drafters ....................................................................................234 Electrical and electronics technicians ........................... 235 Electrocardiograph technicians ............... 189 Electroencephalographic technologists and technicians.............................................................................. 191 Emergency medical technicians ..................................... 193 Engineering technicians .................................................... 237 Legal assistants .................................................................... 247 Library technicians ..............................................................249 Licensed practical nurses ..................................................196 Medical record technicians ...............................................198 Radiologic technologists .................................................... 200 Science technicians ..............................................................239 Surgical technicians ...........................................................204 Tool programmers, numerical control ........................... 250 Technologists and technicians, health .................................. 182 Technologists and technicians, except health ................... *233 Telegraph plant maintainers, s e e : Communica tions equipment m echanics........................................................350 Telephone-answering-service operators, s e e : Tele phone o p e r a to r s...........................................................................288 Telephone installers .................................................................... 360 Telephone line installers and repairers, s e e : Line installers and cable s p lic e r s ..................................... Telephone operators .................................................................... 288 Telephone repairers .................................................................... 360 Teletype installers, s e e : Communications equip ment m e c h a n ic s .......................................................................... 350 Television announcers and newscasters .............................. 210 244 358 Index to Occupations/520 Page Television camera operators s e e : Photographers and camera op era to rs................................................................. 223 Television service technicians, s e e : Electronic home entertainment equipment r e p a ir e r s ........................... 355 Tellers, bank ................................................................................. 269 Terminal operators, s e e : Data entry keyers ........................ 274 Terrazzo workers ........................................................................384 Therapists, s e e : Occupational therapists .....................................................160 Physical therapists .............................................................. 166 Recreational therapists ........................................................ 171 Respiratory therapists ........................................................ 177 Speech pathologists and audiologists ............................179 Ticket agents and clerks, s e e : Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel cle r k s..................... 279 Ticket sellers, s e e : Cashiers .....................................................253 Tilesetters ....................................................................................... 403 Tool-and-die makers .................................................................... 428 Tool programmers, numerical control ..................................250 Tower-crane operators, s e e : Construction machin ery o p era to r s................................................................................. 455 Traffic controllers, air ................................................................. 241 Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks ..................................290 Training specialists, s e e : Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists..............................................................45 Transcribing machine operators, s e e : Stenogra phers .................................................................................................284 Transmission mechanics, s e e : Automotive and motorcycle m echanics................................................................. 336 Transmission testers, s e e : Communications equip ment m e c h a n ic s ...........................................................................350 Transmitter operators, s e e : Broadcast technicians . . . . 243 Transportation and material moving occupations ...............449 ........................................ 444 Transportation equipment painters Transportation ticket agents .....................................................279 Travel agents .................................................................................265 Travel clerks .................................................................................279 Treatment plant operators, wastewater, s e e : Wa ter and sewage treatment plant o p era to r s........................... 434 Truck m echanics, s e e : D iesel mechanics ........................... 341 Truckdrivers .................................................................................458 .................. 26 Trust officers, s e e : Bank officers and managers Tuners, musical instruments .....................................................369 Tune-up m echanics, s e e : Automotive and motor cycle m e c h a n ic s...........................................................................336 Typesetters .................................................................................... 415 Typists ..............................................................................................292 Ultrasound technologists, s e e : Radiologic technol ogists ................................................................................................. 200 Underwriters .....................................................................................51 University faculty .........................................................................132 Upholsterers ..................................................................................430 Urban and regional planners ......................................................109 V Varitype operators, s e e : Data entry keyers .........................274 Vehicle and mobile equipment m echanics and re pairers .............................................................................................. 334 Vending machine servicers and repairers ............................373 Veterinarians .................................................................................. 154 Video-control engineers, s e e : Broadcast techni cians ................................................................................................. 243 Visual arts occupations ...............................................................218 Vocational counselors, s e e : Counselors ............................... 134 Vocational education and training teachers ......................... 130 Vocational nurses, licensed, s e e : Licensed practi cal n u r s e s ........................................................................................ 196 Vocational rehabilitation counselors, s e e : Counse lors .....................................................................................................134 W Wage-hour compliance inspectors, s e e : Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction........................ 42 Waiters and waitresses ...............................................................310 Water and sewage treatment plant operators ..................... 434 Welders and cutters .....................................................................446 W holesale buyers ........................................................................... 52 W holesale trade sales workers .................................................. 267 Word processing machine operators, s e e : Typists . . . . 292 Writers and editors ..................................................................... 215 Writers, technical, s e e : Writers and editors .........................215 X X-ray technologists, s e e : Radiologic technologists . . . . 200 Y Zoologists, s e e : Biological scientists ........................................ 88 Reprints from the Occupational Outlook Handbook Bulletin Nek All sections of the 1986-87 Occupational Outlook Handbook are available in reprint form. Reprints are especially useful for jobseekers who want to know about a single field and for counselors who need to stretch the contents of a single Handbook among many students. Title □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ The titles of all 21 reprints are listed here, and an index to the reprints appears on the following pages. Price of reprints: $1.25 each. A complete set costs only $22. Use order form below. 2250-1 2250-2 2250-3 2250-4 2250-5 2250-6 2250-7 2250-8 2250-9 2250-10 2250-11 2250-12 2250-13 2250-14 2250-15 2250-16 2250-17 2250-18 2250-19 2250-20 2250-21 Tomorrow’s Jobs: Overview Business, Managerial, and Legal Occupations Engineering and Related Occupations Computer and Mathematics-Related Occupations Physical and Life Scientists Education, Social Service, and Related Occupations Medical and Dental Practitioners and Assistants Dietetics, Nursing, Pharmacy, and Therapy Occupations Health Technologists and Technicians Communications, Design, Performing Arts, and Related Occupations Technologists and Technicians, Except Health Sales Occupations Clerical and Other Administrative Support Occupations Protective Service Occupations and Inspectors Service Occupations: Food, Cleaning, Health, and Personal Mechanics, Equipment Installers, and Repairers Small Business Occupations Construction and Extractive Occupations Metalworking Occupations Production Occupations Transportation and Material Moving Occupations Please send the following reprints from the 1986-87 O c c u p a t i o n a l O u t l o o k H a n d b o o k . Quantity Reprint N o. ____________________________________ ---------------------------------------------------- OR Send sets of all 21 reprints @ $1.25 each Order Form $______________ Occupational O utlook Reprints Mail to: Total @ $ Total @ $ Total @ $ Name Organization______________________________________________________ Bureau of Labor Statistics Publications Sales Center P.O. Box 2145 Chicago, 111. 60690 ur Street Address Superintendent of Documents U.S. Government Printing Office C ity _________________________________ S ta te _________ Z ip _________ W a sh in g to n , D .C . 20402 Make all checks payable to the Superintendent of Documents. (Note: A discount o f 25 percent will be allowed on purchases o f 100 or more copies o f a single reprint when mailed to a single address.) 521 522 4 or 13 Order Reprint No. 2250— , if you want information about. . . A 2 or 4 10 4 6 3 5 11 or 21 16 21 10 6 16 16 Accountants and auditors Actors, directors, and producers Actuaries Adult and vocational education teachers Aerospace engineers Agricultural scientists Air traffic controllers Aircraft mechanics and engine specialists Aircraft pilots Architects Archivists and curators Automotive body repairers Automotive and motorcycle mechanics B 2 13 15 or 17 15 5 20 20 20 13 18 3 or 11 21 20 Bank officers and managers Bank tellers Barbers Bartenders Biological scientists Blue-collar worker supervisors Boilermakers Bookbinding workers Bookkeepers and accounting clerks Bricklayers and stonemasons Broadcast technicians Busdrivers Butchers and meatcutters C 18 18 12 15 3 5 15 7 3 9 6 16 16 20 Carpenters Carpet installers Cashiers Chefs and cooks, except short order Chemical engineers Chemists Childcare workers Chiropractors Civil engineers Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians College and university faculty Commercial and industrial electronic equipment repairers Communications equipment mechanics Compositors and typesetters 4 or 11 4 or 16 4 18 14 18 18 or 21 14 15 or 17 6 Computer and peripheral equipment operators Computer programmers Computer service technicians Computer system s analysts Concrete masons and terrazzo workers Construction and building inspectors Construction trades helpers Construction machinery operators Correction officers Cosmetologists and related workers Counselors D 10 4 or 13 7 or 15 7 9 7 10 16 8 9 3 or 11 18 Dancers and choreographers Data entry keyers Dental assistants Dental hygienists Dental laboratory technicians Dentists Designers Diesel mechanics Dietitians and nutritionists Dispensing opticians Drafters Drywall workers and lathers 18 10 14 H 2 18 16 or 17 2 9 3 or 11 3 18 16 or 17 9 3 or 11 Economists EEG technologists and technicians EKG technicians Electrical and electronics technicians Electrical and electronics engineers Electricians Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers Emergency medical technicians Engineering technicians F 2 16 14 15 or 21 5 Farm operators and managers Farm equipment mechanics Firefighting occupations Flight attendants Foresters and conservation scientists G 16 5 General maintenance mechanics Geologists and geophysicists Health services managers Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics Home appliance and power tool repairers Hotel managers and assistants I 3 16 or 20 21 14 18 12 Industrial engineers Industrial machinery repairers Industrial truck and tractor operators Inspectors and compliance officers, except construction Insulation workers Insurance sales workers J 15 17 or 20 Janitors and cleaners Jewelers K 6 E 2 or 4 9 Glaziers Graphic and fine artists Guards Kindergarten and elementary school teachers L 2 2 or 11 6 6 or 11 8 16 20 Lawyers Legal assistants Librarians Library technicians Licensed practical nurses Line installers and cable splicers Lithographic and photoengraving workers M 19 13 Machinists Mail carriers and postal clerks 12 Manufacturers’ sales workers 4 Mathematicians 3 Mechanical engineers 7 or 15 Medical assistants 9 or 13 Medical record technicians 3 Metallurgical engineers 19 Metalworking and plastic working machine operators 5 M eteorologists 16 or 20 Millwrights 3 Mining engineers 16 Mobile heavy equipment mechanics 523 17 10 Musical instrument repairers and tuners Musicians R 6 10 N 3 19 8 or 15 Nuclear engineers Numerical-control machine-tool operators Nursing aides and psychiatric aides O 8 16 7 Occupational therapists Office machine and cash register servicers Optometrists P 18 2 3 8 10 20 8 7 7 5 18 18 7 14 20 20 6 6 2 or 10 2 *U.S. Painters and paperhangers Personnel, training, and labor relations specialists Petroleum engineers Pharmacists Photographers and camera operators Photographic process workers Physical therapists Physician assistants Physicians Physicists and astronomers Plasterers Plumbers and pipefitters Podiatrists Police and detectives Precision assemblers Printing press operators Protestant ministers Psychologists Public relations specialists Purchasing agents GOVERNMENT PRINTING O F F I C E : I 9 8 6 - Z+96-58I 9 12 13 8 6 8 10 13 9 12 6 18 18 Rabbis Radio and television announcers and newscasters Radiologic technologists Real estate agents and brokers Receptionists and information clerks Recreational therapists Recreation workers Registered nurses Reporters and correspondents Reservation agents and transportation ticket clerks Respiratory therapists Retail sales workers Roman Catholic priests Roofers Roustabouts S 6 11 6 13 12 18 17 6 6 8 20 13 4 School principals and assistant principals Science technicians Secondary school teachers Secretaries Securities and financial services sales workers Sheet-metal workers Shoe and leather workers and repairers Social workers Sociologists Speech pathologists and audiologists Stationary engineers Statistical clerks Statisticians 13 18 9 3 Stenographers Structural and reinforcing metal workers Surgical technicians Surveyors T 6 or 13 16 13 18 11 or 19 19 13 20 12 21 13 Teacher aides Telephone installers and repairers Telephone operators Tilesetters Tool programmers, numerical control Tool-and-die makers Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks Transportation equipment painters Travel agents Truckdrivers Typists U 2 17 2 Underwriters Upholsterers Urban and regional planners V 16 7 Vending machine servicers and repairers Veterinarians W 15 20 19 2 or 12 12 10 Waiters and waitresses Water and sewage treatment plant operators Welders and cutters Wholesale and retail buyers Wholesale trade sales workers Writers and editors Occupational Projections and Training Data 1986 Occupational Projections and Training Data Edition A Statistical and Research SuDDiement to the 1986-87 Occuoationa Outlook Handbook Bulletin 2251 1986 Edition U S Department o* Labor Bureau ot Labor Statistics Mav 1986 Provides data underlying the job outlook inform ation in the 1986-87 Occupational Outlook Handbook Get: statistics o n . . . . • • • • • • 1984 and projected 1995 employment, industry concentration, dem ographic characteristics, part-time employment, separation rates, training com pletions; and descriptions o f. . . . • • • • usual entry and training requirements, characteristics of entrants, relative em ploym ent change, and relative unemployment. Here’s how to order: You may send your order directly to: Superintendent of Documents U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 or to: Bureau of Labor Statistics Publications Sales Center RO. Box 2145 Chicago, III. 60690 □ copies of O c c u p a tio n a l P ro je c tio n s a n d T ra inin g D ata, 1986 Edition, Please send Bulletin 2251. Enclosed is a check or money order payable to Superintendent of Documents. □ Charge to my GPO Account No_________________________________________ □ Charge to □ Charge to □ O rd e r Form * Account No. VISA' Expiration date. * Account No.. Expiration date. * Available only on orders sent directly to Superintendent of Documents. GPO prices are subject to change without notice. Name Organization (if applicable) Street address City, State, ZIP Code Did You Miss These Job Reports? o ccupy o ut to o * Computer-aided design Numerical-control machine-tool operators Office automation General maintenance repairer Law: Employment trends, past and future Subscribe to the O c c u p a tio n a l O u tlo o k Q u a r te r ly to get the latest information on jobs. Each issue contains articles dealing with emerging occupations, new technology, labor force trends, unusual jobs, occupational outlook— just what you need for career decision making. The ooq is must reading for students, career guidance counselors, and other employment specialists who want to keep informed about new employment studies conducted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Find out why the ooq has won so many awards for editorial excellence and why it’s one of the best-selling magazines produced by the Federal Government. Subscribe today. For sale by the U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402. One-year subscription (four issues) $11; single issue $3. Make checks payable to Superintendent of Documents. Prosthetist Health: Crossroads over the horizon? Retail trade: Millions of jobs, no experience necessary Miscellaneous business services: Little known but growing fast From franchise to programming: Jobs in cable television Athletic trainer Secret sentinels: Careers in intelligence Archivists and curators Counseling: New roles, new entry requirements Adult and vocational education teachers Gem cutter MBA’s: Where they work and where they’re needed Roustabouts in the oil fields Farm operators and managers Recreational therapists Computer training and the workplace: A little goes a long way Recording engineer ft •/ Jjr^ p it
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